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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The art of music, Volume three (of 14) - Modern Music - -Editor: Daniel Gregory Mason - -Release Date: September 14, 2022 [eBook #68990] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Andrés V. Galia and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF MUSIC, VOLUME -THREE (OF 14) *** - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - -In the plain text version Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. -The sign ^ represents a superscript; thus ^e represents the lower -case letter “e” written immediately above the level of the previous -character, while ^{text} means the word “text” is written as -surperscript. - -This volume includes a subject index for this and for the previous -two volumes of this collection. In the HTML version only the material -covered in this volume was possible to link to the corresponding page -numbers. - -Obvious punctuation and other printing errors have been corrected. - -The book cover has been modified by the Transcriber and is included in -the public domain. - - - * * * * * - - - THE ART OF MUSIC - - - The Art of Music - - A Comprehensive Library of Information - for Music Lovers and Musicians - - Editor-in-Chief - - - DANIEL GREGORY MASON - - Columbia University - - Associate Editors - - EDWARD B. HILL LELAND HALL - Harvard University Past Professor, Univ. of Wisconsin - - - Managing Editor - - CÉSAR SAERCHINGER - Modern Music Society of New York - - In Fourteen Volumes - Profusely Illustrated - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK - THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC - - - [Illustration] - - - Garden Concert - _Painting by Antoine Watteau_ - - - - - THE ART OF MUSIC: VOLUME THREE - - Modern Music - - Being Book Three of - - A Narrative History of - Music - - Department Editors: - - EDWARD BURLINGAME HILL - - AND - - ERNEST NEWMAN - - Music Critic, 'Daily Post,' Birmingham, England - Author of 'Gluck and the Opera,' 'Hugo Wolf,' 'Richard Strauss,' etc. - - Introduction by - - EDWARD BURLINGAME HILL - - Instructor in Musical History, Harvard University - Formerly Music Critic, 'Boston Evening Transcript' - Editor, 'Musical World,' etc. - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK - THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC - - - Copyright, 1915, by - THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC, Inc. - [All Rights Reserved] - - - MODERN MUSIC - - - - - INTRODUCTION - -The direct sources of modern music are to be found in the works of -Berlioz, Chopin, Liszt, and Wagner. This assertion savors of truism, -but, since the achievement of these four masters in the enlargement -of harmonic idiom, in diversity of formal evolution, and in intrinsic -novelty and profundity of musical sentiment and emotion remains so -unalterably the point of departure in modern music, reiteration -is unavoidable and essential. It were idle to deny that various -figures in musical history have shown prophetic glimpses of the -future. Monteverdi's taste for unprepared dissonance and instinct -for graphic instrumental effect; the extraordinary anticipation of -Liszt's treatment of the diminished seventh chord, and the enharmonic -modulations to be found in the music of Sebastian Bach, the presages -of later German romanticism discoverable in the works of his ill-fated -son Wilhelm Friedemann, constitute convincing details. The romantic -ambitions of Lesueur as to program-music found their reflection in -the superheated imagination of Berlioz, and the music-drama of Wagner -derives as conclusively from _Fidelio_ as from the more conclusively -romantic antecedents of _Euryanthe_. But, despite their illuminating -quality, these casual outcroppings of modernity do not reverse the -axiomatic statement made above. - -The trend of modern music, then, may be traced first along the path of -the pervasive domination of Wagner; second, the lesser but no less -tenacious influence of Liszt; it includes the rise of nationalistic -schools, the gradual infiltration of eclecticism leading at last to -recent quasi-anarchic efforts to expand the technical elements of music. - - - I - -If the critics of the late nineteenth and the twentieth centuries -have successfully exposed not only the æsthetic flaws in Wagner's -theory of the music-drama, but also his own obvious departures in -practice from pre-conceived convictions, as well as the futility of -much of his polemic and philosophical writings, European composers -of opera, almost without exception, save in Russia, have frankly -adopted his methods in whole or in part. Bruckner, Bungert, d'Albert, -Schillings, Pfitzner, Goldmark, Humperdinck, Weingartner, and Richard -Strauss in Germany; Saint-Saëns (in varying degree), Chabrier, Lalo, -Massenet (temporarily), Bruneau and Charpentier (slightly), d'Indy, -Chausson, and Dukas in France; Verdi (more remotely), Puccini, and -possibly Wolf-Ferrari in Italy; Holbrooke in England, are among the -more conspicuous whose obligation to Wagner is frankly perceptible. -In Germany the most prominent contributors to dramatic literature, -aside from Cornelius, with _Der Barbier von Bagdad_, and Goetz with -_Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung_, have been Goldmark, Humperdinck, -and Richard Strauss. The latter, with an incredibly complex system -of leading motives, an elaborately contrapuntal connotation of -dramatic situations, aided by an intensely psychological orchestral -descriptiveness, has reached the summit of post-Wagnerian drama. -His later dramatic experiments--a ruthless adaptation of Molière's -_Bourgeois gentilhomme_, containing the one-act opera _Ariadne auf -Naxos_, and the ballet 'The Legend of Joseph'--are distinctly less -representative examples of his dramatic resourcefulness. In France, -the Wagnerian influence is typified in such works as Chabrier's -_Gwendoline_, d'Indy's _Fervaal_, and to a lesser extent Chausson's -_Le Roi Arthus_. Bruneau's realistic operas and Charpentier's -sociological _Louise_ belong, first of all, to the characteristically -French lyric drama in which the Wagnerian element is relatively -unimportant. In Debussy's _Pelléas et Mélisande_, Dukas' _Ariane et -Barbe-bleue_, Ravel's _L'Heure espagnole_, and Fauré's _Pénélope_, -we find a virtually independent conception of opera which may be -almost described as anti-Wagnerian. In Italy, the later Verdi shows -an independent solution of dramatic problems, although conscious of -the work of Wagner. Puccini is the successor of Verdi, rather than -the follower of Wagner, although his use of motives and treatment of -the orchestra shows at least an unconscious assimilation of Wagnerian -practice, Mascagni and Leoncavallo are virtually negligible except for -their early successes, and one or two other works. Younger composers -like Montemezzi and Zadonai are beginning to claim attention, but -Wolf-Ferrari, combining Italian instinct with German training, seems -on the way to attain a renascence of the _opera buffa_, provided that -he is not again tempted by the sensational type represented by 'The -Jewels of the Madonna.' Opera in England has remained an exotic, save -for the operettas of Sullivan, despite the efforts of British composers -to vitalize it. Holbrooke's attempt to produce an English trilogy seems -fated to join previous failures, notwithstanding his virtuosity and his -dramatic earnestness. Russian composers for the stage have steadily -resisted the invasion of Wagnerian methods. Adhering, first of all, to -the tenets of Dargomijsky, individuals have gradually adopted their own -standpoint. The most characteristic works are Borodine's _Prince Igor_, -Rimsky-Korsakoff's _Sniégourutchka_, _Sadko_, _Mlada_, _Le Coq d'Or_, -and Moussorgsky's _Boris Godounoff_ and _Khovanshchina_. - -In the field of orchestral composition, the acceptance of Wagner's -procedure in orchestration is even more universal than his dramatic -following. If his system follows logically from the adoption of valve -horns and valve trumpets, the enlargement of wind instrument groups -and the subdivision of the strings, its far-reaching application is -still a matter of amazement to the analyst. Even if it be granted that -Wagner himself predaciously absorbed individual methods of treatment -from Weber, Meyerbeer, Berlioz, and Liszt, the ultimate originality of -his idiom justified his manifold obligations. German composers, except -among the followers of Brahms, appropriated his extension of orchestral -effect as a matter of course, the most notable being Bruckner, -Goldmark, Humperdinck, Mahler, and Strauss. If the two latter in turn -can claim original idioms of their own, the antecedents of their -styles are none the less evident. French composers from Saint-Saëns -to Dukas have made varying concessions to his persuasive sonorities; -even the stanch Rimsky-Korsakoff fell before the seduction of Wagnerian -amplitude and variety of color. Glazounoff, Taneieff, Scriabine, and -other Russians followed suit. Among English composers, Elgar and -Bantock fell instinctively into line, followed in some degree by -William Wallace and Frederick Delius. If Holbrooke is more directly a -disciple of Richard Strauss, that fact in itself denotes an unconscious -acknowledgment to Wagner. - -If Liszt has had a less all-embracing reaction upon modern composers, -his sphere of influence has been marked and widely extended. To begin -with, his harmonic style has been the subject of imitation second -only to Wagner up to the advent of Richard Strauss and Debussy. His -invention of the structurally elastic symphonic poem remains the -sole original contribution in point of form which the nineteenth -century can claim. For even the cyclic sonata form of Franck is -but a modification of the academic type, and was foreshadowed by -Beethoven and Schumann. The vast evolution of structural freedom, -the infinite ramifications of subtle and dramatic program-music, and -the resultant additions of the most stimulating character to modern -musical literature rest upon the courageous initiative of Liszt. In -France, Saint-Saëns' pioneer examples, though somewhat slight in -substance, prepared the way for César Franck's _Les Éolides_ and _Le -Chasseur maudit_, Duparc's _Lénore_, d'Indy's _La forêt enchantée_, -the programmistic _Istar_ variations, _Jour d'été à la Montagne_, -Dukas' _L'Apprenti-sorcier_, Debussy's _Prélude à l'Après-midi d'un -faune_ and the Nocturnes (programmistic if impressionistic), Florent -Schmitts' _Tragédie de Salomé_, and Roussel's _Evocations_. In -Germany, Richard Strauss' epoch-making series of tone-poems, from -_Macbeth_ to _Also sprach Zarathustra_, combine descriptive aptitude -and orchestral brilliance with a masterly manipulation of formal -elements. Weingartner's _Die Gefilde der Seligen_ and Reger's Böcklin -symphonic poems may be added to the list. In Russia, Balakireff's -_Thamar_, Borodine's 'Sketch from Central Asia,' Rimsky-Korsakoff's -_Scheherezade_ (although a suite), Glazounoff's _Stenka Razine_ and -other less vital works, Rachmaninoff's 'Isle of the Dead,' Scriabine's -'Poem of Ecstasy' and 'Poem of Fire' mark the path of evolution. -Smetana's series of six symphonic poems entitled 'My Home' result -directly from the stimulus of Liszt. In Finland, Sibelius' tone-poems -on national legendary subjects take a high rank for their poetic and -dramatic qualities. If in England, Bantock's 'Dante and Beatrice,' -'Fifine at the Fair' and other works, Holbrooke's 'Queen Mab,' -Wallace's 'François Villon,' Delius' 'Paris' and Elgar's 'Falstaff' -exhibit differing degrees of merit, the example of Liszt is still -inspiriting. Moreover, the Lisztian treatment of the orchestra, -emphasizing as it does a felicitous employment of instruments of -percussion, has proved a remarkable liberating force, especially in -Russia and France. Liszt's piano idiom has been assimilated even more -widely than in the case of the symphonic poem and orchestral style. -Smetana, Saint-Saëns, Balakireff, and Liapounoff occur at once as -salient instances. - -The contributory reaction of Berlioz and Chopin upon modern music has -been relatively less direct, if still apparent. It was exerted first in -fertile suggestions to Wagner and Liszt at a susceptible and formative -stage in their careers. Both have played some part in the awakening -of Russian musical consciousness, Berlioz through his revolutionary -orchestral style and programmistic audacity, Chopin through his -insinuating pianistic idiom, which we find strongly reflected in the -earlier works of Scriabine. Some heritage of Berlioz can undoubtedly be -traced in the music of Gustav Mahler, although expressed in a speech -quite alien to that of the French pioneer of realism. - -It may be remarked in passing that the influence of Brahms has been -intensive rather than expansive. This statement is entirely compatible -with a just appraisal of the worth and profundity of his music, nor -can it in any way be interpreted as a detraction of his unassailable -position. But in consideration of the absence of the coloristic and -extreme subjective elements in Brahms' style, and in view of its -conserving and reactionary force, the great symphonist cannot be -regarded as specifically modernistic. Still, with his extraordinary -cohesiveness of form and vital rhythmic progress, both in symphonic -writing, chamber music and piano pieces, Brahms has affected -Reger, Weingartner and Max Bruch in Germany, but also Glazounoff, -Rachmaninoff, Medtner, Parry, and others outside of it. - -With the four symphonies of Brahms the long evolution of the classic -form in Germany has apparently come to an end with an involuntary -recognition that little more could be attained upon conventional lines. -The symphonies of Bruckner emphasize this realization. Following in -Wagner's orchestral footsteps, both their structure and their ideas are -of unequal value, in which separate movements not infrequently rise to -sublimity of expression and dramatic fervor. While opinion is still -divided as to the merit of Mahler's ten symphonies, they represent -isolated instances of powerfully conceived and tenaciously executed -works whose orchestral eloquence is in singularly apt conformity with -their substance. After a precocious and conservative symphony, composed -at the age of nineteen, which pleased Brahms, Richard Strauss waited -twenty years before attempting in the _Symphonia Domestica_ so elastic -a form as almost to escape classification in this type. Despite much -foolish controversy over the programmistic features of this work, its -brilliant musical substance, its fundamental and logical coherence, -and the remarkable plastic coördination of its themes constitute it a -unique experiment in free symphonic structure. In France, the symphony -has evolved a type somewhat apart from the Teutonic example, although -an outcome of it, namely, the cyclical, in which its themes are -derived from generative phrases. After three innocuous specimens (one -unpublished) Saint-Saëns' third symphony shows many of the attributes -of classicality. César Franck's symphony in D minor embodies most of -his best qualities, together with much structural originality. Lalo's -more fragile work in G minor displays a workmanship and individuality -which entitles it to record. Chausson's Symphony in B-flat, despite its -kinship with Franck, possesses a significance quite beyond its actual -recognition. D'Indy, after composing an excellent cyclic work upon a -French folk-song, produced his instrumental masterpiece with a second -in B-flat, which for logical structure and fusion of classic elements -with modernistic sentiment deserves to be classed as one of the finest -of its time. If Russian symphony composers have not as a whole reached -as high a mark as in the freer and more imaginative forms, nevertheless -Rimsky-Korsakoff, Borodine, Balakireff, Glazounoff, Rachmaninoff, and -Taneieff have displayed sympathy with classic ideals, and have achieved -excellent if not surpassing results within these limits. The symphonies -of Parry, Cowen and others in England have enlarged little upon the -conventional scope. Elgar raised high hopes with his first symphony -in A-flat, but speedily dismissed them with his second in E-flat. -Sibelius, in Finland, having given proof of his uncommon creative force -and delineative imagination in his tone-poems, has also exhibited -unusual originality and vitality in his four symphonies. The last of -these virtually departs from a genuine symphonic form, but its novelty -alike in ideas and treatment suggests that he, too, demands greater -elasticity of resource. For the problem of combining the native style -and technical requirements of the symphony with modern sentiment is one -of increasing difficulty. - -The field of piano music, chamber works, songs and choral works is of -too wide a range for detailed indication of achievement. The piano -music of Balakireff, Liapounoff, Rachmaninoff, Scriabine, of Grieg, of -Franck, Debussy, Dukas, and Ravel, of Cyril Scott and others merits a -high place. The chamber music of Smetana, Dvořák, Grieg (despite its -shortcomings), Franck, d'Indy, Fauré, Ravel, of Wolf, Strauss and Reger -deserves an equal record. The songs of Wolf and Strauss, of Duparc, -Fauré and Debussy, of Moussorgsky, of Sibelius; the choral works of -Franck, d'Indy, Pierné, Schmitt, of Delius, Bantock, Elgar and other -Englishmen are conspicuous for technical and expressive mastery. - - - II - -Apart from the general assimilation of the innovating features due -to Wagner and Liszt, the most striking factor in musical evolution -of the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries has been the rise -of nationalistic schools of composition. These have deliberately -cultivated the use of native folk-song and dance-rhythms, and in the -case of operas and symphonic poems have frequently drawn upon national -legend for subjects. One of the earliest of these groups was the -Bohemian, whose leader, Smetana, already mentioned in connection with -the symphonic poem, chamber and piano music, also won a distinguished -place by his vivacious comic opera 'The Bartered Bride,' known abroad -chiefly by its inimitable overture. If Dvořák promised to be a worthy -disciple of a greatly talented pioneer, his abilities were diffused by -falling a victim to commissions from English choral societies, and in -endeavoring to emulate Brahms. In reality he was most significant when -unconscious, as in the Slavic Dances and his naïve and charming Suite, -op. 39, although his symphony 'From the New World' and certain chamber -works based upon negro themes are as enduring as anything he composed. -Hampered by a truly Schubertian lack of self-criticism, his path toward -oblivion has been hastened by this fatal defect, although his national -flavor and piquant orchestral color deserve a juster fate. - -In the Scandinavian countries Grieg, and, to a lesser degree, Nordraak, -as well as Svendsen and Sinding tempered nationality with German -culture. Grieg, the more dominant personality, was a born poet, and -imparted a truly national fervor to his songs and piano pieces. In the -sonata form he was pathetically inept, despite the former popularity of -his chamber works and piano concerto. Certain mannerisms in abuse of -sequence, and a too persistent cultivation of small forms, have caused -his works to lose ground rapidly; nevertheless Grieg has given a poetic -and nationalistic savor to his best music that makes it impossible to -overlook its value. - -A coterie of accomplished and versatile musicians which yields to none -for intrinsic charm, vitality, and poetic spontaneity is that of the -so-called Neo-Russians, self-styled 'the Invincible Band.' Resenting -Rubinstein's almost total surrender to Teutonic standards, and scorning -Tschaikowsky as representing a pitiable compromise between Russian and -German standpoints, they revolted against conventional technique with -as great pertinacity as did Galileo, Peri, Caccini, and Monteverdi in -the late sixteenth century. Their æsthetic foster-father, Balakireff, -for a time dominated the studies and even supervised the composition -of the members--Borodine, Cui, Moussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakoff. -Ultimately, each followed his own path, though not without a certain -community of ideal. Aiming to continue the work of Glinka and -Dargomijsky, both in opera and instrumental music, they wished to -use folk-songs for themes and to utilize national legends or fairy -stories. But they could not resist the alien form of the symphonic -poem, and with it the orchestra of Liszt, and, while they opposed the -Wagnerian dramatic forms, one at least, Rimsky-Korsakoff, could not -withstand the palpable advantages of the Wagnerian orchestra. Their -works combined the elements of western and oriental Russia, adhered -largely to folk-song or elements of its style, and in the opera -embodied folk-dances, semi-Pagan worship and ceremonial with striking -nationalistic effect. Many of their orchestral pieces have taken place -in the international repertory of orchestras; of the operas a smaller -number have penetrated to European theatres. While the nationalistic -operas of Rimsky-Korsakoff are little known beyond Russia, they show -his talent in a broadly humanistic and epic standpoint, hardly hinted -at in his orchestral works. Moussorgsky's _Boris Godounoff_, one of -the finest operas since Wagner, claims attention from the fact that it -attains dramatic vitality from a standpoint diametrically opposed to -Wagner. The influence of _Boris Godounoff_ is palpable as forming the -subtle dramatic idiom of _Pelléas et Mélisande_. - -Glazounoff, Taneieff, and Glière represent the cosmopolitan element -among Russian composers of to-day. Of these Glazounoff is the most -notable. His early symphonic poem, _Stenka Razine_, gave promise of -an original and brilliant career, but instead he has become steadily -more reactionary. Among his eight symphonies there is scarcely one that -is preëminent from beginning to end. His ballets, _Raymonda_, 'The -Seasons,' and 'Love's Ruses,' have been surpassed by younger men. His -violin concerto is among his most able works. A master of technique and -structure and a remarkably erudite figure, his lack of progressiveness -has been against him. A younger composer, Tcherepnine, is known for -his skillful ballets, 'Narcissus,' 'Pan and Echo,' and 'The Pavilion -of Armida,' which incline, nevertheless, towards the conventional. -Rachmaninoff is also of reactionary tendencies, although his piano -concertos and his fine symphonic poem, 'The Isle of the Dead,' have -shown his distinction. - -The rise of the modern French school, largely owing to a patriotic -reaction after the Franco-Prussian war and the liberal policies of the -National Society, has brought about one of the most fertile movements -in modern music. The transition from the operas of Gounod, Thomas, -Bizet, and the early Massenet to those of Chabrier, Lalo, d'Indy, -Bruneau, Charpentier, Debussy, Dukas, Ravel, and Fauré is remarkable -for its concentrated progress in dramatic truthfulness. Similarly, -beginning with the eclectic and facile Saint-Saëns, the more romantic -and fearless Lalo, and the mystic Franck, through the audacious -Chabrier and the suave and poetic Fauré, including the serious and -devoted followers of Franck, d'Indy, Duparc, de Castillon, Chausson, -and Lekeu, the versatile Dukas, to the epoch-making Debussy with the -younger men like Ravel, Schmitt and Roussel, French instrumental music -has developed, on the one hand, a fervently classic spirit despite its -modernism and, on the other, an impressionistic exoticism which is -without parallel in modern music. Aside from a vitally new harmonic -idiom, which in Debussy reaches its greatest originality despite -d'Indy, Fauré, and the later developments of Ravel, the attainment of -racially distinct dramatic style in such works as Debussy's _Pelléas -et Mélisande_, Dukas' _Ariane et Barbe-bleue_, Ravel's _L'Heure -espagnole_, and Fauré's _Pénélope_ is one of the crowning achievements -of this group. Furthermore, following the examples of the younger -Russians, the ballets of _Jeux_ and _Khamma_ by Debussy, _La Péri_ -by Dukas, _La Tragédie de Salomé_ by Florent Schmitt, _Le Festin -de l'Arraignée_ by Roussel, _Orphée_ by Roger-Ducasse, and, most -significant of all, _Daphnis et Chloé_ by Maurice Ravel, have given a -remarkable impetus to a genuine choreographic revival. - -There has been no nationalistic development in England comparable to -that in other countries, although there has been no lack of serious and -sustained effort to be both modern and individual. The most important -of British composers is undoubtedly Elgar, who has attained something -like independence with his brilliant and well-made orchestral works, -and more especially for his oratorio 'The Dream of Gerontius.' If -Elgar only carried on further a systematized use of the leading motive -as suggested by Liszt in his oratorios, it was done with a dramatic -resource and eloquence which made the method his own. Bantock, gifted -with an orchestral perception above the average, showing a natural -aptitude for exoticism, achieved a successful fusion of eclectic -elements with individuality in his three-part setting of the Rubaîyat -of Omar Khayyám. Other choral works and orchestral pieces have met -with a more uncertain reception. William Wallace has been conspicuous -for his imaginative symphonic poems, and the insight of his essays on -music. Frederick Delius, partly German, has maintained a personal and -somewhat detached individuality in orchestral, choral and dramatic -works of distinctive value. Josef Holbrooke has been mentioned already -for his unusual mastery of orchestral technique, and his courageous -and ambitious attempts in opera. Many younger composers are striving -to be personal and independent, though involuntarily affected by one -or another of existent currents in modern music. Of these Cyril Scott -attempts a praiseworthy modernistic and impressionistic sentiment, in -which he leans heavily on Debussy's harmonic innovations. Thus, while -English composers have been active, they have fallen to the ready -temptations of eclecticism, a growing force in music of to-day, and in -consequence their art has not the same measure of nationalistic import -as in Russia, France, and Germany. - - - III - -In the meantime, as the musical world has moved forward in respect -to structure from the symphony to the symphonic poem, followed by -its logical sequence the tone-poem, in which the elements of various -forms have been incorporated, so has there been progress and even -revolution in the technical material of music itself. Dargomijsky was -probably the pioneer in using the whole-tone scale, as may be seen -in the third act of his opera 'The Stone Guest,' composed in 1869. -Rimsky-Korsakoff elaborated on his foundation as early as 1880 in -his opera _Sniégourutchka_. Moussorgsky showed unusually individual -harmonic tendencies, as the first edition of _Boris Godounoff_ before -the revisions and alterations by Rimsky-Korsakoff clearly demonstrate. -After casual experiments by Chabrier, d'Indy, and Fauré, Debussy -founded an original harmonic system, in which modified modal harmony, -a remarkable extension of whole-tone scale chords, the free use of -ninths, elevenths and thirteenths are the chief ingredients. Dukas -has imitated Debussy to some extent, Ravel owes much to him; both -have developed independently, Ravel in particular has approached if -not crossed the boundaries of poly-harmony. Scriabine, following the -natural harmonic heritage of the Russians, has evolved an idiom of -his own possessing considerable novelty but disfigured by monotony, -in that it consists chiefly of transpositions of the thirteenth-chord -with the alteration of various constituent intervals. What he might not -have accomplished can only be conjectured, since his career has been -terminated by his sudden death. Although Richard Strauss has greatly -enlarged modern harmonic resource, his results must be regarded on the -whole as a by-product of his contrapuntal virtuosity. In his treatise -on harmony Schönberg refers to his 'discovery' of the whole-tone scale -long after both Russians and French had used it, but it is noteworthy -that Schönberg arrived at the conception of this scale and its chords -with an absolute and unplagiaristic independence. - -The most recent developments affecting the technical character of music -are poly-harmony, or simultaneous use of chords in different keys, and -free dissonant counterpoint. Striking instances of the former type -of anarchic experiment may be found in the music of Igor Stravinsky, -whose reputation has been made by the fantastic imagination and the -dramatic sincerity of his ballets 'The Bird of Fire,' _Petrouchka_, -'The Ceremonial of Spring,' and 'The Nightingale.' In these he has -mingled Russian and French elements, fusing them into a highly personal -and extremely dissonant style, which in its pungent freedom and -ingenious mosaic of tonalities is both highly diverting and poignantly -expressive. Stravinsky is one of the most daring innovators of to-day, -and both his dramatic vitality and the audacity of his musical -conceptions mark him as a notable figure from whom much may be expected. - -If Maurice Ravel, as shown in his ballet _Daphnis et Chloé_, was a -pioneer in poly-harmony, Alfred Casella, of Italian parentage but of -French education, has gone considerably further. Similar tendencies may -be found in the music of Bartók, Kodály and other Hungarians. - -It seemed formerly that Strauss had pushed the dissonant contrapuntal -style as far as it could go, but his style is virtually conventional -beside that of the later Schönberg. Schönberg has already passed -through several evolutionary stages, but his mature idiom abjures -tonality to an incredible extent, and he forces the procedures of free -counterpoint to such audacious disregard of even unconventional euphony -that few can compass his musical message. Time may prove, however, that -tonality is a needless convention, and it is possible to declare that -there is nothing illogical in his contrapuntal system. It lies in the -extravagant extension of principles of dissonance which have already -been accepted. It is indubitable that Schönberg succeeds in expressing -moods previously unknown to musical literature, and it is conceivable -that music may encompass unheard-of developments in this direction, -just as poly-harmony has already proved extremely fruitful. - -The developments of poly-harmony and dissonant contrapuntal style -prophesy the near inadequacy of our present musical scale. Busoni and -others have long since advocated a piano in which the sharps and -flats should have separate keys. As music advanced from the modes to -the major and minor keys, and finally to the chromatic scale, so the -necessity for a new scale may constitute logically the next momentous -problem in musical art. - -Within recent years, the barriers of nationalism have become relaxed. -An almost involuntary interchange of idioms has caused music to -take on an international character despite a certain maintenance of -racial traits. Eclecticism is becoming to a certain extent universal. -Achievement is too easily communicable from one country to another. In -some respects music was more interesting when it was more parochial. -To prophesy that music is near to anarchy is to convict one's self of -approaching senility, for the ferment of the revolutionary element has -always existed in art. Since the time of Wagner and Liszt, however, -musical development has proceeded with such extreme rapidity as to -endanger the endurance of our traditional material. Poly-harmony, -dissonant counterpoint and the agitation for a new scale are suspicious -indications. Disregarding the future, however, let us realize that the -diversity and complexity of modern music is enthralling, and that most -of us can readily endure it as it now is for a little longer. - - EDWARD BURLINGAME HILL. - -May, 1915. - - - - - CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE - - PAGE - - Introduction by Edward Burlingame Hill vii - - - CHAPTER - - I. BY- AND AFTER-CURRENTS OF THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT 1 - - Introductory; the term 'modern'--The 'old-romantic' - tradition and the 'New German' school--The followers - of Mendelssohn: Lachner, F. Hiller, Rietz, etc.; Carl - Reinecke--Disciples of Schumann: Robert Volkmann; - Bargiel, Kirchner and others; the Berlin circle; - the musical genre artists: Henselt, Heller, etc. - (pianoforte); Jensen, Lassen, Abt, etc. (song)--The - comic opera and operetta: Lortzing, Johann Strauss, - etc.--French eclecticism in symphonic and operatic - composition: Massenet--Saint-Saëns, Lalo, Godard, etc. - - - II. THE RUSSIAN ROMANTICISTS 37 - - Romantic Nationalism in Russian Music--Pathfinders; Cavos - and Verstovsky--Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka; Alexander - Sergeyevitch Dargomijsky--Neo-Romanticism in Russian - music; Anton Rubinstein--Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky. - - - III. THE MUSIC OF MODERN SCANDINAVIA 59 - - The rise of national schools in the nineteenth - century--Growth of national expression in Scandinavian - lands--Music in modern Denmark--Sweden and her music--The - Norwegian composers; Edvard Grieg--Sinding and other - Norwegians--The Finnish Renaissance: Sibelius and others. - - - IV. THE RUSSIAN NATIONALISTS 107 - - The founders of the 'Neo-Russian' nationalistic school: - Balakireff; Borodine--Moussorgsky--Rimsky-Korsakoff, - his life and works--César Cui and other nationalists, - Napravnik, and others. - - - V. THE MUSIC OF CONTEMPORARY RUSSIA 137 - - The border nationalists; Alexander Glazounoff, Liadoff, - Liapounoff, etc.--The renaissance of Russian church - music; Kastalsky and Gretchaninoff--The new eclectics: - Arensky, Taneieff, Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, Glière, Rachmaninoff - and others--Scriabine and the radical foreign influence; - Igor Stravinsky. - - - VI. MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN BOHEMIA AND HUNGARY 165 - - Characteristics of Czech music; Friedrich Smetana--Antonin - Dvořák--Zdenko Fibich and others; Joseph Suk and - Vitešlav Novák--Historical sketch of musical endeavor - in Hungary--Ödön Mihálovich, Count Zichy and Jenö - Hubay--Dohnányi and Moór; 'Young Hungary': Weiner, Béla - Bartók and others. - - - VII. THE POST-CLASSICAL AND POETIC SCHOOLS OF MODERN GERMANY 201 - - The post-Beethovenian tendencies in the music of Germany - and their present-day significance; the problem of modern - symphonic form--The academic followers of Brahms: Bruch - and others--The modern 'poetic' school: Richard Strauss - as symphonic composer--Anton Bruckner, his life and - works--Gustav Mahler--Max Reger--Draeseke and others. - - - VIII. GERMAN OPERA AFTER WAGNER AND MODERN GERMAN SONG 238 - - The Wagnerian after-current: Cyrill Kistler; August - Bungert, Goldmark, etc.; Max Schillings, Eugen - d'Albert--The successful post-Wagnerians in the lighter - genre: Götz, Cornelius and Wolf; Engelbert Humperdinck - and fairy opera; Ludwig Thuille; Hans Pfitzner; the - _Volksoper_--Richard Strauss as musical dramatist--Hugo - Wolf and the modern song; other contemporary German - lyricists--The younger men: Klose, Hausegger, Schönberg, - Korngold. - - - IX. THE FOLLOWERS OF CÉSAR FRANCK 277 - - The foundations of modern French nationalism: Berlioz; - the operatic masters: Saint-Saëns, Lalo, Franck, etc.; - conditions favoring native art development--The pioneers - of ultra-modernism: Emanuel Chabrier and Gabriel - Fauré--Vincent d'Indy: his instrumental and his dramatic - works--Other pupils of Franck: Ernest Chausson; Henri - Duparc; Alexis de Castillon; Guy Ropartz. - - - X. DEBUSSY AND THE ULTRA-MODERNISTS 317 - - Impressionism in Music--Claude Debussy, the pioneer of - the 'atmospheric' school; his career, his works and his - influence--Maurice Ravel, his life and work--Alfred - Bruneau; Gustave Charpentier--Paul Dukas--Miscellany; - Albert Roussel and Florent Schmitt. - - - XI. THE OPERATIC SEQUEL TO VERDI 366 - - The musical traditions of modern Italy--Verdi's heirs: - Boito, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Puccini, Wolf-Ferrari, - Franchetti, Giordano, Orefice, Mancinelli--New paths; - Montemezzi, Zandonai and de Sabbata. - - - XII. THE RENAISSANCE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN ITALY 385 - - Martucci and Sgambati--The symphonic composers: Zandonai, - de Sabbata, Alfano, Marinuzzi, Sinigaglia, Mancinelli, - Floridia; the piano and violin composers: Franco da - Venezia, Paolo Frontini, Mario Tarenghi; Rosario Scalero, - Leone Sinigaglia; composers for the organ--The song - writers: art songs; ballads. - - - XIII. THE ENGLISH MUSICAL RENAISSANCE 409 - - Social considerations; analogy between English and - American conditions--The German influence and its - results: Sterndale Bennett and others; the first group of - independents: Sullivan, Mackenzie, Parry, Goring Thomas, - Cowen, Stanford and Elgar--The second group: Delius and - Bantock; McCunn and German; Smyth, Davies, Wallace and - others, D. F. Tovey; musico-literary workers, musical - comedy writers--The third group: Vaughan Williams, - Coleridge-Taylor and W. Y. Hurlstone; Holbrooke, Grainger, - Scott, etc.; Frank Bridge and others; organ music, chamber - music, songs. - - LITERATURE FOR VOLS. I, II AND III 445 - - INDEX FOR VOLS. I, II AND III 491 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME THREE - - - The Garden Concert; painting by Watteau (in colors) _Frontispiece_ - - FACING - PAGE - - French Eclectics (Lalo, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Godard) 30 - - Russian Romanticists (Glinka, Dargomijsky, Rubinstein, - Tschaikowsky) 48 - - Edvard Grieg 90 - - Jean Sibelius 104 - - Neo-Russian Composers (Moussorgsky, Balakireff, Borodine, - Rimsky-Korsakoff) 122 - - Contemporary Russian Composers (Rachmaninoff, Glazounoff, - Rebikoff, Glière) 150 - - Bohemian Composers (Smetana, Dvořák, Fibich, Suk) 178 - - Hungarian Composers (Count Zichy, Jenö Hubay, Dohnányi, Moór) 192 - - Modern German Symphonic and Lyric Composers (Mahler, - Bruckner, Draeseke, Wolf) 202 - - Richard Strauss 214 - - Max Reger 226 - - Modern German Musical Dramatists (Humperdinck, - Thuille, Pfitzner, Goldmark) 246 - - Modern French Composers (Chabrier, d'Indy, Charpentier, Ravel) 298 - - Claude Debussy 334 - - Contemporary Italian Composers (Mascagni, Wolf-Ferrari, - Puccini, Zandonai) 372 - - Modern British Composers (Bantock, Sullivan, Parry, Elgar) 424 - - - MODERN MUSIC - - - - - CHAPTER I - BY- AND AFTER-CURRENTS OF THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT - - Introductory; the term 'modern'--The 'old-romantic' tradition - and the 'New German' school--The followers of Mendelssohn: - Lachner, F. Hiller, Rietz, etc.; Carl Reinecke--Disciples of - Schumann: Robert Volkmann; Bargiel, Kirchner and others; the - Berlin circle; the musical _genre_ artists: Henselt, Heller, - etc. (pianoforte); Jensen, Lassen, Abt, etc. (song)--The - comic opera and operetta: Lortzing, Johann Strauss, and - others--French eclecticism in symphonic and operatic - composition: Massenet--Saint-Saëns, Lalo, Godard, etc. - - -The term 'Modern Music,' which forms the title of this volume, is -subject to several interpretations. Just as in the preceding volume we -were obliged to qualify our use of the words 'classic' and 'romantic,' -partly because all such nomenclature is more or less arbitrary, partly -because of the fusion of styles and dove-tailing of periods which may -be observed in the history of any art, so it now becomes necessary to -define the word 'modern' in its present application. - -Now 'modern' may mean merely _new_ or _up-to-date_. And in that -sense it may indicate any degree of newness: it may include the last -twenty-five years or the last century, or it may be made to apply -to contemporaneous works only. But in another sense--that generally -accepted in connection with music--it means 'advanced,' progressive, or -unprecedented in any other period. Here, too, we may understand varying -degrees of modernity. The devotees of the most recent development, -impatient of the usual broad application of the term, have dubbed their -school the 'futurist.' In fact, any of these characterizations, whether -in a time sense or a quality sense, are merely relative. Wagner's -disciples, disdainful of the romanticists, called his music the 'music -of the future.' Now, alas, critics classify him as a romantic composer! -Bach, on the other hand, long popularly regarded as an archaic bugaboo, -is now frequently characterized as a veritable modern. 'How modern that -is!' we exclaim time and again, while listening to an organ toccata or -fugue arranged by Busoni! Beethoven, the great classic, is in his later -period certainly more 'modern' than many a romanticist--Mendelssohn, -for instance, or even Berlioz--though only in a harmonic sense, for he -had not the command of orchestral color that the great and turbulent -Frenchmen made accessible to the world. - -The newness of the music is thus seen to have little to do with its -modernity. Even the word 'contemporary' gives us no definite clue, for -there are men living to-day--like Saint-Saëns--whose music is hardly -modern when compared to that of a Wolf, dead these twelve years, or his -own late countrymen Chabrier and Fauré--not to speak of the recently -departed Scriabine with his _clavier à lumière_. - -But it is quite impossible to include in such a volume as this only -the true moderns--in the æsthetic sense. We should have to go back to -Beethoven with his famous chord comprising every degree of the diatonic -scale (in the Ninth Symphony), or at least to Chopin, according to -one interpretation. According to another we should have to exclude -Brahms and all his neo-classical followers who content themselves -with composing in the time-honored forms. (Since there will always -be composers who prefer to devote themselves to the preservation and -continuation of formal tradition, this 'classical' drift will, as -Walter Niemann remarks, be a 'modernism' of all times.) Brahms has, as -a matter of fact, been disposed of in the preceding volume, but the -inclusion in the present volume of men like Volkmann, Lachner, etc., -some of whom were born long before Brahms, calls for an apology. It -is merely a matter of convenience, just as the treatment of men like -Glinka and Gade in connection with the nationalistic developments of -the later nineteenth century is merely an expedient. Such chronological -liberties are the historian's license. We have, to conclude, simply -taken the word modern in its widest and loosest sense, both as regards -time and quality, and we shall let the text explain to what degree -a composer justifies his position in the volume. We may say at the -outset that all the men reviewed in the present chapter would have been -included in Volume II but for lack of space. - -In Volume II the two great movements known as the classic and the -romantic have been fairly brought to a close. Brahms and Franck on the -one side, Wagner and Liszt on the other, may be considered to have -concluded the romantic period as definitely as Beethoven concluded -the classic. Like him, too, they not only surveyed but staked out the -path of the future. But no great art movement is ever fully concluded. -(It has been said by æsthetic philosophers that we are still in the -era of the Renaissance.) Just as in the days of Beethoven there lived -the Cherubinis, the Clementis, the Schuberts (as regards the symphony -at least) who trod in the great man's footsteps or explored important -by-paths, in some respects supplemented and completed his work; so -there are by- and after-currents of the Romantic Movement which also -cannot be ignored. They are represented by men like Lachner, Ferdinand -Hiller, Reinecke and Volkmann in Germany; by Saint-Saëns, Massenet -and Lalo in France; Gade in Denmark.[1] Some of their analogous -predecessors have all but passed from memory, perhaps their own works -will soon disappear from the current répertoire. Especially in the -case of the Germans (whose country has certainly suffered the strain -of over-cultivation and over-production, and which has produced in -this age the particular brand known as 'kapellmeister music') is this -likely. But it must be borne in mind that these composers had command -of technical resources far beyond the ken of their elder brothers; also -that, by virtue of the more subjective qualities characteristic of the -music of their period, as well as the vastly broadened musical culture -of this later day, they were able to appeal more readily to a very wide -audience. - -The historical value of these men lies in their exploitation of -these same technical resources. They thoroughly grasped the formulæ -of their models; what the pioneers had to hew out by force, these -followers acquired with ease. They worked diligently within these -limits, exhausting the possibilities of the prescribed area and proving -the ground, so to speak, so that newcomers might tread upon it with -confidence. They were not as uncompromising, perhaps, as the pioneers -and high-priests themselves and therefore fused styles that others -thought irreconcilable. What seemed iconoclastic became commonplace -in their hands. Thus their eclecticism opened the way for new -originalities; their very conservatism induced progress. - - - I - -Germany, it will be remembered, was, during Wagner's lifetime, divided -into two camps: the classic-romantic Mendelssohn-Schumann school -which later rallied about the person of Brahms, on the one hand, and -the Wagner-Liszt, sometimes called the late-romantic or 'New German' -school, on the other. The adherents of the former are those whom -we have called the poets, the latter the painters, in music; terms -applying rather to the manner than to the matter, since the 'painters,' -for another reason--namely, because they believed that a poetic idea -should form the basis of the music and determine its forms--might with -equal rights call themselves 'poets.' And, indeed, their followers, the -'New Germans,' among whom we reckon Mahler and Strauss, constitute what -in a later chapter we have called the 'poetic' school of contemporary -Germany. - -Few musicians accepted Wagner's gospel in his lifetime. Raff and other -Liszt disciples, the Weimar group, in other words, were virtually the -only ones. A host, however, worshipped the names of Mendelssohn and -Schumann. They gathered in Leipzig, their citadel, where Mendelssohn -reorganized the Gewandhaus concerts in 1835,[2] and founded the Royal -Conservatory in 1843, and in the Rhine cities, where Schumann's -influence was greatest. These men flourished during the very time that -Wagner was the great question of the day. While preaching the gospel of -romanticism, they also upheld the great classic traditions. The advent -of Brahms, indeed, brought a revival of pure classic feeling. This -persists even to-day in the works of men whose romantic inspirations, -akin to Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Chopin, find expression in forms of -classic cast. - -Both Schumann and Wagner were reformers interested in the broadening -of musical culture, the improvement of taste, and the establishment of -a standard of artistic propriety--Wagner on the stage, Schumann in the -concert room. The former was successful, the latter only partially so. -For, while the standards of the concert room are much higher to-day -than they were in Schumann's day, musical taste in the home, which -should be guided by these standards, has, if anything, deteriorated. -The reason for this lies primarily in one of the inevitable -developments of musical romanticism itself--the _genre_ tendency; -secondarily, in the fact that, while the Wagnerians were propagandists, -writers of copious polemics and agitators, the classic romanticists -were purely professional musicians who disdained to write, preferring -deeds to words (and incidentally doing far too much), or else, like -Hiller, were _feuilletonists_, pleasant gossips about their art and -nothing more. - -The development of the small forms, the miniature, the _genre_ in -short, and the corresponding decay of the larger forms was perhaps -the most outstanding result of the romantic movement. Wagner alone, -the dramatic romanticist, continued to paint large canvases, frescoes -in vivid colors. The 'poetic' romanticists were of a lyric turn, and -required compact and intimate forms of expression. They had created the -song, they had built up a new piano literature out of small pieces, -miniatures like Schubert's 'Musical Moments,' Schumann's 'Fantasy -Pieces,' Mendelssohn's 'Songs without Words,' Field's 'Nocturnes,' -Chopin's Dances, Preludes, and Études. Franz, Jensen, Lassen, and -others continued the song; Brahms, with his _Intermezzi_; Henselt, -Heller, and Kirchner, with his piano miniatures, the piano piece. The -first degenerated into Abt, Curschmann, and worse, the second into the -type of thing of which 'The Last Hope' and 'The Maiden's Prayer' were -the ultimate manifestations. Sentiment ran over in small gushes and -drippings, even the piano study was made the vehicle for a sigh. The -sonata of a former day became a sonatina or an 'impromptu' of one kind -or another. - -The parallel thing now happened in other fields. The concert overture -of Mendelssohn had in a measure displaced the symphony. What has been -called the '_genre_ symphony' of Mendelssohn, Schumann, _et al._ was -also in the direction of minimization. Even Brahms in his gigantic -works emphasizes the tendency by the intermezzo character of his slow -movements, by the orchestral filigree partaking of the chamber music -style. Now came the revival of the orchestral suite by Lachner and -Raff, the sinfonietta, and the serenade for small orchestra. Again we -sense the same trend in the appearance of the choral ballad and in the -tremendous output of small dramatic cantatas for mixed or men's voices. - -In France, instrumental literature during the nineteenth century had -been largely tributary to that of Germany, just as its opera earlier in -the century was of Italian stock. But the development of the 'grand' -opera of Meyerbeer, on the one hand, and the _opéra comique_, on the -other, had produced a truly Gallic form of expression, of which the -romanticism of the century made use. Gounod and his colleagues of the -lyric drama; Bizet, the genius of his generation, with his sparkling -rhythms, his fine tunes and his orchestral freshness; Délibes and David -with their oriental color, compounded a new French idiom which already -found a quasi-symphonic expression in the _L'Arlésienne_ suites of -Bizet. Berlioz stands as a colossus among his generation and to this -day has perhaps not been quite assimilated by his countrymen. The -Germans have profited from his orchestral reforms at least as much -as the French. But he gave the one tremendous impetus to symphonic -composition, stimulated interest in Beethoven and Weber and so pointed -the way for his younger compatriots. Already _he_ speaks of Saint-Saëns -as an accomplished musician. - -Saint-Saëns is, indeed, the next great exponent of the classic -tradition as well as the earliest disciple of the late romantic school -of Liszt and Wagner in France. Beside him, Massenet, no less great as -technician, forms the transition to modernism on the operatic side, -while Lalo and Godard devote themselves to both departments. César -Franck, the Belgian, stands aloof in his ascetic isolation as the real -creator of the modern French idiom. - - - II - -We shall now consider some of these 'transition' composers in detail; -first the Germans, then the French. - -Certain attributes they all have in common. Most of them lived long -and prospered, enjoying a wide influence or popularity in their -day; Lachner and Reinecke both came near to ninety; Volkmann near -eighty; Saint-Saëns is still hale at eighty. All of them were highly -productive: Hiller, Reinecke, Raff, and Lachner surpassed 200 in their -opus-numbers; Saint-Saëns has gone well over a hundred; and Massenet -has written no less than twenty-three operas alone. Nearly all of them -were either virtuosos or conductors: Hiller, Reinecke, Saint-Saëns, -Bülow, Henselt, Heller were brilliant pianists; Lachner, Saint-Saëns, -and Widor also organists; Godard a violinist. The first four of these -were eminent conductors. Most of them were pedagogues besides; some, -such as Reinecke, Hiller, Jadassohn, Rietz, and Massenet, among the -most eminent of their generation. - -Franz Lachner is the oldest of them. He was born, 1803, in Rain (Upper -Bavaria), and died, 1890, in Munich. Thus he came near filling out -four-score and ten, antedating Wagner by ten years and surviving him by -seven. His career came into actual collision with that of the Bayreuth -master too, since the latter's coming to Munich as the favorite of -the newly ascended King Ludwig II forced Lachner from his autocratic -position as general musical director. - -Many forces must have reacted upon an artist whose life thus spans -the ages. He was a friend of Schubert in Vienna, where he became -organist in 1824, and is said to have found favor even with Beethoven. -Sechter and Abbé Stadler gave him the benefit of their learning. -After holding various conductor's posts in Vienna and in Mannheim -he finally found his way to Munich, where he had already brought -out his D minor symphony with success. As court kapellmeister he -conducted the opera, the church performances of the royal chapel -choir and the concerts of the Academy, meanwhile creating a long -series of successful works, nearly all of which exhibit his astounding -contrapuntal skill. His seven orchestral suites, a form which he and -Raff revived, occupy a special place in orchestral literature, as a -sort of direct continuation of Bach's and Händel's instrumental works. -They are veritable treasure stores of contrapuntal art. Perhaps another -generation will appreciate them better; to-day they have fallen into -neglect. This is even more true of his eight symphonies, four operas, -two oratorios, etc. Of his chamber music (piano quartets, string -quartets, quintets, sextets, nonet for wind, etc.), his piano pieces -and songs, influenced by Schubert, some few numbers have survived. - -Most prominent in Mendelssohn's immediate train is Ferdinand Hiller. -His junior only by two years (he was born Oct. 24, 1811, in Frankfurt), -he followed closely in the footsteps of that master. Like him, he came -of Jewish and well-to-do parents; like him, he had the advantage of -an early training, a broad culture and wide travel. A pupil of Hummel -and a brilliant pianist, he was presented to Beethoven in Vienna; in -Paris he hobnobbed with Cherubini, Rossini, Chopin, Liszt, Meyerbeer -and Berlioz, taught and concertized; in Milan he produced an opera -(_Romilda_) by the aid of Rossini. Mendelssohn, already his friend, -brought out his oratorio 'Jerusalem Destroyed' at the Gewandhaus in -1840, and in 1843-44 (after a sojourn in Rome) he himself directed -the Gewandhaus concerts made famous by Mendelssohn. Shortly after, -he inaugurated a series of subscription concerts in Dresden, also -conducting a chorus, and there brought out two operas (_Traum in der -Christnacht_, 1845, and _Konradin_, 1847). Finally he did for Cologne -what Mendelssohn had done for Leipzig by organizing the conservatory -and the Gewandhaus concerts: he established the Cologne conservatory -(1850) and became conductor of the _Konzertgesellschaft_ and the -_Konzertchor_, both of which participated in the famous Gürzenich -concerts and the Rhenish music festivals. The eminence of his position -may be deduced from the fact that in 1851-52 he was asked to direct the -Italian opera in Paris. As teacher and pianist he was no less renowned. -For that reason alone history cannot ignore him. - -As a composer Hiller illustrates what we have said of the degeneration -of the early romantic school into musical _genre_, though as a -contemporary of Mendelssohn he must be reckoned as a by-rather than a -post-romantic. He commanded only the small forms, in which, however, -he displayed great technical finish, polished grace and a 'clever -pedantry.' In short piano pieces, _Rêveries_ (of which he wrote four -series), impromptus, rondos, marches, waltzes, variations, and études -he was especially happy. An F-sharp major piano concerto, sonatas -and suites, as well as his chamber works (violin and 'cello sonatas, -trios, quartets, etc.), are grateful and pleasing in their impeccable -smoothness. But his six operas, two oratorios, three symphonies -and other large works have gone the way of oblivion. His numerous -overtures, cantatas, choral ballads, vocal quartets, duets and songs -stamp him as a real, miniature-loving romantic. In productivity, too, -he remains true to the breed; his opus numbers exceed two hundred. -Hiller died in Cologne in 1885. - -Another friend of Mendelssohn was Julius Rietz (1812-77), whose -brother Eduard, the violinist, had been the friend of the greater -master's youth. He, too, after conducting in Düsseldorf, came to the -Leipzig Gewandhaus as Gade's successor in 1848, took Mendelssohn's -place as municipal musical director and taught at the conservatory -until he became court kapellmeister and head of the conservatory in -Dresden. His editorial work, the complete editions of the works of -Bach, Händel, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart, published by the -house of Breitkopf and Härtel, are important. His compositions are -wholly influenced by Mendelssohn. - -Among the few who actually had the benefit of Mendelssohn's personal -tuition is Richard Wüerst (1824-81), whose activities were, however, -centred in Berlin, where he was musical director from 1874, royal -professor from 1877, and a member of the Academy. His second -symphony (op. 21) was prize-crowned in Cologne and his cantata, _Der -Wasserneck_, is a grateful composition for mixed chorus. Several of his -songs also have become popular. - -Karl Reinecke is less exclusive in his influence. He divides his -allegiance at least equally between Mendelssohn and Schumann. He is -the example _par excellence_ of the professional musician, the cobbler -who sticks to his last. He did not, like Hiller, indulge in literary -chit-chat about his art, confining himself to writings of pedagogical -import. He learned his craft from his father, an excellent musician -and drill-master, and never had to go outside his home for direct -instruction. Thus he became an accomplished pianist (unrivalled at -least in one department--Mozart), at nineteen appeared as virtuoso in -Sweden and Denmark, and in 1846-48 was court pianist to King Christian -VIII. After spending some time in Paris he joined Hiller's teaching -staff in Cologne conservatory, then held conductor's posts in Barmen -and Breslau, and finally (1860) occupied Mendelssohn's place at the -Gewandhaus in Leipzig. There, when the new building was dedicated -in 1884, his bust in marble was placed beside those of Mendelssohn -and Schumann, and not till 1885 was he dethroned from his seat of -authority--with the advent of Nikisch. At the conservatory, too, his -activity was continuous from 1860 on--as instructor in piano and free -composition. From 1897 to his retirement in 1902 he was director of -studies. - -Reinecke was born in 1824 at Altona, near Hamburg, and enjoyed the -characteristic longevity of the 'transition' composers, living well -into the neighborhood of ninety. In fecundity he surpasses even Hiller, -for his works number well-nigh three hundred. Besides Mendelssohnian -perfection, well-rounded classic form and fine organization in -workmanship, flavored with a touch of Schumannesque subjectivity, -Reinecke shows traces of more advanced influences. The idioms of Brahms -and even the 'New Germans' crept into his work as time went on. Of -course, since Reinecke was a famous pedagogue, his piano compositions -(sonatas for two and four hands, sonatinas, fantasy pieces, caprices, -and many other small forms) enjoyed a great reputation as teaching -material, which somewhat overshadowed their undoubted intrinsic value -as music. His four piano concertos are no longer heard, nor are those -for violin, for 'cello, and for harp. But his chamber music--the -department where thorough musicianship counts for most--is no doubt -the most staple item in his catalogue. There are a quintet, a quartet, -seven trios, besides three 'cello sonatas, four violin sonatas, and -a fantasy for violin and piano, also a sonata for flute. His most -popular and perhaps his best work are the _Kinderlieder_, 'of classic -importance in every sense, easily understood by children and not -without interest for adults.'[3] Again it is the miniature form that -prevails. Similarly in the orchestral field, the overtures (_Dame -Kobold_, _Aladin_, _Friedensfeier_, _Festouvertüre_, _In memoriam_) and -the serenade for string orchestra have outlasted the three symphonies, -while the operas ('King Manfred,' 1867, three others, and the -_singspiel_ 'An Adventure of Händel'), as well as an oratorio, masses, -etc., have already faded from memory, though the smaller choral works, -with orchestra and otherwise (including the Fairy Poems for women's -voices and the cycle _Von der Wiege bis zum Grabe_), still maintain -themselves in the repertoire of German societies. - - -Salomon Jadassohn (1831-1902) was still more of a pedagogue and less -of a composer. Yet he wrote copiously, over one hundred works being -published. It is to be noted that he was a pupil of Liszt as well as -Moritz Hauptmann, but he gravitated to Leipzig and lived there from -1852 on. He has a particular fondness for the canon form and makes his -chief mark in orchestral and chamber music. But his teaching manuals on -harmony and counterpoint are his real monument. - - - III - -Undoubtedly the most important contemporary of Brahms, following in -tracks of Schumann, was Robert Volkmann. His acquaintance with Schumann -was the predominating stimulus of his artistic career, and, since -Brahms is too big and independent a genius to deserve the epithet, -Volkmann may count as the Düsseldorf master's chief epigone. He was -but five years younger than Schumann, being born April 6, 1815, at -Lommatzsch in Saxony, the son of a cantor, who instructed him in piano -and organ playing. He studied theory with Anacker in Freiberg and K. -F. Becker in Leipzig. He taught in Prague (1839) and Budapest (1842), -lived in Vienna 1854-58, and again in Prague, where he was professor -of harmony and counterpoint at the National Academy of Music, and died -in 1893. - -His first published work, the 'Fantasy Pictures' for piano, appeared in -1839 in Leipzig. Unlike most other composers of this group, he managed -to give his larger forms a permanent value; his two symphonies, in B -major (op. 44) and D minor (op. 53) respectively, are still frequently -played. Especially the last contains matter that is imbued with real -feeling and effectively handled. His three serenades for string -orchestra (opera 62, 63, and 69, the last with 'cello obbligato) are -no less pleasing, and, in spite of the tribute which Volkmann pays to -Schumann in all his works, even original. Of other instrumental music -there are two overtures, the piano trio in B minor, which first made -Volkmann's name more widely known, together with two string quartets -in A minor and G minor, one other trio and four more quartets, a -'cello concerto, a romance each for 'cello and violin (with piano), -a _Konzertstück_ for piano and a number of small works for piano as -well as for violin and piano. Among his vocal compositions two masses -for men's voices and a number of secular pieces for solo voice with -orchestral accompaniment are the most important. - -Woldemar Bargiel (1828-97), Theodor Kirchner (1824-1903), Karl -Grädener (1812-83), and Albert Dietrich (b. 1829) are all disciples -of Schumann. The first, a stepbrother of Clara Schumann, is perhaps -the most important. He worked chiefly with the orchestra and chamber -combinations, his overture to 'Medea' and his trios being most -noteworthy, but he contributed to choral and solo song literature as -well. Kirchner is known for his finely emotional piano miniatures (some -accompanied by string instruments) as well as for chamber music and -songs. Grädener, too, composed in all these forms, and Dietrich, who -was court kapellmeister in Oldenburg and was in close personal touch -with Schumann in Düsseldorf, left symphonies, overtures, chamber music -and songs altogether in the spirit of the great arch-romantic. - -The composers so far discussed constitute what is sometimes called -the Leipzig circle. While they can not in any sense be considered -as radicals, and, indeed, were frequently attacked as conservative -or academic by the followers of the more radical wing which made -its headquarters at Weimar, they appear distinctly progressive when -compared with the ultra-conservative group of composers centred in -Berlin, who made it their particular duty to uphold tradition and to -apply their energies to the creation of choral music of rather antique -type. 'It may be that the attitude of certain Berlin masters,' says -Pratt,[4] 'like Grell, Dehn, and Kiel, serve a useful purpose as a -counterpoise to the impulsive swing of style away from the traditions -of the old vocal counterpoint. They certainly helped to keep musical -education from forgetting solid structure in composition amid its -desires to exploit impressionistic and sensational devices. Probably -this reactionary influence did good in the end, though its intolerant -narrowness exasperated the many who were eagerly searching out new -paths. It at least resulted in making Berlin a centre for choral music -of a severe type, for able teachers of the art of singing, for musical -theory and for scholarly investigators of musical history.' It may be -added that the Royal Academy was the stronghold of this extreme 'right -wing,' and that the chief institutions which helped to uphold old -vocal traditions were the _Singakademie_, the _Domchor_, the _Institut -für Kirchenmusik_ (later merged into the _Hochschule für Musik_). The -Conservatory, founded in 1850 by Marx, Kullak, and Stern, and the _Neue -Akademie der Tonkunst_, established in 1855 by Theodor Kullak, also -acquired considerable importance. - -Eduard August Grell (1800-86) gave proof of his contrapuntal genius in -a series of sacred works including a sixteen-part mass, an oratorio, -and a Te Deum, besides many songs and motets. He assisted Rungenhagen -in conducting the _Singakademie_ from 1832, becoming sole conductor and -teacher of composition at the Academy in 1851, and was a musician of -very wide influence. Siegfried Dehn (1799-1858) is chiefly important -as teacher of a number of the composers mentioned in this chapter and -as the author of treatises. Friedrich Kiel (1821-85), whose requiem in -F minor has been called among all later works of this class the most -worthy successor of those of Mozart and Cherubini, has also written -a _Missa Solemnis_, an oratorio _Christus_, and another Requiem (A -minor)--works which attest above all the writer's polyphonic skill, -and which prove the appropriateness of applying such a style to modern -works of devotional character. Kiel's _Stabat mater_, _Te Deum_, 130th -Psalm and two-part motets for women's voices, as well as his chamber -music and piano pieces, are all worthy of consideration. Karl Friedrich -Rungenhagen (d. 1851) and August Wilhelm Bach (d. 1869), both noted -as composers of choral music, may complete our review of the 'Berlin -circle.' - -There remain to be mentioned those specialists who are concerned almost -exclusively with the two most characteristic mediums of the romantic -_genre_--the piano piece and the song. Schumann and Chopin had brought -the miniature piano composition to its highest plane of expression -and the most advanced technical standard, which even the dramatic -imagination and the virtuoso brilliance of Liszt could not surpass. -They and such milder romanticists as Mendelssohn and John Field had -brought this class of music within the reach of amateurs, Schumann even -within that of the child. Brahms, with no thought of the dilettante, -had intensified this form of expression, making a corresponding -demand upon technical ability. It remained for men like Adolf Henselt, -Stephen Heller, and Theodor Kullak to popularize the new pianistic -idiom, as Clementi, Hummel, and Moscheles had popularized that of the -classics. These are the real workers in _genre_, monochrome genre, with -their pictorial description, their somewhat bourgeois romanticism and -sometimes maudlin sentimentality. Even their études are cast in an easy -lyrical vein which was made to convey the pretty sentiment. - -Henselt (1814-89) was an eminent pianist, born in Silesia, pupil of -Hummel and Sechter in Vienna. After 1838 he lived in St. Petersburg. -Pieces like the _Poème d'amour_ and the 'Spring Song' are comparable -to Mendelssohn's 'Songs without Words,' but they are more richly -embroidered and of a fuller sonority. His F minor concerto is justly -famous. Stephen Heller (1814-88) was also famous as a concert pianist. -Of his compositions, to the number of 150, all for his own instrument, -many are truly and warmly poetic in content. Though lacking Schumann's -passion and Chopin's harmonic genius, he surpasses Mendelssohn in -the originality and individuality of his ideas. In a number of his -things, probably pot-boilers, he leans dangerously to the salon type -of composition, with which many of his immediate followers flooded -the market. We are all familiar with the album-leaf, fly-leaf, -mood-picture, fairy and flower piece variety of piano literature, as -well as the pseudo-nature study, the travel picture in which the Rhine -and its castles and Loreley, the Alps and its cowbells, Venice with its -barcarolles and Naples with its tarantellas figure so conspicuously. - -Kullak (1818-82), already mentioned as the founder of the _Neue -Akademie_ of Berlin and famous both as pianist and teacher, wrote some -130 works, most of which is in the _salon_ type or in the form of -brilliant fantasias and paraphrases, less important, perhaps, than -his études ('School of Octave Playing,' etc.). The piano technicians -Henri Hertz (1803-88), Sigismund Thalberg (1812-71), Karl Klindworth -(b. 1830), Karl Tausig (1841-71), Nicolai Rubinstein (1835-81), brother -of Anton and founder of the Moscow conservatory, and Hans von Bülow, of -whom we shall speak later, might all be mentioned in this connection, -though their work as virtuosi, teachers, and editors is of greater -moment than their efforts as original composers. - -The song engaged the exclusive activity of numberless composers of this -period, and perhaps to a great extent with as untoward results as the -piano piece. But there are, on the other hand, men like Eduard Lassen -(1830-1904), Adolf Jensen (1837-79), and Wilhelm Taubert (1811-91) -whose work, in part at least, will take a place beside that of the -great romantics. Robert Franz, by far the most important of these, has -been treated in Volume II (p. 289). Taubert is to-day chiefly known for -his 'Children's Songs,' full of ingenuous charm and sincere feeling. -It should not be forgotten, however, that their composer wrote a half -dozen operas, incidental music for Euripides' 'Medea' and Shakespeare's -'Tempest,' as well as symphonies, overtures, chamber, piano and choral -works. Berlin, his birthplace, remained his headquarters. Here he -conducted the court concerts, the opera and the _Singakademie_, and was -the president of the musical section in the Senate of the Royal Academy. - -Adolf Jensen, in Hugo Riemann's judgment, is much more than Franz -entitled to the lyric mantle of Schumann. His songs, appearing in -modest series bearing no special title, have in them much real poetic -imagination. They are unmistakably influenced by Wagner. Books 4, 6, -and 22, as well as the two cycles _Dolorosa_ and _Erotikon_, are picked -by Naumann as especially noteworthy. The popular _Lehn' deine Wang_ is -most frequently sung, but is one of the less meritorious of Jensen's -songs. The composer has also been successful with pianoforte works, -his sonata op. 25 and the pieces of opera 37, 38, and 42 being worthy -essays along the lines of Schumann. An eminently aristocratic character -and a profound subjective expression are their distinguishing features, -together with the soft beauty of their melodic line. Jensen was a -native of Königsberg (1837), and spent some years in Russia in order -to earn sufficient money to live near Schumann in Düsseldorf, but the -tragic end of the latter frustrated this plan. Hence he followed a call -to conduct the theatre orchestra in Posen, later going to Copenhagen, -Königsberg, Berlin, Dresden, and Graz. He died in Baden-Baden in 1879. - -Lassen, another song-writer of distinction, came more definitely -under the Liszt influence and will therefore be treated with the 'New -Germans' in another section. - -The degeneration of the song, corresponding to that of the small -piano forms, is to be noted in the productions of such men as Franz -Abt (1819-85) and Karl Friedrich Curschmann (1804-41). Abt is among -song-writers the typical _Spiessbürger_, the middle-class Philistine -dear to the _Männerchor_ member's heart. His songs are of that popular -melodiousness which at its best flavors of the folk-song and at its -worst of the music hall. Of the former variety are '_Wenn die Schwalben -heimwärts ziehn_' and '_Gute Nacht, mein herziges Kind_.' All of -Abt's songs and vocal quartets are of the more or less saccharine -sentimentality which for a time was such an appealing factor in -American popular music. Indeed, when Abt visited the United States in -1872 he was received with extraordinary acclaim. - -Curschmann's songs are perhaps slightly superior in musical value, and -at one time were equally popular, but they are not as near to becoming -folk-songs as are some of Abt's. Many others might be mentioned among -the purveyors of this sentimental stuff. If, as Naumann says, Taubert -and his kind are the musical bourgeoisie, these are the small middle -class. Arno Kleffel (b. 1840), Louis Ehlert (1825-84), Heinrich Hofmann -(1842-1902), Alexander von Fielitz (b. 1860) may be regarded as -standing on the border line of the two provinces. - -Much more worthy, from a purely musical standpoint, are the frank -expressions of good humor and hilarity, the light rhythmic sing-song -of the comic opera and the operetta represented by Lortzing and Johann -Strauss (Jr.), respectively. Albert Lortzing (1801-51) revived or -perpetuated in a new (and more engaging) form the singspiel of J. A. -Hiller and Dittersdorf, the _genre_ which, as we remember, had its -origin in the ballad operas of eighteenth-century England. For all -his lightheartedness and ingenuousness, and despite his indebtedness -to Italy and the _opéra comique_, Lortzing belongs to the Romantic -movement. Bie is of that opinion and says of him: 'He was at bottom -a tender and lightly sentimental nature running over with music and -winning his popularity in the _genre_ of the bourgeois song and -the heart-quality chorus.' Born as the son of an actor, travelling -around from theatre to theatre, learning to play various instruments, -appearing in juvenile rôles, becoming actor, singer and conductor by -turns, Lortzing fairly absorbed the ingredients that go to make the -successful provider of light amusement. Successful he was only in -an artistic sense--economically always 'down on his luck.' He began -to compose early and turned out operas by the dozen, all dialogue -operas or _singspiele_, writing (or adapting) both words and music. -Not till 1835 did he make a hit--with _Die beiden Schützen_. _Zar und -Zimmermann_, _Der Wildschütz_, _Undine_ (a romantic fairy opera), and -_Der Waffenschmied_ are the most successful of his works, and still -live as vigorous an existence in Germany as the Gilbert and Sullivan -operas do in England. He became more and more popular as time went on, -for he had no successful imitator. No one after him managed to write -such dear old songs, such funny ensembles, and such touching scenes of -every-day life. No one, in short, could make people laugh and cry by -turns with such perfect musical art. He is a classic, as classic in his -form as Dittersdorf; but, as Bie says, Mozart, Schubert, and Weber had -lived, and, for Lortzing, not in vain. - -In this department, too, we must record a degeneration. It was -accomplished notably by Victor Nessler (1841-90), whose _Trompeter von -Säkkingen_ still haunts the German opera houses, while its most popular -number, _Behüt dich Gott_, is still a leading 'cornet solo,' zither -selection, and hurdy-gurdy favorite. - -Johann Strauss (1825-1899)[5] might be denied a place in many a serious -history. But let us not forget that a large part of the public, when -you say 'Strauss,' still think of him instead of Richard! And neither -let us forget Brahms' remark about the 'Blue Danube' waltz--that he -wished he might have written so beautiful a melody--was quite sincere. -The 'Blue Danube' has become the second Austrian national anthem--or -at least the leading Viennese folk-song. 'Artist's Life,' 'Viennese -Blood,' '_Bei uns z'Haus_,' '_Man lebt nur einmal_' (out of which -Taussig made one of the most brilliant of concert pieces)--these -waltzes are hardly less beloved of the popular heart--and feet -unspoiled by one-step or tango. In his operettas, too, whose style is -similar to that of Offenbach and Lecocq (see II, p. 392 ff.), Strauss -remains the 'waltz king': the pages of _Die Fledermaus_ ('The Bat'), -'The Gypsy Baron,' and 'The Queen's Lace Handkerchief' teem with -fascinating waltz rhythms. Strauss is as inimitable in his way as -Lortzing was in his--to date he has no serious rival, unless it be the -composer of _Rosenkavalier_ himself. Karl Millöcker[6] (1842-99) with -the 'Beggar Student' and Franz von Suppé (1819-1895) with _Das Mädchen -vom Lande_, _Flotte Bursche_, etc., come nearest to him in reputation. -The latter should be remembered for more serious work as well, and the -still popular 'Poet and Peasant' overture. He was the teacher of the -American Reginald de Koven. - - - IV - -If Leipzig represents the centre, and Berlin the right wing, the group -of Liszt disciples gathered together in Weimar must be taken as the -'left' of the romantic schools. Out of this wing has grown the new -German school which is still in the heyday of its glory and among whose -adherents may be reckoned most of the contemporary German composers. -We have mentioned in this chapter only two of the older disciples of -this branch, namely Raff (who has already been noticed in Vol. II), and -Lassen, who is most widely known as a song-writer. The rest we defer to -a later chapter. - -Joseph Joachim Raff was born at Lachen, on Zürich lake, in 1822. -The son of an organist, he first became an elementary teacher. His -first encouragement came from Mendelssohn, but his hope to be able -to study with that master was never realized. Bülow and Liszt were -also helpful to him, but many disappointments beset his path. He -followed Liszt to Weimar in 1850, became a collaborator on the _Neue -Zeitschrift für Musik_, and championed Wagner in a brochure entitled -'The Wagner Question' (1854). In the course of his sixty years (he -died in Frankfurt in 1882) he turned out what is perhaps the largest -number of works on record. His opus numbers go far beyond 200--even -the indefatigable Riemann does not attempt a complete summary of -them. There are 11 symphonies, 3 orchestral suites, 5 overtures and -orchestral works; concertos, sonatas, etc., for various instruments; 8 -string quartets, a string sextet and an octet, piano trios, quartets, -and every kind of smaller form imaginable. The piano pieces flavor in -many cases of the salon. The songs, duets, vocal quartets and choruses -are chiefly remarkable for their great number. His opera 'King Alfred' -never got beyond Weimar, while some of his six others (comic, lyric, -and grand) were not even performed. Out of all this mass only the -_Wald_ and _Leonore_ symphonies have stood the test of time, and even -these are rapidly fading. - -Yet Raff was in some ways an important man. His extraordinary and -extremely fruitful talent was subjected to the changing influences of -the neo-classic and the late romantic school. If the Mendelssohnian -model led him to emphasize the formalistic elements in his work, he -soon realized that perfect form was only a means and not an end. -That emotion, mood, and expression were not to be subordinated to it -he learned from Liszt. Hence his works, descriptive in character as -their titles imply, show the conflict between form and content which -had already become a problem with Berlioz. His symphonies, now purely -descriptive (a development starting with the pastoral symphony of -Beethoven), now dramatic (with Berlioz's _Fantastique_ as the model), -are mildly programmistic and colorful, but have neither the sweep of -imagination of Berlioz nor the daring brilliance of Liszt. - -At any rate Raff had considerable influence upon others--Edward -MacDowell among them. He 'proved,' as it were, the methods of the new -German school along mediocre lines. He was a pioneer and not a mere -camp follower as most of his contemporaries. - -Hans von Bülow's (1830-94) importance as pianist, conductor, and -editor overshadows his claim as a creative musician. As such he has -left music for Shakespeare's 'Julius Cæsar,' a symphonic mood-picture -'Nirvana,' an orchestral ballad 'The Singer's Curse,' and copious -piano works. Their style is what may be expected from their creator's -close associations with Liszt and Wagner, which are too well known for -comment. He became Liszt's pupil in 1853 (marrying his daughter Cosima -in 1857)[7] and was Wagner's staunchest champion as early as 1849. In -his later years he gave evidence of a broad catholicity and progressive -spirit by making propaganda for Brahms and propitiating the youthful -Richard Strauss. In his various executive activities he accomplished -miracles for the cause of musical culture, and as conductor of the -Meiningen and the Berlin Philharmonic orchestra laid the foundation of -the contemporary conductor's art. - -Eduard Lassen (1830-1904), who, through Liszt's influence, was made -musical director at the Weimar court in 1858, becoming Hofkapellmeister -in 1861, is chiefly known for his pleasing songs. His early training -was received at the Conservatory, where he won the _prix de Rome_ in -1851. The fact that his songs betray at times an almost Gallic grace is -therefore not surprising. He wrote, besides two operas (_Frauenlob_ and -_Le Captif_), music for Hebbel's _Nibelungen_ (11 'character pieces' -for orchestra), for Sophokles' 'Œdipus Colonos,' and for Goethe's -'Faust'; also symphonies, overtures, cantatas, etc. - - C. S. - - - V - -Turning to France, we have as the leading 'transition' composers -Massenet, Saint-Saëns, and Lalo, three musicians strangely difficult -to classify. They remain on the margin of all the turbulent movements -in modern musical evolution. Each pursued his own way and the only -point of contact between the three, outside of their uniformly friendly -relations, is their individual isolation. Each might have turned -to the other for sympathy in his loneliness. No doubt the spoiled -and successful Massenet, the skeptical and mocking Saint-Saëns, and -the noble and sensitive Lalo must have felt alone in the attacks or -indifference of their fellow artists. Yet, aloof as they were, each -in his way has been an important influence on French music. Massenet -by the essentially French character of his melody, Saint-Saëns by his -eminently Latin sense of form, and Lalo by the picturesque fondness -for piquant rhythms, have each woven themselves into the very texture -of modern French music, Saint-Saëns and Lalo in particular being -propagandists for the new and vital growth of the symphonic forms -in Paris during the last three decades. If there is less of the -spectacular and the intense in their productions, there are qualities -that make for a certain recognition and popularity over a relatively -longer space of time. There is nothing enigmatic or revolutionary with -either. Each expressed himself with varying degrees of sincerity in an -idiom which, without pointing to the future, is nevertheless of the -time in which it was written. If there are retrogressive qualities in -Saint-Saëns, it must not be forgotten that he is one of the significant -exponents of the symphonic poem. If Massenet attempted no revolutionary -harmonic procedure, he nevertheless made a certain type of lyric opera -all his own. If Lalo was content to compose in the conventional form -known as symphony, concerto, quartet, etc., he none the less endowed -them with a quality immediately personal and not present heretofore in -these forms. They are all intimately related to French music as it has -been and as it will be. - -'I was born,' wrote Jules-Émile-Frédéric Massenet (1842-1912) in an -article appearing in 'Scribner's Magazine,' 'to the sound of hammers -of bronze.' With this stentorian statement, which would have better -served to inaugurate the biography of a Berlioz or a Benvenuto Cellini, -Massenet tells us the bare facts of a more or less colorless life. With -the exception of a few hard years during his apprenticeship at the -Conservatoire, Massenet remains for well over a quarter of a century -the idol, or rather the spoiled child, of the Parisian public. His -reputation abroad is considerably less, the rôle of his elegant or -superficial art being taken in Germany and America by Sig. Puccini. -Nevertheless, even to the American public, little interested in the -refined neuroticism of this child of the Second Empire, Massenet is not -devoid of a certain charm. - -To obtain an adequate idea of his importance among the group of -composers of the late nineteenth century it is necessary to close -one's ears against the railing of the snobbish élite. There is much -in Massenet to criticize. If one thinks merely of the spirit which -actuates his productions, one is very apt to be condemnatory. When one -considers, however, a fluid and elegant technique such as was his, -an amazing power of production that recalls the prolific masters of -the Renaissance, and a power not only to please but even to dictate -to the fickle operatic tastes of a quarter-century, one must stop -one's criticism to murmur one's admiration. Massenet has probably -never been justly appraised. Among his compatriots the critics allied -with the young school are so vituperative as to render their opinions -valueless. His admirers show an equal lack of proportion, being -ofttimes friends rather than well equipped critics. Any just observer -of musical history, however, must stop to consider the qualities of a -man that could retain his hold upon the sympathies of a public rather -distinguished for the fickleness and injustice of its tastes. To find -the work that best exemplifies the Massenetian qualities among an opus -that includes twenty-four operas, seven orchestral suites, innumerable -songs, some chamber music, and some incidental music for various -popular productions, is not easy. - -Let us pass his operas in rapid review. The first dramatic work of -any importance is _Le Roi de Lahore_, given for the first time in -April, 1877. In this opera, as in _Hérodiade_, which followed it four -years later, there is much that has become permanently fixed in the -concert répertoire. It is doubtful whether either will ever regain -its place in the theatre. With _Manon_, however, an opéra comique in -five acts, Massenet inaugurates a success that was to be undimmed -until his death in 1912. _Manon_, since its production in 1884, has -enjoyed a remarkable career of more than 1,200 productions in Paris. -It is typical, as regards the text, of the successful libretto that -the composer of _Werther_, of _Le Jongleur de Nôtre Dame_, and _Thaïs_ -was to employ. Massenet in his attitude toward adaptable literary -material may be said to have had his ear to the ground. It is not -surprising, therefore, that the passionate novelette of the Abbé -Prévost should have attracted him, and in _Manon_ one may observe -the characteristics of the Massenetian heroine that were to make him -so popular among the sensitive, subtle, spoiled, and restless women -of our time. One enthusiastic biographer asserts that Massenet has -taken one masterpiece to make another. Although one must acknowledge -the undoubted charm of this fragile little opera, one cannot consider -it on the same intellectual plane as that sincere epic of a young -sentimentalist of the late eighteenth century. Throughout the five -acts are scenes or parts of scenes that show Massenet at his best. -Technically speaking, however, the work is often inferior to the one -or two little masterpieces composed later on. In it a certain crudity -and hesitation of technique are often apparent. The casual mingling of -musical declamation with spoken dialogue is often unsatisfactory if -not absolutely distasteful. It is in the splendid love-scene of Saint -Sulpice that the composer first gives a revelation of his remarkable -powers as a musico-dramatic artist. - -In 1892 at Vienna was presented a work that Massenet was never to -surpass: _Werther_. This work has never attained the popularity -of _Manon_, but it is infinitely superior in every detail. In it -Massenet has achieved an elastic musical declamation that is almost -unique in the history of opera. Throughout, with absolute deference -to the principles of diction, the solo voice sings a sort of melodic -recitative skillfully accompanied by a transparent yet marvellously -colored orchestra. The comparative lack of success of _Werther_ is -no doubt due to the sentimentalization of a tale already morbid -when fresh from the pen of Goethe. Naturally in adapting it to the -stage, and especially to the French stage, the idyllic charm of -Goethe's extraordinary tale has been lost. Also, the glamour of its -quasi-autobiographical connection with a great poet has entirely -vanished. With all these qualifications, one must nevertheless--if his -opinion be not too influenced by musical snobbishness--acknowledge -_Werther_ to be a lyric work of the greatest importance. - -There is only one other work that could add to Massenet's reputation -or show another facet of his genius, _Le Jongleur de Nôtre Dame_. This -work, founded upon a legend of the Middle Ages adapted with taste and -discretion by Maurice Lena of the University of Paris, is a treasure -among short operas. The skeptical box-holder of the theatre rejoices -in the fact that there is no woman's rôle. The three brief acts centre -about the routine of a monastery and the apparition of the Virgin. -Massenet has treated this innocent historiette with a tenderness and -care that belie the casual overproduction that characterized his career. - -After _Le Jongleur_ one is face to face with a sad succession of -hastily composed, often mediocre, stage pieces. Upon the occasion of -the presentation of the posthumous opera _Cleopatra_ at Monte Carlo -in 1914, friendly critics pointed to the renewal of Massenet's genius. -An examination of _Cleopatra_, however, reveals a deplorable use of -conventional procedures with certain disagreeable mannerisms of the -composer at their worst. _Panurge_, presented in 1913, is a better -work. No doubt in composing it Massenet wished to achieve a French -_Meistersinger_. He has fallen far short of this and one is forced to -confess that the Gallic cock crows in a shrill and fragile falsetto. - -Among Massenet's orchestral suites, it would be unjust to omit mention -of the _Scènes Alsaciennes_. Also one can separate from the quantity -of stage music composed for various dramatic pieces _Les Erynnies_, -composed for the drama of Leconte de Lisle. An examination of the -cantatas, 'Eve' in particular, is interesting as evidence of Massenet's -extraordinary virtuosity. - -So much for the actual works. When one considers the influence of -Massenet upon the new musical school that sprang up in France after -Franck, one can hardly exaggerate it. Among his pupils are many of the -distinguished young musical Nihilists of to-day, for, if we admit the -meretricious aims of Massenet in contemporary music, it is impossible -not to admit, too, that he possessed one of the most certain techniques -for the stage since Rameau. Absolutely conversant with the exactions of -dramatic composition, one might say that in each bar of music he was -haunted by the foot-lights. Musically speaking, the modelling of the -Massenetian melody is characterized by an elegance that is sickly and -cloying. Towards the end of his career there was no need to subject -his music to the polishing that other composers find necessary. His -mannerisms resolved themselves into tricks. The effect of these tricks -was so certain as to enable this skillful juggler to intersperse pages -of absolutely meaningless filling. In one department of technique, -however, one can think of little but praise--that is Massenet's clear -and sonorous orchestration. He is one of the shining examples of that -economy of resources to be observed in present-day French composers. -His orchestra is that of the classics, and yet he seems to endow it -with possibilities for color and dramatic expression unknown in France, -at least in the domain of theatrical composition, before his appearance. - -His dominant fault is a nervous and ever-present desire to please at -all costs. He had an uncanny power of estimating the receptivity of -audiences and was careful not to go beyond well-defined limits. In -_Esclarmonde_ there is a timid attempt to acclimate the procedures of -Richard Wagner to the stage of the Opéra Comique. We cannot share the -enthusiasm of some of Massenet's critics for this empty and inflated -imitation. It is not good Massenet, and it is poor Wagnerism, for the -real Massenet, say what you will, is the Massenet of a few scenes -of _Manon_, of the delicate moonlight reverie of _Werther_, and the -cloying Meditation from _Thaïs_. The mistake of critics in appraising a -composer like Massenet is that they assume that there is a platinum bar -to standardize musical ideals. Massenet set himself to do something. He -wanted to please. Haunted by the sufferings of his student life at the -Conservatoire, he wanted to be successful; he was eminently so. If his -means of obtaining this success seem questionable to those of us who -believe in a continuous evolution of art, when we are confronted with -the industry, the achievement, and the mastery of technical resources -that are to be observed in Massenet, we must unwillingly acclaim him a -genius. - -We have already referred to Massenet's prodigious output. Besides -his 23 operas his works include 4 oratorios and biblical dramas, -his incidental music to any number of plays, his suites, overtures, -chamber music, piano pieces and four volumes of songs, as well as _a -capella_ choruses. Massenet was a native of Montaud, near St. -Étienne (Loire), studied at the Conservatoire with Laurent (piano), -Reber (harmony), and Ambroise Thomas (composition). He captured the -prix de Rome in 1863 with the cantata _David Rizzio_. - - [Illustration] - - French Eclectics: - - Édouard Lalo Benjamin Godard - Camille Saint-Saëns Jules Massenet - - - VI - -Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns was born October 9th, 1835, in Paris. -He lives to-day (1915) in possession of all his powers as an artist -and a witty pamphleteer. In some respects Saint-Saëns may be dubbed -a musical Voltaire. A master of all the forms peculiar to symphonic -music, he has never succeeded in endowing his work with any quality -save clarity and brilliance. One would almost think at times that -he deliberately stifled emotional elements in himself of which he -disapproved. There is scarcely any department of music for which he has -not written. Symphonies, chamber music, songs, operas and a ballet, and -all this in quantity. Saint-Saëns, too, has undeniably lofty musical -standards. Prolific, like Massenet, too prolific, in fact, for the -subtle, sensitive taste of our time, Saint-Saëns seems rather to defy -the public than to make any effort to please. His skill as a technician -and his extraordinary abilities as a virtuoso have won him immediate -recognition with musicians. In examining the whole of his work, there -are only four orchestral pieces which have enduring qualities. These -are the four symphonic poems in which Saint-Saëns pays an eloquent -tribute to the form espoused by his friend Franz Liszt. Of these, the -finest is _Phaëton_. Strange to say, the best known of this tetralogy -of masterpieces is not the best. Beside the magnificently picturesque -_Phaëton_ the _Danse macabre_ seems a drab and inelegant humoresque. -After _Phaëton_, _Le Rouet d'Omphale_ must be given the place of -distinction in the long list of Saint-Saëns's compositions. In it the -composer has given us a witty delineation of the irresistible powers of -seduction of a truly feminine woman. The delicate orchestral texture -entirely made up of crystalline timbres marks Saint-Saëns as one of the -surest and most skillful manipulators of the modern orchestra since -Wagner. As is characteristic of many French composers, there is a -remarkable economy of means. Small aggregations of instruments achieve -brilliant and compelling sonorities. - -In the operatic field, Saint-Saëns is not happy. Here all of his -reactionary neo-classicism found its full vent, and we are shocked to -see a musician of Saint-Saëns's taste and intelligence employing the -pompous conventionalities of the opera of 1850. 'Samson and Delilah,' -however, has found its way into the répertoire no doubt on account of -its fluent melodic structure and its agreeable exoticism. No matter -what his technical excellences, one is conscious, with Saint-Saëns, -of a certain sterility. Sometimes his music is so imitative of the -classics as to be absolutely devoid of any reason for being. Bach and -Mendelssohn are his great influences and Liszt and Berlioz have had -a great part in the formation of his orchestral technique. M. Schuré -remarks aptly: 'One notices with him a subtle and lively imagination, -a constant aspiration to strength, to nobility, to majesty. From his -quartets and his symphonies are to be detached grandiose moments -and rockets of emotion which disappear too quickly. But it would be -impossible to find the individuality which asserts itself in the -ensemble of his works. One does not feel there the torment of a soul or -the pursuit of an ideal. It is the Proteus, multiform and polyphonic, -of music. Try to seize him, and he changes into a siren. Are you under -the charm? He undergoes a change into a mocking bird. You believe -that you have got him at last, then he climbs into the clouds like a -hypogriff. His own nature is best discerned in certain witty fantasies -of a skeptical and mordant character, like the _Danse macabre_ and the -_Rouet d'Omphale_.' When one considers that Saint-Saëns has been before -the public ever since the sixties, a period in which musical evolution -has undergone the most rapid and surprising changes, it is not strange -that he eludes characterization. He is a musician who has, as Mr. -Schuré so aptly says, refused to set himself the narrow and rocky -path of an ideal. He has consistently avoided extremes. Side by side -with Saint-Saëns the modernist, the champion of the symphonic poem, -is Saint-Saëns the anti-Wagnerian. He is one of the great pillars, -however, in the remarkable edifice of French symphonic music. - -With Romain Bussine, in 1872, Saint-Saëns founded the Société -Nationale, an organization which was to have the most far-reaching -influence on the development of French music. Like Lalo, Saint-Saëns -worked for a sort of protective tariff to keep French symphonic music -from being overwhelmed by the more experienced Teuton neighbors. As a -pamphleteer and propagandist, Saint-Saëns is full of verve and always -has the last word. He was one of the first to appreciate Wagner, -but later, feeling that the popularity of the master of Bayreuth -might overwhelm young French composers, he withdrew his sympathetic -allegiance. - -Édouard-Victor-Antoine Lalo was born in Lille in 1822. This modest, -aristocratic, and noble-minded musician has scarcely enjoyed his just -due even in this late day. He died, exhausted, in 1892. His whole -artistic career was ill-fated. His opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, and his ballet -_Namouna_ were both indifferently successful if not absolute failures. -It is doubtful if Lalo ever recovered from the disappointment and -overwork that attended the composition and production of _Namouna_. -Without hesitation we should characterize these two works as his most -important. There is an excellent symphony in G minor, a concerto for -'cello, the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin and orchestra, and a -concerto for piano, all of an equally lofty musical texture. It is -difficult to class Lalo with any group of musicians. He was mildly -influenced by Wagner, as were all young musicians of his time, and yet -_Le Roi d'Ys_ is absolutely his own. Lalo came of Spanish parentage. -It is probable that a certain sort of atavism is responsible for the -constant suggestion of the subtle monotony of Spanish rhythms in his -music. He is too distinct a Latin to be overwhelmed by Wagner. - -It is very probable that Lalo will never be genuinely popular. The -_Symphonie Espagnole_ is in the répertoire of every virtuoso violinist. -The same may be said of the concerto for 'cello, and yet it is doubtful -if the layman of symphonic concerts would complain were he never -again to hear anything of Lalo. This is due to a certain aristocratic -aloofness, and emotional reserve, and an ever-present sense of -proportion dear only to the élite. - -Lalo's influence was not in itself far-reaching. A sincere, splendidly -developed artist, he had none of the qualities that make disciples. As -one of a group of musicians, however, that were to play an important -rôle in saving French music from foreign domination and in finding an -idiom characteristic and worthy of a country possessed of the artistic -traditions of France, Lalo cannot be overestimated. As a member of -the Armingaud quartet he worked fervently to create a taste for -symphonic music. His own dignified symphonic productions supplemented -this necessary work of propaganda, for it must not be forgotten that -for almost a century before the advent of César Franck there was no -French symphonic music. The French genius, insofar as it expressed -itself in music at all, turned rather to the historical opera so -pompously fashioned, or the witty and amusing opéra comique. Lalo must -be considered with Saint-Saëns and Franck as one of the pioneers in -making a regenerate Parisian taste. His life is colorless and offers -little to the critic in interpretation of his musical ideals. Lalo -composed silently, with conviction, and without self-consciousness. He -was singularly without theories. Concrete technical problems absorbed -him, and in the refinement and nobility of his music is to be found -the most eloquent essay upon the rôle of an artist who seeks sincere -self-expression rather than general recognition. - -As a leaven to the frivolous musical tastes prevalent in the French -capital before the last three decades Lalo has played his part nobly. -He will always be admired by all sincere musicians. His art is -complete, devoid of mannerisms, plastically perfect, and yet without -the semblance of dryness. In his symphony one will observe an unerring -sense of form, an exquisite clarity of orchestration, and a happy -choice of ideas suitable for development, _Le Roi d'Ys_ is scarcely -a masterpiece. The text is constructed from a pretty folk-story, -is not very dramatic and occasionally gives one the impression of -amateurishness and puerility. The music is exquisite and makes -one regret that Lalo could not have found other and more suitable -vehicles for his dramatic genius. _Namouna_ is a sparkling, colorful -ballet. When it was revived some years ago, a more propitious public -enthusiastically revised the adverse verdict of 1882. - -Little may be said of Benjamin Godard (1849-95) except that he -wrote much, too much perhaps, in nearly all forms: symphonies (with -characteristic titles, such as the 'Gothic,' 'Oriental,' _Symphonie -légendaire_), concertos for violin and for piano, orchestral -suites, dramatic overture, symphony, a lyric scene, chamber music, -piano pieces, over a hundred songs, etc. Few of these are heard -nowadays, even in France perhaps. Neither are his operas, _Pédro de -Zalaméa_ (1884), _Jocelyn_ (1888), _Dante et Béatrice_ (1890), _Ruy -Blas_ (1891), _La Vivandière_ (1895), and _Les Guelfes_ (1902). -_Jocelyn_--and, indeed, its composer--are perpetuated by the charmingly -sentimental _Berceuse_, beloved of amateur violinists. Godard studied -composition with Reber and violin with Vieuxtemps at the Conservatoire. -He won the _grand prix_ for composition awarded by the city of -Paris with the dramatic symphony 'Tasso.' This, like the _Symphonie -légendaire_, employs a chorus and solo voices in combination with the -orchestra. - -Two composers, noted especially for their organ works, should -be mentioned in conclusion: Alexandre Guilmant (born 1837) and -Charles-Marie Widor (born 1845). Both made world-wide reputations as -virtuosos upon the organ, the former in the _Trinité_, the latter in -_St. Sulpice_ in Paris. Guilmant has travelled over the world and -received the world's plaudits; Widor has remained in Paris while droves -of pupils from all over the globe have gone back to their homes and -have spread his fame. Both have composed copiously for the organ, -Guilmant more exclusively so, also editing and arranging a great deal -for his instrument. Widor has written two symphonies, choral works, -chamber music, and piano pieces, songs, etc., even a ballet, _La -Korrigane_, two grand operas, _Nerto_ and _Les Pêcheurs de St. Jean_, -a comic opera and a pantomime, _Jeanne d'Arc_. He is César Franck's -successor as professor of organ at the Conservatoire, and since 1891 -has taken Dubois' place in the chair of composition. - - C. C. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[1] The last-named is treated with his compatriots in a succeeding -chapter. - -[2] The Gewandhaus Concerts properly date from 1763, when regular -performances began under J. A. Hiller, though not given in the building -known as the Gewandhaus until 1781. At that time the present system -of government by a board of directors began. The conductors during -the first seventy years were, from 1763: J. A. Hiller (d. 1804); from -1785, J. G. Schicht (d. 1823); from 1810, Christian Schulz (d. 1827); -and from 1827, Christian August Pohlenz (d. 1843). The standard of -excellence was already famous. But in 1835 Mendelssohn brought new -éclat and enterprise, especially as he soon had the invaluable help -of the violinist David. The list of conductors has been from 1835: -Mendelssohn (d. 1847); from 1843, Ferdinand Hiller (d. 1885); from -1844, Gade (d. 1890); from 1848, Julius Rietz (d. 1877); from 1860, -Reinecke; and from 1895, Arthur Nikisch.--Pratt, 'The History of Music.' - -[3] Naumann: _Musikgeschichte_, new ed. by E. Schmitz, 1913. - -[4] Waldo Selden Pratt: 'The History of Music,' New York, 1908. - -[5] Strauss' father, Johann, Sr. (1804-1849), was, with his waltzes and -the wonderful travelling orchestra that played them, as much the hero -of the day as his son. The son first established an orchestra of his -own, but after his father's death succeeded him as leader of the older -organization. - -[6] Karl Millöcker, b. Vienna, 1842; d. 1899, Baden, near Vienna. - -[7] He was divorced from her in 1869 and she became the wife of Richard -Wagner in the following year. - - - - - CHAPTER II - THE RUSSIAN ROMANTICISTS - - Romantic Nationalism in Russian Music; Pathfinders; Cavoss and - Verstovsky--Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka; Alexander Sergeyevitch - Dargomijsky--Neo-Romanticism in Russian Music; Anton - Rubinstein--Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky. - - - I - -Russian music as a whole is a true mirror of Slavic racial character, -life, passion, gloom, struggle, despair, and agony. One can almost see -in its turbulent-lugubrious or buoyant-hilarious chords the rich colors -of the Byzantine style, the half Oriental atmosphere that surrounds -everything with a romantic halo--gloomy prisons, wild mountains, wide -steppes, luxurious palaces and churches, idyllic villages and the -lonely penal colonies of Siberia. It really visualizes the life of the -empire of the Czar with a marvellous power. With its short history and -the unique position that it occupies among the world's classics, it -depicts the true type of a Slav, the melancholy, simple and hospitable -_moujik_, with more fullness of color and virility than, for instance, -the German or Italian compositions depict the representative types -of those nations. In order to understand the reason of this peculiar -difference between Russian and West European music it is necessary to -understand the social and psychological elements upon which it is built. - -While the West European composers founded their creations upon the -traditions of the masters, Russian music grew out of the very heart, -the joys and the sorrows of the common people. All the Russian -composers of the early nationalistic era were men of active life, who -became musicians only on the urgency of their inspiration. Glinka, for -instance, was a functionary in the Ministry of Finance, Dargomijsky was -a clerk in the Treasury Department, Moussorgsky was an army officer, -Rimsky-Korsakoff an officer of the navy, Borodine was a celebrated -inventor and scholar. Academic musicians are wont to find the stamp of -amateurishness on most of the Russian classic music. To this Stassoff, -the celebrated Russian critic, replied: 'If that is the case, our -composers are only to be congratulated, for they have not considered -the form, the objective issues, but the spirit, the subjective value of -their inspirations. We may be uneven and amateurish as nature and human -life are, but, thank Heaven, we are not artificial and sophisticated!' - -Be it a song, instrumental composition, or opera, everything in Russian -music breathes the ethnographic and social-psychologic peculiarities -of the race, which is semi-Oriental in its foundations. Nationalism in -music has been the watchword of most of the Russian composers since -the very start. But, besides, there has been a strong tendency to -subjective individualism, that often expresses itself in a wealth of -sad nuances. This has been to a great extent the reason that foreigners -consider melancholy the predominant racial quality, a view not just -to Russian music as a whole, which is far too vigorous and healthy -a growth to remain continuously under the sway of one emotional -influence. To a foreign, especially an Anglo-Saxon ear Russian -music may sound sometimes too realistic, sometimes too monotonous -and sad without any obvious reason. It has been declared by foreign -academicians lacking in cohesion, technique, and convincing unity. -However, this is not a defect of Russian art, but a characteristic -trait of its racial soul. Every Russian artist, be he a composer, -writer, or painter, in avoiding artificiality puts into his creation -all the idiomatic peculiarities of his race without polishing out of it -the vigor of 'naturalness.' Russian music, more than any other Russian -art, expresses in all its archaic lines, soft shades, and polyphonic -harmonies the peculiar temperament of the nation, which is just as -restless and unbalanced as its life. - -The fundamental purpose of the pathfinders of Russian music was to -create beauties that emanated, not from a certain class or school, -but directly from the soul of the masses. Their ideal was to create -life from life. In order to accomplish their tasks they went back to -melodic traditions of early mediæval music, to the folk-songs, the -mythological chants and the folk dances. Since the Russian people are -extremely musical, folk-song is a great factor in the nation's life and -evolution. Music accompanies _moujiks_ from the cradle to the grave -and plays a leading rôle in their social ceremonies. Though profound -melancholy seems to be the dominant note, yet along with the gloom are -also reckless hilarity and boisterous humor, which often whirl one off -one's feet, as, notably, in Glinka's _Kamarinskaya_. The phenomenon is -startling, for music of the deepest melancholy swings unexpectedly to -buoyant humor and exultant joy. This is explained by the fact that the -average Russian is extremely emotional and consequently dramatic in his -artistic expression. Very characteristic is a passage of Leo Tolstoy on -Russian folk-song in which he writes: - -'It is both sad and joyous, on a quiet summer evening, to hear the -sweeping song of the peasants. In it is yearning without end, without -hope, also power invisible, the fateful stamp of destiny, and the faith -in preordination, one of the fundamental principles of our race, which -explains much that in Russian life seems incomprehensible.' - -The early Russian composers thus became creators in touch with the -common people, the very opposite of the composers of German and Latin -races, who created only for the salons of aristocracy. The latter -were and remained strangers to the people among whom they lived. -Everything they composed was strictly academic and expressed all the -sentimentality and stateliness of the nobility. Although geniuses of -great technique, in racial color, emotional quickness and spontaneity -they remain behind the Russians. - -In spite of the fact that all the early Russian composers were -descendants of aristocracy, they remained in their feelings and in -their themes, like Gogol, Dostoievsky, and Turgenieff in fiction, -true portrayers of the common people's life. There has never been an -aristocratic opera, a nobility music and salon influence noticeable -in Russian musical development. This may be due to the fact that -the Russian aristocracy is not a privileged superior class of the -autocratic régime, as is that of Germany, Austria, Italy, and England, -but merely an intellectual, more advanced element of the country. -Thanks to Czar Feodor, the father of Peter the Great, who destroyed -all the pedigrees, patents and papers of the nobility, saying that he -did not want to see their snobbery and intrigue in his empire, there -are no family documents in Russia which go back beyond the reign of -Czar Feodor. There is no doubt that this autocratic proceeding has been -beneficial to Russian art, particularly to music, in having made it -democratic in its very foundations. - -Though music has been cultivated in Russia since the time of Peter -the Great, the origin of the true nationalistic school belongs to the -Napoleonic era, the reigns of Alexander I and Nicholas I. Cosmopolitan -that he was, Peter the Great disliked everything national, and invited -Italian musicians to form a school of systematic musical education in -his empire. But Catherine II became deeply interested in encouraging -native music and herself took an active part in the work. Between -her political schemings and romantic affairs, she took time to write -librettos, to invite musicians to her palace and to instruct them how -to use the themes of the folk plays, fairy tales, and choral dances -for a new Russian stage music. It is said that sixty new operas were -written during her reign and produced on the stage of the newly-founded -municipal opera house. One of them, 'Annette,' is quoted as the first -wholly Russian opera, in librettist, theme, and composer. - -A very conspicuous figure of the pre-nationalistic period of Russian -musical history is C. Cavos (1776-1840), an Italian by birth, but a -Slav in his work. He wrote songs, instrumental music and operas, more -or less in Italian style but employing both Russian text and theme. His -opera, 'Ivan Sussanin,' was considered a sensational novelty and the -composer was hailed as a great genius of the country. But his works -died as soon as they had loomed up under the protection of the court -and nothing of his compositions has survived. - -Close upon Cavos followed Verstovsky, whose operas 'Tomb of Askold' and -'Pan Tvardovsky' were produced in Moscow when Napoleon invaded Russia -in 1812. The first was built upon an old Slavic saga in which _Askold_, -the hero, and his brother, _Dir_, play the same rôles as do Hengist and -Horsa in Saxon chronicles. The other was founded upon an old Polish -story of adventure somewhat resembling the Faust legend. Besides the -operas Verstovsky composed a large number of songs, ballads, and -dances. By birth a Pole and by education an Italian, his compositions -resemble in many ways those of Rubinstein. - -Russian musical conditions in the first half of the past century -were very much like those in America at present. Besides Cavos -and Verstovsky there had been and were a number of more or less -conspicuous imitators of the Italian school. Their works were as -little Russian in character as Puccini's 'Girl of the Golden West' -is American. But the advent of Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert in -Germany made a deep impression upon the music-loving Russians. The -men upon whom the romantic German music made the strongest impression -were Glinka and Dargomijsky, both inclined toward romantic ideals and -themes. Their first striking move was to rebel against the Italian -influences. 'Russia, like Germany, shall have its own music independent -of all academic schools and foreign flavors, and it shall be a music -of the masses. Music is more vigorous and more individual when it is -national. We like individuality in life and literature, as in all arts -and politics. Why should the world not cling more to the racial than to -the cosmopolitan ideal? The tendency of Italian music is cosmopolitan. -I believe that the tempo of music must correspond to the tempo of life. -Our duty is to speak for all the nation.' Thus Glinka wrote at the -critical moment. - - - II - -Naturally Glinka's first attempts were ridiculed by contemporary salon -critics and concert habitués, who looked at him as a 'moujik-maniac' -and naïve dilettante. His attempt at something truly national in -character was considered plebeian and undignified for a nobleman. But, -encouraged by Shukovsky, the famous poet of that time and the tutor of -the heir-apparent, later Czar Alexander II, Glinka published in 1833 -the first volume of his songs and ballads, based purely on themes of -folk-songs. As he was merely a functionary of the Ministry of Finance, -without any systematic musical training and had no professional -prestige, his work was ignored by the press, while society merely made -fun of him and his songs. It was evident that he could not get any -hearing in this way. - -Shukovsky, whose apartment at the palace was a rendezvous of artists -and reformers of that time, suggested to Glinka that he compose an -opera out of the rich material in his unpublished ballads, songs, and -instrumental sketches, and he on his part would take care that it -should be produced on the imperial stage. Shukovsky even outlined a -libretto on an historical subject similar to that used by Cavos and -suggested to name it 'A Death for the Czar.' Baron Rosen, the poetic -private secretary of the Czarevitch, wrote the libretto under the -supervision of Shukovsky and Glinka named it 'A Life for the Czar.' -This was the first distinctly national Russian opera that stands -apart from the Italian and German style. Instead of effective airs -and elaborate orchestration Glinka emphasized the use of choruses and -spectacular scenic methods, which are more natural to Russian life than -the former. When the opera was produced in 1837 for the first time in -St. Petersburg the people went wild about it and the young composer was -hailed as a great æsthetic reformer. The czar appointed him to act as -a conductor of the court choir, the famous _pridvornaya kapella_. The -phenomenal success embittered the professional musicians of Russia and -they began to fight the composer with redoubled vigor. - -Fortunately the czar, and especially Shukovsky, were on the side of -Glinka, so that all the intrigues of his enemies failed. Meanwhile he -had composed several songs and a large number of ballads and orchestral -pieces, of which _Kamarinskaya_ and the 'Spanish Overture' are the most -known. Glinka's songs and instrumental pieces are full of melody and -color, and they are still sung and played in Russia, but the best he -has created are his two operas. In 1842 he finished his second opera, -'Russlan and Liudmilla,' which, though more poetic and melodious -than 'A Life for the Czar', failed to arouse the enthusiasm which had -greeted his first opera. The reason for that may have been that it was -distinctly democratic and not historical, and historical pieces were a -fad of that time. - -Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka was born in 1804, in the province of -Smolensk, and his father, a wealthy nobleman, sent him at the age of -thirteen to be educated in an aristocratic college in St. Petersburg. -The young man was intended for the civil service of the government, -but he loved music so passionately that he neglected his other studies -and took lessons in piano and the theory of composition from various -teachers of the capital until he was about to be expelled from the -school. Graduated in 1824, he tried to get a position in the treasury -department, but, failing in this, continued to study music till he -secured it. Beethoven, Weber, and Schubert made a lasting impression -upon his mind and he never ceased to worship them, though he never -imitated them. Byron, Goethe, and Pushkin were the poets that inspired -him most of all, and he used to say if he could be in his native music -what those men had been in their native poetry he would die a happy man. - -With all his lack of technical skill, Glinka remains the founder of -the nationalistic school of music of his native land. In spite of his -many shortcomings he is natural and superior to the opera composers -of his time in Italy and Germany. As all Russians have inborn love of -song and as that is expressed in manifold ways in their actual life -more than in the life of any other nation, Glinka's main idea was to -found the Russian opera on combined passages of realistic musical life, -giving them a dramatic character. To emphasize this he made use of -picturesque stage glitter and spectacular scenic effects. This betrays -itself forcibly in the vivid colors that outline the semi-Oriental -architecture of a cathedral, palace, public building or cottage, or in -the picturesque costumes for marriage, for burial and for the various -other social and official ceremonies characteristic of Russia. - -In his private life Glinka was just as unfortunate as Tschaikowsky. The -girl he had begun to love passionately married a man of more promising -social career. He married a woman whom he did not love and they were -divorced after some scandal and difficulty. Then the woman whom he had -first loved and who was married to a prominent army officer changed her -mind and eloped with Glinka. In order to avoid a public scandal the -czar forced the composer to relinquish the woman of his choice. Glinka -obeyed and fell into a mood of melancholy which undermined his health -little by little until he died in Berlin in 1857. But, strange to say, -the private life of Glinka did not affect his compositions, for there -is nothing extremely melancholy or sentimentally sad in his music. An -air of sentimental romanticism emanates from his numerous ballads, -songs, and instrumental works. Like the rest of his contemporaries he -is lyric, full of color and sentiment in his minor works. One and all -are distinctly national. - -Together with Glinka, Dargomijsky undertook to carry the idea of -nationalism in music into practice, in spite of all the objections of -contemporaries. They met frequently and became close friends. Their -aspirations were the same, though Glinka was socially prominent by -reason of his official position, and Dargomijsky was a mere clerk in -the treasury department and composed chiefly for his own pleasure. -It was much more difficult for him than for Glinka to obtain social -recognition, though the majority of his works are far more national -and artistic than Glinka's. His songs stand close to the heart of the -_moujik_. 'Glinka is an artist of the nobility, I am of the peasants,' -was the way Dargomijsky defined the difference between Glinka and -himself. - -Born on February 2, 1813, in the province of Tula, Alexander -Sergeyevitch Dargomijsky was the son of a postal official, who lost his -position and property in Moscow when Napoleon occupied that city. The -boy grew up in great poverty and the only education he received was -that given by his parents. At the age of twenty he made a trip to St. -Petersburg and managed to get the position of clerk in the treasury -department. Here he continued his studies in music, which had been -near his heart since early childhood. After a few years of strenuous -work he realized that it was more important for him to collect and -study folk-music than to acquire the technique and theory of the art of -music, and with this in view he undertook excursions to the villages -during the summer vacation, collecting folk-songs, attending festivals -and social ceremonies of the peasants. In this way he stored up a huge -material and knowledge for his individual work. His first attempt was a -series of songs and ballads. In 1842 Dargomijsky resigned his official -position to devote his time exclusively to music. His first opera, -'Esmeralda,' had a great success in Moscow and gave him some prestige -and courage to undertake the composition of his second opera, 'The -Triumph of Bacchus,' which, however, was a failure. - -Dargomijsky's masterpiece is and remains his opera _Russalka_ ('The -Nymph'), which is composed to a libretto based upon a poem of Pushkin. -It takes a listener to the picturesque and romantic banks of the -Dnieper River, where the heroine, Natasha, the daughter of a miller, is -deserted by a princely lover. In despair she flings herself into the -river and is at once surrounded by a throng of the _russalkas_--the -nymphs, with whom Russian imagination has populated every brook, lake, -and river. She herself becomes a nymph and eventually succeeds in -enticing her false lover to her arms beneath the water. - -Dargomijsky's last opera, 'The Marble Guest,' for the libretto of which -he used the poetic drama of Pushkin, based on the legend of Don Juan, -was produced only after his death in 1872. It differs from his previous -operas by the predominance of recitative, concerted pieces being almost -banished. Like Glinka, he was not over-prolific in his compositions. -Besides the four operas he wrote only five or six orchestral pieces, -some thirty songs and ballads and a few dances. Tschaikowsky complained -bitterly that he was too lazy, although he admitted that Dargomijsky -was greatly hampered by lack of systematic musical education. - -Like Glinka, Dargomijsky was unhappy in his private life. The woman -whom he loved so deeply was the wife of another man, and the one who -loved him found no response on his part. He was relieved of his worries -for daily bread after his _Russalka_ made a success on the stage. -His apartment was the real rendezvous of the group of young Russian -nationalistic composers who surpassed him by far in their works, such -as Borodine, Moussorgsky, Balakireff, César Cui, Rimsky-Korsakoff, and -Seroff. Dargomijsky died in 1869. - - - III - -At the same time that the Balakireff group of Russian nationalists -began its work in St. Petersburg a romantic temple was founded -by Rubinstein. Among the masters of Russian music he occupies an -interesting place, being, as it were, a link between the lyric -Oriental and the nationalistic Slav. In many ways he was a phenomenal -figure. Though he laid the corner-stone of the modern Russian musical -pedagogic system and was a dominant authority of his time, he never -caught the true national spirit of Russia and by no means all his -talented pupils became his followers. He died a man disappointed in -his ideals and ambitions. 'All I care about after my death is that men -shall remember me by this conservatory; let them say, this was Anton -Rubinstein's work,' he said, pointing to the Imperial Conservatory in -St. Petersburg,[8] of which he had been not only the founder but the -director for many years. - -During all his influential life Rubinstein was bitterly opposed to -the Russian nationalistic school of music, at the head of which -stood Balakireff, Moussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakoff. He referred to -them as to dabblers and eccentric amateurs. Even toward his pupil, -Tschaikowsky, he assumed a condescending attitude. His veneration of -the classics was almost fanatical. In the genius of his contemporaries -he had no faith. He truly believed that music ended with Chopin. Even -Wagner and Liszt were small figures in his eyes. To the realistic style -initiated by Berlioz and the music dramas of Wagner he was indifferent. -His aspirations were for the highest type of pure music, but he lacked -the ability to transform his own ideals into something real. Lyric -romanticism was all he cared for. The slightest innovation in form, -all attempts at realism in music, upset his æsthetic measuring scale. -But, despite his deficiencies and faults, he deserves more credit from -posterity than it seems willing to accede to him. Saint-Saëns has said: -I have heard Rubinstein's music reproached for its structure, its large -plan, its vast stretches, its carelessness in detail. The public taste -to-day calls for complications without end, arabesques, and incessant -modulations; but this is a fashion and nothing more. It seems to me -that his fruitfulness, grand character and personality suffice to class -Rubinstein among the greatest musicians of all times.' - -The outspoken romanticism of Rubinstein's works is in a sense akin to -the spirit of Byron's poems. There is a passionate sweetness in -his melodies that one finds rarely in composers of his type. But in -giving overmuch attention to objective form, he often missed subjective -warmth, especially in his operas and his larger instrumental works. He -achieved the greatest success in his songs of Oriental character, from -which there breathes the spirit of a heavy tropic night. But in these -his best moments he remains exotic and inexplicable to our Occidental -ears. - - [Illustration] - - Russian Romanticists: - - Mikhail Glinka Alexander Dargomijsky - Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky Anton Rubinstein - -Romantic as his music was the course of Rubinstein's life. He himself, -according to Rimsky-Korsakoff, blamed the romantic incidents of his -life for his shortcomings. 'I was spoiled by the flattery of high -society, which I received during my first concert tour as a boy of -thirteen,' Rubinstein told his brother composer. 'It made me conceited -and fanatical. The misery that I endured later wasted the best creative -years of my life, and the sudden success which followed my acquaintance -with the Grand Duchess Helen [the sister of the Czar, who loved him] -killed my aspirations for the higher work by making me unexpectedly -the dictator of Russian musical education. If I had worked up step by -step by my own efforts I would have reached the goal of my ambition.' -At any rate the unusual career of Rubinstein explains the psychological -side of his achievements and disappointments. Born in 1829 in the -village of Vichvatinetz, in the Province of Podolia, in southwestern -Russia, he began to study the piano at the age of eight in Moscow. -His teacher, Alexander Villoing, at once realized that his pupil was -a genius and for five years spent his best efforts upon him. When -the boy was thirteen his teacher undertook a concert tour with him, -first through Russia, later abroad. Rubinstein was a pianistic marvel -and was received everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm. Chopin and -Liszt declared him a 'wonder child.' After three years of touring he -settled in Paris, lived in princely style and spent all the money he -had earned. Feeling the pinch of poverty, he went to Vienna to secure -the influence of Liszt, who advised him to go to Berlin and gave -him letters of introduction. There he found the city in a state of -revolution and abandoned by society. In despair and almost starving, -Rubinstein pushed on to St. Petersburg, where the once celebrated -prodigy began to earn his living with piano lessons at fifty cents -until by a mere chance he secured the position of pianist in the court -choir. At this time he composed his first opera, _Dimitry Donskoi_, -which was performed with some success. - -Rubinstein now undertook another trip to Liszt, at Weimar, and there he -met the Grand Duchess Helen, who at once invited the young pianist to -be her guest in Italy. This was the beginning of his career. In 1856 -Rubinstein composed some of his songs and piano pieces and soon after -this the Imperial Conservatory of Music was founded in St. Petersburg -and Moscow with the Grand Duchess as patroness. In 1862 Rubinstein -became the director of the conservatory in St. Petersburg and held the -position until 1867 and later from 1887 to 1891. In 1865 he married -and made his residence at Peterhof, where he lived in close touch with -Russian society. During this period of power and comfort Rubinstein -composed his sonatas, symphonies, operas, and piano pieces, few of -which are ever performed nowadays. - -Rubinstein's orchestral and operatic works occupy a place between -Schumann and Meyerbeer. His most popular orchestral compositions are -'Faust,' 'Ivan IV,' 'Don Quixote,' and his Second Symphony, 'Ocean.' -The other five symphonies are rather stately, cold tone pictures -without any definite foundation. More known, and even frequently -performed, are his chamber music pieces, the 'cello sonata in D major, -and the trio in B major. Of his operas and oratorios only one work, -'The Demon,' has survived in the classic Russian répertoire. The rest -are long forgotten. Of longer life than Rubinstein's orchestral and -operatic compositions are his piano pieces, especially his barcarolles, -preludes, études, and dances. All of his larger piano pieces are, -like his orchestral works, prolix, diffuse and full of unassimilated -ideas. Through all his compositions there blows a breath of Oriental -romanticism, something that reminds one of the 'Thousand and One -Nights.' A peculiar sweetness and brilliancy of harmony distinguish -his style, but these particular qualities make Rubinstein unpopular -in our realistic age. It is true that his piano pieces have little -that is individual, but they are graceful and aristocratic. To an ear -attuned to modern impressionism they are nothing but graceful, warmly -colored salon pieces devoid of arresting features. But whatever may -be the fate of Rubinstein's instrumental music, he was a composer of -excellent songs, which will be sung as long as man lives. They are the -very crown of his creations. From among his numerous ballads and songs -'The Asra,' 'The Dream,' 'Night,' etc., are especially enchanting. In -them he stands unmatched by any composer of his time. The number of -his works surpasses one hundred; there are ten string quartets, three -quintets, five concertos, three sonatas for violin and piano, two for -'cello and piano, two for violin and orchestra. According to Russian -critical opinion he was an imitator of Mendelssohn and Schumann. But -the fact is he suffered from the overwhelming influence of the German -classics, whom he did not assimilate thoroughly, and from being one of -the greatest of piano virtuosi of his age, which absorbed most of his -attention and time. It is not unnatural that a great executive artist -should acquire the forms of those composers whose works he performs -most. In following these models Rubinstein simply demonstrated a -psychological rule. - -Rubinstein's main importance in Russian music resides in the fact -that he laid the foundation of a nation-wide musical education, so -that now the national and local governments are back of a serious -æsthetic culture. Besides having been twice a director of the Imperial -Conservatory of Music in St. Petersburg, he was from time to time a -director of the Imperial Musical Society and conductor of the St. -Petersburg symphony concerts. He died in 1894 in Peterhof and is buried -in the graveyard of Alexandro-Nevsky monastery, near to his rivals, -Balakireff, Borodine, and Moussorgsky. - - - IV - -An artist of the same school as Rubinstein, yet entirely different in -works and spirit, was Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky. Rubinstein was a -creative virtuoso, Tschaikowsky was a creative genius. They took the -same general direction in form and themes, but otherwise a wide abyss -separated these two unique spirits of Russian music. Tschaikowsky -had Rubinstein's passion and technical skill, the same lyric style, -and, like him, adhered to West European form, but in his essentials -he remains a Russian of the most classic tendencies; his language is -that of an emotional Slav. His music glows with the peculiar fire that -burned in his soul; rapture and agony, gloom and gayety seem in a -perpetual struggle for expression. With all its nationalistic riches -there is nothing in Tschaikowsky's tonal structures that resembles -those of his contemporaries. He is a romantic poet of classic pattern, -yet wholly a Russian. He is altogether introspective, sentimentally -subjective, and ecclesiastically fanatic. With all his Slavic pathos -and subjective vigor Tschaikowsky builds his tone-temples in Gothic -style, which he never leaves. That is very largely the reason why his -music is so phenomenally popular abroad, while his contemporaries have, -despite their originality and greatness, remained in his shadow. - -Tschaikowsky's compositions are as strange as his inner self. His -likening his artistic expressions to a violent contest between a -beast and a god no doubt had its psychological reason. That there is -much mystery in his life and its relation to his art is apparent from -the following passage with which Kashkin, his biographer, closes his -book,[9] 'I have finished my reminiscences. Of course, they might be -supplemented by accounts of a few more events, but I shall add nothing -at present, and perhaps I shall never do so. One document I shall leave -in a sealed packet, and if thirty years hence it still has interest for -the world the seal may be broken; this packet I shall leave in the care -of Moscow University. It will contain the history of one episode in -Tschaikowsky's life upon which I have barely touched in my book.' - -That seal is still unbroken. All we can guess of the nature of the -secret is that it involves a tragedy of romantic character. We shall -get a closer idea of the great composer when we consider a few -characteristic episodes of his private life in connection with his -career as a musician. Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky was born in 1840, -in the province of Viatka, where his father was the general manager -of Kamsko-Botkin's Mills. He showed already in his early youth a -great liking for music and poetry, but the wish of his parents was -that he should make his career as an official of the government. With -this in view he was educated in the aristocratic law school in St. -Petersburg. Graduated in 1859, he became an officer in the department -of the Ministry of Justice. While he was a student in the law school -he kept up his studies of music by taking lessons from F. D. Becker -and K. I. Karel and did not give them up even when he became an -active functionary with less leisure than before. The desire for a -thorough musical education gave him no peace until he entered the newly -founded Conservatory of Music, where Rubinstein and Zarembi became -his teachers. Though regularly the course was longer, Tschaikowsky -was graduated after three years of study, in 1866, and at once was -invited to become a professor of harmony in the Imperial Conservatory -of Music in Moscow. During the first years of his life as a teacher -Tschaikowsky composed some smaller instrumental and vocal pieces, which -were performed with marked success, partly by his pupils, partly by -touring musical artists. His first large compositions were the First -Symphony, which he composed in 1868, and his opera _Voyevoda_, which he -wrote a year later. Both these compositions were less successful than -his earlier ones. Nevertheless the disappointment did not discourage -the young composer, for he proceeded to compose new operas, 'Undine,' -_Opritchnik_, and 'Vakula the Smith,' besides some music for orchestra. -In 1873 he composed the ballet 'Snow Maiden,' and then followed in -succession his Second, Third, and Fourth Symphonies. - -Assured of a pension of three thousand rubles ($1,500) a year and an -extra income from the royalty of his published music, Tschaikowsky -resigned his teaching post and devoted all his time to composition. -His Fourth Symphony had to some extent satisfied his ambition as a -symphonic composer, since it had been received enthusiastically by the -public in both Moscow and St. Petersburg; he now threw all his efforts -into opera. In 1878 he finished his _Evgheny Onegin_, his greatest -opera, besides his two ballets. - -In spite of his stormy private life and various romantic conflicts -Tschaikowsky was a prolific worker. Besides the above-mentioned operas -he wrote six symphonies, of which the last two have gained world-wide -fame, three ballets, the overtures 'Romeo and Juliet,' 'The Tempest,' -'Hamlet,' and '1812,' the 'Italian Caprice,' and the symphonic -poem 'Manfred.' Besides these he wrote two concertos for piano and -orchestra, one concerto for violin, three quartets, one trio, over a -hundred songs, some thirty smaller instrumental pieces and a series -of excellent church music. They vary in their character and quality. -Some of them are truly great and majestic, while others are of mediocre -merit. _Opritchnik_, _Mazeppa_, _Tcharodeiki_, and _Jeanne d'Arc_ are -dramatic operas, while _Evgheny Onegin_, _Pique Dame_, and _Yolanta_ -are of outspoken lyric type. _Tscherevitschki_ and 'Vakula the Smith' -are his two comic operas. - -Though Tschaikowsky's ambition was to excel in opera, his symphonic -compositions represent the best he has written, especially his Fourth, -Fifth, and Sixth Symphonies, 'The Tempest,' the _Marche Slav_, -'Manfred,' his piano concerto in B-flat minor, and his three ballets, -'Snow Maiden,' 'Sleeping Beauty,' and 'Swan Lake.' He is a perfect -master of counterpoint and graceful melodies. How well he mastered his -technique is proven by the careful modelling of his themes and figures. -But in opera his grasp is behind those of his rivals. There is too much -of the West European polish and sentimentality, and too little of the -elemental vigor and grandeur of a Russian dramatist. - -To the period of Tschaikowsky's last years as a teacher in Moscow, -especially from 1875 to 1885, belong the mysterious romantic troubles -which presumably became the foundation of his creative despair, the -pessimism which has made him the Schopenhauer of sound. Here may lie -the secret of all the turbulent emotionalism from which emanated those -tragic chords, all the wild musical images, that incessant melancholy -strain which characterize his works. In 1877 he married Antony -Ivanovna Millukova, but their married life was of short duration. There -are many strange stories as to his despair on account of an unhappy -love. Tschaikowsky was an affectionate friend of a Mme. von Meck, with -whom he was in perpetual correspondence and who gave him material aid -in carrying out his artistic ambitions, though he had never met her. -Why he did not is a mystery. It is said that he contemplated suicide -upon many occasions. He told his friend Kashkin that twice he had gone -up to his knees in the Moscow River with the idea of drowning himself, -but that the effect of the cold water sobered him. When his wildest -emotions seized him he would rush out and sit in the snow, if it was -winter, or stand in the river until numb with the cold. This cured him -temporarily, but he insisted that he remained a soul-sick man. 'I am -putting all my virtue and wickedness, passion and agony into the piece -I am writing,' he wrote to a friend while composing his _Symphonie -Pathétique_. - -In 1890 Tschaikowsky celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his -musical activity and was honored with the degree of Doctor of Music -by Cambridge University. He made a tour of America, of which he spoke -in high terms as a country of new beauties and new life. One of his -remarks is characteristic. 'The rush and roar of that wild freedom -of America still haunts me. It is like fifty orchestras combined. -Although you do not see any Indians running about the streets of New -York, yet their spirit has put a stamp on its whole life. It is in the -everlasting activity and the stoic attitude toward what we call fate.' - -One of the peculiar traits of Tschaikowsky was his indifference to -his creations after they had been produced. He even disliked to hear -them and always found fault with his early compositions, especially -with his operas; yet he did not know how he could have improved them. -Exceptions, however, were his Fourth and Sixth Symphonies, his 'Eugen -Onegin,' _Sérénade Mélancholique_, his Concerto in D, and a few other -compositions. While working upon his favorite opera he was also engaged -upon his Fourth Symphony. When 'Eugen Onegin' was first performed in -Moscow, Tschaikowsky whispered to Rubinstein, who was next to him in -the audience: 'This and the Fourth Symphony are the decisive works of -my career. If they fail I am a failure.' - -Tschaikowsky died suddenly, October 25, 1893, in St. Petersburg--of -cholera, as it was said officially. But according to men who knew him -intimately he poisoned himself. This, we may be sure, is one of the -secrets sealed by Kashkin. - -Tschaikowsky was one of the greatest masters of the orchestra the -world has seen. In effects of striking brilliance and of sombreness -he is equally successful, and it is no doubt in a great measure on -account of this Slavic splendor that his orchestral works have won -the public. Yet he is far more than a colorist. His mastery over -orchestral polyphony is supreme. There is always movement in his music, -a rising and falling of all the parts, a complicated interweaving, -never with the loss of sonority and richness. He is a great harmonist -as well and an irresistible melodist. His rhythms are full of life, -whether they are march, waltz or barbarous wild dances. The movement -in five-four time in the Sixth Symphony is in itself a masterpiece and -has stimulated countless efforts in the directions to which it pointed. -It must be admitted that melody, harmony, and rhythm, all bear the -stamp of the Slavic temperament, and, in so far as they are Slavic or -racial, they are vigorous and healthy; but often Tschaikowsky becomes -morbidly subjective, is obviously not master of his mood, but slave -to it. Hence, after frequent hearings, there comes a weight upon the -listener, an intangible oppression which he would be glad to avoid, -but which cannot be shaken off. One detects the line of the individual -and forgets the splendor of the race. - -Yet through Tschaikowsky the glories of Russian music were revealed to -the general public. He occupies a double position, as a Russian and -as a strange individuality, whose influence has been pronounced upon -modern music. The Russian composers unquestionably hold a conspicuous -place among those composers who have been specially gifted to hear -new possibilities of orchestral sound and to add to the splendor of -orchestral music. Many of them denied Wagner. The question of how -far the peculiar powers of the orchestra have been developed by them -independently of Wagner, with results in many ways similar, may become -the source of much speculation. It is quite possible that, thanks -to their own racial sensitiveness, they have devised a brilliant -orchestration similar but unrelated to Wagner. - - I. N. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[8] Established by the Imperial Musical Society in 1862. - -[9] Kashkin: 'Life of Tschaikowsky' (in Russian). - - - - - CHAPTER III - THE MUSIC OF MODERN SCANDINAVIA - - The Rise of national schools in the nineteenth century--Growth - of national expression in Scandinavian lands--Music in modern - Denmark--Sweden and her Music--The Norwegian composers; Edvard - Grieg--Sinding and other Norwegians--The Finnish Renaissance: - Sibelius and others. - - -The most striking characteristic of the music of the nineteenth century -has doubtless been its astonishing enrichment in technical means. Its -next most striking characteristic is easily its growth in national -expression. National art-music in the modern sense was almost unknown -before the nineteenth century. The nearest thing to it was a 'Turkish -march' in a Mozart operetta or sonata, or an 'allemand' or 'schottisch' -in a French suite. The national differences in eighteenth century music -were differences of school, not of nationality. It is true that Italian -music usually tended to lyricism, French to dexterity of form, and -German to technical solidity; it is true further that these qualities -corresponded in a rough way to the characteristics of the respective -nations. But all three used one and the same musical system; they -differed not so much in their music as in the way they treated their -music. - -In the nineteenth century the national feeling found expression as -it never had before. The causes of this were numerous, but the most -important were two of a political nature: First, the spread of the -principles of the French Revolution made democracy a far more general -fact than it had ever been before; political authority and moral -influence shifted more and more from the rulers to the people and -the character of the ordinary men and women became more and more -the character of the nation. Second, the resistance called forth -by Napoleon's wars of aggression aroused national consciousness as -it had never been aroused before. Napoleon, with a solid national -consciousness behind him, was invincible until he found a national -consciousness opposed to him--in Spain in 1809, in Russia in 1812, and -in Germany in 1813. Only the sense of nationality had been able to -preserve nations; and it was the sense of nationality that thereafter -continued to maintain them. - -To these two political causes we may perhaps add a third cause--one -of a technical-musical character. With the early Beethoven the old -classical system of music had reached its apogee. When this was once -complete and firmly implanted in people's consciousness contrasting -sorts of music could be clearly apperceived. Once the logical course -of classical development was finished, men's minds were free to look -elsewhere for beauties of another sort. So when a political interest -in the common people led men to investigate the people's folk-songs, -musical consciousness was at the same time prepared to appreciate the -striking differences between art-music and folk-music. - -Now all the national music of the nineteenth century is based in a very -real sense on the folk-music of the people. The music of the eighteenth -century could not be truly national, because it was supported chiefly -by the aristocracy, and an art will inevitably tend to express the -character of the people who pay its bills. The differences between the -aristocracy of one nation and that of another are largely superficial. -The court of Louis XV was distinguished from that of Frederick the -Great chiefly by the cut of the courtiers' clothes. But the France of -1813 was distinguished from the Germany of 1813 by the mould of the -national soul. And the national soul can be seen very imperfectly in -the official art of a nation; it must be sought for in the popular -art--in the myths, the fairy tales, the ballads, and the folk-songs. So -when the newly awakened national consciousness began to demand musical -expression, it inevitably sought its materials in the music of the -people. - - - I - -In the eighteenth century this popular music was thought too crude to -be of artistic value. The snobbishness of political life was reflected -in the prevailing attitude toward art. Because the people's melodies -were different from the accepted music they were held to be wrong. Or -rather, one may say that cultivated people hardly dreamed of their -existence. Gradually, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, -scholars became aware of the value of popular art. Herder was the first -important man to discover it in Germany, and he passed his appreciation -of it on to Goethe. By the opening of the nineteenth century the -appreciation of folk-art was well under way. Collections of folk-songs -and folk-poetry were appearing, and their high artistic value was being -recognized. With the first decade of the century the impulse reached -the Scandinavian lands, and their national existence in art began. - -These countries had of course been free from the immediate turmoil of -the Napoleonic wars. They had suffered, as all Europe had suffered, -but they had not been obliged to defend their nationality with their -blood. Denmark and Norway-Sweden had been for centuries substantially -independent, and Finland, which had been in loose subjugation -alternately to Sweden and Russia, was practically independent for some -time until a political pact between Napoleon and the Czar Alexander -made her a grand duchy of Russia; but even as a part of the Russian -Empire she suffered no violation of her national individuality -until late in the nineteenth century. Political independence and -geographical isolation had left the northern nations somewhat turgid -and provincial. Their artistic life had been largely borrowed. The -various courts had their choirs and kapellmeisters, usually imported -from Germany. Native composers were infrequent; composition was largely -in the hands of second-rate musicians from Germany who had migrated -that they might be larger fish in a smaller puddle. And the composition -was, of course, entirely in the foreign style. Stockholm and Copenhagen -had their opera in the latter half of the eighteenth century, but -the works performed were chiefly French and Italian. These imported -works set the standard for most of the native musical composition. -Toward the end of the eighteenth century German influence began to -predominate, especially in Denmark, where the German _Singspiel_ took -root and enjoyed a long and prosperous career. The German influence -was much more proper to the Scandinavian lands than that of France -or Italy, but it had not the slightest relation to a national art. -Danish stories occasionally appeared in the subject matter, but the -music was substantially that of Reichardt and Zelter in Germany. -In Sweden the course of events was the same. Occasionally national -subject matter appeared in operatic librettos, but in the music never. -Sweden, which up to the beginning of the nineteenth century continued -to be a force in European political affairs, had naturally enjoyed a -considerable degree of intercourse with other nations, and was all -the more influenced by them in her art. Norway and Finland, however, -were completely isolated, and received their musical ministrations -not at second hand but at third. In all these countries there was a -considerable degree of musical life (choirs, orchestras, and dramatic -works), but this was almost wholly confined to the large cities. Yet -all these nations had the possibilities of a rich artistic life--in -national traditions, in folk-song, and in a common sensitiveness of the -racial soul. All four nations are distinctly musical, and in Denmark -and Finland especially the solo or four-part song was cultivated -lovingly in the home and in the smaller communities. - -From their isolation and provincialism the Scandinavian countries were -awakened, not by direct, but by reflex impulse. The vigorous national -life of other European lands gradually stimulated a sympathetic -movement in the two Scandinavian peninsulas. Denmark saw its first good -collection of folk-songs in 1812-14, Sweden in 1814-16. In 1842 came A. -P. Berggreen's famous collection of Danish songs, and about the same -time the 540 Norse folk-songs and dances gathered and edited by Ludwig -Lindeman. Doubtless this interest had some political significance. -But far more important than these was the appearance in 1835 of the -first portion of the _Kalevala_, the Finnish national epic, which has -since taken its place beside the Iliad and the _Nibelungenlied_ as -one of the greatest epics of all time. This remarkable poem seems to -have been genuinely popular in origin. It remained in the mouths and -hearts of the people throughout the centuries, almost unknown to the -scholars. A Finnish physician, Elias Lönnrot, made it his life work to -collect and piece together the fragments of the great poem. In 1835 -he published thirty-five runes, and in 1849 a new edition containing -fifty--all taken down directly from the peasants' lips. This work had -a decided political significance. It intensified and solidified the -national consciousness, tending to counterbalance the influence of the -Swedish language, which until then had been unquestionedly that of the -cultivated classes; later it formed a buffer to the Russian language -which the Czar attempted to force upon the Finns by imperial edict. It -served to arouse the national feeling to such a pitch that Finland has -in recent years been the chief thorn in the Czar's side. And this fact, -as we shall see, helped to give the Finnish music of the last three -decades its intense national character. - -The distinctly national movement in Scandinavian countries began, as we -have said, in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Its growth -thereafter was steady and uninterrupted and was aided by the generous -spread of choral and symphonic music. In the first stage the music -written was based chiefly on German models, but it was written more -and more by native Scandinavians. In the second stage (roughly the -second third of the century) the native composers wrote music that was -based on the national folk-music, but timidly and vaguely. In the third -stage, the folk-tunes were frankly utilized, the national scales and -rhythms were deliberately and continuously called into service, and the -whole musical output given a character homogeneously and distinctively -national. It was in this stage that the Scandinavian music became -known to the world at large. Grieg, a man of the highest talent, -possibly of genius, made himself one of the best loved composers of the -nineteenth century, and awakened a widespread taste for the exotic. -Together with Tschaikowsky the Russian he made nationalism in music a -world-wide triumph. After his success it was no longer counted against -a composer that he spoke in a strange tongue. The very strangeness -of the tongue became a source of interest; and if there was added -thereto a strong and beautiful musical message the new composer usually -had easy sailing. The outward success of Grieg doubtless stimulated -musical endeavor in Scandinavian lands, and enabled the world at large -to become familiar with many minor talents whose reputations could -otherwise not have passed beyond their national borders. Finally, -there has arisen in Finland the greatest and most individual of all -Scandinavian composers, and one of the most powerful writers of music -in the modern world--Jean Sibelius. In him the most intense nationalism -speaks with a universal voice. - -The folk-music which made this Scandinavian nationalism possible is -rich and extensive. Apparently it is of rather recent growth, but this -fact is offset by the isolation of the countries in which it developed. -It is of pure Germanic stock (with the exception of certain Eastern -influences in the music of Finland). Yet it has a marked individuality, -a perfume of its own. This is the more remarkable as we discover -that in external qualities it exhibits only slight differences from -the German folk-song. The individuality is not obvious, as with the -Russian or Hungarian folk-music, but subtly resident in a multitude -of details which escape analysis. Not only is the Scandinavian music -clearly distinct from that of the other Germanic lands, but the music -of each of the four countries is subtly distinguished from that of all -the others. The Danish is most like the ordinary German folk-song with -which we are familiar. It is not rich in extent or variety of mood. Its -chief qualities are a discreet playfulness and a gentle melancholy. In -formal structure it is good but not distinguished. It is predominantly -vocal; in old and characteristic dances Denmark is lacking. The -Swedish folk-music is in every way richer. It does not attain to the -extremes of animal and spiritual expression, like the Russian, but -within its fairly broad limits it can show every variety of feeling. -Even in its liveliest moments it reveals something of the predominant -northern melancholy, but the dances, which are numerous and spirited, -reveal a buoyant health. The thin veil of melancholy which has been -so often noticed is not nearly so prominent as a certain refined -sensuality. Sweden, more than any of the other Scandinavian lands, has -known periods of cosmopolitan luxury. She has become a citizen of the -world, with something of the man-of-the-world's self-indulgence and -self-consciousness. So her folk-songs frequently reveal an exquisite -sense of form which seems French rather than Germanic. - -The Norse folk-song naturally shows a close relationship with that -of Sweden, but in every point of difference it tends straight away -from the German. Norway has for centuries been a primitive country in -its material conditions; a country of tiny villages, of valleys for -months isolated one from the other; a country of pioneer virtues and -individualistic values. Large cities are few; the ordinary machinery -of civilization is even yet limited. The economic activities are still -in great measure primitive, and much of the work is out of doors, as -in shipping, fishing and pasturing. The scenery is among the grandest -in the world. So it is not surprising that the Norwegian folk-music is -vigorous and sometimes a little crude, and that it reveals an intense -feeling for nature. The people are deeply religious and filled with -the stern Protestant sense of a personal relation with God. The tender -and mystic aspects of the music are less easy to account for; many of -the songs are an intimate revelation of subtle mood, and others show -a tonal vagueness which in modern times is called 'impressionistic.' -More than the Swedish songs they are spontaneous and poetic. If they -reflect nature it is in her personal aspect. They show not so much the -Norwegian mountains as the fog which covers the mountains. They sing -not so much the old Vikings as the quiet people who have settled down -to fishing and trading when their wanderings are over. They reveal not -the face of nature, but her bosom on which lonely men may rest. - -The Finnish music is of a mixed stock. Primarily it is an adaptation -of the Swedish, and the greater number of Finnish songs are externally -of Swedish mould. But Lapland has also contributed her child-like -melodies. The true Finnish music, however, is that drawn from the -legendary sources of the original race. The melodies of the old runes -retain their primitive aspects, and are unlike those of any other -nation. They are doubtless the very melodies to which the _Kalevala_ -was originally sung. Externally monotonous and heavy, they reveal -strange beauties on closer examination. They are distinguished by many -repetitions of the same note, by irregular or ill-defined metre, and by -a long and sinuous melodic line. Another typical sort of melody is the -'horn-call,' developed from the original blasts of the hunting-horn. -The theme of the trio of the scherzo of Sibelius' second symphony -is typical of the rune melody. Finally the Russian influence may be -felt in many of the older Finnish tunes--in uncertain tonality and a -peculiar use of the minor. This mixture of musical forces is indicative -of the ethnological and social mixture which is the Finnish race. The -Finns are primarily a Mongolian people. From the Laplanders to the -north they received what that simple people had to give. For centuries -they were under the domination of Sweden; Swedish was the language -of their literature and their cultured conversation, and Swedish was -their official civilization. A considerable accession of Swedish -immigrants and infusion of Swedish blood left their affairs in the -control of Germanic influences. (It is on this account that the Finnish -is included in a chapter on Scandinavian music.) Finally, a nearness -to Russia and an intermittent subjugation to the Czardom brought into -their midst Russian influences which were assimilated flexibly but -incompletely. In the late nineteenth century Finland experienced a -renaissance of national feeling. The genuine Finnish language gained -the uppermost, and provided a rallying point for the resistance to -the Czar's attempted Russianization of his duchy. Finnish traditions -displaced those of the Vikings. And Finland began to stand forth as -an oriental nation with a heroic background. Therefore, though her -music developed largely out of Germanic materials, it has become, under -Sibelius (himself of Teutonic blood), a thing apart. - -The use of folk-music on the part of the Scandinavian composers seems -to have been less deliberate and conscious than in the case of the -'neo-Russian' nationalists.[10] In the earliest composers who can be -regarded as national it is scarcely to be noticed. For some years after -Danish music began to have a national character the actual presence -of folk-elements was to be detected only on close examination. Such -a careful writer as Mr. Finck indignantly denies that Grieg made -any deliberate use of folk-music. In his view the melodies of the -people are so inferior to those of Grieg that to suggest the latter's -indebtedness is something in the nature of blasphemy. Nevertheless, in -the process of nationalizing the northern music the patriotic composers -introduced the spirit and the technical materials of the folk-music -into conscious works of art. Just what the process was is hardly to -be known, even by the composers themselves. We know that Grieg was an -ardent nationalist and studied and admired the folk-songs. To what -extent he imitated or borrowed folk-melodies for his compositions is -not of first importance. Probably, with the best of the nationalists, -the process was one of saturating themselves in the music of their -native land and then composing personally, and from the heart. At all -events, it is certain that the influence of any folk-music, deeply -studied, is too pervasive for a sensitive composer to escape. - -Since the first third of the nineteenth century the Scandinavian -composers have been heavily influenced by the prevailing German musical -forces. German musicians were frequent visitors or sojourners in -Scandinavian cities, and the musicians of the northern lands sought -their education almost exclusively in Germany. Hence Scandinavian music -has reflected closely the changes of fashion that prevailed to the -south. Mendelssohn and Schumann (through the work of Gade) were the -first dominating influences. Chopin influenced their style of pianistic -writing, and Wagner and Liszt in due time influenced their harmonic -procedure. Music dramas were written quite in the Wagnerian style, and -a minor impulse toward programme music came from Berlioz and Liszt. -In the art of instrumentation Wagner and Strauss received instant -recognition and imitation--an imitation which soon became a schooling -and developed into a pronounced native art. Even Brahms had his share -in the work, primarily in the shorter piano pieces which have been so -distinctive a part of the Scandinavian musical output, and latterly in -the 'absolute' polyphonic work of Alfvén, Stenhammar and Norman. - -But though all these strands are distinctly discernible, that which -gives the Scandinavian tonal art a right to a separate existence is a -contribution of its own. In the larger and more ambitious forms the -Scandinavian composers have usually not been at their best or most -distinctive. It is the smaller forms--songs, piano pieces, orchestral -pictures, etc.--which have carried the music of the Northland -throughout Europe and America. In these we best see the distinguishing -Scandinavian traits. First there is an impressionism, a dexterity in -the creation of specific mood or atmosphere, which preceded the recent -craze for these qualities. The music of Grieg, simple as it seems to -us now, was in its time a sort of gospel of what could be done with -music on the intimate or pictorial sides. Vagueness, mystery, poetry -spoke to us out of this music of the north. Next there was a feeling -for nature, for pictorial values, for delineative music in its more -romantic terms, which had not been found in the more strenuous program -music of the Germans. The 'Sunrise' of Grieg's 'Peer Gynt Suite' -attuned many thousands of ears to the beauty of natural scenery as -depicted in music. Finally there was a feeling for tonal qualities -as such, which the modern French school has developed to an almost -unbelievable extent. The tone of the piano became an intimate part -of the poetry of northern piano pieces. Further, the school of Grieg -has shown an astonishing talent in the handling of orchestral color. -Brilliant and poetic instrumentation has been one of the chief glories -of the northern school. It was the romantic impulse that was behind -all the best work, and accordingly the formal element does not bulk -large in Scandinavian music. But there is often a wonderful finesse, -polish and dexterity which reveals an exquisite sense of structure and -workmanship, especially in the smaller forms. Vocal music, especially -before the opening of the twentieth century, flourished, and the songs -of certain northern composers have taken their place beside the best -beloved lyric works of Germany. Finally, there are brilliant exceptions -to the statement that the best northern work has been achieved in the -smaller forms; the concertos of Grieg, the symphonic pieces of Sinding, -and the symphonies and tone-poems of Sibelius, strike an epic note in -modern music. - - - II - -The early history of Danish music is that of any royal court of -post-Renaissance times. Foreign composers and performers were invited -to the capital, and when the lower classes had been unusually well -drained of their earnings history recorded a 'brilliant musical age.' -In the eighteenth century there was a royal opera, performing French -and Italian pieces. From time to time various choral or instrumental -societies were founded. In the conventional sense the musical life -of Copenhagen was flourishing. But in all this there was no trace of -national Danish music. - -The first composer who may be called truly national began working -after a thorough Germanizing of the country's musical taste had taken -place. This man was Johann Peter Emilius Hartmann (1805-1900). His -extensive work was hardly known outside the limits of his native -land. The few examples which were played in Germany were speedily -forgotten. But he gradually came to be recognized as the great national -composer of Denmark. Though a large part of his student years was -spent in his native land, he was at first under the influence of -the fashionable composers of the time, such as Marschner, Spontini, -Spohr and Auber. But, though not a student of Danish folk-songs, he -gradually came to feel the individuality of the national music, and -in 1832 made himself a national spokesman with his _melodrame_ 'The -Golden Horns,' to Oehlenschlager's text. His opera, 'Little Christine,' -to Andersen's story, performed in 1846, was thoroughly national and -popular in spirit. His output was astonishingly large and varied. -He wrote for nearly every established form, symphonies, overtures, -songs, choral pieces, religious and secular, sonatas as well as short -romantic pieces for the piano, works for organ and violin, ballets, -and picturesque orchestral poems. His nationalism does not appear -consistently in his work; he seems to have made it no creed; perhaps -he only imitated it from Weber and Chopin. But when he chose to work -with national materials he came nearer to the popular spirit than any -other composer of the time, barring the two or three great ones of -whom Weber is the type. His facility was great, his themes pregnant -and arresting. He revealed an energetic structural power, and together -with fine polyphonic ability a mastery of romantic suggestion in the -style of Mendelssohn. But it is chiefly by his native feeling for -the folk-style that he established himself as the first Scandinavian -nationalist in music. Grieg wrote of him: 'The dreams of our younger -generation of northern men were his from the time he reached maturity. -The best and deepest thoughts which moved a later generation of more or -less important spirits were spoken first in him, and found their first -echo in us.' - -But it was Niels W. Gade (1817-1890) who represented the Danish -school in the eyes of the outside world. This was due chiefly to his -strategic position as friend of Mendelssohn and, after Mendelssohn's -death, director of the Gewandhaus orchestra in Leipzig. At bottom -he was thoroughly a German of the conservative romantic school. His -excellence in the eyes of the time consisted in his ability at writing -Mendelssohn's style of music with almost Mendelssohn's charm and -finish. But he was also the Dane, and in subtle wise he managed to -impregnate his music with Danish musical feeling. His eight symphonies -had a high standing in his day, the first and last being typically -national in character, serving, in fact, as a sort of propaganda for -the national school that was to come. But Gade was more thoroughly -national in some of his choral ballads and dramatic cantatas, such as -'Calamus,' 'The Erlking's Daughter,' 'The Stream,' and others; and -especially in his orchestral suite, 'A Summer Day in the Country,' and -his suite for string orchestra, _Holbergiana_. His personality was not -so vigorous as that of Hartmann; his culture was more conservative and -classical; the shadow of Mendelssohn prevented the more aggressive -national utterance that might have been desired. But what he did he did -well, and his immense influence on the future of Scandinavian music was -established through his masterful fusing of the best German classic -manner of the time with popular national materials. - -Among the Danish composers of the same time we may mention Emil -Hartmann (1836-1898), son of the great Hartmann, prolific composer of -orchestral pieces, chamber music, and operas of professedly national -character; Peter A. Heise (1830-1870), composer of songs to some of the -best national lyric poetry of the time; and August Winding (1835-1899), -composer of piano, orchestral and chamber music in which national color -and folk humor were discreetly brought to the foreground. - -In recent times the Danish school, of the four Scandinavian branches, -has been least national in intent. Foreign gods have exercised their -sway in one fashion or another. Nor can we say that the absolute value -of the more recent works is distinguished. Among the half dozen Danish -composers who have attained to eminence there is none who can be -considered the equal of either Gade or Hartmann in personal ability. -Much of the best efforts of the younger men has gone to larger forms, -in which either their creative inspiration or their formal mastery -has proved insufficient. Among them there are four of marked ability: -August Enna, in opera; Asger Hamerik, in symphonic music; P. E. -Lange-Müller, in lyric and piano works; and Carl Nielsen, in chamber -music. - -August Enna (born 1860) is the most prolific and successful of -Denmark's opera composers. Chiefly self-taught, but mainly German in -his influences, he has written some ten operas in which one influence -or style after another is evident. 'Cleopatra,' after Rider Haggard's -story, is ambitious and theatric, but it reveals, alongside of -frank Wagnerism, the ghost of Meyerbeer and of Italian opera of the -'transition period' of the 'eighties. 'Aucassin and Nicolette' attempts -the quaint and naïve style which is supposed to comport with the late -Middle Ages; it has a distinction of its own, but too often it is mere -conventional romantic opera. The fairy operas after Andersen--'The -Little Match Girl' and 'The Princess of the Peapod'--are in more -congenial style, but lack the necessary consistent manner of light -fantasy. The truth is that Enna, with marked abilities, is limited to -the expression of tender sentiment, gentle melancholy, and personal, -intimate moods. His invention is happy, though uneven; his use of -the orchestra colorful but not always in taste. He lacks the ability -to conceive and carry out a large work in a consistent and elevated -manner. He fails in that ultimate test of the thorough workman--the -ability to execute a whole work in a consistent and homogeneous style. -The trouble is not with his operatic instinct, which is sufficiently -vivid; nor with his melodic invention as such, for this is often fresh -and charming. But his musicianship and his inspiration have not proven -equal to the task he has set himself. - -Asger Hamerik (born 1843) has undertaken an equally big task in the -field of symphonic music. He plans on a large scale, but it can hardly -be said that he thinks likewise. We may note a 'Poetic' symphony, a -'Tragic' symphony, a 'Lyric' symphony, a 'Majestic' symphony, and a -choral symphony, among several others. Of his two operas, one, 'The -Vendetta,' received a performance in Milan. There is considerable -choral and chamber music, and in particular a 'Northern' orchestral -suite by which his artistic personality may be best known. But he has -at bottom little of the national feeling. He is facilely eclectic, -but with no individual or consistent binding principle. He has a -romanticism that recalls Dvořák's--graceful, mildly sensuous, pleasing -rather than inspiring; he has further a marked gift as an instrumental -colorist. But his harmony is conventional, and his thematic ideas -are usually undistinguished. Finally, his structural power is not -sufficient to raise his musical material to a high artistic plane. -Hamerik is out of the main line of Scandinavian national music, but -has not been able to make a place for himself in music universal. - -Much more to the purpose in intent and achievement is P. E. -Lange-Müller (born 1850). He reveals a graceful sense of form and a -sincere emotional feeling in his smaller works for piano and voice. -His harmony is conservative and sometimes disappointing; but whenever -he strikes the tender mood of folk-music he saves himself with a touch -of poetry. But he is rather a follower of the old school of German -romanticism than of Scandinavian nationalism. The four-act opera, _Frau -Jeanna_, is content with an unobtrusive lyric style, but the lyricism -is not exalted enough to sustain such a large-scale work. The melodrama -_Middelalderlig_, of more recent date, shows much poetic color but a -fundamental lack of invention. In the larger works he is at his best -in the fairy-comedy, 'Once upon a Time.' His symphony 'In Autumn,' his -orchestral suite, 'Alhambra,' and 'Niels Ebbesen' for chorus, have met -with indifferent success. Lange-Müller is primarily a lyric composer -for voice and piano, and in this field he shows a sort of grace and -tenderness which we shall meet with frequently in recent Swedish music. - -A sincere and able, yet austere, composer is Carl Nielsen (born 1865). -His music is, with that of the Swede Alfvén, less programmistic and -more 'absolute' than we shall meet with in any other distinguished -Scandinavian musician of modern times. The national element in his work -is almost _nil_. A master of counterpoint, and a vigorous innovator in -the modern Russian style, he commands respect rather than love. His -output includes more than half a dozen symphonies, a number of works -for string quartet and violin, some large compositions for chorus and -orchestra, and a four-act opera, 'Saul and David.' It is by this that -he is best known. This is a work to command respectful attention from -musicians, but hardly enthusiastic applause from ordinary audiences. -The writing shows great musical knowledge, careful and ample ability in -counterpoint and in modulation of the complex modern sort, a certain -unity of style, and a command of special emotional color. But the work -is perhaps rather that of the symphonist than of the operatic poet. His -instrumentation, unlike his harmony, is conservative. His workmanship -is thorough, and his musicianship wide and soundly based. - -Among the minor names there are several who deserve mention for one -reason or another. Ludolf Nielsen (born 1876) is a thorough classicist -at heart, though he has become known in Germany through his symphonic -poems 'In Memoriam,' _Fra Bjaergene_, and 'Summer Night Moods.' He -is more than usually talented, but very conservative in his style. -His themes are interesting though not striking, and his product is -sufficiently inspired with human feeling to be preserved from pedantry. -Hakon Börresen (born 1876) has distinguished himself with many songs -which preserve the national tradition established for Norway by Grieg -and Sinding. His chamber music has revealed harmonic invention and -tender coloring which show him to be one of the chosen of the younger -Danish composers. Finally, we may mention Otto Malling (born 1848), an -able writer for organ and string quartet; Victor Bendix (born 1851), -well known in Denmark for a number of symphonies which combine delicate -poetry with structural beauty; Ludvig Schytte (born 1848), prolific -writer of piano pieces, and Cornelius Rübner, who commands respect for -solidly classic workmanship. These latter men are of the old school. Of -the younger generation in Denmark we are hardly justified in hoping for -works of great distinction, unless a possible exception may be made in -the case of Börresen. For, speaking broadly, the national impulse has -departed from Danish composition. - - - III - -Though Scandinavian art was first brought to the attention of the -world at large through the Norwegians (Grieg in music and Ibsen -in literature), Sweden has in more recent years held her share of -international attention. After Ibsen the Swede Strindberg was perhaps -the most talked-of dramatist in Europe. Still more recently the novels -of Selma Lagerlöf and the sociological writings of Ellen Key have been -widely translated and read, not only in European lands, but in America -also. Strindberg was a supreme artist, a personality of an intensity -equalling Nietzsche and of a spiritual variety suggesting that of -Goethe. The strain of violent morbidity in his _Weltanschauung_ was a -purely personal and not at all a national matter. As executive artist -he showed an almost classic balance and control. Selma Lagerlöf is -sane and finely poised, and Ellen Key has by her moderation and her -clearness of intellectual vision made herself a leader in a department -of modern sociological study which more than any other is apt to be -treated sentimentally and hysterically. Poise and artistic control are, -in fact, to be noticed generally in modern Swedish art, and especially -in music. The cosmopolitan character of Swedish political history is -here seen in its results. Someone has called Stockholm 'the Paris of -the north.' The epithet is just: grace, conscious artistry, sensuous -self-indulgence, are to be found in Swedish music in a degree that -contrasts markedly with the militant self-expression of the Norwegian -school. Without losing its national qualities the art of modern Sweden -has spoken the easy language of the European capitals. - -Sweden's story is like Denmark's: first a thorough Germanization of -her music, then a gradual growth of the national tone. This tone -grew in every case out of the early German romanticism. The first -great Swedish composer and the earliest romanticist was Franz Berwald -(1796-1868). His position in Sweden is somewhat analogous to that held -in Denmark by Hartmann. His output was large, and in the largest forms. -He undertook symphonic works which until his time had been neglected -in his native land. Without being known much outside Sweden he gained -a place in the hearts of his countrymen which he has held ever since. -His most popular work was his _Symphonie Sérieuse_ in G minor, composed -in 1843, sincere, poetic and musicianly. The influence of Schumann is -predominant. A considerable quantity of symphonic and chamber music, -reflecting chiefly Beethoven and Mendelssohn, gained him a position as -the foremost symphonic writer of his time. An early violin concerto, -composed in 1820, reveals him as a sincere student of Beethoven, -youthful, romantic and progressive. Out of half a dozen operas we may -mention _Estrella de Soria_, a romantic work of large proportions, -built on the Parisian model (though showing the homely influence of -Weber)--with hunting chorus, grand ballet, and all. That he was not -unconscious of his nationality is proved by the names of some of -his choral compositions, such as _Gustav Adolph bei Lützen_, 'The -Victory of Karl XII at Narwa,' and the _Nordische Phantasiebilder_. A -'symphonic poem,' _En landtlig Bröllopfest_, makes extensive use of -Swedish melodies, but the style is not a national one, and the themes -are merely utilized without being developed. As a highly trained and -spontaneous worker in the early romantic style Berwald performed a -great service in awakening musical consciousness in his native land. -But here ends his national significance. - -Berwald's tendency was represented in the following generation by -Albert Rubenson (1826-1901), a less talented but very able composer. -He came from the Leipzig school and was thoroughly Germanized, but -like Berwald devoted some attention to Swedish subjects. Ludwig -Normann (1831-1885) anticipated the modern Swedish composers in his -preference for the smaller forms. In his piano music he is tender and -idyllic, delighting in detail and suggestive device, something of a -poet and tone-painter. Mendelssohn is the chief influence in his piano -work. Though this is thin in style, it is rich in charming melody and -is carried out with a fine polish. In his larger works, such as the -symphony in E-flat major (1840), he is still the melodist; his writing -is fresh and even original, but his scoring is without distinction. -His romantic overtures are in the Mendelssohnian manner, with romantic -color in the fashion of the time. - -One of the most talented of the early Swedish composers was Ivan -Hallström (1826-1901), who may be said to have been the first -truly national composer of his land. He appreciated the artistic -possibilities of the national folk-song and made its use in his music -a chief tenet in his artistic creed. This was preëminently true in -his operas--such as _Den Bergtagna_, _Die Gnomenbraut_, _Der Viking_, -and _Neaga_. The last-named is a romantic work teeming with color and -poetry, with traces of Wagnerian influence, but with much vigor, beauty -and depth. Some of these works have been favorably received in Germany, -but they are not sufficiently personal and dramatic to justify a long -life. The Swedish folk-song was carried into symphonic and chamber -music by J. Adolph Hägg (born 1850), a disciple of Gade and an able and -fruitful composer of symphonies and sonatas, and romantic pieces for -piano, which are filled with romantic and local color. - -But the early musical generation, of which Hallström may be considered -one of the last, was more distinctive and national in its songs than -in its instrumental works. The first half of the nineteenth century -may be called the golden age of the Swedish _Lied_. It was a time of -choral societies, some of which became famous throughout the continent. -Otto Lindblad (1809-1864) was a leader and prolific composer for such -societies. It is to his credit to have composed the official national -song of Sweden. But the great lyric genius of Sweden was Adolph Fr. -Lindblad (1801-1879), who is commonly called 'the Swedish Schubert.' -His genius was tender and elegiac, responding sensitively to the colors -of nature, and, thanks to the art of Jenny Lind, it became familiar to -concert-goers in many lands. - -Swedish music of modern times has maintained a wide variety of forms -and styles. The national feeling is still strong, though some of -the ablest work is being done in an 'absolute' idiom. On the whole -the recent Swedish school is best represented to the outside world -by Petersen-Berger with his short and graceful piano pieces, and by -Sjögren with his songs. In opera Sweden has approached an international -standing, but has not quite attained it. Her opera is represented at -its best by Andreas Hallén (born 1846), who used national tone-material -with Wagnerian technique. Like most other northern musicians of his -time he went to Leipzig for his training and sought in Germany for -his beacon lights. After returning to his native land he became -indispensable in its musical life, serving as director of the Stockholm -Philharmonic Society and of the Stockholm opera. Besides songs and -choral works he wrote a number of symphonic pieces of a high order, -filled with Swedish melody and Swedish color. The Swedish Rhapsodies -opus 23, based entirely upon well-known national songs, are of a -solid technique and agreeable variety; the themes themselves are -little developed, but by their scoring and their juxtaposition they -become fused into an admirable whole. The _Sommersaga_, opus 36, -lacks specific Swedish color, but is an attractive and able work in -the older romantic style. The _Toteninsel_, opus 45, is an ambitious -symphonic poem. The themes are arresting, the development powerful, -and the harmony energetic, but the work lacks the dithyrambic quality -demanded of tone-poems in recent times, and hence seems outmoded. In -'The Music of the Spheres,' dating from 1909, we discover an admirable -adaptation and fusion of modern harmonic technique, but the ideas and -the construction speak of a bygone age. In all these works Hallén -was mainly under the influence of Liszt. In the operas, on which his -reputation chiefly rests, he was at first wholly Wagnerian. His first -work for the stage, 'Harald the Viking,' though presumably Swedish, is -utterly Wagnerian in treatment. Were it not that Wagnerian imitation -cannot be truly creative, this work would surely take a high rank, -for it is powerful, dramatic, and admirably scored. The national -tone becomes more marked in the later operas--_Hexfällen_ (1896), -_Waldemarskatten_ (1899) and _Waldborgsmässa_ (1901). The Wagnerian -leit-motif and Wagnerian harmony are still present, but the Swedish -material has suitably modified the general style. In _Waldemarskatten_, -which is of a light romantic tone, one even feels that the composer -has despaired of being successful in the highest musical forms and -has made a compromise in the direction of easy popularity. But the -work is filled with beautiful passages. In the spots where Hallén -imitates folk-song or folk-dance, he is fresh and inspiring. His -musical treatment is never highly personal; on the other hand he shows -most valuable qualities--vigor, passion, folk-feeling, and above all -dramatic sense. His scoring, too, is rich and colorful. - -Perhaps the best known and most typical of the modern Swedes is Emil -Sjögren (born 1853), the undisputed master of the modern Swedish -art-song. No other composer of his land is so individual as he. No -other is more specifically Swedish, in perfumed grace and sensuous -tenderness. Yet he is by no means a salon composer. His work is -energetic, showing at times even a touch of the noble and heroic. His -nationalism does not consist so much in his use of actual Swedish -material as in his finely racial manner of treatment. In his short -piano pieces--cycles, novelettes, landscape pictures, etc.--he has -impregnated the salon manner of a Mendelssohn with something of the -color and personal feeling of a Grieg. His choral works are highly -prized in Sweden. His work in the classical forms, chiefly for violin -and piano, are conservative in form and (until recently) in harmony. -But it is in his songs that Sjögren has expressed himself most -perfectly. These are very numerous and show a wide range of emotional -expression. Beyond a doubt they are thoroughly successful only in -the tenderer and intimate moods. They reveal a psychological power -recalling that of Schumann, and an impressionistic harmonic perfume -similar to that in Grieg's best work. In the brief strophe form Sjögren -shows himself master of the exquisite form which distinguishes the -Swedish folk-song. In his early period his accompaniment followed -closely the regular voice-part, and his harmony, while always -personal, was simple. A middle period shows a perfect blending of -voice and piano, with freedom and variety in each, much pianistic -resourcefulness, and a remarkable melodic gift. Since this period his -harmony has undergone a striking change. He has evidently sat at the -feet of the modern French masters, and has adopted an idiom which is -complex and difficult. He has managed to keep it original and personal, -but it is to be doubted whether the recent songs will ever hold a -permanent place beside the lovely ones of the middle period. - -Of almost equal personal distinction and importance is Wilhelm -Petersen-Berger (born 1867), a master of romantic piano music in the -smaller forms, and a national voice to his native land. His work is -varied. There is chamber music such as the E minor violin sonata. There -is a 'Banner Symphony' (1904) and one entitled _Sonnenfärd_ (1910). -There are male choruses, such as _En Fjällfärd_, and orchestral works -such as the 'May Carnival in Stockholm,' together with at least four -operas--_Sveagaldrar_ (1897), _Das Glück_ (1902), _Ran_ (1903) and -_Arnljot_ (1907). Finally there are the piano pieces, a rich and varied -list ranging all the way from the simplest of 'parlor melodies' to -large tone poems and concert works. Some of the piano pieces bear such -titles as 'To the Roses,' 'Summer Song,' and 'Lawn Tennis.' Others are -ambitiously named 'Northern Rhapsody' (with orchestra) and 'Swedish -Summer.' With some of these works Petersen-Berger takes a place -beside the ablest and most poetic modern writers for the pianoforte. -Landscape, story and mood are here expressed, with a technique ranging -from that of Schumann's 'Children's Pieces' all the way to the modern -idiom of Ravel. If some of the pieces seem cheap and sentimental let -it be remembered that they are replacing much less attractive things -written by third rate men, and are helping to raise the taste of the -'ordinary music-lover' as Mendelssohn's 'Songs without Words' did half -a century before. His melody is truly lyric and his harmony truly -impressionistic. His genius for the piano is proved by his ability to -get full and colorful effects out of a style of writing which on paper -looks thin. Though sentimentality abounds, the spirit is fundamentally -vigorous and healthy and at times approaches something like tragic -dignity. The 'Northern Rhapsody' is a wholly admirable treatment of -folk-tunes on a large scale and with the idiom of pianistic virtuosity. -The songs are often charming, though on the whole less satisfactory -than the piano pieces. When he writes simply he shows almost flawless -taste and artistic selection. When he aims at the mood of high -tragedy, as in the songs from Nietzsche, he is sometimes unexpectedly -successful. The Nietzsche songs, radical in technique, are moving and -impressive. In his large works Petersen-Berger is not so successful. -His _Sonnenfärd_ symphony is lyric, rather than orchestral. It is -lacking in structural power, and in the broad spiritual sweep which -such a large-scale work must have. But here again his charming melody -almost saves the day. The opera _Arnljot_ can hardly be called a -success; it is long and ambitious, but thinly written, undramatic, and -not very pleasing. - -In direct contrast to Petersen-Berger is Hugo Alfvén (born 1872), -Sweden's most important contrapuntist. In him the national influence -is reduced to a minimum, though it is sometimes to be noticed in a -certain manner of forming themes and moulding cadences. Swedish color -is, however, noticeable in certain works specifically national. The -_Midsommarvaka_ is built upon Swedish tunes, organized and developed in -the spirit of the classic composers. The whole spirit is intellectual -and technical, but this has its agreeable side in the composer's -ability to build up long sustained passages. The 'Upsala Rhapsody,' -opus 24, is merely an excuse for the technical manipulation of a -collection of rather cheap melodies. The symphonies are more able and -even less interesting. The solidity and complexity of the polyphonic -style excite admiration, but the themes are without distinction and -the total effect is pedantic. In his songs, however, Alfvén gives us a -surprise. His power of development here becomes something like poetic -greatness, especially where the form is free enough to give the work a -symphonic character. The voice part is unconventional, declamatory and -impressive, and the accompaniment varied and impressive. Altogether, -these songs are among the most admirable which modern Scandinavian has -given us. - -Among the other able composers of modern Sweden we should mention Tor -Aulin (born 1866), who has consecrated his lyric and poetic talent -chiefly to the violin; Erik Akerberg (born 1860), whose classical -predilections have led him to choral and symphonic work; and Wilhelm -Stenhammar (born 1871). The last is one of the ablest of modern Swedish -composers, a man whose talents have by no means been adequately -recognized, and a genius, perhaps, who is destined to out-strip his -better-known contemporaries. The list of his works includes two -operas, _Tirfing_ (1898) and 'The Feast at Solhaug' (the libretto -from Ibsen's play); string quartets, sonatas and concertos for piano -and violin; large choral works, songs, and ballads with orchestral -accompaniment. The piano concerto, opus 23, ranks with Grieg's finest -orchestral works. The themes, not always remarkable, are lifted into -the extraordinary by Stenhammar's brilliant handling of them. The A -minor quartet, opus 25, shows great beauty of simple material, and an -intellectual and technical dominance which lift it quite above the -usual Swedish chamber music. The sonata for violin and piano, opus 19, -is a fine work, simple, fresh, original and charming. In much of the -instrumental music the idiom is advanced, with the emphasis thrown on -the voice leading rather than on the harmony; but it cannot easily be -referred to a single school, for it is always personal and individually -expressive. When we come to a work like _Midvinter_, opus 24, a tone -poem for large orchestra, we are at the summit of modern Scandinavian -romantic writing. This work is a masterpiece. The themes, says the -composer in a note, were taken down by ear from the fiddler Hinns -Andersen, except for one, a traditional Christmas hymn which is sung -by a chorus obbligato. The counterpoint in this work is masterly, the -animal vigor overwhelming. At no point is the composer found wanting -in structural power or invention. On the whole, no modern Scandinavian -composer, unless it be Sinding, approaches Stenhammar in the fusing of -fresh poetry with strong intellectual and technical control. But not -only has he written some of Scandinavia's finest chamber and symphonic -music; he has written also at least one opera which stands out from -among its contemporaries as genius stands out from imitation. This is -'The Feast at Solhaug,' opus 6, dated 1896, and performed at the Berlin -Royal Opera House in 1905. This work is utterly lyrical and utterly -national; it is doubtful if there is a more thoroughly Swedish work in -the whole list of modern Scandinavian music. In the vulgar sense it -is not dramatic; it has little concern for square-cornered emotions -and startling confrontations. Its melody, which is astonishingly -abundant, is always spontaneous and always expressive. The discreetly -managed accompaniment is unfailingly resourceful in supplying color and -emotional expression. We can say without hesitation that there has been -no more beautiful dramatic work in the whole history of Scandinavian -opera. - - - IV - -Norway, as it seems, has always been a nation of great individuals. -In her early history she was as isolated socially as she was -geographically. Though nominally a part of the Swedish Empire, she -always maintained a large measure of independence, and strengthened -the barrier of high mountains with a more impassable barrier of -neighborhood jealousy. Life was difficult among the mountains and -fjords, and each man was obliged to depend upon his own courage and -energy. Luxury was unknown. Even civilization was primitive. Hence, -when Norway began to attain artistic expression in the nineteenth -century she was as provincial as a little village in the middle west of -America. But her life, while simple, was intense, and the narrowness -of the spiritual environment fostered a broad culture of the soul. -Norway became a nation of laborers, of poets, of thinkers, and of -religious seers. The very friction that opposed the current made it -give out more light. - -Ibsen, the first supreme genius of Norway in the arts, wrote equally -from Norway's traditional past and from Norway's circumscribed present. -Out of the combination of the two he created 'Brand,' one of the -noblest poetic tragedies of modern times. His later social dramas, -as we know, altered the theatre of the whole world. Beside Ibsen was -Björnson, only second to him in poetry and drama. And it was during -Ibsen's early years that Norway began to attain self-expression in -music. The first composer of national significance was Waldemar Thrane -(1790-1828), composer of overtures, cantatas, and dances, and of the -music to Bjerragaard's 'Adventure in the Mountains.' But the fame of -Norway was first carried outside the peninsula by Ole Bull (1810-1880), -the virtuoso violinist who, after touring through all the capitals of -Europe, settled down in Pennsylvania as the founder of a Norwegian -colony. His compositions for the violin had an influence out of all -proportion to their inherent value. He was a romantic voice out of the -north to thousands who had never thought of music except in terms of -Mendelssohn and Händel. His Fantasies and Caprices for the violin were -filled with national melodies and national color. He was an ardent -patriot, and through his national theatre in Bergen, no less than -through his music and playing, awakened his countrymen to artistic -self-consciousness. - -Of far wider power as a composer was Halfdan Kjerulf (1815-1863), -a composer of songs which stand among the best in spontaneity and -delicate charm. His charming piano pieces in the small forms were -filled with romantic color. In his many songs, simple, yet varied and -original, he showed a power of evoking emotional response that forces -one to compare his talent with that of Schubert. With him we should -mention E. Neupert (1842-1888), who carried the romanticism of Weber -and Mendelssohn into Norway, in a long and varied list of chamber and -orchestral music; M. A. Udbye (1820-1889), composer of Norway's first -opera _Fredkulla_; and O. Winter-Hjelm (born 1837), who was a generous -composer of songs, choral and orchestral pieces in the conservative -romantic style of Germany. Johann D. Behrens (1820-1890) proved himself -a valuable conductor and composer for Norway's unbelievably numerous -male singing societies. - -But the greatest composer of the older romantic period was Johan -Svendsen (born 1840). He was solidly grounded in the methods and -ideals of Schumann, Mendelssohn, Gade and even Brahms, and remained -always true to their vision. A specific national composer he was not, -but with discreet coloring he treated national subjects in such works -as the 'Norwegian Rhapsody,' the 'Northern Carnival,' the legend for -orchestra _Zorahayde_, and the prelude to Björnson's _Sigurd Slembe_. -In the classical forms he wrote two symphonies and a number of string -quartets of marked value. As a colorist he must be highly ranked. But -his color is not so much that of nationality as that of romanticism -in the conventional sense. His virtues were the romantic virtues of -sensuous beauty, discreet eloquence, and somewhat self-conscious -emotion. But Norway found her true national propagandist in Richard -Nordraak (1842-1866). This man, who died at the age of twenty-four, -was a remarkably talented musician, and an unrestrained enthusiast -for the integrity of his native land, both in politics and in art. It -is said that his meeting with Grieg in Copenhagen in 1864, and their -later friendly intercourse, determined the latter to the strenuously -national aspirations which he later carried to such brilliant -fruition. The funeral march which Grieg inscribed to him after his -death is one of his deepest and most moving works. Nordraak's few -compositions--incidental music to two of Björnson's plays, piano pieces -and songs--show his effort after purely national coloring, but have -otherwise no very high value. - -The great apostle of Norwegian nationalism was of course Grieg. His -place among the composers of whom we are now speaking was partly that -of good angel and partly that of press agent. The other Scandinavian -composers have basked to a great extent in the light which he shed, -have taken their inspiration from him, and have learned invaluable -lessons in the art of musical picture painting. He was by no means -merely a nationalist. Besides acquainting the world with the beautiful -peculiarities of Norwegian folk-song and with the fancied beauties of -northern scenery, he showed composers in every part of the world how -to use the melodic peculiarities of these songs to build up a strange -and enchanting harmony, capable of calling forth mysterious pictures -of the earth and sea and their superhuman inhabitants. Grieg was the -first popular impressionist. He helped to shift the emphasis from the -technical and emotional aspects of music to its specific pictorial -and sensuous aspects. And he prepared the world at large for the idea -of musical nationalism, which has become one of the two most striking -facts of present-day music. - -When we say that Grieg was the first popular impressionist we do not -mean that he was more able or original than certain others who were -working with the same tendencies at the same time. His popularity -resulted to a great extent from the form and manner in which he worked. -His piano music was admirably suited to making a popular appeal. It was -often short and easy; it was nearly always melodious and clear. Its -picturesque titles suggested a reason for its unusual turns of harmony -and phrase. It was never so radical in its originality as to leave the -mind bewildered. Hence Grieg became extremely popular among amateurs -and casual music-lovers. His piano pieces became _Hausmusik_ as those -of Mendelssohn had been a generation before. The 'impressionistic' -effect was usually produced by simple means--a slight alteration of -the familiar form of cadence, a gentle blurring of the major and -minor modes, an extended use of secondary sevenths and other orthodox -dissonances. These interested the musical amateur without repelling -him, and, when listened to in association with the picturesque titles, -suggested all sorts of delightful sensuous things, such as the mist -on the mountains, the sunlight over the fjords, or the heavy green of -the seaside pines. This musical style of Grieg's was expertly managed; -it was unquestionably individual and was matured to a point where it -showed no relapses to the style out of which it had developed. As -an orchestral colorist Grieg was talented and original, but by no -means revolutionary. He chose _timbres_ with a nice sense of their -picturesque values, but in orchestration he is not a long step ahead of -the Mendelssohn of the overtures. - - [Illustration: Edvard Grieg at the Piano] - _After a photograph from life_ - -Edvard Hagerup Grieg, the son of Alexander Grieg, was born in Bergen, -Norway, in 1843. He was descended from Alexander Greig (the spelling of -the name was changed later to accommodate the Norwegian pronunciation), -a merchant of Aberdeen, who emigrated from Scotland to Norway soon -after the battle of Culloden, in 1746. His father and his grandfather -before him served as British consul at Bergen. His mother was a -daughter of Edvard Hagerup, for many years the mayor of Bergen, the -second city of Norway. It was from her that Grieg inherited both his -predisposition for music and his intensely patriotic nature. She was -a loyal daughter of Norway and was possessed of no small musical -talent, which her family was glad to cultivate, sending her to Hamburg -in her girlhood for lessons in singing and pianoforte playing. These -she supplemented later by further musical studies in London, and she -acquired sufficient skill to enable her to appear acceptably as a -soloist at orchestral concerts in Bergen. It was a home surcharged with -a musical atmosphere into which Edvard Grieg was born; and his mother -must have dreamed of making him a musician, for she began to give him -pianoforte lessons when he was only six years old. - -Though he disliked school (he appears to have been a typical youngster -in his predilection for truancy), the boy made commendable progress -in his music and even tried his hand at little compositions of his -own; but before his fifteenth year there was no serious thought of -a musical career for him. In that year Ole Bull, the celebrated -violinist, visited his father's house, and, having heard the lad play -some of his youthful pieces, prevailed upon his parents to send him -to Leipzig that he might become a professional musician. It was all -arranged very quickly one summer afternoon; the fond parents needed -little coaxing, and to the boy 'it seemed the most natural thing in -the world.' Matriculated at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1858, young -Grieg at first made slow progress. He studied harmony and counterpoint -under Hauptmann and Richter, composition under Rietz and Reinecke, and -pianoforte playing under Wenzel and Moscheles. At the conservatory at -that time were five English students, among them Arthur Sullivan, J. -F. Barnett, and Edward Dannreuther, who subsequently became leaders -in the musical life of London; and their unstinting toil and patience -in drudgery inspired the young Norwegian to greater concentration of -effort than his frail physique could stand. Under the strain he broke -down completely. An attack of pleurisy destroyed his left lung and thus -his health was permanently impaired. He was taken home to Norway, -where it was necessary for him to remain the greater part of a year to -recuperate. But as soon as he was able he returned to Leipzig; he was -graduated with honors in 1862. - -At Leipzig Grieg came strongly under the sway of Mendelssohn and -Schumann. He did not escape from that influence when he went to -Copenhagen in 1863 to study composition informally with Niels Gade. -While Grieg always held Gade in high esteem, the two musicians really -had little in common, and the slight influence of the Dane was speedily -superseded by that of Nordraak, with whom Grieg now came in contact. -Nordraak was ambitious to produce a genuinely national Norwegian -music, and, brief as their friendship was, it served to set Grieg, -whose talents lay in the same direction, on the right path. Now fairly -launched upon the career of a piano virtuoso and composer, he became -a 'determined adversary of the effeminate Scandinavianism which was a -mixture of Gade and Mendelssohn,' and with enthusiasm entered upon the -work of developing independently in artistic forms the musical idioms -of his people. In 1867 Grieg was married to Nina Hagerup, his cousin, -who had inspired and who continued to inspire many of his best songs, -and whose singing of them helped to spread her husband's fame in many -European cities. In 1867 also he founded in Christiania a musical union -of the followers of the new Norse school, which he continued to conduct -for thirteen years. - -Besides the giving of concerts in the chief Scandinavian and German -cities and making an artistic pilgrimage to Italy Grieg at this period -was increasingly industrious in composition. He was remarkably active -for a semi-invalid. He had found himself; and he continued to develop -his creative powers in the production of music that was not only -nationally idiomatic, but thoroughly suffused with the real spirit -of his land and his people. In 1868 Liszt happened upon his first -violin sonata (opus 8) and forthwith sent him a cordial letter of -commendation and encouragement, inviting him to Weimar. This letter -was instrumental in inducing the Norwegian government to grant him a -sum of money that enabled him to go again to Rome in 1870. There he -met Liszt and the two musicians at once became firm friends. At their -second meeting Liszt played from the manuscript Grieg's piano concerto -(opus 16), and when he had finished said: 'Keep steadily on; I tell you -you have the capability, and--do not let them intimidate you!' The big, -great-hearted Liszt feared that the frail little man from the far north -might be in danger of intimidation; but his spirit was brave enough at -all times--though he wrote to his parents: 'This final admonition was -of tremendous importance to me; there was something in it that seemed -to give it an air of sanctification.' Thenceforward the recognition of -his genius steadily increased. In 1872 he was appointed a member of -the Swedish Academy of Music; in 1883 a corresponding member of the -Musical Academy at Leyden; in 1890 of the French Academy of Fine Arts. -In 1893 the University of Cambridge conferred on him the doctorate -in music, at the same time that it honored by the bestowal of this -degree Tschaikowsky, Saint-Saëns, Boito, and Max Bruch. Except when -on concert tours his later years were spent chiefly at his beautiful -country home, the villa Troldhaugen near Bergen, and there he died on -September 4, 1907, after an almost constant fight with death for more -than forty-five years. - -Hans von Bülow called Grieg the Chopin of the North, and the -convenience of the sobriquet helped to give it a wider popular -acceptance than it deserved, for in truth the basis for such a -comparison is rather slight. Undoubtedly Chopin's bold new harmony was -one of the sub-conscious forces that helped to shape Grieg's musical -genius. His mother had appreciated and delighted in Chopin's music at -a time when it was little understood and much underrated; and from -childhood Chopin was Grieg's best-loved composer. In his student days -he was deeply moved by the 'intense minor mood of the Slavic folk-music -in Chopin's harmonies and the sadness over the unhappy fate of his -native land in his melodies.' It is certain that there is a certain -kinship in the musical styles of the two men, in their refinement, -in the kind and even the degree of originality with which each has -enriched his art, in many of their aims and methods. While Grieg never -attained to the heights of Chopin in his pianoforte music, he surpassed -his Polish predecessor in the ability to handle other instruments as -well as in his songs, of which he published no fewer than one hundred -and twenty-five. - -These songs we hold to constitute Grieg's loftiest achievement; and -in all his music he is first of all the singer--amazingly fertile -in easily comprehensible and alluring melodies. He patterned these -original melodies after the folk-songs of that Northland he loved so -ardently, just as he often employed the rhythms of its folk-dances; -and by these means he imparted to his work a fascinating touch of -strangeness and succeeded in evoking as if by magic the moods of the -land and the people from which he sprang. On the wings of his music we -are carried to the land of the fjords; we breathe its inspiriting air, -and our blood dances and sings with its lusty yet often melancholy sons -and daughters. Much as there is of Norway in his compositions, there is -still more of Grieg. His melodies are his own and more enchanting than -the folk-songs which provided their patterns; and as a harmonist he is -both bold and skillful. - -Grieg's place, as may be gathered from what has already been said, -is in the small group of the world's greatest lyricists. He wrote no -operas and he composed no great symphonies. His physical infirmity -militated against the sustained effort necessary for the creation of -works in these kinds; but it is also plain from the work he did when -at his best that his inclination and his powers led him into other -fields. He possessed the dramatic qualities and ability only slightly, -the epic still less, though it cannot be denied that in moments of rare -exaltation he was 'a poet of the tragic, of the largely passionate and -elemental.' His nearest approach to symphonic breadth is to be found -in his pianoforte concerto, which Dr. Niemann pronounces the most -beautiful work of its kind since Schumann, his sonatas for violin and -pianoforte, his string quartet and his 'Peer Gynt' music. Yet these -beautiful and stirring compositions are, after all, only lyrics of a -larger growth. Grieg himself knew well his powers and his limitations, -and he was as modest as he was candid when he wrote: 'Artists like Bach -and Beethoven erected churches and temples on the heights. I wanted, as -Ibsen expresses it in one of his last dramas, to build dwellings for -men in which they might feel at home and happy. In other words, I have -recorded the folk-music of my land. In style and form I have remained a -German romanticist of the Schumann school; but at the same time I have -dipped from the rich treasures of native folk-song and sought to create -a national art out of this hitherto unexploited expression of the -folk-soul of Norway.' The spirit of the man recalls the pretty little -quatrain of Thomas Bailey Aldrich: - - 'I would be the lyric, - Ever on the lip, - Rather than the epic - Memory lets slip.' - -And this is not to disparage pure and simple song. It is enough for -Edvard Grieg's lasting fame that he did have in rare abundance the pure -lyric quality--that close and delicate touch upon the heart strings -which makes them vibrate in sympathy with all the little importances -and importunities of individual human life. - - - V - -The one Norwegian composer, besides Grieg, who has attained an -international position, is Christian Sinding (born 1856). He is -consciously and genuinely national, but in almost every other way is a -complement and contrast to the other northern master. Where Grieg is -best in the idyllic, Sinding is best in the heroic. Sinding is apt to -be trivial where Grieg is at his best--namely, in the smaller forms. -On the other hand, Sinding is noble and inspiring in works too long -for Grieg to sustain. In Sinding the Wagnerian influence is marked -and inescapable. He, like Grieg, is most at home when working with -native material--the sharp rhythms, short periods and angular line of -the Norwegian folk-song--but he develops it objectively where Grieg -developed it intensively. Sinding need not work from the pictorial; -Grieg was obliged to. Sinding's speech is much more cosmopolitan, -his harmony less pronounced, his form more conventional. At times he -attains a high level of emotional expression. On the other hand, he -has written much, and his reputation has suffered thereby. Frequently -he is uninspired. But the sustained magnificence of his orchestral and -chamber music has done much to offset the prevailing idea that the -northern composers could work only in the parlor or _genre_ style. He -sounds the epic and heroic note too often and with too much inspiration -to permit us to question the greatness of his art. - -He has worked in most of the established forms. His D minor symphony, -opus 21, is one of the noblest in all Scandinavian music. His symphonic -poem, 'Perpetual Motion,' with its inexhaustible energy and its -glittering orchestral color, takes a high rank in modern orchestral -music. His chamber music--quartets, quintets, trios, violin sonatas, -etc.--is distinguished by melodic inspiration, vigorous counterpoint, -and sustained structural power. His piano concerto and two violin -concertos, and his grandiose E-flat minor variations for two pianos, -have taken a firm place in concert programmes. As a piano composer in -the smaller forms he is of course less personal, less distinguished, -than Grieg. But every piano student knows his _Frühlingsrauschen_ -and _Marche Grotesque_. As a song composer he may justly be ranked -second to Grieg in all the Scandinavian lands. His power and sincerity -in the shorter strophic song is astonishing; his strophes have the -cogency and finish of the Swedish folk-song combined with the intensity -and sincerity of the Norwegian. In his longer songs he is noble and -dramatic; he is a master of poignant emotional expression and of -sustained and mounting energy. Two of his familiar songs--'The Mother' -and 'A Bird Cried'--are masterpieces of the first rank. Sinding's -harmony is vigorous. An 'impressionist' in the modern sense of the -term he is not. He loves the use of marked dissonance for specific -effect; his harmonic style is broad, solidly based, square-cornered. -It is regrettable, perhaps, that he did not work more in opera; his -only dramatic work, 'The Holy Mountain,' was performed in Germany early -in 1914. But this fact doubtless furnishes us the reason, for Norway -does not offer a career for an opera composer, who must depend for his -success on great wealth and large cities. As it is, Sinding has made a -high, perhaps a permanent, place for himself in chamber and orchestral -music. - -Johan Selmer (born 1844) has taken a place as the most radical of -the 'new romanticists' in Norway. His work is extensive and varied, -and is most impressive in the larger forms. He has written a series -of symphonic poems, several large choral works, many part songs and -ballads, and the usual quota of _Lieder_. His chief influences were -Wagner, Liszt, and Berlioz. He can hardly be called a nationalist in -music, for his work shows little northern feeling except where he -makes use of specific Norwegian tunes; indeed he seems equally willing -to get his local color from Turkey or Italy. His work is thoroughly -disappointing; modelling himself on the giants, he has been obliged to -make himself a gigantic mask of paper. Neither his melodic inspiration, -his structural power, nor his technical learning was equal to the task -he set himself. His chief orchestral work, 'Prometheus,' opus 50, is -ridiculously inadequate to its grandiose subject. His _Finnländischer -Festklang_ is the most ordinary sort of rhapsody on borrowed material. -Of his other works we need only say that they reveal abundantly -the effect of large ambitions on a little man. Along with Selmer -we may mention three opera composers of Norway, none sufficiently -distinguished to carry his name beyond the national border: Johannes -Haarklou (born 1847), Cath. Elling (born 1858) and Ole Olsen (born -1850). The last, though yet 'unproduced' as a dramatic composer, -deserves to be better known than he is. His symphonic and piano music -is pleasing without being distinguished; but the operas _Lajla_ and -_Hans Unversagt_ are charmingly colorful and melodic, revealing musical -scholarship and fine emotional expression. Finally we may mention -Johann Halvorsen (born 1864), a follower of Grieg and an able composer -for violin and male chorus. - -One of the most promising of the younger Norwegians was Sigurd Lie -(1871-1904), whose early death cut off a career which bade fair to -be internationally distinguished. Surely he would have been one of -the most national of Norwegian composers. His list of works, brief -because of ill health, includes a symphony in A minor, a symphonic -march, an oriental suite for orchestra, a piano quintet, a goodly list -of short piano pieces, and many songs and choral works. He used the -Norwegian folk-song intensively, combining its spirit with that of the -old ecclesiastical tone. He was a true poet of music; his moods were -usually mystic, gray and religious, and his effects, even in simple -piano pieces, were obtained with astonishing sureness. His harmony, -though not radical, was personal and highly expressive. His songs, -much sung in his native land, reveal a genius for precise and poignant -expression. - -One of the most popular of Norway's living composers for the piano is -Halfdan Cleve (born 1879), writer of numerous works of which those in -the large forms are most important. Cleve is cosmopolitan, enamored -of large effects, and of dazzling virtuosity. His technique is varied -and exceedingly sure, but he lacks the appealing loveliness which has -brought reputation to the works of so many of his countrymen. More -popular is Agathe Backer-Gröndahl (born 1847), industrious writer of -piano pieces in the smaller forms. Outwardly a classicist, she has -drunk of the lore of Grieg and has achieved charming and able works, -distinguished by delicate feeling and care for detail. Her children's -songs are altogether delightful. But when she attempts longer works her -inspiration is apt to fail her. - -Perhaps the most original and personal composer after Grieg and Sinding -is Gerhard Schjelderup (born 1859), a tone poet of much technical -ability and genuine national feeling. His songs and ballads are very -fine, striking the heroic note with sincerity and conviction. In his -simple songs and piano pieces, Schjelderup's innate feeling for the -folk-tone makes him utterly successful. In his operas, 'Norwegian -Wedding,' 'Beyond Sun and Moon,' 'A People in Distress,' and his -incidental music, he lacks the dramatic and structural power for long -sustained passages; but his genius for expressive simplicity has filled -these works with beauties. Schjelderup's symphonies and chamber music -have made a place for themselves in European concert halls equally by -their freshness of feeling and by their excellence of technique. - - - VI - -Finland's music, centred in its capital Helsingfors, was from the first -under German domination. The national spirit, as we have seen, grew -up under the inspiration of the _Kalevala_, then newly made known to -literature. The first national composer of note was Frederick Pacius -(1809-1891), born in Hamburg, but regarded as the founder of the -national Finnish school. He was under the Mendelssohnian domination, -but gave no little national color to his music and helped to centre the -growing national consciousness. Besides symphonies, a violin concerto -and male choruses, he wrote an opera 'King Karl's Hunt,' and several -_Singspiele_ which contained national flavor without any specific -national material. To Pacius Finland owes her official national -anthem. Other Finnish composers of note were Karl Collan (1828-1871), -F. von Schantz (1835-1865) and C. G. Wasenus. The Wagnerian influence -first penetrated the land of lakes in the works of Martin Wegelius -(1846-1906), able composer of operas, piano and orchestral music, and -choral works. But the first specific national tendency in Finnish music -is due to Robert Kajanus (born 1856), who achieved the freshness and -primitive force of the national folk-song in works of Wagnerian power -and scope. Besides his piano and lyric pieces we possess several -symphonic poems of his--including _Aino_ and _Kullervo_--all markedly -national in feeling. - -Among the modern Finnish composers of second rank Armas Järnefelt (born -1869) is distinguished. In orchestral suites, symphonic poems (for -example, the _Heimatklang_), overtures, choral works, piano pieces, -and songs, he has shown spontaneity and technical learning. Poetic -feeling and sensitive coloring are marked in his work. Much the same -can be said of Erik Melartin (born 1875), except that his genius is -more specifically lyric. His songs reflect the energy and freshness -of a race just coming to consciousness. His smaller piano pieces show -somewhat the salon influence of Sweden, but in all we feel that the -artist is speaking. Ernst Mielck (1877-1899) had made a place for -himself with his symphony and other orchestral works when death cut -short his career. Oscar Merikanto (born 1868) has written, besides -one opera, many songs and piano pieces, most of them conventional and -undistinguished, and Selim Palmgren (born 1878) has already attained a -wide reputation. - -In Sibelius we meet one of the most powerful composers in modern -music. Masterpiece after masterpiece has come from his pen, and the -works which fall short of distinction are few indeed. He is at once -the most national and the most personal composer in the whole history -of Scandinavian music. His style is like no one else's; his themes, -his mode of development, his harmonic 'atmosphere,' and his orchestral -coloring are quite his own. But his materials are, with hardly an -exception, drawn from the literature and folk-lore of the Finnish -nation; his melodies, when not closely allied to the folk-melodies of -his land, are so true to their spirit that they evoke instant response -in his countrymen's hearts; and the moods and emotions which he -expresses are those that are rooted deepest in the Finnish character. -This powerful national tradition and feeling of which he is the -spokesman he has vitalized with a creative energy which is equalled -only by the few greatest composers of the world to-day. He has touched -no department of music which he has not enriched with powerful and -original works. As an innovator, pure and simple, he seems likely to -prove one of the most productive forces in modern music. No deeper, -more moving voice has ever come out of the north; only in modern Russia -can anything so distinctly national and so supremely beautiful be found. - -Jean Sibelius was born in Finland in 1865 and at first studied for the -law. Shifting to music, he entered the conservatory at Helsingfors -and worked under Wegelius. Later he studied in Berlin and thereafter -went to Vienna. Here, under Goldmark, he developed his taste for -powerful instrumental color, and under Robert Fuchs his concern for -finely wrought detail. But even in his early works there was little -of the German influence to be traced beyond thorough workmanship. -With his symphonic poem, _En Saga_, opus 9, he became recognized as -a national composer. The Finns, longing for self-expression, looked -to him eagerly. They had, as Dr. Niemann[11] has put it, been made -silent heroes by their struggles with forest, plain, cataract and -sea, and by the bitter recent political conflict with Russia. And, -as always happens in such cases, they sought to give expression to -their suppressed national ideals in art. Sibelius's symphonic poem, -_Finlandia_, is a thinly veiled revolutionary document and his great -male chorus, 'The Song of the Athenians' (words by the Finnish poet -Rydberg), gave verbal expression to the thoughts of the patriots of -the nation. The former piece has explicitly been banned in Finland by -Russian edict because of its inflammatory influence on the people. -But all this has not made Sibelius a political figure such as Wagner -became in 1848. He has worked industriously and copiously at his music, -watching it go round the civilized world, keeping himself aloof the -while from outward turmoil, though his personal sympathies are known to -be strongly nationalistic. - -It was the symphonic poems which first made Sibelius a world-figure. -These include a tetralogy, _Lemminkäinen_, consisting of 'Lemminkäinen -and the Village Maidens,' 'The River of Tuonela,' 'The Swan of -Tuonela,' and 'Lemminkäinen's Home-faring'; _Finlandia_, _En Saga_, -'Spring Song,' and the more recent 'Spirits of the Ocean' and -'Pohjola's Daughter.' The _Lemminkäinen_ series is based on the -Kalevala tale, which narrates the adventures of the hero Lemminkäinen, -his departure to the river of death (Tuonela), his death there, and -the magic by which his mother charmed his dismembered limbs to come -together and the man to come to life. Of the four separate works which -make up the series 'The Swan of Tuonela' is the most popular. It was -in this that Sibelius's original mastery of orchestral tone was first -made known to foreign audiences. With its enchanting theme sung by -the English horn it weaves a long, slow spell of the utmost beauty. -_Finlandia_ tells of the struggles of a submerged nation; the early -parts of the work are filled with passionate excitement and military -bustle; then there emerges the motive of all this struggle--a majestic -chorale melody, scored with the strings in all their resonance, a -song at once of battle and of devotion, a melody for whose equal we -must go to Beethoven and Wagner. _En Saga_, the earliest of the great -nationalistic works, is without a definite program, but is dramatic in -the highest degree. It is a masterpiece of free form, with its long, -swelling climaxes and passionate adagios, surrounded by a haze of -shimmering tone-color, as though the bard were singing his story among -the fogs of the northern cliffs. The national character of these works -is quite as marked in their themes as in their subject-matter. Sibelius -is fond of the strange rhythms of the old times--3/4, 7/4, 2/2, or 3/2 -time. His accent is almost crudely exaggerated. His original themes are -so true to the national character that they seem made of one piece with -the folk-tunes. The mood of these works is rarely gay; the animation -is primitive and savage. The prevailing spirit is one of loneliness -and gloom. In the symphonic poems, which grow increasingly free in -harmony, we see in all its glory the orchestral scoring which is one of -Sibelius's chief claims to fame. It is no mere virtuoso brilliancy, as -is often the case with Rimsky-Korsakoff. It is always an accentuation -of the character of the music with the character of the tone of the -instrument chosen. It is color from a heavy palette, chosen chiefly -from the deeper shades, showing its contrast in modulation of tones -rather than high lights, yet kept always free of the turgid and muddy. - -The same qualities are shown in the four symphonies. Of these the last -is a thing of revolutionary import--a daring work whose full meaning -to the future of music has not begun to be appreciated. The other -three are perhaps less symphonies than symphonic rhapsodies. They seem -to imply a program, being filled with episodes, dramatic, epic, and -lyrical, interspersed with recitative and legend-like passages. But, -however free the form, the architecture is cogent. In his development -work Sibelius is always masterly. Some of the passages, like the main -theme of the first movement of the first symphony, or the slow movement -from the same, are amazing in their imaginative power and beauty. The -fourth symphony is a work apart. In the first and second movements the -harmony is quite as radical as anything in modern German or French -music. It is, in fact, hardly harmony at all, but the free interplay of -monophonic voices. - - [Illustration: Jean Sibelius] - _After a photo from life (1913)_ - -From this method, which at the present moment is almost Sibelius's -private property, the composer extracts a quality of poetry which is -impressive in its suggestions of great things beyond. - -Some of Sibelius's best music has been written to accompany dramatic -performances. That for Adolph Paul's play, 'King Christian II,' -has been widely played as an orchestral suite. The introduction is -especially fine. The warm and sweetly melancholy nocturne, the 'Elegy' -for strings, and the profoundly moving Dance of Death are all movements -of rare beauty. The lovely _Valse Triste_, a mimic drama in itself, -written for Järnefelt's play, _Kuolema_, has carried his reputation -far and wide, as the C sharp minor prelude carried Rachmaninoff's, or -the 'Melody in F' Rubinstein's. There are, further, two orchestral -suites from the accompanying music to Maeterlinck's 'Pelléas and -Mélisande,' and Procopé's 'Belshazzar's Feast.' For orchestra we may -further mention the _Karelia_ Overture, the _Scènes historiques_, the -Dance-Intermezzo, 'Pan and Echo,' the melancholy waltzes to accompany -Strindberg's 'Snowwhite,' the two canzonettas for small orchestras, the -Romance in C major for string orchestra, the short symphonic poem, 'The -Dryads,' and the Funeral march. - -The violin concerto, one of the most difficult of the kind in -existence, has already gained its place among the standard concert -pieces for the instrument. It shows deep feeling and national color, -especially in the rhythmically vigorous finale. The string quartet, -_Voces Intimæ_, opus 56, is a masterly work in a reserved style. The -first three movements are said to have as a sort of program certain -chapters from Swedenborg. The piano music is generally on a lower -plane. To a great extent it recalls Schumann and Tschaikowsky; in -such works as the _Characterstücke_, opera 5, 24, 41, and 58, in the -sonatina, opus 67, and in the rondinos, opus 68, we find little that -can be called original. But we must remember that in these pieces -Sibelius was writing music to appeal to the people, and has succeeded -to a remarkable degree in raising the general standard of taste in -his native land. For his most personal piano work we must look to -his transcriptions of Finnish tunes, especially 'The Fratricide' and -'Evening Comes.' - -In his songs for solo voice Sibelius has achieved remarkable things. -The remarkable 'Autumn Evening' is a sort of free recitative, always -verging on melody, accompanied by suggestive descriptive figures in the -piano part. Here we see in germ one of his most important contributions -to modern music--an emphasis on expressive monody. The ballad, _Des -Fahrmanns Braut_, which has been arranged for orchestral accompaniment, -is weaker musically, but shows the same genius for expressive melodic -recitative. And not the least important and characteristic part of -Sibelius's work has been in the form of male choruses. Of these we may -mention 'The Origin of Fire' and 'The Imprisoned Queen,' both with -orchestral accompaniment, and, above all, the magnificent 'Song of the -Athenians,' which has come to have a national significance among the -Finns. As we look over this remarkable list of works, from the great -symphonic forms down to brief songs, and note the quantity of germinal -originality they contain, their high poetry, their universal beauty and -intense national expression, we must adjudge Sibelius to be a master -with a creative vitality which cannot be matched by more than half a -dozen composers writing to-day. - - H. K. M. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[10] See Chapter IV. - -[11] Walter Niemann: _Die Musik Skandinaviens_. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - THE RUSSIAN NATIONALISTS - - The founders of the 'Neo-Russian' Nationalistic School: - Balakireff; Borodine--Moussorgsky--Rimsky-Korsakoff, his life - and works--César Cui and other nationalists, Napravnik, etc. - - - I - -The most significant phase in the history of Russian music is that -which represents the activity of the Balakireff group and the founders -of the St. Petersburg Free School of Music. This belongs to the middle -of the past century, when the seed sown by Glinka, Dargomijsky and -partly by Bortniansky began to bear its first fruits. Up to that time -the question of Russian national music had not been aroused. The -country was dominated either by German or the Italian musical ideals. -Art, particularly music, was in every direction aristocratic, academic, -and pedantically ecclesiastic. The ruling class was foreign to the core -and followed literally the timely æsthetic fads of other countries. The -idea that there could be any art in the life of a moujik was ridiculed -and flatly denied. _O, Bóje sohraní!_ a patron of music would exclaim -at any attempts at a national music. - -To the middle class and the common people the admission to high-class -musical performances and the opera was legally denied. The concerts -of the Imperial Musical Society and the performances of the Imperial -Opera were meant only for the _élite_, and the direction of those -institutions was in the hands of bureaucratic foreigners. It was at -a critical moment that Balakireff, who had come as a young lawyer -from Nijny Novgorod to St. Petersburg, laid the foundation of the Free -School of Music. This institution was meant to train young Russians, -to arouse in them an enthusiasm for the possibilities latent in their -native music, and at the same time to arrange free concerts for the -people and perform the works of those native composers who were -turned away by the existing organizations. Founded by Balakireff, -the composer, Lomakin, the talented choirmaster, and Stassoff, the -celebrated critic, the free school became the institution of Borodine, -Moussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakoff. Balakireff, Borodine and Moussorgsky -can be considered as the real founders of the Russian 'realistic' -school of music, if not the pioneers of a new musical art movement -altogether. Upon their principles and examples rest the original vigor -and the subjective glamour of all subsequent Russian music. The vague -initiative given by Glinka and Dargomijsky underwent a thorough process -of reconstruction at the hands of these three reformers; the stamp -set by them upon the Russian music is as unique and as lasting as the -semi-oriental spirit that permeates Russian life and character with its -exotic magic. - -The ideal of building up an art out of national material seemed to -hang in the air, for this was the time of a great national awakening -in Russia. Gogol, Lermontov, Pushkin, Dostoievsky, and Turgenieff in -poetry and fiction, Griboiedoff and Ostrovsky in the drama, Stassoff, -Hertzen, and Mihailovsky in critical literature, and the revolutionary -movement of the so-called _narodno-volts_ in politics were all symptoms -of a vigorous reform period. It should be noted that in this great -and far-reaching movement the Russian church, with all its seeming -supremacy, exercised but little influence over matters of art and -literature. While the church in Western Europe was aristocratic in -its institutions, in Russia it remained throughout the centuries -democratic. A Russian clergyman has remained nothing but a more or -less refined moujik, a man who lives the life of the common people and -associates with the people. As such he has never been antagonistic to -the spirit of the common people, as far as their æsthetic tendencies -and traditions are concerned. He has never tried to make art an issue -of the church. Music, less than any other of the arts, has never been -influenced in any way by ecclesiastical interests. No instrumental -music of any kind has ever been performed in Russian churches. Hence, -unlike those of Western Europe, Russian composers never came under the -sway of the church. The western church was, as we have seen, originally -opposed to the influence of folk music. In Russia, on the other hand, -it favored any assertion of the people's individuality. It was, -therefore, unlike the aristocratic classes, sympathetic to such a work -as that which the Free School of Music made the object of its existence. - -Before treating the works of the three great Russian reformers -individually we may remark that none of them made music his sole -profession. Balakireff was sufficiently well off to devote himself to -his art without thought of material gain. Borodine earned his living -as a scholar and pedagogue, and so maintained his independence as a -composer. Moussorgsky alone felt the pinch of poverty; his official -duties were strenuous and left him little leisure for composition. Yet, -like his colleagues, he never compromised with public taste. - -The real initiator of this new movement, Mily Alekseyevitch Balakireff, -was born at Nijny Novgorod in 1837. He studied law at the University -of Kazan, though music was his hobby from early childhood on. His -musical ideals were Mozart, Beethoven, and Berlioz. During one of his -summer vacations Balakireff met in the country near Nijny Novogorod a -certain Mr. Oulibitcheff, a retired diplomat and friend of Glinka, an -accomplished musician himself and thoroughly familiar with the classic -composers of every country. It was he who converted Balakireff to the -idea that Russia should have its own music, and that the lines to be -followed should be those indicated by Glinka. With an introduction to -that apostle of nationalism Balakireff journeyed to St. Petersburg in -1855. He found the city under the spell of German and Italian music, -and the masses limited to the musical enjoyment to be derived from -military bands and boulevard artists. With all the youthful energy at -his command Balakireff set himself to combat the foreign influence and -advance nationalistic ideas of music. - -Balakireff was an artist such as perhaps only Russia can produce. -Without really systematic study he was an accomplished musician -theoretically and practically. No existing method could measure up -to his ideas of musical study. He had mastered the classics and -made their technique his own; his contemporaries he approached in a -critical spirit, appropriating what was good and rejecting what he -considered wrong. His watchword was individual liberty. 'I believe in -the subjective, not in the objective power of music,' he said to his -pupils. 'Objective music may strike us with its brilliancy, but its -achievement remains the handiwork of a mediocre talent. Mediocre or -merely talented musicians are eager to produce _effects_, but the ideal -of a genius is to reproduce his very self, in unison with the object -of his art. There is no doubt that art requires technique, but it must -be absolutely unconscious and individual.... Often the greatest pieces -of art are rather rude technically, but they grip the soul and command -attention for intrinsic values. This is apparent in the works of -Michelangelo, of Shakespeare, of Turgenieff, and of Mozart. The beauty -that fascinates us most is that which is most individual. I regard -technique as a necessary but subservient element. It may, however, -become dangerous and kill individuality as it has done with those -favorites of our public, whose virtuosity I despise more than mere -crudities.' - -The man who launched such a theory at a time when the rest of the world -was merged in admiration of Wagner and his technique was an interesting -combination of a scholar, poet, revolutionist, and agitator. -Wagner, Rubinstein, and Tschaikowsky were technicians in his eyes, -whose creative power moved merely in the old-fashioned channels of -classicism. Of the rest of his contemporaries Liszt was the only genius -worthy of attention. Between Balakireff, Rubinstein, and Tschaikowsky -there was continual strife.[12] Rubinstein headed the newly founded -Imperial Conservatory, Balakireff his Free School of Music. On -Rubinstein's side were the members of high society, the music critics -and the bureaucratic power. Balakireff and his group of young composers -were outcasts. Music critics and public opinion stamped him a conceited -dilettante, only a handful of intellectuals subscribed to his creed. - -Balakireff's first composition was a fantasia on Russian themes for -piano and orchestra, which he afterward rearranged for an orchestral -overture. In 1861 he composed the music to 'King Lear,' which is his -only work of a dramatic character. An opera, 'The Golden Bird,' which -he commenced some years later, was never completed. One of the most -significant of Balakireff's early works is the symphonic poem 'Russia,' -commemorating the thousandth anniversary of the inauguration of the -Russian empire by Rurik. That his own works are rather limited in -number is explained by the fact that he spent most of his best years -in organizing his campaign and in criticising the compositions of his -followers. The symphonic poem 'Tamara,' some twenty songs and ballades, -'Islamey,' an oriental fantasy for piano, which was one of the most -cherished numbers in Liszt's repertoire, and his symphonic poem -'Bohemia' represent the best fruits of his genius. His First and Second -Symphonies are very beautiful, original and Russian in feeling, but -they have somehow remained behind his above-mentioned works. Very fiery -and popular are his two concertos, the Spanish Overture and a number of -dances. 'Tamara' is a real gem of oriental wickedness and fascination. - -In 1869 Balakireff was appointed conductor of the Imperial Musical -Society and later of the court choir. In 1874 he retired from the -directorship of the Free School of Music and the post was taken over -by Rimsky-Korsakoff. From this time until his death Balakireff lived -in seclusion in his comfortable home in St. Petersburg and avoided -society. He died in 1910, having outlived all his contemporaries and -many of his pupils. The last period of his life was overshadowed by -a strange mystic obsession which caused him to destroy many of his -compositions. - -An artist of wholly different cast was Alexander Porphyrievitch -Borodine. While Balakireff was the positive type of an active man, a -born organizer and agitator, Borodine was a dreamer and tender-souled -poet, the true Bohemian of his time. He was a most remarkable -combination of very unusual abilities: Borodine the surgeon and -doctor enjoyed a nation-wide reputation; Borodine the chemist made -many valuable discoveries and wrote treatises which were recognized -universally as remarkable contributions to science; Borodine the -philanthropist and educator was tireless from early morning till night; -Borodine the flutist, violinist, and pianist rivalled the best virtuosi -of his time; and Borodine the composer was, according to Liszt, one of -the most gifted orchestral masters of the nineteenth century. - -Here is what Borodine writes of his visit to the hero of Weimar in -1877: 'Scarcely had I sent my card in when there arose before me, as -though out of the ground, a long black frock-coat, and long white hair. -"You have written a fine symphony," he began in a resonant voice. "I -am delighted to see you. Only two days ago I played your symphony to -the grand duke, who was wholly charmed with it. The first movement is -perfect. Your andante is a masterpiece. The scherzo is enchanting, and -then, this passage is wonderful--great!"' This was his Second Symphony, -which Felix Weingartner has called one of the most beautiful orchestral -works ever written. - -Under what circumstances he produced his enchanting beauties is best -evidenced from one of his letters to his wife in 1873: 'Thursday I -gave two lectures for women [on surgery], received clothes sent from -the institution, had a letter from Butleroff to take dinner with him -and then to attend the meeting of the chemists. I brought there all my -material and gave an account of my experiments. Then, Mendeleyev [the -famous chemist] took me to his house. I worked this morning as usual, -took dinner with Miety at Sorokina. Then Raida and Kleopatra called on -me to request space for a sick man in the hospital.' - -Who would believe that a man of such a versatile nature was at the -same time one of the finest composers and musicians of his generation? -In another letter to his wife he writes how he rushes madly from his -laboratory to his musical study, sits furiously at the piano and starts -to pour out the musical ideas that have haunted him day and night. His -friends thought he would never be able to continue such a triple life -for any length of time and urged him to devote himself merely to music. -But to him this change of thought and work seemed a recreation and he -lived in this very turmoil until he died. - -Borodine was born in St. Petersburg in 1834. His father was Prince -Gedeanoff, a descendant of the hereditary rulers of the kingdom of -Imeretia in the Caucasus, and his mother, Mme. Kleineke, the widow of -an army doctor in Narva. Borodine's oriental tendency can be traced -back through his family. His nationalism was truly spontaneous and -genuine, in spite of the fact that, unlike his colleagues, Balakireff -and Moussorgsky, he never had an opportunity to come in contact with -the peasantry. Borodine's nationalism is a product of heredity and owes -nothing to environment. - -Having studied medicine in the famous Military Surgery School in St. -Petersburg, Borodine became a professor in the same institution after -a short practice as a surgeon in various hospitals of the capital. -He was, even as a student in college, an accomplished virtuoso in -music. At the age of eighteen he had composed a concerto for violin -and piano. But his real musical creative activity started when he met -Balakireff and the members of his circle, to whom he was introduced -by Moussorgsky, then a young officer of the guard in the military -hospital. Though filled with Balakireff's ideals, Borodine was not -close to his teacher. Balakireff's ideas were grand in outline, but -rather rough in detail; Borodine's preferences were toward refinement -in detail and melodic form. Though the opera 'Prince Igor' may be -considered Borodine's masterpiece, he has enriched Russian musical -literature by exquisite examples of orchestral composition--of which -his Second Symphony and the symphonic poem 'In Steppes of Central Asia' -are the best--chamber music, songs and dances. Borodine's orchestral -compositions excel in richness of coloring and in the dramatic vigor of -his melodies. Withal he has an almost mathematical mastery of form and -style. - -From all his works emanates a distinctly lyric Slavic-Oriental glow of -sound--brilliant, passionate, gay, and painful in turns. In the words -of a modern Russian composer, 'it is individually descriptive and -extremely modern--so modern that the audiences of to-day will not be -able to grasp all its intrinsic beauties.' - -In 'Prince Igor' Borodine has produced a work that has nothing in -common with either Italian or German operas. He employs a libretto -of legendary character, such as Wagner used for his operas, but in -construction and style he follows the very opposite direction of the -German master. The dramatic plot is almost lacking in the conventional -sense, but the interest of the audience is kept in suspense by means of -a unique musical beauty, by stage effects and the dramatic truth that -shows itself in every detail of the action. - -As compared with Balakireff and Moussorgsky, Borodine was an -aristocratic figure in thought and inclination. He was more chivalrous -and lyric in his style and more imaginative in his form, therefore less -dramatic and less elemental. Borodine's great significance for Russian -music lies in his individual form of melodic thought and the relation -of that thought to human life. His realism verged on the point of -impressionistic symbolism, in which he surpassed both Balakireff and -Moussorgsky. He gave to Russian music new forms of romantic realism, -forms that have been used and perfected by the composers who have -followed him. Unlike Balakireff and Moussorgsky, Borodine was married -and lived a happy family life. He died suddenly at a costume-ball in -St. Petersburg in 1887. - - - II - -Of all artists one of the most fought and ridiculed, the least -recognized and a figure almost ignored, yet doubtless the greatest -personality in Russian musical history, was Modest Petrovitch -Moussorgsky. It has remained for the present generation, especially -for men like Rimsky-Korsakoff, Claude Debussy, Richard Strauss, and -Hugo Wolf, to appreciate this most original musical genius of the -last century. Rubinstein and Tschaikowsky spoke of Moussorgsky as of -a talented musical heretic, regarding his compositions as the result -of accidental inspiration, crude in their workmanship and primitive in -their form. Though his name was known through Russia to some extent, -especially after Rimsky-Korsakoff had secured for him some professional -success, he remained always a minor character. This lasted until the -beginning of this century, when a celebrated foreign composer came out -publicly and said: 'What Shakespeare did in dramatic poetry Moussorgsky -accomplished in vocal music. The Shakespearian breadth and power of -his compositions are so original that he is still too great to be -appreciated, even in this generation. A century may pass before he -will be fully understood by composers and music lovers generally. His -misfortune was that he composed music two hundred years ahead of his -time.' After this the whole atmosphere changed. A cult of Moussorgsky -was started at home and abroad. The public began to dig out the tragic -chapters of his life little by little and the neglected genius of -Moussorgsky loomed up to an extraordinary height, as is usually the -case when the sentiments of the public are stirred. However, this cult -of Moussorgsky is merely a timely fad and adds nothing to his real -greatness. - -After the composer had met bitter opposition where he had expected -enthusiastic appreciation he wrote to Balakireff: 'I do not consider -music an abstract element of our æsthetic emotions, but a living art, -which, going hand in hand with poetry and drama, shall express the very -soul of human life and feeling. The academic composers and the people -who have grown to love the musical classics take my works for eccentric -and amateurish. This is all because I lack the high academic air and do -not follow the conventional way. But why should I imitate others when -there is so much within myself that is my own? My idea is that every -tone should express a word. Music to me is speech without words.' - -Moussorgsky's music reminds us so much of the poetry of Walt Whitman -that we cannot but regard these two geniuses of two different worlds as -intimately related to each other. - - 'Composers! mighty maestros! - And you sweet singers of old lands, Soprani, tenori, bassi! - To you a new bard caroling in the west - Obeissant sends his love.' - -Like Whitman, Moussorgsky broke loose from the conventional rhythm and -verse. Most of his compositions are set to his own words and librettos, -in a kind of poetic prose. He said plainly that he never cared for -verse for his compositions, but merely for a dramatic story to carry a -certain thought. 'Thoughts and words fascinate me more than rhythm and -poetic technique,' he used to say. Every piece of his work bears the -stamp of his individuality; every chord of his music breathes power -and inspiration. It was not a notion to be original that actuated him, -but the irresistible necessity to pour out what came to life in his -creative soul and temperament. In his autobiography Moussorgsky writes -characteristically: - -'By virtue of his views and music and of the nature of his compositions -Moussorgsky stands apart from all existing types of musicians. The -creed of his artistic faith is as follows: Art is a means of human -intercourse and not in itself an end. The whole of his creative -activity was dictated by this guiding principle. Convinced that human -speech is strictly governed by musical laws, Moussorgsky considered -that the musical reproductions, not of isolated manifestations of -sensibility, but of articulate humanity as a whole, is the function -of his art. He holds that in the domain of the musical art reformers -such as Palestrina, Bach, Berlioz, Gluck, Beethoven, and Liszt have -created certain artistic laws; but he does not consider these laws -as immutable, holding them to be strictly subject to conditions of -evolution and progress no less than the whole world of thought.' - -Moussorgsky's life was no less unique than his thoughts and works. He -was born in 1831 in the village of Kareva in the province of Pskoff, -the son of a retired judicial functionary. He inherited the gift of -music from his mother and from his father the gift of poetry. At the -age of ten he was sent to a military school in St. Petersburg, where -he remained until 1856, when he became an officer of the Preobrajensky -Guard Regiment in St. Petersburg. A handsome young man of chivalrous -manners, he became the romantic hero of the _beau monde_ of St. -Petersburg. His musical studies, begun in the college, were taken up -more systematically and energetically after he became an officer. As -a sentinel in the military hospital he met Borodine, the surgeon, and -the two passionate lovers of music soon grew to be intimate friends. It -was through Borodine that he heard of Balakireff, in whose Free School -of Music he at once became a student. Already in 1858 he composed his -first orchestral work, 'Scherzo,' which was performed two years later -by Balakireff's orchestra. - -In 1859 Moussorgsky resigned from the army with the idea of living for -his music alone, but, lacking a systematic musical education, he found -himself an outcast. He was treated as a dilettante by the professional -musicians and the patrons of music, and this closed the way to -earning a living by his art and getting his compositions published or -produced. The situation made him desperate and he was glad to accept a -clerkship, first in the Department of Finance, later in the office of -the Imperial Comptroller. The salary was small and the work hard; he -could only compose during the evenings and on festival days. This made -him bitter about his future. It is rather strange that even Balakireff -did not wholly understand Moussorgsky's genius when he joined the -circle, for Rimsky-Korsakoff writes in his memoirs that Moussorgsky -was always treated as the least talented of all. This was on account -of the peculiarly passive frame of mind into which the composer had -fallen after leaving the army. He even changed in his appearance and -manners. The once handsome, chivalrous young social hero was suddenly -transformed into a dreamy vagabond, who cared nothing for manners and -appearances. - -Moussorgsky's masterpieces are his three song cycles of about twenty -numbers each, his few orchestral compositions and his two operas, -_Boris Godounoff_ and _Khovanshchina_. There is hardly a work by -another composer which has upon the listener such a ghastly, hypnotic -effect as some of these works of Moussorgsky. Every chord of them is -like a gripping, invisible finger. His cycle of 'Death Dances,' of -which _Trepak_ is the most popular, are knocks at the very gates of -death, written in the weird rhythms of old Russian peasant dances. In -this work he makes the listener realize the indifference of nature to -human fate. 'Snow fields in silence--so cold is the night! And the icy -north wind is wailing, brokenly sobbing, as though a ghastly dirge. -Over the graves it is chanting. Lo! O behold. Through the night a -strange pair approaches; death holds an old peasant in his clutches.' -Thus sings the composer in the epilogue. The starved peasant is frozen -under the snow. But then the sun shines warmer; spring comes into the -land. The icy fields change into flourishing meadows, the lark soars -to the sky and nature continues its everlasting alternate play as if -individual joys and sorrows never existed. - -The descriptive power of Moussorgsky's vocal compositions is -marvellously realistic, and of this his songs of the second and third -active period of his life, such as 'Peasant Cradle Song,' 'Children -Songs,' 'Serenade,' and _Polkovodets_, give the best illustration. In -the first named composition not only does he visualize the rocking of -the cradle, accompanied by a sweet melody, but he also draws, with a -remarkable power, the interior of a peasant's hut, the mother bending -with tenderness over her child; her sigh and dreaming of his future; -the child's breathing and the ticking of a primitive old watch on the -wall. One can almost see the details of an idyllic lonely Russian -village. But Moussorgsky is not only powerful in his gloomy and -melancholy tone pictures, in which he depicts the hopeless situation -of the Russian people in their struggle for freedom; he is also great -in his humorous, gay songs. _Hopak_, _Pirushki_, _Po Griby_, and the -'Children Songs' are full of exultant humor, naughtiness or joy. How -well he could make music a satire is proved by 'Classic,' 'Raek,' and -others, in which pedantic academicism is caricatured in ironic chords. -Moussorgsky's musical activity may be divided into three periods: -First, from 1858 until 1865, when, more or less under the influence -of Dargomijsky, he composed 'Edip,' 'Saul,' _Salâmmbo_, 'Intermezzo,' -'Prelude,' and 'Menuette'; second, from 1865 until 1875, when he was -independent and wrote the 'Death Dances,' 'Children Songs,' _Boris -Godounoff_, _Khovanshchina_, etc.; and the third, during which he -composed the 'Song of Mephisto.' The works of his second period are -overwhelming in their elemental power and boldness of treatment. In -them he surpasses all Russian composers up to his time. - -_Boris Godounoff_, finished in 1870, was performed four years later -in the Imperial Opera House. The libretto of this opera he took from -the poetic drama of Pushkin, but he changed it, eliminating much and -adding new scenes here and there, so that as a whole it is his own -creation. In this work Moussorgsky went against the foreign classic -opera in conception as well as in construction. It is a typically -Russian musical drama, with all the richness of Slavic colors, true -Byzantine atmosphere and characters of the medieval ages. Based on -Russian history of about the middle of the seventeenth century, when -an adventurous regent ascends the throne and when the court is full of -intrigues, its theme stands apart from all other operas. The music is -more or less, like many of Moussorgsky's songs, written in imitation -of the old folk-songs, folk dances, ceremonial chants, and festival -tunes. Foreign critics have considered the opera as a piece constructed -of folk melodies. But this is not the case. There is not a single folk -melody in _Boris Godounoff_, every phrase is the original creation of -Moussorgsky. - -Although there is nothing in the symphonic development of _Boris -Godounoff_ which approaches the complexities of Wagnerian music drama, -the leading motives are quite definitely associated with the characters -and emotions of the drama. Noteworthy features in the realm of musical -suggestion are those of the music accompanying the hallucinations of -Boris, where Moussorgsky forsakes the conventional custom of employing -the heavy brass and reproduces the frenzy in musical terms by means of -downward chromatic passage played tremolo by strings--an effect which -succeeds because it has a far more direct appeal to the nerves of the -listener than the more abstract commentary of the German operatic -masters. - -Moussorgsky's second opera, _Khovanshchina_, which was finished by -Rimsky-Korsakoff after the death of the composer, is in its subject and -broad style far superior to 'Boris,' especially because of its more -powerful symbolism and exalted pathos. But the music, particularly in -the last unfinished acts, lacks the originality and grip of his early -opera. If he had been able to work out this opera under more favorable -circumstances it would have caught more faithfully the psychology of a -nation's life and history in a nutshell of music than anything written -before or later for the stage. Moussorgsky also wrote a comic opera, -'The Fair at Sorotchinsk,' which was partly orchestrated and finished -by Sahnovsky and Liadoff and performed for the first time in the Spring -of 1914. - -Moussorgsky's perpetual misery, overwork, and the thought that his -compositions would be hardly understood and recognized during his -lifetime made him so gloomy and desperate that he drifted away from -Balakireff's circle. For some time he lived at the country place of his -brother, and when he returned to St. Petersburg he tried to overcome -the haunting thoughts, but in vain. He began to avoid all society and -everything conventional. In the meanwhile his _Boris Godounoff_ had -been given with great success on the stage. Yet the academic circles -would not recognize him in spite of this public success. The man's -pride was touched and he felt unhappy about everything he had done. -His only contentment he found in playing his works for himself and in -associating with the common people in dram shops, which he visited -with dire results. Shunning every intelligent circle and society, he -grew melancholy, and his mental and physical health was seriously -affected. - - [Illustration] - - Russian Nationalists: - - Modest Moussorgsky Mily Balakireff - Alexander Borodine Nicholas Rimsky-Korsakoff - -In 1868 Moussorgsky began to write an opera to the libretto of Gogol's -drama 'Marriage.' This, however, he never finished. He wrote quite -a number of powerful orchestral works of which his 'Intermezzo,' -'Prelude,' and _Menuette Monstre_ are the most typical of all. Having -composed several piano pieces and orchestral works with little -satisfaction to himself, he decided to devote himself only to vocal -music. The period from 1865 to 1875 was the most productive part of his -life. During these ten years he composed his 'Hamlet' songs, ballads, -romances, and operas, every one of which is more or less original and -hypnotizing in its own way. - -Moussorgsky's letters to his brother throw a remarkable light on his -unique nature and the change that took place in his mind in regard to -his social environment. They are partly ironic, bitter expressions upon -modern civilization and its wrong standards. Moussorgsky died in 1881 -in the Nicholaevsky Military Hospital at the age of forty-two and asked -the nurse that instead of a mass in church his 'Death Dance' be played -for him by a few of his admirers. - - - III - -The most widely known of the 'neo-Russian' group, outside of Russia, -was Nicholas Andreievich Rimsky-Korsakoff. This man, the most prolific -and the most expert of the group, proved himself in some ways one -of the supreme masters of modern music. His command over harmonic -color-painting and his astonishing mastery over all details of modern -orchestration have made him a teacher to the composers of all nations. - -Rimsky-Korsakoff was born March 18, 1844, at Tikvin in the department -of Novgorod. On his father's estate he received all the advantages -of a childhood in the open air, and of the best education available. -From the four musicians who furnished music for the family dances he -received his first initiation into the art of his later years. When -he was six he received his first piano lessons, and when he was nine -he was already composing pieces of his own. But it was in the family -tradition that the sons should enter the navy, so when he was but -twelve years of age the boy went to the St. Petersburg Naval School -and entered the long required course. He did not, however, give up -his music during this period; he worked hard at the piano and the -'cello, also receiving lessons in composition from Kanillé. But music -was comparatively meaningless in his life until, in 1861, he met -Balakireff, who had recently come to the capital to undertake the -musical spiritualization of his country. Under Balakireff he worked -for about a year, and during this time came into close contact with -the other members of the famous circle. The contact was profoundly -stimulating. 'They aired their opinions and criticized the giants of -the past,' says Mrs. Newmarch,[13] 'with a frankness and freedom that -was probably very naïve, and certainly scandalized their academic -elders. They adored Glinka; regarded Haydn and Mozart as old-fashioned; -admired Beethoven's latest quartets; thought Bach--of whom they could -have known little beyond the "Well Tempered Clavier"--a mathematician -rather than a musician; they were enthusiastic over Berlioz, while, -as yet, Liszt had not begun to influence them very greatly.' Of -these days the composer has written, 'I drank in all these ideas, -although I really had no grounds for accepting them, for I had only -heard fragments of many of the foreign works under discussion, and -afterwards I retailed them to my comrades at the naval school who were -interested in music as being my own convictions.'[14] - -Then, while Rimsky-Korsakoff's technique was still being molded, -while his ideals were unprecise and his appreciations fluid, he was -called away on a long cruise on the ship _Almaz_--a cruise which was -to last for three years and take him around the world. But with the -huge energy for which Russians are so notable, he decided to add music -to his regular official duties. He arranged that he was to send to -Balakireff from time to time the things he would write on shipboard, -and was to receive extended criticisms in return, to be picked up at -the harbors at which his ship should stop. Thus he would maintain -his active pupilship. The work which he managed to accomplish on -shipboard is astonishing. But Rimsky-Korsakoff was endowed with a -capacity for orderly and methodical work which enabled him in later -life to discharge all sorts of onerous artistic burdens and keep his -creative output undiminished in quantity. When he returned from the -cruise in 1865 he brought with him his Symphony No. 1, in E minor, -the first symphony to be written by a Russian. It was performed -under Balakireff's direction at one of the concerts of the Free -School of Music and made a favorable impression. For the next few -years the composer's life was chiefly centred in St. Petersburg, and -his association with the Balakireff group was once more resumed. In -this period, too, began his close friendship with Moussorgsky, which -continued until the latter's death. After composing the first Russian -symphony he produced the first Russian symphonic poem in _Sadko_, -opus 5, which revealed his marked power of musical narration and -scene-painting. Directly he followed with the 'Fantasy on Serbian -Tunes,' opus 6, which gave the first signs of his later brilliancy in -orchestration. This work attracted the attention of Tschaikowsky, who -became his ardent supporter and continued as a personal friend in spite -of the fact that the ideals of the two composers were so disparate that -close association was impossible. In 1870 Rimsky-Korsakoff began his -first opera, _Pskovitianka_ ('The Maid of Pskoff'), which was performed -early in 1873 and was well received. Soon afterwards he completed his -'Second Symphony,' which is in reality rather a symphonic poem--the -_Antar_, op. 9. - -This may be taken as closing one period of his creative activity. He -had entered music with all the lively nationalistic ideals of the -Balakireff group, and with its naïveté as to musical technique. Like -his associates, he had written chiefly in an intuitional fashion. -But in 1871 he accepted an invitation to teach at the St. Petersburg -Conservatory of Music. And he has recorded that in attempting to teach -the theory of music he became convinced that it was first necessary for -him to learn it. He became profoundly dissatisfied with his musical -achievement and set out deliberately to acquire an exhaustive knowledge -of musical technique by means of hard work. During one summer he wrote -innumerable exercises in counterpoint and sixty-four fugues, ten of -which he sent to Tschaikowsky for inspection. From this severe period -of self-tuition he emerged with a command of conventional musical -means unsurpassed in Russia, but without any essential loss either to -his individuality or to his nationalism. By some, Rimsky-Korsakoff's -recognition of his need for further technical learning has been -accepted as a recantation of his nationalistic principles. But it was -not this in reality, for his later operas are all drawn from national -sources and the folk-song continues to occupy a prominent place among -them. The enthusiasm for classical learning may have changed his -standards somewhat; many critics feel that the revision to which he -later submitted the Moussorgsky opera scores reveals a pedantic cast of -mind, a failure to appreciate the original genius of his friend. But, -on the other hand, his severe training gave him that fluent technique -which enabled him to accomplish such a great amount of work on such a -high plane of workmanship. - -In point of fact, Rimsky-Korsakoff 'recanted' nothing. His ideals and -his fundamental musical method had been formed in his early youth. -Balakireff's enthusiasm for folk-song never left him. The influence -of the early ocean cruise was in his work to the end. Among all -musicians Rimsky-Korsakoff is perhaps the greatest describer of the -sea. The effect of lonely days and nights out in the midst of the -swelling ocean, at a time when his adolescent senses were still deeply -impressionable--this we can trace again and again in his later music. -'What a thing to be thankful for is the naval profession!' he wrote -in a letter to Cui during the first voyage.[15] 'How glorious, how -agreeable, how elevating! Picture yourself sailing across the North -Sea. The sky is gray, murky, and colorless; the wind screeches through -the rigging; the ship pitches so that you can hardly keep your legs; -you are constantly besprinkled with spray and sometimes washed from -head to foot by a wave; you feel chilly and rather sick. Oh, a sailor's -life is really jolly!' We see here the effect of the out-of-door -activity on the young artist--that awakening of sensibilities to the -external life of nature, rather than the introspection of the thinker -who spends his time solely in the study of his art. It was this voyage, -surely, that chiefly helped to make Rimsky-Korsakoff so objective in -his music. He loves to describe the form and color of nature rather -than the experiences of the soul. He paints for us the life of the -senses. We recall the young naval officer in the mighty swell of the -ocean in _Scheherezade_. We cannot doubt the effect of this early -influence toward making Rimsky-Korsakoff the great story-teller of -modern music. - -His later life was an extremely active one. He retained his position -at the conservatory for many years, and numbered among his pupils some -of the most talented composers in modern Russian music--among them -Liadoff, Arensky, Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, Gretchaninoff, Tcherepnine, and -Stravinsky. He was an enthusiastic collector of national folk-tunes. -He revised, completed, arranged, or orchestrated many large works, -including operas by Moussorgsky, Borodine, and Glinka. He served for -many years as conductor of the concerts of the Free School, succeeding -Balakireff, and for a time was assistant director of the music at the -Imperial Chapel. A perquisite post as inspector of naval bands, given -him in 1873, enabled him to devote his time to music; for many years he -remained officially a servant of the government. After 1889 and up to -the time of his death in 1908 he wrote twelve operas, and at one period -was looked to to provide one dramatic work each year for one or another -of the great lyric theatres of Russia. Once or twice he was publicly -at odds with officialdom, at one time going so far as to resign his -professorship in the conservatory. But on the whole he was a figure of -whom Russia, both popular and official, was proud. His books on theory -and orchestration have long been standard. - -Rimsky-Korsakoff's works, in addition to the fifteen operas already -mentioned, include three symphonies (one of them the _Antar_), a -'Sinfonietta on Russian Themes,' several symphonic poems, including -the 'symphony' _Scheherezade_, the _Sadko_, and the 'Symphonic Tale' -founded on the prologue to Pushkin's 'Russlan and Ludmilla'; several -large orchestral works, including the famous 'Spanish Caprice,' the -'Fantasia on Serbian Themes,' and the 'Easter Overture'; a fine piano -concerto and a violin fantasia; some church music, a limited amount of -piano music and many songs. - -Rimsky-Korsakoff's operas are the staple of the Russian opera houses. -They are not works of such genius as those of Moussorgsky and Borodine, -but, taken together, they reveal a creative genius of a high order. -In general their style is lyric rather than declamatory, but in this -respect Rimsky-Korsakoff applied a wide variety of means to his -special problems. Some, like his first, 'The Maid of Pskoff,' follow -loosely the principles laid down by Dargomijsky in 'The Stone Guest,' -in which the libretto is regarded as a spoken text to be followed -with great literalness by the music. Others, like _Snegourotchka_, -are almost purely lyric in character. Yet another, 'Mozart and -Salieri,' is written in the style of the eighteenth century. But -in one way or another the national feeling is in all of them, and -folk-tunes are introduced freely with more or less literalness. -Though Rimsky-Korsakoff could occasionally reach heights of emotional -intensity (as in the last scene of 'The Maid of Pskoff'), his genius -is more properly lyrical and picturesque. The songs and pictures of -_Snegourotchka_ and _Sadko_, in which a huge variety of resource is -brought to achieve vividness and brilliancy of effect, are the work -of a rich imagination. The melody is supple and varied, the harmony -extremely expressive and colorful, but neither is so original as with -Moussorgsky. The orchestration, however, never fails to be masterful in -the highest degree. This suits admirably the legendary and picturesque -subjects which Rimsky-Korsakoff invariably chose. With only one or two -exceptions, his operas have held the stage steadily in Russia, and two -or three of them have become familiar, by frequent performances, to -foreign audiences. - -Among Rimsky-Korsakoff's other works the 'Spanish Caprice' and the -_Scheherezade_ symphony have become classics of the concert room. -The former is a virtuoso piece in brilliantly colored orchestration. -The other is one of the most successful musical stories ever told. -In these pieces he is working in his own field, that of national or -oriental color, made vivid by every device of the modern musician. When -he is composing in the more 'absolute' or classical forms, as in the -'Belaieff Quartet,' or the piano concerto, his inspiration seems to -wane. Mention should be made of the songs, which include some of the -most perfect in Russian literature, though in many the slender melody -is weighted down by the richness of the accompaniment. Finally, we -should not forget Rimsky-Korsakoff's great service to Russian church -music, which will be referred to later. - -From this brief outline we can see how great was the variety of his -activities. Very little that he did was undistinguished. When he was at -his best, in the exploitation of the resources of the modern orchestra, -in painting natural scenery, the sea or the woods, in narrating a story -of fairies or heroes, he was in the very front rank of composers of the -nineteenth century. - -In comparison with Moussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakoff was a conservative. -He inclined toward the sensuous and regular melody of Borodine, which -was always somewhat Italian. His harmony was far from revolutionary. -He can show us no pages like that wonderful page of Moussorgsky's, -introducing the Kremlin scene in _Boris Godounoff_, where the light -of the rising sun is painted striking the towers of the ancient -churches--a page which has become historic in connection with modern -French impressionism. On the whole, indeed, he seems rather timid -about venturing off the beaten path. His harmonic heterodoxies, -where they occur, are introduced discreetly, obtaining their -effect rather by their appropriateness than by their originality. -Nor was Rimsky-Korsakoff so instinctive a nationalist as either -Balakireff or Moussorgsky. In a great quantity of his music we find -nothing to mark it as Russian. But when we _listen_ to the music of -Rimsky-Korsakoff we feel that it is daring, novel, and exotic. The -striking difference between this music _seen_ and _heard_ is due -chiefly to the orchestration, which so glitters with strange colors -that we forget how orthodox the musical writing generally is. By tone -coloring the composer gives it qualities of pictorial suggestiveness -and Oriental strangeness which is quite lacking in the piano score. -Sometimes he even covers up musical poverty by his magnificent scoring; -the 'Spanish Rhapsody,' for instance, is a work of little inherent -originality, but is maintained on our concert programs because of its -inexpressible brilliancy of orchestration. If, on the whole, we find -Rimsky-Korsakoff's music thin, we must give due credit to the style -which enabled the composer to write a great quantity of music with easy -facility, while his taste kept him almost always above the level of -banality. - - - IV - -The fifth and last member of the nationalist group was César Cui, -the least distinctive and least important of the five. He occupied a -somewhat anomalous position in the movement. The son of a Frenchman, -he became an enthusiastic nationalist, being the first of Balakireff's -important converts. As a teacher in the Government Engineering School -in St. Petersburg he had little time for active composition, but -exerted great energy in defending the nationalist group in the press -and in pamphlets. In all Russia, with the single exception of Vladimir -Stassoff, there was no more vigorous and overbearing apologist of the -Russian school of composition. Yet his own music is hardly tinged with -Russian elements, being a compound of Schumann and of some of the -most superficial of the French composers, notably Auber. Though he was -undoubtedly a musician of considerable learning and much talent, he has -left nothing of much creative vigor. - -His father came to Russia with Napoleon's army, was wounded at -Smolensk, and later became a teacher of French in a private school -at Vilna, near Poland. Here, on January 18, 1835, César Antonovich -Cui was born. He received fairly good instruction in piano and violin -in his early years, and at the age of fifteen was sent to the School -of Military Engineering at St. Petersburg. Here, in a seven years' -course, he distinguished himself so that he was made sub-professor in -the school, and later became a specialist in military fortifications. -(The present czar was at one time his pupil.) All his life he gave -distinguished service in this capacity, and during the war that is -going on at this writing, though he is past eighty years of age, he is -taking a prominent part in the military defense of Russia. - -It was in 1856, when he was twenty-one years old, that he was -introduced to Balakireff. He immediately became fired with the latter's -enthusiasm for a Russian school of music. But his first works show -no signs of it. Some early piano pieces are written entirely in the -style of Schumann, and his first dramatic work, an operetta called -'The Mandarin's Son,' is a weak piece in the manner of Auber. His -first important opera, 'The Prisoner of the Caucasus,' finished about -this time though not performed until twenty years later, shows some -originality and an attempt at local color. Early in the 'sixties Cui -was at work on his opera 'William Ratcliff,' which established his -reputation. It was performed in the year 1869 at the Imperial Theatre, -St. Petersburg, and though coldly received at the time was revived -with considerable success many years later in Moscow. But Cui's chief -influence on the music of his time was exerted through his newspaper -articles, which stoutly championed the 'Big Five.' In these he showed -himself an able, but a somewhat dogmatic, commentator. He held his -ground successfully until the music of the new school had ceased to -depend on the written word for its prestige. His pamphlet, 'Music -in Russia,' was the chief source of knowledge of Russian composers -to the outside world for many years. Cui further helped the cause -among foreign lands through the performances of his operas in Belgium -and Paris. In fact, two of his later operas, 'The Filibusterer' and -_M'selle Fifi_, were composed to French texts. The opera 'Angelo,' -performed in 1876 and in some ways his strongest work, was also drawn -from a French source--a play by Victor Hugo. When we have mentioned -'The Saracen,' founded upon a work of Dumas, and 'The Feast in Plague -Time,' based on Pushkin, we have named all his works for the stage. In -these the dramatic element is always subordinate to the lyrical. The -harmony, though often meticulous, is rarely strong or original, and in -general the style is thin and conventional. But Cui had a rich fund of -melody, and in a few scenes, as in the love episodes in 'The Saracen,' -he succeeded to a notable degree in the expression of emotion. But it -is in Cui's songs and small pieces for violin and piano that he shows -his talent most markedly. Here his French feeling for nicety of form -and delicacy of effect revealed itself at its best. We feel that the -pieces were written by some lesser Schumann, but we admire the taste -and judgment displayed in their execution. Further, we must admire -Cui's confining himself to his own style of music. His enthusiasm for -and appreciation of the neo-Russian composers is unquestionable, and -he might have produced much flamboyant nonsense in trying to make -their style his own. As it is he has played an important part in the -development of Russian music, and displayed abilities which are by no -means to be overlooked. - -Before leaving the Russian nationalists we should mention several -composers of their generation who were not definitely allied with -them or with their school, but still demand mention in any history -of Russian music. Edward Franzovitch Napravnik was born August 12, -1839, in Bohemia, and moved to St. Petersburg in 1861. He had received -his musical education in his native country and in Paris, where he -studied organ and piano, and later taught. In St. Petersburg he took -charge of Prince Youssipoff's private orchestra, and thereafter became -intimately associated with the musical life of his adoptive country -and worked indefatigably for its improvement and independence. In 1863 -he was appointed organist to the Imperial theatres, and assistant to -the conductor. At the time of the latter's illness in 1869 he was -appointed conductor, and this post he held for nearly half a century. -He found Russian operatic life under the complete dominance of the -Italian influence and made every effort to shift the centre of gravity -toward native work. His productions of Glinka's, Tschaikowsky's, and -Rimsky-Korsakoff's operas were notable. He was always distinctly -hospitable to native work, and the subsequent triumph of Russian -musical expression was due in no small degree to his faith and energy. -He further built up the opera orchestra in St. Petersburg until it -became one of the best in all Europe, and restored to the opera house -its old brilliancy of performance. He was also an able and frequent -conductor of orchestral concerts in the capital. His compositions, -though many and varied, show chiefly French and Wagnerian influence, -and are not highly important. He has written four symphonies, among -them one with a program taken from Lermontov; several symphonic poems, -of which 'The Orient' is most important; three string quartets and a -quintet, two piano trios, a piano quartet, a sonata for violin and -piano, two suites for 'cello and piano, a piano concerto; fantasias on -Russian themes for piano and violin, all with orchestral accompaniment; -a suite for violin and numerous vocal and instrumental pieces in the -smaller forms. - -His operas, though they were never very popular, are perhaps the -most important part of his work. The first, 'The Citizens of -Nijny-Novgorod,' was produced at the Imperial Opera House in 1868. -It is somewhat in the style of Glinka, but is generally thin and -uninspired except in the choral parts, which make effective use of the -old church modes. 'Harold,' produced in 1886, is more Wagnerian in -form and dispenses with the effects which helped the former work to -its popularity. _Doubrovsky_, produced in 1895, is Napravnik's most -popular work; in it the lyric quality is again most prominent, and the -parts are written with expert skill for the singers. His last opera, -_Francesca da Rimini_, founded on Stephen Phillips' play, was first -presented in 1902. It is musically the most able of his works, though -highly reminiscent of the later Wagner. The music of the love scenes is -touching and expressive. On the whole, we find Napravnik's influence on -Russian music to be notable and salutary, and his original composition, -though not inspired, sincere and workmanlike. - -Paul Ivanovich Blaramberg (b. 1841), the son of a distinguished general -of French extraction, came early under the influence of the Balakireff -circle. But a number of years spent in foreign countries impressed -other influences on his style, so that his music vacillated from one -manner to another without striking any distinctive note. Blaramberg was -long active as a teacher of theory in the school of the Philharmonic -Society in Moscow. His works include a fantasia, 'The Dragon Flies,' -for solo, chorus, and orchestra; a musical sketch, 'On the Volga,' -for male chorus and orchestra; 'The Dying Gladiator,' a symphonic -poem; a symphony in B minor; a sinfonietta; a number of songs; and -five operas. His first opera, 'The Mummers,' founded on a comedy by -Ostrovsky, is a mingling of many styles, from the dramatic declamation -of Dargomijsky to the musical patter of opera buffa. 'The Roussalka -Maiden' contains many pages of marked lyric beauty, and 'Mary of -Burgundy' attains some musical force in the 'grand manner.' The last -opera, 'The Wave,' contains a number of pleasing melodies and not a -little effective 'oriental color.' - -J. N. Melgounoff (1846-1893) was a theorist rather than a composer -and had some part in the nationalistic movement through his close and -scientific study of folk-songs at a time when the cult of folk-song was -chiefly sentimental. A. Alpheraky (born 1846) was also a specialist -in folk-song, particularly those of the Ukrane, where he was born. -He composed a number of songs, as well as piano pieces, in which the -national feeling is evident. N. V. Lissenko (born 1842) was the author -of a number of operas popular in the Malo-Russian provinces. He was a -pupil of Rimsky-Korsakoff and set music to several texts drawn from -Gogol. - - I. N. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[12] It is rather interesting that, in spite of Balakireff's opposition to -Tschaikowsky's music, they remained good friends throughout their life. -Tschaikowsky even tried to follow Balakireff's method in his symphonic -poem 'Fatum,' which he dedicated to his friend. As the composition did -not please Balakireff, though he performed it for the first time, Tschaikowsky -destroyed it later and it was never published or performed again. -This is what Balakireff wrote to Tschaikowsky after his attempt at modern -composition: 'You are too little acquainted with modern music. You -will never learn freedom of form from the classic composers. They can -only give you what you already knew when you sat at the student's -benches.' As irritable as Tschaikowsky was in such critical matters, he -never took the expression of Balakireff in an offended spirit. How highly -Tschaikowsky appreciated Balakireff is evident from his letter to Mme. -von Meck: 'Balakireff's songs are actually little masterpieces and I am -passionately fond of them. There was a time when I could not listen to -his "Selim's Song" without tears in my eyes.'] - -[13] 'The Russian Opera.' - -[14] 'Reminiscences.' - -[15] Quoted by Mrs. Newmarch, _op. cit._ - - - - - CHAPTER V - THE MUSIC OF CONTEMPORARY RUSSIA - - The border nationalists: Alexander Glazounoff, Liadoff, - Liapounoff, etc.--The renaissance of Russian church music: - Kastalsky and Gretchaninoff--The new eclectics: Arensky, - Taneieff, Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, Glière, Rachmaninoff and - others--Scriabine and the radical foreign influence; Igor - Stravinsky. - - - I - -The influence of the 'neo-Russian' group did not continue in any -direct line. There is to-day no one representing the tendency in all -its purity. But there are a number of composers, originally pupils or -satellites of the Balakireff circle, who have carried something of -the nationalistic tendency into their style. Chief of these, perhaps, -is Alexander Constantinovich Glazounoff, one of the most facile and -brilliant of contemporary Russian writers for the orchestra. His early -career was brilliant in the extreme. He was born in St. Petersburg on -August 10, 1865, of an old and well-known family of publishers. In his -childhood he received excellent musical education and showed precocious -talents. At the age of fifteen he attracted the notice and received -the advice of Balakireff, who urged further study, and two years later -his first symphony was performed at a concert of the Free School. In -the following year he entered the university, continuing the lessons -he had begun under Rimsky-Korsakoff. The first symphony attracted the -attention of Liszt, who conducted it in 1884 at Weimar, and to whom a -second symphony, finished in 1886, was dedicated. Smaller works written -at this time show vivid pictorial and national tendencies. In 1889 -Glazounoff conducted a concert of Russian works, including his own, -at the Paris exposition, and was honored by the performance of a new -symphonic poem of his--_Stenka Razin_--in Berlin. The following years -brought more narrative or pictorial works--the orchestral fantasias -'The Forest' and 'The Sea,' the symphonic sketch 'A Slavonic Festival,' -an 'Oriental Rhapsody,' a symphonic tableau, 'The Kremlin,' and the -ballet 'Raymonda.' - -The last, which was finished in 1897, may be taken as marking the end -of Glazounoff's period of youthful romanticism. His work thereafter -was less bound to story or picture, more self-contained and notable -for architectural development. There are seven symphonies already to -be recorded, together with a violin concerto of the utmost brilliancy, -though of classical design. Among the other works of the later period -should be mentioned the Symphonic Prologue 'In Memory of Gogol,' a -Finnish fantasia, performed at Helsingfors in 1910; the symphonic -suite, 'The Middle Ages'; and another ballet, 'The Seasons.' There is -also not a little chamber music distinguished in form and execution, -and a quantity of songs of facile and graceful quality. Glazounoff is -now director of the St. Petersburg Conservatory. - -Obviously his early ideals were much influenced by Rimsky-Korsakoff -and by Balakireff, from whom he gained his first distinguished -encouragement. He responded to the romantic appeal of mediæval and -national fairy stories. He felt the grandeur of the sea and the poetry -of heroic legends. Thus in _Stenka Razin_ he tells of the Cossack -brigand whose death was foretold by his captive Persian princess and -who sacrificed her in expiation of his sins to the river Volga. But -it is evident that this romantic influence was not lasting. What he -chiefly learned from Rimsky-Korsakoff was not the picturing of nature -or of legendary beings, but the manipulation of the orchestra with the -utmost of brilliancy. In his later works this becomes only technical -virtuosity, dazzling but somewhat empty. His travels in foreign lands -impressed foreign ideals upon him. When we have given due credit to his -thoroughness of workmanship, his sensitive regard for form and balance, -the pregnant beauty of many of his themes, we still feel that he is -only a sublimated salon composer. - -Anatol Constantinovich Liadoff is another of Rimsky-Korsakoff's pupils -who has shown little enthusiasm for a distinctly nationalistic music. -He was born in St. Petersburg on April 29, 1855, of a musical family, -both his father and his uncle being members of the artistic staff of -the opera. He entered the violin class of the conservatory and was -chosen for Rimsky-Korsakoff's class in composition. His graduation -cantata was so fine that he was invited to become a teacher, and has -remained with the institution ever since. In 1893 he was appointed with -Liapounoff to undertake the collection of Russian folk-songs initiated -by the Imperial Geographical Society. His genius has shown itself -chiefly in the smaller forms, in which he has produced pieces for the -piano distinguished for perfection of form. His songs, especially those -for children, have had a wide popularity. There are a certain number -of genre pieces for the piano (e. g., 'In the Steppes,' opus 23) and -numerous pieces in the well known smaller forms, such as preludes, -études, and dances. The symphonic scherzo, _Baba Yaga_, telling of the -pranks of an old witch of children's folk-lore, is one of his ablest -works. We should also mention the orchestral legend, entitled 'The -Enchanted Lake,' opus 62; the 'Amazon's Dance,' opus 65; and the 'Last -Scene from Schiller's "Bride of Messina,"' opus 28, for mixed chorus -and orchestra. - -Sergei Mikhailovich Liapounoff was born on November 18, 1859, at -Yaroslav, and studied at the Imperial School of Music at Nijny-Novgorod -and at the Moscow Conservatory. Later he came under the influence -of Balakireff, who conducted the first performance of his 'Concert -Overture.' For some years he was assistant conductor at the Imperial -Chapel at St. Petersburg. He is best known by his piano pieces, chiefly -the fine Concerto in E flat minor, and the tremendously difficult -Études. His numerous lighter pieces for piano, among which are the -_Divertissements_, opus 35, have become exceedingly popular. His -songs show a strong national or oriental influence. His orchestral -compositions include a symphony, opus 12, the 'Solemn Overture on a -Russian Theme,' opus 7, and a symphonic poem, opus 37. Mention should -also be made of his rhapsody on Ukranian airs for piano and orchestra, -which is a further proof of his sensitive feeling for folk-song. - -Vasili Sergeievich Kallinikoff, born in 1866 in the department of -Orloff, was at the time of his death in 1900 one of the most promising -of the then younger Russian composers. He studied for eight years in -the school of the Moscow Philharmonic Society, and upon his graduation -became assistant conductor of the Moscow Private Opera. The oncoming -of consumption, however, forced him to take up his residence in the -Caucasus. His most extraordinary work was the first symphony, in -the key of G minor, which was finished in 1895 and went begging for -performance until it was given several years later in Kieff. Since -then it has figured as one of the most popular of Russian orchestral -works. The second symphony, in A major, is less distinguished. His -other orchestral works, showing great talent and considerable national -feeling, include two 'symphonic scenes,' 'The Nymphs' and 'The Cedars,' -and the incidental music to Alexander Tolstoy's play, 'Czar Boris,' -written for its performance at the Moscow Art Theatre in 1899. There -is also a cantata, _Ivan Damaskin_, and a ballad, _Roussalka_, for -solo, chorus and orchestra. Kallinikoff also left some songs, chamber -music and piano pieces. A marked originality is revealed in his best -work, but it was still immature when his final illness put an end to -creative activity. - -A. Spendiaroff is loosely associated with the neo-nationalists and -has acquired some little popularity with his orchestral works, 'The -Three Palms' and the 'Caucasian Sketches.' He shows a marked talent -of a pictorial order, and felicity in the invention of expressive -melody. But his technique is that of an age past, his method rings -always true to the conventional, and his musical content sounds all too -reminiscent. Ossip Ivanovich Wihtol, born in 1863 at Volnar, near the -Baltic Sea, has gained a distinctive position for himself as a worker -with Lettish themes. He was educated at the St. Petersburg Conservatory -and studied composition under Rimsky-Korsakoff. Until 1908 he was a -teacher of theory in this institution. His best works are those which -are connected with Lettish folk-music, notably the Symphonic Tableau, -opus 4; the Orchestral Suite, opus 29; and the Fantasia for violin, -opus 42. We should also mention the 'Dramatic Overture' and the -_Spriditis_ overture, the piano sonata, a string quartet, and a number -of songs and choruses--some _a cappella_ and some with orchestral -accompaniment. - - - II - -We have spoken several times of the absence of a true 'national -school' of Russian composition in present times. But this statement -must be amended. There is one school which represents in great purity -the cult of the national and has achieved notable results in its -work. This is the school of musicians who have undertaken to build -up a pure ritual music for the Russian church. This group is purely -national in character. It is the most intense contemporary expression -of the 'Slavophile' ideal in recent times. The neo-Russian group of -Balakireff was, it is true, only loosely connected with the Slavophile -or nationalistic political movement of its time, but its relation to -the 'Western' tendency of Tschaikowsky and Rubinstein is analogous -with that of the novelist Dostoievsky to Turgenieff. The renaissance -of Russian church music probably has a certain political significance, -for church and state have been traditionally close to one another -in the land of the czar. The Eastern church, like that of Rome, -suffered from the musical sentimentalism of the nineteenth century -and received a vast accretion of 'sacred' music which was flowery, -thin, and utterly unsacred in spirit. And like the Roman church it -made strenuous efforts to effect a reform, choosing as its basis the -traditional ecclesiastical modes. These, in the Eastern church, are -as rich and impressive as the Gregorian modes of Rome. The first -definite step was the establishment, in 1889, of the Synodical School -of Church Singing in Moscow, under the direction of C. V. Smolenski. -It was only a preparatory step, for, under the advice of Tschaikowsky -and Taneieff, it concentrated first upon the education of a number of -singers thoroughly grounded in musical art and theory. In 1898 the -school was enlarged and reformed, becoming a regular academy with a -nine-year course and offering a thorough training in every branch -of musical art, from sight reading up to composition. New methods -of teaching, introduced in 1897, brought the choral work up to an -unprecedented pitch of excellence, and a visit of the school choir to -Vienna in 1899 left a profound impression upon the outside world. The -school instituted, in addition to its regular theoretical studies, a -course in the history of church music and its use in contrapuntal -forms, and thus began the training of its own line of church composers, -of whom the most able is to-day P. G. Chesnikoff. V. C. Orloff, who -notably raised the standard of singing in the Metropolitan choir in -St. Petersburg, is now director of the school, and with the help of -the choral director, A. D. Kastalsky, has brought it to astonishing -efficiency. - -Kastalsky and Gretchaninoff have attained their eminence as composers -chiefly through their work in the renaissance of church music. The -former was born in 1856, received a regular preparatory school course, -and studied music in the Moscow Conservatory. In 1887 he became -teacher of piano at the Synodical school, and later of theory. He -has composed much for the ritual, basing his work on the old church -melodies and developing a style which is personal, yet in the highest -degree religious and impressive. His position in Russian ecclesiastical -music is now supreme. But in praising his work we should not forget to -mention that of his predecessors, who did much to preserve a decent -appropriateness for Russian church music in the dark days. Following -the great Bortniansky came G. F. Lyvovsky (1830-1894), who was educated -in the imperial choir and was later director of the Metropolitan choir -in St. Petersburg. He was a man of much talent, and, feeling the -approach of the new attitude toward sacred music, showed in his work -the transition from the old to the new. Other notable church composers, -both in the old and the new style, were A. A. Archangelsky (born 1846), -Taneieff, Arensky, and Rimsky-Korsakoff. - -But Gretchaninoff, though he has by no means given himself solely to -the composition of sacred music, has brought the greatest genius to -bear on it. He is no mere routineer and theorist. Some of his works for -the ritual will stand as among the most perfect specimens of sacred -music the world over. Combined with the greatest simplicity of method -is an exhaustive technical knowledge and a poetical feeling for the -noble and profound. It is he who has put into tones the supreme poetry -of worship. The profound impressiveness of this new sacred music in -performance is in part due to the traditional Eastern practice of -singing the ritual unaccompanied. This _a cappella_ tradition has -disciplined a generation of choirs to an accuracy of intonation which -is impossible where singers can depend upon the support of an organ. -Further, there is the marvellous Russian bass voice, sometimes going -as low as B-flat or A, which furnishes a 'pedal' support to the choir -and makes an accompanying instrument quite superfluous. The newer -church composers have not been slow in taking advantage of the striking -musical opportunities offered by this peculiar Slavic voice. As a -result of all these influences, the musical renaissance of the Eastern -church has been far more successful than the parallel awakening in -the Roman, and has produced a music and a tradition of church singing -incomparable in the world to-day for nobility and purity. - -Alexander Tikhonovich Gretchaninoff was born on October 13, 1864, in -Moscow, studied piano in the Moscow conservatory and went in 1890 to -St. Petersburg to enjoy the advantages of Rimsky-Korsakoff's teaching. -He early gained a prize with a string quartet, and became known in -foreign countries by his songs and chamber music. His style, outside -of his church music, is not especially national. He is inclined to -the lyrical, preferring Borodine to Moussorgsky, and throughout his -secular work shows German influence. His symphony in G minor, op. 6, -gained for him general recognition in Russia, and the symphony op. -27 justified the great hope felt for his talent. Gretchaninoff has -been active in dramatic music. He has written incidental music to -Ostrovsky's 'The Snow Maiden' and to two of the plays which go to form -Alexander Tolstoy's trilogy on the times of Boris Godounoff. His two -operas, _Dobrinya Nikitich_ and 'Sister Beatrice,' are distinguished by -great melodic impressiveness and in general by a lyrical style which -derives from Rimsky-Korsakoff and Borodine. The latter opera, founded -on Maeterlinck's play, met with disfavor at the hands of the Russian -clergy, because of its representation of the Virgin on the stage, and -was withdrawn after four performances. - -A number of minor composers may also be grouped under the general head -of nationalists. Most prominent of these is Nikolai Alexandrovich -Sokoloff, who was born in St. Petersburg in 1859 and studied -composition in the St. Petersburg Conservatory under Rimsky-Korsakoff. -His chamber music comprises three quartets, a string quintet, -and a serenade. For orchestra he has written incidental music to -Shakespeare's 'A Winter's Tale' for performance at the Alexandrinsky -Theatre in St. Petersburg; a dramatic poem after Tolstoy's 'Don Juan'; -a ballet, 'The Wild Swans'; and an elegy and serenade for strings. -There are numerous small pieces for piano and violin, and choruses both -for mixed voices and for men's voices alone. A. Amani (1875-1904) was -also a pupil of Rimsky-Korsakoff and in his piano and chamber music -took for his inspiration the poetry of the Orient and the melody of -folk-song. F. Blumenfeld (born 1863) has distinguished himself as -conductor at the Imperial Opera, St. Petersburg, and has written, -besides the 'Allegro Concerto' for piano and orchestra and the symphony -in C, many songs and smaller piano pieces which place him with the -newer 'nationalists.' A. A. Iljinsky (born 1859) has composed an opera -on Pushkin's 'Fountain of the Baktchisserai,' a symphonic scherzo, -and an overture to Tolstoy's _Tsar Feodor_, besides much chamber and -piano music. G. A. Kazachenko (born 1858) has written an opera, 'Prince -Serebreny,' which was performed in St. Petersburg in 1892, and is -now chorus-master at the Imperial Opera. A. Kopyloff (born 1854) has -written much orchestral music, including a symphony in C major, a -scherzo for orchestra, and a concert overture, also chamber music, -including an effective quartet in G major, op. 15. N. V. Stcherbacheff -(born 1853) is associated with the younger nationalists and has -composed much for piano and voice, in addition to a serenade and two -'Idylls' for orchestra. Finally, B. Zolotareff has distinguished -himself in chamber music and in song-writing, and has shown great -ability in his _Fête Villageoise_, op. 24, his 'Hebrew Rhapsody,' op. -7, and his Symphony, op. 8. - - - III - -We now come to a group of composers who have been little influenced by -the Russian folk-song. They all trace their artistic paternity in one -way or another to Tschaikowsky. They are men who have used their native -talent in a scholarly and sincere way, and have attained to great -popularity in their native land and even outside of it, but they seem -likely not to retain this popularity long. (This judgment may, however, -be premature in the case of Glière.) It is not, of course, their denial -of nationalism which has placed them in the second class. But their -loyalty to the past does not seem to be coupled with a sufficiently -powerful creative faculty to make secure their hold upon the public. - -Anton Stephanovich Arensky was one of the most popular composers in -Russia. This reputation was gained in part by his piano pieces, which -made rather too great an effort toward the superficially pleasing -and have now almost passed out of sight. His ambitious operas, too, -have failed to hold the stage, but his chamber music shows him at his -best. He was the son of a physician and was born at Nijny-Novgorod -on July 31, 1861. His early evinced musical talent was carefully -nurtured in his home, and when he was still young he was sent to St. -Petersburg to study under Zikke. Later he worked under Rimsky-Korsakoff -at the Conservatory, and gained that institution's gold medal for -composition. His first symphony and his piano concerto were both given -public performance soon after his graduation in 1882, and Arensky -was appointed professor of harmony and counterpoint at the Moscow -Conservatory. In 1888 he became conductor of the concerts of the -Russian Choral Society in Moscow, and in 1895 moved to St. Petersburg -to accept the position of director of the Imperial Chapel choir, to -which he had been appointed on the recommendation of Balakireff. He -died in 1906 and it was generally felt that the death had prevented the -composition of what would have been his best works. Early in his career -he gained the active sympathy and encouragement of Tschaikowsky, who -influenced him strongly in a personal way. His talent was essentially -conservative, and his scholarly cast of mind is shown in his published -'method,' which he illustrated with 1,000 musical examples, and in his -book on musical forms. - -His best works date from the Moscow period, since bad health decreased -his creative vigor in his later years. Some of his smaller works may -be placed beside the best of Tschaikowsky. Most popular outside of -Russia have been the two string quartets, his trio in D minor, and his -piano quintet in D major, op. 51. Of his two symphonies, the first, -written in his boyhood, is quite the best. The piano fantasia on -Russian themes, the violin concerto, and the cantata, 'The Fountain of -Baktchissarai,' are among his best known works. His first opera, 'The -Dream on the River Volga,' was written to a libretto which Tschaikowsky -had abandoned and passed on to him 'with his blessing.' He aimed at -dramatic force and truthfulness, but his talent was essentially -lyrical, and he proved to be at his best in his clear and graceful -ariosos. His later operas, 'Raphael' and 'Nal and Damayanti' (each in -one act), show an advance in musical power, though the method still -continues conservative. Arensky's ballet, 'A Night in Egypt,' was -produced in 1899. His last work, composed on his deathbed, was the -incidental music composed for the performance of 'The Tempest' at the -Moscow Art Theatre. Some of these numbers are among the best things he -ever wrote. - -Sergei Ivanovich Taneieff is a conservative both in mind and in heart, -and may be considered the only real pupil of Tschaikowsky. He was born -of a rich and noble family in Vladimir on November 13, 1856, and at the -age of ten entered the then newly opened Moscow Conservatory, where -he studied the piano under Nicholas Rubinstein. Under Tschaikowsky he -worked at theory and composition. In 1875 he graduated with highest -honors and with a gold medal for his playing, which was characterized -by purity and strength of touch, grace and ease of execution, -maturity of intellect, self-control, and a calm objective style of -interpretation. These qualities may well be considered typical of his -compositions. After a long Russian tour with Auer, the violinist, -Taneieff succeeded Tschaikowsky as professor of orchestration at the -Moscow Conservatory. In 1885 he became director of the institution, but -soon retired to devote himself wholly to composition. Though he is an -admirable pianist, he seldom appears in public. - -His compositions, though not numerous, are all marked by sincerity -and thoroughness of workmanship. Some of them have been compared to -those of Brahms. His work is essentially that of a scholar, and makes -little appeal to the emotions. His mastery, of form is marked. The most -ambitious of his works is the 'trilogy' (in reality a three-act opera) -based on the Æschylus 'Oresteia.' This, though never popular in Russia -because of its severity of style, compels admiration for its nobleness -of concept and its scholarly execution. The overture and last entr'acte -are still frequently performed in Russia. In general the style is -Wagnerian, and the leit-motif is used freely, though not to excess. -A cantata for solo, chorus, and orchestra--the _Ivan Damaskin_--is -one of the finest works of its kind in Russian music. Taneieff has -also written three symphonies and an overture on Russian themes. But -his most distinctive work is perhaps to be found in his eight string -quartets (of which the third is the most popular), in his two string -quintets, and his quartet with piano. There are also a number of male -choruses and smaller piano works. - -A much more likable, though no less conservative, figure is Michael -Mikhaelovich Ippolitoff-Ivanoff. He was born of a working class family -near St. Petersburg on November 15, 1859, and managed to get to the -St. Petersburg Conservatory, where he studied for six years under -Rimsky-Korsakoff. In 1882 he went to Tiflis, where he remained a number -of years as director of the local music school, as conductor of the -concerts of the Imperial Musical Society, and for a time as director -of the government theatre. In 1893 he came to Moscow to teach harmony, -instrumentation and free composition at the Conservatory, to the -directorship of which he succeeded in 1906. But perhaps his greatest -influence on Russian musical life was exerted by him in his position -as director of the Moscow Private Opera, which he assumed in 1899, -and which he helped to build up to its high artistic standard. His -reputation in foreign lands rests chiefly on his string quartet, opus -13, and his orchestral suite, 'Caucasian Sketches,' opus 10. (A second -Caucasian suite appeared in 1906 and has had much success.) The list -of his works also includes notably a Sinfonietta and a piano quartet; -three cantatas; _Iberia_, for orchestra; and the 'Armenian Rhapsody,' -op. 48. In many of these works, as in his songs, he is frequently -displaying his penchant for Oriental, Hebrew, and Caucasian music, -which he has studied with a poet's love and appreciation. In his two -operas, 'Ruth' and 'Assya,' these qualities are also apparent. The -notable qualities of his music are its freedom from artificiality, its -warmth of expression, and its consistent thoroughness of workmanship. -But it is perhaps as an organizer and director that he has performed -his chief service to Russian music. - -One of the most promising of the younger conservative Russians is -Reinhold Glière, who is now director of the Conservatory at Kieff -and conductor of the Kieff Symphony concerts. He has in these -positions been a dominant factor in the provincial, as opposed to -the metropolitan, musical life of Russia, and has by his energy and -progressiveness raised Kieff to a position in some ways rivalling the -capital. He was born at Kieff on January 11, 1875, and was educated at -Moscow, where he studied with Taneieff and Ippolitoff-Ivanoff. Though -he was thus under conservative influences, he showed in his earliest -compositions a feeling for the national musical sources which forbade -critics to classify him as a cosmopolitan. - -His first string quartet, in A (op. 2), showed national material -treated with something of western softness, and his many small pieces -for string or wind instruments often make use of folk-like melodies. -It is in his piano pieces that he shows himself weakest, and these -have contributed to an under-appreciation of him in his own as well -as in foreign lands. Some of his works (especially the later ones) -are thoroughly national in character. Thus his recently finished -opera 'Awakened' is built entirely on folk-material, and comes with -revolutionary directness straight from the heart of the people. His -symphonic poem, 'The Sirens,' showed French influence, but was -hardly a successful synthesis. His first symphony, in E flat, op. -8, revealed great promise, and his string quartets have drawn the -attention of music-lovers in foreign lands. - - [Illustration] - - Contemporary Russian Composers: - - Alexander Glazounoff Reinhold Glière - Vladimir Rebikoff Sergei Rachmaninoff - -It is in his symphonic work that Glière shows his greatest ability. His -orchestral writing burns with the heat that is traditional in Russian -music, and his handling of his themes, in development and contrapuntal -treatment, is sometimes masterly. By far his greatest work is his third -symphony, _Ilia Mourometz_, which is in reality a long and extremely -ambitious symphonic poem. It tells the tale of the great hero, Ilia, -of the Novgorod cycle of legends, who sat motionless in his chair for -thirty years until some holy pilgrims came and urged him to arise and -become a hero. Then he went forth, conquering giants and pagans, until -he was finally turned to stone in the Holy Mountains. In this work the -themes, most of which are national in character, and some of which seem -taken directly from the people, are in the highest degree pregnant -and expressive. They are used cyclically in all four movements, and -are developed at great length and with great complexity. The harmonic -idiom is chromatic, not exactly radical but yet personal and creative. -If we except certain _cliché_ passages which are unworthy of so fine a -work, we must adjudge the symphony from beginning to end a masterpiece. -Something of this mastery of the heroic mood is also to be seen in -Glière's numerous songs. Though most of them are conventional in their -harmonic scheme, they reveal great poetry and expressive power. With -but one exception Glière seems to be the greatest of the conservatives -of modern Russia. - -This exception is Sergei Vassilievich Rachmaninoff, whose reputation, -now extended to all parts of the civilized world, is by no means beyond -his deserts. He was born on March 20, 1873, in the department of -Novgorod, of a landed family of prominence. At the age of nine he went -to St. Petersburg to study music, but three years later transferred -to Moscow, where he worked under Taneieff and Arensky. He graduated -from the Moscow Conservatory in 1892 with high honors, and his one-act -opera, _Aleko_, written for graduation, was promptly performed at the -Grand Theatre and made a deep impression. Two short periods of his -later life were spent in the conducting of opera in Moscow, but the -most of his time he has spent in composition. He is a pianist of rare -abilities, and has played his own music much on tours. For some years -he resided in Dresden. - -Rachmaninoff's early fame is due to the sensational popularity of his -C-sharp minor prelude for piano, a fine work of heroic import, holding -immense promise for the future. While much of his later composition -has been somewhat conventional in style, Rachmaninoff at his best has -justified the promise. The magnificent E minor symphony ranks among the -best works of its kind in all modern music. Scarcely inferior to it -is the symphonic poem, 'The Island of the Dead,' suggested by Arnold -Böcklin's picture. Two later operas have proved very impressive. The -first, 'The Covetous Knight,' is founded on a tale of Pushkin, and -follows the complete original text with literal exactness, achieving -an impressive dramatic declamation which seems always on the verge of -melody, and entwines itself with the masterly psychological music of -the orchestra. _Francesca da Rimini_ is more lyrical, and shows much -passion and power in its love scenes. - -Rachmaninoff's only chamber music is an 'elegiac trio' in memory of -Tschaikowsky and a couple of sonatas. A large choral work, 'Spring,' -has attained great popularity in Russia, and a recent one, founded -on Edgar Allan Poe's poem, 'The Bells,' is said to reveal abilities -of the highest order. For piano there are many pieces--notably the -various groups of preludes, some hardly inferior to the famous one in -C-sharp minor; a set of variations on a theme of Chopin; six pieces -for four hands, op. 11; two suites for two pianos, op. 5 and op. 17; -and two superb concertos for piano and orchestra, of which the second, -op. 18, is the more popular. His minor piano pieces are among the most -vigorous and finely executed in modern piano literature. His songs are -of wide variety, especially in regard to national feeling; in some, -as, for instance, 'The Harvest Fields,' he is almost on a plane with -Moussorgsky. We should mention also two works for orchestra, a 'Gypsy -Caprice' and a fantasia, 'The Cliff.' - -Rachmaninoff's music is justly to be called conservative and even -academic in its later phase. But this must not be taken to imply -that it is cold or unpoetic. No modern Russian composer can better -strike the tone of high and heroic poetry. Rachmaninoff has taken the -technique of the West, especially of modern Germany, and the spirit -if not the letter of the tunes of his own lands and fused them into a -music of his own, which, at once complex and direct, stirs the heart -and inflames the blood. His orchestral palette is powerful and inclined -to be heavy. His contrapuntal style is complex and masterful. His -melody is free and impressive. He is by all odds the greatest of the -modern Russian eclectics. - -A number of other composers, loosely connected with the 'Western' -tradition of Tschaikowsky, should here be mentioned. Some of these -are young men who may as yet have given no adequate evidence of -their real ability. But all of them are able musicians with some -solid achievement to their credit. A. N. Korestschenko (born 1870) -won the gold medal at the Moscow Conservatory for piano and theory -after studying under Taneieff and Arensky, and is now professor of -harmony at that institution. His most important work includes three -operas, a ballet 'The Magic Mirror,' and a number of orchestral works, -notably the 'Lyric Symphony,' a 'Festival Prologue,' the Georgian and -Armenian Songs with orchestra, and the usual proportion of songs and -piano pieces. Nicholas Nikolaevich Tcherepnine was born in 1873 and -studied for the law, but changed to the St. Petersburg Conservatory, -where he energetically studied composition under Rimsky-Korsakoff. His -style is eclectic and flexible. His name is best known through his -two ballets, _Narcisse_ and _Le Pavilon d'Armide_, but his overture -to Rostand's _Princesse Lointaine_, his 'Dramatic Fantasia,' op. 17, -and his orchestral sketch from 'Macbeth,' give further evidence of -marked powers. His songs and duets have had great popularity, and his -pianoforte concerto is frequently played. He has also been active as a -composer of choral music, accompanied and _a cappella_. - -Maximilian Steinberg, born in 1883 and trained under Rimsky-Korsakoff -and Glazounoff, has worked chiefly in an academic way and has shown -marked technical mastery, especially in his quartet, op. 5, and -his second symphony in B minor. Nicholas Medtner, who is of German -parentage, shows the same respect for classical procedure, together -with an abundance of inspiration and enthusiasm. He was born in -Moscow on December 24, 1879, and carried off the gold medal at the -Conservatory in 1900. Since then he has been active chiefly as a -composer, and has to his credit a number of very fine piano sonatas, -as well as considerable chamber music. Attention has recently been -attracted to his songs, which combine great technical resource with -a fresh poetical feeling for the texts. There is nothing of the -nationalistic about his work. The same, however, cannot quite be -said for George Catoire (born Moscow, 1861), who, though educated in -Berlin, has shown a feeling for things Slavic in his symphonic poem, -_Mzyri_, and in his cantata, _Russalka_. Among his other large works -are a symphony in C minor, a piano concerto, and considerable chamber -music. J. Krysjanowsky is another modern eclectic, known chiefly by his -sonata for piano and violin, which, though able, shows little poetical -inspiration. - -Let us complete this section of the history with a passing mention -of certain minor composers of local importance. A. von Borchmann has -shown a solid musical ability and a strong classical tendency in his -string quartet, op. 3. J. I. Bleichmann (1868-1909) was the composer -of many popular piano and violin pieces, of an orchestral work, -several sonatas, and a sacred choral work, 'Sebastian the Martyr.' A. -Goedicke has composed two symphonies, a dramatic overture, a piano -trio, a sonata for piano and violin and another for piano alone, and -numerous smaller pieces. W. Malichevsky is an able composer of great -promise and has written three symphonies, three quartets and a violin -sonata. M. Ostroglazoff is an 'eclectic' whose true powers are as -yet undetermined. W. Pogojeff is fairly well known because of his -able chamber music and piano pieces. S. Prokofieff (born 1891) is an -able and classically minded pupil of Glière and Liadoff, and Selinoff -(born 1875) has carried his early German training into the writing of -symphonic poems. We should also make mention of E. Esposito, an able -and charming composer of operetta. - - - IV - -Of radical Russian composers two have in recent years become -internationally famous. Alexander Scriabine is notable for his highly -developed harmonic method, which makes sensible subjective states of -emotion hardly possible to music hitherto. And Igor Stravinsky has in -his ballets carried free counterpoint and a resultant revolutionary -harmony to an extreme almost undreamed of in the whole world of -music. How much there is of mere sensation in these two musicians is -at this time hard to determine. The question will be determined in -part not only by the extent to which they retain a hold over their -audiences, but also by the extent to which the new paths which they -are opening prove fruitful to later followers. If one may judge by -appearances at this writing, it would seem that Scriabine, who was -essentially a theorist and a mystic, had little to give the world -beyond a reworking of the chromatic style of Wagner's 'Tristan'--a -style seemingly inadequate to the intimate subjective message he would -have it bear. Stravinsky, on the other hand, though still crude, seems -to be at the threshold of a new and remarkable musical development. In -addition to these new men we find in Russia a number who may justly -be called radicals, being influenced by the radicals of other lands, -chiefly France. No creative ability of the first order has as yet been -discovered among these minor men. - -Alexander Scriabine was born in Moscow on December 25, 1871. He was -destined by his family for a career in the army, but his leaning toward -music determined him to quit the cadet corps and become a student -in the Moscow Conservatory. Here he studied piano with Safonoff and -composition with Taneieff. He graduated in 1892, taking a gold medal -and setting out to conquer Europe as a concert performer. In 1898 he -returned to the Moscow Conservatory to teach, but in 1903 resigned, -determining to devote all his time to composition. Since then he has -lived in Paris, Budapest, Berlin, and Switzerland. In 1906-07 he made -a brief visit to the United States, appearing as a pianist. He died, -dreaming great dreams for the future, in 1915. His compositions have -been numerous and have shown a steady advance from the melodious and -conventional style of his early piano works to the intense harmonic -sensualism of his later orchestral pieces. The first piano works were -characterized by Cui as 'stolen from Chopin's trousseau.' This is -not unjust, although the works show a certain technical originality -in the invention of figures. The first symphony is written in solid -and conservative style, with a due element of Wagnerian influence, -and a choral finale in praise of art speaking for its composer's good -intentions. The second symphony shows a development of technical -skill and an enlarging of emotional range, but gives few hints of the -later style. The smaller music of this period--as, for instance, the -Mazurkas, op. 25, the Fantasia, and the Preludes, op. 35--also show -progress chiefly on the technical side. The 'Satanic Poem' for piano, -op. 34, points to Liszt as its source. - -It is the third symphony in C, entitled 'The Divine Poem,' which -first gives distinct evidence of change. This work, composed in 1905, -undertakes to depict the inner struggles of the artist in his process -of creation, and reveals the subjective trend of its composer's -growing imagination. Its three movements are entitled respectively, -'Struggles,' 'Sensual Pleasures,' and 'Divine Activity.' Here the -emotional element is well to the fore. The first movement is stirring -and dramatic, the second languorous and rich, the third bold and -brilliant. The orchestra employed is large and the technique complex. -Other ambitious works of the earlier period are the concerto in F-sharp -minor, op. 20, a work of no outstanding importance, and the 'Reverie' -for orchestra, op. 24, which is distinctly weak. But by the time we -have reached the 'Poem of Ecstasy,' composed in 1908, we have the -composer in all his long-sought individuality. The harmonic system is -vague to the ear, and weighs terribly on the senses. There is evidence -of some esoteric striving. One feels that 'more is meant than meets -the ear.' It is in a single movement, but in three sections, and these -are entitled, respectively, 'His Soul in the Orgy of Love,' 'The -Realization of a Fantastic Dream,' and 'The Glory of His Own Art.' -The orchestration is rich in the extreme and the development of the -motives shows a mature musical power. The effect on the nerves and -senses is undeniably powerful. But withal it remains vague as a work of -art; it is obviously meant to convey an impression, but the definite -impression, like the 'program,' is withheld, and perhaps it is as well -so. - -But it is the 'Prometheus,' subtitled 'Poem of Fire' (composed 1911, -op. 60), which shows Scriabine at his most ambitious. The work is -written in the general style of the 'Poem of Ecstasy,' but the style, -like the themes, is more highly developed. And there is super-added -the color-symbolism which has helped to give the work something of -its sensational fame. The music is meant to tell of the coming of -'fire'--that is, of the creative principle--to man, and the orchestra -describes (one might better say 'experiences') the various forces -bearing upon incomplete man (represented by the piano, which serves as -a member of the orchestral body), until the creative principle comes -and makes complete him who accepts it. But in addition to the _tones_ -Scriabine has devised a parallel manipulation of _colors_, on a color -machine partly of his own invention, and has 'scored' the 'chords' -as he imagines them to suit the music. 'The light keyboard,' says a -commentator, 'traverses one octave with all the chromatic intervals, -and each key projects electrically a given color. These are used in -combination, and a "part" for this instrument stands at the head of the -score. The arrangement of colors is as follows: C, red; G, rosy-orange; -D, yellow; A, green; E and B, pearly blue and the shimmer of moonshine; -F sharp, bright blue; D-flat, violet; A-flat, purple; E-flat and -B-flat, steely with the glint of metal; F, dark red.' The first -performance of the work, with the color machine used as the composer -planned, was that of the Russian Symphony Orchestra of New York, in -March, 1915. It can hardly be said that the experiment was convincing -to many in the audience, but it seems altogether possible that some -sort of union of the arts of pure color and pure tone in an expressive -mission may be fruitful for the future. - -In a posthumous work entitled 'Mystery,' Scriabine intended to use -every means possible, including perfume and the dance, to produce a -supreme emotional effect on the audience. We should also mention the -ten piano sonatas, of which the seventh and ninth are the best, which -show their composer's musical development with great completeness, but -suffer in the later examples from a harmonic monotony. This seemed to -be Scriabine's besetting sin. It seems doubtful whether his harmonic -method, as he developed it, is flexible enough for the continued strain -to which he put it. For in truth it is not a daring or extremely -original system, however impressive it may sound in the commentator's -notes. If we may sum the matter up in a slang phrase we might say that -Scriabine's harmony 'listens' better than it sounds. - -The influence of the French 'impressionists' on Russian composers is -represented at its best in the work of such men as Vassilenko and -Rebikoff. The Russians have ever been citizens of the world and have -been quick to imitate and learn from their western neighbors. But -in the past century they have also been quick to assimilate and to -give back something new from their own individuality. This may be the -destined course of the French influence on Slavic musicians. - -Sergius Vassilenko was born in Moscow in 1872, entered the Conservatory -in 1896, and was awarded the gold medal for a cantata written after -five years' work under Taneieff and Ippolitoff-Ivanoff. His early -work was much under the influence of the Russian nationalists, and -his epic poem for orchestra, op. 4, illustrates a taste for mediæval -poetry which he supported out of his profound knowledge of modal and -church music. But his larger works after this were chiefly French in -style. These include the two 'poems' for bass voice and orchestra, 'The -Whirlpool' and 'The Widow'; a symphonic poem, 'The Garden of Death,' -based on Oscar Wilde, and the orchestral suite _Au Soleil_, by which he -is chiefly known in foreign lands. - -Feodor Akimenko, though less wholly French in his manner, may be ranked -among those who chiefly speak of Paris in their music. He was born at -Kharkoff on February 8, 1876, was educated in the Imperial Chapel in -St. Petersburg, and later was instructed in one or another branch of -music by Liadoff, Balakireff, and Rimsky-Korsakoff. The influence of -these masters is evident in his work, however much he may have absorbed -a French idiom. His is 'a fundamentally Slavonic personality,' says one -commentator,[16] 'which inclines toward dreaminess more than toward -sensuality or the picturesque. His music resembles the French only -in suppleness of rhythms and elaborateness of harmonies.' His early -works, which are more thoroughly Russian in method, include many songs -and piano pieces, three choruses for mixed voices, a 'lyric poem' for -orchestra, a string trio and a piano and violin sonata. After his -journey to Paris his style changed notably. From this later period -we may mention such works for the piano as the _Recits d'une âme -rêveuse_, _Uranie_, _Pages d'une poésie fantastique_, etc. His latest -compositions include a _Sonata Fantastique_ and an opera, 'The Queen of -the Alps.' - -Another composer of much originality and of subjective tendencies -is Vladimir Rebikoff, who was born on May 16, 1866, at Krasnoyarsk, -in Siberia. Even in his piano pieces he has attempted to mirror -psychological states. But this attempt is carried much further in his -operas. 'The Christmas Tree,' in one act, attempts to contrast the -feelings of the rich and the poor, and it was successful enough in -its artistic purpose to gain much popularity with its Moscow public. -Rebikoff has written two other 'psychological' operas--'Thea,' op. 34, -and 'The Woman and the Dagger,' op. 41--not to mention his early 'The -Storm,' produced in 1894. In his 'melo-mimics,' or pantomimic scenes -with closely allied musical accompaniment, Rebikoff has created a small -art form all his own. - -M. Gniessin is one of the most talented of the younger Russians -who have shown marked foreign influence--in this case German. His -important works include a 'Symphonic Fragment' after Shelley, op. 4; a -Sonata-ballad in C-sharp minor for piano and 'cello, op. 7; a symphonic -poem, _Vrubel_; and a number of admirable songs. W. G. Karatigin is -known as the editor of Moussorgsky's posthumous works and composer of -some carefully developed music. Among the remaining young composers of -this group we need only mention the names of Kousmin, Yanowsky, Olenin -and Tchesnikoff. - -There remains Igor Stravinsky, perhaps the greatest of all the -younger Russian composers in the pregnancy of his musical style. He -is regarded as a true representative of nationalism in its 'second -stage,' for, though his work bears little external resemblance to -that of Moussorgsky, for instance, its style is indigenous to Russia -and its thematic material is closely connected with the Russian -folk-song. Stravinsky was born at Oranienbaum on June 5, 1882, the son -of Feodor Stravinsky, a celebrated singer of the Imperial Theatre in -St. Petersburg. Though his precocious talent for music was recognized -and was fostered in piano lessons under Rubinstein, he received a -classical education and was destined for the law. It was not until -he met Rimsky-Korsakoff at Heidelberg in 1902--that is, at the age -of twenty--that he turned definitely and finally to music. He began -work with Rimsky-Korsakoff and learned something about brilliancy in -orchestration. But his ideals were too radical always to suit his -master. The latter is said to have exclaimed on hearing his pupil play -'The Fire Bird': 'Stop playing that horrible stuff or I shall begin to -like it.' - -Stravinsky's first important work was his symphony in E-flat major, -composed in 1906, and still in manuscript. Then came 'Faun and -Shepherdess,' a suite for voice and piano, and, in 1908, the _Scherzo -Fantastique_ for orchestra. His elegy on the death of Rimsky-Korsakoff, -his four piano studies, and a few of his songs, written about this -time, hold a hint of the changed style that was to come. - -Here begins the list of Stravinsky's important compositions. -'Fireworks,' for orchestra, was written purely as a technical _tour de -force_. Music in the higher sense it is not, but it reveals immense -technical resource in scoring and in the invention of suggestive -devices. Pin wheels, sky rockets and exploding bombs among other things -are 'pictured' in this orchestral riot of tone. In 1909 came the ballet -'The Nightingale,' which has recently been rewritten, partly in the -composer's later style, and arranged as an opera. This led him to his -first successful ballet. But before entering considering the three -works which have chiefly brought him his fame let us refer to some of -the later songs, e. g., 'The Cloister' and 'The Song of the Dew,' which -are masterful pieces in the ultra-modern manner, and to the 'Astral -Cantata,' which has not yet been published at this writing. - -Stravinsky's fame in foreign lands (which is doubtless almost equal -to that in his own, a strange thing in Russian music) rests almost -entirely on the three ballets which were mounted and danced by -Diaghileff's company of dancers, drawn largely from the Imperial Opera -House, in St. Petersburg, who for several seasons made wonderfully -successful tours in the European capitals. It must be understood that -this institution, the so-called 'Russian ballet,' was in no wise -official. It represented the 'extreme left wing' of Russian art in -regard to music, dancing, and scene painting. It was altogether too -radical to be received hospitably in the official opera house. But it -proved to be one of the most brilliant artistic achievements of recent -times, and on it floated the fame of Igor Stravinsky. - -His first ballet, 'The Fire Bird,' was produced in Paris in 1910. It -tells a long and richly colored story of the rescue of a beautiful -maiden from the snares of a wicked magician. The music is by no -means 'radical,' but it shows immense talent in expressive melody, -colorful harmony, in precise expression of mood, in the suggestion of -pictures, and in a certain elaborate and free polyphony which is one -of Stravinsky's chief glories. It is a work irresistible alike to the -casual listener and to the technical musician. The next ballet was -'Petrouchka,' produced in 1911. This is a fanciful tale of Petrouchka, -the Russian Pierrot, and his unhappy love for another doll. The little -man finds a rival in a terrible blackamoor, and in the end is most -foully murdered, spilling 'his vital sawdust' upon the toy-shop floor. -The characters are richly varied, and the carnival music is telling -in the extreme. Stravinsky's musical characterization and picturing -here is masterly. But his greatest achievement is his preservation of -the tone of burlesque throughout--bouncing and joyous, yet kindly and -refined. - -In this work we notice much of the harmonic daring which is so -startling in his third ballet, 'The Consecration of Spring.' Here is -an elaborate dance in two scenes, setting forth presumably the mystic -rites by which the pre-historic Slavic peoples lured spring, with its -fruitful blessings, into their midst. The character of the music and -of the libretto is determined by the peculiar theory of the dance -on which the ballet is founded. We cannot here go into this matter. -Suffice it to say that the dancing does not pretend to be 'primitive' -in an ethnological sense, though its angular movements continually -recall the crudities of pre-historic art. The music is quite terrifying -at first hearing. But a second hearing, or a hasty examination of the -score, will convince one that it is executed with profound musicianship -and a sure understanding of the effects to be obtained. Briefly, we may -describe the musical style as a free use of telling themes, largely -national in character, contrapuntally combined with such freedom -that harmony, in the classical sense, quite ceases to exist. Because -of the musical mastership displayed in the writing we can be sure -that this is not a 'freak' or a blind alley experiment. Whether the -tendency represents a complete denial of harmonic relations, with the -attention centred wholly on the polyphonic interweaving, or whether it -is preparing the way for a new harmony in which the second (major or -minor) will be regarded as a consonant interval, we cannot at this time -say. But Stravinsky's well-proved ability, and his evident knowledge of -what he is about, are at least presumptive evidence that our enjoyment -of this new style will increase with our understanding of it. - -Certainly men like Scriabine and Stravinsky prove that Russian music -has not been a mere burst of genius, destined to become embalmed in -academicism or wafted on lyrical breezes into the salons. Probably no -nation in Europe to-day possesses a greater number of thoroughly able -composers than Russia. The Slav seems to be no whit behind his brothers -either in poetic inspiration or in technical progress. Perhaps it is a -new generation, that has just begun its work--a generation destined to -achievements as fine as those of the glorious 'Big Five.' - - H. K. M. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[16] Ivan Narodny in 'Musical America,' August, 1914. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN BOHEMIA AND HUNGARY - - Characteristics of Czech music; Friedrich Smetana--Antonin - Dvořák--Zdenko Fibich and others; Joseph Suk and Viteslav - Novák--historical sketch of musical endeavor in Hungary--Ödön - Mihalovics, Count Zichy and Jenö Hubay--Dohnányi and Moór; - 'Young Hungary': Weiner, Béla Bartók, and others. - - - I - -All that is best in the music of Bohemia is fully represented in the -compositions of her two greatest sons, Friedrich Smetana (1824-1884) -and Antonin Dvořák (1841-1904). As Louis XIV said that he was the -state, so it may almost be said that, musically speaking, these two men -are Bohemia. And yet, paradoxical as it may seem, they can be really -understood only when studied in relation to their national background, -when considered the spokesmen of an otherwise voiceless but richly -endowed race. This is the paradox, indeed, of all so-called 'national' -composers. From one point of view they are personally unimportant; -their eloquence is that of the race that speaks through them; and we -listen to them less as men of a general humanity than as a special -sort of men from a particular spot of earth. Thus Mr. W. H. Hadow, in -his admirable essay on Dvořák,[17] does not hesitate to say of the -eighteenth century Bohemian musicians, Mysliveczek, Reicha, and Dussek, -all of whom lived abroad: 'We may find in their denial of their country -a conclusive reason for their ultimate failure.' Shift the standpoint -a little, however, and it is obvious that something more is necessary -for a Bohemian musician than to live at home and to incorporate the -national melodies, or even express the national temperament, in his -compositions. He must, that is, have gone to school to the best masters -of the music of the whole world--not literally, of course, but by -study of their works; he must thus have become a past master of his -craft; above all, he must be a great individual, whatever his country, -a man of broad sympathy, warm heart, and keen intelligence. 'Theme,' -wrote one who realized this on the occasion of Dvořák's death,[18] 'is -not the main thing in any art; the part that counts is the manner of -handling the theme. When books are good enough they are literature, -and when music is good enough it is music. Whether it be "national" or -not matters not a jot.' Both of the truths that oppose each other to -form this paradox are repeatedly exemplified in the history of music in -Bohemia. - -The Czechs, or Bohemians, like other Slavic peoples, are extremely -gifted in music by nature; but, while their cousins, the Russians, -exemplify this gift largely in songs of a melancholy cast, they are, -on the contrary, gay and sociable, and rejoice above all in dancing. -They are said to have no less than forty native dances. Of these the -most famous is the polka, improvised in 1830 by a Bohemian farm girl, -and quickly disseminated over the whole world. The wild 'furiant' -and the meditative poetic 'dumka' have been happily used by Smetana, -Dvořák, and others. Still other dances bear such unpronounceable names -as the _beseda_, the _dudik_, the _hulan_, the _kozak_, the _sedlák_, -the _trinozka_. They are accompanied by the national instrument, the -'dudy,' a sort of bagpipe. 'On the whole,' says Mr. Waldo S. Pratt,[19] -'Bohemian ... music shows a fondness for noisy and hilarious forms -whose origin is in ardent social merrymaking, or for somewhat grandiose -and sumptuous effects, such as imply a half-barbaric notion of -splendor. In these respects the eastern music stands in contrast with -the much more personal and subjective musical poesy to which northern -composers have tended.' This characterization, it is interesting to -note, would apply as well to the music of Smetana and Dvořák, in -which the kind of thoughtfulness we find in Schumann is almost always -wanting, as to the folk-music of their country. - -The songs, if naturally less boisterous than the dances, are animated, -forthright, and cheerful, rather than profound. They are usually in -major rather than in minor, and vigorous though graceful in rhythm. As -in the spoken language the accent is almost always put on the first -word or syllable, the music usually begins, too, with an accented -note. Another peculiarity that may be traceable to the language is -that the phrases are very apt to have an uneven number of accents, -such as three or five, instead of the two or four to which we are -accustomed. This gives them, for our ears, an indescribable piquant -charm. On the other hand, as Bohemia is the most western of Slav -countries, and consequently the nearest to the seats of musical culture -in Germany, its songs show in the regularity of their structure and -sometimes in considerably extended development of the musical thought, -a superiority over those of more remote and inaccessible lands. Music -has been taught, too, for many generations in the Bohemian schools as -carefully as 'the three R's,' and it is usual for the village school -teachers to act also as organists, choir- and bandmasters. The Bohemian -common people seem really to love music. It has been truly said: 'If a -Bohemian school of music can now be said to exist, it is as much due to -the peasant as to the conscious efforts of Bendl, Smetana, Fibich, A. -Stradal, and Dvořák.'[20] - -As in Poland, Russia, Italy, and other countries, however, music -suffered long in Bohemia from political oppressions and from lack -of leadership. In the seventeenth century, after the Thirty Years' -War, Bohemia, in spite of her proud past, found herself enslaved, -intellectually as well as politically. Her music was overlaid and -smothered by fashions imported from Germany, France, and Italy, and her -gifted musicians, as Mr. Hadow points out, emigrated thither. During -the eighteenth century her Germanization was almost complete, and -even the Czech language seemed in danger of dying out. George Benda -(1721-1795) wrote fourteen operas for the German stage; Anton Reicha -(1770-1836) settled in Paris as a teacher; J. L. Dussek (1761-1812), -best known of all, was a cosmopolitan musician, more German than Czech. - -Then, early in the nineteenth century, began a gradual reassertion, -timid and halting at first, of the national individuality. Kalliwoda, -Kittl, Dionys Weber, and others tried to restore the prestige of the -folk-songs; Tomášek founded instrumental works upon them; Skroup -made in 1826 a collection of them. This Frantisek Skroup (1801-1862) -deserves as much as any single musician to be considered the pioneer -of the Czech renaissanace. Conductor of the Bohemian Theatre at -Prague, he composed the first typically national operas, performed -in 1825 and later, and the most universally loved of Bohemian songs, -'Where is My Home?' His life spans the whole period of gestation -of the movement, for it was in 1862, the year of his death, that -it reached tangible fruition in the founding of the national opera -house, the 'Interimstheater,' at Prague. Two years before this, in -October, 1860, the gift of political liberty had been granted Bohemia -by Austrian imperial diploma. In May, 1861, Smetana, most gifted of -native musicians, had returned from a long sojourn in Sweden. Thus the -national music now found itself for the first time with an abiding -place, liberty, and a great leader. - -Friedrich Smetana, born at Leitomischl, Bohemia, March 2, 1824, showed -pronounced musical talent from the first, and was highly successful -as a boy pianist. His father, however, averse to his becoming a -professional musician, refused to support him when in his nineteenth -year he went to Prague to study. The severe struggle with poverty -and even hunger which he had at this time, together with his close -application to the theory of music, may have had something to do with -the nervous and mental troubles which later overtook him. His need of -study was great, for his musical experience had hitherto been chiefly -of the national dances and other popular pieces. In 1848, looking over -a manuscript composition of six years before, he noted on its title -page that it had been 'written in the utter darkness of mental musical -education,' and was preserved as 'a curiosity of natural composition' -only at the request of 'the owner'--that is, his friend Katharina -Kolář, who in 1849 became his wife. He settled for a time in Prague as -a teacher, and even opened a school of his own; but musical conditions -in Bohemia were at that time so primitive that in 1857 he accepted -an appointment as director of a choral and orchestral society at -Gothenburg in Sweden. - -During his residence abroad he composed, in addition to many piano -pieces and small works, three symphonic poems in which are to be found -much of the spontaneity and buoyancy of thought and the brilliancy of -orchestral coloring of his later works of this type. These are 'Richard -III' (1858), 'Wallensteins Lager' (1859), and 'Hakon Jarl' (1861). -Nevertheless he had not yet really found his place. In 1859 his wife -died, and the following year he married Barbara Ferdinandi, a Bohemian. -It was partly due to her homesickness, partly to the projected erection -of the Interimstheater, that he decided to return to Prague in 1861. -He was then nearly forty, but his lifework was still ahead of him. He -entered with enthusiasm into the national movement. He established with -Ferdinand Heller a music school, through which he secured an ample -living. He was one of the founders of a singing society, and also of -a general society for the development of Bohemian arts. Above all, he -began the long series of operas written for the new national opera -house with 'The Brandenbergers in Bohemia,' composed in 1863, and 'The -Bartered Bride' (1866). Later came _Dalibor_ (1868), _Libusa_, composed -in 1872 but not performed until 1881, _Die beiden Witwen_ (1873-74), -_Der Kuss_ (1876), _Das Geheimnis_ (1878), and _Die Teufelsmauer_ -(1882). - -The most famous of Smetana's operas, 'The Bartered Bride,' performed -for the first time at Prague, in 1866, became only gradually known -outside Bohemia, but is now a favorite all over the world. It is a -story of village life, full of intrigue, love, and drollery. To this -spirited and amusing story Smetana has set equally amusing and spirited -music. From the whirling violin figures of the overture to the final -chord the good humor remains unquenchable. In the polka closing Act -I and the furiant opening Act II is village merriment of the most -contagious kind; in the march of the showman and his troupe, in the -third act, orchestrated for drums, cymbals, trumpet, and piccolo, is -humor of the broadest; and in Wenzel's stammering song, opening the -same act, is characterization of a more subtle kind, in which humor and -real feeling are blended as only a master can blend them. There are, -too, many passages of simple tenderness, notably Marie's air and the -duet of the lovers in the first scene, and their terzet with Kezal -in the last, in which is revealed the composer's unfailing fund of -lyrical melody. 'This opera,' says Mr. Philip Hale,[21] 'was a step -in a new direction, for it united the richness of melody, as seen in -Mozart's operas, with a new and modern comprehension of the purpose -of operatic composition, the accuracy of characterization, the wish -to be realistic.' We may note, furthermore, how free is this realism -of Smetana's from the brutality of some more modern operas on similar -subjects, such as those of Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and Puccini. The -village life depicted in 'The Bartered Bride' is never repulsive; it is -not even tragic; it is simply pathetic, comic, and endlessly appealing. - -The simplicity of the musical idiom is notable. Not only does the -composer incorporate folk-tunes bodily when it suits his purpose, -as in the case of the polka and furiant already mentioned, but the -melodies he invents himself are often equally simple, even naïve, and -harmonized with a similar artlessness. The haunting refrain of the -love duet might be sung by village serenaders. Yet this simplicity is -the simplicity of distinction, not that of commonplaceness. There is a -purity, a chivalric tenderness about it that can never be counterfeited -by mediocrity, and that is in many of Smetana's tunes, as it is in -Schubert's and in Mozart's. It is a very cheap form of snobbism that -criticises such art as this for its lack of the complexities of the -German music-drama or symphony. Smetana himself said: 'As Wagner -writes, we cannot compose'--he might have added 'and would not.' 'To -us,' says Mr. Hadow, speaking of the Bohemian composers in general, 'to -us, who look upon Prague from the standpoints of Dresden or Vienna, the -music of these men may seem unduly artless and immature: with Wagner on -the one side, with Brahms on the other, we have little time to bestow -on tentative efforts and incomplete production. Some day we shall learn -that we are in error. The "Bartered Bride" is an achievement that would -do credit to any nation in Europe.' - -One effect of the great success of his opera was that Smetana was -appointed conductor of the opera house. A few years later, in 1873, -he also became director of the opera school connected with it, and -one of the two conductors of the concerts of the Philharmonic Society -at Prague. All these promising new activities, however, were suddenly -arrested by a terrible affliction, perhaps the worst that can happen to -a musician--deafness. On the score of the _Vyšehrad_, composed in 1874, -the first of the series of six symphonic poems which bears the general -title 'My Country' and constitutes his masterpiece in pure orchestral -music, is the note, 'In a condition of ear-suffering.' The second, -_Vltava_, composed later in the same year, bears the inscription, 'In -complete deafness.' It was indeed in 1874 that he was obliged to give -up all conducting. Part of a letter which he wrote some years later is -worth quoting, both for the particulars it gives as to his trouble, and -for the fine spirit of manly endurance it reveals, recalling vividly -the similar spirit displayed by Beethoven in his famous letter to his -brothers. 'The loud buzzing and roaring in the head,' he says, 'as -though I were standing under a great waterfall, remains to-day, and -continues day and night without any interruption, louder when my mind -is employed actively, and weaker when I am in a calmer condition of -mind. When I compose the buzzing is noisier. I hear absolutely nothing, -not even my own voice. Shrill tones, as the cry of a child or the -barking of a dog, I hear very well, just as I do loud whistling, and -yet, I cannot determine what the noise is, or where it comes from. -Conversation with me is impossible. I hear my own piano playing only in -fancy, not in reality. I cannot hear the playing of anybody else, not -even the performance of a full orchestra in opera or in concert. I do -not think that it is possible for me to improve. I have no pain in the -ear, and the physicians agree that my disease is none of the familiar -diseases of the ear, but something else, perhaps a paralysis of the -nerves and the labyrinth. And so I am completely determined to endure -my sad fate in a manly and calm way as long as I live.' - -Aside from its deep musical beauty, a peculiar interest attaches to -the string quartet entitled by Smetana _Aus meinen Leben_ ('From -My Life') because of the account it gives in tones of his great -affliction. The autobiographical character is maintained throughout. -The first movement, in E minor, _allegro vivo appassionato_, with its -constant turbulence and restless aspiration, depicts, according to the -composer, his 'predisposition toward romanticism.' The second, _quasi -polka_, 'bears me,' he says, 'back to the joyance of my youth, when as -composer I overwhelmed the world with dance tunes and was known as a -passionate dancer.' The _largo sostenuto_, the third movement, perhaps -musically the finest of all, is built on two exceedingly earnest and -noble melodies which are worked out with elaborate and most felicitous -embroidering detail. They tell of the composer's love for his wife -and his happy marriage. Of all the movements the finale is the most -dramatic. Indeed, it is one of the most dramatic pieces in all chamber -music. It opens in E major, _Vivace, fortissimo_--an indescribable -bustle of happy folk themes jostling each other. A buoyant secondary -melody is a little quieter but still full of childlike joy. These two -themes alternate in rondo fashion, are developed with never-flagging -energy, and suggest the composer's joy in his native folk-music and its -use in his art. At the height of the jollity there is a sudden pause, a -sinister tremolo of the middle strings, and the first violin sounds a -long high E, shrill, piercing, insistent. 'It is,' says Smetana, 'the -harmful piping of the highest tone in my ear that in 1878 announced -my deafness.'[22] All the bustle dies away, we hear reminiscences, -full now of a tragic meaning, of the themes of the first movement, and -the music dies out with a mournful murmuring of the viola and a few -pizzicato chords. - -If the string quartet is thus intimately personal in a high degree, the -series of orchestral tone-poems, 'My Country,' dedicated to the city of -Prague, is national in scope. Number I, _Vyšehrad_, depicts the ancient -fortress, once a scene of glory, and its melancholy decline into ruin -and decay. In Number II, _Vltava_ or 'The Moldau,' the most popular -of all, we hear the two tiny rivulets which, rising in the mountain, -flow down and unite to form the mighty river Moldau. 'Sárka,' the -third (1875), refers to a valley north of the capital, which was named -for the noblest of mythical Bohemian amazons. 'From Bohemia's Fields -and Groves,' Number IV (1875), is built on several intensely Czechic -tunes, and reaches a dizzying climax on a most delightful polka theme. -In 'Tabor,' Number V (1878), is introduced the favorite war-chorale of -the Taborites. The last of the series, _Blaník_ (1879), pictures the -mountain on which the Hussite warriors sleep until they shall have to -fight again for their country. The orchestration of the whole series is -as brilliant as the themes are spirited and attractive, and they are -universal favorites in the concert hall. - -Smetana wrote a good deal of choral and piano music, as well as other -orchestral works; but it is by 'My Country,' the quartet, and 'The -Bartered Bride' that he will continue to be known. Fortunately for -him, his greatness was recognized during his lifetime; he was idolized -by his countrymen; and he knew the pleasure of public triumphs at the -fiftieth anniversary, in 1880, of his first appearance as a pianist, -at the opening of the new national theatre in 1881, and on other -occasions. But when his sixtieth birthday, March 2, 1884, was honored -by a national festival, he was unable to be present for a tragic -reason. His nerves had been troubling him for some time. When _Die -Teufelsmauer_ was coldly received in 1882 he said, 'I am, then, at -last too old, and I ought not to write anything more, because nobody -wishes to hear from me.' Later he complained, 'I feel myself tired out, -sleepy, and I fear that the quickness of musical thoughts has gone from -me.' Gradually he lost his memory and his power to read. He was not -permitted by the doctors to compose or even to think music. Only a few -weeks before his sixtieth birthday he had to be put in an asylum, and -there, without regaining his mind, he died, May 12, 1884. - - - II - -Untoward as was Smetana's personal fate, he was fortunate artistically -in having at hand a younger contemporary of genius equal and similar -to his to whom he could pass on the torch he had lighted. His friend -and protégé, Antonin Dvořák, at this time forty-two years old, had not -only felt his direct influence during formative years, but resembled -him in temperament and in artistic ideals to a degree remarkable -even for fellow citizens of a small country like Bohemia. Both were -impulsive, impressionable, unreflective in temper; both found in the -strong dance rhythms and the simple yet poignant melodies of the people -their natural expression; in both the classic qualities--reticence, -restraint, balance--were acquired rather than instinctive. In Dvořák, -however, there was an even greater richness and sensuous warmth than -in the older man, and his music is thus, in the memorable phrase of -Mr. Hadow, 'more Corinthian than, Doric,' has 'a certain opulence, a -certain splendor and luxury to which few other musicians have attained.' - -Antonin Dvořák, born in 1841, eldest of eight children of the village -butcher in Nelahozeves on the Moldau, knew poverty and music from -his earliest days. At fourteen he could sing and play the violin, -the piano, and the organ. A year later came his first appearance as -an orchestral composer. Planning to persuade his reluctant father -by practical demonstration that he was destined to write music, he -prepared for the village band an original polka, with infinite pains, -but alas! in ignorance that the brass instruments do not play the exact -notes written. He wrote what he wanted to hear, but what he heard might -well have induced him to resign himself to butchery. That it did not, -that he still held out against parental opposition and was finally -allowed to go to Prague, is an evidence of that tenacity which was in -the essence of his character. At Prague he entered the Organ School, -played in churches and restaurants, and earned about nine dollars a -month, on which he lived. An occasional concert he managed to hear by -hiding behind the kettledrums of a friendly player, but classical music -he met for the first time when, already twenty-one, he borrowed some -scores of Beethoven and Mendelssohn from Smetana. Symphonic composition -he acquired laboriously and with surprising skill; the polka and the -furiant were in his blood. - -He now spent about ten years composing industriously, in poverty and -complete obscurity. In 1871 came the long-awaited chance to emerge, -in the shape of an invitation to write an opera for the national -theatre. In writing this his first opera, 'The King and the Collier' -(Prague, 1874), he allowed himself to be misled by his curious facility -in imitating other styles than his own. Mr. Hadow tells the story -at length. The point of it is that Dvořák, acting on a momentary -enthusiasm for Wagner, which his music shows that he afterwards -outgrew, committed the surprising folly of giving his countrymen, at -the very moment when they were initiating a successful campaign for -native art, a Wagnerian music-drama under the guise of Czech operetta! -It was only a momentary aberration, but it is worth mentioning because -it illustrates a child-like uncriticalness which was as much a part -of Dvořák as his freshness of feeling, his love of color, and his -persistence. Soon realizing his error he rewrote the music in a more -appropriate style. It then appeared that the libretto, too, was wrong. -Anyone else would have given the matter up in disgust; but Dvořák had -the book also rewritten, and in this third version his work won him his -first operatic success.[23] - -Soon he began to be known outside Bohemia. In 1875 he received a -grant from the Austrian Ministry of Education, on the strength of a -symphony and an opera submitted. Two years later, offering to the same -body his Moravian duets and some of his recent chamber music, he was -fortunate enough to have them examined by Brahms, one of the committee. -Brahms cordially recommended his work to Simrock, the great Berlin -music publishing house, with the result that his compositions began -to be widely disseminated and he was commissioned to write a set of -characteristic national dances. The result of this commission was the -first set of Slavonic Dances, opus 46, later supplemented by eight -more, opus 72. These dances are as characteristic as any of Dvořák's -works. Their melodic and rhythmic animation is indescribable; while the -basis is national folk-song the themes are imaginatively treated and -led through many distant keys with the happy inconsequence peculiar -to Dvořák; and the whole is orchestrated with the richness, variety, -and delicacy that make him one of the greatest orchestral masters -of all time. The same qualities are found in the beautiful Slavonic -Rhapsodies, the overtures _Mein Heim_ and _Husitska_, both based on -Czechish melodies, and, mixed with more classic elements, in the two -sets of symphonic variations and the five symphonies. - - -In the choral field Dvořák is best known by his admirable _Stabat -Mater_ (1883), written in a pure classical style, as if based on the -best Italian models, and of large inspiration. There are also an -oratorio 'St. Ludmila' (1886), more conventional, a requiem mass, and -several cantatas. Of many sets of beautiful solo songs, special mention -may be made of the Gypsy Songs, opus 55, _Im Volkston_, opus 73, and -the 'Love Songs,' opus 83. The duets, 'Echos of Moravia,' are fine. -There is much piano music, too, but charming as are the 'Humoresques,' -opus 101, the 'Poetic Mood-Pictures,' opus 85, and some others, it may -be said that Dvořák is less at home with the piano than with other -instruments. - -On the other hand, one might with reason place his chamber music even -higher than his orchestral work, for it is as admirably suited to its -medium, and its soberer palette restrains his almost barbaric love of -color. His pianoforte quintet in A major, opus 81, with its broadly -conceived allegro, its tender andante, founded on the elegiac dumka of -his country, and its immensely spirited scherzo and finale, is surely -one of the finest quintets written since Schumann immortalized the -combination. As for his string quartets, they must equally take their -place in the front rank of modern chamber music, beside the quartets of -Brahms, Franck, Tschaikowsky, and d'Indy. The last two, opera 105 and -106, are perhaps the best. Those who charge Dvořák with 'lack of depth' -would do well to penetrate a little more deeply themselves into such -things as the _Lento e molto cantabile_ of the former. - - [Illustration] - - Bohemian Composers: - - Antonin Dvořák Friedrich Smetana - Zdenko Fibich Joseph Suk - -A special niche among the works of this wondrously fertile mind must -be reserved for the so-called American works, written during his -sojourn in New York in the early nineties. These are the Quartet, -opus 96, the Quintet, opus 97, and the famous symphony, 'From the New -World,' opus 95. The importance of the negro element in these works has -perhaps been exaggerated. It is true that we find in them the rhythmic -snap of rag-time, the melancholy crooning cadences of the 'spirituals,' -and even the scale of five notes ('pentatonic scale'). It is even true -that there is a more or less close resemblance between some of their -themes and certain well-known songs, as, for instance, between the -second theme of the first movement of the symphony and 'Swing Low, -Sweet Chariot,' or between the scherzo of the Quintet and 'Old Man -Moses, He Sells Roses.' But, after all, the treatment is more important -than the theme; and it is because Dvořák is a great musician that the -pathos of the largo in the symphony moves us as it does, and that he -can make us as merry with a bit of rag-time as with a furiant. He was -one of the musicians most richly endowed by nature, and one who knew -nothing of national boundaries; he was, indeed, a veritable Schubert -in fertility and spontaneity. And, as it was said of Schubert that -he 'could set a wall-advertisement to music,' so it might be said of -Dvořák that he could have made even Indian tunes interesting--had he -tried. It is pleasant to add that he got universal love in response to -this more than Midas-like transmuting power of his, and that the poor -Bohemian boy, after becoming rich and famous, died full of honors, but -as simple at heart as ever, in 1904. He was described in an obituary -notice as 'Pan Antonin of the sturdy little figure, the jovial smile, -the kindly heart, and the school-girl modesty.' - -Of other Bohemian composers contemporary with or earlier than Dvořák -none are of sufficient importance to require more than briefest -mention. These are: Joseph Nesvadba (1824-1876), who wrote Bohemian -songs and choral works; Franz Skuherský (1830-1892), who wrote Czech -operas, chamber music, and theoretical works; Menzel Theodor Bradský -(1833-1881), who wrote both German and Czech operas; Joseph Rozkosny -(born 1833), who wrote Czech operas, masses, songs, and instrumental -music; and Wilhelm Blodek (1834-1874), who wrote Czech operas and -instrumental music. A somewhat more important figure is that of Karl -Bendl (1838-1897), composer of Czech operas and ballets, who was -conductor of the chief choral society in Prague, influential in the -_Interimstheater_, and who 'jointly with Smetana and Dvořák enjoys the -distinction of winning general recognition for Czech musical art.' His -operas _Lejla_, _Bretislav and Jitka_, _Cernahoreí_, _Karel Streta_, -and _Dite Tabora_ are all on the standing repertory of the National -Theatre at Prague. - -Adalbert Hřimalý (1842-1908), who wrote Czech operas, and whose -'Enchanted Prince' (1870) has proved a lasting success, deserves -mention in this place. - - - III - -Between Smetana and Dvořák and the contemporary Bohemians stands -Zdenko Fibich, a most prolific composer, well known in Bohemia but -little heard of outside it. Fibich was born at Leborschitz in Bohemia, -December 21, 1850. Studying at Prague and later at the Leipzig -Conservatory, he became in 1876 assistant conductor of the National -Theatre in Prague, and in 1878 director of the Russian Church choir. -He is said to have written over seven hundred works, but they are more -facile than profound. Of his many Czechish operas the most successful -was 'Sárka' (1898). He was much interested in the musical form known -as 'melodrama' (not to be confused with the stage melodrama). It is a -recited action accompanied by music; classic examples are Schumann's -'Manfred' and Bizet's _L'Arlésienne_. Fibich wrote six melodramas, -three 'scenic melodramas,' and a melodramatic trilogy, _Hippodamia_ -(text by Brchliky, 1891). His orchestral works include several -symphonic poems, two symphonies, and several overtures, of which 'A -Night on Karlstein' is well known. He also wrote chamber music, songs -and choruses, piano pieces, and a method for pianoforte. He died in -1900. - -A number of minor composers, contemporaries of Fibich, are only of -local importance for their Czechish operas, produced in Prague. Such -are Heinrich von Káan-Albést (born 1852), director of the Prague -Conservatory in 1907; Vása Suk (born 1861), composer of the opera _Der -Waldkönig_ (1900); Karl Navrátil (born 1867), who writes symphonic -poems and chamber music; and Karl Kovařovic (born 1862), conductor of -the Royal Bohemian _Landes und National-Theater_. This theatre was -erected in 1883, by subscription from Czechs in Bohemia, Moravia, -Silesia, northern Hungary, even the colony in America. The Austrian -government is said to be not very favorable to it, vetoing the posting -of placards announcing performances in Austrian watering places. The -subsidy is raised by the country of Bohemia, not by the government. -In August, 1903, a cycle of operas was given here, including Fibich's -'The Fall of Arcana,' Kovařovic's _Têtes de chien_, Nedbal's _Le Gros -Jean_,[24] Dvořák's _Roussalka_ and several operas of Smetana. - -A better known composer of Czechish operas is Emil Nikolaus von -Reznicek, who was, however, born not in Bohemia but at Vienna, May 4, -1861. His comic opera _Donna Diana_, produced in 1894 at Prague, made -so great a success that in a short time it was heard in forty-three -European opera-houses. Other operas by him are _Die Jungfrau von -Orleans_ (1887), _Satanella_ (1888), _Emmerich Fortunat_ (1889), and -_Till Eulenspiegel_ (1901), on the subject made famous by Strauss's -witty symphonic poem. For orchestra he has written a 'Tragic Symphony,' -an 'Ironic Symphony,' an 'Idyllic Overture,' a 'Comedy Overture,' two -symphonic suites, etc., while a string quartet was played by the Dessau -Quartet at Berlin in 1906. - -Fibich's pupil O. Ostřcil, whose contrapuntal skill and brilliant -orchestration testify to his ability, has written the operas 'Kunal's -Eyes,' 'The Fall of Wlasta,' and 'Buds' (_Knospen_), also an Impromptu -and a Suite for orchestra. Of the pupils of Dvořák Rudolf Karel has -written a symphony in E-flat minor and _Jugend_, a symphonic poem -in which he pictures the struggles of a youth of genius; and Alois -Reiser is known as the composer of an opera, _Gobi_, showing melodic -and harmonic originality without exaggeration, and of a trio, a -'cello concerto, and solo pieces for violin in which his nationality -is reflected. Other contemporaries are Ottokar Jeremiaš (symphonies, -overtures, and chamber music) and his brother Jaroslav Jeremiaš, a -follower in his two operas of modern French tendencies; K. Krǐcka, W. -Stepán, J. Maxner, B. Novotny, and others. - -Without doubt the two most important living Bohemian composers are -Joseph Suk and Vitešlav Novák. Suk, who was born at Křecovic, January -4, 1874, became a pupil of Dvořák at the Prague Conservatory in 1888, -and later married his daughter. He is second violin of the Bohemian -Quartet. Among his works may be mentioned a 'Dramatic Overture,' an -overture to 'A Winter's Tale,' a Symphony in E, a suite entitled 'A -Fairy Tale,' a piano quartet, a piano quintet, and two string quartets. -The symphony (in E major, op. 14, published in Berlin) has charm and is -most skillfully written, especially for the strings, like everything -by this violinist-composer, but is somewhat prolix and student-like, -revealing Dvořák in many places, and in the finale containing a theme -too obviously suggested by the overture to Smetana's 'The Bartered -Bride.' 'A Fairy Tale,' op. 16, sonorously and brilliantly scored, is -of programmistic character, especially the fourth movement. Both of -these orchestral works introduce a number of folk-themes. This is also -the case in an early string quartet, op. 11 (1896), in B-flat major, -the finale of which is built on a polka tune in six-bar phrases. - -If one were to judge him by these things one would say that Suk was -a skillful violinist who thoroughly understood how to write for -his instrument, that he had caught much of the charm of Bohemian -folk-melody and especially of Dvořák's way of treating it, but that his -musical expression was neither very far-reaching nor very original. -He may have felt this himself, for in his second quartet, op. 31, -published in 1911, he has thrown over his earlier style completely, -and adopted a so-called 'modern idiom.' The work is played in one -movement, without pauses. It is full of changes of tempo and of key, -extremely complicated in harmony, frightfully difficult for the players -as regards intonation, and difficult for the listeners, too, from its -spasmodic and constantly changing character. So far as one can tell -about such a work from reading the score, it would seem as if the -composer had abandoned his natural speech here without gaining real -eloquence in exchange. Whether he be misguided or not, however, there -can be no doubt of his marked natural talent for the same kind of -impulsive, fresh musical expression we find in Smetana and Dvořák. - -The music of Novák, on the other hand, if less immediately -ingratiating, is much more thoughtful. The influence of Dvořák is less -felt in it than those of Schumann and Brahms. Although the Bohemian -and also the allied Moravian and Hungarian-Slovak folk-melodies are to -some extent drawn upon for material, the treatment is more intellectual -than popular, rhythmic subtleties abound, and the types of construction -are often highly complex and ingenious, there being considerable use -of those cyclic transformations of a single theme throughout a long -composition to which César Franck and his school attribute so high a -value. It is worth noting that Novák, who was born December 5, 1870, at -Kamenitz, Bohemia, is a man of general as well as technical education, -having attended the Bohemian University and the Conservatory of Music -at Prague. He has continued to live in Prague as a music teacher, -several times receiving a state grant for composition. Among his works -are an Overture to a Moravian Popular Drama, op. 18, the symphonic -poems 'On the Lofty Tatra,' op. 26, and 'Eternal Longing,' op. 33, a -'Slovak Suite,' op. 32, two piano trios, two string quartets, a piano -quartet, a piano quintet, and a piano sonata. - -In his early compositions Novák shows the influence of the German -romantic school, as in the trio, op. 1, with its somewhat pompous main -theme and its contrasting theme for 'cello solo, verging dangerously -upon the sentimental. The piano quartet, op. 7 (1900), on a striking -and even noble theme, suffers from Brahmsian mannerisms of style -and a treatment at times drily academic. On the other hand, the -piano quintet, op. 12 (published in 1904, but doubtless written much -earlier), on a plaintively poetic folk-theme in A minor, and the first -string quartet, op. 22 (1902), show clearly the more native influence -of his master Dvořák. He thus shows the impressionability of all really -highly-endowed minds, and in his mature works writes with as much -flexibility as authority. The _Trio quasi una Ballata_, op. 27 (1903), -and the second string quartet, op. 35 (1906), are masterpieces. - -The trio is dramatic and powerful in expression, original in style -and structure. It begins, _andante tragico_, with a fine bold melody, -of folk character, in D minor, given out by the violin, and later -powerfully developed by the piano. A secondary section in D-flat, -also somewhat 'folkish,' immediately follows, without break. Next, -again without pause, comes a 'quasi scherzo, allegro burlesca' in G -minor, the 'trio' of which is ingeniously derived from the main theme -of the work. Recitative-like passages in the strings and cadenzas for -the piano then lead back to the original andante theme, worked out -in combination with subsidiary matter and bringing the whole to an -impressive soft close. - -The string quartet in D major is equally original, though different -in mood. Dramatic declamation here gives place to a meditative -thoughtfulness especially suited to the four strings. There are but two -movements. The first is a fugue, _largo misterioso_, on a deliberate, -impressive theme, in the mood of the later Beethoven--a fugue admirably -fresh and spontaneous, with the accepted 'inversions' of the theme and -so on, to be sure, but coming less as academic prescriptions than as -natural flowerings of the thought. The second movement, _Fantasia_, -is composite, containing first suggestions of the root theme (of the -fugue), introducing a sort of sonata-exposition in which the same fugue -then figures as first subject and a new melody as second; then, instead -of a development, a scherzo section, derived again from the root theme; -then the recapitulation of the two themes, completing the suggested -sonata; and finally, a literal repetition of the last three pages of -the fugue movement, thus binding the two parts into unity. The scheme -of construction is thus as original as the music itself is impressive -and beautiful. - -If Novák can avoid the pitfall of over-intellectualism peculiar to his -temperament, he may easily become one of the most vital forces in -contemporary European music. - - D. G. M. - - - IV - -It may appear surprising at first that Hungary, a thousand-year-old -nation, has not until our own day achieved an independent cultural -existence, and more especially an individual musical art. For we know -that the Magyar race is inherently musical and recent researches -have unearthed unsuspected treasures of folk-song as ancient as they -are characteristic. There has indeed been for some time a recognized -Hungarian 'flavor' utilized in the manner of an exotic by various -composers, notably Brahms and Liszt, and the dance rhythms so utilized -have proved no less fascinating than those of the Slavs, for instance. -But native Hungarian composers have not until recently developed these -artistic germs with sufficient ability to arouse the attention of the -musical world. - -When we consider the political condition of Hungary during its long -history, however, we no longer wonder at the dearth of national -culture. Twice the country was utterly desolated, for ages the people -possessed no political independence, no constitution, and did not use -their own language--indeed their native tongue was suppressed by a -tyrannical government until late in the nineteenth century. With the -recrudescence of national independence there came, as elsewhere, a -revival of nationalistic culture, and it is nothing short of remarkable -that within hardly more than a generation Hungary has raised itself, -in music especially, to a point where its own sons are capable of -brilliant and characteristically native achievement. At any rate it -argues eloquently for the profound musical and poetic instincts which -were latent in the race. - -A brief historical review of early musical endeavor in Hungary may -not be without value as an introduction to our treatment of its modern -composers. When the Hungarians first occupied their present country (A. -D. 896) they found no music whatever in their new home. The musical -instinct born in them, however, was very strong, for they sang when -praying, when preparing for war, at burials and festivals, and their -first Christian king, Stephan I (997-1038), founded a school where -singing was taught. In fact, the power of music was respected so much -that early musicians were called _hegedös_, a word not derived from -the Hungarian _hegedü_ (violin), but from _heged_--'having healed the -wounds.' In the fourteenth century, when the first gypsies migrated to -Hungary, they found there a people whose music was already so highly -developed that the newcomers themselves learned their melodies from -them. It was through the songs of the Hungarians that the gypsies -became famous, and we have to bear in mind that the great merit of the -gypsies was not in creating melodies, but in making them popularly -known from generation to generation. - -Under the reign of the great national king, Mathias I (1458-1490), -music flourished and was even highly cherished. The king, who made -Hungary one of the greatest powers of Europe in that period, possessed -an organ with silver pipes, and an orchestra. He also had in his -service numerous court singers, who sang of the heroic deeds of -national heroes. That musicians were highly esteemed there we infer -from the fact that such musicians as Adrian Willaert and Thomas Stolzer -were in the service of King Louis II (1516-1526). After the battle -of Mohács (1526) the whole country was brought under the yoke of the -Turks, and almost every trace of the high culture of the Hungarians -was destroyed, so that we possess nothing of the musical treasures -of this period. Collections of religious chants (from the sixteenth -and seventeenth centuries) show that sacred music exerted a notable -influence upon Hungarian folk-music. The folk element, however, was -already very strong at the time of Sebastian Tinody (1510-1554), whose -historical songs displayed genuine and pure Hungarian qualities. -Not before the middle of the sixteenth century was the character of -Hungarian music reflected outside of Hungary--at first in pieces called -_Passamezzo_ and _Ongaro_, published in various German and Italian -collections. - -In tracing the further development of Hungarian music we find that -in the latter part of the seventeenth century some stage productions -included songs. At about the same time the Rákóczyan era of national -struggles brought forth many beautiful and impressive melodies. These -treasures were of no small influence upon the evolution of national -music, brought into still greater prominence by musicians whom we may -call the real originators of the Hungarian idiom. They were Lavotta -(1764-1820), Csermák (1771-1822), and Bihari (1769-1827). Lavotta's -compositions were genuinely characteristic Hungarian products, showing -mastery of invention and skill in handling the national rhythms. He -possessed a vivid fancy and a wealth of ideas, but no technique. While -his most important work had the promising title of 'The Siege of -Szigetvár,'[25] it was composed for a solo violin without accompaniment -and its musical ideas were not over eight to sixteen measures in -length. Lavotta's other compositions, such as his 'Serenade,'[26] in -modern arrangements are extremely effective. Some of his 'folk-songs' -will live forever. - -Lavotta's pupil, the Bohemian Csermák, produced some characteristic -dances. He, too, lacked solidity of structure. The compositions of the -brilliant gypsy violinist, Bihari (some of which are preserved in -various transcriptions), are the most valuable examples of old national -Hungarian music. The famous Rákoczy march, as we know it through the -transcriptions of Liszt and Berlioz, is his work, being a remodelled -version of the original, plaintive Rákoczy song composed about 1675 by -M. Barna. - -Summing up, we may distinguish the following six periods in the -history of Hungarian music from its beginning: the age of the Pagan -Hungarians, those whose songs were so persistent that three centuries -after the introduction of Christianity the Councils found it necessary -to suppress them; the period from the rise of Christianity to the -fifteenth century, when as elsewhere music was wholly in the service -of the church, while secular music was cultivated only by wandering -minstrels; the three centuries following, when the growing influence -of the gypsies is most powerfully felt, when Lutheran and Calvinistic -churches spread among the people, and when the folk-songs alive in -the mouths of the people to-day were born; the eighteenth century, -when Hungarian national music became more independent and individual, -Hungarian rhythms especially became strongly pronounced, and the -fundamental principles of absolute music were laid down; and the first -half of the nineteenth century, which produced the first masters. The -last of the six periods is that of the contemporary composers and of -'young Hungary.' - -In a few words we have endeavored to give a sketch of the first -four divisions. The transition to the next--the period of the first -masters--may be marked by the first opera with a Hungarian libretto. -This was 'Duke Pikko and Tuttka Perzsi,' performed in 1793 under -Lavotta. The work was without any significance whatsoever. The first -noteworthy attempt in the direction of national grand opera was 'Béla's -Flight' by Ruzicska (1833). That composer preferred the forms of the -light and popular Hungarian folk-songs to a more serious vein. He -should be given credit for his ambitious attempt to create a truly -national historical opera, Hungarian both in music and in text. He -was followed by Franz Erkel (1810-1893), whose operas, with subjects -taken from Hungarian history, are still played to-day. His music was -genuinely Hungarian in character and had absolute value. The overture -to his _Hunyady László_, with its classical form and poetic content, -was made popular in Europe through the efforts of Liszt. Erkel was -careful in selecting his dramatic subjects, drawing freely upon -Hungarian history. The subject of his most successful work, _Bánk-Bán_, -has also inspired the mediæval German poet Hans Sachs, the eminent -Austrian dramatist Grillparzer, and the Hungarian Josef Katona, whose -tragedy of the same title represents the best in Hungarian dramatic -literature. Contemporary with Erkel but of much less significance was -M. Mosonyi (1814-1870), who preserved the Hungarian character in his -operas and orchestral compositions as well as in his piano pieces. His -'Studies' were highly esteemed by Wagner. - -The further development of Hungarian culture and music in the -nineteenth century closely reflects the influence of the French, -Germans, and Italians, although the national ambition of the Hungarians -to remodel the foreign examples according to their own genius is -evident. It is upon this principle that Hungary to-day produces musical -works of absolute merit. - - - V - -The most significant representatives of modern Hungarian music are -Ödön Mihálovich, Count Géza Zichy, and Jenö Hubay. The compositions -of these men should be considered first as works of absolute merit, -regardless of their nationality; second, for the Hungarian national -elements which they unconsciously display; and, finally, as noble, -though not completely successful, attempts to apply these elements -and characteristics to serious modern forms. Though much preoccupied -with this problem, they cannot be criticized for the lack of strong -individuality, since their personalities almost always overshadow -the Hungarian qualities in their works, which, however, are still -sufficiently prominent to typify them as Hungarian composers. Each of -the three received his training under the most eminent foreign masters, -by which fact they were peculiarly fitted to become the teachers of -'young Hungary,' and incidentally the real founders of the modern -Hungarian school. - -The oldest of the three, Mihálovich, was born in 1842. He studied with -Hauptmann in Leipzig, with Bülow in Munich, and was in personal touch -with Liszt and Wagner. In his position as the director of the Hungarian -Royal National Academy of Music in Budapest he exercises a strong and -salutary influence upon present Hungarian musical life. It is due -to his efforts that this unique school maintains an extraordinarily -high standard. As a composer he is versatile and prolific. He has -successfully applied his talent to every form from song to grand -opera ('Hagbart and Signe,' 'Toldi's Love,' 'Eliana,' and _Wieland -der Schmied_, upon the libretto planned by Wagner). He has written a -Symphony in D and several symphonic poems ('Sellö,' 'Pan's Death,' 'The -Ship of Ghosts,' 'Hero and Leander,' _Ronde du Sabbat_, etc.). He is a -master of orchestration and displays superior craftsmanship in working -out his thematic material. His style shows a fusion of Wagnerian -elements and of the principles of nineteenth-century program music with -Hungarian national characteristics. His musical ideas are usually lofty -and of refined taste. - -Count Géza Zichy (born 1849) is an aristocrat in the best sense of -the word. The qualities of the man of noble birth and high rank (he -is a privy councillor to the king, a member of the House of Lords, -the president of the National Music Conservatory, etc.), the fine -sensibility of a man endowed with talent and trained under the best -masters (he studied with and was a friend of Liszt and Volkmann) -are reflected in his works as a poet, an author, a virtuoso, and a -composer. A man of wealth, he employs his means in the realization -of high artistic ideals. When as a lad of fourteen he lost his right -arm he experienced the lesson of physical and spiritual suffering -and grew up to be a man of unusually intense energy.[27] Instead of -giving up his favorite art of piano playing he developed himself into -the greatest of left-arm virtuosos. His remarkable playing, besides -displaying an almost incredible technique, reflects the feelings of a -truly poetic soul. 'His playing is remarkable in every respect, since -it is gentle and full of soul, of enthusiasm, and of incomparable -_bravour_,' wrote Fétis,[28] and Hanslick remarked 'there are many who -can play, a few who can charm, but only Zichy can bewitch with his -playing.' It is characteristic of him as a man and as an artist that -he never accepts any fee for playing; he plays only for charity. 'I am -happy,' he wrote to a critic, 'to be in the service of the poor and of -the unfortunate and to earn bread for them through my hard work.' - -Count Zichy's compositions for the piano--for the left hand alone -(études, a sonata, a serenade, arrangements of Bach, Beethoven, Chopin, -Liszt, Wagner, etc.)--are unique in pianoforte literature. The climax -of his achievement in this field is his Concerto in E-flat. It is -distinguished by an energetic first movement, by a deeply felt -second movement cast in a Hungarian folk-mood, by the brilliancy of the -finale, and, above all, by its terrific technical demands upon the left -hand. - - [Illustration] - - Hungarian Composers: - - Count Géza Zichy Jenö Hubay - Ernst von Dohnányi Emanuel Moór - -In dramatic music Count Zichy began his activity with the opera _Alár_, -upon a Hungarian subject. This was followed by the more successful -'Master Roland,' in which he makes use of a radically modern idiom. -The work lacks the usual characteristics of Hungarian music. All his -libretti were written by himself. Stimulated by Wagner's idea that -'through music dance and poetry are reconciled,' he undertook to write -a poetic 'dance-poem' (ballet) or melodrama entitled _Gemma_. In this -dramatic (speaking) actors played the chief rôles, while the action was -supported by recitation, mimicry, dance and symphonic music. This novel -undertaking proved a failure and Zichy later rewrote the whole piece as -a regular pantomime. - -The most ambitious work is his trilogy comprising _Franz Rákoczy II_, -_Nemo_, and _Rodosto_, and dealing with the life of the historical -Franz Rákoczy (1676-1735), 'the great hero and great character, the -loyal, the most chivalrous, the noblest son of Hungary.' Zichy made -a deep study of the Rákoczyan era and the librettos themselves as -pure dramas are of considerable literary value. With respect to their -historical truth the author remarked: 'After two years' study of this -age the figure of the great hero became more and more vivid before my -eyes and so I wrote the libretto of my trilogy--or rather I copied it, -since the life of Rákoczy was itself induced by fate.' - -Into the music of the trilogy there are woven numerous themes dating -from the Rákoczyan period. The problem of applying the stylistic -elements of national Hungarian music to modern forms, rhythms and -harmony, however, proved a difficult one; Zichy's solution is a -worthy attempt, but nevertheless only partially successful. Aside -from this special purpose the work fascinates by its melodic warmth, -its rhythmic energy, and its masterful workmanship. It is safe to say -that Zichy's Rákoczy trilogy represents a new phase in the history of -national Hungarian grand opera. - -Of the three contemporary Hungarian composers Hubay's name is the best -known internationally.[29] His career as a brilliant violinist (he -frequently played with Liszt); the fact that he was Wieniawsky's and -Vieuxtemps's successor at the Brussels Conservatory; the success of -his quartet (with Servais as 'cellist), all helped to direct general -attention to him. Both Massenet and Saint-Saëns were much interested -in him. When as a young man of twenty-seven he was called home by the -Hungarian government, his fame was already well established. Later he -continued playing in the musical centres of Europe and added to his -fame, and when he began to publish (and play) his violin compositions -he achieved such a sweeping success that he is still popularly regarded -as a composer of well-known violin pieces, to the detriment of the -reputation of his other works. - -This very attitude of the general public is the highest praise for -Hubay's violin compositions. Indeed, their poetic charm, their -effectiveness and singularly idiomatic style stamp him as a genuinely -inspired poet of the instrument. In violin literature he occupies -perhaps the most nearly analogous place to that of Chopin in piano -music. His deeply-felt tone-pictures, his 'Csárda (tavern) Scenes,' -in which he preserved many a treasure of Hungarian folk-song, those -magnificent illustrations of _Sirva vigad a magyar_, those rapturous -Hungarian rhapsodies for the violin, are surely not of less value than -many of Liszt's finest piano compositions. - -The facts that Hubay's name is chiefly associated with his standard -violin compositions and that his reputation is mainly that of a great -violin pedagogue were obstacles to the popularity of his other works. -Yet his creative activity has been most varied: he has written songs, -sonatas, concertos, symphonies, and seven operas. One of these operas, -'The Violin Maker of Cremona' (libretto by Coppée), was successfully -performed in seventy European theatres. The music of the 'Violin -Maker' is characterized by refined elegance, genuine passion, and the -nobility of its ideas. The remark of a Hungarian critic that Hubay's -music impresses one 'as if he had composed it with silk gloves on his -hands' may be accepted as real praise, for Hubay's technical mastery -is applied with uniformly exquisite taste. He especially shows his -superior musicianship in the operas _Alienor_, 'Two Little Wooden -Shoes,' 'A Night of Love,' 'Venus of Milo,' and in the two Hungarian -operas, 'The Village Rover' and 'Lavotta's Love,' the first based on a -Hungarian peasant play, the second on the life of the composer Lavotta. - -Hubay's two essays in the field of national grand opera are sincere -products of his artistic conviction--conscious manifestations of a -national ambition; he can, therefore, not be accused of trying to hide -a lack of original invention behind a cloak of folk-music. - - - VI - -Between Mihálovich, Zichy, Hubay, and the representatives of 'young -Hungary' there are composers of note who are not young enough to be -classified as such nor old enough to be called masters, if we apply -the term to artistic stature rather than actual age. This applies -especially to Ernst von Dohnányi (born 1877), a former pupil of the -Hungarian Academy and of d'Albert and at present a professor at the -royal _Hochschule_ in Berlin. Virility, vehement pathos, enthusiasm, -and brilliant sonority are the outstanding qualities of Dohnányi's -music. His best works are perhaps in the field of chamber music: the -beautiful string quartet in D-flat, the 'Trio Serenade,' full of -caprice and coquetry, the violin sonata in C-sharp minor, a work of -fine inspiration, are of solid merit. His four 'Rhapsodies'--well -known to pianists--are interesting. One of them reveals the author's -nationality, while another one re-echoes his honored ideal, Brahms. His -effective and brilliant piano concerto, too, speaks here and there in -Brahmsian phraseology. Although he reflects slight special influences -in places (as that of Mahler in his Suite), his style is eclectic -and expresses at the same time a strong individuality. In works of -larger form he has tried his hand at a symphony (D minor), excelling -in beautiful harmonies, and a comic opera, _Tante Simonia_, containing -a characteristic overture in which the jovial character of the comedy -is successfully reflected. This, like his pantomime, 'The Veil of the -Pierette,' reveals him as a musical dramatist, with a special gift for -effective orchestration. Dohnányi's substantial accomplishments already -make it unnecessary to predict for him a place in musical history. - -Undoubtedly the hyper-critical and unreceptive attitude of modern -critics is responsible for the lack of popularity of certain composers. -It would seem that Emanuel Moór is one of these. Moór is a tremendously -prolific composer. He has written no less than five hundred songs, -seven symphonies, three operas, six concertos, and a mass of chamber -music. Many of these have real merit; also, they do not lack exponents -and interpreters (witness Marteau, Ysaye, Casals, Bauer, the -Flonzalay Quartet). Still, they have not been able to gain a general -appreciation. Time only will assign a proper place to their creator. -Here, also, should be mentioned the name of J. Bloch, a successful -composer of numerous violin pieces. - -National qualities are displayed to telling advantage in the 'Aphorisms -on Hungarian Folk-songs,' by the brilliant Liszt pupil A. Szendi. -In fact, the 'Aphorisms' (difficult piano pieces) have perhaps more -Hungarian color than the Rhapsodies of Liszt. Szendi is also the author -of some good chamber music and of an opera, 'Maria,' which he wrote -together with Szabados. 'Maria' is built upon Wagnerian principles. -The subject of this ambitious opera is the struggle between the -Christian and Pagan Hungarians in the twelfth century. The music, in -which Hungarian elements also have a prominent place, is of exquisite -workmanship. - -While Dohnányi and Moór are not living in Hungary, Szendi, Bloch, -and the brilliant group referred to as 'young Hungary' develop their -growing talents within the borders of their native land. - -On the whole, the characteristics of the present products of the young -Hungarian school are above all individual; but there is also a strong -tendency toward ultra-modernism, and, finally, a certain fragrance of -the Hungarian soil, a quality that one may feel but can not analyze. -The aim of the school is no less than the creation of a new national -style, which they endeavor to reach by different ways. Brilliance and -robust individualism characterize every one of these disciples, mostly -of Hungarian education. This is especially true of Leo Weiner (born -1885), whose very first attempt in the field of composition attested -a considerable technique. If Weiner's first composition took his -master (Hans Koessler[30]) by surprise, a later one, which he wrote -for the final student's concert of his class, fell little short of -being a sensation for musical Europe. This, his last student work--a -'Serenade'--spread his fame through the continent. It was performed in -almost every musical centre of Europe. In it the composer displays -a really individual style of his own. It is full of ideas garbed in -brilliant orchestration and glows with the fire of enthusiasm. Weiner's -ingenious harmonic sense and ability is as astonishing for his age -as his fine architectural sense. In his other works--a quartet in E, -a trio in G minor, a sonata for violin and piano in D (a valuable -addition to the list of modern sonatas)--the harmony, while sonorous -and pure, is quite simple, though his modulations often act as -surprises. In form he never abandons logical progression and artistic -unity, since he never loses the general outline of his movements. It is -true that one may find dull moments in Weiner, yet of what composer is -that not true? Weiner is less successful where he attempts to produce -Hungarian color, but as dignified examples of music produced for its -own sake his works are likely to persist. - - -One of the chief representatives of musical ultra-modernism in Hungary -is Béla Bartók, a remarkable individuality whose modernism has probably -reached its own limits. According to his principles, applied in his -compositions, every kind of key-relationship is possible. Thus he -combines a melody E major with a motive A-flat major. His waltz, 'My -Sweetheart is Dancing,' is astonishingly grotesque and novel in its -pianistic effects. It will hardly fail to make a listener smile or -laugh--perhaps by direct intention of the composer. Bartók's colleague -in the field of grotesque but effective dissonances is Z. Kodály, with -whom he undertook the notable task of collecting Hungarian folk-songs -in their genuine natural form. With these true and unalloyed Hungarian -melodies the two 'futurists' proved that the genuine Hungarian -folk-song differed essentially from those known generally under -that name. Bartók's and Kodály's folk-melodies are not built on the -Hungarian scale, which is of gypsy invention. They display primitive -qualities and preserve even the influence of the ancient church modes. -They have a great variety of constantly changing rhythm and metre, and -a distinct feature is the frequent return of characteristic formulas, -also the employment of a peculiar pentatonic scale. Whatever may be -his merits as a composer, Béla Bartók's work as a scholar in Hungarian -music is of unquestioned historical importance. - -Another young composer whose works are frequently played in foreign -countries (also in America) is E. Lendway, likewise a pupil of -Koessler. His Symphony has sterling qualities. He has, however, -produced works of greater significance in chamber music, in piano -music, and songs. Especially worthy of mention is a 'Suite' for female -voices _a cappella_. Old Japanese poems supply the text. These he -has set to music of genuine poetic _finesse_, delicate and finely -emotional. The whole gives a series of impressive tone-pictures, -reflecting a fascinating exotic atmosphere. As a testimony of Lendway's -technical skill it has been pointed out that he has produced Japanese -'color' without using the Japanese scale. True to his modernist -propensities, he makes free use of the whole-tone scale, but with -a more specific effect than is usually done. His latest and most -ambitious work is an opera, 'Elga,' after Gerhart Hauptmann's drama. - -Other young Hungarians have attracted international attention in the -field of opera. E. Ábrányi's 'Paolo and Francesca' and 'Monna Vanna' -(after Maeterlinck) have a dramatic power that is promising. He is -at his best in fantastic tone-painting, and remarkable for harmonic -invention and skill in orchestration. A charming children's opera, -'Cinderella,' is by Á. Buttykay, whose more ambitious symphonic works -make him an estimable member of the young Hungarian group. Some chamber -music works of ultra-modern tendencies and a Symphonic Suite of -ingenious orchestration by Radnai raise expectations of still better -things to come. - -Justice can hardly be done by merely mentioning the names of such men -as Chovan, Gobbi, Farkas, Rékai, Koenig, Siklós, etc., all of whom are -engaged in meritorious creative work. Of no less importance are those -who work in the field of musicography and criticism. 'The Theory of -Hungarian Music,' by Géza Molnár, and 'The Evolution of the Hungarian -Folk-song,' by Fabo, as well as shorter essays by A. Kern, P. Kacsoh, -etc., are of especially high value. In conclusion we may say that even -a slight study of contemporary Hungarian music will convince one that -the musical life of the Hungary of to-day adequately reflects the -tendency of the age, and that the country has definitely entered the -rank of the truly musical nations. - - E. K. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[17] 'Studies in Modern Music,' by W. H. Hadow, Second Series. - -[18] _The Musical Courier_, New York, May 4, 1904. - -[19] 'History of Music.' - -[20] Mrs. Edmond Wodehouse; article, 'Song,' in Grove's Dictionary of -Music. - -[21] 'Famous Composers and Their Works,' New Series, Vol. I, p. 178. - -[22] Actually, it was not E, but the chord of the sixth of A-flat, in -high position, that constantly rang in Smetana's ear. - -[23] His operas are: _Der König und der Köhler_ (1874), _Die -Dickschädel_ (1882), _Wanda_ (1876), _Der Bauer ein Schelm_ (1877), -_Dimitrije_ (1882), _Jacobin_ (1889), _Der Teufel und die wilde Käthe_ -(1899), _Roussalka_ (1901), _Armida_ (1904). - -[24] Oscar Nedbal (born 1874), pupil of Dvořák, conductor, and viola of -the well-known Bohemian Quartet. - -[25] It consisted of the following movements: 'The Council,' 'The -Siege,' 'The Last Farewell,' 'The Prayer' and 'The Attack.' - -[26] Arranged for string quartet by Kún László, published by -Rózsavölgyi in Budapest. - -[27] It is touching to read in his brilliantly written autobiography (3 -volumes, 1910), where, as if he had foreseen the terrible present war, -he remarks: 'If God will help me, I will write a book for men with one -arm, and the book will be published in five languages!' - -[28] In _Biographie universelle des musiciens_, p. 687. - -[29] Jenö Hubay, born in 1858 in Budapest, son of Carl Huber, professor -of violin at the National Academy of Music and conductor of the -National Theatre in Budapest. - -[30] Composer and head of the theory department of the Royal Hungarian -Academy. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - THE POST-CLASSICAL AND POETIC SCHOOLS OF MODERN GERMANY - - The post-Beethovenian tendencies in the music of Germany - and their present-day significance; the problem of modern - symphonic form--The academic followers of Brahms: Bruch - and others--The modern 'poetic' school: Richard Strauss as - symphonic composer--Anton Bruckner, his life and works--Gustav - Mahler--Max Reger, and others. - - - I - -No other European nation can show, within the last fifty years, so -great a variety of schools, and so great a variety of effort and -achievement within each school, as the German. The reason is that -the Germans were the only race that, by the middle of the nineteenth -century, had beaten out a musical language that was capable of -almost every kind of expression. Within the ample limits of that -language there was room for the realization of any spirit and any -form--post-classical or progressive, or a union of these two; poetic -or abstract; vocal or instrumental; symphonic or operatic. And in each -sphere the Germans developed both form and spirit to a point attained -by no other nation--in the opera of Wagner, the post-Beethovenian -symphony of Brahms and Bruckner, the symphonic poem of Strauss, the -song of Hugo Wolf; while within the separate orbit of each of these -leaders there moved a crowd of lesser but still goodly luminaries. -It is remarkable, too, that each period that seemed a climax of -development in this form or that proved to be only the starting-point -for a new departure. Beethoven's spirit realized itself afresh in -Wagner and Brahms, and in remoter but still easily traceable ways in -Liszt and Strauss; in the best of Strauss, again, we can see coursing -the sap of Wagner, but with a vitality that throws out unexpected, -new and individual shoots; Schubert and Schumann, each seemingly -so perfect, so complete in himself, blossom into a new and richer -lyrical life in the songs of Hugo Wolf. To make clear the nature and -the meaning of the modern German developments it will be necessary to -survey rapidly the conditions that led up to them. - -Beethoven, especially in his later symphonies, sonatas and quartets, -had carried music to an intellectual and emotional height for a -parallel to which we have to go back a century, to the colossal work -of Bach. Beethoven bequeathed to music an enormous fund of expression -and a perfected instrument of expression. Both of these were waiting -for the new composers who could use them for the fertilization of -modern music. Wagner seized upon the fund rather than the instrument. -In place of the latter, though, indeed, with its assistance, he forged -a new instrument of his own; but the impulse to the forging of it, -and the strength for the forging of it, came to him in large measure -from the deep draughts he had drunk of Beethoven's spirit. Schumann -(the symphonic Schumann) and Brahms, on the other hand, were more -content with the instrument as Beethoven had left it; or, to vary the -illustration, they were satisfied, speaking broadly, to fill with more -or less derivative pictures of their own the frame that Beethoven had -bequeathed to them. But it was inevitable that a procedure of this kind -should lead here and there to the petrification of form into formalism, -both of idea and of design. For it is an error to suppose, as the -writers of text-books too often do, that 'form' is something that can -be conveyed by tuition or achieved by imitation. There is no such thing -as form apart from the idea; the form _is_ simply the idea made -visible and coherent. It is not the form that shapes the thought in the -truly great masters; rather is the form simply the expression of the -thought, as the form of a tree is the expression of the idea of a tree, -or the form of the human body the expression of the idea of man. The -post-classicists too often forgot that Beethoven's form and Beethoven's -thought are inseparable--that they are, in truth, in the profoundest -sense, merely different names for the same thing, the one totality -viewed from different standpoints, as we may speak for convenience -sake of the bodily man and the spiritual man, though, in truth, the -living man is one and indivisible; and the post-classicists, indeed, -from Brahms downwards, founded themselves upon the early or middle -Beethoven, or even his eighteenth-century predecessors, rather than -upon the Beethoven of the last works, with their incessant, titanic -struggle to open new roads into art and life. With all his greatness, -Brahms was not great enough to be to the symphony of his own day what -Beethoven was to the symphony of his. Brahms raises an excellent crop -from the delta fertilized by the waters of the great river as it -debouched into the unknown sea; but that was all. He himself added -nothing to the soil that could make it fertile enough to support yet -another generation. All the technical mastery of Brahms--and it is very -great indeed--cannot give to his symphonic music the thoroughly organic -air of Beethoven's, the same sense of the perfect, unanalyzable fusion -of form and matter. - - [Illustration: Modern German Symphonists and Lyricists:] - - Anton Bruckner Felix Draeseke - Hugo Wolf Gustav Mahler - -While Brahms was developing the classical heritage in his own way, -Liszt and Wagner were boldly staking out claims on the future. With -each of these composers the aim was the same--to find a form and an -expression that, by their elasticity, would make music more equal to -the painting of human life in all its manifold variety. This effort -took two lines: the instrumental and the dramatic. Liszt, anticipated -to some extent by Berlioz, tried to adapt the essence of the symphonic -form to the new spirit. The problems he set himself have rarely been -successfully solved, even to the present day; they block the path -of every modern writer of symphonic poems, and of every writer of -symphonies the impulse behind which is more or less definitely poetic. - -The mere fact of the incessant fluctuation of modern composers between -the two forms--the one-movement form of Liszt and the symphonic poem -in general, and the four-movement form of the poetic or partly poetic -symphony--shows that neither of them is of itself completely adequate. -For against each of them strict logic can urge some pointed objection. -The four-movement form, growing as it does out of the suite, is -and will always be more appropriate to what may be roughly called -'pattern-music' rather than to poetic music; for the mere number of the -movements, and the practically invariable order of their succession, -implies the forcing of the thought into a preconceived frame, rather -than the determining of the frame by the nature of the picture. The -one-movement form is in itself more logical, but it is always faced -by the problem of conciliating the natural evolution of a poetic idea -and the decorative evolution of a musical pattern; and the symphonic -poems in which this problem is satisfactorily solved might perhaps be -counted on the fingers of one hand. There is a point in Strauss's _Till -Eulenspiegel_, for example, - - [Illustration: music score] - -in which we feel acutely that the poetic--or shall we say the -novelistic?--scheme that has so far been followed line by line is being -put aside for the moment in order that the composer, having stated -his thematic material, may subject it, for purely musical reasons, to -something in the nature of the ordinary 'working-out.' - -The four-movement form obviously allows greater scope to a composer -who has a great deal to say upon a fruitful subject, but it labors -under an equally obvious disability. The modern sense of psychological -unity demands that the symphony of to-day shall justify, in its own -being, the casting of it into this or that number of movements. Every -work of art must, if challenged, be able to give an answer to what -Wagner used to call the question 'Why?' 'Why,' we have a right to say -to the composer, 'have you chosen to give your work just this form -and these dimensions and no other?' It is because modern composers -cannot quite silence the voice that whispers to them that the -four-movement form is the form of the suite, in which the charm of -the music comes mainly from the delight of the purely musical faculty -with itself, rather than a form suited to a music that aims first of -all at expressing more definite feelings about life, that they try to -vivify the merely formal unity of the suite form with a psychological -unity--mainly by means of quasi-leit-motifs that reappear in each of -the movements. - -But, though this system has given us some of our finest modern works of -the symphonic type, it has its limitations. If the composer does not -tell us the poetic meaning of his themes and all their reappearances, -these reappearances frequently puzzle rather than enlighten us: this is -notably the case with César Franck. If the composer works upon a single -leit-motif, it is, as a rule, of the 'Fate-and-humanity' type of the -Tschaikowsky symphony--a type that in the end becomes rather painfully -conventional. This simplicity of plan, however, has the advantage of -leaving the composer free to develop his musical material with the -minimum of disturbance from the poetic idea. On the other hand, if his -poetic scheme is at all copious or extensive, and he allows himself to -follow all the vicissitudes of it, he must either give us a written -clue to every page of his music--which he is generally unwilling -and frequently unable to do--or pay the penalty of our failing to -see in his music precisely what he intended to put there; for it is -as true now as when Wagner wrote, three-quarters of a century ago, -that purely instrumental music cannot permit itself such sudden and -frequent changes as dramatic music without running the risk of becoming -unintelligible. Always there arises within us, when the composer's -thought branches off at an angle that does not seem to us justified -by the inner logic of the music _quâ_ music, that awkward question, -"Why?" and to that question only the stage action, as Wagner says, or -a program, as most of us would say to-day, can supply a satisfactory -answer. This conflict between form and matter can be seen running -through almost all modern German instrumental music of the poetic -order; only the genius of Strauss has been able to resolve the antinomy -with some success. None of Beethoven's successors has been able, as he -was, to fill every bar of a symphonic composition with equal meaning, -or to convey, as he did in the third symphony, the fifth and the ninth, -the sense of a drama that is implicit in the music itself, and so -coherent, so perspicuous, that words cannot add anything to it in the -way of definiteness. - - - II - -The symphonic work of Brahms (by which one means not merely the -symphonies but the overtures, the concertos, the chamber music and -the piano music) does, indeed, as we have seen, found itself on the -middle rather than the later Beethoven (whereas it was from the latest -Beethoven that Wagner drew _his_ chief nourishment); but in spite of -a certain timidity and a certain rigidity of form, Brahms's profound -nature and his consummate workmanship give his work an individuality -that enables him to stand by the side of Beethoven, though he never -reaches quite to Beethoven's height. The other exploiters of the -classical heritage have less individuality. They aim at breaking no new -ground; they are content to till afresh the soil that the classical -masters have fertilized for them. - -Max Bruch may be taken as the type of a whole crowd of these -post-classical writers. Their virtues are those that are always -characteristic of the epigone. There is in art, as in the animal world, -a protective mimicry that enables certain weaker species to assume -at any rate the external markings of more vigorous organisms than -themselves. In music, minds of this order clothe themselves with the -qualities that lie on the surface of the great men's work. Their own -art is parasitic (one uses that term, of course, without any offensive -intention, with a biological, not a moral, implication). The parasitic -organism lives easily in virtue of the fact that the parent organism -undertakes all the labor of the chief vital functions. The epigone -manipulates again and again the forms of his great predecessors. The -substance he pours into these molds is hardly more his own. Yet work of -this kind can have undeniable charm; after all, it is better for a man -whose strength is not of the first order to live contentedly upon the -side of the great mountain than to court destruction by trying to scale -its dizziest peaks. The work of these epigones always has the balance -and the clarity that come from the complete absence of any sense of a -new problem to beat their heads against. - -Max Bruch was born in 1838 and evinced the early precocity of genius; -he had a symphony performed in his native Cologne at the age of -fourteen. As a beneficiary of the Mozart Foundation he became a pupil -of Ferdinand Hiller in composition and of Carl Reinecke and Ferdinand -Breuning in piano. As executive musician he has had a brilliant career. -After teaching in Cologne he became successively musical director in -Coblentz, court kapellmeister in Sondershausen, chorus conductor in -Berlin (_Sternscher Gesangverein_), conductor of the Philharmonic -Society of Liverpool, England, and the _Orchesterverein_ of Breslau. -In 1891 he became head of the 'master school' of composition in the -Berlin Academy, was given the title of professor, received in 1893 -the honorary degree of Doc. Mus. from Cambridge, and in 1898 became a -corresponding member of the French Academy of Fine Arts. - -His most important creative work is unquestionably represented by -his large choral works with orchestra. Together with Georg Vierling -(1820-1901) he may be credited with the modern revival of the secular -cantata. _Frithjof_, op. 23 (1864), written during his stay in Mannheim -(1862-64), was the foundation-stone of his reputation, followed soon -after by the universally known 'Fair Ellen,' op. 25, and later by -_Odysseus_, op. 41 (1873), _Arminius_, op. 43, 'The Song of the Bell,' -op. 45, 'The Cross of Fire,' op. 52, all for mixed chorus. There -is a sacred oratorio, 'Moses,' op. 52, and a secular one 'Gustavus -Adolphus,' op. 73, and a large number of other choral works for mixed, -male and female chorus. His operas, 'Lorelei' (1863) and 'Hermione' -op. 40, had only a _succès d'estime_. The first violin concerto, in -G minor, op. 26, is perhaps Bruch's most famous composition, and a -grateful constituent of every violinist's repertoire. There are two -other violin concertos (both in D minor), opera 44 and 45, a Romance, a -Fantasia and other violin pieces with orchestra, also works for 'cello -and orchestra, including the well-known setting of _Kol Nidrei_. -Three symphonies (E-flat minor, F minor and E major), op. 28, 36 and -51; a few chamber music and piano pieces complete the catalogue of his -works. Bruch's idiom is frankly melodic, though his harmonic texture -is quite rich and his counterpoint varied. Formally he is conservative -and, all in all, he imposes no strain upon the listener's power of -comprehension. His music is solid and grateful, but not of striking -originality. Through his masters, Reinecke and Hiller, he represents -the Schumann-Mendelssohn tradition in a vigorous though inoffensive -eclecticism. - -The leading members of this order of composers in the Germany of the -second half of the nineteenth century besides Bruch, were Hermann Goetz -(1840-1876; symphony in F major), Friedrich Gernsheim (born 1839; -four symphonies and much chamber music), Heinrich von Herzogenberg -(1843-1900; chamber music, church music, symphonies, etc.), Joseph -Rheinberger (1839-1901); Wilhelm Berger (1861-1911; works for choir and -orchestra, chamber music, two symphonies, etc.); and Georg Schumann -(1866; orchestral and choral works, chamber music, etc). - -Goetz is best known for his work in the operatic field and may be more -appropriately treated in that connection (see p. 245). Gernsheim, -a native of Worms, was a student in the Leipzig conservatory and -broadened his education by a sojourn in Paris (from 1855). The -posts of musical director in Saarbrücken (1861), teacher of piano -and composition at the Cologne conservatory (1865), conductor of -the Maatschappig concerts in Rotterdam (1874) successively engaged -his activities. From 1890-97 he taught at the Stern conservatory in -Berlin and conducted the _Sternsche Gesangverein_ till 1904, besides -the _Eruditio musica_ of Rotterdam. In 1901 he became principal of -a master-school for composition. Since 1897 Gernsheim has been a -member of the senate of the Royal Academy. Similar to Bruch in his -tendencies, Gernsheim has composed, aside from the instrumental works -mentioned above, a number of choral works of which _Salamis_, _Odin's -Meeresritt_ (both for men's chorus, baritone and orchestra) and _Das -Grab im Busento_ (men's chorus and orchestra) are especially notable. -Overtures and a concerto each for piano, for violin, and for 'cello -must be added to complete the list of his works. - -Heinrich von Herzogenberg, too, is chiefly identified with the revival -of choral song, especially of ecclesiastical character (a Requiem, op. -72; a mass, op. 87; _Totenfeier_, op. 80; 'The Birth of Christ,' op. -90; a Passion, op. 93, etc.). In this department Herzogenberg is the -successor to Friedrich Kiel. - -Rheinberger occupies a peculiar position. He is a stanch adherent -to classical traditions and generally considered as an academic -composer. That his classicism was not inconsistent with a hankering -after the methods of the New German School, however, is shown in his -Wallenstein symphony (op. 10) and his 'Christophorus' (oratorio). -Having received his early training upon the organ, he has shown a -preponderant tendency toward organ music and ecclesiastical composition -in general. Nevertheless he has written, besides the works already -named, a symphonic fantasy, three overtures, and considerable piano and -chamber works. Eugen Schmitz[31] calls him a South German Raff, for -'as many-sided as Raff, he, in contrast to this master of North German -training, received his musical education in South Germany.' (Born in -Vaduz, in Lichtenstein, he continued his training in Feldkirch and -during 1851-54 at the Royal School of Music in Munich). In Munich he -became the centre of a veritable school of young composers, exerting -a very broad influence, first as teacher of theory and later royal -professor and inspector of the Royal School. Rheinberger also conducted -the performances of the Royal Chapel choir. He received the honorary -degree of Ph.D. from the University of Munich and became a member of -the Berlin Academy. - -Riemann's judgment of his merit, voiced in the following sentences, may -be taken as just on the whole. He says: 'Rheinberger enjoyed a high -reputation as composer, in the vocal as well as in the instrumental -field. However, the contrapuntal mastery and the æsthetic instinct -evident in his workmanship cannot permanently hide his lack of really -warm-blooded emotion.' His organ works, of classic perfection, will -probably last the longest. His _Requiem_, _Stabat Mater_, and a -double-choir Mass stand at the head of his church compositions. He -also wrote an opera, _Die Sieben Raben_. Like Bruch's, his style is -eclectic, being a fusion of neo-classical and post-romantic influences. - -Wilhelm Berger is a native of America (Boston, 1861), but was educated -in Berlin, where he was a pupil of Fr. Kiel at the Royal _Hochschule_. -Later he became teacher at the Klindworth-Scharwenka conservatory and -in 1903 succeeded Fritz Steinbach as conductor of the famous Meiningen -court orchestra. Some of his songs are widely known, but his choral -compositions (_Totentanz_, _Euphorin_, etc.) constitute his most -important work. Berger is a Brahms disciple without reserve, and so -are Hans Kössler (b. 1853, symphonic variations for orchestra, etc.), -Friedrich E. Koch (b. 1862, symphonic fugue in C minor, oratorio -_Von den Tageszeiten_, etc.), Gustav Schreck (b. 1849), and Max -Zenger (b. 1837). Georg Schumann, the last on our list of important -epigones, has had more hearings abroad than most of his contemporary -brothers-in-faith, especially with his oratorio 'Ruth' (1908), several -times performed by the New York Oratorio Society. As conductor of the -Berlin _Singakademie_ (since 1900), he has not lacked incentive to -choral writing, hence 'Amor and Psyche,' _Preis und Danklied_, etc. A -symphony in B, a serenade, op. 32, and other orchestral pieces as well -as chamber works have come from his pen, all in the Brahms idiom. - -The names of the still smaller men are legion. Let us mention but a few -of them: Robert Radecke (1830-1911) wrote a symphony, overtures, and -choral songs; Johann Herbeck (1831-77), symphonies, etc.; Joseph Abert -(b. 1832), besides operas a symphony, a symphonic poem, 'Columbus,' and -overtures; Albert Becker (1834-99), a Mass in B minor, a prize-crowned -symphony, choral and chamber works; Franz Wüllner (1832-1902), chiefly -choral works; Heinrich Hofmann (1842-1902), besides the operas _Armin_ -and _Ännchen von Tharau_, a symphony, orchestral suites, cantatas, -chamber music and piano music, much of it for four hands; and Franz -Ries (b. 1846), suites for violin and piano, string quartets, etc. -Georg Henschel is especially noted for his songs (see Vol. V); Hans -Huber, a German Swiss, for his 'Böcklin Symphony' and chamber music; -while the Germanized Poles Maurice Moszkowski (b. 1854) and the -brothers Scharwenka (Philipp and Xaver, b. 1850) claim attention with -pleasing and popular piano pieces. Needless to say, such a list as this -can never be complete. - - - III - -Side by side with the neo-classical school, but always steadily -encroaching upon it, is the 'poetic' school that derives from Liszt and -Wagner. It is a truism of criticism that in musical history the big -men end periods rather than begin them. The composer who inaugurates -a movement appears to posterity as a fumbler rather than a master, -and even in his own day his methods and his ideals fail to command -general respect, so wide a gulf is there in them between intention and -achievement. It was so, for example, with Liszt and his immediate -school. But in the end there comes a man who, with a greater natural -genius than his predecessors, assimilates all they have to teach him -either imaginatively or formally, and brings to fulfillment what in -them was at its best never more than promise. The tentative work of -Liszt comes to full fruition in the work of Strauss. He has a richer -musical endowment than any of his predecessors in his own special -line, and a technical skill to which none of them could ever pretend. -Liszt had imagination, but he never succeeded in making a thoroughly -serviceable technique for himself, no doubt because his early career as -a pianist made it impossible for him to work seriously at composition -until comparatively late in life. Strauss is of the type of musician -who readily learns all that the pedagogues can teach him, and utilizes -the knowledge thus acquired as the basis for a new technique of his own. - -Richard Strauss was born June 11, 1864, in Munich, the son of Franz -Strauss, a noted Waldhorn player (royal chamber musician). He studied -composition with the local court kapellmeister, W. Meyer, and as early -as 1881 gave striking evidence of his talent in a string quartet in -A minor (op. 2), which was played by the Walter quartet. A Symphony -in D minor, an overture in C minor and a suite for thirteen wind -instruments, op. 7, all performed in public, the last by the famous -'Meininger' orchestra, quickly spread his name among musicians and in -1885 he was engaged by Hans von Bülow as musical director to the ducal -court at Meiningen. Here Alexander Ritter is said to have influenced -him in the direction of ultra-modernity. After another year Strauss -returned to Munich as third royal kapellmeister; three years later -(1889) he became Lassen's associate as court conductor in Weimar; from -1894 to 1898 he was again in Munich, this time as court conductor, -and at the end of that period went to Berlin to occupy a similar -post at the Royal Prussian court. In 1904 he became general musical -director (_Generalmusikdirektor_). Since the appearance of his first -works mentioned above he has been almost incessantly occupied with -composition. - -These early works and those immediately following give little hint -of the later Strauss, except for the characteristically hard-hitting -strength of it almost from the first. Works like the B minor piano -sonata (op. 5) and the 'cello sonata (op. 6), for example, have a -curious, cubbish demonstrativeness about them; but it is plain enough -already that the cub is of the great breed. With the exception of a -few songs, and a setting of Goethe's _Wanderers Sturmlied_ for chorus -and orchestra (op. 14), all his music until his twenty-second year was -in the traditional instrumental forms; it includes, besides the works -already mentioned, a string quartet (op. 2), a violin concerto (op. -8), a symphony (op. 12), a quartet for piano and strings (op. 13), a -_Burleske_ for piano and orchestra, and sundry smaller works for piano -solo, etc. According to his own account, he was first set upon the path -of poetic music by Alexander Ritter--a man of no great account as a -composer, but restlessly alive to the newest musical currents of his -time, and with the literary gift of rousing enthusiasm in others for -his own ideas. He was an ardent partisan of the 'New German' school of -Liszt and Wagner. Of his own essays in the operatic field only two saw -completion: _Der faule Hans_ (1885) and _Wem die Krone?_ (1890). They -were mildly successful in Munich and Weimar. Besides these he wrote -symphonic poems that at least partially bridge the gap between Liszt -and Strauss; 'Seraphic Phantasy,' 'Erotic Legend,' 'Olaf's Wedding -Procession,' and 'Emperor Rudolph's Ride to the Grave' are some of the -titles. Ritter was of Russian birth (Narva), but lived in Germany from -childhood (Dresden, Leipzig, Weimar, Würzberg, etc). He was a close -friend of Bülow and married Wagner's niece, Franziska Wagner. - - - [Illustration: Richard Strauss] - _After a crayon by Faragò (1905)_ - -The first-fruits of Ritter's influence upon Strauss were the symphonic -fantasia _Aus Italien_ (1886). The young revolutionary as yet moves -with a certain amount of circumspection. The new work is poetic, -programmatic, but it is cast in the conventional four-movement form, -the separate movements corresponding roughly to those of the ordinary -symphony. It is obviously a 'prentice work,’ but it is of significance -in Strauss's history for a warmth of emotion that had been only rarely -perceptible in his earlier music. Here and there it has the rude, -knockabout sort of energy that was noticeable in some of the earlier -works, and that in the later works was to degenerate into a mere noisy -slamming about of commonplaces; but it also shows much poetic feeling, -and in particular an ardent romantic appreciation of nature. - -_Aus Italien_ was followed by a series of remarkable tone-poems--_Don -Juan_ (op. 20, 1888), _Macbeth_ (op. 23, written 1886-7 but not -published until after the _Don Juan_), _Till Eulenspiegels lustige -Streiche_ (op. 28, 1894-95), _Also sprach Zarathustra_ (op. 30, -1894-95), _Don Quixote_ (op. 39, 1897), _Ein Heldenleben_ (op. -40, 1898), and the _Symphonia Domestica_ (op. 53, 1903). With the -last-named work Strauss bade farewell to the concert room for many -years, the next stage of his development being worked out in the opera -house. - -The forms, no less than the titles, of the orchestral works, reveal -the many-sidedness of Strauss's mind, the keenness of his interest in -life and literary art, the individuality of the point of view from -which he regards each of his subjects, and the peculiarly logical -medium he adopts for the expression of each of them. Bound up with this -adaptability are a certain restlessness that drives him on to abandon -every field in turn before he has developed all the possibilities of -it, and a certain anxiety to 'hit the public between the eyes' each -time that gives him now and then the appearance of exploiting new -sensations for new sensations' sake. It is perhaps not doing him any -injustice, for instance, to suppose that a very keen finger upon the -public pulse warned him that it would be unwise to bombard it with -another blood-and-lust drama of the type of _Salome_ and _Elektra_; -so, with an admirably sure instinct, he relaxes into the broad comedy -of _Der Rosenkavalier_. Feeling after this that the public wanted -something newer still, he tried, in _Ariadne auf Naxos_, to combine -drama and opera in the one work. Then, realizing from the Western -European successes of the Russians that ballet is likely to become the -order of the day, he tries his hand at a modified form of this in 'The -Legend of Joseph.' - -What in the later works has become, however, almost as much a -commercial as an artistic impulse, was in the early years the genuine -quick-change of a very fertile, eager spirit, with extraordinary powers -of poetic and graphic expression in music. Strauss, like Wagner, is a -musical architect by instinct; he can plan big edifices and realize -them. The sureness of this instinct is incidentally shown by the varied -forms of these early and middle-period orchestral works of his. As we -have seen, the writer of symphonic poems is always confronted by the -serious problem of harmonizing a poetic with a musical development; -and in practice we find that, as a rule, either the following of the -literary idea destroys the purely musical logic of the work, or, in -his anxiety to preserve a formal logic in his music, the composer has -to impair the simplicity or the continuity of the poetic scheme, as -Strauss has had to do in the passage in _Till Eulenspiegel_, already -cited. But, on the whole, Strauss has come much nearer than any -other composer to solving the problem of combined poetic and musical -form in instrumental music. In _Macbeth_ he has 'internalized' the -dramatic action in a very remarkable way--a procedure he might have -adopted with advantage on other occasions. Here, where there was every -temptation to the superficially effective painting of externalities, -he has dissolved the pictorial and episodical into the psychological, -making Macbeth's own soul the centre of all the dramatic storm and -stress, and so allowing full scope for the purely expressive power of -music. In _Don Juan_ the form is rightly quasi-symphonic--a group of -workable main themes representing the hero, with a group of subsidiary -themes suggestive of the minor characters that cross his path and -the circumstances under which he meets with them. The tissue is not -woven throughout with absolute continuity, but the form as a whole is -lucid and coherent. The episodical adventures of _Till Eulenspiegel_ -could find no better musical frame than the rondo form that Strauss -has chosen for them; while the variation form is most suited to the -figures, the adventures, and the psychology of Don Quixote and Sancho -Panza. In the _Symphonia Domestica_ the number and relationship of -the characters, and the incidents that make up the domestic day, are -best treated in a form that is virtually that of the ordinary symphony -compressed into a single movement. A similar congruity between form and -matter will be found in _Also sprach Zarathustra_ and _Ein Heldenleben_. - -This fertility of form was only the outward and visible sign of an -extraordinary fertility of conception. No other composer, before or -since, has poured such a wealth of thinking into program music, created -so many poetic-musical types, or depicted their _milieu_ with such -graphic power. Each new work, dealing as it did with new characters -and new scenes, spontaneously found for itself a new idiom, melodic, -harmonic and rhythmic; in this unconscious transformation of his speech -in accordance with the inward vision Strauss resembles Wagner and Hugo -Wolf. The immense energy of the mind is shown not only in the range -and variety of its psychology, but physically, as it were, in the wide -trajectory of the melodies, the powerful gestures of the rhythms that -sometimes, indeed, become almost convulsive--and the long-breathed -phraseology of passages like the opening section of _Ein Heldenleben_. - -It was perhaps inevitable that this extraordinary energy should -occasionally get out of hand and degenerate into a sort of -_Unbändigkeit_. Strauss is at once a man of genius and an irresponsible -street urchin. With all his gifts, something that goes to the making -of the artist of the very greatest kind is lacking in him. He has a -giant span of conception that is rare in music; but he seems to take a -pleasure in constructing gigantic edifices only to spoil them for the -admiring spectator by scrawling a fatuity or an obscenity across the -front of them. He can be, at times, unaccountably perverse, malicious, -childish towards his own creations. This element in him, or rather -the seeds from which it has developed, first become clearly visible -in _Till Eulenspiegel_. There, however, it remains pure _gaminerie_; -it does not clash with the nature of the subject, and the jovial, -youthful spirits and the happy inventiveness of the composer carry it -off. But afterwards it often assumes an unpleasant form. There are one -or two things in _Don Quixote_ that amuse us a little at first but -afterwards become rather tiresome, as over-insistence on the purely -physical grotesque always does in time. In _Ein Heldenleben_ a drama -that is mostly worked out on a high spiritual plane is vulgarized by -the crude physical horror of the brutal battle scene, and by the now -well-nigh pointless humor of the ugly 'Adversaries' section. There -are pettinesses and sillinesses in the _Symphonia Domestica_ that one -can hardly understand a man of Strauss's eminence troubling to put on -paper. Altogether, we may say of the Strauss of the instrumental works -alone--we can certainly say it of the later Strauss of the operas--that -he is, in Romain Rolland's phrase, a curious compound of 'mud, débris, -and genius.' Always he is a spirit at war with itself; sometimes he -seems cursed, like an obverse of Goethe's Mephistopheles, to will the -good and work the ill. But he has enriched program music with a large -fund of new ideas, and given it a new direction and a new technique. He -has established, more thoroughly than any other composer, the right of -poetic instrumental music to a place by the side of abstract music. He -has attempted things that were thought impossible in music, sometimes -failing, but more often than not succeeding extraordinarily. - -His workmanship is equal to his invention; of him at any rate the -post-classicists can never say, as they said half a century ago of -Liszt and his school, that he writes literary music because he lacks -the self-discipline and the skill necessary for success in the abstract -forms. If anything his technique, especially his orchestral technique, -is too astounding; it tempts him to do amazing but unnecessary things -for the mere sake of doing them. But with all his faults he is a -colossus of sorts; he bestrides modern German music as Wagner did that -of half a century ago. In wealth and variety of emotion and in power of -graphic utterance his work as a whole is beyond comparison with that of -any other contemporary composer. - - - IV - -The life of Strauss overlaps that of his great post-classical -antithesis Brahms by thirty-three years, and by thirty-six years that -of Anton Bruckner (1824-1896), a symphonist who is still little known, -and that for two reasons. In the first place, his works are as a rule -excessively long; in the second place, he had the misfortune to live -in Vienna, where the Brahms partisans were at one time all-powerful. -Some of them resented the pretensions of another symphonist to -comparison with their own idol, and by innuendo and neglect, rather -than by direct attack, they contrived to diffuse a legend that has -maintained itself almost down to our own day, that Bruckner was merely -an amiable old gentleman with a passion for writing symphonies, but -one who need not be taken too seriously. As a matter of fact, he was -a good deal more than that. There is no necessity to flaunt a defiant -Brucknerian banner in the face of the Brahmsians, but there is every -necessity to say that great as Brahms was he by no means exhausted -the possibilities of the modern symphony, and that several of the -possibilities that he left untouched were turned to excellent use by -Bruckner. - -Bruckner's life was remarkably circumscribed and offers practically -no interest to a biographer. The son of a country schoolmaster in -Ansfelden, Upper Austria (where he was born Sept. 4, 1824), he -spent his early life following in his father's footsteps, first at -Windhag (near Freistadt), later at St. Florian, where he also filled -a temporary post as organist. By his own efforts he became highly -proficient on that instrument and in counterpoint. This fact and his -constant connection with the church influenced his creative work -strongly. In 1855 he became cathedral organist at Linz, meantime -studying counterpoint with Sechter in Vienna, where he later (1867) -became his master's successor as court organist. He also studied -composition with Otto Kitzler in 1861-63. Aside from his activities -as professor of organ, counterpoint and composition at the Vienna -Conservatory and as lecturer on music at the Vienna University, this -constitutes the outward record of his career. He died in Vienna, Oct. -11, 1896. - -Similarly devoid of variety in their classification are his -compositions--besides his nine symphonies, upon which his reputation -rests, there are only three masses (D minor, 1864; E minor, 1869; F -minor, 1872) and a few more sacred works (including the '150th Psalm'); -four compositions for men's chorus accompanied (_Germanenzug_ and -_Helgoland_, with orchestra; _Das hohe Lied_ and _Mitternacht_, with -piano); some others _a cappella_, and one string quartet. Mostly works -of large calibre and commensurately broad in conception. - -The error is still frequently made--it was an error that did him -much harm in anti-Wagnerian Vienna during his lifetime--of regarding -Bruckner as one who tried to translate Wagner into terms of the -symphony. For Wagner, indeed, he had a passionate admiration; but his -own affinities as a composer with Wagner are so trifling as to be -negligible. The real heirs of Wagner are the men who, like Strauss, -aim at making purely instrumental music a vehicle for the expression -of definite poetic ideas--whose symphonic poems are really operas -without words, with the orchestra as the actors. Bruckner, even with -Liszt's example before him, passed the symphonic poem by on the other -side. His nine symphonies are almost as purely 'abstract' music as -those of Brahms; if one qualifies the comparison with an 'almost' it -is not because Bruckner worked upon anything even remotely resembling -a program, but because the rather sudden transitions here and there -in the symphonies, lacking as they do a strictly logical musical -connection, are apt to suggest that the composer had in his mind some -more or less definite extra-musical symbol. But this explanation of -the undeniable fact that there is more than one hiatus in the Bruckner -movements, though it is not an impossible one, is not the most probable -one in every case. - -A certain disconnectedness was almost inevitable in such a symphonic -method as that of Bruckner. He had no appetite for the merely formal -'working-out' that Brahms could manipulate with such facility, but -frequently without convincing us that he is saying anything very -germane to his main topic. For a frank recognition of Brahms' general -mastery of form is not incompatible with an equally frank recognition -that too often formalism was master of him. The danger of a transmitted -classical technique in any art is that now and then it tempts its -practitioners to talk--and allows them to talk quite fluently--when -they have really nothing of vital importance to say. Take, as an -example, bars 58-73 of the first movement of Brahms' fourth symphony. -This passage is not merely dull; it is absolutely meaningless. It -carries the immediately preceding thought no further; it is no manner -of necessary preparation for the thought that comes immediately after. -It is 'padding' pure and simple; a mechanical manipulation of the clay -without any clear idea on the part of the potter as to what he wishes -to model. Brahms, in fact, knows, or half-knows, that he has travelled -as far as he can go along one road, and has a little time to wait -before etiquette permits him to proceed up another: so he marks time -with the best grace he can--or, to vary the illustration, having said -all he can think of in connection with A, and not being due just yet to -discuss B, he simply goes on talking until he can think of something to -say. Such a passage as this would have been impossible for Beethoven: -his rigorously logical mind would have rejected it as being a mere -inorganic patch upon the flesh of a living organism: he would never -have rested until he had re-established the momentarily interrupted -flow of vital blood between the severed parts. - -For a mechanical technique such as Brahms uses here, Bruckner had no -liking, nor would it have been of much use in connection with ideas -like his. In his general attitude towards the symphony he reminds us -somewhat of Schubert. He does not start, as Brahms does, with a subject -that, however admirable it may be in itself, and however excellently -it may be adapted for the germination of fresh matter from it, has -obviously been chosen in some degree because of its 'workableness.' -With Bruckner, as with Schubert, the subject sings out at once simply -because it must. The composer is too full of the immediate warmth of -the idea to premeditate 'development' of it. So it inevitably comes -about that, with both Bruckner and Schubert, repetition takes, in some -degree, the place of development. Symphonic development, speaking -broadly, becomes technically easier in proportion as the thematic -matter to be manipulated is shorter; looking at the music for the -moment as a mere piece of tissue-weaving, it is evident that more -permutations and combinations can easily be made out of a theme like -that of the first subject of Beethoven's fifth symphony than out of the -main theme of Liszt's _Tasso_, or the Francesca theme in Tschaikowsky's -_Francesca da Rimini_. Wagner, with his keen symphonic sense, gradually -realized this; whereas the leit-motifs of his early works are, as -a rule, fairly lengthy melodies, those of his later works are of a -pregnant brevity. The reason for this change of style was that, as he -came to see more and more clearly the possibilities of a symphonic -development of the orchestral voice in opera, he saw also that the -interweaving of themes would be at once closer and more elastic if the -motifs themselves were made shorter. - -This generic musical fact is the explanation of much of the formal -unsatisfactoriness of the average symphonic poem. If the object of the -poetic musician is to depict a character, he will need a fairly wide -sweep of melodic outline. We could not, for example, suggest Hamlet or -Faust in a theme so short and simple as that of the first subject of -the _Eroica_, or the first subject of the Second Symphony of Brahms--to -say nothing of the 'Fate' theme of Beethoven's Fifth. But the -wide-stretching poetic theme pays for its psychological suggestiveness -by sacrificing, in most cases, its 'workableness.' And composers have -only latterly learned how to overcome this disability by constructing -the big, character-drawing theme on a sort of fishing-rod principle, -with detachable parts. It takes Strauss nearly one hundred and twenty -bars in which to draw the full portrait of his hero in the splendid -opening section of _Ein Heldenleben_; but various pieces of the chief -theme can be used at will later so as to suggest some transformation -of mood in the hero, or some change in his circumstances. The curious -falling figure in the third bar of the work, for example, that at -first conveys an idea of headlong energy, afterwards becomes a roar of -pain and rage (full score, pp. 118 ff, and elsewhere). Had Liszt had -the imagination to hit upon such a device as this, and the technique -to manipulate it, he might have given to the 'development' of his -symphonic poems something of the organic life that Strauss has infused -into his. - -Bruckner also lacked, in the main, this knowledge of how to work upon -sweeping ideas that were conceived primarily for purely expressive -rather than 'developmental' purposes, and at the same time to make -either the whole theme or various fragments of it plastic factors in -the evolution of an organically-knit texture. If Brahms would have been -none the worse for a little of that quality in Bruckner that made it -impossible for him to talk unless he had something to say, Bruckner -would have been all the better for a little of Brahms' gift of making -the most of whatever fragment of material he was using at the moment. -When Bruckner attempts 'development' in the scholastic sense, as in -bars 300 ff of the first movement of the third symphony, he is almost -always awkward and unconvincing. His logic--and a logic of his own he -certainly had--was less formal than poetic; as one gets to know the -symphonies better one is surprised to find emotional continuity coming -into many a passage that had previously appeared a trifle incoherent. -His musical logic is just the logic of any true and spontaneous thing -said simply, naturally and feelingly. - -While it is true in one sense that Bruckner's methods and outlook -remained the same in each of his nine published symphonies (the ninth, -by the way, was left uncompleted at his death), in another sense it -puts a false complexion on the truth. We do not find in him any such -growth--discernible in the texture not less than in the manner--as -we do from the First Symphony to the Ninth of Beethoven, or from -the _Rienzi_ to the _Parsifal_ of Wagner. In externals, and to some -extent in essentials also, Bruckner's method and manner are the -same throughout his life--the wide-spun imaginative first movement, -the thoughtful _adagio_, the wild or merry _scherzo_, the rather -sprawling _finale_. But there was a real evolution of the intensive -kind; and in the last three symphonies in particular everything has -become enormously _vertieft_. In the ninth, Bruckner often attains to -a Beethovenian profundity and pregnancy. His greatest fault is his -inability to concentrate: his material is almost invariably excellent, -but he is too prodigal with it. He is not content with two or three -main ideas, that in themselves would constitute material enough for -a movement; to these he needs to add episodes of all kinds, until -the movement expands to a size that makes listening to it a physical -strain, and renders it difficult for the mind to grasp the true -proportions of it. This is generally the case with his first and last -movements; not even the titanic power of conception in movements like -the finale of his fifth and eighth symphonies, nor the extraordinary -technical mastery they show, can quite reconcile us to their length -and apparent diffuseness. His most expressive work is frequently to -be found in his adagios, though there, too, his method is at times so -leisurely that in spite of the fine quality of the material and the -depth of feeling in the music, it is sometimes hard to maintain one's -interest in it to the end. In his _scherzi_ he is more conciliatory to -the average listener. Here he is incontestably nearer to Beethoven than -Brahms ever came in movements of this type. In place of the charming -but rather irrelevant quasi-pastorals with which Brahms is content for -the scherzi of his symphonies, Bruckner writes movements overflowing -with vitality, a veritable riot of rhythmic energy. He will never be -popular in the concert room; his excessive length and his frequent -diffuseness are against that. But to musicians he will always be one of -the most interesting figures in nineteenth-century music--a composer -fertile in ideas of a noble kind, an imaginative artist with the power -of evoking moods of a refined and moving poetry. And certainly there -is no contrast more remarkable in the whole history of music than that -between the quiet, embarrassed, unlettered recluse that was the man -Bruckner, and the volcano of passion that was the musician. Undoubtedly -he has the great hand, and at times he can shake the world with it as -Beethoven did with his. His place is between Beethoven and Schubert: -with each of his hands he holds a hand of theirs. - - - V - -The third big figure among the representatives of the modern 'poetic' -school is Gustav Mahler. Like the other two, he is of the 'southern -wing'; like Bruckner's, his training was Viennese. Born in Kalischt -(Bohemia), he went to the capital as a student in the university and -the conservatory. Already at twenty he began that brilliant career -as conductor which during his lifetime somewhat overshadowed his -recognition as a creative artist. His first post was at Hall (Upper -Austria), where he conducted a theatre orchestra; thence he -went to Laibach, Olmütz, Kassel (as _Vereinsdirigent_); thence to -Prague as conductor of the German National Theatre (1885). In 1886 he -substituted for Nikisch at the Leipzig opera; two years later he became -opera conductor in Budapest, 1891 in Hamburg, and 1897 returned to -Vienna, first as conductor, soon after to become director of the Royal -Opera, where he remained till 1907. During 1898-1900 he conducted the -Philharmonic concerts as well. In 1909 he came to New York as conductor -of the Philharmonic Society and remained till 1911, when failing -health, perhaps aggravated by uncongenial conditions, forced him to -resign. He died shortly after his return to Vienna, in the same year. - - [Illustration: Max Reger] - _After a photograph from life_ - -While still in his youth Mahler wrote an opera, 'The Argonauts,' -besides songs and chamber music. A musical 'fairy play,' _Rübezahl_, -with text by himself, the _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_, and nine -symphonies, designed on a gigantic scale, constitute the bulk of his -mature works. Other songs, a choral work with orchestra (_Das klagende -Lied_), and the 'Humoresques' for orchestra nearly complete the list. - -Bruckner left the problem of modern symphonic form unsolved. Brahms -partly solved it in one way, by following the classical tradition on -its more 'abstract' side; Strauss has partially solved it in another -way, by making the 'moments' of the musical evolution of a work tally -with those of a program. Mahler, on the other hand, aimed at a course -which was a sort of compromise between all the others. His nine -symphonies are neither abstract music nor program music in the ordinary -sense of the latter word; yet they are 'programmatic' in the broad -sense that in whole and in detail they are motived more or less by -definite concepts of man and his life in the world. Mahler faced more -clear-sightedly and consistently than any other composer of his day the -problem of the combination of the vocal and the symphonic form. That -this combination is full of as yet unrealized possibilities will be -doubted by no one familiar with the history of music since Beethoven. -In one shape or another the problem has confronted probably nine-tenths -of our modern composers. Wagner found one partial solution of it in his -symphonic dramas, in which the orchestra pours out an incessant flood -of eloquent music, the vague emotions of which are made definite for us -by the words and the stage action. The ordinary symphonic poem attempts -much the same thing by means of a printed program that is intended to -help the hearer to read into the generalized expression of the music a -certain particular application of each emotion; we may put it either -that the symphonic poem is the Wagnerian music drama without the stage -and the characters, or that the Wagnerian music drama is the symphonic -poem translated into visible action. But for the best part of a century -the imagination of composers has been haunted by the experiment made -by Beethoven in his Ninth Symphony, of combining actual voices with -the ordinary symphonic form; it has always been felt that instrumental -music at its highest tension and utmost expression almost of necessity -calls out for completion in the human cry. Words are often necessary in -order at once to intensify and to elucidate the vague emotions to which -alone the instruments can give expression. It was the consciousness -of this that impelled Liszt to introduce the chorus at the end of his -'Dante' and 'Faust' symphonies. - -To a mind like Mahler's, full of striving, of aspiration, of conscious -reflection upon the world, it was even more necessary that some -means should be found of giving definite direction to the indefinite -sequences of emotion of instrumental music. Almost from the beginning -he adopted the device of introducing a vocal element into his -symphonies. In the Second, a solo contralto sings, in the fourth -movement, some lines from the _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_--'O rosebud red! -Mankind lies in sorest need, in sorest pain! In heaven would I rather -be!... I am from God, and back to God again will go; God in His mercy -will grant me a light, will lighten me to eternal, blessed life'--while -the idea of resurrection that is the theme of the music of the fifth -movement is _precisé_ by a chorus singing Klopstock's ode, 'After brief -repose thou shalt arise from the dead, my dust; immortal life shall -be thine.' In the fourth movement of the third symphony--the 'Nature' -symphony--a contralto solo sings the moving lines, '_O Mensch, gieb -Acht!_' from Nietzsche's _Also sprach Zarathustra_; and in the sixth -movement the contralto and a female choir dialogue with each other in -some verses from _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_. Five stanzas from the same -poem are set as a soprano solo in the finale of the Fourth Symphony. -And in the First Symphony, though the voices are not actually used, the -composer, in the first and third movements, draws upon the themes of -certain of his own songs (_Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_). In the -Eighth Symphony the intermixture of orchestra and voices is so close -that the title of 'symphonic cantata' would fit the work perhaps as -well as that of 'symphony with voices'; here the kernel of the music is -formed by the old Latin hymn _Veni, creator spiritus_ and some words -from the final scene of the second part of Goethe's _Faust_. - -Mahler's use of the voice in the orchestra is, as will be seen, -something quite different from merely singing the 'program' of the -work instead of printing it. His aim is the suggestion of symbols -rather than the painting of realities. Even where, on the face of the -case, it looks at first as if his object had been a realistic one, -his intention was often less realistic than mystical. In the Seventh -Symphony, for instance, he introduces cowbells; we have it from his own -mouth that here his aim was not simply a piece of pastoral painting, -but the suggestion of 'the last distant greeting from earth that -reaches the wanderer on the loftiest heights.' 'When I conceive a big -musical painting,' he said once, 'I always come to a point at which I -must bring in speech as the bearer of my musical idea. So must it have -been with Beethoven when writing his Ninth Symphony, only that his -epoch could not provide him with the suitable materials--for at bottom -Schiller's poem is not capable of giving expression to the "unheard" -that was within the composer.' In this Mahler is no doubt right; the -modern composer has a wider range of poetry to draw upon for the -equivalent of his musical thought. - -Mahler's form is in itself a beautiful and a rational one; and, as -with all other forms, the question is not so much the 'How' as the -'What' of the music. Mahler, perhaps, never fully realized the best -there was in him; fine as his music often is, it as often suggests -a mind that had not yet arrived at a true inner harmony. His mind -was always an arena in which dim, vast dreams of music of his own -struggled with impressions from other men's music that incessantly -thronged his brain as they must that of every busy conductor, and with -more or less vague, poetic, philosophical and humanitarian visions. -He never quite succeeded in making for himself an idiom unmistakably -and exclusively his own; all sorts of composers, from Beethoven and -Bruckner to Johann Strauss, seem to nod to each other across his -pages. As the Germans would say, his _Können_ was not always equal to -his _Wollen_. His feverish energy, his excitable imagination, and his -lack of concentration continually drove him to the writing of works -of excessive length, demanding unusually large forces; the Eighth -Symphony, for example, with its large orchestra, seven soloists, boys' -choir and two mixed choirs, calls for a _personnel_ of something like -one thousand. Yet he could be amazingly simple and direct at times, as -is shown by his lovely songs and by many a passage in the symphonies -that have a folk-song flavor. His individuality as a symphonist is -incontestable, and it is probable that as time goes on his reputation -will increase. Alone among modern German composers he is comparable to -Strauss for general vitality, ardor of conception, ambition of purpose, -and pregnancy of theme. - - - VI - -In abstract music the biggest figure in the Germany of to-day is Max -Reger (born 1873)[32]--almost the only composer of our time who has -remained unaffected by the changes everywhere going on in European -music, though in his _Romantische Suite_ he coquets a little with -French impressionism. His output is enormous, and almost suggests -spawning rather than composition in the ordinary sense of the word. His -general idiom is founded mainly on Bach, with a slight indebtedness -to Brahms; for anything in the nature of program music he appears -to have no sympathy. The bulk of his work consists of organ music, -songs, and piano and chamber music. His facility is incredible. He -speaks a harmonic and contrapuntal language of exceptional richness; -but it must be said that very often his facility and the copiousness -of his vocabulary tempt him to over-write his subject; sometimes the -contrapuntal web is woven so thickly that no music can get through. -But every now and then this rather heavy-limbed genius achieves -a curious limpidity and grace, and a moving tenderness. If it be -undeniable that had Bach never lived a large part of Reger's music -would not have been written, it is equally undeniable that some of his -organ works are worthy to be signed by Bach himself. - -It may be a significant fact, as well as helpful in assaying the value -of modern theoretical pedagogy, that Reger, super-technician that he -is, was taught composition, as Riemann's _Lexikon_ boasts, 'entirely -after the text-books and editions of H. Riemann.' 'And,' it goes on to -say, 'in addition, he studied for five years under Riemann's personal -direction.' Riemann, it must be borne in mind, is not a composer, but -a theoretician of extraordinary capacity. How little to the liking of -his master Reger's subsequent development has been may be seen from the -following quotation from the same article: 'Reger evinced already in -his (unpublished) first compositions a tendency to extreme complication -of facture and to an overloading of the technical apparatus, so that -his development ought to have been the opposite to that of Wagner, for -instance, i.e. a restriction of the imagination aiming at progressive -simplification. Instead of this he has allowed himself to be -influenced by those currents in an opposite direction, regarding which -contemporary criticism has lost all judgment. With full consciousness -he heaps up daring harmonies and arbitrary feats of modulation in a -manner which is positively intolerant to the listener[!]. Reger's -very strong melodic gifts could not under such conditions arrive at -a healthy development. Only when a definite form forces him into -particular tracks (variations, fugue, chorale transcription) are his -works unobjectionable; the wealth of his inventive power and his -eminently polyphonic nature enable him to be sufficiently original -and surprising even within such bounds. On the other hand, in simple -pieces of small dimensions, and in songs, his intentional avoidance of -natural simplicity is actually repugnant. His continuous prodigality of -the strongest means of expression soon surfeit one, and in the end this -excessive richness becomes a mere stereotyped mannerism.' - -No doubt the learned doctor is somewhat pedantic, but curiously enough -the opinion of less conservative critics is not dissimilar. Dr. Walter -Niemann refers to Reger's condensed, harmonically overladen style -as a 'modern _barock_,' a 'degeneration of Brahmsian classicism.' -'Universally admired is Reger's astounding contrapuntal routine,' -he says, 'the routine that is most evident in the (now schematic, -stereotyped) construction of his fugues and double fugues; one also -generally admires his enormous constructive ability (_satztechnisches -Können_), the finished art of subtle detail which he exhibits most -charmingly in his smallest forms, the Sonatinas, the _Schlichte -Weisen_. But, leaving out all the hypocrisy of fashion, the -all-too-willing, unintelligent deification of the great name, all -musical cliquism and modernistic partisanship, the hearing of Reger's -music either leaves us inwardly unconcerned and even bores us, or it -strikes us as more or less repulsive. Details may well please us, -and we are often honestly prepared to praise a delicate mood, the -atmospheric coloring, the masterful construction. But, impartially, no -one will ever remark that Reger's art exerts heartfelt, profound or -ethical influences upon the listener.'[33] - -The particular partisanship to which Niemann refers is one of the -outstanding features of contemporary German musical life. Reger has -enjoyed a truly extraordinary vogue in his own country. For that -reason we are devoting somewhat more space to him than we otherwise -should, for we do not acknowledge his right to contend with Strauss -for the mastery of his craft. We certainly do not share the opinion -of his partisans, who have pronounced him a reincarnated Bach, the -completer of Beethoven, the heir to Brahms' mantle and what not. Great -as is his ability, we share Niemann's view that 'his great power -lies not in invention but in transformation and after-creation' (_Um -und Nachschaffen_). Give him a good melody and he will embroider it, -metamorphose it, combine it with innumerable other elements in an -erudite--we had almost said inspired--manner; give him a cast-iron -form as a frame and he will fill it with the most richly colored, -tumultuously crowded canvas, but the style of his broideries will be -curiously similar and all too fiercely pondered, the colors of his -canvas will suggest the studio instead of the open air, the figures -will be abnormal, fantastic or pathetic to the point of morbidity--they -will not be images of nature. - -Brahms is the prevailing influence in Reger, though in manner rather -than in spirit, the Bach polyphony and structure, the Liszt-Wagnerian -harmonic color, and the acute German romanticism notwithstanding. As -regards his symphonic and chamber works this is generally conceded and -needs no further comment. - -Like Brahms, by the way, Reger approached the orchestra reluctantly; -sonatas for various instruments, chamber works in various combinations -preceded his first orchestral essay. The _Sinfonietta_ (op. 90), the -Serenade in G major (op. 95), the Hiller Variations (op. 100), the -Symphonic Prologue to a Tragedy (op. 108), were presumably harbingers -of a real symphony. Instead, however, there followed a _Konzert im -alten Stil_ (op. 123), a 'Romantic Suite' (op. 125) and a 'Ballet -Suite' (op. 130), again showing Reger's prediliction for the antique -forms; and a series of 'Tone Poems after Pictures by Böcklin' (op. -128),[34] which would indicate a turn toward the impressionistic -mood-painting of the ultra-modern wing of the 'poetic' school. His -violin concerto, in A minor (op. 101), and the piano concerto, in -F minor (op. 114), are, however, in effect symphonies with solo -instrument--again following Brahms' precept, but by a hopelessly thick -and involved orchestration, he precludes anything like the interesting -Brahmsian dialogue or discussion between the two elements. - -Of the mass of Reger's chamber music we should mention the five sonatas -for violin and piano, besides four for violin alone (in the manner of -J. S. Bach), in which he shows his contrapuntal skill to particular -advantage; the three clarinet sonatas, notable for beautiful slow -movements and characteristic Reger scherzos (which are usually either -grotesque, boisterous or spookish); two trios, three string quartets, -a string quintet, 'cello sonatas, two suites for piano and violin (of -which the first, _Im alten Stil_, op. 93, is widely favored), and -numerous other pieces for violin, piano, etc. Reger has essayed choral -writing extensively, the _Gesang der Verklärten_ for five-part chorus -and large orchestra (op. 71), _Die Nonnen_ (op. 112), and several -series of 'Folk Songs' being but part of the output. The much-favored -organ compositions, chorale fantasias, preludes and fugues and in -various other forms sanctified by the great Bach, are too numerous -to mention and the songs (over 200 in number) will receive notice in -another chapter. - -Of the minor composers who owe allegiance to the New German School -of Wagner and Liszt we may name first those of the immediate circle -at Weimar--Peter Cornelius, Hans von Bülow, Eduard Lassen, and Felix -Draeseke. Of these Bülow and Lassen have been mentioned in Chapter I. -Cornelius has already been remembered in connection with the later -romantic opera as having successfully applied Wagner's principles to -the lighter dramatic genre ('Barber of Bagdad'), and has received -further mention as a song-writer (see Vol. V, pp. 302ff). Here we may -pay him a brief tribute as the composer of beautiful choruses, in -which he shows the influence of the older masters of choral art. Thus -_Der Tod das ist die kühle Nacht_ recalls the gorgeous color of the -Renaissance Venetians. From 1852 on, when Cornelius joined the Liszt -circle, he was one of the chief standard-bearers of the New German -school. - -Felix Draeseke's (born 1835) association with this group must be -qualified, for, though originally drawn to Weimar by his enthusiasm -for Liszt, he later deserted the ranks of the New Germans and devoted -himself to the cultivation of the classic forms. This reversion seems -to have been in the nature of a reform, for his early essays in -the freer modernistic manner are somewhat bizarre. In his harmonic -and orchestral style, however, he continued to adhere to the 'New -German' principles. In fact, he swung like a pendulum between the two -opposite poles of modern German music. His compositions include three -symphonies--G major, F major, and C minor ('Tragica')--an orchestral -serenade (op. 49); two symphonic preludes, a _Jubel-Overtüre_; three -string quartets and a number of other chamber works, a sonata and -other pieces for piano, as well as a number of large choral works (a -Mass, op. 60; a Requiem, op. 30; 'Song of Advent,' op. 60; a mystery, -_Christus_, consisting of a prelude and three oratorios; cantatas, -etc.); also several operas. Draeseke was a friend of Bülow. He taught -at the Lausanne conservatory in 1868-69 and later at the Dresden -conservatory. He is a royal Saxon professor, privy councillor, etc. - -Another grand-ducal musical director at Weimar was August Klughardt -(1847-1902), who wrote five symphonies, a number of overtures, -orchestral suites, etc. Like Draeseke, he was influenced both by the -neo-classics and the 'New Germans.' Heinrich Porges (1837-1900), also -distinguished as a writer and conductor; Leopold Damrosch (1832-85), -who carried the Wagner-Liszt banner to America; Hans von Bronsart (b. -1828) and his wife Ingeborg, both pupils of Liszt and distinguished in -piano music (the former also for an orchestral fantasy and a choral -symphony, _In den Alpen_), should be mentioned as belonging to the same -group. - -There are other names of real importance in absolute music; there are -Pfitzner, Thuille, Schillings, Klose and Kaskel, there are Bungert, -Weingartner, Goldmark and less significant names, but since these -have exercised their talents chiefly in the dramatic field we shall -defer our treatment of them to the following chapter. And, finally, -there is a host of followers of these, too numerous to be treated -as individuals and if individually distinguished too recent to have -judgment pronounced upon them. The most recent currents, too, shall -have attention in the next chapter. - - E. N. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[31] New ed. of Naumann's _Musikgeschichte_, 1913. - -[32] Reger is a native of Brand, in Bavaria, the son of a school -teacher, from whom he received his earliest musical training. In -addition to this he received instruction from the organist Lindner -in Weiden (where his father settled during Reger's infancy). After -his studies under Dr. Riemann (1890-95), he taught at the Wiesbaden -conservatory, and (after some years' residence in his home town and -in Munich) at the Royal Academy of Munich. In 1907 he became musical -director at the Leipzig University and teacher of composition in the -conservatory there, and in 1908 was made 'Royal Professor.' In 1908 -he resigned his university post and in the same year was given the -honorary degree of doctor of philosophy by the University of Jena. -Later, until 1915, he conducted the Meiningen orchestra. - -[33] Walter Niemann: _Die Musik seit Richard Wagner_, 1914. - -[34] These include _Der geigende Eremit_; _Spiel der Wellen_; _Die -Toteninsel_ and _Bacchanal_. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - GERMAN OPERA AFTER WAGNER AND MODERN GERMAN SONG - - The Wagnerian after-current: Cyrill Kistler; August Bungert, - Goldmark, etc.; Max Schillings, Eugen d'Albert--The successful - post-Wagnerians in the lighter genre: Götz, Cornelius, and - Wolf; Engelbert Humperdinck's fairy opera; Ludwig Thuille; - Hans Pfitzner; the _Volksoper_--Richard Strauss as musical - dramatist--Hugo Wolf and the modern song; other contemporary - German lyricists--The younger men: Klose, Hausegger, Schönberg, - Korngold. - - - I - -It was only to be expected that the titanic personality of Wagner -should drag a number of smaller men after it, both in his own day and -later, by the sheer force of attraction of a great body for small -ones. In one of his essays Matthew Arnold characterizes the test of -the quality of a critic as the power 'to ascertain the master current -in the literature of an epoch, and to distinguish this from all the -minor currents.' This sensitiveness to master currents, however, -that is so essential to criticism, is generally a source of danger -to the secondary creative minds; it is apt to tempt them to follow -blindly in the wake of the master spirit, instead of trying to -find salvation on a road of their own. In the third quarter of the -nineteenth century it was indubitably true that the master current in -music was that set going by Wagner; but it was equally true that any -other mariner who should venture upon that stream was pretty certain -to be swamped by Wagner's backwash. So it has proved: with the sole -exception of Humperdinck's _Hänsel und Gretel_, no operatic work of the -late nineteenth century that openly claimed kinship with Wagner has -exhibited any staying power, while the more durable success has been -reserved for works like Cornelius' _Barbier von Bagdad_ and Götz's _Der -Widerspenstigen Zähmung_, that frankly recognized the impossibility of -any smaller man than Wagner continuing Wagner's work. - -As was inevitable, the more self-conscious of the post-Wagnerians -fastened for imitation upon what they thought to be the essential -Wagner, but that a later day can see was the inessential. To them -Wagner was the re-creator of the world of the German saga. Posterity -has learned that with Wagner, as with all great creators, the matter -is of much less account than his way of dealing with the matter. It -is not the body of religious and cosmological beliefs underlying the -Greek drama that makes the Greek dramatists what they are to us to-day. -Their very conception of the governance of the universe is a thing -that we find it hard to enter into even by an effort of the historical -imagination; nevertheless these men are more vital to us than many of -the problem-play writers of our own epoch, simply because the emotional -stuff in which they deal is of the eternal kind, and they have dealt -with it along lines that are independent of the mere thought of their -own age. Similarly, what is most vital for us in Wagner now is not his -myths, his problems of the will, his conception of love, of redemption, -of renunciation, or the verse forms into which he threw his ideas, but -the depth of his passion, the truth of his portraiture, the beauty and -eloquence of his speech. The real Wagner, in truth, was the Wagner -that no one could hope to imitate. But the generation that grew up in -his mighty shadow imagined that all it had to do was to re-exploit the -mere externalities of his work. Like him, it would delve into German -myths or German folk-lore for its subjects; like him, it would adopt an -alliterative mode of poetic diction; like him, it would treat the less -intense moments of drama in a quasi-recitative that was supposed to be -an intensification of the intervals and accents of ordinary speech. But -all these things in themselves were merely the clothes without the man; -and not one of Wagner's immediate successors showed himself big enough -to wear his mantle. Many of these works written in a conspicuously -Wagnerian spirit have still considerable interest for the student of -musical history--the _Kunihild_ (1848), for example, of Cyrill Kistler -(1848-1907)--but not enough vitality to preserve for them a permanent -place in the theatre repertory. (The same composer's _Baldur's Tod_, -written in the 'eighties, was not performed till 1905 in Düsseldorf.) -The big Homeric tetralogy of August Bungert, _Odysseus Heimkehr_ -(1896), _Kirke_ (1898), _Nausikaa_ (1900-01), and _Odysseus Tod_ -(1903), is an attempt to do for the Greek myths what Wagner did for the -Teutonic. (The composer is said to be engaged upon a second tetralogy -of the same order, bearing the general title of 'Ilias.') How seriously -one section of the German musical public took these colossal plans was -shown by the proposal to erect a 'Festspielhaus' on the Rhine that -should be to Bungert music-drama what Bayreuth is to the Wagnerian. -After a fair amount of success in the years immediately following their -production, however, Bungert's operas have fallen out of the repertory. -His talent is indeed lyrical rather than dramatic. Bungert was born in -Mülheim (Ruhr) in 1846 and studied at the Cologne Conservatory and in -Paris. He became musical director in Kreuznach (1869) and has since -lived chiefly in Karlsruhe and Berlin. Besides the 'tetralogy' he wrote -a comic opera, _Die Studenten von Salamanka_ (1884), and some symphonic -and chamber works. His songs (including Carmen Sylva's 'Songs of a -Queen') have probably more permanent value than the rest of his work. - -The opera has in fact tempted many of the German lyricists to try to -exceed their powers. Hans Sommer (born 1837), who has produced a -number of songs of fine feeling and perspicuous workmanship, attempted -a Wagnerian flight in his opera _Loreley_ (1891), in which the -treatment is a little too heavy for the subject. Like so many of his -contemporaries, he frequently suffers for the sins of his librettists. -Felix Draeseke (b. 1835) has hovered uncertainly between Schumannesque -and Wagnerian ideals; his most successful opera is _Herrat_ (1892).[35] -Adalbert von Goldschmidt (1848-1906) aimed, as others of his kind did, -at continuing the Wagner tradition not only in the musical but in -the poetic line. He was his own librettist in the opera _Helianthus_ -(1884); but in the music of both this and the later opera _Gaea_ (1889) -the Wagnerian influence is obvious. Carl Goldmark (1830-1915) brought -the best musical qualities of a mind that was eclectic both by heredity -and environment to bear upon the very successful operas _Die Königin -von Saba_ (1875), _Merlin_ (1886), and _Das Heimchen am Herd_ (1896), -founded on Dickens's 'Cricket on the Hearth.' - -Though a native of Hungary (Keszthely, 1830), Goldmark received a -thoroughly German training in Vienna, where he studied the violin with -Jansa. He entered the conservatory in 1847 and, since that institution -was closed the following year, he continued his studies by himself. -In 1865 he aroused attention with his overture _Sakuntala_, which is -still in the orchestral répertoire. Happily guided by an artistic -instinct, he hit upon a vein which his talent especially fitted him to -exploit, namely, the painting of vivid oriental color. His first opera, -'The Queen of Sheba,' produced in Vienna in 1875, following the same -tendency with equal success, has preserved its popularity till to-day. -The chronological order of his other operas is as follows: - -_Merlin_ (Vienna, 1886, and revised for Frankfort, 1904); 'The -Cricket on the Hearth' (1896); 'The Prisoner of War' (1899); _Götz -von Berlichingen_ (1902); and 'A Winter's Tale' (1908). His symphonic -works include, besides the _Sakuntala_ overture, an orchestral suite -(symphony) 'The Rustic Wedding,' a symphony in E-flat, the overtures -'Penthesilea,' 'In Spring,' 'Prometheus Bound,' 'Sappho,' and 'In -Italy'; a symphonic poem 'Zrínyi' (1903), two violin concertos, a piano -quintet, a string quartet, a suite for piano and violin, pianoforte and -choral works. - -An apt criticism of Goldmark's style is given by Eugen Schmitz in the -revision of Naumann's _Musikgeschichte_: 'In any case, we know of -no second composer of the present time who can paint the exoticism -and _fata morgana_ of the Orient and the tropics, the sultriness and -the effects of a climate that arouses devouring passions, as well -as the peculiarity and special nature of the inhabitants, in such -characteristic and glowing tone-colors as Goldmark has succeeded -in doing. Herein, however, lies not only his strength but also his -weakness; for he is exclusively a musical colorist, a colorist _à la_ -Makart, who sacrifices drawing and perspective for the sake of color. -Which means, translated into musical terms: a composer whose melodic -invention and thematic development does not stand in a proportionate -relationship to the intoxicating magic of tone-color combinations that -he employs. Moreover, his coloring is already beginning to fade beside -the corresponding achievements of the most modern composers of to-day.' - -A number of minor talents have from time to time obtained a momentary -or a local success, without in the end doing anything to sustain the -hope that something really vital might be expected of them; of works -of this order we may mention the _Urvasi_ (1886), _Der Evangelimann_ -(1894), _Don Quixote_ (1898), and _Kuhreigen_ (1911) of Wilhelm -Kienzl (1857);[36] _Die Versunkene Glocke_ and _Faust_ of Heinrich -Zöllner (1854); the _Ingwelde_ (1894), _Der Pfeifertag_ (1899), and -_Moloch_ (1906) of Max Schillings (born 1868); the _Sakuntala_ (1884), -_Malawika_ (1886), _Genesius_ (1893), and _Orestes_[37] (1902) of -Felix Weingartner (born 1863). In these and some dozen or two of other -modern Germans, composition is an act of the will rather than of the -imagination. The generous eclecticism and superficial effectiveness of -the _Tiefland_ (1903) of Eugen d'Albert (born 1864) have won for it -exceptional popularity. - -The classification of Schillings as a 'minor talent' would probably not -meet with the approval of many critics and musicians in Germany, where -his influence is considerable. Schillings is one of the ramparts of the -progressive musical citadel of Munich, the centre from which the Reger, -Pfitzner and Thuille strands radiate. If aristocracy and nobility -are the outstanding characteristics of his highly individual muse, -a corresponding exclusiveness, coldness and artificiality accompany -them. His perfection is that of the marble, finely chiselled, hard and -polished. His music is a personal expression, but his personality is -one that never experienced the depths of human suffering. Schillings -was born in the Rhineland (Düren) in 1868 and finished his studies in -Munich. There he became 'royal professor' in 1903 and later he went -to Stuttgart as general musical director in connection with the court -theatre. Besides his operas he wrote the symphonic prologue 'Œdipus' -(1900), music for the 'Orestes' of Æschylus (1900) and for Goethe's -'Faust' (Part I). Of non-dramatic works there are two 'fantasies,' -_Meergruss_ and _Seemorgen_; _Ein Zwiegespräch_ for small orchestra, -solo violin and solo 'cello, a hymn-rhapsody, _Dem Verklärten_ (after -Schiller) for mixed chorus, baritone and orchestra (op. 21, 1905), -_Glockenlieder_ for tenor and orchestra, some chamber music and about -forty songs. Especially successful are his three 'melodramatic' -works, i.e. music to accompany recitation, of which the setting of -Wildenbruch's _Hexenlied_ is best known. - -Weingartner and d'Albert, too, are considerable figures in contemporary -German music, though their records as executive artists may outlive -their reputations as composers, the first being a brilliant and -authoritative conductor, the latter a pianist of extraordinary -calibre. Besides the operas mentioned above Weingartner has written -the symphonic poems 'King Lear' and 'The Regions of the Blest,' two -symphonies, three string quartets and a piano sextet (op. 20), songs -and piano pieces. He has also distinguished himself as a critic -and author of valuable books of a practical and æsthetic nature. -D'Albert's evolution from pianist to composer was accomplished in the -usual manner, by way of the piano concerto. He wrote two of them (op. -2 and 12), then a 'cello concerto (op. 20), and promptly embarked -upon a symphonic career with two overtures ('Esther' and 'Hyperion') -and the symphony in F. Then came chamber music, songs and various -other forms. His piano arrangements of Bach's organ works are justly -popular. His first opera was _Der Rubin_ (1893), then came _Ghismonda_ -(1895), _Gernot_ (1897), _Die Abreise_ (1898), all of good Wagnerian -extraction; then _Kain_ and _Der Improvisator_ (1900), showing -evidences of an individual style, and, finally, _Tiefland_ (1903), -the one really successful opera of d'Albert, which seems to have -become permanent in the German répertoire. _Flauto solo_ (1905) and -_Tragaldabas_ (1907) have not made a great stir. D'Albert is of Scotch -birth (Glasgow, 1864), though his father was a native of Germany. - - - II - -On the whole, German opera of the more ambitious kind cannot be said -to have produced much that is likely to be durable between Wagner and -Strauss. The indubitable master works have been for the most part -in the lighter genres--the delightful _Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung_ -(1874) of Hermann Götz (1840-1876), the _Barbier von Bagdad_ (1858) -of Peter Cornelius (1824-1874) (a gem of grace and humor), and the -_Hänsel und Gretel_ (1893) of Engelbert Humperdinck, in which the -Wagnerian polyphony is applied with the happiest effect to a style that -is the purest distillation of the German folk-spirit. Of Cornelius's -work we have spoken elsewhere (Vol. II, pp. 380f), of Humperdinck we -shall have something to say presently. Here let us dwell for a moment -on Götz. His one finished opera (a second, _Francesca da Rimini_, he -did not live to finish) has been called a 'little _Meistersinger_.' -Whether applied with justice or not, this epithet indicates the work's -spiritual relationship. Yet, Wagnerian that he is, this classification -must be made with reserve. A close friend of Brahms, he was certainly -influenced by that master--in a measure he combines the rich and varied -texture of Brahms' chamber music with the symphonic style of the -_Meistersinger_. Niemann points out other influences. 'He takes Jensen -by the left hand, Cornelius by the right; like both of these, he is -lyrist and worker in detail without a real dramatic vein and a model of -the idealistic German master of an older time.' _Der Widerspenstigen -Zähmung_ was first heard in 1874 in Mannheim and achieved wide -popularity. It is based on Shakespeare ('Taming of the Shrew'), and -an English text was used in England. Götz was born in Königsberg and -died near Zürich. He was a pupil of Köhler, Stern, Bülow and Ulrich, -and was organist in Winterthur from 1867 to 1870, when failing health -forced him into retirement. - -Hugo Wolf's[38] _Der Corregidor_ (1896) is, in its endless flow of -melody and its sustained vitality of characterization, perhaps the -nearest approach in modern music to the _Meistersinger_; for some -reason or other, however, a work that is a pure delight in the home -does not seem able to maintain itself on the stage. A second opera of -Wolf's, _Manuel Venegas_, in which we can trace the same extraordinary -simplification and clarification of style that is evident in his -latest songs, remained only a fragment at his death. The successes, -not less than the failures, of these and other men showed clearly that -the further they got from the main Wagnerian stream the safer they -were. Cornelius, though living in Wagner's immediate environment and -cherishing a passionate admiration for the great man, knew well that -his own salvation lay in trying to write as if Wagner had never lived. -The _Barbier von Bagdad_ was written some years before the composition -of the _Meistersinger_ had begun; if Cornelius went anywhere for a -model for his own work it was to the _Benvenuto Cellini_ of Berlioz. He -knew the danger he was in during the composition of his second opera, -_Der Cid_, and strove desperately to shut out Wagner from his mind at -that time; he did not want, as he put it, simply to hatch Wagnerian -eggs. If _Der Cid_ (1865) fails, it is not because of any Wagnerian -influence, but because Cornelius's genius was of too light a tissue for -so big a stage subject. Nevertheless, if he does not wholly fill the -dramatic frame, he comes very near doing so; it is no small dramatic -gift that is shown in such passages as the _Trauermarsch_ in the second -scene of the first act and the subsequent monologue of Chimene, in -Chimene's scena in the second scene of the second act, and in most -of the choral writing. A third opera, _Gunlöd_, was orchestrated by -Lassen and Hoffbauer and produced seventeen years after Cornelius's -death. - - [Illustration: Modern German Musical Dramatists:] - - Ludwig Thuille Hans Pfitzner - Engelbert Humperdinck Karl Goldmark - -Humperdinck seems destined to go down to posterity as the composer of -one work. His _Hänsel und Gretel_ owes its incomparable charm not to -the Wagnerianisms of it, which lie only on the surface, but to its -expressing once for all the very soul of a certain order of German -folk-song and German _Kindlichkeit_. His later works--_Die sieben -Geislein_ (1897), _Dornröschen_ (1902), and the comic opera _Die -Heirat wider Willen_ (1905), though containing much beautiful music, -have on the whole failed to convince the world that Humperdinck has -any new chapter to add to German opera. For this his librettists must -perhaps share the blame with him. _Die Königskinder_ (1898), which -was originally a melodrama, was recast as an opera in 1908 and, at -least in America, was more successful. Besides these Humperdinck wrote -incidental music for Aristophanes' _Lysistrata_, Shakespeare's 'A -Winter's Tale' and 'Tempest.' Two choral ballads preceded the operas -and a 'Moorish Rhapsody' (1898) was composed for the Leeds Festival. -Humperdinck was born in Siegburg (Rhineland), studied at the Cologne -Conservatory, also in Munich and in Italy. He taught for a time in -Barcelona (Spain) and in Frankfort (Hoch Conservatory), and in 1900 -became head of a master school of composition in Berlin with the title -of royal professor and member of the senate of the Academy of Arts. - -A worthy companion to _Hänsel und Gretel_ is the _Lobetanz_ (1898) -of Ludwig Thuille (1861-1907). Thuille's touch is lighter than -Humperdinck's. Thuille was a highly esteemed artist, especially among -the Munich circle of musicians. He is the only one of the group of -important composers settled there since Rheinberger's demise that may -be said to have founded a 'school.' He is the heir and successor of -Rheinberger and by virtue of his pedagogic talent the master of all -the younger South German moderns. Though _Lobetanz_ (which was preceded -by _Theuerdank_, 1897, and _Gugeline_, 1901) is the best known of his -works, the chamber music of his later period has probably the most -permanent value.[39] Thuille was born in Bozen (Tyrol) and died in -Munich, where he was professor at the Royal Academy of Music. - -Some success has been won by the _Donna Anna_ (1895) of E. N. von -Reznicek (born 1860), a showy work compact of many styles--grand -opera, operetta, the early Verdi, _Tannhäuser_, and the Spanish -'national' idiom all jostling each other's elbows. There is little -real differentiation of character; such differentiation as there is is -only in musical externals--in costume rather than in psychology. In -Germany a certain following is much devoted to Hans Pfitzner, whose -opera _Der arme Heinrich_ was produced in 1895, and his _Die Rose vom -Liebesgarten_ in 1901. Pfitzner is a musician of more earnestness than -inspiration. He is technically well equipped, and all that he does -indicates refinement and intelligence; but he lacks the imagination -that fuses into new life whatever material it touches. (He has also -written some fairly expressive songs and a small amount of chamber -music.) Pfitzner, like Alex. Ritter, is of Russian birth, being -born (of German parents) in Moscow in 1869. His father and the Hoch -Conservatory in Frankfurt were the sources of his musical education. -Since 1892 he has taught and conducted in various places (Coblentz, -Mainz, Berlin, Munich). In 1908 he became municipal musical director -and director of the conservatory at Strassburg. Besides the two operas -he has written music for Ibsen's play, 'The Festival of Solhaug' -(1889), also for Kleist's _Kätchen von Heilbronn_ (1908) and Ilse von -Stach's _Christelflein_. An orchestral Scherzo (1888), several choral -works and vocal works with orchestra complete the list of his works -besides those mentioned above. - -For the sake of completeness, brief mention must here be made of the -German _Volksoper_, a comparatively unambitious genre in which much -good work has been done. Among its best products in recent years are -the quick-witted _Versiegelt_ (1908) of Leo Blech (born 1871), and the -_Barbarina_ of Otto Neitzel (born 1852). - - - III - -The biggest figure in modern German operatic music, as in instrumental -music, is Richard Strauss. It was perhaps inevitable that this should -be so. The more massive German opera after Wagner was almost bound -to find what further development was possible to it in the Wagnerian -semi-symphonic form; the difficulty was to find a composer capable -of handling it. This form was simply the expression of a spirit that -had come down to German music from Beethoven, and that had to work -itself out to the full before the next great development--whatever -that may prove to be--could be possible; it is the same spirit that -is visible, in different but still related shapes, in the symphonic -tissue of the Wagnerian orchestra, the symphonic poems of Liszt, the -symphonies of Brahms, the pianoforte accompaniments of Wolf and Marx -and their fellows, and the copious and vivid orchestral speech of -Strauss. It is a method that is perhaps only thoroughly efficacious for -composers whose heredity and environment make the further working out -of the German tradition their most natural form of musical thinking. -That it is not the form best suited to peoples to whom this tradition -is not part of their blood and being is shown by the dramatic -poignancy attained by such widely different dramatic methods as those -of Moussorgsky, Puccini, and Debussy. But when a race has, in the -course of generations, made for itself an instrument so magnificent -in its power and scope, and one so peculiarly its own, as the German -quasi-symphonic form, it is the most natural thing in the world that -virtually all the best of its thinking should be done by its aid. It -was therefore perhaps not an accident, but the logical outcome of the -whole previous development of German music, that the mind that was to -dominate the German opera of our own day should be the mind that had -already proved itself to be the most fertile, original, and audacious -in the field of instrumental music. But it was a law for Strauss, -no less than for his smaller contemporaries, that if he was to be -something more than a mere _nach-Wagnerianer_ he must do his work -outside not only the ground Wagner had occupied, but outside the ground -still covered by his gigantic shadow. - -It was well within that shadow, however, that Strauss's first -dramatic attempt was made. It is not so much that the musical style -of _Guntram_ (1892-93) is now and then reminiscent of _Tannhäuser_, -of _Lohengrin_ or of _Parsifal_, while one of the themes has actually -stepped straight out of the pages of _Tristan_. A composer can often -indicate unmistakably his musical paternity and yet give us the clear -impression that he has a genuine personality and style of his own. As -a matter of fact, the general style of _Guntram_ is unquestionably -Strauss, and no one else. Where the Wagnerian influence is most evident -is in the mental world in which the opera is set. The story, it is -true--the text, by the way, is Strauss's own--is not drawn from the -world of saga; but the general conception of an order of knights, the -object of whose brotherhood is to bind all humanity in bonds of love, -is obviously a last watering-down of that doctrine of redemption by -love that played so large a part in the intellectual life of Wagner. -It is possible that this peculiar mentality of _Guntram_ was the -aftermath of a breakdown in Strauss's health in 1892. The work has -a high-mindedness, a spiritual fervor, an ethos that has never been -particularly prominent in Strauss's work as a whole, and that has -become more and more infrequent in it as he has grown older. _Guntram_ -is a convalescent's work, written in the mood of exalted idealism that -convalescence so often brings with it in men of complex nature. But -whatever be the physical or psychological explanation of the origin -of _Guntram_, there is no doubt that the music lives in a finer, -purer atmosphere than that of Strauss's work as a whole; and for this -reason alone it will perhaps inspire respect even when its purely -musical qualities may have become outmoded. The musical method of it -contains in embryo all the later Strauss. The orchestral tissue has -not, of course, the extraordinary exuberance of diction and of color -of his subsequent operas, but the affiliation with Wagner is quite -evident. There is a certain melodic angularity here and there, and a -tendency to get harmonic point by mere audacious and self-conscious -singularity--both defects being characteristic of a powerful and -eager young brain possessed with ideals of expression that it is not -yet capable of realizing. The general idiom is in the main that of -_Tod und Verklärung_ and _Don Juan_. It is worth noting that already -in Strauss's first opera we perceive that failure to vivify all the -characters equally that is so pronounced in the later works. It is one -of the signs that, great as he is, he is not of the same great breed as -Wagner. - -By the time he came to write his second opera, _Feuersnot_ (1900-01), -Strauss had passed through all the main stages of his development -as an orchestral composer; in _Till Eulenspiegel_, _Also sprach -Zarathustra, Don Quixote_, and _Ein Heldenleben_ he had come to -thorough consciousness of himself, and attained an extraordinary -facility of technique. Under these circumstances one would have -expected _Feuersnot_ to be a rather better work than it actually is. -One's early enthusiasm for it becomes dissipated somewhat in the course -of years--no doubt because as we look back upon it each of its faults -has to bear not only its own burden, but the burden of all the faults -of the same kind that have been piled up by Strauss in his later -works. The passion of the love music, for instance, has more than a -touch of commonplace in it now--as of a Teutonic Leoncavallo--our eyes -having been opened by _Elektra_ and 'The Legend of Joseph' to the -pit of banality that always yawns at Strauss's elbow, and into which -he finds it harder and harder to keep from slipping. We see Strauss -experimenting here with the dance rhythms that he has so successfully -exploited in _Der Rosenkavalier_; but to some of these also time has -given a slightly vulgar air. But a great deal of the opera still -retains its charm; some portions of it are a very happy distillation -from the spirit of German popular music, and the music of the children -will probably never lose its freshness. On the whole, the opera is the -least significant of all Strauss's work of this class. It is clear that -his long association with the concert room had made an instrumental -rather than a vocal composer of him; much of the writing for the voice -is awkward and inexpressive. - -In the _Symphonia Domestica_ (1903) were to be distinguished the first -unmistakable signs of a certain falling off in Strauss's inspiration, -a certain coarsening of the thought and a tendency to be too easily -satisfied with the first idea that came into his head. These symptoms -have become more and more evident in all the operas that have followed -this last of the big instrumental works, though it has to be admitted -that Strauss shows an extraordinary dexterity in covering up his weak -places. Wagner's enemies, adapting an old gibe to him, used to say -that his music consisted of some fine moments and some bad quarters of -an hour. That was not true of Wagner, but it is becoming increasingly -true of the later Strauss. For a while the quality of the really -inspired moments was so superb as to more than compensate us for the -disappointment of the moments that were obviously less inspired; but as -time has gone on the inspired moments have become extremely rare and -the others regrettably plentiful. We are probably not yet in a position -to estimate justly the ultimate place of Strauss in the history of the -opera. No composer has ever presented us with a problem precisely like -his. The magnificent things in his work are of a kind that make us at -first believe they will succeed in saving the weaker portions from the -shipwreck that, on the merits of these alone, would seem to be their -fate. Then, as each new work deepens the conviction that Strauss is the -most sadly-flawed genius in the history of music, as he passes from -banality to banality, each of them worse than any of its predecessors, -we find ourselves, when we turn back to the earlier works, less -disposed than before to look tolerantly on what is weakest in them. -What will be the final outcome of it all--whether the halo round his -head will ultimately blind us to the mud about his feet, or whether the -mud will end by submerging the halo, no one can at present say. The -Richard Strauss of to-day is an insoluble mystery. - -Something excessive or unruly appears to be inseparable from everything -he does. A consistent development is impossible for him; he oscillates -violently like some sensitive electrical instrument in a storm. -But, while only partisanship could blind anyone to the too palpable -evidences of degeneration that his genius shows at many points, it is -beyond question that in the best of his later stage works he dwarfs -every other composer of his day. We may like or dislike the subject of -_Salome_, according to our temperament; how far the question of ethics -ought to be allowed to determine our attitude to an art work is a point -on which it is perhaps hopeless to expect agreement. For the present -writer the point is one of no importance, because the whole discussion -seems to him to arise out of a confusion of the distinctive spheres of -life and art. A Salome in life would be a dangerous and objectionable -person, but then so would an Iago; and, as no one calls Shakespeare a -monster of iniquity because he has drawn Iago with zest, one can see -no particular justice in calling Strauss's mind a morbid one because -it has been interested in the psychology of a pervert like Salome. -One is driven to the conclusion that the root of the whole outcry is -to be found in the prejudice many people have against too close an -analysis of the psychology of sex, especially in its more perverted -manifestations. One can respect that prejudice without sharing it; but -one is bound to say it unfits the victim of it for appreciation of -_Salome_ as a work of art. The opera as a whole is not a masterpiece. -It lives only in virtue of its great moments; and Strauss has not been -more successful here than elsewhere in breathing life into every one of -his characters. Herod and Herodias have no real musical physiognomy; -we could not, that is to say, visualize them from their music alone -as we can visualize a Hagen, a Mime, or even a David. But Salome -is characterized with extraordinary subtlety. Music is here put to -psychological uses undreamt of even by Wagner. The strange thing is -that, in spite of himself, the artist in Strauss has risen above the -subject. Wilde's Salome is a lifeless thing, a mere figure in some -stiffly-woven tapestry. Strauss pours so full a flood of emotion over -her that the music leaves us a final sensation, not of cold horror but -of sadness and pity. - -He similarly humanizes the central character of his next opera, -_Elektra_ (1907), making of her one of the great tragic figures of the -stage; and he throws an antique dignity round the gloomy figure of the -fate-bearing Orestes. But, as with _Salome_, the opera as a whole is -not a great work. It contains a good deal of merely sham music, such as -that of the opening scene--music in which Strauss simply talks volubly -and noisily to hide the fact that he has nothing to say; and there is -much commonplace music, such as that of the outburst of Chrysothemis to -Elektra, and most of that of the final duet of the pair. One is left -in the end with a feeling of blank amazement that the mind that could -produce such great music as that of the opening invocation of Agamemnon -by Elektra, that of the entry of Orestes, and that of the recognition -of brother and sister, could be so lacking in self-criticism as to -place side by side with these such banalities as are to be met with -elsewhere in the opera. The only conclusion the close student of -Strauss could come to after _Elektra_ was that the commonplace that -was not far from some of his finest conceptions from the first was now -becoming fatally easy to him. - -_Der Rosenkavalier_ (1913) confirmed this impression. Its waltzes -have earned for it a world-wide popularity. They are charming -enough, but there are no doubt a hundred men in Europe who could -have written these. What no other living composer could have written -is the music--so wise, so human--of the scene between Octavian and -the Marschallin at the end of the first act, the music of the entry -of the Rosenkavalier in the second act, and the great trio in the -third, that can look the _Meistersinger_ quintet in the face and not -be ashamed. But again and again in the _Rosenkavalier_ we meet with -music that is the merest mechanical product of an energetic brain -working without inspiration--the bulk of the music of the third act, -for instance, as far as the trio. And once more Strauss shows, by his -quite indefinite portraiture of Faninal and Sophia, that his powers of -musical characterization are limited to the leading personages of his -works. Since _Der Rosenkavalier_ the general quality of his thinking -has obviously deteriorated. There are very few pages of _Ariadne auf -Naxos_ that are above the level of the ordinary German kapellmeister, -while that of the mimodrama, 'The Legend of Joseph,' is the most -pretentiously commonplace that Strauss has ever produced. If his -career were to end now, the best epitaph we could find for him would -be Bülow's remark _à propos_ of Mendelssohn: 'He began as a genius and -ended as a talent.' Strauss's ten years in the theatre have undoubtedly -done him much harm; they have especially made him careless as to the -quality of much of his music, knowing as he does that the excitement -of the action and the general illusion of the theatre may be trusted -to keep the spectator occupied. But one may perhaps venture to predict -that unless he returns to the concert room for a while, and forgets -there a great deal of what he has learned in the theatre, he will not -easily recover the position he has latterly lost. - -Less well-known names in contemporary German opera, some of which, -however, are too important to be omitted, are Ignaz Brüll (1846-1907), -a Viennese whose dialogue opera _Das goldene Kreuz_ (1875) is still -in the German répertoire;[40] Edmund Kretschmer (b. 1830) with _Die -Folkunger_ (1874), on a Scandinavian subject treated in the earlier -Wagnerian style, and _Heinrich der Löwe_ (1877); and Franz von Holstein -(b. 1826) with _Die Heideschacht_, etc. Karl Reinthaler (1822-96) and -Karl Grammann (1842-97) also wrote operas successful in their time, -as did also Hiller, Wüerst, Reinecke, Dietrich, Abert, Rheinberger, -and H. Hofmann, who are mentioned elsewhere. Siegfried Wagner (b. -1869), son of the great master and a pupil of Humperdinck, should -not be overlooked. His talent is unpretentious, with a decided bent -for 'folkish' melody, and an excellent technical equipment. In _Der -Bärenhäuter_ (1899) he follows the fashion for fairy-opera; his four -other operas (from _Der Kobold_ to _Sternengebot_, 1904) lean toward -the popular _Spieloper_, with a tinge of romanticism. - -Klose's 'dramatic symphony' _Ilsebill_ (1903) really belongs to the -genus fairy-opera. While Karl von Kaskel's (b. 1860) two charming -works, _Die Bettlerin vom Pont des Arts_ and _Dusle und Babell_, are to -be classified as _Spielopern_. - - - IV - -As in the case of most other musical genres, Germany in the second half -of the nineteenth century seemed to have made the province of the song -peculiarly its own. For well over a hundred years it has never been -without a great lyrist. Schubert gave the German lyric wings. Schumann -poured into it the full, rich flood of German romanticism in its -sincerest days. Robert Franz cultivated a relatively simple song-form, -the texture of which is not always as elastic as one could wish it -to be; but he, too, was a man of pure and honest spirit, who sang of -nothing that he had not deeply felt. Liszt first brought the song into -some sort of relation with the new ideals of operatic and instrumental -music associated with his name and that of Wagner; and in spite of his -effusiveness of sentiment and his diffusiveness of style he produced -some notable lyrics. In a song like _Es war ein König in Thule_, for -example, a new principle of unification can be seen at work, one -germinal theme being used for the construction of the whole song, which -might almost be an excerpt from a later Wagnerian opera. But the -lyrical history of the latter half of the nineteenth century is really -summed up in the achievements of two men--Brahms and Hugo Wolf.[41] - -Hugo Wolf, the foremost master of modern song, was born in -Windischgrätz (Lower Styria), Austria, March 13, 1860, and died in -an insane asylum in Vienna, February 22, 1903, the victim of a fatal -brain disease, which afflicted him during the last six years of his -tragic existence. Thus his effective life was practically reduced -to thirty-seven years--not much longer a span than that other great -lyricist, Franz Schubert. Little can be said of this brief career, -impeded as it was by untoward circumstances and jealous opposition. -To these conditions Wolf opposed a heroic fortitude and a passionate -devotion to his art, which he practiced with uncompromising sincerity -and religious assiduity. During long periods of work he remained in -seclusion, maintaining a feverish activity and shutting himself off -from outside influences. From 1875 on he lived almost continually in -Vienna, where he studied for a short time in the conservatory. His -only considerable absence he spent as conductor in Salzburg (1881). -In Vienna he taught and for some years (till 1887) wrote criticisms -for the _Salonblatt_. These articles have recently been collected and -published. They reflect the writer's high idealism; his intolerance -of all artistic inferiority and mediocrity show him to have been as -valiant as an upholder of standards as he was discriminating in the -judgment of æsthetic values, though his attack upon Brahms placed him -into a somewhat ridiculous light with a large part of the musical -public. - -Thus he eked out an existence; any considerable recognition as a -composer he did not achieve during his lifetime. None of his works was -published till 1888, when his fifty-three Möricke songs (written within -three months) appeared. The Eichendorff cycle (twenty songs) came next, -and then the _Spanisches Liederbuch_ (consisting of thirty-four secular -and ten sacred songs), all written during 1889-90. Six songs for female -voice after poems by Gottfried Keller, the _Italienisches Liederbuch_ -(forty-six poems by Paul Heyse, published in two parts) were composed -during 1890-91 and in 1896 and the three poems by Michelangelo were set -in 1897. Meantime there also came from his pen a hymn, _Christnacht_, -for soli, chorus and orchestra (1891), incidental music for Ibsen's -'Festival of Solhaug' (1892), and in 1895 he wrote his _Corregidor_ -(already mentioned) within a few months. Other songs, some dating -from his youth, were also published, as well as several choruses and -chorus arrangements of songs. A string quartet in D minor (1879-80); -a symphonic poem for full orchestra, _Penthesilea_ (1883); and the -charming 'Italian Serenade' for small orchestra (also arranged for -string quartet by the composer) constitute his instrumental works--a -small but choice aggregation. - -Wolf was to the smaller field of the song what Wagner was to the -larger field of opera. That characterization of him must not be -misunderstood, as is often done, to mean that he simply took over -the methods of Wagnerian musical drama--especially the principle of -the leit-motif--and applied them to the song. He benefited by those -methods, as virtually every modern composer has done; but he never -applied them in the merely conscious and imitative way that the -'post-Wagnerians' did, for instance, in the opera. Wolf would have -been a great lyrist had he been born in the eighteenth century, the -sixteenth, or the twelfth; but it was his rare good fortune--the -fortune that was denied to Schubert--to live in an epoch that could -provide him with a lyrical instrument capable of responding to every -impulse of his imagination. His was a truly exceptional brain, that -could probably never have come to its full fruition in any age but the -one he happened to be born into. He had not only the vision of new -things to be done in music, as Liszt and Berlioz and others have had -before and since, but the power, which Liszt and Berlioz had not, to -make for himself a vocabulary that was copious enough, and a technique -that was strong and elastic enough, to permit the easy expression -of everything he felt. It is another of the many points in which he -resembles Wagner; with the minimum of school training in his earliest -days he made for himself a technical instrument that was purely his -own--one that, when he had thoroughly mastered it, never failed -him, and that was capable of steady growth and infinitely delicate -adaptation to the work of the moment. - -He draws, as Wagner did, a line of demarcation between an old world -of feeling and a new one. As Wagner peopled the stage with more types -than Weber, and saw more profoundly into the psychology of characters -of every kind, so Wolf enlarged the world of previous and contemporary -lyrists and intensified the whole mental and emotional life of the -lyrical form. Too much stress need not be laid on the mere fact that -he insisted on better 'declamation' than was generally regarded as -sufficient in the song--on a shaping of the melody that would permit -of the just accentuation of every word and syllable. This in itself -could be done, and indeed has been done, by many composers who have not -thereby succeeded in persuading the world that they are of the breed -of Wolf. The extraordinary thing with him was that this respect for -verbal values was consistent with the unimpeded flow of an expressive -vocal line and an equally expressive pianoforte tissue. The basis of -his manner is the utilizing of a quasi-symphonic form for the song. He -marks the end of monody in the lyric as Wagner marks the end of monody -in the opera. With Wagner the orchestra was not a mere accompanying -instrument, a 'big guitar,' but a many-voiced protagonist in the drama -itself. When the simple-minded hearer of half a century ago complained -that there was no melody in Wagner, he only meant that the melody was -not where he could distinguish it most easily--at the top. As a matter -of fact, Wagner was giving him at least three times as much melody as -the best of the Italian opera writers, for in the _Meistersinger_ or -_Tristan_ it is not only the actors who are singing but the orchestra, -and not only the orchestra as a whole but the separate instruments of -it. When the average man complained that Wagner was starving him of -melody, it was like a man drowning in a pond fifty feet deep crying out -that there was not water enough in the neighborhood for him to wash in. - -Wolf, too, fills the instrumental part of his songs with as rich a life -as the vocal part. But he does even more amazing feats in the way of -co-operation between the two factors than Wagner did. Independent as -the piano part seemingly is, developing as if it had nothing to think -of but its own symphonic course, it never distracts Wolf's attention -from the vocal melody, which is handled with astonishing ease and -freedom. Not only does each phase of the poem enter just where the most -point can be given to it both poetically and declamatorily, without any -regard for the mere four-square of the ordinary line or bar-divisions, -but each significant word receives its appropriate accent, melodic rise -or fall, or fleck of color. In the _Die ihr schwebet um diese Palmen_, -for example, the expressive minor sixth of the voice part on the word -_Qual_, seems to be there by a special dispensation of Providence. -We know that the interval is one that is characteristic of the main -accompaniment-figure of the song--it has appeared, indeed, as early -as the second bar, and has been frequently repeated since--that it is -almost inevitable that now and then it should occur in the voice, and, -as a matter of fact, it has already occurred more than once there--at -the _schwebet_ and _Palmen_ of the first line, for example, and later -at the first syllable of _Himmel_ in the line _Der Himmelsknabe duldet -Beschwerde_. Yet we know very well that it is not a musical accident, -but a stroke of psychological genius, that brings just this interval -in on the word _Qual_ in the lines _Ach nur im Schlaf ihm leise -gesänftigt die Qual zerrinnt_, the interval indeed being in essence -just what it has been all along, but receiving now a new and more -poignant meaning by the way it is approached. We know very well that -no other song-writer but Wolf would have had the instinct to perceive, -in the midst of the flow of the accompaniment to what seems its own -predestined goal, the expressive psychological possibilities of that -particular note at that particular moment in that particular line. His -songs teem with felicities of this kind; they represent the employment -of one of Wagner's most characteristic instruments for uses more subtle -even than he ever dreamt of. - -Yet--and the point needs insisting upon, as it is still the subject of -some misunderstanding--this quick and delicate adaptation of melodic -and harmonic and rhythmic values to the necessities of the poem are not -the result of a mere calculated policy of 'follow the words.' The song -has not been shaped simply to permit of this coincidence of verbal and -musical values, nor have these been consciously worked into the general -tissue of the song after this has been developed on other lines. They -represent the spontaneous utterance of a mind to which all the factors -of the song were present in equal proportions from the first bar to the -last. Wolf made no sketches for his songs; the great majority of them -were written at a single sitting; the subject possessed him and made -its own language. - -His independence, his originality, his seminal force for the future -of music, are all best shown by comparing him with Brahms. No one, -of course, will question the greatness of Brahms as a lyrist. But a -comparison with Wolf at once throws the former's limitations into a -very strong light. Wolf was much more the man of the new time than his -great contemporary. Brahms was the continuer and completer of Schumann, -the last voice that the older romantic movement found for itself. -By nature, training, and personal associations he was ill fitted to -assimilate the new life that Wagner was pouring into the music of his -day. Wolf from the first made a clean departure from both the matter -and the manner of Brahms--a cleaner departure, indeed, than Wagner at -first made from the romanticism of his contemporaries, for the kinship -between the early Wagner and the Schumann of the songs is unmistakable. -Wolf's thinking left the mental world of Brahms completely on one side; -his music is free, for instance, from those touches of sugariness and -of the _larmoyant_ that can be so frequently detected even in the -rugged Brahms, as in all the lyrists who took their stimulus from -romanticism. Brahms' lyric types--his maidens, his students, his -philosophers, his nature-lovers--are those of Germany in a particular -historical phase of her art, literature, and life. With Wolf the lyric -steps into a wider field. His psychological range is much broader than -that of Brahms. He creates more types of character and sets them in -a more varied _milieu_. With Brahms the same personages recur time -after time in his songs, expressing themselves in much the same way. -Even an unsympathetic student of Wolf would have to admit that no two -of the personages he draws are the same. The characters of Brahms are -mostly of the same household, with the same heredity, the same physical -appearance, the same mental characteristics, even the same gait. The -man who lies brooding in the summer fields in _Feldeinsamkeit_ is -brother of the man who loves the maiden of _Wir wandelten_, and first -cousin of the girl who dies to the strains of _Immer leise wird mein -Schlummer_. They all feel deeply but a little sentimentally; they are -all extremely introspective; all speak with a certain slow seriousness -and move about with a certain cumbersomeness. Wolf's men and women are -infinitely varied, both in the mass and in detail; that is to say, not -only is his crowd made up of many diverse types, but each type--the -lovers, the thinkers, the penitents, and so on--is full of an inner -diversity. - -Wolf surpasses Brahms again in everything that pertains to the -technical handling of the songs. Without wishing to make out that -Brahms was anything but the great singer he undoubtedly was, it must be -said frankly that he is too content to work within a frame that he has -found to be of convenient size, shape, and color, instead of letting -his picture determine the frame. The quaint accusation is sometimes -brought against Wolf that he is more of an instrumental writer than -a singer, the pianoforte parts of his songs being self-subsistent -compositions. A devil's advocate might argue with much more force -that it was Brahms who, in his songs, thought primarily in terms of -instrumental phrases even for his voices. It is his intentness upon the -beauty of an abstract melodic line that makes him pause illogically as -he does after me _Königin_ in the first line of _Wie bist du, meine -Königin_, thus making a bad break in the poetical sense of the words, -which is not really complete until the second line is heard, the _Wie -bist du_ not referring, as many thousands of people imagine, to the -_Königin_, but to the _durch sanfte Güte wonnevoll_ in the next line. -In other songs, such as _An die Nachtigall_, Brahms yields at the very -beginning to the fascination of what is unquestionably in itself a -beautiful phrase, without regard to the fact that it will get him into -difficulties both of psychology and of 'declamation' as the song goes -on, owing to his applying the same kind of musical line-ending to -poetical line-endings that vary in meaning each time. Wolf never makes -a primitive blunder of this kind. He sees the poem as a whole before he -begins to set it; if he adopts at the commencement a figure that is to -run through the whole song, it is a figure that can readily be applied -to each phase of it without doing psychological violence to any. If at -any point its application involves a falsity, it would be temporarily -discarded. Brahms, again, is almost as much addicted to _clichés_ -as Schubert, and with less excuse--the _cliché_ of syncopation for -syncopation's sake; for example, the _cliché_ of a harmonic darkening -of the second or third stanza of a poem, and so on. From limitations -of this sort Wolf is free; his harmonic and rhythmic idioms are as -varied as his melodic. The great variety of his songs makes it almost -impossible to cite a few of them as representative of the whole. - - - V - -For Wolf the song was the supreme form of expression. In the case of -Strauss the song is only an overflow from the concert and operatic -works. In spite of the great beauty of some of his songs, such as the -_Ständchen_ and _Seitdem dein Aug_, we are probably justified in saying -that is not a lyrist _pur sang_. A large number of his songs have -obviously been turned out for pot-boiling purposes. Certain undoubted -successes in the smaller forms notwithstanding, it remains true that he -is at his best when he has plenty of space to work in, and, above all, -when he can rely on the backing of the orchestra, as in the splendid -_Pilgers Morgenlied_, and the 'Hymnus.' As a rule, he fails to achieve -Wolf's happy balance between the vocal part and the accompaniment; very -often his songs are simply piano pieces with a voice part added as -skillfully as may be, which means sometimes not skillfully at all. - -Among Max Reger's numerous songs are some of great beauty. He is -sometimes rather too copious to be a thoroughly successful lyrist; -both the piano and the vocal ideas are now and then in danger of being -drowned in the flood of notes he pours about them. But when he has -seen his picture clearly and expressed it simply and directly, his -songs--the _Wiegenlied_ and _Allein_, for example, to mention two of -widely differing genres--are among the richest and most beautiful of -our time. Mahler poured some of the very best, because the simplest -and truest, of himself into such songs as the _Kindertodtenlieder_, -the four _Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen_, _Ich atmet einen linden -Duft_, and _Mitternacht_ (from the four Rückert lyrics), and certain -of the settings of the songs from _Des Knaben Wunderhorn_. But the -list of good, and even very good, song-composers in the Germany of the -latter half of the nineteenth century is almost endless; it seems, -indeed, as if there were at least one good song in the blood of every -modern German, just as there was at least one good lyric or sonnet in -the blood of every Elizabethan poet. From Cornelius to Erich Wolff the -stream has never stopped. - -In virtually all these men except Erich Wolff, however, the stream has -been, as with Strauss, a side branch of their main activity. It was -only to be expected that the next powerful impulse after Hugo Wolf -would come from a composer who, like him, gave to the songs the best of -his mental energies. Joseph Marx resembles Wolf superficially in just -the way that Wolf superficially resembles Wagner--in the elaboration -and expressiveness of what must still be called, for convenience -sake, the accompaniment to his voice parts. But, while it would be -premature as yet to see in Marx another Wolf, it is certain that we -have in him a lyrist of considerable individuality. He has managed to -utilize the Wolfian technique and the Wolfian heritage of emotion, -as Wolf utilized those of Wagner, without copying them; they have -become new things in his hands. He has also drawn, as Wolf did, upon -quite a new range of poetic theme. He is not so keenly interested as -Wolf in the outer world. Wolf, like Goethe, had the eye of a painter -as well as the intuition of a poet, and his music is peculiarly rich -not only in more or less avowed pictorialism, but in a sort of veiled -pictorialism--a pictorialism at one remove, as it were--that conveys -a subtle suggestion of the movement or color of some concrete thing -without forcing the symbol for it too obtrusively upon our ear. -(Excellent examples are the suggestion of gently drooping boughs and -softly falling leaves in _Anakreons Grab_, and, in another style, -the unbroken thirds from first to last of _Nun wandre, Maria_, so -charmingly suggestive of the side-by-side journeying of Joseph and -Mary.) Marx's music offers us hardly a recognizable example of this -pictorialism; his most ambitious effort has been in the _Regen_ (a -German version of Verlaine's _Il pleure dans mon cœur_), which is one -of the least successful of his lyrics. Like Wolf, he has called in a -new harmonic idiom to express new poetic conceptions or new shades of -old ones; but he is apt to become the slave of his own manner, which -Wolf never did. His intellectual range, though not equal to that of his -great predecessor, is still a fairly wide one--from the luxuriance of -the splendid _Barcarolle_ to the philosophical warmth of _Der Rauch_, -from the bizarrerie of the _Valse de Chopin_ to the humor of _Warnung_, -from the earnest introspectiveness of _Wie einst, Hat dich die Liebe -berührt_, the _Japanesisches Regenlied_ and _Ein junger Dichter_ to the -sunny vigor of the _Sommerlied_. - -Among the rest of the numerous composers--Humperdinck, Henning von -Koss, Hans Sommer (a personality of much charm and some power), Eugen -d'Albert, Weingartner, Bungert, Jean Louis Nicodé (b. 1853), and -others--each of whom has enriched German music with some delightful -songs--a special word may be said with regard to two of them--Theodor -Streicher (born 1814) and Erich W. Wolff (died 1913). Streicher follows -too faithfully at times in the footprints of the poet--which is only -another way of saying that the musician in him is not always strong -enough to assert his rights. His work varies greatly in quality. Some -of it is finely imaginative and organically shaped; the rest of it is -a rather formless and expressionless series of quasi-illustrations of -a poetic idea line by line. He frequently aims at the humorous, the -realistic or the sententious in a way that a composer with more of the -real root of music in him would see to be a mere temptation to the art -to overstrain itself. But, though he is perhaps not more than half a -musician--the other half being poet, prosist, moralist, or what we -will--that half has produced some good songs, such as the _Fonte des -Amores_, _Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam_, the _Lied des jungen Reiters_, -_Maria sass am Wege_, the _Nachtlied des Zarathustra_, and the -_Weinschröterlied_. Erich Wolff was never more than a minor composer, -but that he had the genuine lyrical gift is shown by such songs as _Du -bist so jung_, _Sieh, wo du bist ist Frühling_, _Einen Sommer lang_, -and others. He is particularly charming when, as in _Fitzebue_, _Frisch -vom Storch_ and _Christkindleins Wiegenlied_, he exploits the childlike -vein that comes so easily to most Germans, and that has found its most -delightful modern expression in _Hänsel and Gretel_. - - - VI - -A survey of German music at the present day leads to the conclusion -that, for the moment at any rate, it has come to the end of its -resources. All the great traditions have exhausted themselves. Strauss -has apparently said all he has to say of value (though, of course, he -may yet recover himself). Of this he himself seems uneasily conscious. -His later works exhibit both a tendency to revert to a Mozartian -simplicity (as in the final stages of _Ariadne auf Naxos_, the duet -_Ist ein Traum, kann nicht wirklich sein_ in _Der Rosenkavalier_, -and elsewhere), and here and there, as in 'The Legend of Joseph,' a -desire to coquet with the exoticisms of France and the East. All these -later works suggest that Strauss has partly lost faith in the German -tradition, without having yet found a new faith to take its place. Max -Reger is content to sit in the centre of his own web, spinning for -ever the same music out of the depths of his Teutonic consciousness. -In opera, in the song, in the symphony, in program music, in chamber -music, Germany is apparently doing little more at present than mark -time. Nevertheless there are undoubtedly germinating forces which will -come to fruition before long. Perhaps the men now creating will be the -instruments of the new voice, perhaps their pupils. One or two of the -younger generation, at any rate, have done things that may justly claim -our attention. One fact may be noticed in this connection: that the -supremacy seems to have shifted definitely from the North to the South. -Munich and Vienna are, indeed, the new centres, in place of Leipzig and -Berlin. - -Thuille's successor as teacher of composition in the Munich Academy -of Tonal Art, Friedrich Klose (b. 1862), is, as a pupil of Bruckner, -particularly qualified to represent the South-German branch of the New -German school. His single dramatic work, _Ilsebill_, did not succeed -in establishing him among the successful post-Wagnerians. Walter -Niemann[42] speaks of it as showing that his real strength lies in the -direction of symphonic composition and music for the Catholic Church, -and continues: 'His three-movement symphonic poem _Das Leben ein Traum_ -(1899), with organ, women's chorus, declamation and wind instruments, -and in a less degree his _Elfenreigen_, already proved this. Through -him Hector Berlioz enters modern Munich by the hand of Liszt, Wagner, -and Bruckner, and particularly Berlioz the forest romanticist of the -"Dance of the Sylphs" and "Queen Mab." Again and again Klose returns -to church music--with the D minor Mass, the prelude and double fugue -for organ, lastly, with _Die Wallfahrt nach Kevlaar_. * * * If his -striving after new forms, the searching in other directions after the -dramatic element which was denied him in the ordinary sense, savors of -a strongly experimental character, his music itself is all the less -problematic. It is honest through and through, warm-blooded, felt and -natural.' The quiet breadth of his themes, the deep glow of his color -reveals the pupil of Bruckner. His manner of development in sequences, -approaching the 'endless melody,' betrays the disciple of Wagner. A -_Festzug_ for orchestra, _Vidi aquam_ for chorus, orchestra, and organ, -and an 'Elegy' for violin and piano are also among his works. - -Siegmund von Hausegger (b. 1872), son of the distinguished critic -and conductor Friedrich von Hausegger, though he began his creative -activity in the dramatic field (with _Helfrid_, performed in 1893 -in Graz, and _Zinnober_, 1888, in Munich), has earned his chief -distinction with the symphonic poems _Barbarossa_ (1902) and _Wieland -der Schmied_ (1904). In these he remains true to the Wagnerian -formula, while in his songs he upholds the gospel of Hugo Wolf. A -youthful _Dyonysische Phantasie_ (1899), which preceded these works, -is characterized by Niemann as 'showing the line of development in -the direction of a "kapellmeister music" in Strauss' style.' Since -then there have come from his pen a number of fine choruses with -orchestra, some for men's voices, others mixed. Hausegger was a pupil -of his father, of Degner, and of Pohlig (in piano) and has achieved -a high standing as conductor, first at the Graz opera, 1896-97, then -of the Kaim concerts in Munich (from 1899) and the Museum concerts in -Frankfort. - -A new impulse may one day be given to German music by the remarkable -boy, Erich Korngold (born 1897), who, while quite a child, showed an -amazing mastery of harmonic expression and of general technique, and a -not less amazing depth of thought. It remains to be seen whether, as he -grows to manhood, he will develop a personality wholly his own (there -are many signs of this already), or whether he will merely relapse into -a skilled manipulator of the great traditions of his race. But it is -vain to try to forecast the future of music in Germany or in any other -country. Much music will continue to be written that owes whatever -virtues it may possess merely to a competent exploitation of the racial -heritage. Of this type a fair sample is the _Deutsche Messe_ of Otto -Taubmann (born 1859). On the other hand, something may come of the -revolt against tradition that is now being led by Arnold Schönberg (b. -1874). - -This composer seemed destined, in his earlier works, to carry still -a stage further the great line of German music; the mind that could -produce the beautiful sextet _Verklärte Nacht_ and the splendid -_Gurrelieder_ at the age of twenty-five or so seemed certain of a -harmonious development, bringing more and more of its own to build with -upon the permanent German foundation. - -Thanks to this complete change of manner, he has become one of the -'sensations' of modern music. And it is still an open question whether -these later works have a real musical value, or whether they are only -fruitless experiments with the impossible. There are many who say -that this later Schönberg is a deliberate 'freak.' He found himself -overwhelmed, they say, with the competition in modern music, unable -to make his name known outside of Vienna among the mass of first- and -second-rate talents that were flooding the concert halls; he found -also a public somewhat weary with surplus music and ready to respond -to novelty in any form. What more natural, then, than that he should -devise works different from anything existing, and gain preëminence by -the ugliness of his music when he could not by its beauty? This theory -might be more tenable if Schönberg were a third-rate talent. But there -can be no question of his great ability as shown in his 'early manner.' -This manner, based on Wagner and Strauss, was one of great energy -and complexity. It combined the resounding crash of great Wagnerian -harmonies with the sensuous beauty that has always been associated -with the music of Vienna. The score of the _Gurrelieder_ is one of the -most complex in existence. But the complexity does not extend to the -harmonic idiom. In this Schönberg was traditional, though by no means -conventional. - -But there came a time in his development when he began restlessly -searching for new forms of expression. This he found in a type of -writing which completely rejects the old harmonic system consecrated -by Bach. The composer concentrates his attention on the interweaving -of the polyphonic voices, unconcerned, apparently, whether or not -they 'make harmony.' Considered purely as a polyphonic writer in -this manner he must be allowed to be masterly. His power of logical -theme-development in a purely abstract way is second only to that of -Reger among the moderns. But when this mode of writing is turned to -impressionistic purposes the result is far more questionable. Up to the -present time the musical world has by no means decided whether or not -this is 'music' at all. It is at least probable that its value lies -chiefly in its experimental fruitfulness. Music since Wagner has been -tending steadily toward a negation of the harmonic principles of the -classics, and there was apparently needed someone who--for the sake of -experiment at least--would overturn these principles altogether and see -what could be developed out of a purely empirical system. - -The music of the early Schönberg--the Schönberg who literally lived and -starved in a Viennese cellar--is stimulating in the highest degree. -The early songs[43] strike a heroic note; they sing with a declamatory -melody, sometimes rising into inspired lyricism, which seems to say -that Olympus is speaking. The accompaniment is invariably pregnant -with energetic comment. But the _Gurrelieder_ is the work on which -Schönberg spent most of his early years. These 'songs' are in reality -a long cantata for soli, chorus and orchestra. The text, taken from -the Danish, tells of King Waldemar, who journeyed to Gurre and there -found his bride Tove. They lived in bliss for a time, but then Tove -died and Waldemar cursed God. Tove's voice called to him from the -song of a bird, and he gathered his warriors together and as armed -skeletons they dashed every night among the woods of Gurre, pursuing -their deathly, accursed chase. Tired out with his immense labor, and -despairing of ever securing production for his work, Schönberg laid -aside the _Gurrelieder_ before it was finished. Some years later, when -he had begun to make a little reputation by his later compositions, his -publisher urged him to finish the work, promising a public performance -with all the paraphernalia required by the score. This included a -huge chorus and an orchestra probably larger than any other that a -musician has ever demanded. The performance was given in Vienna and -established Schönberg's European fame. The unity of the work is marred -by the fact that the last quarter of it is written in the composer's -'second manner.' But the great portions of the _Gurrelieder_ must -certainly rank among the noblest products of modern music. The end of -the first part, in which Waldemar chides God for being a bad king, in -that he takes the last penny from a poor subject--this scene throbs -with a Shakespearean dignity and power. Tove's funeral march and the -scene in which the dead queen speaks from the song of the bird, are -no less inspired. Finally, the work has a text as beautiful as any -which a modern composer has found. The other great work of the early -period is the sextet, _Verklärte Nacht_, performed in America by the -Kneisel Quartet. This takes as a 'scenario' a poem by Richard Dehmel, -telling how the night was 'transfigured' by the sacrifice of a husband -in allowing his wife freedom in her love. The spiritual story of the -poem is closely followed by the music, though there is no pretense of -a close 'argument' or 'program.' The voices of the various characters -are represented by the various solo instruments. Yet this is no mere -program music. Judged for itself alone it proves a work of the highest -beauty, one of the finest things in modern chamber music. - -The 'Pelléas and Mélisande' is one of the transition works, but -partakes rather of the character of the 'second manner.' The greatest -work of this period, however, is the first string quartet, performed -in America by the Flonzaley Quartet in the winter of 1913-14. This is -'absolute' music of the purest kind. It does not follow the sonata -form, and its various movements are intermingled (split up, as it -were, and shaken together), but it shows a strict cogency of structure -and firm sustaining of the mood. The 'second manner' is marked by -a mingling, but not a fusing, of the early and later styles. In the -first quartet the first fifty bars or so are in the severe later -style, in which the polyphony is complexly carried out without regard -to the harmonic implications. In these measures Schönberg shows his -great technical skill in the interweaving of voices and the economic -development of themes. The largo which comes towards the end of the -work is a passage of magical beauty. - -In the last period come the _Kammersymphonie_, the second quartet, the -two sets of 'Short Piano Pieces,' the 'Five Orchestral Pieces,' and -the _Pierrot_ melodrame. The _Kammersymphonie_ is in one movement. The -music is lively and the counterpoint complex but clear. The quartet -carries out consistently the absolute non-harmonic polyphony attempted -in the first, but, lacking the poetical passages of the early work, -it has found a stony road to recognition. _Pierrot_ has been heard in -two or three European cities and has been voted 'incomprehensible.' -The 'Five Orchestral Pieces,' performed in America by the Chicago -Orchestra, carry to the extreme Schönberg's unamiable impressionism. -In them one seeks in vain for any unity or meaning (beauty, in the -old sense, being here quite out of the question). They have, however, -a certain unity in the type of materials used and developed in each, -though their architecture remains a mystery. The 'Short Piano Pieces' -(the earlier ones come, in point of time, in the middle period) have -been much admired by the pianist Busoni, who has made a 'concert -arrangement' of them, and published them with a preface of his own. -Busoni claims that they have discovered new timbres of the piano, and -evoke in the ear a subtle response of a sort too delicate to have been -called forth by the old type of harmony. In general they are like the -Orchestral Pieces in character, seeming always to seek the _outré_ -at the expense of the beautiful. Many profess to find a deep and -subtle beauty in these pieces. But if the empirical harmony which they -cultivate has any validity it must attain that validity by empirical -means. It is certain that our ears do not enjoy this music, as they are -at present constituted. But it is possible that as they hear more of -it they may discover in it new values not to be explained by the old -principles. But this leads us into the physics of musical æsthetics, -which is beyond the scope of this chapter. It should be noted, however, -that one of the by-products of such a crisis as this in which Schönberg -is playing such an important part, is the stimulation it gives to -musical theory. If Schönberg succeeds in gaining a permanent place -in music with his 'third manner,' it is certain that all our musical -æsthetics hitherto must be reconstructed. - -In closing our cursory review, we may admit that German music can -afford to shed--may, indeed, be compelled in its own interest to -shed--many of the mental characteristics and the technical processes -that have made it what it is. There is an end to all things; and there -comes a time in the history of an art when it is the part of wisdom -to recognize that, as Nietzsche says, only where there are graves are -there resurrections. The time is ripe for the next great man. - - E. N. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[35] Other operas by Draeseke are _Gudrun_ (1884) and _Sigurd_ -(fragments performed in 1867). _Bertrand de Born_ (three acts), -_Fischer und Karif_ (one act), and _Merlin_ were not published. -Draeseke's symphonic works are more important. (See p. 236.) - -[36] Wilhelm Kienzl, b. Upper Austria in 1857, studied in Graz, Prague, -Leipzig, and Vienna. He visited Wagner in Bayreuth and became conductor -of the opera in Amsterdam (1883), at Krefeld, at Frankfort (1889), and -at the Munich _Hofoper_ (to 1893). - -[37] _Orestes_ is a trilogy based on Æschylus and consisting of: I, -_Agamemnon_; II, _Das Totenopfer_; III, _Die Erinyen_. - -[38] For biographical details, see below (p. 258). - -[39] His sextet for piano and wind instruments in B major (op. 6) in -classic style, but of brilliant originality, first made his name known. -In the later works he sacrificed some of the emotionalism, the lyric -freshness and warmth of color of the southern lyricist for the sake of -modernity. This is noticeable in his piano quintet in E-flat, op. 20; -his 'cello sonata, op. 22; and his violin sonata, op. 30. There are -also a 'Romantic Overture' and _Traumsommernacht_ for orchestra, and an -organ sonata. - -[40] _Das goldene Kreuz_ is a charming aftergrowth of the German comic -opera of the Lortzing type with a touch of Viennese sentimentality. -Others by the same composer are _Der Landfriede_, _Bianca_, _Das -steinerne Herz_, _Schach dem König_, _etc._ - -[41] The work of Brahms as a whole has been treated in another portion -of this work (Vol. II, Chap. XV). It will, however, be necessary to say -a few words with regard to him in this section, in order to bring the -essential nature of Wolf's achievement into a clearer light. - -[42] _Die Musik seit Richard Wagner_, 1914. - -[43] See Volume V, pp. 342 ff. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - THE FOLLOWERS OF CÉSAR FRANCK - - The Foundations of modern French nationalism: Berlioz; - the operatic masters; Saint-Saëns, Lalo, Franck, etc.; - conditions favoring native art development--The pioneers of - ultra-modernism: Emanuel Chabrier and Gabriel Fauré--Vincent - d'Indy: his instrumental and his dramatic works--Other pupils - of Franck: Ernest Chausson; Henri Duparc; Alexis de Castillon; - Guy Ropartz. - - - I - -Ultra-modern French music constitutes a movement whose significance -it may be still too early to estimate judicially, whose causes -are relatively obscure and unprophetic, but whose attainments are -exceedingly concrete from the historical viewpoint aside from the -æsthetic controversies involved. Emerging from a generation hampered -by over-regard for convention, vacillating and tentative in technical -method in almost all respects save the theatre, and too often -artificial there, a renascence of French music has been assured -comparable in lucidity of style and markedly racial qualities to the -golden days of a Couperin or a Rameau, while fearing no contemporary -rival in emotional discrimination and delicate psychological analysis, -and not infrequently attaining a masterly and fundamental vigor. The -French composers of to-day have virtually freed dramatic procedures -from Italian traditions, and even gradually distanced the Wagnerian -incubus. They have re-asserted a nationalistic spirit in music, with or -without dependence on folk-song material, with a potent individuality -of idiom which has not been so persistent since the seventeenth and -eighteenth centuries. Finally, French critical activity, scholarship, -research, educational institutions, standards of performance have risen -to a pitch of excellence formerly denied to all save the Germans. - -While the roots of this attainment go back half a century and more, -the flower of achievement is still so recent as to pique inquiry. It -must be acknowledged that on the surface no causes are discoverable -which are proportionate to the results attained, but closer examination -discloses an unmistakable drift. During almost three-quarters of the -nineteenth century, despite the epoch-making work of Berlioz, the -efforts of French composers were centred in one or another of the -forms of opera. Auber, Boieldieu, Meyerbeer and others were succeeded -by Gounod, Thomas and Délibes, leading insensibly to Massenet and -Bizet. Gounod's _Faust_ (1859) and _Roméo et Juliette_ (1867), Thomas' -_Mignon_ (1866), Délibes' ballet _Coppélia_ (1870), Massenet's early -work _Don César de Bazan_ (1872), and Bizet's _Carmen_ (1875), unjustly -pilloried as 'Wagnerian,' were typical of the characteristic tendencies -of the period. - -Yet it was precisely at a time when Parisians were seemingly engrossed -in the theatre, that signs of radical departure were apparent, and -these may be fittingly considered the forerunners of the later -standpoint. Up to nearly the middle of the nineteenth century the -_Concerts du Conservatoire_, themselves the successors to somewhat -anomalous organizations, were the only regular orchestral concerts -in Paris. In 1849 Antoine Seghers reorganized the _Société de Sainte -Cécile_, at which works by Gounod, Gouvy, and Saint-Saëns were -occasionally in evidence. In 1851 Jules Pasdeloup founded the _Société -des Jeunes Artistes du Conservatoire_, merged ten years later into -the _Concerts Populaires_, which afforded a definite opportunity, if -somewhat grudgingly accorded, to young French composers. In 1855 -Jules Armingaud formed a string quartet, later augmented by wind -instruments, for the popularization of chamber music. He persisted -against the obstacles of popular indifference, and ultimately became -even fashionable. About this time also came an awakening in the -study of plain-chant and the religious music of the sixteenth and -preceding centuries. In 1853 Niedermeyer founded the _École de Musique -Religieuse_, a significant institution which eventually broadened -its educative scope into a fairly wide survey of musical literature. -Other instrumental organizations of later date, and one particularly -significant attempt at educational enfranchisement, will receive -mention at the proper place. The foregoing instances serve to point out -the seeming paradox of the rise of instrumental music at an apparently -unpropitious time. - -Without minimizing the genuine impetus given to instrumental music -by the establishment of the foregoing organizations, the trend of -ultra-modern French tendencies would have been dubious were it not -for the preparatory foundation laid by Camille Saint-Saëns, Edouard -Lalo and César Franck. Since the work of these men has already been -estimated in previous chapters, it will suffice to indicate the precise -nature of the influence exerted by each. - -Saint-Saëns, possessing marvellous assimilative ingenuity as well as -intellectual virtuosity, brought the contrapuntal manner of Bach, the -forms of Beethoven, and the romanticism of Mendelssohn and Schumann -into skilled combination with his own somewhat illusive and paradoxical -individuality. To this he added a wayward fancy for exotic material, -not treated however in its native spirit, but often in a scholastic -manner that nevertheless often had a charm of its own. From the -preparatory standpoint his conspicuous virtue lay in the incredible -fertility with which he produced a long series of chamber music -works, concertos and symphonies possessing such salient qualities -of invention and workmanship as to force their acknowledgment from -the Parisian public. If his music at its worst is little better than -sterile virtuosity in which individual conviction seems in abeyance, -such works as the fifth piano concerto, third violin concerto and -third symphony (to name a few only) bear a well-nigh classic stamp -in balance between expression and formal mastery. Saint-Saëns, then, -popularized the sonata form, in its various manifestations, by means of -a judicious mixture of conventional form and Gallic piquancy, so that -a hitherto indifferent public was forced to applaud spontaneously at -last. If to a later generation Saint-Saëns seems over-conventional and -at times sententious rather than eloquent, we must remember that in -its day his music was thought subversive of true progress, and unduly -Teutonic in its artistic predilections. To-day we ask why he was not -more unhesitatingly subjective. But possibly that would be expecting -too much of a pioneer. Any estimate of Saint-Saëns would be incomplete -without mention of his effective championing of the symphonic poem at -a period when it was still under suspicion. His four specimens of this -type show impeccable workmanship, piquant grace, true Gallic economy -in the disposition of his material. They undoubtedly paved the way -for works of later composers manifesting alike greater profundity of -thought and higher qualities of the imagination. - -Edouard Lalo stands in sharp contrast to Saint-Saëns. He was of an -impressionable, dramatic temperament, drawn spontaneously toward the -exotic and the coloristic. His Spanish origin betrays itself in the -vivacity of his rhythms, and the picturesque quality of his melodies. -If indeed the crowning success of a career full of reverses was the -opera _Le Roi d'Ys_ (sketched 1875-6, revised 1886-7) produced in 1888 -when the composer was sixty-five, his services to instrumental music -are none the less palpable. If Saint-Saëns turns to the exotic as a -refreshment from a species of intellectual ennui, with Lalo it is the -result of a fundamental instinct. Lalo's ultimately characteristic vein -is to be found in concertos, of lax if not incoherent form, employing -Spanish, Russian and Norwegian themes, a Norwegian Rhapsody for -orchestra, and scintillant suites of nationalistic dances from a ballet -_Namouna_. He became a deliberate advocate of 'local color' treated -with a veracious and not a conventional atmosphere, in which the -brilliant orchestral style was more than a casual medium. His salient -qualities were romantic conviction and emotional ardor, in which he -provided a sincere and positive example whose influence is tangible in -later composers. Herein lies his historical import. - -It may seem unnecessary to refer again to the unselfish, laborious yet -exalted personality of César Franck, or needless to rehearse the humble -and patient obscurity of his life for almost thirty years, the gradual -assembling of his devoted pupils, the unfolding of his superb later -works, and their posthumous general recognition, but it is only through -such reiteration that the causes of his position become manifest. For -it is precisely through such vicissitudes that convictions are forged -and that the composers' idiom becomes forcefully eloquent. Franck was -not content with superficial assimilation of technical procedures, -nor with a facile eclecticism, hence it is the moral character of the -artist which has affected his disciples to a degree even overshadowing -his technical instruction. Like Saint-Saëns, Franck went directly to -Bach for the essence of canonic and fugal style, to Beethoven for the -cardinal principles of the variation and sonata forms. But unlike -Saint-Saëns he did not detach external characteristics and apply -them half-heartedly; he grasped the basic qualities of the music -he studied, yet expressed himself freely and elastically in his own -speech. He taught and practised not the letter but the spirit of style. - -As regards historic import, Franck's harmonic idiom (while remotely -related to that of Liszt), perfectly commensurate with his seraphic -ideality, has become infiltrated more or less into the individuality -of all his pupils. Less imitated but of great intrinsic significance -is Franck's virtual reincarnation of the canon, chorale prelude, fugue -and variation forms in terms of modern mystical expressiveness. His -crowning historical feat was the fusion of hints from Beethoven (fifth -and ninth symphonies), Berlioz's somewhat artificial but suggestive -manipulation of themes, Liszt's plausible transformation of musical -ideas for a programmistic purpose, into an independent solution of -thematic unity employing a 'generative' theme to supply all or nearly -all the thematic material. It may be suggested that Saint-Saëns had -anticipated Franck in this respect (third symphony in C minor), but the -latter had already worked out the idea in his quintet (1878-79) and -there are germs of a similar treatment in his first trio (1841).[44] If -Franck's pupils have adopted this idea of thematic variety based upon -unity, in differing degrees of fidelity, this device remains a favorite -procedure with the Franckist school, and Vincent d'Indy has employed -its resources with conspicuous success. - -But the secret of Franck's enduring influence does not consist solely -in the genuine creative aspect of his technical mastery despite its -ineffaceable example. It lies equally in the pervading morality of -his æsthetic principles, and in the intrinsic message of his musical -thought. In place of vivacious, piquant but often artificial and -conventionalized emotion of a recognizably Gallic type, he brought to -music a serenely mystical Flemish (or, to be more exact, Walloon) -temperament, a nature naïvely pure and lofty, a character of placid -aspiration and consummate trust. His faith moved technical and -expressive mountains. Through the steadfastly permeating quality of his -artistic convictions he counteracted the superficial and meretricious -elements in French music, and substituted the calm but radiant ideals -of a gospel of beauty which he not only preached but lived in his own -works. Understood only by the few almost to the hour of his death, he -preceded his epoch so far in fearless self-expression that it seems -almost inaccurate to characterize him as a preparatory figure. He is -not only the greatest of these, a forerunner in many respects of a -later period, but also a prophet to whom one wing of French composers -look for their inspiration and solace. - -The foregoing names are not alone in their contributory effect upon -modern French composers. Among many, a few names may be selected as -worthy of mention. Georges Bizet, essentially of the theatre, in his -overtures _Roma_ (1861), _Patrie_ (1875), the suite _Jeux d'Enfants_ -(1872), a charming series of miniatures, as well as the classic suites -from the incidental music to Daudet's _L'Arlésienne_, disclose a -remarkable and specific gift for instrumental music, whose continuance -was only limited by his untimely death. - -Benjamin Godard, who presumably may have also died before attaining -the summit of his powers, was an over-fertile composer of indisputable -melodic gift and spontaneity of mood, whose most conspicuous defect was -an almost total lack of critical discrimination. In consequence, few of -his works have survived, and then chiefly for the practical usefulness -of a few pieces for violin or piano. - -Jules Massenet, even more emphatically destined for the theatre than -Bizet, showed in his early works, such as the overtures _Pompeia_ -(1865), _Phèdre_ (1873), _Les Erynnies_ (suite from incidental music -to the drama by Leconte de Lisle, 1873), as well as in numerous -orchestral suites and shorter pieces, an unusual instinct for -concise precision of form, clarity of style, and an extraordinarily -dextrous, if at times coarse, manipulation of the orchestra. But his -sympathies were never with the 'advanced school,' and his influence, -a considerable force despite the sneers of critics, has been exerted -almost entirely in the field of opera. - -As a further preliminary to the evolution of ultra-modern French -music, several important manifestations of progress must be discussed. -The Franco-Prussian war of 1870, an irretrievable misfortune to the -French people politically, acted as a direct and far-reaching stimulus -toward a nationalistic tendency in music. It led to the rejection -of extra-French influences, that of Wagner among them, although the -current of imitation became ultimately too strong to be resisted. It -brought about a conscious striving toward individuality in technical -methods and the deliberate attainment of racial traits in expression. -The strength and unity of this sentiment among French musicians was -strikingly exemplified in the founding as early as 1871 of the National -Society of French Music by Romain Bussine and Camille Saint-Saëns. Its -purpose, as indicated in the device _Ars Gallica_, was to provide for -and encourage the performance of works by French composers, whether -printed or in manuscript.[45] From the beginning the Society has -striven amazingly, and it is not too much to assert that its programs -constitute a literal epitome of French musical evolution and progress. -Saint-Saëns, the first president of the Society, resigned owing to -disagreement over a policy adopted. César Franck then acted virtually -as president until his death in 1890. Since then Vincent d'Indy has -been at its head. - -The pioneer efforts of Pasdeloup in establishing orchestral concerts -were ably continued by Édouard Colonne in connection with different -organizations beginning in 1873, and by Charles Lamoureux in 1881. -Colonne's great memorial was the efficient popularization of Berlioz, -while Lamoureux achieved a like service, not without surmounting almost -insuperable obstacles, for the music of Wagner. Both coöperated in -encouraging the work of native composers, if less ardently than the -National Society, still to a sufficient extent to prove to the Parisian -public the existence of French music of worth. In other respects the -educational achievement of both orchestras has been admirable, and -both are active to-day, the Colonne concerts being directed by Gabriel -Pierné, the Lamoureux concerts by Camille Chevillard. - -In 1892, Charles Bordes (1863-1905) founded a choral society, _Les -Chanteurs de Saint Gervaise_, to spread a knowledge of the choral music -of Palestrina and his epoch, as well as the study of plain-chant. Four -years later this society was merged into the _Schola Cantorum_, an -_école supérieure de musique_, with Charles Bordes, Alexandre Guilmant -and Vincent d'Indy as founders, to perpetuate the spirit and teachings -of César Franck. Intended originally as an active protest against the -superficial standpoint of the Conservatoire before the administration -of Gabriel Fauré, the _Schola_ aims to have the pupil pass through the -entire course of musical evolution with a curriculum of exhaustive -thoroughness. Aside from the practicability or the æsthetic soundness -of this theory, the _Schola_ attempts to furnish a comprehensive -education that is praiseworthy in its aims. Further than this the -attitude of the _Schola_ possesses an historical import in that it -embodies a deliberate reaction against the revolutionary tendencies of -Debussy and Ravel, and aims to conserve the outlook of Franck. - -To complete the preparatory influences bearing upon ultra-modern French -music one should mention more than tentatively the palpable stimulation -of the so-called 'Neo-Russian School' comprising Balakireff, Borodine, -Rimsky-Korsakoff, Cui, and more particularly Moussorgsky. While these -men have reacted more noticeably upon individuals rather than upon -modern French composers as a group, their example has been none the -less tangible. Russian sensitiveness as to orchestral timbre, their use -of folk-song, their predilection for novel rhythms, exotic atmosphere, -have all appealed to the receptive sensibilities of the ultra-modern -French composer. - - - II - -The pioneers of ultra-modern French music are Emmanuel Chabrier and -Gabriel Fauré, men of strikingly dissimilar temperaments and equally -remote style and achievement. Each is, however, equally significant in -his own province. - -Alexis-Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-94) was born at Ambert (Puy-de-Dôme) in -the South of France. One can at once infer his temperament from his -birthplace. For Chabrier combined seemingly irreconcilable elements: -robust vigor, ardent sincerity and intense impressionability. With an -inexpressible sense of humor, he possessed a delicate and distinguished -poetic instinct side by side with deeply human sentiments. His early -bent toward music was only permitted with the understanding that it -remain an avocation. Accordingly Chabrier came to Paris to be educated -at the age of fifteen, obtained his lawyer's certificate when he -was twenty-one and forthwith entered the office of the Ministry of -the Interior. In the meantime he had acquired astonishing skill as -a pianist, studied harmony and counterpoint, made friends with many -poets, painters and musicians, among them Paul Verlaine, Édouard -Manet, Duparc, d'Indy, Fauré and Messager. 'Considered up to then -as an amateur,'[46] Chabrier surprised professional Paris with an -opéra comique in three acts, _L'Étoile_ (1877) (played throughout -this country _without_ authorization and _with_ interpolated music -by Francis Wilson as 'The Merry Monarch'), and a one-act operetta, -_L'Éducation manquée_ (1879), both of which were described as -'exceeding in musical interest the type of piece represented.'[47] -A visit to Germany with Henri Duparc, where he heard _Tristan und -Isolde_, affected his impressionable nature so deeply that he -resolved to give himself entirely to music and in 1880 resigned from -his position at the Ministry. (His paradoxical character was never -more succinctly illustrated than by the fact that he later composed -'Humorous Quadrilles on Motives from Tristan.')[48] - -In 1881 Chabrier became secretary and chorus master for the newly -founded Lamoureux concerts, and helped to produce portions of -_Lohengrin_ and _Tristan_. During this year he composed the 'Ten -Picturesque Pieces' for piano, from which he made a _Suite Pastorale_, -in which the orchestral idiom was not always skillful. From his -position in the Lamoureux orchestra he soon learned the secrets of -orchestral effect from their source. In 1882 he went to Spain, notebook -in hand, and in the following year burst upon the Parisian public with -a brilliant rhapsody for orchestra on Spanish themes entitled _España_. -This highly coloristic, poetic and impassioned piece at once placed -him in the front rank of contemporary French composers, and remains a -landmark in a new epoch for its conviction, spontaneous inspiration, -rhythmic vitality and individual treatment of the orchestra. If Lalo -had shown the way, Chabrier at once surpassed the older musician on -his own ground. - -During the next few years Chabrier produced some of his most -characteristic works, the 'Three Romantic Waltzes' for two pianos, one -of which evoked enthusiasm from a Parisian wit for its 'exquisite bad -taste,' a remarkable idyllic _scena_ for solo, chorus and orchestra, -_La Sulamite_, a _Habañera_, transcribed for piano and also for -orchestra. But by far the most ambitious work of these years was a -serious opera _Gwendoline_ on a text by Catulle Mendès, produced at the -Théâtre de la Monnaie in Brussels in 1886. Unfortunately the artistic -success of this opera was abruptly closed by the bankruptcy of the -management. But Germany received _Gwendoline_ with marked favor, and it -was performed at Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich and Düsseldorf. - -_Gwendoline_, despite some obvious defects, is a work of unusual -historical import, since it constitutes the first thorough-going -attempt, aside from the tentative efforts of Reyer, Bizet, Massenet -and others, to incorporate the dramatic reforms of Wagner in an -opera of distinctively French character. Mendès' poem on a legendary -subject is frankly imitative of scenes and characters from Wagner's -music dramas. Chabrier as frankly uses leading-motives, yet he does -not conform slavishly to the Wagnerian symphonic treatment of them. -Moreover Chabrier is under an equal obligation to Wagner in the use -of the orchestra, if indeed there are many pages and scenes which are -unmistakably Gallic in their delicacy of conception and in individual -color effects. Indeed, there was nothing in Chabrier's previous career -to presuppose such genuine dramatic gifts, such fanciful poetry or such -depths of sentiment as are to be discovered in this work, even though -Mendès' text is commonplace, and his drama too ill-proportioned to -form the basis of a satisfactory opera. It cannot be denied that the -apotheosis of the dying lovers at the end of Act II is somewhat tawdry -and mock heroic in the persistent use of a banal theme; on the other -hand, the opening chorus of Act I, Gwendoline's ballad in the same -act, the delicate sensibility of the prelude to Act II, the charming -bridal music including the tender _Epithalame_ in the same act, all go -to establish the intrinsic value and the pioneer force of the work. -_Gwendoline_ is and remains a magnificent experiment, which still -preserves much of its vitality intact. - -Justifiably discouraged, if not overmastered, by the misfortunes -attending the production of _Gwendoline_, Chabrier nevertheless brought -out in the following year (1887) an opéra comique, _Le Roi malgré lui_, -in which the lyric charm, vivacity and humor of the music achieved an -instant success. Within a few days, however, the Opéra Comique burned -to the ground. Despite this crushing blow, Chabrier continued to -persist in composition. He published many songs, fantastic, grotesque -and sentimental, among them the inimitable 'Villanelle of the Little -Ducks,' a poignant and exquisitely lyric chorus for women's voices and -orchestra, 'To Music' (1890), a rollicking _Bourée fantasque_ (1891) -for piano, one of the boldest and most paradoxical instances of his -combining of humor and poetic atmosphere. In addition he was working -feverishly at another opera, _Briseis_, which he hoped to make his -masterpiece, when his health gave way. When, after appalling struggles, -Chabrier had induced the Opéra to give _Gwendoline_ late in 1893, -he was too ill to realize or participate in his success and in the -following year he died. - -The most striking feature in Chabrier's art was his uncompromising -sincerity and directness. He expressed himself in his music with -undeviating fidelity, despite the shattering of conventions involved. -Herein lies the intrinsic value of his music, and the potency of -his example. Whether his medium were a humorous song, a fantastic -piano-piece, a pastoral idyl or a tragic drama, he followed his -creative impulse with an outspoken daring not to be equalled since that -stormy revolutionary, Berlioz. Chabrier possessed a positive genius for -dance-rhythms and humorous marches which he redeemed from coarseness -by surprising turns of melodic and harmonic inventiveness. Thus the -_choeur dansé_ from the second act of _Le Roi malgré lui_, the first of -the 'Three Romantic Waltzes,' the witty _Joyeuse Marche_ and finally -_España_ are genuinely classics, despite their lack of 'seriousness.' -But Chabrier was equally epoch-making in the sincerity and glamour with -which he painted lyric moods of poetic intensity and extremely personal -sentiment. Gwendoline's ballad, the bridal music and _Epithalame_ -from the same opera, _La Sulamite_ and _À la Musique_ display an -astonishing variety in scope of sentiment for the robust and almost -over-exuberant composer of _España_ and the _Bourée fantasque_. In -sensuous and poignant imaginativeness again, Chabrier is the forerunner -to a considerable extent of the later group whose essential purpose -was truthfulness of atmosphere. While as a dramatic composer Chabrier -followed deliberately in the footsteps of Wagner, his own expressive -individuality maintained itself as persistently as could be expected -from the force of the spell to which it was subjected. Also, Chabrier -was in this respect but one of many, and not until the fusion of -Wagnerian method and French individuality had been tried out, could the -native composer at last enfranchise himself. Harmonically, Chabrier was -bold and defiant in a generation which was submissive to convention. -With an idiom essentially his own, he foreshadowed many so-called -innovations in sequences of seventh chords, the use of ninths, -startling modulations, and even a preparing of the whole-tone scale. In -short, Chabrier's legacy to French music was that of a self-confident -personality, daring to express himself with total unreserve in an -assimilative age which deferred to public taste and superficialities of -style. - -Between Chabrier and Gabriel Fauré there can be no comparison, and -no parallel save that both have exerted a constructive influence -on modern French music. Where Chabrier was high-spirited almost to -boisterousness, Fauré is suave, urbane, polished, a man of society -who nevertheless preserves curiously poetic and mystical instincts. -Born in 1845 at Pamiers, in that district known as the _Midi_, he is -of the reflective rather than the spontaneous type. Meeting with a -relatively slight opposition from his father in cultivating his early -manifested gift for music, he came to Paris when only nine years of -age and studied for eleven years at Niedermeyer's _École de Musique -Religieuse_. He studied first with Pierre Dietsch, who is remembered -chiefly for his purchase of Wagner's text to 'The Flying Dutchman' and -for the inconspicuous success of his music, then with Saint-Saëns, who -drilled him thoroughly in Bach and the German romanticists. After four -years' incongenial work at Rennes, as organist and teacher (in the -latter capacity watchful mothers were loath to confide their daughters' -education to the attractive youth), he served in the Franco-Prussian -war. Then, returning to Paris, he occupied various positions in -Parisian churches before settling finally at the Madeleine. From 1877 -to 1889 he made several trips to Germany to see Liszt and to hear -Wagner's music. During these journeys he won glowing comments from such -diverse personalities as von Bülow, César Cui and Tschaikowsky. In 1896 -he became teacher of composition at the Paris Conservatory; in 1905 -he became director, and still holds this position. He has thoroughly -reorganized the Conservatory, enlarged the scope of its curriculum, -especially as regards composition, and has accomplished significant -results as a teacher. - -Fauré has not been equally successful in every field of composition. -His development has been inward. He is first and foremost a composer -of songs, and his attainment in this direction alone would maintain -his position. He has been a fertile writer of piano pieces. Many of -them are disfigured by a light salon style; a considerable number, -however, are of intrinsically poetic expression. Despite respectable -achievements in chamber music (he has been awarded prizes), the quintet -for piano and strings op. 89 (1906) is the one outstanding work which -is conspicuous in modern French music, although the early violin -sonata, op. 13 (1876), had its day of popularity. He has written some -agreeable choral music, of which the cantata 'The Birth of Venus' -is notable if unequal. There is noble music in the Requiem op. 48 -(1887) and the final number _In Paradisum_ is an exceptionally fine -instance of mystical expression. Fauré's orchestral music is relatively -insignificant, and his incidental music to various dramas has not left -a permanent mark, save for the thoroughly charming suite arranged -from the music to _Pelléas et Mélisande_ op. 80 (1898). Not until the -performance of _Pénélope_ (1913) at Monte Carlo and Paris has Fauré -accomplished a successful opera. - -In song-writing, however, Fauré has achieved a remarkable distinction -not exceeded by any of his countrymen. Some of the early songs -dating from the years spent at Rennes, as _Le Papillon et la Fleur_ -and _Mai_, suggest naturally enough the influence of Saint-Saëns. -Others in the first volume, _Sérénade Toscane_, _Après un rêve_, and -_Sylvie_, show clearly a growing independence, while _Lydia_ in its -delicate archaism foreshadows Fauré's later achievements in this -style. From 1880 onwards, Fauré at once launches into his own subtle -and fascinating vein. If some of the songs in a second volume suggest -the _salon_ as do many of the piano pieces, they have a peculiar -elegance of mood and a finesse of workmanship which elevate them above -any hint of vulgarity. Such are the songs _Nell_, _Rencontre_ and -_Chanson d'Amour_. But there are many songs in the same volume which -bespeak eloquently Fauré's higher gifts for lyrical interpretation and -imaginative delineation of mood. Among these the most salient are _Le -Secret_ (1882), remarkable for its intimate sentiment, _En Prière_, -delicately mystical though slightly sentimental, _Nocturne_ (1886), -which is original in its harmonic idiom; _Clair de Lune_ (1887), -adroitly suggestive of Verlaines' Watteauesque text; _Les Berceaux_ -(1882), expansive in its human emotion; and _Les Roses d'Ispahan_, -replete with an impassioned exoticism. In a third volume are two songs -which show Fauré's individuality in a significantly broader scope. -These are _Au cimitière_ (1889), a profound elegy, typical of the -outspoken lamentation of the Latin temperament, and _Prison_, in which -the tragic emotion is heightened by an intensely declamatory style. -Fauré has published other sets of songs, among them _La Bonne Chanson_ -(1891-92), texts by Verlaine, and _La Chanson d'Ève_ (1907-10), texts -by Charles Van Lerbergle, which contain many striking specimens of his -delicate lyricism, but none more significant, except possibly from the -virtue of added maturity, than those already mentioned. As a whole, the -imaginative and expressive traits of Fauré's songs are partially due to -his unerring instinct in the choice of texts by the most distinguished -French poets, including Leconte de Lisle, Villiers de Lisle-Adam, Paul -Verlaine, Jean Richepin, Sully-Prudhomme, Armand Silvestre, Charles -Grandmougin, Charles Baudelaire and others. - -It is not too much to say that Fauré has vitalized the song as no -French composer had done hitherto, and that his influence has been -paramount among his younger contemporaries despite divergences of -individuality. Furthermore, weighing the differences of race and -temperament, they can be successfully compared with the German -romanticists. If they do not scale the same heights, sound the same -depths, or approach the artless simplicity of German lyricism, their -poetry is far more subtle, imaginative and varied in its infinite -differentiation of mood. In these songs are the manifestations of suave -elegance, individual perfume, sometimes sensuous, sometimes mystical, -a singularly poetic essence expressed in music that delights alike by -its refined workmanship, melodic and harmonic ingenuity. In his songs, -Fauré is at once transitory and definitive; he begins experimentally, -but soon attains ultra-modern significance. - -_Pénélope_, text by Réné Fauchois, is a lyric drama presenting the -legend of Ulysses' return with a few unessential variants. It does -not attempt therefore a drama of large outlines, but is content to -remain within the scope prescribed by its frame. Fauré also has wisely -followed within similar lines as being the more compatible with his -lyric talent. Nevertheless we find in many episodes the distinguished -invention which marks his songs, a style which if somewhat too -restrained is nevertheless adequate. The first act contains many -passages of lyrical and emotional charm, but not until the climax -of the third act (the slaying of the suitors) does Fauré arrive at -genuine intensity. If _Pénélope_ cannot be classed with _Pelléas et -Mélisande_ or _Louise_, if it does not convince one that Fauré is a -born dramatist, it contains too much that is poignantly beautiful to be -dismissed hastily. Furthermore it possesses distinct historical import -as owing virtually nothing to the thralldom of Wagnerism. From this -standpoint it marks a conscious path of effort which has engaged French -composers for thirty years or so. - -If some critical attention should rightfully be given Fauré's Elegy -for violoncello and piano op. 24 (1883), the quintet, one of his -noblest and most individual works, the Requiem, the incidental music -to _Pelléas et Mélisande_, these omissions are purposely made to -concentrate appreciation on Fauré as a song writer. If he is a -significant figure among French musicians of to-day on the intrinsic -merits of his creative fancy, he deserves none the less to be recorded -as an important innovator from the technical standpoint. He has -adapted, either literally or freely, modal harmony to lyrical or -dramatic suggestion. If Saint-Saëns had already done this in his third -symphony (finale), Fauré has employed this medium with greater fluidity -and poetic connotation. Moreover this device has been partially -imitated by Debussy. In his use of secondary sevenths in conventional -sequence, the use of altered chords suggesting the whole-tone scale, -of ninths, elevenths and thirteenths, he has gone beyond Chabrier, -and furnished many a hint to later composers. He is also original and -evolutionary in his ingeniously transitory modulations, adding a spice -of surprise to his music. A conspicuous defect, on the other hand, is -his abuse of the sequence, melodic or harmonic, a shortcoming which -has been transmitted in some degree to his pupil, Maurice Ravel. But -after all critical cavilling and analysis of his harmonic originality -his enduring charm and sincerity of sentiment defy analysis or -reconstruction. - - - III - -If the pupils of César Franck are regarded to-day as constituting a -definitely reactionary wing in French music, they had in their youth -to contend with bitter and outspoken criticism for their propagation -of dangerously 'modern' tendencies. On the one hand, they were -under suspicion for their uncompromising fidelity to their master's -technical and æsthetic tenets, on the other they were abused for their -eager receptivity to Wagnerian principles in dramatic reform and use -of the orchestra. In addition, they had to justify the innovating -features (both harmonically and melodically) of their own definite -individualities. - -To-day we can look back at the struggle and see that in reality they -were contending for principles essentially moderate and even classical -in drift, especially when viewed in the light of more revolutionary -younger contemporaries. We realize that in the main the influence of -Wagner was enormously salutary, even if it postponed considerably -the final achievement of a positively nationalistic dramatic idiom. -The lesson of an opera which should genuinely unite music and drama, -of an orchestral style at once of greater scope and of finesse in -illustrative detail, was sadly needed. Moreover it became at last an -honor to have been a pupil of Franck, and many claimed this distinction -who were not genuine disciples in reality. In addition there were -some, like Augusta Holmès, who studied under Franck but who were never -materially influenced by him, just as there were others like Paul Dukas -who showed the imprint of Franck's methods without actually having been -his pupil. Vincent d'Indy thus enumerates the real pupils of Franck: -Camille Bênoit, Pierre de Bréville, Albert Cahen, Charles Bordes, -Alexis de Castillon, Ernest Chausson, Arthur Coquard, Henri Duparc, -Augusta Holmès, Vincent d'Indy, Henri Kinkelmann, Guillaume Lekeu, -Guy Ropartz, Louis de Serres, Gaston Vallin and Paul de Wailly. Of -these de Castillon, Chausson, Duparc, d'Indy, Lekeu and Ropartz may be -considered as representative, and d'Indy by virtue of the totality of -his activity is entitled to first consideration. - -Vincent d'Indy, born at Paris, March 27, 1851, of a family of ancient -nobility coming from Ardèche in the Cévennes, has steadily maintained -an attitude of intellectual aristocracy toward his art, although -like his master Franck he has labored most democratically for the -advancement of musical education.[49] Left motherless when an infant, -d'Indy was brought up by his grandmother, Mme. Théodore d'Indy, of -whom he likes to record that she had 'known Grétry and Monsigny, and -shown a keen appreciation of Beethoven in 1825.'[50] It was owing -to her that d'Indy came early in contact with the music of Bach and -Beethoven. Piano lessons under Diemer occupied him from the age of -ten onwards, and after 1865 he studied piano and harmony at the Paris -_Conservatoire_ with Marmontel and Lavignac. But d'Indy was also -genuinely interested in composition, and by 1870 he finished and -published some piano pieces, a short work for baritone and chorus, -and projected others of varying dimensions. When the Franco-Prussian -war broke out, d'Indy enlisted and served throughout. After the -war he took up the study of law in a half-hearted manner, but his -introduction by Henri Duparc to César Franck in 1872 settled his -musical career definitely. While Franck criticized severely the piano -quartet that d'Indy brought him, he was quick to perceive the latent -qualities of the young composer. Forthwith d'Indy studied the organ -with Franck at the _Conservatoire_, but recognizing the inadequate -opportunity of obtaining any technical drill in composition at this -institution, he became Franck's private pupil. With him he worked -faithfully and pertinaciously, and received not only an exhaustive -technical grounding, but an illuminating æsthetic comradeship rich -in comprehensive discussions of art-principles. D'Indy soon joined -the _Société Nationale de Musique Française_ and became an energetic -worker in its behalf, being secretary for nearly ten years and becoming -president after the death of Franck in 1890. Under his leadership the -Society has wonderfully extended its activity. In 1873 he spent a -fruitful month with Liszt at Weimar; in 1876 he heard a performance -of 'The Ring of the Nibelungs' at Bayreuth, and in 1881 he heard -'Parsifal.' From 1873 to 1878 he was kettle-drummer and chorus-master -in Colonne's orchestra, and in 1887 chorus-master for Lamoureux, -both exceedingly valuable practical experiences. In 1885 the city of -Paris awarded d'Indy the first prize for his choral work _Le Chant de -la Cloche_, whose reception in the following year placed him in the -front rank of French composers. In 1896 d'Indy with Charles Bordes -and Alexandre Guilmant founded the _Schola Cantorum_ as an _école -supérieure de musique_,[51] to perpetuate the spirit and practical -essence of Franck's teachings, to restore the study of plain-chant -and the music of the Palestrinian epoch to its proper dignity, and -to include in its curriculum masterpieces from the fifteenth to the -nineteenth centuries. With the death of Bordes in 1909 (compelled by -reason of ill health to live in the south of France, where he founded a -branch of the Schola at Montpellier in 1905) and of Guilmant in 1911, -d'Indy became sole director of the Schola. In this position he has been -prodigal of thought and strength. - -To comprehend the nature of d'Indy's evolution, it is essential to -detail some of the more significant influences reacting upon him. -Brought up in a cultivated milieu, d'Indy absorbed Goethe, Schiller, -Herder and Lessing, while not a few of his works are founded on their -writings. The German romantic musicians, Mendelssohn, Schumann and -Weber, affected him fairly acutely for a while, but in a transitory -fashion. While the spell exercised by Franck on d'Indy is both deep and -permanent, it could not prevent his instant recognition of the import -of Wagner's dramatic procedures, including the magical euphony of -his orchestration. While there remains of this 'Wagnerianism' only the -normal residue that comes with the acceptance of a great historical -figure, d'Indy's music continued to show in method or suggestion his -admiration and close study of Wagner. That this is no longer the case -is due partly to the natural ripening of individuality consequent upon -maturity, and also to the Schola. With the profound study of liturgic -music and the literature of the sixteenth century, d'Indy has reverted -to ecclesiastic counterpoint as a logical foundation for technique -despite his adaptation of its principles to a free and modernistic -expression. Moreover, he has used plain-chant melodies to an increasing -extent in instrumental or dramatic works. Thus his music has taken on -a spiritual and humanitarian character, analogous in inward motive if -markedly different in outward sentiment from that of his master. - - [Illustration: Modern French Composers:] - - Emanuel Chabrier Vincent d'Indy - Maurice Ravel Gustave Charpentier - -Apart from a relatively small amount of miscellaneous works for -chorus, piano, etc., the greater portion of d'Indy's productivity -can be divided into two general classes, instrumental (orchestral or -chamber music) and dramatic (choral works or operas). Moreover he -turns (seemingly with deliberate purpose) from one pole to another -of the musical field. If the examination of d'Indy's chief works in -chronological order would give the best clue to his evolutionary -progress, the consideration of each type by itself has perhaps greater -clarity. - -D'Indy's earliest published instrumental music, the piano quartet op. -7 (1878-88) and the symphonic ballad _La Forêt enchantée_ after Uhland -(1878), show him to be too concerned in mastering the technique of -his art to be preoccupied as to individuality. Of this the quartet -contains more, although not of an assertive order, together with a -sedulous attention to detail. _La Forêt enchantée_ is well planned -and effectively carried out in a spontaneous adolescent manner, with -distinct Teutonic reflections in the general atmosphere. This is all -changed with the 'Wallenstein Trilogy' (1873-81), three symphonic -poems after Schiller's drama. The subject has struck fire in d'Indy's -imagination. _Le Camp de Wallenstein_ is a kaleidoscope of passing -scenes hit off with apt characterization, dramatic touches and no -little orchestral brilliancy. _Max et Thecla_ (the earliest of d'Indy's -orchestral works), performed as _Ouverture des Piccolomini_ in 1874, -remodelled to form the second part of the trilogy, contains all too -obvious traces of ineptitude, side by side with pages of genuine -romantic sensibility. _La Mort de Wallenstein_ is musically the -strongest of the three, and the ablest in technical and expressive -mastery, despite echoes of the _Tarnhelm_ motif in the introduction -and the palpably Franckian canonic treatment of the chief theme. In -inventiveness, dramatic force and markedly skillful orchestration, the -trilogy is prophetic of later attainments. - -The _Poème des Montagnes_ op. 15 (1881) for piano deserves mention -because it is one of a number of works concerned with aspects of -nature, a source of evocatory stimulus upon d'Indy in a number of -instances. There are romantic qualities of some grandeur in these -pieces, as well as dramatic vitality in one idea which d'Indy -appropriately used in a later work,[52] but as a whole they do not rank -with his best music. If a poetic mood is apparent in _Saugefleurie_ op. -21 (1884) and a vein of piquant fancy is to be found in the suite op. -24 for trumpet, flutes and strings, both are not unjustly to be ranked -chiefly as steps leading to works of larger significance. - -After _Le Chant de la Cloche_, whose performance brought instant -recognition to d'Indy, the 'Symphony on a Mountain Air' op. 25 (1886) -for piano and orchestra is the first instance of d'Indy's deliberate -resolve to follow in the footsteps of Franck as regards formal and -thematic treatment. The basis of the work is a true folk-song[53] which -furnishes through rhythmic and melodic modification the principal -themes of the symphony. Here we find more assertive individuality than -in any instrumental work since the Wallenstein trilogy, a genuine -capacity for logical developments, thoughtful sentiment in the slow -movement, and great animation in the vivid Kermesse which forms the -finale. Similarly the trio op. 29 (1887) for clarinet, violoncello and -piano adopts the Franckian method while permitting an equal freedom of -personal idiom. Again passing over minor works for the piano, a few -choral or vocal pieces which have a contributory rather than a capital -import, and leaving momentarily the opera _Fervaal_, d'Indy's next -striking contribution to instrumental music is the set of symphonic -variations _Istar_, op. 42 (1896). The program of the work, taken from -the Epic of Izdubar, is concerned with the descent of _Istar_ into -the Assyrian abode of the dead to rescue her lover, leaving a garment -or ornament with the guardian of each of seven gates, until naked she -has fulfilled the test and restores her lover. Accordingly d'Indy -has adroitly reversed the variations from the complex to the simple, -to describe the gradual spoliation of the heroine, until the theme -at last emerges in a triumphal unison depicting the nudity of Istar. -The variations are in themselves of great ingenuity, of picturesque -detail and gorgeous orchestral color, but the descriptive purpose is -somewhat marred by the artificialities of technical manipulation. Heard -as absolute music, the intrinsic qualities of the piece delight the -listener and its uncompromising individuality shows the progressive -maturity of the composer. - -In a second string quartet, op. 45 (1897), d'Indy's inventive -fertility in evolving not only the chief themes but accompaniment -figures from a motto of four notes, gives further evidence of his -skill along the lines suggested by Franck. Certain episodes and even -entire movements give cause for suspicion that the composer was drawn -to the realization of technical problems rather than that of concrete -expression. The contrapuntal texture of the quartet undoubtedly -proceeds from a source anterior to Franck, that of the counterpoint -of the sixteenth century to which d'Indy has reverted more and more -since his connection with the Schola. But it is combined with a -superstructure of personal and modernistic expression upon classical -and Franckian models in such a way as to achieve a notable beauty. If -the _Chanson et Danses_, op. 50 (1898), for wind instruments, is laid -out in small forms, its singular purity of style and its spontaneous -mastery of a difficult medium make it of greater weight than its scope -would indicate. - -D'Indy's instrumental masterpiece, the Symphony in B-flat, op. 57 -(1902-3), easily marks the summit of his achievement in this field. If, -from a technical standpoint, it surpasses anything hitherto attained -by its composer in logic and elasticity of form, subtle and compelling -development of themes from its generative phrases, clarity of style -despite its external complexity, its creative inventiveness, richness -of detail, profundity of sentiment and genial orchestration are of -equal magnitude. With the climax of the finale, a chorale derived from -a theme in the introduction to the first movement, d'Indy attains a -comprehensive sublimity that is not only unique in modern French music, -but which is difficult to find surpassed in the contemporary symphonic -literature of any nation. While the piano and violin sonata, op. 59 -(1903-4), by reason of its smaller dimensions, can scarcely be compared -with the symphony, the diversity and elasticity of its thematic -development (on three generative phrases) as well as the concrete -beauty of its substance make it one of the most distinguished examples -of its class since that by César Franck. - -_Jour d'été à la montagne_, op. 61 (1905), three movements for -orchestra, with an underlying thematic unification of introduction -and conclusion, after prose poems by Roger de Pampelonne, displays a -balance of greater homogeneity between constructive and descriptive -elements than any of d'Indy's programmistic works. The use of -plain-chant themes in the movement _Jour_,[54] with the subtitle -_Après-midi sous les pins_, and again in _Soir_, manifests not only a -felicitous emotional connotation, but an increasing desire to correlate -even the music of externals to spiritual sources. - -The poem _Souvenirs_ for orchestra, op. 62 (1906), an elegy on the -death of his wife, is not only profoundly elegiac in sentiment, but -attains an unusual poignancy through the quotation of the theme of the -Beloved from the earlier _Poème des Montagnes_. Both in _Jour d'été -à la montagne_ and in _Souvenirs_ d'Indy employs orchestral effects -ranging from delicate subtlety to extreme force in a manner so entirely -his own as to dispel forever the question of imitative features. - -D'Indy's latest instrumental work, a piano sonata, op. 63 (1907), is -more happy in its formal constructive unity than in a euphonious or -natively idiomatic piano style. Its variations are hardly convincing -music despite their technical skill; the scherzo has brilliant pages -but too much of its thematic material is indifferent. The finale -suffers for the same reason up to the climax and close, where the theme -of the variations (first movement) and that of the finale are brought -together with consummate contrapuntal perception. - -To summarize, d'Indy as an instrumental composer has with sure and -increasing power fused the methods of Franck, with early contrapuntal -elements, and his own individualistic sentiment into music which -presents the strongest achievement in this direction since that of his -master. If d'Indy is sometimes dry or over-complex, his best works show -a blending of the intellectual with the emotional which constitutes a -persuasive bid for their durability. From a conservative standpoint -it is impossible to imagine an abler unification of elements that -tend to be disparate or antagonistic. As a master of the orchestra -he can still hold his own against ultra-modern developments although -he is relatively conservative in the forces he employs. If his piano -music, including the _Helvetia Waltzes_ (1882), the _Schumanniana_ -(1887), the _Tableaux de Voyage_ (1889) and other pieces are, by -comparison with others of his works, insignificant, the cantata _Sainte -Marie-Magdelène_ (1885), the chorus for women's voices _Sur la Mer_ -(1888), the imaginative song _Lied Maritime_ (1896) are conspicuous -instances in a somewhat neglected field. - -D'Indy's development as a dramatic composer follows a natural path -of evolution. Despite the success of the 'Wallenstein Trilogy,' the -largeness of conception and the pregnant details of _Le Chant de la -Cloche_ op. 18 (1879-83), for solos, chorus and orchestra, text by -the composer after Schiller's poem, although preceded by the dramatic -experiments of _La Chevauchée du Cid_, op. 11 (1879), scene for -baritone, chorus and orchestra; _Clair de Lune_, op. 13 (1872-81), -dramatic study for soprano and orchestra, and _Attendez-moi sous -l'orme_, op. 14 (1882), opéra comique in one act, came as a complete -surprise. Even if d'Indy had obviously applied Wagner's dramatic -procedures, with modifications, to a choral work, the variety and power -of expression, the firm treatment of the whole, and the superb use of a -large orchestra astounded musicians and public alike. If the influence -of both Franck and Wagner could be discerned in the scenes of 'Baptism' -and 'Love,' the assertive personality evident in the scenes 'Vision' -and 'Conflagration' was entirely original, and the dramatic strokes in -'Death,' especially the telling use of portions of the Catholic service -for the dead in vigorous modal harmonization, bespoke a composer of -tragic intensity of imagination. - -Another surprise came several years later, in 1897, when _Fervaal_, -op. 40 (1889-95), an opera in three acts, text by the composer, had -its _première_ at the _Théâtre de la Monnaie_ in Brussels. For a -time the numerous and comprehensive Wagnerian obligations obscured -the real qualities of the work, and prevented a judicial opinion. -Resemblances were too many; a legendary subject, a hero who combined -characteristics of Siegfried and Parsifal, a heroine partly compounded -of Brünnhilde and Kundry, the renunciation of love as in the 'Ring' -and many others. D'Indy furthermore boldly adopted the systematic use -of leading-motives, and system of orchestration frankly modelled on -Wagner. But though _Fervaal_ was assimilative in underlying treatment, -it was far less experimental than Chabrier's _Gwendoline_. It greatly -surpassed the older work not only in thorough absorption of technical -method, in continuity and flexibility of style, but in appropriate -dramatic characterization, and in adroit manipulation of the orchestral -forces. Furthermore, in the essence of the subject dealing with the -passing of Pagan mythology, with redemption through suffering, and the -outcome a new religious faith whose key-note was the love of humanity, -d'Indy achieved a dramatic elevation whose moral force indicated an -innovation in French operatic subjects. Its source was ultimately -Teutonic, but its realization was concretely Gallic. Despite the -manifest obligations, _Fervaal_ not only shows a technical and dramatic -skill of a high order, but a tragic note of distinctive individuality. -The symbolic use of the ancient hymn _Pange Lingua_ as typifying the -Christian religion was not only a genuine dramatic inspiration but a -salient instance of effective connotation. With the revival in 1912 at -the Paris _Opéra_, when Wagnerianism was no longer an issue,[55] the -intrinsic qualities of _Fervaal_ were appreciated more on their own -merits. The incidental music to Catulle Mendès' drama _Medée_, op. 47 -(1898), showed afresh d'Indy's ability in dramatic characterization, as -well as his faculty for realizing noble and tragic conceptions. - -With the opera _L'Étranger_, op. 53 (1898-1901), d'Indy made a notable -progress in dramatic independence at the cost of unequal musical -invention. In the drama (text again by d'Indy) is to be found a -conflict between the realistic and the symbolical which was confusing -and prejudicial to the success of the opera. In addition the symbolism -was not always intelligible or convincing. If there were moral -nobility in the drama in the personality of the unselfish Stranger -whose devotion to humanity was misunderstood or sneered at until he -gave his life in an attempt to relieve ship-wrecked sailors, many of -the scenes were somewhat obscure in import. D'Indy also resorted to -musical symbolism in the use of a liturgic melody from the office of -Holy Thursday, with the text _Ubi caritas et amor, ibi Deus est_ as a -thematic basis for the entire work. While this induces an atmosphere -of indubitable spiritual and moral elevation in the opera, there are -many scenes, especially in the first act, in which d'Indy's dramatic -perceptions seem to have deserted him. At the end of the first act, -and in the final scene more especially, d'Indy has written music -of unparalleled dramatic intensity. In his orchestral style he has -virtually renounced Wagner, and its personal eloquence is exceedingly -powerful. - -The evolution of d'Indy as a dramatic composer forms an epitome of -the development of French music along dramatic lines. First slightly -irresolute, then acknowledging almost too sweepingly the glamour -and originality of Wagner, a nationalistic sentiment has led to the -repudiation of his potent influence, and the gradual attainment of -dramatic freedom. In a movement whose most characteristic works are -_Gwendoline_, _Esclarmonde_, _Fervaal_, and _L'Étranger_ we are -compelled to pause at the moment of genuine transition, and defer -the completion of this list until later. Report has it that d'Indy -has finished the composition of another dramatic work, _La Légende -de Saint-Christophe_ (1907-14), which should prove the strongest -instance of his unification of the dramatic and spiritual. D'Indy's -art has tended more and more to concern itself with religious life and -sentiment, and in his unselfish character he is peculiarly qualified to -treat such subjects. - -With the consideration of d'Indy as an instrumental and dramatic -composer, one has traversed the most significant of his works. In -addition one must reiterate his services to the Société Nationale, -the years of laborious devotion at the Schola and his not infrequent -appearances as conductor of programs of French music including a -visit to the United States in 1905. Besides, his work as editor and -author completes roughly the sum total of his influence. With the -reconstitutions of Monteverdi's _Orfeo_ and _L'Incoronazione di -Poppea_, revisions of Rameau's _Dardanus_, _Hippolyte et Aricie_ -and _Zaïs_, and many other arrangements, the authorship (with the -collaboration of Auguste Sérieyx) of the _Cours de Composition_ in two -volumes (incomplete as yet) compiled from Schola lectures and showing -an extraordinarily comprehensive erudition, the biographies of César -Franck and Beethoven, not to mention a host of articles and addresses -or lectures, one is able to sense the versatility and the solidity of -d'Indy's achievements. It is easy to visualize the debt owed him by -French music. In the first place he has steadily been a _conserver_ -from the technical standpoint. Using the sixteenth-century counterpoint -as a point of departure, he has been innovative harmonically even -to the point of prefiguring the whole-tone scale. Using with fluent -adaptability the time-honored canon, fugue, passacaglia, chorale, -variation and sonata forms, he has been faithful fundamentally to -their classic essence, while clothing them in a musical idiom which is -definitely modern. While d'Indy is out of sympathy with atmospheric or -futuristic tendencies in the music of to-day, he is not of an invital -arch-conservative type. As a disciple of Franck he believes in the -'liberty that comes from perfect obedience to the law,' though his -speech is permeated with individual eloquence. No more comprehensively -eminent figure exists in French music to-day. Others may have shown -fresh paths, but they lack the totality of attainment which is -eminently characteristic of d'Indy. - - - IV - -After d'Indy, the other representative pupils of Franck have, with the -exception of Guy Ropartz, had their careers cut short by premature -death or illness. Nevertheless their accomplishment is far from being -negligible, and adds lustre not only to the fame of their master but a -very specific credit to French music. - -Of these the most gifted was Ernest Chausson, born at Paris in 1855, -who did not begin the serious study of music until after obtaining his -bachelor's degree at law. Entering Massenet's composition class at -the Paris _Conservatoire_ in 1880, he tried for the prix de Rome in -the following year and failed. He accordingly left the conservatory -and worked arduously with César Franck until 1883. Chausson was a man -of considerable property, who could thus afford to compose. A man -of cultivation and polish, a gracious host and an amiable comrade -in society, he was in secret almost obsessed by melancholy, lack of -self-confidence despite his affectionate, lovable and gentle nature. -He was retiring where his own interests were concerned, made no effort -to push his works, and in consequence was not sought by managers. -Possessing unusual discernment in literature and painting, he had a -fine library, and a distinguished collection of paintings by Delacroix, -Dégas, Lerolle, Besnard and Carrière. Thus like Chabrier before him and -Debussy after him, Chausson's sympathies were keen in more than one -branch of art. Chausson was eager to advance the cause of the Société -Nationale and labored as its secretary for nearly a dozen years. His -music was played at its concerts and elsewhere, and began to make its -way. Chausson was just entering a new creative phase with greater -self-confidence, assertion and technical preparedness. At work on a -string quartet at his summer place Chimay, he went to refresh himself -one afternoon with a bicycle ride, and was found by the roadside, his -head crushed against a wall. - -Chausson's music reflects his temperament with mirror-like -responsiveness. With perhaps more native gifts than d'Indy, he lacked -the latter's force of character and his passionate ambition for -self-development. For long tormented by indecision as to whether to -make music his profession or not, his technical facility was uncertain, -and not always equal to the tasks he imposed upon it. Like d'Indy he -was influenced both by Franck and Wagner. But he had a melodic vein -that was his own, a personal harmonic idiom, expressed in music of -poetic and delicately-colored romanticism. Perhaps the most prominent -trait in his music is the indefinably affectionate sensibility of its -emotion. - -Chausson began as a composer of chamber music and songs. He soon -entered the orchestral field with a prelude 'The Death of Coelio,' -the symphonic poem _Viviane_, op. 5 (1882), and _Solitude dans les -bois_ (1886), later destroyed. If _Viviane_ shows the insecure hand of -the apprentice, its technical insecurity is more than counterbalanced -by the exquisite poetry and romance which breathe from its pages. -Chausson's orchestral masterpiece is his symphony in B-flat, op. 20 -(1890), whose conception is noble and dignified, whose themes are -mature and full of sentiment, and which has many eloquent pages. Though -the work is deficient in rhythmic variety and flexibility of phrase, -its underlying substance is too elevated to permit depreciation. Its -orchestral style, despite Wagnerian obligations, shows a distinguished -coloristic sense even in comparison with the unusual orchestral style -of d'Indy. Despite certain defects, a _Concert_ for piano, violin -and string quartet, op. 21 (1890-91), a _Poème_, op. 25 (1896), for -violin and orchestra, frequently played by Ysaye, a piano quartet, op. -30 (1897), and the unfinished string quartet bespeak the talent and -promise of achievement which was never to be fulfilled. In the dramatic -field, Chausson composed incidental music for performances at Bouchor's -Marionette theatre of Shakespeare's _Tempest_, and Bouchor's _Legend of -St. Cecilia_, a lyric drama _Hélène_ (unpublished) and an opera, _Le -Roi Arthus_ (text by himself), performed at Brussels in the _Théâtre de -la Monnaie_ in 1903. That Chausson had dramatic instinct is especially -evident in _Le Roi Arthus_, but there is immaturity in dramatic -technique as well as a too lyrical treatment which detracts from the -romantic atmosphere and imaginative conception of the whole. Among the -songs, 'The Caravan,' 'Poem of Love' and 'The Sea' and the well-nigh -perfect _Chanson perpétuelle_ for voice and orchestra show Chausson's -lyric gift at its best. - -Chausson remains a figure of importance, even if much of his work -suggests the possibilities of the future rather than claims a final -judgment on its own account. _Viviane_, the _Poème_ for violin, the -piano quartet, the _Chanson perpétuelle_ and above all the Symphony -will survive their technical flaws on account of their individualistic -expression of noble thoughts and fastidiously poetic emotion. - -Henri Duparc, born at Paris in 1848, studied law as did d'Indy and -Chausson. One of the earliest pupils of César Franck, he was also one -of the first Frenchmen to recognize Wagner, and made journeys with -Chabrier and d'Indy to hear his works in Germany. From 1869, Duparc -composed piano pieces, songs, chamber music and works for orchestra. -A merciless critic of his own music, he has destroyed several works, -including a sonata for violoncello and piano, and two orchestral -studies. Since 1885 Duparc's career as a composer has been closed owing -to persistent ill health. He is known by a symphonic poem _Lénore_ -(1875) after the ballad by Bürger, and something more than a dozen -songs. The symphonic poem is interesting if not remarkable, but the -songs reveal the born lyricist. Through thirty years of silence, -the vitality of some of these persists, especially _L'Invitation au -voyage_, _Ecstase_, _Lamento_, and _Phydilé_, as possessing distinctive -qualities which place them in the front rank of French lyrics. - -Guillaume Lekeu (1870-94), another tragically unfulfilled artist of -Belgian descent, played the violin at fourteen, studied the music of -Bach, Beethoven and Wagner by himself, and at the age of nineteen had -an orchestral piece, _Le Chant de triomphale délivrance_, performed -at Verviers, 'without having had a single lesson in composition.'[56] -From 1888 he lived in Paris, where he obtained his bachelor's degree -in philosophy. He became a friend of the poet Mallarmé, at whose -gatherings of poets, painters and philosophers Claude Debussy -found such illuminating inspiration. Lekeu completed the study of -harmony with Gaston Vallin, a pupil of Franck, and soon came under -the influence of Franck himself. After Franck's death, he continued -composition lessons with d'Indy. D'Indy urged Lekeu, as a native -Belgian, to compete for the Belgian _prix de Rome_. In 1891 he obtained -the second prize with a cantata _Andromède_. Its performance later -was so successful as to question the decision of the judges. In 1892 -Lekeu wrote the sonata for piano and violin, which was frequently -played by Ysaye. In the same year he finished a _Fantasie symphonique_ -on two folk-tunes of Angers. While working at a piano quartet, Lekeu -died suddenly in 1894 from a relapse after typhoid fever. Despite the -contrary indications in his music, Lekeu was of a gay, outgoing nature, -full of spontaneity and exuberance. - - -Besides the works mentioned he left songs, a piano sonata, chamber -music and orchestral pieces, among them symphonic studies on 'Hamlet' -and 'Faust' (second part). It is perhaps inevitable that much of his -music should be immature, but the sonata for piano and violin and the -piano quartet show indisputable gifts of a very high order, in which -melodic inspiration, frank harmonic experiments (some of them more -felicitous than others), an original and thoughtful kind of beauty, and -strong delineation of tragic moods are the most salient qualities. - -Alexis de Castillon (1838-73) showed early aptitude for music, but was -educated for the army in deference to the wishes of his family. After -leaving the military school of Saint-Cyr, he became a cavalry officer. -But the impulse toward music was too strong and after several years he -resigned from the army. He had studied music in a desultory fashion -before, and now turned to Victor Massé (the composer of a popular -operetta, _Les Noces de Jeannette_). From him he learned little or -nothing. In 1868 Duparc introduced de Castillon to César Franck, who -gladly received him as a pupil. De Castillon served valiantly during -the Franco-Prussian war and then returned to his chosen profession -only to die two years later, leaving piano pieces, songs, some half -a dozen chamber works including the piano and violin sonata op. 6, a -concerto for piano, orchestral pieces, and a setting of the 84th Psalm. -By reason of the vicissitudes of his life, de Castillon was never able -to do justice to his gifts. The sonata, a string quartet, and a piano -quartet, op. 7, show a native predisposition for chamber music, which -assuredly would have ripened had the composer's life been spared. -At his funeral were assembled Bizet, Franck, Lalo, Duparc, d'Indy, -Massenet, Saint-Saëns, and others who had 'loved the artist and the -man.'[57] Impressed by this assemblage one of de Castillon's relatives -remarked: 'Then he really had talent!'[58] - -Charles Bordes (1865-1905) should receive some mention, not only -for his piano pieces, songs, sacred music, and orchestral works, -but for innumerable transcriptions and arrangements of folk-songs, -cantatas, vocal pieces by various French composers, and his anthology -of religious music of the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries. -Furthermore his organization of the _Chanteurs de Saint Gervais_ gave a -decided impulse toward the revival of sacred music, and his labors at -the _Schola_ in Paris and the branch established at Montpellier give -evidence of his untiring devotion to the cause of art. - -In contrast to the pathetic incompleteness of the careers of Chausson, -Lekeu, de Castillon, and Bordes, Guy Ropartz has been enabled by reason -of his long activity to round out his talent. Joseph-Guy-Marie Ropartz -was born at Guincamp in the north of France in 1864. After completing -his general education he graduated from the law school at Rennes and -was admitted to the bar. Then, like d'Indy and Chausson, he gave up law -for music, entered the Paris _Conservatoire_, where he studied with -Dubois and Massenet. In 1887 he left the _Conservatoire_ to be a pupil -of Franck. In 1894 he became director of the conservatory at Nancy, a -position which he still holds. - -Ropartz has been an industrious composer, and among his works are -incidental music for four dramas, including Pierre Loti's and Louis -Tiercelius' drama _Pêcheur d'Islande_; a music drama, _Le Pays_; -four symphonies; a fantasia; a symphonic study, _La Chasse du Prince -Arthur_; several suites for orchestra; two string quartets; a sonata -for violoncello and piano, and one for violin and piano; many songs and -vocal pieces including a setting of the 137th Psalm. - -Following the principles of Franck, he tends toward cyclical forms -on generative themes, and in addition employs Breton folk-songs -in orchestral and dramatic works. The symphony in C major, by its -treatment of a generative phrase, emphasizes his fidelity to his -master, but despite effective and transparent orchestration the work is -lacking in strong individuality and in inherent logic and continuity -in development. The sonatas for violin and for violoncello with piano -display adequate workmanship and conception of style but do not possess -concrete musical persuasiveness. Ropartz appears in the most favorable -light when his music gives free utterance to nationalistic sentiment -and 'local color.' His Breton suite and the Fantasia have a rustic -piquancy and rhythmic verve which give evidence of sincere conviction. - -_Le Pays_ is said by no less an authority than Professor Henri -Lichtenberger to belong to 'the little group of works which, like -_Pelléas et Mélisande_ of Debussy, _Ariane et Barbe-bleue_ of Dukas, -_Le Cœur du Moulin_ of Déodat de Séverac, _L'Heure espagnole_ of -Ravel, have distinct value and significance in the evolution of our -French art.'[59] But a study of the music does not entirely bear -this out. Ropartz shows in this music drama an obvious gift for the -stage, and his music clearly heightens the dramatic situations. In its -freedom from outside influence it undoubtedly possesses historical -significance, but in compelling originality it does not maintain the -level of the works mentioned above. - -The foregoing pupils of Franck are those who have best illustrated the -didactic standpoint of their revered master, both as regards technical -treatment and uncompromising self-expression. Of these d'Indy is -incomparably the most distinguished by virtue of the continuity of his -development, the intrinsic message of his music, and his remarkable -faculty for organization in educative propaganda. If Chausson, -Lekeu, and Bordes were prevented from reaping the just rewards to -which their gifts entitled them, they attained not only enough for -self-justification but have left a definite imprint on the course of -modern French music. - -In conclusion, though Franck's pupils are not iconoclastic, though -they seem ultra-reactionary in some respects, their united efforts -have preserved intact the traditions of one of the noblest figures in -French music, and in their works is to be found music of such lofty -conception, admirable technical execution, and fearless expression of -personality as to make the task of disparagement futile and ungrateful. -Moreover, this influence has not ceased with the actual pupils of -Franck. The names and works of Magnard,[60] Roussel, de Séverac and -Samazeuilh attest the fact that the Franckian tradition is still a -living force. - -While Emmanuel Chabrier and Gabriel Fauré showed the way for new -vitality in musical expression and the pupils of Franck demonstrated -that the resources of conservatism were not yet exhausted, new -movements were also on foot which may be classified as belonging to -the 'impressionistic or atmospheric' school. A consideration of this -movement, together with some unclassifiable figures and an indication -of the work of some younger men, will follow in the next chapter. - - E. B. H. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[44] Vincent d'Indy: _César Franck_, pp. 82 _et seq._ - -[45] Romain Rolland: _Musiciens d'aujourd'hui_, pp. 230 _et seq._ - -[46] Octave Séré: _Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui_, p. 83. - -[47] Ibid., p. 83. - -[48] S. I. M., April 15, 1911. - -[49] Vincent d'Indy: _César Franck_. - -[50] Autobiographical Sketch in 'The Music-Lover's Calendar,' Boston, -1905. - -[51] Charles Bordes founded the _Chanteurs de St. Gervaise_ in 1892 to -perform sixteenth-century music, and more worthy later choral works. -Including the study of plain-chant, better standards in modern church -music, and higher requirements in organists, this association became -the _Schola Cantorum_ in 1894. As a school it was incorporated as above. - -[52] The theme of the Beloved, employed in the orchestral poem -_Souvenirs_, op. 62. - -[53] From the Cévennes region. - -[54] Melody employed in the service proper to the Feast of the -Assumption. - -[55] '_On accuse les compositeurs de debussysme, on ne leur reproche -plus d'être wagnériens._'--Preface to 2nd edition, _Fervaal, Étude -thématique_, by Pierre de Bréville and Henri Laubers Villars. - -[56] Octave Séré: _Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui_, p. 272. - -[57] Louis Gallet: _Notes d'un Librettist_, quoted by Octave Séré in -_Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui_, p. 73. - -[58] Ibid. - -[59] Lowell Institute Lecture, Jan. 7, 1915. Reported in the 'Boston -Transcript.' - -[60] Magnard died in September, 1914, somewhat quixotically defending -his cause against the Germans. - - - - - CHAPTER X - DEBUSSY AND THE ULTRA-MODERNISTS - - Impressionism in Music--Claude Debussy, the pioneer of - the 'atmospheric' school; his career, his works and his - influence--Maurice Ravel, his life and work--Alfred Bruneau; - Gustave Charpentier--Paul Dukas--Miscellany; Albert Roussel and - Florent Schmitt. - - -The trend of ultra-modern French music has been so swift in its -development that the significant episodes crowd upon one another's -heels when they do not stride along side by side. Within a year or two -after the death of César Franck and Edouard Lalo, while Saint-Saëns was -in the full tide of his ceaseless productivity, while Massenet, then -famed as the composer of _Manon_, was shortly to meditate his _Thaïs_ -and _La Navarraise_, while the irrepressible Chabrier was beginning -to pay the toll of his strenuous activity, while Fauré's songs had -already won recognition for their subtle mixtures of sensuousness and -mysticism, while d'Indy and Chausson were evolving their individuality -on the lines laid down by their revered master, there arose strikingly -new principles of musical expression, involving a new æsthetic -standpoint, an enlargement of harmonic resource, supplying a new and -vital idiom which is perhaps the most characteristically Gallic of -the ultra-modern movements centred in Paris. These principles have -crystallized into the impressionistic or 'atmospheric' school, whose -rise during the past fifteen or twenty years has been little short of -meteoric. - -The subject of parallelism between the arts with a definite interacting -influence is a fertile one for discussion. While but little space can -be devoted here to enlargement upon this topic, it may be observed -that with the advance of culture the intervening time before one art -reacts upon another becomes shorter. If the Renaissance was relatively -slow in affecting music, the revolutionary outbreaks of 1830 and -1848 were more nearly synchronous, while in the case of realism and -impressionism, the resulting confluence of principles was nearly -simultaneous. Fortunately the basic methods of impressionism in -painting and poetry are so well understood that no definition of their -purposes is needful beyond a reminder that they aim to subordinate -detail in favor of the effect as a whole. In music impressionism is -obtained by procedures analogous if markedly dissimilar from those -employed in painting. The results are alike in that both arts have -gained enormously in scope of subject as well as in greater brilliancy, -elusive poetry and human significance in their treatment. - - - I - -It is not too much to say that Claude Debussy may be considered as the -real originator of impressionism in music, although he did not begin -to compose in this manner. But Debussy's success has brought forth -a host of imitators in France, Russia, England, and even the United -States, while so essentially Teutonic a composer as Max Reger has -passed through a Debussian phase. Another composer who has contributed -to the development of impressionistic method is Maurice Ravel, and -he undoubtedly has derived much from Debussy. At the same time he -displays many original characteristics which have nothing in common -with Debussy, and hence he cannot be dismissed as a mere echo of the -older composer. Impressionism has become so essentially a part of -ultra-modern French musical evolution as to merit a clear exposition of -its claims and the achievements of its founders. - -Claude-Achille Debussy was born at St. Germain-en-Laye, not far from -Paris, August 22, 1862. His father was ambitious to make a sailor of -his son, but a certain Mme. Mautet, whose son was a brother-in-law -of Paul Verlaine, herself a pupil of Chopin, was so impressed by the -boy's piano playing that she prepared him for entrance into the Paris -Conservatory. He obtained medals in solfeggio and piano playing, but -was less fortunate in the harmony class. In the class of Émile Durand -the study of harmony resolved itself into an effort to discover the -'author's harmony' for a given bass or soprano, hampered by rules -'as arbitrary as those of bridge.'[61] Debussy also entered Franck's -organ class at the Conservatory, but here also he was at odds with -the master, whose urgings 'modulate, modulate!' during the pupil's -improvizations seemed too often without point. In 1879 Debussy -journeyed to Russia with Mme. Metch, the wife of a Russian railway -constructor, in the capacity of domestic pianist. He made slight -acquaintance with Balakireff, Borodine, and Rimsky-Korsakoff, but never -came across Moussorgsky, who was destined later to exercise so marked -an influence upon his dramatic methods. The dominant expression which -he brought back from Russia was that of the fantastic gypsy music, -whose rhapsodic and improvisatory character addressed itself readily -to his fancy. At last Debussy entered the composition class of Ernest -Guiraud, and here his ability quickly asserted itself. After a mention -in counterpoint and fugue in 1882, he obtained a second _prix de Rome_ -in 1885, and the first prize in the year following with the cantata -'The Prodigal Son,' entitling him to study in Rome at governmental -expense. - -From Rome Debussy sent back to the Institute, as required, a portion -of a setting of Heine's lyrical drama _Almanzor_, a suite for women's -voices and orchestra, 'Spring,' recently published in a revision -for orchestra alone; a setting of Rossetti's 'The Blessed Damozel' -for voices and orchestra (finished after his return to Paris), and -a fantasy for piano and orchestra which has never been published or -performed. - -On his return to Paris Debussy made the acquaintance of Moussorgsky's -_Boris Godounoff_ in the first edition, before the revisions and -alterations made by Rimsky-Korsakoff. This work was an immense -revelation of the possibilities of a simple yet poignant dramatic -style, and undoubtedly was fraught with suggestion to the future -composer of _Pelléas_. A visit to Bayreuth in 1889, where he heard -_Tristan_, _Parsifal_, and the _Meistersinger_, showed Wagner in a -new light to Debussy. But on repeating the trip in the following year -he returned disillusionized and henceforth Wagner ceased to exert any -influence whatever upon him. For some time at this period Debussy was -generously aided by the publisher Georges Hartmann, who had likewise -encouraged de Castillon and Massenet. During these years Debussy -composed many piano pieces and songs, among them the _Arabesques_ -(1888), the _Ballade_, _Danse_, _Mazurka_, _Reverie_, _Nocturne_, and -the _Suite Bergamasque_, all dating from 1890. These piano pieces -exhibit Debussy as a frankly melodic composer of indubitable refinement -and imagination, in a vein not far removed from that of Massenet, -although possessing more distinction and poetic sentiment. Among the -songs the early _Nuit d'étoiles_ (1876), _Fleur des blés_ (1878), and -_Beau Soir_ (1878) are experimental, the last of the three being the -most interesting. The 'Three Melodies' (1880), containing the songs -_La Belle au bois dormant_, _Voici que le Printemps_, and _Paysage -sentimental_, the _Ariettes oubliées_ (1888, but revised later) show a -marked progress in concreteness of mood and harmonic subtlety. Three -songs (1890) on texts by Verlaine, _L'Échelonnement des haies_, _La Mer -est plus belle_, and _Le Son du Cor s'afflige_, and the _Cinq poëmes -de Baudelaire_ (1890), show a further evolution of lyric delineation. -If the latter are unequal (_Le Balcon_ and _Le jet d'eau_ are the -most vital) they at least demonstrate an æsthetic ferment toward the -later Debussy. _Mandoline_ (also 1890) is also a direct premonition -of a maturer style. In confirmation of this steady evolution one must -recall that side by side with the palpable influence of Massenet in -the cantata 'The Prodigal Son' (especially in the prelude) and in the -second movement of the suite 'Spring' there were likewise harmonic -individualities and expressive sentiments in the first movement of the -suite, and in the delicately pre-Raphaelitic 'Blessed Damozel' which -presage the developments to come. - -However, the direct stimulus which guided Debussy in his search for -personal enfranchisement did not come from musical sources,[62] but -from association with poets, literary critics, and painters. From 1885 -onwards,[63] the symbolist poets Gustave Kahn, Pierre Louys, Francis -Vielé-Griffin, Stuart Merrill, Paul Verlaine, Henri de Regnier, the -painter Whistler, and many others were in the habit of meeting at the -house of Stéphane Mallarmé, the symbolist poet, for discussion on a -variety of æsthetic topics. The _Salon de la Rose-Croix_, formed by -French painters as an outcome of pre-Raphaelite influence, grew out -of these meetings. Verlaine and Mallarmé had founded the 'Wagnerian -Review' as a medium for exposition of the essential unity of all the -arts. As a result of these critical inquiries and debates, Debussy was -struck with the possibility of attempting to transfer impressionistic -and symbolistic theories into the domain of music. - -The first concrete instance of a deliberate embodiment of -impressionistic method is to be found in the exquisite 'Prelude to the -Afternoon of a Faun' (1882), founded on the poem by Mallarmé. Here -Debussy succeeded admirably in translating the vague symbolism of the -poem into music of languorous mood and ineffably delicate poetry. This -brief piece, novel and striking in both harmonic and expressive idiom, -marks a departure into a field of fertile consequence and far-reaching -import both intrinsically and historically. - -It was in the summer of 1892, also, that Debussy quite by chance came -across Maeterlinck's play _Pelléas et Mélisande_. Both the intensely -human elements in the drama and its sensitive symbolism made a strong -appeal to Debussy's newly awakened æsthetic instincts and, after -obtaining permission to utilize the play as an opera text, he at once -set to work upon it. For ten years Debussy labored upon _Pelléas_ with -a patient striving to realize in music its humanitarian sentiment, -its creative poetry and its tragedy. During these years of gradual -distillation of thought he attained slowly but surely the inimitable -style of his maturity. But in the meantime he composed also in various -other fields. - -Already the songs, _Fêtes galantes_ (1892), on Verlaine's poems showed -in their delicately impressionistic introspection that the 'Afternoon -of a Faun' was no casual experiment. Similarly, the _Proses Lyriques_ -(1893), although unequal, exhibit clearly, especially in the songs _De -Rêve_ and _De Grève_, a formulation of the whole-tone idiom, which was -later to become a characteristic feature of Debussy's style. A string -quartet (also 1893) was, by virtue of its inevitable restriction, a -momentary abandonment of the impressionistic ideal, but within these -limitations Debussy achieved an astonishing individuality, charm -of mood, and clearcut workmanship, particularly in the thoughtful, -slow movement and the piquant scherzo. In 1898 he returned to the -impressionistic vein with three _Chansons de Bilitis_ from the -like-named volume of poems by Pierre Louys. The naïveté, humor, and -penetrating poetry of these lyrics were akin to the imaginative vein -of the _Fêtes galantes_. - -In the following year Debussy gave a larger affirmation of his -impressionistic creed with the Nocturnes for orchestra entitled -'Clouds,' 'Festivals,' and 'Sirens' (the latter with a chorus of -women's voices). These pieces, although avowedly programmistic, -do not attempt realistic tone-painting, but aim rather to suggest -impressionistic moods growing out of their titles. The slow procession -of clouds, the dazzling intermingling of groups of revellers, the -elusive seduction of imaginary sirens are pictured with an atmospheric -verity that far transcends the possibilities of realistic standpoint. -Musically the Nocturnes are distinguished by their intrinsic potency -of expression, their basic formal coherence and logic of development, -their concreteness of mood, and their picturesqueness of detail. The -use of a chorus of women's voices, vocalizing without text, a feature -already employed in 'Spring,' was not original to Debussy, for Berlioz -had already employed it in his highly dramatic but little known Funeral -March for the last scene of 'Hamlet' (1848). But Debussy's highly -coloristic and ingenious application of the medium greatly enhances the -pervasive poetry of this Nocturne, and transforms it into a virtual -novelty. Not the least interesting harmonic consideration of this piece -is the use, with some definite system, of the whole-tone scale, which -Debussy later exploited so remarkably, and of which up to this time -only transient suggestions had appeared. - -During his long contemplative absorption in _Pelléas_ Debussy had not -entirely neglected composition for the piano. A _Marche écossaise_ -'on a popular theme' ('The Earl of Ross's March') for four hands -(1891, orchestrated in 1908) is piquant and vivacious without being -particularly characteristic. A 'Little Suite' for the same combination -(1894), if somewhat slight musically, is pleasing for its clarity -and simple directness. In 1901, however, Debussy showed a far more -definite originality, both pianistically and harmonically, in a set of -three pieces entitled _Pour le Piano_, with the subtitles 'Prelude,' -'Sarabande' and 'Toccata.' If the prelude suggests something of the -style of Bach, if the Sarabande is to a certain extent a modernization -of the gravity of Rameau, and the toccata bears a resemblance in its -fiery impulsiveness to Domenico Scarlatti, these pieces are none the -less positively characteristic of Debussy in their fundamentals. The -frank use of the whole-tone scale in the prelude, the harmonic boldness -of the sarabande with its sequences of sevenths, and the ingenious -piano figures in the toccata are the external evidences of a basically -individual conception. If these pieces do not display the impressionism -that is indigenous to the later Debussy, they represent a transition -stage of far from negligible interest. - -With the performances in 1902 of _Pelléas et Mélisande_ at the Opéra -Comique Debussy attained an immediate and definite renown. There was -abundance of opposition, disparagement, and ill-natured criticism, -but the work was too obviously significant to be downed by it. To -begin with it was epoch-making in the annals of French dramatic art -in that it marked a complete enfranchisement from the influence of -Wagner. Debussy had been censured for saying that melody in the voice -parts (that is, _formal_ melody) was 'anti-dramatic,' but his by no -means unmelodic recitative with its fastidious attention to finesse -of declamation justified the restriction of the melodic element to -the orchestra. If the dramatic style of _Pelléas_, in its economy of -musical emphasis, was directly modelled upon Moussorgsky's _Boris_, -the evolution of this idea in which the orchestra throughout, with -the exception of a few climaxes, maintained a transparent delicacy -of sonority, established a new conception of dramatic style as well -as new resources in sensibility of timbre. Harmonically, _Pelléas_ -shows both a surprising unity (considering that it occupied Debussy -for ten years at a transitional phase of his career) and a remarkable -extension of devices scarcely more than hinted at in his earlier -works. It is difficult to formulate these innovations briefly, but -they may be grouped under three general headings. First, an æsthetic -abrogation of certain conventional harmonic procedures; the free use -of consecutive fifths and octaves, sequences of seventh chords (in -which Fauré definitely anticipated Debussy), and of ninths. In these -seemingly anarchistic over-rulings of tradition Debussy was guided by -a sure and hyper-sensitive instinct. Second, the employment of modal -harmonization, sometimes strict but more often free, with a singularly -felicitous dramatic connotation. Third, the development of a logical -manner founded on the whole-tone scale. Debussy cannot claim that he -originated the whole-tone scale, since it was used by Dargomijsky in -the third act of 'The Stone Guest' (1869), by various neo-Russians, -notably Rimsky-Korsakoff, by Chabrier, Fauré, and d'Indy (in the second -act of _Fervaal_); nevertheless he can be said to have made this -idiom his own by his flexible and discriminating manipulation of its -resources. Debussy does not employ the whole-tone scale as monotonously -as is often supposed. On the contrary, one of the marked features of -his harmonic style is its resourceful variety. - -Debussy's use of motives constitutes the very antipodes of Wagner's -somewhat cumbrous symphonic development of them. If at first Debussy's -treatment seems too fluid and lacking in continuity, a closer study -of the score (especially in the orchestral version) will reveal not -only a flexible adaptation of motives to the dramatic situations, -but a logical and constructive development often with considerable -contrapuntal dexterity. Furthermore, a formal coherence is maintained -without the artifices of symphonic development. - -But the import of _Pelléas_ does not consist merely in the historical -or technical value of its innovating features, although this is patent. -It resides primarily in the basic poignancy with which the music -illustrates and reinforces the touching drama by Maeterlinck, as well -as its intrinsic surpassing beauty and poetic thrall. It is because -Debussy has characterized the innocent, gentle Mélisande, the ardent -Pelléas, Golaud haggard with jealousy, the childlike carelessness of -Yniold during a questioning of such import to his father, with such -searching fidelity to the creations of the poet that we find music and -drama in accord to an extent seldom witnessed in the history of opera. -It is because Debussy has brought such freshness of musical invention -and profound aptness of interpretation in such scenes as the discovery -of Mélisande by Golaud, the questioning end of Act I, the animated -scene between Pelléas and Mélisande in Act II, their long love scene in -Act III, the dramatic duet at the end of Act IV, and the death scene -of Mélisande in Act V, that this opera occupies a unique position. -The characterization of the forest, of the subterranean vaults of the -château, of the remorse of Golaud after his deed of vengeance, and the -purifying majesty of death show Debussy as a poet and dramatist of -indisputable mastery. Indeed, it is not too much to say that _Pelléas -et Mélisande_ occupies a position in modern French music akin to that -of _Tristan und Isolde_ in German dramatic literature. - -After _Pelléas_, Debussy turned again to the impressionistic style -in piano pieces and orchestral works of progressive evolution. With -the 'Engravings' for piano (1903) containing 'Pagodas,' 'Evening in -Grenada,' 'Gardens in the Rain,' he continued the impressionistic -method of 'The Afternoon of a Faun' with an amplified harmonic and -expressive idiom. 'Pagodas,' founded on the Cambodian scale, and -the Spanish suggestions in 'Evening in Grenada' are characteristic -instances of the French taste for exoticism; 'Gardens in the Rain' -is founded upon an old French folk-song which Debussy used later in -the orchestral _Image, Rondes de Printemps_. All three are markedly -individual, and display the poetic insight of Debussy tempered by -discretion. 'Masks' and 'The Joyous Isle' (both 1904) contain alike -fantastic exuberance and an increasingly personal pianistic and -harmonic style. The latter in particular contains a homogeneity of -thematic development supposedly incompatible with an impressionistic -method. Two sets of _Images_ (1905 and 1907) make still greater -demands upon the impressionistic capacity of the listener, sometimes -at the expense of concrete musical inventiveness, but those entitled -'Reflections in the Water' and 'Goldfishes' offer no diminution of -imaginative vitality. 'The Children's Corner' (1908), a collection -of miniatures, are sketches of poetic appeal, though relatively -slight. The final number, 'Golliwog's Cakewalk,' is a fascinating -French version of ragtime style. Mr. André Caplet has orchestrated -these pieces with sensitive taste. Two series of 'Preludes' (1911 and -1913) exhibit both the virtues and defects of Debussy's piano music. -In some the piano is scarcely equal to the impressionistic demands -made upon it, others touch the high-water mark of Debussy's versatile -invention. In the first set, 'Veils,' 'The Wind in the Plain,' 'The -Enveloped Cathedral' are felicitously impressionistic; the 'Sounds and -Perfumes Turn in the Evening Air,' 'The Girl with Flaxen Hair' are -lyrically atmospheric, while in 'Minstrels' is to be found another -inimitably humorous transcription of ragtime idiom. In the second set, -_La Puerta del Vino_ is an imaginatively exotic Habañera; _La terrasse -des audiences des clair de lune_ is of rarefied emotional atmosphere; -'The Fairies are Exquisite Dancers' and _Ondine_ are brilliant bits -of delicate fancy; 'General Lavine--Eccentric' is another witty -adaptation of rag-time in the Debussian manner. 'Fireworks,' a -brilliantly impressionistic study ending with a distant refrain of -the _Marseillaise_ in a key other than that of the bass, approaches -realism, a final climax, before the above-mentioned refrain, consisting -of a double glissando on the black and white keys simultaneously. -'Fireworks' is also notable for a cadenza which is not in Debussy's -harmonic style, and which closely resembles cadenzas characteristic of -Maurice Ravel. But, with the historic precedent of Haydn in his old -age learning of Mozart in orchestral procedure, one must not deny the -same privilege to Debussy. This detail is not without its piquant side, -because Ravel has been unjustly reproached for too many 'obligations' -to Debussy. - -In the meantime Debussy has published several sets of songs entitled -to mention. A second collection of _Fêtes galantes_ (1904) shows a -slight falling off in spontaneity, but _Le Faune_ is imaginative and -felicitously inventive, and in the _Colloque sentimental_ an ingenious -quotation is made from an accompaniment figure of _En Sourdine_ in the -first collection, justifiable not only on account of the sentiments -of the text in the second song, but for the reminiscent alteration -of the original harmonies. A charming song, _Le Jardin_ (presumably -1905), from a collection of settings by various French composers of -poems by Paul Gravollet, having a delightful running accompaniment -over a measured declamation of the text, must be regarded as one of -Debussy's best. With some departure from his usual choice of texts, -Debussy has successfully set three _Ballades_ (1910) by François -Villon, reproducing with uncommon picturesqueness the archaic flavor of -the poem. The same year witnessed the publication of _Le Promenoir des -amants_ on poems by Tristan Lhermitte, whose delicate poetic style is -more characteristic of his established individuality. Of the 'Three -Poems by Mallarmé' (1913) one must admit an exquisite but somewhat -tenuous musical sentiment, not entirely free from the 'polyharmonic' -influence now current in Paris. - -Among Debussy's vocal works, especial stress should be laid on the -spontaneous and spirited settings for unaccompanied mixed chorus of the -_Trois Chansons_ of Charles d'Orléans (1908). Here Debussy has caught -the spirit of these fifteenth-century poems most aptly, and yet has -not departed essentially from his own individuality. It is incredible -that these choruses are not better known, and that they are not in the -repertory of more choral societies. - -In the meantime it is not to be supposed that Debussy had relinquished -orchestral composition since his success with _Pelléas et Mélisande_. -In 1904 he wrote two dances, _Danse profane_ and _Danse sacrée_, -for the newly invented chromatic harp with accompaniment of string -orchestra. These pieces are pleasingly archaic in character and yet -not unduly so, illustrating an unusual capacity in Debussy's inventive -imagination. 'The Sea,' three symphonic sketches for orchestra -(1903-1905), produced in 1905, cannot be considered entirely successful -in spite of many remarkable qualities. Here Debussy has attempted a -subject which has proved disillusionizing for many composers, and -one which is perhaps beyond the scope of his imagination. There are -picturesque and beautiful episodes in the first movement, particularly -the last pages, but the effect of the movement as a whole is -disjointed. The second movement, _Jeux des Vagues_, is thoroughly -charming in its fanciful delineation of its title, and possesses -more continuity of development. The third movement, again, is less -satisfactory, although the climax is stirringly triumphant. In 1909 -Debussy published three _Images_ for orchestra: _Gigues_ (not published -until 1913, although announced with the others), _Ibéria_, and _Rondes -de Printemps_. _Gigues_ is a slight if charming piece, with vivacious -rhythms and no little originality of orchestral effect; _Rondes de -Printemps_ is a fantastic and sensitive impressionistic sketch, founded -upon the same folk-song which Debussy employed in 'Gardens in the Rain' -from the 'Engravings,' here treated with the contrapuntal resources of -imitation and augmentation. If an episode in the middle of the piece is -less vital both in invention and treatment, the effect of the whole is -full of poetry, especially at the climax where the strings divided have -a sequence of inverted chords of the eleventh descending diatonically -with magical effect. But the most significant by far of these _Images_ -is _Ibéria_ (the ancient name for Spain), in which Debussy has given -free play to his exotic imagination and his faculty for impressionistic -treatment. Like Chabrier's _España_, Debussy's _Ibéria_ is still Spain -seen through a Frenchman's eyes, but with an enormous temperamental -difference in vision. In the first section, 'Through the Streets and -Byways,' Debussy has never shown more fantastic brilliance and vivid, -almost garish, interplay of color. In the second portion, 'The Perfumes -of Night,' he has never exceeded its poignant atmosphere of surcharged -sensibility. A theme for divided violas and violoncellos recalls the -emotional heights of _Pelléas_. The last movement, 'Morning on a Fête -Day,' shows an impressionism intensified almost to realism. As a whole -_Ibéria_ is perhaps the most satisfying example of Debussy's mature -method, in which we find an undiminished vitality of imagination -combined with irreproachable workmanship. Debussy's orchestral style, -while difficult to adjust satisfactorily, is full of delicate and -brilliant coloristic effects side by side. - -In 1911 Debussy wrote incidental music for Gabriel d'Annunzio's drama -'The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian.' It is a thankless task to appraise -dramatic music apart from its intended adjuncts, especially when it -is somewhat fragmentary in character. There is an abundant use of -the quasi-archaic idiom (already employed in the first of the Dances -for harp and strings), which found its justification in the mystical -character of the drama. Also there seems a little straining of -impressionistic resources in harmony, and not a little effective choral -writing. An orchestra of unusual constituence gave opportunity for -effects of a striking character. But the fact remains that the music -loses much of its appeal apart from the conditions for which it was -written. - -Of late Debussy has taken to the ballet, influenced no doubt by the -example of his contemporaries and the magnificent opportunities for -performance offered by the annual visits of Diaghilev's Russian Ballet. -Florent Schmitt was one of the first of ultra-modern Frenchmen to try -this form with his lurid and masterly _Tragédie de Salomé_ (1907); then -followed Paul Dukas with _La Péri_ (1910), Maurice Ravel with 'Daphnis -and Chloë' (1911), and other works to be mentioned later. - -In 1912 Debussy published _Jeux_, ballet in one act on a scenario by -Nijinsky, and _Khamma_, of the same dimensions, by W. L. Courtney -and Maud Allan. Finally, in 1913, he composed the miniature -ballet-pantomime _La Boîte aux joujoux_, by André Heller. In these -works he has shown a natural theatrical and scenic instinct which is -extraordinary, a sensitive adaptation of music to dramatic situations, -and a surprising versatility in spite of his previous vindications -of this quality. The plot of _Jeux_ is slight and fantastically -unreal and improbable, but it has afforded a basis for impalpable -music of great subtlety and distinction, in which the appeal to -Debussy's imagination was obvious. _Khamma_, admirably contrived from -the dramatic point of view for the logical introduction of dancing, -exhibits a breadth of conception and a heroic quality which is rare in -Debussy. Unfortunately, incidents have prevented this ballet from being -performed (as far as may be ascertained), but this assuredly has not -been on account of the inadequacy of the music. _La Boîte aux joujoux_ -differs totally from the two preceding in being, as its title-page -asserts, a ballet for children. It is not an unalloyed surprise from -the pen of the composer of the 'Children's Corner,' but it combines -genuine poetry, humor, mock-realism, and a judicious miniature medium -that is entirely original. If musically at least _La Boîte aux joujoux_ -presupposes a very sophisticated child, that does not prevent it from -making an instant appeal to mature listeners. - -For many years it has been announced that Debussy has been at work on -operas taken from Poe's stories 'The Devil in the Belfry' and 'The Fall -of the House of Usher.' There have also been rumors that he was at -work on a version of the story of Tristan. It is a foregone conclusion -that these works will not appear until their scrupulous composer is -satisfied with every detail. - -Like other modern French musicians Debussy has a ready pen and -exceedingly interesting critical opinions. He has served as critic for -the _Revue blanche_ and for _Gil Blas_, and many articles on a wide -range of subjects have appeared in these periodicals. His conversations -with M. Croche[64] have served as an amiable disguise for the -expression of his personal views on music. - -When we come to survey as a whole the personality and achievement of -Debussy we discover that he has been influenced by a fair number of -composers, but that their effect has been for the most part superficial -and transitory. Such was the contributory share of Chopin and Grieg; -Moussorgsky is prominently influential alike for his dramatic style and -his fidelity to nature; other Neo-Russians have by their orchestral -idiom helped to cultivate his sense of timbre; Fauré and Chabrier -both guided him harmonically; Massenet with his sure craftsmanship had -more than a casual admiration from Debussy; even the fantastic figure -of Erik Satie, an exaggerated symbolistic musician of grotesque ideas -but inefficient technique, helped him to avoid the banal path. But the -mainstay of Debussy's reputation is simply that of his concrete musical -gifts, his inventiveness, his ability to characterize, and pervading -æsthetic instinct. It is not by virtue of his determination to be -impressionistic in music, nor by the extension of the possibilities of -the whole-tone scale, or free modal harmonization, nor by his original -pianistic style, despite the intrinsic and historic significance -of these, that he has come to be the leading representative of -ultra-modern French composers of the revolutionary type, in opposition -to the reactionary if modernistic d'Indy. It is because a certain -creative field, which others had approached tentatively, has been made -to yield a scope of subject, a variety of utterance and an æsthetic -import hitherto totally unsuspected. While the impressionistic (or -symbolistic) style has in Debussy's hand become a flexible, fanciful, -fantastic or poignantly human idiom, its real weight can be appreciated -only by neglecting the harmonic novelty or the stylistic medium -and concentrating on the direct utterance of the music itself. It -is through this basic eloquence of musical speech that Debussy is -significant. It is for this reason that, with Strauss, he must be -regarded as the chief creative figure of his generation. To realize the -simple, almost primitive, attitude of Debussy toward his art it may -be illuminating to quote from an article from his pen in response to -inquiries 'On the present state of French music,' put by Paul Landormy -in the _Revue bleue_ (1904), translated by Philip Hale.[65] - -'French music is clearness, elegance, simple and natural declamation; -French music wishes, first of all, to give pleasure. Couperin, -Rameau--these are true Frenchmen.' Debussy has always admired Rameau, -witness his _Hommage à Rameau_ in the first set of the _Images_ for -piano and his obvious predilection for the eighteenth-century qualities -of lucidity and transparent outline of much of his music. It must not -be forgotten that Debussy has joined Saint-Saëns, d'Indy, and Dukas in -the revision of Rameau's works for the complete edition. Later in the -same article we find Debussy reiterating the view expressed above as to -the function of music with an insistence that is both Latin and even -Pagan in the best sense. 'Music should be cleared of all scientific -apparatus. Music should seek humbly _to give pleasure_; great beauty is -possible between these limits. Extreme complexity is the contrary of -art. Beauty should be perceptible; it should impose itself on us, or -insinuate itself, without any effort on our part to grasp it. Look at -Leonardo da Vinci, Mozart! These are great artists.' - -To sum up, Debussy has brought the impressionistic and symbolistic -style into music; he has evolved a supple harmonic idiom devoid -of monotony, not chiefly characterized by the whole-tone scale as -many believe, but comprising a simple style, a taking archaism, an -application of modal style, and an extension of the uses of ninths -and other chords. He has developed an incredibly simple and yet -effective dramatic style, which makes 'Pelléas and Mélisande' one of -the significant works of the century. He has extended the nuances and -the figures of piano style, and has increased the subdivision of the -orchestra into delicate, almost opalescent, timbres. But more than -all, he has given to music a new type of poetry, a rarefied humanity, -and new revelations of the imagination. It is too soon to judge of the -durability of his work, but his historical position is secure--a -lineal descendant of French eighteenth-century great musicians with the -vision and the creative daring of the twentieth. - - [Illustration: Claude Debussy] - _After a photo from life_ - -If the widespread imitation of Debussy may be taken as an indication, -no further proof of the vitality of his creative innovations is -needed. Richard Strauss has not disdained to use the whole-tone scale -in _Salome_ (the entrance of Herod), Reger has followed suit in the -'Romantic Suite'; Puccini has drawn upon the same idiom in 'The Girl of -the Golden West'; Cyril Scott in England and Charles Martin Loeffler -in the United States have gone to the same source, despite their -indisputably individual attainments. In Paris itself the followers of -Debussy are rife, and his influence is as contagious as that of Wagner -thirty years ago. A figure long misjudged as a mere echo of Debussy, -who after an interval of fifteen years has shown that he steadily -followed his own path in spite of some manifest obligations to the -founder of impressionism in music is Maurice Ravel. Since he is easily -second in importance among the members of the 'atmospheric' group, he -deserves, therefore, to be considered immediately after Debussy. - - - II - -Joseph-Maurice Ravel was born March 7, 1875, in the town of Ciboure, -in the department of the Basses-Pyrénées in the extreme southwest of -France, close to the Spanish border. From early childhood, however, -he lived in Paris. At the age of twelve his predisposition toward -music asserted itself by his delight in the major seventh chord, which -he employed with such insight later.[66] He was accordingly given -lessons in piano-playing and composition. His earliest works were some -variations on a chorale by Schumann, and the first movement of a -sonata. In 1889 he entered the Paris Conservatory, where he studied the -piano with de Bériot, harmony with Pessard, counterpoint and fugue with -Gedalge, and composition with Fauré. Despite his application he did not -meet with the success his efforts deserved. In 1901, however, he was -awarded the second _prix de Rome_ for his cantata _Myrrha_, and it is -said that some of the jury favored him as a choice for the first prize. -In the two following years he was unsuccessful, and in 1904 he did not -attempt to compete. In 1905 he offered himself as candidate, but was -refused permission. This exclusion, when he had already attracted much -attention as a composer, which may have been partly due to his audacity -in 'writing down' ironically to the reactionary jury of 1901, aroused -protests of so violent a nature as to start an inquiry into conditions -at the Conservatory, with the result that Théodore Dubois was forced to -resign as director and Gabriel Fauré was appointed in his place. Since -then Ravel has devoted himself entirely to composition and the record -of his life is to be found most persuasively in his work. Ravel has -served several times on the committee of the _Société Nationale_, and -he is a charter member of the _Société Musicale Indépendante_. - -Before proceeding to a consideration of Ravel's music, it may be well -to enumerate the various influences he has undergone. The first was -Chabrier, whose _Trois Valses romantiques_ for two pianos aroused his -admiration when scarcely more than a boy. Then, as in the case of -Debussy, the fantastic personality and curious music of Erik Satie -appealed to his imagination. Some of Fauré's harmonic procedures and -some of his mannerisms, such as the abuse of sequence, have left their -traces in the pupil. Some of Debussy's harmonic innovations have -obviously affected Ravel, just as he has accepted his impressionism, -but a careful study of the latter's works will show a definite line -of cleavage in both particulars, beginning at an early stage of his -career. The exoticism of the Neo-Russians and their sense of orchestral -timbre have undoubtedly exercised a powerful charm over Ravel. - -After some unpublished songs, and a _Sérénade grotesque_ for piano -composed in 1894, Ravel published his first music in 1895, a _Menuet -antique_ for piano, which Roland Manuel describes as 'a curious work -in which are voluntarily opposed, so it seems, scholastic contrapuntal -artifices and the most charming radicalism (_hardiesses_).' Ravel's -next work was two pieces for two pianos entitled _Les Sites -Auriculaires_, one a _Habañera_ (1895), showing an astonishing harmonic -independence for so young a composer, which was utilized later in the -'Spanish Rhapsody' for orchestra, the other _Entre Cloches_ (1896), -which is said to have been incorporated in _La Vallée des Cloches_, -included in the piano pieces entitled _Miroirs_ in 1896 also. Ravel -composed the first of his published songs, _Sainte_, on a poem by -Mallarmé, for which the music is charmingly archaic, somewhat in -Fauré's manner, but not devoid of independence. In 1898 followed -the 'Two Epigrams' for voice and piano, on texts by Clément Marot -(fifteenth century), in which Ravel again appropriately employed -an archaic idiom curiously intermingled with ninth chords. In this -same year Ravel composed his first orchestral work, the overture -_Shéhérazade_ (performed by the National Society in the following -year), which has never been published. Two piano pieces, a _Pavane -pour une infante défunte_ (1899), whose poignantly elegiac mood shows -its composer in a new light as regards sensibility, and brilliant -_tour de force_, _Jeux d'eau_ (1901), full of harmonic novelty and -strikingly original pianistic style, are both significant advances. It -was the bold personality of the latter piece that served to expose and -accentuate the ironic caricature of a sentimental style to be found -in _Myrrha_ which prejudiced a reactionary jury against him. A string -quartet (1902-03) at once made a profound impression on account of the -relative youth of its composer, for its command of a difficult medium, -its polish and symmetry of form, its poetry and depth of sentiment. If -the last two movements are inferior in substance and inspiration, the -scherzo is piquant and novel, while the first movement, particularly -in its poetic close, stands in the front rank of modern French -chamber music literature. If the theme of the first movement by its -harmonization in a sequence of seventh chords suggests Fauré, there -is no denying the personality of the work as a whole. Three songs for -voice and orchestra, _Shéhérazade_ (1903), on poems by Tristan Klingsor -(pseudonym for Tristan Leclère), are unequal, but the first, _Asie_, -reflects the varied exoticism of its text with sympathetic charm. - -Five pieces for piano entitled _Miroirs_ (1905) present Ravel's -individuality in a clear light as regards his impressionistic -method. Without the maturity of a later collection of piano pieces, -they reflect, as their title indicates, various aspects of nature -with the illusion demanded by impressionistic method, and at the -same time exhibit profundity of insight and delineative poetry. The -foundation of Ravel's thematic treatment, unusual pianistic idiom, -his personal harmonic flavor, and his personal sentiment are all to -be found therein. In these pieces no trace is to be found of external -influence; the composer speaks in his own voice. _Oiseaux tristes_, -a melancholy landscape with some realistic touches; _Une barque sur -l'Océan_, broadly impressionistic sketch of large dimensions; _Alborada -del Graciosa_, exhibiting that Spanish exoticism which has often -tempted Ravel; and _La Vallé des Cloches_, of sombre yet highly poetic -atmosphere, are the most striking. A sonatina for piano of the same -year pleases by the polish of its form, its successful correlation -of detail and the individuality of its contents. A humorous song, -'The Toy's Christmas' (also 1905), later provided with orchestral -accompaniment, is an ingenious and vivacious trifle. - -In 1906 Ravel reasserted his gifts as a delicate realist with the songs -entitled 'Natural Histories,' on texts by Jules Renard. With a musical -imagery that is at once ironic and replete with sensitive observation, -Ravel depicts the peacock, the cricket, the swan, and other birds. An -Introduction and Allegro (1906) for harp with accompaniment of string -quartet, flute and clarinet is chiefly remarkable for the grateful -virtuosity with which the harp is treated. In 1907 Ravel showed at -once technical mastery of the orchestra and a skillful reproduction of -Spanish atmosphere with a 'Spanish Rhapsody,' which is both brilliant -and poetic. This work must be considered with Chabrier's _España_ -and Debussy's _Ibéria_ as one of the graphic pictures of exoticism -in French musical literature. To this same year belongs 'The Spanish -Hour,' text by Franc Nohain entitled a 'musical comedy' (but not in our -sense), in which Ravel attempted to revive the manner of the _opera -buffa_. The comedy contains inherent improbabilities and the text is -often far from inspiring, but Ravel has written ingenious, humorous and -poetic music which far exceeds the book in value. This opera presents -a running commentary in the orchestra on a few motives, leaving the -voices to declaim with freedom, while the brilliant and picturesque -orchestration adds greatly to vivacity and charm of the music. - -In 1908 Ravel composed a set of four-hand pieces, 'Mother Goose,' of -ingenuity, humor, and poetic insight. These pieces have since been -orchestrated with incomparable finesse and knowledge of instrumental -resource, forming an orchestral suite, and, with the addition of a -prelude and various interludes, they have also been transformed into -a ballet. In 1908, also, Ravel composed three poems for the piano, -_Gaspard de la Nuit_, on prose fragments by Aloysius Bertrand, which -in technical style and contents mark the acme of his achievement in -literature for the piano. _Ondine_ and _Scarbo_, the first and third -of these pieces, illustrate their 'programs' with an illuminating -poetry that is both brilliant and profound in insight. The second, -_Le Gibbet_, with a persistent pedal note in the right hand over -extraordinarily ingenious harmonies, possesses a genuinely sinister and -tragic depth. - -These poems contrast sharply with Debussy's _Images_ of the same year. -The latter are more obviously impressionistic, but Ravel has disposed -his uncanny technical equipment with such expressive mastery and -such interpretative vitality as to fear no comparison with the older -composer. If by contrast the _Valse nobles et sentimentales_ (1910) -for piano are agreeable _jeux d'esprit_, they none the less possess -qualities that win our admiration. Frank boldness of style, fantastic -irony, and sentimental poetry go hand in hand, united by a grateful -piano idiom. The epilogue in particular, with its reminiscences of -various waltzes, gives a formal continuity which relieves the set as a -whole from any charge of disjointedness. - -Ravel's masterpiece is his 'choreographic symphony' _Daphnis et Chloé_ -(1906-11), first performed by Diaghilev's Russian Ballet in 1912. In -this work Ravel disproves emphatically the possible charge that he is a -composer of miniatures, for from the formal aspects it shows continuity -and coördination of development in the symphonic manipulation of its -motives. Dramatically it is in remarkable accord with the atmosphere, -the action and the development of the scenario by the famous -ballet-master and author of plots Michel Fokine. The music not only -possesses interpretative vitality on a far larger scale than Ravel has -ever shown before, but, aside from its astonishing brilliancy and -its coloristic poetry, it has a contrapuntal vigor of invention and -treatment which are absolutely convincing. From the harmonic standpoint -Ravel has attained a new freedom and an elastic suppleness of idiom -that is bewildering. His treatment of a large orchestra, augmented by -the use of a mixed chorus behind the scenes, is vitally brilliant and -marvellously poetic even in the light of his previous achievements. -All in all, _Daphnis et Chloé_ is one of the most significant dramatic -works of recent years, and can worthily be placed side by side with -Debussy's _Pelléas et Mélisande_ and Dukas' _Ariane et Barbe-bleue_ for -its intrinsic merits and historical attributes. - -For some years Ravel has been engaged upon a setting of Hauptmann's -_Versunkene Glocke_. It is also announced that he is at work upon a -trio, a concerto for piano on Basque themes, and an oratorio, _Saint -François d'Assise_. With his recent successes in mind, these projected -works engage a lively expectation. - -In conclusion, it must be acknowledged that Ravel cannot, like Debussy, -claim to be a pioneer. He was fortunate in being enabled to profit -by the swift development of new idioms, to absorb the exuberance of -Chabrier, the suave mysticism of Fauré, the illuminating impressionism -of Debussy, and the scintillant exoticism of the Neo-Russians. But, -while he owes no more to his predecessors than Debussy, he has had the -advantage of having matured his style at an age which was relatively -in advance of Debussy. It must be recognized that as a whole Ravel's -music lies nearer the surface of the human heart than Debussy's. It -is not usual to find that depth of poetry or of human sentiment which -distinguishes so considerable a portion of Debussy's music. Ravel, on -the other hand, is more expansive in his scope; he captivates us with -his humor, his irony, his dappling brilliancy, and with an almost -metallic grasp in execution of a pre-conceived plan. His harmonic -transformations exert a literal fascination, though their technical -facility obscures their purpose, but underneath there is seldom an -inner deficiency of sentiment. If his impressionism is tinged with -quasi-realistic effects, there is no lack of genuine homogeneity -of style. In fact, his skillful blending of the two tendencies is -one of the chief features of his originality. In such works as the -_Pavane_, the first movement of the String Quartet, in _Asie_ from -_Shéhérazade_, in _La Vallée des Cloches_, in _Ondine_ and _Le Gibbet_, -and in many episodes of _Daphnis et Chloé_ Ravel offers a convincingly -human sentiment which only emphasizes his essential versatility of -expression. For in his characteristic vein of ironic brilliance and -fantastic subtlety he carries all before him. - - - III - -If the work of Bruneau and Charpentier does not follow in historic or -chronological sequence that of Debussy and Ravel, their juxtaposition -is defensible since the former in common with the latter have received -their individual stimulus from sources extraneous to music. In the case -of Bruneau the vitalizing motive is the literary realism of Émile Zola; -in that of Charpentier the direct inspiration comes from socialism or -at least a socialistic outlook. - -Louis-Charles-Bonaventure-Alfred Bruneau was born in Paris, on March -1, 1857. His father played the violin, his mother was a painter, thus -an æsthetic environment favored his artistic development. Alfred -Bruneau entered the Paris Conservatory at the age of sixteen; three -years later he was awarded the first prize for violoncello playing. He -studied harmony for three years in Savard's class, became a pupil of -Massenet and was the first to win the second _prix de Rome_ in 1881 -with a cantata _Geneviève_. For some years previously Bruneau had been -a member of Pasdeloup's orchestra, and in 1884 an _Overture héroïque_ -(1885) was played by this organization. Other orchestral works--_La -Belle au bois dormant_ (1884) and _Penthesilée_ (a symphonic poem with -chorus, 1888)--belong to this period. - -Despite some fifty songs, choruses, a Requiem, and some pieces for -various wind instruments and piano, Bruneau is essentially a dramatic -composer, and it is chiefly as such that he deserves consideration. His -first dramatic work, _Kérim_, the text by Millet and Lavedan (1886), -is an unpretentious opera of eminently lyric vein, in which a facile -orientalism plays a prominent part. It displays the technical fluidity -which might be expected of a pupil of Massenet, and possesses a slight, -though palpable, individuality. A ballet, _Les Bacchantes_ (1887), -not published until 1912 and recently performed, is in the old style -of detached pieces without continuous music. Here Bruneau has been -successful in dramatic characterization, but the music is again largely -a reflection of Massenet. - -It was not until 1891 that Bruneau gave evidence of his characteristic -style and individual dramatic method which he has since pursued -steadily. French musicians had awakened to the permanent significance -of Wagner's dramatic principles, and it is not surprising, therefore, -to find that Bruneau accepted these in slight degree. His Wagnerian -obligations are virtually limited to an attempt to unite music and text -as intimately as possible, to employ leading-motives as symbols of -persons or ideas, and to avoid formal melody in the voice parts except -at essentially lyric moments. His development of motives, while to a -certain extent symphonic, is in fact markedly different from that of -Wagner, and his recitatives depart from the traditional accompanied -recitatives in that they employ as nearly as possible the inflections -of natural speech over single chords. - -The kernel of Bruneau's dramatic method lies in his ardent championing -of realism as a guiding principle in general, and his admiration for -Émile Zola as a man and as a literary artist in particular. With -the exception of _Kérim_ all his operas have been on subjects taken -from Zola's works, or on texts by Zola himself. With the ideals of -realism in mind, Bruneau has avoided legendary subjects, although -many of his works are symbolic, and he has preferred to treat dramas -of everyday life, animated by the passions of ordinary mortals. As -Debussy reflected the impressionism or symbolism of poets, painters, -and dramatists in his music, so Bruneau's operas are a counterpart of -the realistic movement. In place, therefore, of the stilted, unreal -action which disfigures even the finest conceptions of Wagner, Bruneau -has sought to replace it with a lifelike, tense, and rapid simulation -of life itself. His realism has even led to the discarding in his later -operas of verse for prose from obvious realistic considerations. In -spite of some Teutonic sources, Bruneau is eminently Gallic in his -musical and dramatic standpoint, and, while certain formulas of his -teacher, Massenet, persist for a time, in the main he is rigorously -independent. For a time Bruneau was considered revolutionary in his -harmonic standpoint, but musically at least he cannot be called -iconoclastic, or even progressive. The strength of his achievement lies -entirely in his qualities as a dramatist pure and simple. - -The first work which embodied Bruneau's realistic attitude was _Le -Rêve_ (1891), text by Gallet after Zola's novel. The essence of the -work dramatically lies in the mystical temperament of the heroine, -Angélique, who loves the son of a priest (born before his father, a -widower, entered the priesthood) despite the opposition of his father. -When she is apparently dying the priest restores her by a miracle and -consents to the marriage, only to have the bride fall lifeless as she -leaves the church. While Bruneau's musical treatment of Angélique's -mystical hallucinations is in a sentimental manner that recalls -Massenet, the opera as a whole shows dramatic power of an independent -character. Bruneau's second opera in his new style, _L'Attaque du -Moulin_ (1893), the dramatization by Gallet of a story by Zola in _Les -Soirées de Médan_, dealing with an episode of the Franco-Prussian war, -is far more vital both in drama and music. The mill, the source of life -to the miller, Merlier, and his daughter Françoise, is attacked by the -enemy. Dominique, a foreigner, who is betrothed to Françoise, is found -with powder marks on his hands and is condemned to be shot. The enemy -retreat, leaving a sentinel at the mill. The sentinel is assassinated -and Merlier is to be shot for the deed. Although Dominique confesses -that he did the deed, Merlier dies in his stead so that his daughter -may be happy. Bruneau has been equally happy in delineating the peace -which reigns at the mill before the arrival of the enemy and the -celebration of Françoise's betrothal, and in depicting the brutalities -of war and the unselfish death of Merlier. _L'Attaque du Moulin_ is a -work of solid inspiration, clarity of style and vivid dramatic force. -The Institute of France awarded the Monbinne prize to its composer. - -_Messidor_ (1897), text by Zola himself, deals with the struggle -between capital and labor and the love of the poor Guillaume for -the capitalist's daughter Hélène. The capitalist is ruined, saner -economic conditions are brought about and the lovers are united. -For a drama which is both sociological and symbolistic Bruneau -has written music of broadly humanitarian character and a vitally -descriptive vigor. His musical style is firmer and his conceptions -are realized with less crudeness than in previous works. _L'Ouragan_ -(1901), whose action turns upon a devastating hurricane in a fishing -village, and also the tempestuous passions of its inhabitants, has a -primitive quality characteristic of both author and composer. There -is conscious symbolism in this work also in the distinction of types -found in the three feminine characters. Of this opera Debussy wrote: -'He (Bruneau) has, among all musicians, a fine contempt for formulas, -he walks across his harmonies without troubling himself as to their -grammatical sonorous virtue; he perceives melodic associations that -some would qualify too quickly as "monstrous" when they are simply -unaccustomed.'[67] - -_L'Enfant roi_ (1905), _Naïs Micoulin_ (1907), and _La Faute de l'Abbé -Mouret_ (1907) display qualities similar to Bruneau's other operas, in -which close adjustment to the drama and consistent musical treatment -are the notable features. _Naïs Micoulin_, text by Bruneau himself -after Zola's novel, is particularly admirable for its clarity of style, -its absence of mannerism, and its vital depiction of two types of -jealousy and the faithful devotion of the hunchback, Toine. - -Beyond his activity as a dramatic composer, especial mention should -be made of Bruneau's work as a critic. He has contributed to many -magazines, and he has acted as musical critic for the _Gil Blas_, -_Le Figaro_, and _Le Matin_. He has collected three volumes of -able criticism, _Musiques d'hier et de demain_ (1900), _La Musique -Française_ (1901), containing much valuable historical material, and -_Musiques de Russie et Musiciens de France_ (1903). In these volumes he -has shown himself a vigorous and broad critic of catholicity of taste -and striking discrimination. - -To sum up the dramatic work of Bruneau as a whole, he must be -considered as representing a sincere phase of French evolution at -a critical time. While it is questionable whether realism can be a -permanently successful basis for opera, a form in which æsthetic -compromise and illusion are inherent, there is no denying the -courageous independence of his position and the plausible defense -of his methods which his operas constitute. It must be confessed, -however, that Bruneau's dramatic instinct takes precedence over his -concrete musical gifts and the former carries off many scenes and -episodes in which the latter lags behind. In short, Bruneau's gift -for the stage is unquestionable, and his dramatic innovations must -remain identified with French progress in this medium. His most obvious -defect lies in the inequality of his musical inspiration. If his -melodic sense is frank and spontaneous as in the prelude to Act I of -_L'Attaque du Moulin_, the broad theme after the curtain rises in Act -I of _Messidor_, the introduction and 'Sowing Song' in Act II of the -same opera, the 'Song of the Earth' in _Naïs Micoulin_, the contour -of Bruneau's melodies is, on the other hand, too often awkward and -devoid of distinction. Likewise his thematic manipulation is lacking -in flexibility or striking development, especially in the too obvious -employment of the devices of 'augmentation' and 'diminution' (see -_L'Ouragan_, prelude to Act I). Yet the allegorical Ballet of Gold -in Act III of _Messidor_ and the Introduction to Act IV of the same -work show that Bruneau has sensibility toward symphonic qualities. -Bruneau's harmonic idiom is rather monotonous and devoid of that subtle -recognition of style that we find in the impressionistic school. On -the other side, its wholesome vigor has the sincerity which is the -hall-mark of realism. As a harmonist Bruneau is not advanced. - -Despite the flaws that one can find in Bruneau the musician, they are -perhaps after all the defects of his virtues. At a time of wavering and -uncertainty, Bruneau showed uncompromising sincerity, stuck to his -guns, defied opinion with a resolution and a reckless adherence to his -æsthetic standpoint worthy of a friend of Zola. If his works have not -the involuntary persuasion that we find in other ultra-modern French -operas, one must acknowledge a preëminent dramatic gift, possessing -in its presentation of sociological and humanistic problems vitality, -high purpose and moments of indubitable inspiration. If Bruneau's -musical defects hamper to a certain extent his wider recognition, his -fearless independence, his utter contempt for imitation of others, and -the remarkable dramatic affinity between his conceptions and those of -Zola's are too striking not to be considered an interesting episode in -French dramatic evolution. - -While Bruneau's operas, apart from a few performances in London, -Germany, and New York, have received attention chiefly in France, -Gustave Charpentier, despite his relatively small productivity, has won -a universal recognition. - -Gustave Charpentier was born in the town of Dieuze in Lorraine, June -25, 1860. After the Franco-Prussian war his parents came to live in -Tourcoing, not far from Lille. As a boy Charpentier showed natural -aptitude for the violin, clarinet, and solfeggio, although he was -obliged to work in a factory to support himself. His employer became so -struck with his musical ability that he sent him to the Conservatory -at Lille, where he obtained numerous prizes. As a result of this the -municipality of Tourcoing granted him an annual pension of twelve -hundred francs to study at the Paris Conservatory. In 1881 he began his -work there as a pupil of Massart, the violinist. He was not successful -in competition and, moreover, was obliged to leave to fulfill his -military service. Returning to the Conservatory, he took up the study -of harmony and later entered Massenet's class in composition. He was -unsuccessful in a fugue competition, but in 1887 he received the first -_prix de Rome_ for his cantata _Dido_, which showed distinct dramatic -gift and a concise and logical continuity of musical development. - -From Rome he sent back as the required proofs of his industry an -orchestral suite 'Impressions of Italy,' permeated with Italian -atmosphere and folk-song, a symphony-drama, 'The Life of a Poet,' for -solos, chorus and orchestra, which may be regarded as a precursor of -his later dramatic work, and the first act of 'Louise.' This last was, -however, not presented to the Institute, as that institution considered -that 'The Life of a Poet' might count for two works.[68] - -On returning to Paris Charpentier went to live in Montmartre, the -Bohemian and artistic quarter, and entered passionately into the -life about him. It presented the inspiration and material which -he wished to embody in musical conceptions. He absorbed both the -socialism of the quarter and its Bohemian disparagement of artistic -and moral convention. Thus he witnessed the aspiration of artists, -their enthusiasm for a life of freedom, together with its inevitable -degradation. He studied its types avidly, and reproduced them with a -verisimilitude that has made them well nigh immortal. During these -years he composed many of the _Poèmes chantés_ (published as a whole in -1894), the songs, _Les Fleurs du mal_ (1895), on poems by Baudelaire; -the _Impressions fausses_, on poems by Verlaine, including _La Veillée -rouge_ (1894); symbolic variations for baritone and male chorus -with orchestra; and _La Ronde des Compagnons_ (1895), for the same -combination. In 1896 his _Sérénade à Watteau_ (the poem by Verlaine) -for voices and orchestra was performed in the Luxembourg gardens. In -1898 a cantata, _Le Couronnement de la muse_, depicting an established -Montmartre custom, later incorporated in 'Louise,' was given in the -square of the Hôtel de Ville. As a whole, these vocal works, with the -exception of the cantata, are of interest merely as showing the early -style of the composer and for their premonitions of his later idiom. -Charpentier is not a born song-writer and his settings of Baudelaire's -_Le Jet d'eau_, _La Mort des amantes_ and _L'Invitation au voyage_, of -Verlaine's _Chevaux de bois_ and _Sérénade à Watteau_ have been easily -surpassed by Debussy and Duparc. The most attractive are a setting of -Mauclair's _La Chanson du chemin_ for solo voice, women's chorus and -orchestra, and the _Impressions fausses_ by Verlaine, in which his -dramatic and socialistic bent is more plausible. - -In the meantime Charpentier had been working steadily at his 'musical -novel' _Louise_, both text and music by himself, which he had begun -at Rome. This work, perhaps the most characteristic of his style, was -performed for the first time at the Opéra-comique, February 3, 1900. -It was an instant and prolonged success, and its composer was not only -famous but prosperous financially. Since the recognition of 'Louise' -Charpentier has suffered from irregular health. The production of -'Julien' (1896-1904) at Paris, June 4, 1913, announced as a sequel to -'Louise,' has added little to his reputation. It is founded largely -on the music of 'The Life of a Poet,' with added episodes which -contrast incongruously with the idiom of the earlier work. It has been -announced that Charpentier has finished a 'popular epic' entitled a -Triptych. This, it is said, will contain three two-act operas with the -sub-titles, _L'Amour au faubourg_, _Commédiante_, and _Tragédiante_. - -In 1900 Charpentier founded the _Conservatoire populaire de Mimi -Pinson_ (the generic slang title for the shop-girl) for encouraging -the musical education of working girls. But, despite its worthy -sociological purpose, this institution has failed. Charpentier has -occasionally written critical articles, among them sympathetic reviews -of Bruneau's _L'Attaque du Moulin_ and _L'Ouragan_. - -In considering the music and personality of Charpentier it must be -recognized at the outset that he is far removed in emotional and -intellectual makeup from other prominent figures in modern French -music. A child of the people, absorbing socialistic tendencies from his -boyhood, he is a musician of the instinctive type, averse to analysis -or pre-conceived theory. As Bruneau drew his inspiration from the creed -of realism and the works of Zola, so Charpentier is dominated by his -ardent socialistic bent. His music attempts to embody his impressions -of life from a democratic standpoint, in which realism and symbolism -are sometimes felicitously and sometimes jarringly mingled. - -In his musical idiom Charpentier stands close to Massenet, with that -involuntary absorption of his teacher's principles which actuates -most of the pupils of that facile but marvellously grounded composer. -Charpentier is far more sincere, however, in his relations to his -art, in that he has not courted popularity or lowered his artistic -standard for the sake of success. Despite his obligations to Massenet, -Charpentier has a vigorously independent idiom in which Bohemianism and -a poetic humanity are the chief ingredients. This asserts itself even -if the ultimate source of his style is obvious. He is also indebted -to his master for the transparent yet coloristic treatment of the -orchestra, in which sonority is obtained without waste or effort. If at -times it is evident that Charpentier has not listened to Wagner without -profit, the main current of his orchestral procedures, like his basic -musical qualities, is preëminently Gallic. - -In the early suite, 'Impressions of Italy' (1890), Charpentier has -depicted in a pleasing and picturesque style various aspects of nature, -the serenades of young men on leaving the inns at midnight, with -responses of mandolins and guitars; the balanced and stately walk of -peasant maidens carrying water from the spring; the brisk trot of mules -with jingling harnesses and their driver's songs; the wide stretches -of country seen from the heights near the 'Desert of Sorrento,' the -cries of birds and the distant sounds of convent bells; and for finale -a realistic description of a fête night at Naples with the tarantella, -folk-songs, bands drowning each other out and general and uproarious -gayety. While the musical substance of this suite is undeniably light, -Charpentier has mingled Italian melodies, descriptions of nature and -a poetic undercurrent with an unusual atmospheric charm and glamour -that outweigh concretely musical consideration. His instinctive and -coloristic manipulation of orchestral timbres heightens greatly the -programmistic illusion. - -Though the 'Life of a Poet' (1889-91), scenario and text by -Charpentier, is crude and immature, it possesses indubitable dramatic -vitality notwithstanding. It tells the tragedy of a young and aspiring -poet who would conquer the world of expression, confident in his -ability. Gradually he is assailed by doubt, loses his faith and -ultimately recognizes that he cannot coördinate the vast problems -confronting him into unity. Seeking oblivion in drunkenness, he -acknowledges his defeat and the drama of his life is over. - -In this work Charpentier has placed symbolism and realism side by side -in a way that is disconcerting. After an orchestral prelude entitled -'Enthusiasm,' at once rough, forceful and incoherent, a mysterious -chorus with the title 'Preparation' has dramatic power and human -sentiment. The second and third scenes, respectively described as -'Incantation' and 'In the Land of Dreams,' are still occupied with the -symbolic appeal of the poet to inspiration. Throughout this act the -music is effective dramatically, although often not far removed from -tawdry. In the second act, 'Doubt,' there is a luminous charm in the -chorus sung by the 'voices of night,' an appropriate interpretation of -the poet's harassing uncertainty in the second scene, and an extremely -poetic orchestral passage descriptive of his meditations, which ends -the act. In the first tableau of the third act, entitled 'Impotence,' -an orchestral introduction of some length, again crudely dramatic, -depicts graphically the losing struggle of the poet for his artistic -soul. The chorus, 'voices of malediction,' curse a divinity which -permits the ruin of the artist's dreams. To this, the poet, sombre -and fantastic, adds his last plaint of despair and his curse. In the -second 'picture' the poet is at a fête in Montmartre. The orchestra -paints vividly the riot of cheap bands and the reckless jollity. -The chorus echoes the curse of the preceding act and dies away in -mysterious murmurs. A dance orchestra (in the wings) plays a vulgar -polka, a noisy military band chimes in while passing. To these a melody -is dexterously added in the orchestra. A reminiscence of a chorus in -the first act is ingeniously contrived with the polka and orchestral -melody as accompaniment. The poet, now drunk, apostrophizes a wretched -girl of the streets, who replies with mocking laughter. The orchestra -suggests the æsthetic disintegration of the poet, the chorus recalls -the aspirations of his earlier life and finally the poet voices his -defeat. - -'The Life of a Poet' is interesting because it presents in a -somewhat primitive state the essential characteristics of the mature -Charpentier, namely, a palpable dramatic gift, the faculty of poetic -and humanizing illumination and differentiation of scenes. In the scene -at Montmartre he has not only furnished a precursor of the Bohemian -realism in 'Louise,' but he has displayed considerable contrapuntal -facility. If the 'Life of a Poet' has the clearly discernible defects -of youth, it has also its vitality and a spontaneous conviction which -was prophetic of the future. - -The universality of appeal to be found in 'Louise' (finished in 1900, -although begun at Rome), a 'musical novel' in four acts, text by the -composer, lies chiefly in its simple dramatic poignancy. The story -is that of an innocent girl trusting the instincts of her heart in -returning the affection of the irresponsible Bohemian poet who lives -nearby; her elopement with the poet, her enthralling happiness and -brief triumph as 'Muse of Montmartre' shattered by the false report -of her father's serious illness; her return to the parental dwelling, -her impatient chafing at restraint, her intolerable longing to return -to her lover and the facile Bohemian life; her father's anger and -her brutal dismissal into the night by him, followed by his curse on -Paris. All is basically human and typical of life under all conditions -and places. But 'Louise' contains other elements which make alike -for retentive charm and for critical admiration. In the first place, -it is pervaded by an insinuating glorification of Paris as a city of -freedom and provocative attraction, a perpetual Bohemian paradise. -Next, by the nature of the plot it affords an opportunity for the -librettist to voice a socialistic assertion of the individual's right -to personal liberty, somewhat sententiously uttered, and a condemnation -of restraint symbolized by parental egotism. 'Louise' also contains a -plausible and graphic portrayal of artist life in Montmartre, including -the time-honored ceremony of crowning its 'Muse,' by which Charpentier -has immortalized types doomed to disappear before the commercialization -of the quarter for the foreign visitor. In addition Charpentier may -claim distinction for his services as a folk-lorist by introducing the -street cries of various vendors to increase 'local color,' recalling -the ingenious choruses by Jannequin (of the sixteenth century), such as -_Les Cris de Paris_ and _Le Chant des Oiseaux_. Thus in time it may be -recognized that he has fulfilled an ethnographic purpose of some import. - -As the dramatic attraction of 'Louise' resides in its simplicity, -so also its musical value resides in its continuous spontaneity, -its limpidity of style, devoid of all pretentious scholasticism, in -which, however, there is plenty of technical skill and unostentatious -mastery of material. Charpentier's dramatic and musical idiom follows -the conception of Massenet, in which the constituent elements are -balanced, without superfluous insistence upon either. He employs formal -lyricism, except when the situation demands it, uses a flowing and -melodic declamation which gives free play to the annunciation of the -text. He employs motives freely, not in the Wagnerian fashion, however, -but in their flexible manipulation succeeds in giving the needful -touches of detailed characterization. If his orchestral sonority verges -occasionally upon coarseness, as a whole it enhances and colors the -dramatic emotions with remarkable skill and poetic fancy. - -But, aside from the question of dramatic method, it is the freshness -of invention, the skill in characterization, and the ebullient musical -imaginativeness of 'Louise' which makes it so unusual among operas. -It is more accurate and illusive in its picture of Bohemianism -than Puccini's _La Bohème_, and possesses far more human depth and -emotional sincerity throughout. In this respect also it is far above -the generality of Massenet's operas, and may be compared, despite -their essential difference in musical individuality, to the operas of -Bruneau. Charpentier is more of a poet, and his musical invention is -far readier. While it may be needless to particularize the domestic -scenes in the first act; the prelude to the second act, 'The City -Awakens,' with the scene before the dawn in which the rag-pickers, -the coal-gleaners, and other characters of the night-world discuss -of life as they have found it; the second scene in the same act, the -dressmaker's workshop, with an orchestral part for the sewing machine, -in which the sewers converse idly and try to account for Louise's -moodiness, the whole first tableau of the third act, in which Julien -and Louise sing of the lure of Paris; Louise's scene with her father in -the fourth act, all these are concrete examples of the interpretative -power of Charpentier the dramatist and composer. - -It is difficult to be enthusiastic over Julien. If the hero justifies -the opposition of Louise's parents (for the story of 'The Life of a -Poet' forms its dramatic basis), the introduction of many allegorical -or symbolic episodes not only mars the continuity of the drama, but -their musical style offends by its difference from that of the music -of 'The Life of a Poet,' upon which Charpentier has drawn so freely -for the later opera. While in many instances Charpentier has shown -ingenuity in adapting his earlier music, the total result of his labors -has not only been disappointing but disillusionizing in the extreme. - -As a whole, Charpentier, the poet of 'Impressions of Italy,' the -crude but forceful dramatist of the 'Poet's Life,' the mature artist -of 'Louise,' has accomplished certain unique aspects of realism with -a symbolic or sociological undercurrent. Limited as he is to 'the -quarter,' he has been also universal, and his sincere and picturesque -vision has something of permanence. As a pupil of Massenet he does -not belong to the vanguard, but his plausible synthesis of seemingly -contradictory elements has left a permanent impress in the annals of -modern French music. - - - IV - -While categorical classification is not always essential in criticism, -it is somewhat discommoding to acknowledge that a composer cannot -conveniently be placed under one logical and comprehensive heading. -While assimilation of qualities peculiar to two opposing groups can -be unified to a considerable extent, the work of such an artist is -inevitably lacking in complete homogeneity. Such a figure is Dukas, -who, nevertheless, must be considered a force of considerable vitality -in present-day French music. - -Paul Dukas was born in Paris, October 1, 1865. Toward his fourteenth -year his musical gifts asserted themselves. In 1881, after some -preliminary study, he entered the Paris Conservatory, where he was a -pupil of Mathias (piano), Dubois (harmony), and Guiraud (composition). -In 1888 he was awarded the second _prix de Rome_ for his cantata -_Valleda_. Since he was passed over entirely in the competition -of the following year, he left the Conservatory and fulfilled his -military service. At this period he had composed three overtures, of -which the last, _Polyeucte_, alone has been published and performed. -In his _Cours de Composition_,[69] d'Indy discloses that Dukas was -ill-satisfied with the instruction he received at the Conservatory, -and that he subsequently made a profound study of the classics and -evolved his own technical idiom. Dukas, however, shows the effect of -two schools, that of Franck in much of his instrumental music, and a -sympathy with that of Debussy in the dramatic field. To acknowledge -this does not mean to tax him with lack of individuality, but merely to -recognize the confluence of opposing viewpoints. - -The overture _Polyeucte_ (1891) shows surprising command for so young -a man of the technique of composition and orchestration, although -unnecessarily elaborate in the former particular. It has the classic -dignity of Corneille and at the same time is sincerely dramatic. The -Symphony in C (1895-96) shows considerable progress in many respects: -clearer part writing, unpretentious yet logical construction, no -apparent ambition other than to write sincerely within the limits of -normal symphonic style. There is also marked advance in clarity and -brilliance in the orchestral style. In 1897 Dukas made a pronounced -hit with his fantastic and imaginative Scherzo, _L'Apprenti sorcier_, -after Goethe's ballad, first performed at a concert of the National -Society. This work is one of the landmarks of modern French music for -its elastic fluency of style, the descriptive imagery of its music, -and, above all, its personal note, in which the orchestra was treated -with dazzling mastery. - -A Sonata for piano (1899-1900) forsakes the vein of programmistic -_tour de force_ entirely and exhibits a dignified, almost classic, -style whose workmanship is admirable throughout. The theme of the -first movement is distinguished, the second less interesting until -it appears in the recapitulation with deft canonic imitation. The -slow movement is somewhat cold and lacking in inner sentiment; the -scherzo is individual, and the finale solid. Similarly the 'Variations, -Interlude and Finale,' on a theme by Rameau, for piano (1902), is not -only composed with similar preoccupation for thorough workmanship, -but its spirit, save for some ever-present harmonic boldness, seems -to have proceeded from the epoch of the theme. As a matter of fact, -these variations show a post-Beethovenian ingenuity, and genuine skill -in perceiving the gracious theme of Rameau in different and engaging -lights that make this work conspicuous among piano literature in modern -French music. But this music is strongly suggestive of d'Indy and the -Schola. A Villanelle for horn and piano (1906) is a charming piece -which achieves individuality despite the limitations of the horn. - -But when Dukas' music for Maeterlinck's _Ariane et Barbe Bleue_ (1907) -was performed May 10, 1907, after he had begun and rejected 'Horn and -Riemenhild' (1892) and 'The Tree of Science' (1899), a greater surprise -was in store than upon the occasion when _L'Apprenti Sorcier_ was -played for the first time. - -Instead of the shrinking figure of the fairy-tale, Ariane is a -representative of the feminist movement, if not almost a militant -suffragette, who flatly disobeys Bluebeard, opens all the forbidden -doors to deck herself with jewels, releases her captive sisters, helps -them to free Bluebeard when the infuriated peasants have attacked -and bound him, and then returns to her home, leaving her infatuated -sisters who have too little imagination to make a decision. Dukas has -treated this story in a style that at once admits a coherent and almost -symphonic development of motives, and employs a harmonic idiom that -profits by all that Debussy has done to extend the whole-tone scale. -Dukas does not employ this scale as Debussy has done, but it is obvious -that he never would have gone so far if it had not been for his pioneer -contemporary. Instead of the translucent orchestra of _Pelléas_, -Dukas has employed one that is appropriately far more robust, but -which he has nevertheless used with discretion and reserve. He has -taken advantage of the discovery of the jewels in the first act to -employ coloristic resources lavishly. Despite the complex obligations -in the matter of style, Dukas has produced music of a spontaneously -decorative and dramatic type, which makes this opera significant among -the works of recent years. While _Ariane_ is unequal, the first scene, -excellently worked-out ensemble, the close of the first act, the -introduction and first scene of the second, and the close of the work -cannot be effaced from the records of modern French opera. - -In 1910, Dukas had another success with his _poëme dansant, La Péri_, -on a scenario of his own, which has been exquisitely interpreted by -Mlle. Trouhanova, to whom it is dedicated. Here is a work of the ballet -type, which unites felicitously a sense of structure with a gift for -atmospheric interpretation. In this respect, _La Péri_ is one of the -most satisfactory of Dukas' works, and one in which his encyclopedic -knowledge and his imaginative gifts are best displayed. - -In addition to his gifts as a composer, Dukas is an editor and critic -of distinction. He has retouched some concertos for violin and clavecin -by Couperin; he has revised _Les Indes galantes_, _La Princesse de -Navarre_ and _Zephyre_ by Rameau for the complete edition of that -master's works. He made a four-hand arrangement of Saint-Saëns' _Samson -et Dalila_, and together with that distinguished composer finished and -orchestrated _Fredegonde_, an opera left incomplete by Guiraud at his -death. In addition, Dukas' articles for the _Revue Hebdomadaire_ and -the _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ display erudition and the clairvoyant -judgment of the born critic. - -Thus, although attaching himself to no one group exclusively, Dukas -has, by his capacity for architectural treatment of instrumental forms -and his atmospheric gift in dramatic characterization, attained a -position of dignity and individual expression. - - - V - -It is not within the province of this chapter to be all-inclusive, but -merely to recognize the achievement of the more notable figures. In -consequence a brief mention of some composers of lesser stature, and a -slight enlargement upon two of the more distinguished, will suffice to -account for present-day activity. There are, however, two precursors -of modern French music, who from the circumstances of their lives and -talent have not reached the fruition which they might have deserved. -The first of these, Ernest Fanelli, for thirty years lived the life -of an obscure and impoverished musician, playing the triangle in a -small orchestra, accompanying at cafés, laboring as a copyist. By mere -chance, Gabriel Pierné discovered in 1912 an orchestral work, the first -part _Thebes_, a symphonic poem founded on Théophile Gautier's _Roman -de la Mome_, composed 1883-87. The music was found to have anticipated -many harmonic effects of a later idiom including a fairly developed -whole-tone system. Other works like the _Impressions Pastorales_ -(1890), some _Humoresques_ and a quintet for strings entitled _L'Ane_ -show their composer to have poetic and descriptive gifts, whose late -revelation is not without pathos. Fanelli can exert no historical -influence, but he remains an isolated and belated phenomenon whose -temporary vogue is doubtless likely soon to suffer eclipse. - -Erik Satie, whose name has been mentioned in connection with Maurice -Ravel, and who doubtless was not unsympathetic to Debussy since he -orchestrated two of his _Gymnopédies_, was born in 1866 and studied -for a time at the Paris Conservatory. But an examination of his music -would prognosticate his distaste for that academic institution. He -was influenced by the pre-Raphaelites, and by the _Salon de la Rose -Croix_ and by the mystical movement in literature generally. His music, -chiefly for piano, wavers between an elevated and symbolic mysticism -and an ironic and over-strained impressionism. Regarded for years as an -eccentric _poseur_ with some admixture of the charlatan, it must now -be recognized that he had glimmerings of a modern harmonic idiom and -subjective expression in some of its aspects before the generality of -modern Parisian musicians. But these qualities were hampered in their -development by the ultra-fantastic character of his ideas, and an -incapacity for a coherent development of them. He abhors the tyranny of -the barline, and many of his pieces have no rhythmical indication from -one end to the other, beyond the relative value of the notes. He is -also loath to employ cadences, a prophetic glimpse of the future. - -Among his earlier works, the _Sarabandes_ (1887), _Gymnopédies_ (1888), -incidental music for a drama by Sar Peladan, _Le Fils des Étoiles_ -(1891), _Sonneries de la Rose Croix_ (1892), _Uspud_, a 'Christian -ballet' with one character (1892), _Pièces froides_ (1897) and -_Morceaux en forme de poire_ (1903), by their titles alone indicate -the character of their musical substance. The _Gymnopédies_ and -the _Sonneries de la Rose Croix_ are interesting for their absence -of the commonplace and for suggestions of a poetic vein. The later -works dating from 1912 and 1913 have fantastic titles which awake the -curiosity only to disappoint it by the contents of the music. _Aperçus -désagréable_, _Descriptions automatiques_, _Chapitres tournés en tous -sens_ seem deliberately contrived to affront the unwary, and cannot lay -claim to any influence beyond their perverse humor, and occassional -ironic caricature as in _Celle qui parle trop_, _Danse maigre_ and -_Españana_. - -Among the many contributors toward the upbuilding of modern French -music one must recall the names of Gabriel Pierné for his piano -concerto, a symphonic poem for chorus and orchestra, _L'An mil_, the -operas _Vendée_, _La Fille de Tabarin_ (1900), the choral works _La -Croisade des Enfants_ (1903) and _Les Enfants de Bethlehem_ (1907); -Deodat de Sévérac for his piano suites _Le Chant de la Terre_ (1900) -and _En Languedoc_ (1904), the operas _Cœur du Moulin_ (1909) and -_Heliogabale_ (1910); Gustave Samazeuilh for his string quartet, a -sonata for violin and piano, the orchestral pieces _Étude Symphonique -d'après 'la Nef'_ and _Le Sommeil de Canope_; Isaac Albéniz, although -of Spanish birth associated with French composers;[70] Roger-Ducasse -for orchestral works, a 'mimodrame' Orphée, Louis Aubert for a Fantasie -for piano and orchestra, songs, a _Suite brêve_ for orchestra and the -opera _La Forêt bleue_. In addition the names of Chevillard, Busser, -Ladmirault, Henri Rabaud, André Messager,[71] Labey, Casella, and -others might be added. A figure of some solitary distinction is Alberic -Magnard (died 1914), whose operas _Yolande_, _Guercœur_ and _Bérénice_, -three symphonies and other orchestral works, chamber music, piano -pieces and songs, show him to be a serious musician who disdained -popularity. Associated with the Schola he partook of d'Indy's artistic -stimulus without losing his own individuality. - - * * * * * - -Two composers whose achievements are the strongest of the younger -generation are Albert Roussel and Florent Schmitt. The former, born -in 1869, entered the navy, and even visited Cochin-China. In 1898 he -entered the Schola, where he studied with d'Indy for nine years. Since -1902 he has taught counterpoint at the Schola. His principal works -are the piano pieces _Rustiques_ (1904-6), a _Suite_ (1909), a Trio -(1902), a _Divertissement_ for wind instruments (1906), a Sonata for -piano and violin (1907-08), the orchestral works 'A Prelude,' after -Tolstoy's novel 'Resurrection' (1903), _Le poëme de la Forêt_, a -symphony (1904-6) and three symphonic sketches, 'Evolutions' (1910-11), -the last with chorus, a ballet-pantomine, _Le Festin de l'Araignée_ -(1913). Of these the best known are the orchestral works and the -ballet. If the symphony suggests many traits of d'Indy, there is in it -no lack of individual ideas and treatment. The 'Evolutions' seem far -more personal, and in both style and contents convince that Roussel is -a genuine creative force. The ballet, 'The Festival of the Spider,' -is an ingenious dramatic conception in which the characters are the -spider, flies, beetles and worms. The music in its delicate subtlety -is ingeniously adapted to the action, and in addition is picturesquely -orchestrated with a minimum of resource. Roussel has undergone a long -and severe apprenticeship and his later achievements have proved its -efficacy. - -Florent Schmitt, born 1870, is of Lorraine origin. After some -preliminary study, he entered the Paris Conservatory in 1889. Dubois -and Lavignac were his first teachers; subsequently he joined the -classes of Massenet and Gabriel Fauré. Leaving the Conservatory to -undergo his military service, he obtained a second _prix de Rome_ -in 1897. In 1900 he was awarded the first prize with the cantata -_Semiramis_. After his prescribed stay at the Villa Medicis in Rome, -Schmitt travelled to Germany, Austria and Hungary and even Turkey. - -Schmitt has been a prolific composer and space will not permit a -consideration of all his works. Those upon which his rising reputation -rests are a _Quintette_ for piano and strings (1905-08), the 47th Psalm -for solo, chorus, orchestra and organ (1904) and two symphonic poems, -_Le Palais hanté_ after Poe, and _La Tragédie de Salomé_ (1907), in its -original form danced as a _drame muet_ by Loie Fuller. In addition are -many piano pieces for two and four hands, and for two pianos, songs and -choruses. - -In Florent Schmitt's music is to be found alike the solid contrapuntal -workmanship of the Conservatory and the atmospheric procedures -of Debussy. These are combined with a striking homogeneity and a -dominating force that make Schmitt perhaps the most promising figure -among French younger musicians of to-day. If this praise must be -qualified, it must be acknowledged that he is overfluent, and that the -triviality of many of his ideas is only saved by his extraordinary -skill in treating them. In this respect his resourcefulness is -surprising and well-nigh infallible. The massive architectural quality -of the quintet, the barbaric splendor of the 47th Psalm,[72] and -the passionate and sinister mood of _La Tragédie de Salomé_ make -these works significant of the future even in the face of previous -achievements by his older contemporaries. - -If this survey of modern French composers seem oversanguine in its -assertions, even the most conservative critic must admit that their -work within the last thirty years has possessed a singularly unified -continuity. Striving deliberately to attain racial independence, the -various composers have attained their end with a unity of achievement -which is not surpassed in modern times. Whether following the counsel -of the naturalized Franck, or heeding the iconoclastic tendencies of -Chabrier, Fauré and Debussy, and the realistic aspirations of Bruneau -and Charpentier, the impressions of Ravel with its added graphic -touches of realism, French music has had a distinctive style, a -personal explanation of mood and a racial individuality such as it has -not shown since the days of Rameau. The question as to its durability -may be raised, as has been done in many epochs and countries, but its -position in the immediate past, and in certain aspects of the present, -leaves no doubt as to its conviction and its import. - - E. B. H. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[61] Louis Laloy Monograph on Debussy, Paris, Dorbon ainé, 1909, p. 12. - -[62] Laloy: _op. cit._ p. 52. - -[63] Ibid., pp. 20-21, 24-26. - -[64] Quarter-note. - -[65] Boston Symphony Orchestra Program-book Dec. 21st, 1904. - -[66] Roland Manuel: _Maurice Ravel et son œuvre_ (1904), pp. 8 _et seq._ - -[67] Quoted by Octave Séré from _La Revue Blanche_, May 15, 1901. - -[68] Octave Séré: _Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui_, p. 101. - -[69] _Cours de Composition, Deuxième Livre, Première Partie_, p. 331. - -[70] See pp. 405f. - -[71] Messager, b. 1853, is most widely known for a number of charming -operettas, continuing the traditions of Offenbach and Lecoq, of which -_Véronique_ (1898), also produced in America, is probably the best. -His most worthy contemporary in this department is Robert Planquette -(1850-1903), whose _Les Cloches de Corneville_ ('Chimes of Normandy') -is perennially popular. - -[72] The 46th in the French Bible. - - - - - CHAPTER XI - THE OPERATIC SEQUEL TO VERDI - - The Musical traditions of Modern Italy--Verdi's heirs: Boïto, - Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Puccini, Wolf-Ferrari, Franchetti, - Giordano, Orefice, Mancinelli--New paths; Montemezzi, Zandonai, - and de Sabbata. - - - I - -For those to whom music is an entertainment rather than an art, the -idea that Italy is the 'land of music' will always exist. Almost an -axiom has this popular notion become among such persons. And there -is, indeed, little purpose in discouraging the belief. For what is to -be gained by destroying an illusion which, in actual working, does no -harm? Italy's musical development and that, for example, of Germany, -are diametrically opposed to each other. Yet they both stand to-day -for something particular and peculiar to their own natures. Man in -his evolution has subconsciously wrought certain changes, certain -innovations; he has been guided in doing so not so much by his desires -as by his national characteristics. - -Taking this into consideration there is nothing that cannot be -understood in Italy's musical line from Palestrina to Montemezzi. -Perhaps the road has been travelled with fewer halts with a view to an -ideal than has that of other nations, but it has been in accordance -with those things which not only shape a nation's fate but also -its art. The Italian race, descended as it is from the Roman, had -traditions. The ideals of that group of men known as the Florentine -monodists were high. It was their purpose to add such music to the -spoken word as would intensify its meaning and make its effect upon -an audience more pronounced. In short, as far back as 1600, when these -men flourished, the ambition of Richard Wagner and the music drama, or, -if you prefer, the Greek tragedy of Sophokles and Æschylus, was known -by Italian musicians who in their composing tried to establish a union -between text and music such as the master of Bayreuth only accomplished -late in the nineteenth century. With the beginnings of oratorio and -opera--they differed little at first--the idea that personal success -for the performer was necessary crept in. Had it not, Richard Wagner -would not have been obliged to revolutionize the form of production -given on the lyric stage. Händel, a German by birth and an Englishman -by adoption, wrote florid Italian opera after 1700; he sacrificed the -significance of the word to the effectiveness of his vocal writing and -produced some things thereby which we of to-day can look upon only as -ludicrous. The musical world knows how opera was composed in Italy in -the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth -century. The librettist was not a poet, but a poetaster; a composer -of eminence would call upon him to supply words for an aria already -composed and especially adapted to the voice of some great and popular -singer. The result naturally was an art-form which was neither sincere -nor of real value, except from the standpoint of the singer. - -The early Verdi followed the form which was known to him by attending -the performances of opera given in his youth in Italy. But he saw -the error of his ways and his masterpieces, _Aida_, _Otello_ and -_Falstaff_, more than atone for his early operas, which have little -merit other than their facile melodic flow. Was it not to be expected -that after him would come men who would emulate the manner of his -last works? Was it unnatural to believe that Italy would interest -itself in a more faithful setting of words to music? And the direct -followers of the composer of _Otello_ gave forth something that called -the world's attention to their works. That it maintained Italian opera -at a plane equal to the three final works of Verdi cannot be said. It -was a passing phase and opened the way for the men who are now raising -Italian operatic composition to the highest point in its history. As -such it served its purpose. - -When Giuseppe Verdi died in 1901 there had already been inaugurated the -Realist movement in Italian opera. Italy's 'grand old man' had seen -Pietro Mascagni achieve world renown with his _Cavalleria Rusticana_ -and Ruggiero Leoncavallo follow him with the popular _I Pagliacci_. -What he thought of the 'Veritists' we are not favored with knowing. It -would seem safe to say that he could not have been deeply impressed by -them; for the soul which gave musical expression to the emotions of -the dying lovers Radames and Aïda, to the grief-stricken Otello after -his murder of the lovely Desdemona, could have had little sympathy -with the productions of men who fairly grovelled in the dust and -covered themselves with mire in their attempts to picture the primitive -feelings of Sicilian peasantry. - -One man who is still alive and whose best work has a place in the -_répertoire_ of more than one opera house was a valued friend of Verdi. -Arrigo Boïto[73] is his name. It was he who prepared for Verdi the -_libretti_ of _Otello_ and _Falstaff_ and produced a highly creditable -score himself in his _Mefistofele_. Time was when this modern Italian's -version of the Faust story was looked upon by _cognoscenti_ as music of -modern trend. In 1895 R. A. Streatfeild, the English critic, spoke of -it as 'music of the head, rather than of the heart.' Hear it to-day -and you will wonder how he made such a statement, for we have gone far -since _Mefistofele_ and to us it sounds pretty much like 'old Italian -opera' in the accepted sense. But in its day it had potency. Boïto is, -however, a finer _littérateur_ than he is a musician. Since his success -with _Mefistofele_ he has not given us anything else. He has, to be -sure, been working for many years on a _Nero_ opera, the second act of -which--there are to be five--is now completed. But a few years ago he -donned the senatorial toga and matters of state have so occupied his -attention that he is permitted now to turn his thoughts to music only -at intervals. Further, he is already a man well along in years and -the impulse to create is no longer strong. Those who know Boïto have -reported that he will not complete _Nero_ and that it will go down as a -fragment. - -Alberto Franchetti, born in 1860 in Turin, has composed _Asrael_, -_Cristoforo Colombo_ and _Germania_, three long, unimportant works, -tried and found wanting. It was Luigi Torchi, the distinguished Italian -critic, who, in discussing _Asrael_ called it 'the most fantastic, -metaphysical humbug that was ever seen on the stage.' (Torchi wrote -this before Charpentier compelled himself to complete his 'Louise'!) -Franchetti's leaning is toward the historical opera _à la Meyerbeer_, -his method is Wagnerian. Originality he has none. - -Our Realists are before us: Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Giordano, Puccini -and Wolf-Ferrari. We have purposely omitted the names of men like -Smareglia, Cilea, Tasca and Spinelli. Their music has long since -been relegated to oblivion even in their own land. Little of it ever -got beyond the Italian boundary. Spinelli's _A Basso Porto_ reached -New York in 1900 and was thus described by Mr. W. J. Henderson, -music critic of the New York _Sun_: 'The story is so repulsive, the -personages so repellent, the motives so atrocious and the whole -atmosphere of the thing so foul with the smell of the scums and stews -of life, that one is glad to escape to the outer air.... As to the -music, ... there is not a measure of it which proclaims inspiration. -There is not an idea which carries with it conviction.' Mr. Henderson -does not even condemn our American operas so ruthlessly! From all of -which the nature of Spinelli's opera may be understood. - -We in America have for a number of years looked upon Giacomo Puccini -as the greatest of living Italian opera composers. His devotees call -him the greatest living creator of operatic music. Already his position -is becoming insecure, for younger, more inspired and more learned men -are appearing on the horizon of Italy's music. The Italians have never -held Puccini in the same esteem as have Americans. Despite his many -failures Pietro Mascagni has been the pride of Italian musicians and -music-lovers. They will grant you that his _L'Amico Fritz_, _Guglielmo -Ratcliff_ and _Iris_ have failed somewhat ignominiously. They will -admit that the story of _Iris_ is one of the most revolting subjects -ever chosen for treatment upon the stage. Yet you will have difficulty -in proving to the contrary when they challenge you to find them a more -powerful piece of orchestral writing by an Italian up to 1910 than the -'Hymn to the Sun' from that opera. We know of nothing in modern Italian -music so moving as this marvellously conceived prelude, a piece of -imaginative writing of the first rank. - -Mascagni[74] found himself famous after his _Cavalleria_. The youthful -vigor of that music, crude and immature, gripped his countrymen and -the inhabitants of other lands and made them believe that a new voice -had appeared whose musical message was to be noteworthy. Here was a -composer who had the training, who possessed definite musical ideas, -who understood the stage--by far the most important thing for a -composer of opera--but who has failed to add one iota to his reputation -though he has worked laboriously since the early nineties to do so. -His _Ysabeau_, which we were promised a few years ago, has achieved -perhaps more success in his native land than any of his operas since -_Cavalleria_; some call it a masterpiece, others decry its style as -being unnatural to its composer. A hearing in America would do much to -clarify the situation. Unfortunately Mascagni is a man who has disputes -with publishers, who disappoints impresarios who desire to produce his -works and whose domestic relations rise to turbulent climaxes from -time to time. This has played a large part in his failure to receive -hearings. And it is indeed lamentable to think that his chances for -success have been spoiled by such matters. - -His musical style is realistic, but it is never extreme. It was -_Cavalleria_ and the success gained by it that gave men like Tasca and -Spinelli the idea that they, by carrying _verismo_ further, would be -received as composers of note. Mascagni has melodic fluency, he writes -well for the voice and his management of the orchestra in _Iris_ is -proof positive that he has learned how to avoid that ill-balance of -instrumental departments which occurs constantly in _Cavalleria_. - -A smaller spirit is Leoncavallo (b. 1858). _I Pagliacci_, to be sure, -remains one of the most popular operas of the day. But that is no proof -of greatness. It must be granted that in it he touched a responsive -chord; that his music has warmth and emotional force. But what is there -in this little tragedy that lifts one up? What is there of thematic -distinction? Signor Leoncavallo, like Mascagni, has pursued the muse -and written a dozen or two operas since the world approved of his _I -Pagliacci_. He has written _Chatterton_, _I Medici_, _Maia_, a _La -Bohème_ after Murger, _I Zingari_ more recently, and he is now writing -an opera called _Ave Maria_. They represent _in toto_ a vast amount of -work, but little of achievement. Those who have heard his recent operas -agree unanimously that they lack the spark which _Pagliacci_ possesses, -that they are honest works by a man who has little to say and who tries -to say that little in an imposing manner. - -Perhaps the place of Giacomo Puccini will be determined alone by -time. He is one of those creators to whom success in overwhelming -measure comes, to whom the praise of the masses is granted during his -life-time. Signor Puccini has seen his operas made part and parcel of -virtually every operatic institution, large and small, that pretends to -have a respectably varied repertory. He has witnessed triumphs, he has -the satisfaction of knowing that such a singer as Enrico Caruso in one -of his operas can fill the vast auditorium of New York's Metropolitan -Opera House. His work, now almost completed, if we are to believe -those reports which are divulged as authentic, is the achievement of a -successful composer. His early operas _Edgar_ and _Le Villi_ are not in -the reckoning. Let us pass them by. But he has given us a _La Bohème_, -_Manon Lescaut_, _Madama Butterfly_ and _La Fanciulla del West_. All -of them have been accepted, though there may be some dispute as to the -place of the last named. Puccini is now fifty-seven years old. He was -born in 1858 at Lucca. He has enjoyed worldly possessions as the result -of having written music; he is the idol of the public. Has he won the -respect of discerning musicians? Has his music been accorded a place -alongside that of the great living masters, such as Richard Strauss, -Jean Sibelius and Claude Debussy? - -Such a problem presents itself in the case of this popular composer -for the stage. We would not deny Puccini a claim to respect; he -deserves that, if for no other reason than for his having achieved -international approval. But when one comes to a wholly serious -investigation one fears that he will not be among the elect of his -time. And there is this to be considered in arriving at an evaluation -of his achievement. He has written music in every case to stories -that the world has taken to its heart, witness _Manon_, _La Bohème_, -_Butterfly_, _Tosca_ and 'The Girl.' It mattered little to him whether -they were dramas or novels. He waited until the public had judged and -then set himself to putting them into operatic form. Such a procedure -is, of course, any composer's right. And it shows keen insight of, -however, a very obvious kind. If the story of one's opera is already -popular and admired by the world, half the battle for approval is -already won. The big men were often less wise. Weber wrote music to -stories that were not only unknown, but that had no especial appeal; -and he wrote his inspired music to _libretti_ that were shamefully -constructed and amateurishly written. - - [Illustration: Modern Italian Composers:] - - Giacomo Puccini Riccardo Zandonai - Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari Pietro Mascagni - -Men of the first rank, who are artists in everything they do, do not -choose their subjects in the way Puccini has. For Wagner the writing -of a _Tristan und Isolde_ was life--it was as necessary that he work -on that particular drama as that he breathe. And to deal with the -'Parsifal' legend when he did was likewise inevitable. Call 'Parsifal' -art or twaddle--it matters little which--you must admit that it -reflects the master in his almost senile period, interested in just -such an absurd conglomeration as Kundry, Amfortas, Klingsor and its -other dramatic materials compose. The greatest composers of opera have -written because they had to express certain things and because they -found a drama which dealt with it. Puccini has been led by what the -world approved. - -Puccini has been fortunate, indeed. His _La Bohème_ is artistically -his best work. In it there is a finer sense of balance and proportion -than in anything that he has done. He has done what few Italians are -able to do, namely, he has interpreted the French spirit. This little -opera--whose libretto, effective as it is, is in no wise an adequate -reduction of Murger's great novel--is replete with comic and tragic -moments that amuse and thrill by turns. The fun-making of the jolly -Bohemians, Rodolphe, Marcel, Schaunard and Colline, is capitally -pictured in music that is as care-free as the souls of the inhabitants -of the _Quartier Latin_. And the death of little Mimi makes a musical -scene that has potency to-day,--yes, even though Puccini has since -learned to handle his orchestral apparatus with a firmer grip and a -mightier sweep. - -_La Fanciulla del West_, which had its world-première in America in -1911, is Puccini's biggest, if not his best, production. We care not -a farthing whether his music be typical of California in 1849--we do -wish that the carpers who claim that it is not, would enlighten us by -telling just what kind of music _is_ typical of it--nor does it matter -whether one hear echoes of his earlier operas in it. It suffices that -in it he has written with a sweep and a command of his forces such -as he exhibits nowhere else and that he has written gorgeously in -more than one scene in the work. We have heard that there is not as -much melody in it as in his other operas. But, as a matter of fact, -Puccini's melodies in 'The Girl' are quite as good as those in his -other operas. What is more, they have a pungency which he has attained -nowhere else. - -But we fear that it is music of our time and that only. We cannot -bring ourselves to believe that audiences of 1975 will find in Puccini -anything that will interest them. Works that depend, to a large extent, -on the appearance of a certain singer in the cast--and Puccini's operas -do--will scarcely exert a hold on the public of a day when those -singers shall have passed from this world. Antonio Scotti has made -Scarpia in _Tosca_ so vital a histrionic figure, Mr. Caruso sings -Cavaradossi so beautifully that only the most _blasé_ opera-goer fails -to get real enjoyment from their personations. And so it is to a large -degree with his other operas. Puccini bids fair to become another -Meyerbeer when fifty years shall have rolled away. He has enjoyed the -same shouts of approval from a public no more discerning than was that -of Paris of the early nineteenth century; he has been called the most -popular operatic composer of his day. Meyerbeer was, too. Yet to-day -we can only find him tiresome and boring; we can but wonder how any -public listened to his banalities, his deadly fustian, his woeful lack -of inspiration, and express approval. Already the music of the future -is dawning on our horizon. Those of us who have given it attention -know that it is a very different thing from what music has been in the -past. What we know of it now may only be a shadow of what is to come. -Will it, when it does come and has been accepted, allow a place to the -long-drawn phrases of Giacomo Puccini? - - - II - -Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, born (1876) of a German mother and an Italian -father, presents a problem to us. He is a man whose gifts have not -at all times been applied to that which was his ideal, but rather to -the immediately necessary. If one looks at him in this light--and it -is feasible to do so--one can readily understand some of his artistic -indiscretions. The mob knows him as the composer of _I Gioielli della -Madonna_ ('Jewels of the Madonna,' 1908), his only essay in operatic -realism of the objectionable type. The art-lover hails him as the -fine spirit that conceived the little operas _Il Segreto di Suzanna_, -_Le Donne Curiose_, _L'Amore Medico_, the oratorio _La Vita Nuova_, -some charming though not important songs and several beautiful pieces -of chamber music, among them two sonatas for violin and piano and a -quintet for piano and strings. - -Wolf-Ferrari is neither Italian nor German; he is a mixture and so it -is possible to conceive his thinking music in two ways.[75] By no means -is this desirable, but when it exists, what force can alter it? We -feel that the 'Jewels of the Madonna'--which those for whom music is -an entertainment rather than an art admire so much--is simply a 'bad -dream' of its composer's. Before one knows his instrumental music one -thinks it was the real Wolf-Ferrari and that the _finesse_ of his other -operas was a pose. There are many things which caused the 'Jewels' to -be written; persons who know the composer and who were in Munich when -it was being written say that the chief one was the need of financial -aid. Seeing the shekels pouring into the baskets of composers who did -this kind of thing regularly, Wolf-Ferrari 'tried his hand,' thinking -that it would be lucrative. That part of the adventure has not been -denied him. But it has done him immeasurable harm in the opinions -of many who were looking to him for greater things. Its chances are -limited--it cannot be sung in Italy on account of its misrepresentation -of Neapolitan life--and the Metropolitan Opera House has refused to -place it in the _répertoire_. - -What Wolf-Ferrari will do no one can say. His next production may be in -his dainty and at all times charming manner. It may quite as readily be -a lurid and vulgar thing in the coarse musical style of 'The Jewels.' -One can only hope that the widely expressed regrets of _cognoscenti_ -on the appearance of this unsavory and uninspired work will have their -effect on the composer and that he will give us more in his _rococo_ -style, which if not original is at any rate delightful and unique in -the music of to-day. - -Times change and music develops. There is, in fact, no branch of art -in which metamorphoses are so quickly accomplished. Not a decade ago -Luigi Torchi wrote that Umberto Giordano (b. 1867) was an ultra-modern -composer! This from a man whose knowledge and fairness must be viewed -with respect. Giordano an ultra-modern! One hesitates to answer such -a fatuous assertion. Were it not generally known that what is new in -music to-day is _rococo_ to-morrow the case might be a serious one. -Umberto Giordano is inconsequential in the evaluating of Italian -music-drama. His achievements are the operas _Regina Diaz_, _Mala -Vita_, _Andrea Chénier_, _Fedora_, _Siberia_ and _Mme. Sans-Gêne_. -For the opera-goer of to-day the list has little meaning. _Regina -Diaz_, an early work, occupies a place in that limbo of the past -where Puccini's _Le Villi_ has long been slumbering. _Mala Vita_ was -a failure, _Andrea Chénier_ and _Fedora_ mild successes. 'Siberia' -had meritorious features, notably the Russian folk-songs which were -employed _verbatim_; had Signor Giordano been a musician who had the -power to develop them symphonically and thus make them part and parcel -of his score his opera might have taken a place in the repertory of -the world's opera-houses. _Fedora_, based on that wretched example -of Sardoodledom, was quickly consigned to oblivion and now his -long-awaited _Madame Sans-Gêne_--which he has been thinking about since -the time he went to Giuseppe Verdi and asked him whether it would be -possible to write an opera in which Napoleon had to sing--has failed -to establish him an iota more firmly in the estimation of musicians -and lovers of music-drama. Many years have been required for the -composition of _Sans-Gêne_; Giordano, once looked to as one of the -'younger Italians,' is no longer to be placed in that category. He is -nearly fifty and he writes slowly. From him little is to be expected. -He remains one of those lesser composers, whose name was brought -into prominence by his _Andrea Chénier_ at a time when the interest -in Italy's then younger men had been aroused through the unequivocal -success of _Cavalleria_ and _I Pagliacci_. - -Giacomo Orefice and Luigi Mancinelli are two men whose activities as -composers have resulted in several operas that have had hearings. -Orefice has done the operas _Mariska_, _Consuelo_, _Il Gladiatore_, -_Chopin_, _Cecilia_, _Mose_, and _Il Pane Altri_. His _Chopin_ seems -to have aroused the most comment; in it he pictured incidents in -the life of the great Polish piano composer and in doing so he has -employed Chopin's music, setting some of the nocturnes as solos for the -voice, etc. He is, however, more of a musical scholar than a composer. -Mancinelli, who has divided his time between conducting and composing, -has done a 'Hero and Leander,' which had a respectable success when -first heard. His other operas are _Isora di Provenza_ and _Paolo e -Francesca_. He has also done two oratorios, _Isaia_ and _San Agnese_. -His musical speech is frankly that of a post-Wagnerian. - - - III - -Fortunately for the Italian music-drama there are two young men living -to-day who have achieved art-works which seem to be the creation of -individual thought. Riccardo Zandonai and Italo Montemezzi must carry -the banner of their land in the music-drama. The world has not taken -them into that much cherished household-word condition, but one does -note their attracting attention among musicians. And this is the first -step. - -Montemezzi is one of those composers who was absolutely unknown outside -of his own country until _L'Amore dei tre re_ was heard in New York in -1914. With little heralding the Metropolitan Opera House produced his -work; there were rumors of certain influences being responsible for its -being done. Many shook their heads at its chances of being accepted -by the public. The final rehearsals were not completed when it was -recognized by a few gentlemen of the press that here was a new composer -who, though he had nothing wholly original to say, was a man who could -speak his lines with distinction. The _première_ came and the little -opera was acclaimed. It was at once seen that Signor Montemezzi was -a man who harked back to the poetic drama as a basis for his musical -structure, that he had no patience with the veritists in opera. He had, -as it were, a finer soul, a loftier spiritual outlook than the rank -and file of his countrymen who had tried to win in the field of opera -within the last fifteen years. - -Italo Montemezzi was born in 1876. His works, all operatic, are: -_Giovanni Gallurese_, produced in Turin at the Victor Emmanuel Theatre -on January 28, 1905, _Hellera_, at Turin at the Regio Theatre on March -17, 1909, and _L'Amore dei tre re_, in Milan at La Scala in the winter -of 1913. It is rather strange to note in this composer a total freedom -from the long-drawn phrase made so popular by Mr. Puccini. Montemezzi -seems to abhor it; and it is to his credit that he can work without -it. His earlier operas were less refined, but to-day it is always -possible to recognize his restraint in working up his climaxes and his -mastery in the highly imaginative orchestral score which he sets down. -Nothing that modern orchestration includes is unknown to him, but he -is sparing in his use of the instruments: he avoids monotonous stopped -brass effects--which modern composers dote on to the distress of their -listeners--he speaks a poetic utterance like a man in whom there is -that spark that bids him contribute to the art-work of mankind. - -But with all his talent he does not possess genius. The man in Italy -who has that is Riccardo Zandonai, whose place is at the head of -the leaders in his country's music. Signor Zandonai is in truth -young. He is but thirty-two to-day (1915), and he has already done an -unquestionably important work. When you know the music of this man you -will realize that Italy's place in the music of the future is to be a -glorious one. For his followers will be path-breakers like himself. -Already one has appeared on the horizon. Of him we shall speak later. -To Dickens and his 'Cricket on the Hearth,' which the Latins call _Il -Grillo del Focolare_, Zandonai first gave his attention. This opera was -first given at the Politeama Chiarella in Turin on November 28, 1908, -followed by his _Conchita_ at the Dal Verme in Milan on November 13, -1912. We pause here to speak of this opera, which though received with -an ovation at its every premier performance, barring New York, does not -seem to have held its place in the _répertoire_. The libretto, which is -after Pierre Louys's _La Femme et le Pantin_, is not one that interests -the public. _Conchita_ was given, as we said, in Milan, then in London -at Covent Garden, then in San Francisco by a visiting company which -came over to give a season of opera; Cleofonte Campanini produced it in -Chicago and Philadelphia and then brought it to New York for one of the -guest performances in February, 1913. No further performances in New -York were planned. To pass judgment on it from that performance--which -is what actually happened in the case of the newspaper reviewers--was -idle. Only Tarquinia Tarquini, the young Italian mezzo-soprano, for -whom the composer wrote the rôle, was adequate. The tenor who sang -was already losing his best qualities, and the other parts were only -moderately well done. The chorus was fair and the orchestra likewise. -Mr. Campanini labored to put spirit into the performance, but it seemed -that the score was a little too subtle for his rather obvious powers of -comprehension. - -One New York critic agreed with the present writer that in spite of the -performance _Conchita_ was the most interesting novelty that had been -brought out since _Pelléas_. Since then everything that this composer -has done has been watched with the greatest interest. _Conchita_ was -accused of lacking melody, of being 'patchy,' of being overscored -in spots. None of these things are true when one knows the work. A -week's study of the score reveals among the most gorgeous moments -that modern Italy has given us, moments which cannot fail to impress -any fair-minded person with their composer's genius. Zandonai is an -ultra-modern and he writes without making any concessions to his -forces. _Conchita_ may not be a work that fifty years hence will know, -but it is far too good an achievement to be allowed to lie on the shelf -in these days of semi-sterility in operatic composition. - -To Zandonai's list of operas we must add _Melenis_, which first saw -the light at the Dal Verme in Milan on November 13, 1912. It was not -successful. Then did Zandonai set himself his greatest task, for he -began _Francesca da Rimini_, using as his libretto a reduction of -d'Annunzio's superb drama, the work of Tito Ricordi, the noted Italian -publisher. It was done at the Scala in Milan in the spring of 1914 -and was a triumph. The following summer brought it to Covent Garden, -London, where its success was again instantaneous. The Boston Opera -Company had planned to give it in the winter of 1913-1914, but the -illness of Lina Cavalieri postponed it. Then Mr. Gatti-Casazza was -rumored to have taken it for the Metropolitan Opera in New York for the -season of 1914-1915, but it has not been forthcoming. - -Of _Francesca_ we can only speak through an acquaintance with -the published score. We have not sat in the audience and gotten -that perspective which is, perhaps, necessary in estimating a new -music-drama's worth. But the impressions thus gained may be recorded -here at any rate. A magnificent drama, containing everything that the -musician who would accomplish the wedding of the two arts requires, Mr. -Zandonai must have gotten much inspiration in working on it. And the -results are plainly there. The full, Italian rich melodic flow, which -in _Conchita_ was not always present, the apt sense of illustrating the -dramatic moment in tone, the masterly command of modern harmony and a -vital pulsing surge are in this music. If Mr. Zandonai ever surpasses -the love-scene of Paolo and Francesca he will go down in history as a -giant. If he does not he will already at the age of thirty-two have -made a distinguished place for himself. Personally we know nothing -in modern French, German or Russian music-drama that compares with -this, unless it be the great moments in Richard Strauss's _Salomé_ and -_Elektra_. As for the orchestral score of _Francesca_, we have heard -Mr. Zandonai's orchestra, know how he employs his instruments and are -certain that in the time between _Conchita_ and this work he has, if -anything, progressed. That wonderful sweep which he had at his command -in the earlier opera must be present again in this newer one. Should it -not be we still feel sure that the work will win on the merits of its -distinguished thematic material. - -Rumor has it that Zandonai is now engaged on setting Rostand's _La -princesse lointaine_. Some day he may do _Cyrano_, too, since his -publishers acquired all the Rostand dramas two years ago for operatic -use. And we may rightly expect important things from him, for he is a -musician of the first rank, Italy's genius of to-day. That he is not -only a composer for the stage will be explained in the next chapter -when we shall treat of his noteworthy art-songs and his orchestral -works. - -The follower of Zandonai who has been mentioned though not named, is -the boy Vittore de Sabbata. We have learned that he has completed an -opera which has made his publishers skeptical as to what he will do -in the future. It is said to be so modern in its mode of expression, -so difficult to produce, that it has not been definitely decided -whether or not it will be undertaken. The score of his Suite for -orchestra, written at eighteen, has made us marvel at his ingenuity -and his pregnant musical ideas. What he will do is not to be gauged -by any rule. He may prove to be a prodigy whose light will have been -extinguished long before he is thirty. His health is reported to be -very poor and so he may be taken from us before he achieves anything -definite. At any rate his name deserves recording, for he may be one of -those men who will figure prominently in bearing onward the legion of -the Italian music-drama of the future. - -Vittorio Gnecchi, born in 1876, has done two operas, _Cassandra_ and -_Virtù d'Amore_. _Cassandra_ was first produced in 1905 at the Teatro -Communale in Bologna and has since been heard at Ferrara in 1908, in -Vienna at the Volksoper in 1911 and in Philadelphia in 1914. Gnecchi's -instrumentation has been much praised, likened in fact to that of -Richard Strauss. On its American production several critics found -in the scoring of _Cassandra_ much that recalled that of Strauss's -_Elektra_. When they were reminded of the date of production and -composition of _Cassandra_, Gnecchi was soon vindicated from the charge -of having copied the Munich composer's orchestral writing. - -Worthy of record are Giuseppe Bezzi (b. 1874) with his _Quo Vadis_, -Renzo Bianchi (b. 1887) with his _Fausta_, Renato Brogi (b. 1873) with -_Oblio_ and _La Prima Notte_, Alessandro Bustini (b. 1876) with _Maria -Dulcis_, Arturo Cadore (b. 1877) with _Il Natale_, Ezio Camussi (b. -1883) with _La Du Barry_, Agostino Cantu (b. 1878) with _Il Poeta_, -Leopoldo Cassone (b. 1878) with _Al Mulino_ and _Velda_, Roberto -Catolla (b. 1871) with _La Campana di Groninga_, Giuseppe Cicognani -(b. 1870) with _Il Figlio Del Mare_, Domenico Cortopassi (b. 1875) -with _Santa Poesia_, Alfredo Cuscina (b. 1881) with _Radda_, Ferruccio -Cusinati (b. 1873) with _Medora_ and _Tradita_, and Franco Leoni with -_Ib e la Piccola Cristina_, _L'Oracolo_, _Raggio di luna_, _Rip Van -Winkle_ and _Tzigana_. - - A. W. K. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[73] B. Padua, Feb. 24, 1842, pupil of the Milan Conservatory, but -cosmopolitan in his influences, having visited Paris, Germany (where he -was interested in Wagner) and Poland, his mother's home. Two cantatas, -_'The Fourth of June'_ (1860) and _Le sorelle d'Italia_ (1862), were -his first published efforts. - -[74] B. Livorno, Dec. 7, 1863, pupil of Ponchielli and Saladino in -Milan Conservatory. - -[75] Born in Venice Jan. 12, 1876, he studied with Rheinberger in -Munich in 1893-95, though in the main he is self-taught. - - - - - CHAPTER XII - THE RENAISSANCE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN ITALY - - Martucci and Sgambati--The symphonic composers: Zandonai, de - Sabbata, Alfano, Marinuzzi, Sinigaglia, Mancinelli, Floridia; - the piano and violin composers: Franco da Venezia, Paolo - Frontini, Mario Tarenghi; Rosario Scalero, Leone Sinigaglia; - composers for the organ--The song writers: art songs; - ballads--Modern Spanish composers. - - -One is tempted to halt in the midst of an investigation of Italy's -instrumental music to note the unusual progress which this nation of -opera-lovers has made in arriving at a point where absolute music has -a place in its æsthetic life. And only because Italy, from Boccherini -to Sgambati, ignored the development of music apart from that of the -stage is it necessary to express wonderment at this worthy advance. A -country that could produce a Palestrina, a Frescobaldi and a Corelli, -in the days when the art of music was still in its youth, found that it -was chiefly interested in the wedding--or attempted wedding--of words -and music. There were, to be sure, at all times men who wrote what -they thought symphonies of merit, men for the most part who had little -to say. Some of them were unable to work with the opera-form as it -existed. Their music was, however, the kind that never gets beyond the -borders of its own country, if it succeeds in passing the city in which -it is first heard. The opera-composers were much too busy getting ready -an aria for Signorina Batti or Signor Lodi to study the symphonic form. -So Italy went its merry way, without symphony, without chamber music, -without the art-song, in fact without everything that belongs to the -nobler kind, from the days of Boccherini, of the much venerated Luigi -Cherubini to the appearance in 1843 of the late Giovanni Sgambati. - -That period covered, then, from 1770, when Boccherini flourished, till -1850. The reasons for the exclusive interest in opera must be sought in -the conditions obtaining in Rome, Milan, Florence, Genoa, Naples and -other leading cities. Opera-composers wrote music that the orchestras -could manage with little or no trouble; symphonic music, naturally -more difficult of execution, was, to begin with, beyond the ability of -most of these orchestras. In fact it is only recently that the Italian -orchestras have been brought to a real point of efficiency. So Italy -went on, still holding high its head as a musical nation--in its own -estimation, of course. To make a name as a musician one had to compose -a successful opera. A fine string quartet meant nothing to the public, -for it was a public that did not know what chamber-music was. There -were, to be sure, occasional performances, but they were sporadic, and -they had no significance for the people. After all it is not strange -that this occurred. Other nations have experienced similar stages in -their development in other arts. Italy went through it in music. To-day -she has found herself and she is rapidly doing everything in her power -to atone for her shortcomings during those many years when _opera_, in -the opinion of her people, was synonymous with _music_. - - - I - -Giovanni Sgambati was born in 1843. About the year 1866 he began -to make his influence felt and his compositions appeared from the -publishers, who, it may be of interest to note, were advised by Wagner -to exploit his music. The friendship of Franz Liszt and Sgambati was -a very beautiful one; Liszt, in his really noble and generous way, -championed the young Italian, saw in him a desire to do something -in which Italians of even that day were not especially absorbed. -Sgambati did not show Liszt an opera in the Rossinian manner when -the master arrived in Rome in 1861. With serious purpose he brought -him a symphony. And Liszt, intelligent musical spirit that he was, -looked at it and recognized that here was an Italian who knew what -the symphonic form meant, who knew his orchestra, who could write -with some distinction. If one does not expect the impossible of a -pioneer there is always something to be found in his activity that -deserves our aid and sympathy. So Liszt encouraged the young man. -Sgambati labored arduously; he accomplished a great deal. In his list -of works there are symphonies, two of them, there are chamber works -for strings with piano, there is a piano concerto, shorter pieces for -the piano, some for violin, many songs, a 'Requiem' and other pieces -in various forms. Sgambati as an innovator is nothing; Sgambati as an -Italian symphonic pioneer is important. There was work to be done and -he did it with a zeal that speaks volumes for his artistic sense. We -of to-day might find his symphonies tiresome, we might consider them -too consciously Brahmsian without the real Brahms spark, to hold our -attention. But their meaning for those men who are producing vital -things in Italy to-day is undeniable. Sgambati not only gave the world -his compositions; he saw to it that for the first time the symphonic -works of the great German masters were produced in his country. And he -was among the earliest of the Italians to champion the music of Richard -Wagner. Such a man, a musician with the breadth to appreciate Wagner -in the days when Wagner was hissed and ridiculed, must in truth have -possessed the soul of an artist. - -With him worked a colleague, Giuseppe Martucci. Like him, he was a -pianist of note as well as a composer. Martucci came a little later -than Sgambati; he was born in 1856, and he is still living to-day -(1915). For him, too, there was in music something beyond an opera -that filled the theatre from floor to gallery and gave some adored -singer the opportunity to disport himself in the unmusical cadenzas -and other pyrotechnical passages which composers all around him were -manufacturing so assiduously. In placing an estimate on the achievement -of Martucci it is not impossible to consider him quite as important -a figure as Sgambati. His music, too, has traits that are typically -Italian, though based on German models. His two symphonies, his piano -concerto in B-flat minor are admirable compositions, none of them -heaven-storming in originality, all of them eminently praiseworthy for -the solidity of their texture, for the beauty of their design and for -the unflinching adherence to high ideals which they embody. - -It was hardly to be expected that the two men who set the example for -their countrymen in symphonic composition would be geniuses of the -first rank. Had they been they would doubtless have worked along other -lines. Italian symphonic composition was to be placed on a secure -basis not by path-breakers, but by path-makers. This they were. And -they were notable examples of what good such men can work. Italy is -rapidly making felt her individuality in the contemporary musical world -by the strides in original composition which she is taking. To those -two pioneers, Giovanni Sgambati and Giuseppe Martucci, must go the -credit for having pointed the way to absolute music by Italians, for -having toiled so that the men who came after them might take what they -had done and build on it individual structures. And also that their -followers might have a public that would listen to them. - -Nowhere in the world to-day is there more activity in musical -composition than among the young Italians. The world at large seems -to know less about them than it does, for example, about the modern -French or Russians. This is perhaps largely the fault of the Italian -publishers, who do not seem to spread their publications about in other -lands as do their colleagues. Yet the sincere and eager investigator -cannot go far before he finds a vast amount of engaging new Italian -music. - - - II - -In the field of the symphonic orchestra we meet with Leone Sinigaglia, -Riccardo Zandonai, Vittore de Sabbata, Gino Marinuzzi, Franco Alfano, -Luigi Mancinelli. In the previous chapter we have dwelt on the music -of Zandonai's operas. He is, however, one of those big men who have -been moved to do absolute music as well; and he has done several fine -things for the concert-hall. Like him, the young de Sabbata, of whom -we have spoken, and the older Mancinelli, who is better known as a -conductor than as a creative musician, have also contributed to the -symphonic literature. The others, barring Alfano, who has done some -four unsuccessful operas, are composers of absolute music alone. - -Zandonai, Italy's greatest figure, has a symphonic poem, _Vere Novo_, -which must be seriously considered. Though it is really an orchestral -piece, the composer has called in the aid of a baritone solo voice -in an Ode to Spring, the poem being by the distinguished Gabriele -d'Annunzio. In it we find a wonderful command of orchestral effects, -an intimate knowledge of the nature of the various instruments and a -masterly attention to detail. The strings are subdivided into many -parts--and not in vain--and the whole work is unquestionably important. -There is also a delightful _Serenata Mediovale_ for orchestra with -an important part for a solo violoncello, a composition which has -distinction and geniality at the same time. It had a performance in New -York at an all-Italian concert several years ago, but since then it has -been unjustly allowed to languish. - -Franco Alfano, born in 1876, has done a Symphony in E and a 'Romantic -Suite,' two compositions that have done much to make his name -respected. For those who do not believe that a real symphony has -come out of Italy of the twentieth century an examination of this -score may well be advised. It will convince even the most skeptical. -Alfano's instrumentation is always good and he knows how to develop -his material. Picturesque is the suite consisting of _Notte Adriatica_ -(Night on the Adriatic), _Echi dell' Appennino_ (Echoes of the -Apennines), _Al chiostro abbandonato_ (To an Abandoned Cloister) and -_Natale campane_ (Christmas Bells). These four movements are frankly -programmatic. They are not profound, but they are engaging, and they -should be made known wherever good orchestras exist. When we think of -some of the unsatisfactory French orchestral novelties, German works of -no especial distinction that have been produced recently, it would seem -the duty of conductors to seek out these Italian scores and present -them to the public. - -In Leone Sinigaglia, a native of Turin--he was born in 1868--Italy has -a composer who has done for the folk-music of his province, if not -his country, something akin to what such nationalists as Dvořák and -Grieg accomplished. _Piemonte_ is the title of a suite, his opus 36, -and _Danze Piemontese_ are two dances built on Piedmontese themes. -These melodies of the people, indigenous material that has always -proved a boon to gifted composers, have been treated by Sinigaglia -with rare skill. He has clothed them in an orchestral garb which sets -off their virtues most favorably and their popular nature should play -an interesting part in gaining for them the approval of concert -audiences. His 'Rustic Dance' from the suite _Piemonte_ is thrilling, -while in the same suite occurs _In Montibus Sanctis_, in which there -is an invocation to the Virgin, serene and aloof in its inflections. -The Piedmontese dances are brilliant, racy compositions, a master's -development of tunes born of the soil. In bright and gay spirit, too, -is his overture _Le Baruffe Chiozzotte_ after a Goldoni comedy. This -glistening little overture has already been played in America and never -fails to arouse the good spirits of all who hear it. - -Sicily comes in for musical picturing in the work of Gino Marinuzzi, -born in 1882, a composer whose name is little known. The average -musician is not aware of his existence. Yet this modest musician has -produced a symphonic poem _Sicania_ and a _Suite Siciliana_. What -Sinigaglia does with the folk-melodies of his native Piedmont Marinuzzi -accomplishes by employing Sicilian tunes. And they are very beautiful, -too. After all, the results obtained in working on the folk-music of -any people depend on the skill of the artist who is welding them into -an art-work. Composers enough have tried to make symphonic works of -the crude tunes of our Indian aborigines, but few, with the exception -of Edward MacDowell in his 'Indian Suite,' have accomplished works -of art by their labors. It is, then, a matter of treatment; and both -Sinigaglia and Marinuzzi are well equipped to express in tone their -conception of folk-songs in artistic treatment, as their orchestral -works prove conclusively. - -The boy de Sabbata was born in Trieste in 1892. Saladino and Orefice -were his masters at the conservatory in Milan and they taught him -well. His orchestral technique matches that of Zandonai already and -it is almost impossible to imagine what he will arrive at in the -future. His Suite in four movements, _Risveglio mattutino_ (A Morning -Awakening), _Tra fronda e fronda_ ('Mid Leafy Branches), an _Idilio_ -and _Meriggio_ (Midday), is one of the most amazing orchestral scores -we have ever seen. It was written at the age of twenty. De Sabbata is -not a Korngold in his musical speech; he is a modern to be sure, but -he has none of the qualities which have won for the young Viennese -composer such heated discussion. His harmonies are new, yet they do not -seem to have been put down with any desire to be different. There is a -very distinct personality in this music, and in the third movement of -his suite (_Idilio_) there is some of the warmest writing that has come -to our notice in a long time. This young man has imagination, strong -fantasy and a keen appreciation of color. At twenty he can say more -than most composers at forty. And because he says it in his own way one -cannot help thinking that the future will be very bright for him. The -only hindrance is his ill health, which is already causing those who -are interested in him much concern. - -Pietro Floridia, born in 1860, an Italian musician who lives in -New York, has written a symphony in D minor, creditable from the -standpoint of the student but uninteresting for the public. It -has had a performance in New York, where it was cordially, if not -enthusiastically, received. Mr. Floridia has also done the operas -_Carlotta Clepier_, _La Colonia Libera_, _Maruzza_ and _Paoletta_. -Of Luigi Mancinelli's orchestral compositions the Suite _Scene -Veneziane_ has been performed in London. They are interesting examples -of an Italian whose idiom is post-Wagnerian in the broadest sense. -And Alberto Franchetti, better known for his operas, has composed a -symphony which Theodore Thomas played shortly after it was composed. -Like his other productions it lacks physiognomy totally. - -It may not be amiss to digress here to say a word about Signor -Marinetti and his Futurist fellows. Their place is not an especially -important one in Italy's musical scheme. Their presence does, however, -make them come in for consideration. What Signor Marinetti and -his colleagues would have music become none of us will be so rash -as to endorse. Thus far he has given performances of works of his -own invention, using instruments which make hideous and inartistic -noises to express his ideas. He calls them 'gurglers,' 'snorters' and -'growlers.' We are not conservative in our taste; we cannot afford to -be, for we have with us the very interesting Arnold Schönberg, who -is a Futurist in tendencies, though not of the Marinetti type, and -Leo Ornstein, whose music is the _dernier cri_ in our development. -Ornstein's music seems to have no relation with musical art of the -past; he is an impressionist and writes as he feels. He refuses -explanations of his music, further than his stating that he is -oblivious to all that has gone before in musical composition, and -writes what his emotions tell him to, quite as he hears it before ever -a note is set to paper. He employs the piano, stringed instruments, the -voice, the orchestra, as the case may be. He is therefore obviously not -of Signor Marinetti's tribe. There might be some interest in hearing -one of the latter's bombardments, but it cannot have any æsthetic -value. It must fail as one of those wayward retrogressions which all -arts have experienced at some time in their history. From Marinetti we -need fear nothing. He will be forgotten long before the next decade -rolls round, when his aggressive experiment in what he calls music will -have been heartily exploded as the attempt on the part of an iconoclast -to fuse a passing madness with a lofty art. - - - III - -Italian piano composers are few; only one of them touches the -high-water mark. Franco da Venezia is his name and he has put to -his credit a _Konzertstück_ for piano and orchestra and some very -unusual shorter pieces for pianoforte solo. The former is regarded as -a splendid work. Of the _morceaux_ we cannot say too much. Da Venezia -is a man of strong physiognomy. He makes no compromises to win his -public, he writes no _salon_ music. Look at his 'Caravan and Prayer in -the Desert' and you will know what he can do with the keyboard of the -piano! Then turn the pages of a short poem for the piano, _L'Isle des -morts_, in which there is more real feeling than in the volumes of many -a fashionable modern Frenchman. Fire has been struck here; nor has it -been lighted to express some happy little thought that might please -amateur pianists. In this music a tone-poet speaks and his message is -worth listening to. Paolo Frontini is another man who has written much -for the piano. Not important music is his like that of da Venezia, but -he has done some very agreeable pieces, musicianly in execution and -certainly worthy of acquaintance. Mario Tarenghi, Muzio Agostini and a -half dozen others, whose names would scarcely be worth recording, have -contributed small shares. Modern Italy's piano composer is Signor da -Venezia. It is to him that we must look for the Italian piano music of -the day. - -Corelli, Vivaldi, Vitali, Veracini and a host of others held the high -standard of their country in violin music in the days of the classic -foundations. We have not forgotten Corelli's _La Follia_, the sonatas -of these other men, nor the superb chaconne of Vitali. These men were -violinists and their répertoire was acquired and increased by their own -compositions. Until Nicolo Paganini appeared in 1782 the Italian violin -literature was scarcely enlarged. And Paganini's music had value only -as _violin music_, whereas theirs had and _has_ a place to-day both -as music and as music for the violin. Now again an Italian violinist -has come forward, the musician who has established a string quartet -in Rome, where he gives his concerts every year for a discriminating -public. Rosario Scalero has in a sense atoned for the woeful lack of -violin composition in his country. Scalero is not perhaps as original -a composer as we would like to have him; he has followed German models -and has studied seriously. But his sonata in D minor for violin and -piano is one of the best modern sonatas we have, and we must be -grateful that it has come to us from a land that has done little since -the seventeenth century in producing chamber music for the violin. -This sonata leans a little on Brahms, but there is in it at the same -time something of that Italian feeling which one recognizes so easily -in music, whether it be for the violin, piano, orchestra or what not. -Scalero has also put forth revisions of some of the classical sonatas -by the old Italian masters, revisions that show his erudition and -artistic judgment. - -Some short compositions and a 'Piedmontese Rhapsody' by Sinigaglia -constitute that very interesting musician's contribution to violin -music. They are all of them idiomatically conceived and effective -in performance. The Rhapsody is made up of folk-songs of Piedmont, -quite as are the orchestral dances which have been discussed. It is -an exceptionally felicitous piece to perform, and with orchestral -accompaniment it should soon replace such hackneyed music as -Saint-Saëns's _Rondo Capriccioso_. Beyond the efforts of these two men -nothing of value is being written for the violin by the modern Italians. - -Before turning to the discussion of the art-song we must speak of that -curious musical personality, Don Lorenzo Perosi, born in 1872, who is -the representative of oratorio in his land to-day. Also the Italian -organ composers. Perosi began his career by startling all who knew him -with his pretentious works in which he has employed Biblical narratives -as the subject for long oratorios. His 'Resurrection of Lazarus' when -first produced in Venice fixed the attention of the world upon him. -It was said that a new Palestrina had been found. All kinds of honors -were paid him. A street in his native Tortona was named after him. His -services as conductor at presentations of his oratorios were sought. We -cannot do better than to quote the remarks of Luigi Torchi, who seems -to have examined his productions very carefully. He says: 'After all, -why this hurrah about Perosi? He, whose recreation in times past was -to compose cathedral church hymns after the pattern of the Protestant -chorales, writes at present his vulgarly vaunted oratorios. This little -abbé, born with theatrical, operatic talent, and not being permitted -as a priest to write operas, in fault of religious feeling gives vent -by way of compensation to the fullness of his romantic and sentimental -exultations. And look at the form of his compositions: a frequency -of tedious recitatives with words that follow literally the text of -the Bible; little melodies, properly beginnings without endings, -without any severe dignity of line, alternate with more or less long -instrumental pieces of lyrical character; a couple of modern church -anthems, in a work drawn from the New Testament; plain-song harmonized -tragically, and some attempts at operatic realism, ecclesiastical -harmonies and realistic operatic style.... He follows the lead of -Wagner, and makes use of the _leit-motif_; soon after he delights in -turning his back on him, and offers a badly made fugue on a subject -that smells of too classic times. He has a fondness for instrumental -phrases of much color, but his purely orchestral numbers are puerile, -and betray no knowledge of modern orchestration. He has learned to -compose pieces without ideas, fugues without developments, and, that -he might not be too badly off, orchestral intermezzos, written and -orchestrated with the knowledge of a schoolboy. Perosi has undertaken -the task of illustrating the life of our Saviour in twelve oratorios. -If he should keep his word, he should be pardoned.' - -Thus this abbé-composer is disposed of. Marco Enrico Bossi, born in -1861 in Brescia, has written two oratorios, 'Paradise Lost' and 'Joan -of Arc,' fine, sincere works along lines that add little to what has -been done in the field before his time. He is at least dignified and -knows his craft and so, unlike Perosi, cannot be charged with being a -_poseur_. He is the foremost living organ composer that Italy owns. And -it is in this department of activity that he is at his best. Some will -think that he should have been mentioned with the orchestral composers. -But his orchestral works are of the Sgambati-Martucci kind, and, since -he is one of the younger men, it would be hardly proper to discuss -academic essays along with the work of those men who are blazing paths. -His chamber music, including a fine trio 'In Memoriam,' is creditable -but undistinguished. It is only in his organ music that an individual -note is found. - -Cesare Galeotti, Oreste Ravanello, Polibio Fumagalli, Filippo Capocci, -these are names of men who have written in recent years and are writing -(some of them) organ music to-day. Capocci has done several sonatas of -a pleasing type, as has Fumagalli, while the other two have confined -themselves to working in the smaller forms, often with much success. - -Two native Italians who have made their homes in America must be -mentioned here. They are Pietro Alessandro Yon and Giuseppe Ferrata. -Mr. Yon is a young man of unquestioned talent. He was born in Settimo -in 1886 and occupies the post of organist of the Church of St. Francis -Xavier, New York, devoting a good portion of his time, however, to -composition. Just as it is the duty of organists of Anglican churches -to turn out an occasional _Te Deum_ or _Jubilate_, so must the Catholic -church organist produce a Mass every now and then. Mr. Yon is one of -those who when he comes forward with a Mass gives us a musical work -of distinction, not a _pièce d'occasion_. He has written a number of -them, but particularly fine is his recent Mass in A. Here the true -ecclesiastical spirit of the Roman church is to be found; and what -a mastery of polyphony does this young Italian exhibit! His organ -compositions are also praiseworthy, a charming 'Christmas in Sicily' -and a 'Prelude-Pastorale' (_Dies est laetitiæ_) being characteristic -examples. - -Giuseppe Ferrata (b. 1866) lives in New Orleans, Louisiana, where he -teaches and composes. His list of works is a long one, including a -_Messe solennelle_ for solo voices, chorus or mixed voices and organ -or orchestra, a Mass in G minor for male voices and organ, numerous -songs, piano pieces, and a dozen or more violin compositions in small -forms. He should be praised especially for a very fine string quartet -in G major and a group of sterling organ compositions. Mr. Ferrata's -path to success has not been made easier by his living in America; it -has, in a sense, taken him away from Italy and her ways and, though -it has doubtless given him a freer viewpoint, he has had to struggle -for a hearing. His compositions are only now being recognized and -given performances. He has something to say, has a fine compositional -technique, and he is disposed to add to his style the innovations of -modern harmonic thought. - - - IV - -Doubtless ninety-nine out of every hundred musicians and music-lovers -still believe that Italy has no art-song, that her composers are still -devoting their energies to turning out those delectable _morceaux_ -in ballad-style which Italian opera singers have sung in the past, -and still do, to an extent, when they are called upon to take part -in a concert. For these persons, whose number is a large one, it -will be surprising information that Italy is working very seriously -in the field of the art-song. And the man who has achieved the most -conspicuous place in this department is that young genius, Riccardo -Zandonai, already spoken of as a music-dramatist and as a symphonic -composer. Whereas some of the songs which can be placed in this class -by contemporary Italians still contain germs of the popular Italian -song style, Zandonai's songs are indubitably on the high plane which is -uninfluenced by popular tendencies. - -Mr. Zandonai has doubtless done a great many more songs than we in -America have been made familiar with. He has perhaps also written many -more than he has published, the case with most composers. Several -years ago there appeared three songs, first a setting of Verlaine's -_Il pleure dans mon cœur_, then _Coucher de soleil à Kérazur_ and -third _Soror dolorosa_ to one of Catulle Mendès' finest impassioned -outbursts. The effect of these songs on musicians who, at the time, -had heard no music of Zandonai was tremendous. In every measure was -written plainly the utterance of a big personality, who commanded -modern harmonies with indisputable mastery. Whether his setting of -the lovely Verlaine poem matches or surpasses the widely known one of -Debussy is of little consequence. It is not at all like it; Zandonai -doubtless was unfamiliar with the Debussy version when he wrote the -song and his _Il pleure_ has an atmosphere all its own. The Orientalism -of _Coucher de soleil à Kérazur_ is unique--it gives the impression of -a twilight conceived through an entirely new lens. But it is in the -_Soror dolorosa_ that the composer has written what would seem to be -one of his masterpieces. Every drop of the emotional force that Mendès -has called out in his glorious stanzas, every bit of the color, of -the warmth of the poem is reflected stunningly in this music. It is a -wedding of voice and piano, achieved only by the greatest masters in -their most notable songs. - -Then there appeared another set of songs, this time five in number. -_Visione invernale_, _I due tarli_, _Ultima rosa_ (this one to a -Foggozzaro poem), _Serenata_ and _L'Assiuolo_ are the titles. You -cannot prefer one of these songs to the other if you really get their -meaning; only the last one might be said to be not so distinctive. The -wonderful dirge of _Visione Invernale_, the thrilling melodic beauty -of _Ultima rosa_ and the lighter _Serenata_ and the tragic narrative -of _I due tarli_ ('The Two Worms') grip as do few things in modern -music. If Mr. Zandonai has written difficult songs, that is, from the -singer's standpoint, it was not unexpected. No composer who really had -a message ever wrote to a singer's taste. And Mr. Zandonai never makes -concessions. - -Guido Bianchini, Enrico Morpurgo, Alfredo Brüggemann, Mario -Barbieri--names assuredly strange to many a music-lover--are all men -who have contributed significantly to song literature. Morpurgo's _Una -speranza_ is typical of him at his best; Bianchini has real modern -tendencies. Francesco Santoliquido is known to us through two songs, -_Tristezza crepuscolare_ and _Alba di luna sul bosco_. _Tristezza -crepuscolare_ is the better of the two, a magnificent conception, a -song that is thrilling in every inflection. There is a strong Puccini -tinge in Santoliquido's music, made fine, however, by more restraint -than the composer of _Tosca_ knows how to exert. Unusually well managed -are the accompaniments, which are rather graphic. Mr. Santoliquido -knows how to achieve a climax within a few pages as do few of his -contemporaries. - -Apart from all these men stands Vittorio Gui, a young composer and -conductor, whose career has been furthered by Arturo Toscanini. Signor -Gui is an 'ultra' in the best sense of the word. His songs, which have -not been exploited in America at all, are enigmatic. In fact his choice -of poems makes them so. He has taken Chinese poems and translated them -into Italian, poems that contain that world of Confucian philosophy -which is still but little known. There are problems in ultra-modern -harmony here which many will not be willing to solve, but which a few -have already given serious attention to and from which they have gotten -much joy. There is distinction in these songs; a desire to experiment, -perhaps, but still the feeling for new paths, new moods, and, above -all, a new idiom. The attainment of that may not be so easily -accomplished, but Gui is one of the men who are going prominently in -that direction. - -A word about the ballad composers, Paolo Tosti, P. Mario Costa, Luigi -Denza, and Enrico de Leva. Whereas their position in serious music -is not one of importance, their appeal to millions entitles them -to mention. Tosti is doubtless the ablest of them. His innumerable -_melodie_--the characterization of his songs as such is typical -of what Italians thought a song must be before they attempted the -art-song--have a melodic fascination. Who has not heard his 'Good-bye' -and his _L'ultime canzone_, two songs which have won a popularity truly -universal in scope! And when 'Good-bye,' hackneyed as it is, is sung by -a Melba it contains an emotional thrill, theatrical as its appeal may -be, insecure as its structure is from the standpoint of the art-song. -It would be idle to enumerate Tosti's writings. His songs go into the -hundreds. De Leva, Denza, and Costa are of the same creative blood; -they believe in pure melodies, none of them distinguished, set to -very indifferent Italian texts--not poems--and one and all gorgeously -effective for the singer. What these men have produced has developed in -Italian singers that failing, namely, the dwelling on all high notes, -which is so objectionable. But it has also brought joy to so many -Italians whose sole musical interest was singing, and their place in -the development of Italy's music cannot be overlooked. When a hundred -years have rolled around perhaps the name of Tosti will be remembered. -But it is exceedingly doubtful whether there will be Italians producing -a similar kind of music; for by that time Italy's music-lovers will -have repudiated this type of banal melodic song, which makes only an -emotional appeal and into whose make-up the intellectual has never been -allowed to enter. - - * * * * * - -Italy's right to a place among musical nations of the day cannot be -denied. Not only in the producing of worthy music-dramas, of orchestral -works, of chamber music, but also in the noble art-song is she active. -A change has come over her. Perhaps her musicians are being better -trained. Yet the St. Cecilia Academy in Rome, the conservatories in -Milan, Naples, Genoa, and Bologna have always equipped their students -well. It may not be this so much as it is the imbuing of those who -choose lives in art with the responsibility of their calling. Further, -it is the advance which musical art has made all over the world. -The young Italian composer of to-day has behind him Wagner and his -glorious achievement, Strauss and his superb essays in the operatic and -orchestral fields, the Frenchmen and their innovations. What did he -have fifty years ago? Was it not to the old-style Italian opera that he -looked with a burning to achieve a work of this type and win popular -success? And one point that affects all modern composition is quite -as valid in Italy as it is anywhere: Composers, in fact, musicians in -general, are being better educated; they are feeling the correlation of -the arts; they have studied the literatures of many nations, they know -the paintings of many masters. In this lie the wonderful possibilities -of the future! And modern musical art has its pathway, one quite as -open and as free as that of any of its brothers, in which it must -accomplish its task. Italy will not be behind in the future as she has -been in the past. For she has a Zandonai, a Montemezzi, a Gui to lead -her on. - - A. W. K. - - - V - -Since the late Renaissance Spain has been generally regarded as -backward in music. And until recently the reputation was deserved. But -within the last two decades musicians have become aware that there is a -vigorous and extremely talented school of native and patriotic Spanish -composers, working sincerely and effectively. As always happens in -such cases, we find on closer examination that the revival of musical -creativeness is not a recent thing, but has been going on definitely -for half a century or more. But every indigenous musical school must go -through a period of internal development, and the modern Spanish school -has been no exception. It is even probable that this school has by no -means begun to approach maturity. Though it assiduously cultivates -national materials and even issues national manifestoes, its idiom is -borrowed in the main from France, and it is to Paris that the promising -young composers still look for tuition and inspiration. The national -material as used by the modern Spanish composers has no more been -infused into the spirit and technique of their product than the Russian -folk-songs were infused into the Russian music of Glinka's time. Modern -Spanish music seems to be in a preparatory stage. It has two main lines -of activity--the opera and the genre piece for piano. In the former -class Spanish composers have produced little that has carried beyond -the borders, though their industry is indefatigable. But in piano music -they have enriched modern concert literature with many a piece of -sparkling vitality and able workmanship. - -Among the precursors of the recent renaissance the name of Baltasar -Saldoni (1807-1891) is most eminent. He was born in Barcelona, and -received his education in the monastery of Monserrat. Throughout -the greater part of his life he was distinguished as an organist, -teacher and scholar as well as a composer. His important works were -a symphony, _O mia patria_; a 'Hymn to the god of Art'; some operas -and operettas, and a quantity of church and organ music written in a -severe contrapuntal style. Miguel Eslava (1807-1878) also deserves -mention both as composer and scholar. But greater than either is -Felippe Pedrell (born 1841 and still living), who with Isaac Albéniz -(born 1860) may be called the founder of modern Spanish music. Both -were ardent nationalists; both were thorough and industrious scholars; -and both wrote with distinction in large forms as well as small. Though -Pedrell, the student, was particularly eminent in the department of -Spanish ecclesiastical music, Pedrell the composer essayed chiefly -those forms which ordinarily bring the maximum of worldly success. -His early operas--_El último Abencerage_ (1874), _Quasimodo_ (1875), -and 'Cleopatra' (1878)--were produced in Spain at a time when the -native public would hardly lend an ear to anything except Italian -operas of the old school and its beloved _Zarzuelas_, or operettas. -His orchestral works are large in design and admirably executed. They -include a _Chanson Latine_, the _March à Mistral_, the _Chant de -la Montague_ (a suite of orchestral 'pictures'), and the symphonic -poems--'Tasso at Ferrara' and 'Mazeppa.' In addition to many songs -and small piano pieces, Pedrell wrote considerable choral music, in -particular the noble 'Gloria Mass.' But his greatest work, and the one -which has chiefly won him the respect of musicians in outside lands, -is his operatic trilogy, 'The Pyrenees,' designed as a sort of hymn -of praise to his native land. The whole work was produced in 1902 -in Barcelona, where the composer has worked indefatigably, causing -the city to attain a peculiar musical importance somewhat parallel to -that which Weimar attained in Germany under the régime of Liszt. The -three parts of 'The Pyrenees' are denominated, respectively, _Patrie_, -_Amor_, and _Fides_, three words forming an old and illustrious Spanish -armorial inscription. In the prologue a bard chants the sorrows of -Spain. The first part of the work is the story of a nation sunk into a -despair and then liberated. The liberator is symbolized in the hero, -the Comte de Foix, while the legendary spirit of the mountains is -personified in a juglara, Raig de Lluna. Especially fine is the second -act of _Patrie_, where the sombre chant of the monks mingles with the -fanfare of the soldiers, the music of a passing funeral cortège, and -the melancholy song of the jongluera. - -Whereas Pedrell specialized in ancient Spanish church music, Albéniz -made a study of the folk-tunes of his people. And this with the -deliberate purpose of using them as a basis for a new Spanish school -of composition. With unfailing energy he carried out his life-program, -and, though he did not succeed in carrying the fame of his native -land into many foreign capitals (except for his superb piano pieces), -he gave energy to the awakening instincts of native composers, and -set a high standard for their work. He was in his early youth a -'boy-wonder' pianist, and as such studied under some of the most -famous masters in Europe, among them Marmontel in Paris, Reinecke in -Leipzig, and Liszt in Rome. As a composer he was largely self-taught. -His early piano work was undistinguished, but his technical ability -grew astonishingly with the course of the years. His opera, _Pepita -Jimenez_, is regarded as the most distinguished operatic achievement -of modern Spain. It is frankly a 'folk-opera' and makes lavish use of -the specific Spanish rhythms and tunes which the composer collected in -his years of research among the people. The score shows an easy mastery -of counterpoint, but the vocal parts are rather uninteresting, and -the work as a whole lacks the charm which one would expect. Albéniz's -other works for the stage are the operas _Enrico Clifford_ and 'King -Arthur,' and the operetta 'The Magic Opal' (produced in London in -1893). The oratorio _Christus_ also has a high place in the music of -modern Spain. But Albéniz's most successful works are his piano pieces. -These have been called 'the soul of modern Spain.' They seem to range -over the whole land, paying homage to a city or a valley, picturing a -street scene in festival time or some striking bit of native scenery. -Their melodies and rhythms are Spanish from beginning to end. But their -technique is that of modern France. Albéniz, and all his compatriots -in music, had their best lessons in Paris, and they could not fail to -reflect the powerful influence from the north. It is to their credit -(to Albéniz's in particular, since he chiefly insisted upon it) that -with a French technique and a set of æsthetic ideals unmistakably -French they still produced a music that was national and personal. -Albéniz's best works for the piano are his two suites, 'Iberia' and -'The Alhambra.' These have taken their place in modern concert programs -beside the works of Debussy and Ravel, and have given their composer -an international reputation as one of the leading 'impressionists' of -modern times. - -The most eminent living Spanish composer in this style is Enrico -Granados (born 1867). Like Albéniz, he has worked in the larger -forms, and his works deserved at least this partial listing: the -operas--_María de la Alcarria_ (1893) and _Folletto_ (1898), the -symphonic poems, _La Nit del Mort_ and 'Dante'; the incidental music -to Mestres' fairy play, _Liliano_; a quartet and a piano trio, in -addition to many songs. But, again like Albéniz, it is in his piano -pieces that he has done his best work. These show all the modern -French characteristics--highly spiced harmony, free use of dissonances -of the second, clear but astonishingly intricate pianistic style, -free use of the whole tone scale and of exotic tonalities, and daring -characterization and realism. But its complexity is not so much that -of development as of ornamentation--which is a quality more peculiarly -Spanish. As with Albéniz's piano works, the composer pays tribute -to many a Spanish town and to many a Spanish custom, and loves to -introduce a local color at once authentic and suggestive. Granados' -most important groups of piano pieces are the _Goyescas_, the 'Songs of -Youth,' the _Danzas Españolas_, and the 'Poetic Waltzes.' - -Hardly inferior to Granados in the writing of genre pieces for piano -is Joaquin Turina. This composer's most important piano work is the -suite _Sevilla_, a fascinating group of tone pictures drawn from the -daily life of the city. His writing is marked by great delicacy and -keen feeling for the finer vibrations of the modern piano. Among his -other works we should mention an opera, _Fea e con Gracia_ (1905), a -string quartet, and a _Scène andalouse_ for piano and violin (1913). -Other Spanish composers who have gained eminence in their native land -are K. Usandizaga, who is a pupil of d'Indy, and whose opera _Las -Coloudrinas_ was produced in Madrid in 1914; Vives, the composer of -the nationalistic opera _Tabare_ (1914); and Costa Nogueras, composer -of _Flor de almendro_ (1901), _Ines de Castro_ (1905) and _Valieri_ -(1906). Gabriel Grovlez (born 1882) has written colorful piano music -in the new style, and Garcia Roble has made successful essays in the -larger forms. The great violinist Pablo Sarasate (1884-1908) is eminent -as a spirited composer for violin. Raoul Laparra, though he is of -Spanish parentage and has worked with Spanish materials, should rather -be treated among the composers of modern France.[76] - -Among the distinguished composers of modern Portugal should be -mentioned Verreira d'Arneiro (born 1838), who has gained a wide -reputation with his 'Symphonic Cantata' and his opera, 'The Elixir -of Youth'; and Carlo Gomez (1839-1896), who was chiefly active as a -composer of operas in the Italian style for Italian theatres. The most -eminent Portuguese composer of recent times, however, is the admirable -pianist Jose Vianna da Motta (born 1868). A quartet and a symphony from -his pen have been played with success, but he is best known by his -piano pieces, notably the 'Portuguese Scenes' and the five 'Portuguese -Rhapsodies.' - - H. K. M. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[76] See Volume IX, chapter XIV. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII - THE ENGLISH MUSICAL RENAISSANCE - - Social considerations; analogy between English and American - conditions--The German influence and its results: Sterndale - Bennett and others; the first group of independents: Sullivan, - Mackenzie, Parry, Goring Thomas, Cowen, Stanford and Elgar--The - second group: Delius and Bantock; McCunn and German; Smyth, - Davies, Wallace and others, D. F. Tovey; musico-literary - workers, musical comedy writers--The third group: Vaughan - Williams, Coleridge Taylor and W. Y. Hurlstone; Holbrooke, - Grainger, Scott, etc.; Frank Bridge and others; organ music, - chamber music, songs. - - - I - -The word _renaissance_ when applied to English musical conditions from -about 1870 onwards is convenient but slightly inaccurate. It gives us -an easy group-symbol for a large and unexpected outburst of activity; -but it does not either state or explain a fact. _Re-naissance_ means -'a being born again,' and that implies previous death. But the flame -of life had never quite died out in the country to whose first great -composer (Dunstable) the modern world owes the invention of musical art. - -In its church and choral music especially there had always been a -flicker of life which at least once, in the reigns of Elizabeth and -the first James, had blazed up into an astounding vitality. However, -it was not to be expected that the nation could go on living at this -white heat. The flame burnt itself down, but not out; and the embers -of a national art that had once been great enough to light up the wide -spaces of the world smouldered through the eighteenth century and far -into the nineteenth. - -The history of this ecclesiastical music might almost have been -predicted. Its postulates are merely the isolation and selfishness -of the English Church from the days of William and Mary to those of -the Oxford movement. But there are some other factors governing the -productions of 'secular' music; and these we must examine. - -From about the time of Purcell's death onwards (1695) England was -engaged in eating up as much of the world as possible. And the result -was national indigestion. Already in Charles II's time there had been -alarming signs of an after-dinner torpidity which could find pleasure -only in the latest trickeries imported from France. The old healthy -delight in music as the recreation of freemen was disappearing; and the -Englishman, spending his long day in the conquest, the civilization, -and the administration of his great empire, found himself in the -evening too weary for anything but contemptuous applause. - -Hence began the artistic invasion of England. The foreigner was quick -to see his opportunity in the preoccupations of the nation. Over the -sea he came in shoals, impelled partly by the very natural belief in -his own nation as the source of all _kultur_, and principally by his -interest in the pound sterling. And, once landed, there he remained. -His motto was that of the old Hanoverian countess: 'Ve kom for all your -goots.' - -It is unnecessary in this place to detail either the methods or the -pernicious effects of this unnatural domination. Händel was a great, -good, and pure-minded man, but when he came to England in 1710 he came -to be a curse and an incubus brooding over the English spirit for -150 years. Music very nearly died there and, when the corpse showed -any signs of reviving, some foreign professor was always at hand to -stifle its faint cries, or, if that was not enough, to do a little -quiet blood-letting 'just to make sure.' Even in the third quarter of -the nineteenth century England maintained men like Karl Halle (later -Charles Hallé, and later still _Sir_ Charles Hallé) who were content to -accept position, affluence, and titles, giving in exchange bitter and -persistent opposition to the creative art of their adopted country. - -This deplorable state of affairs continued more or less down to the -middle year of last century. About that time certain forces came into -play which have markedly changed the social and artistic conditions -of England. And only in this sense can we say that there has been -such a thing as a renaissance or rebirth of music. Looked at from -the twentieth-century end of the telescope the changes seem violent -and unbelievable; but, if we put the glass down and walk through the -country itself, we shall be forced to accept them as only a natural and -inevitable broadening of the landscape. - -The main fact on which we wish to dwell here is that between the years -1870 and 1915 England has been able to assert her nationality in -music. And this is a matter of the deepest interest to all Americans -who love their country. The preponderance of blood here is Anglo-Saxon -and, though America has the advantages and disadvantages of a mixed -population, she has yet to learn the lesson already learned by some -other peoples, that only by the paths of nationalism can she scale the -heights of internationalism. - -In more ways than one America's 1915 is England's 1870. The American -composer need not engrave this fact on his notepaper, but he may be -recommended by a sincere well-wisher to keep it in his heart. On both -the material and the spiritual sides it is true. Watch the orchestral -players on a Sunday night at the 'Metropolitan.' They are the sons of -the men who were playing in 1870 at Covent Garden. But since then the -Englishman has asserted his personality; and to-day there is scarcely -a foreigner in any first-class English orchestra. Again, read through -the synopses of novelties in any season's concert programs here. How -many are American? Almost none. A hundred million people owning half -a continent with vast waterways, prairies, and mountain ranges--yet -musically nearly inarticulate! There must be something wrong here. - -Let us hasten to add that the brain-stuff of the American composer is -just as good as the brain-stuff of any other composer. More than that, -he alone of all his countrymen seems to be aware that the price of -victory is battle and death in battle. - -No one can say that England has yet conquered the world in a musical -sense. Still her achievements are much greater than are generally -recognized on this side of the Atlantic. The art-works which represent -these achievements lie mostly on composers' shelves and in publishers' -cellars, kept there partly by their own strangeness and partly by the -timidity and self-effacement of their authors. - -Already similar works are being produced in America; and it is -therefore hoped that a consideration of the musical conditions and -processes in England between 1870 and 1915 may be helpful to American -composers. One may add that at the earlier date the outside English -public was just as heavily ignorant and indifferent as the American -public is now. In the one case the leaven came, and in the other is -coming from within. - - - II - -In a short sketch like the present it is not possible to discuss fully -the changed social conditions which brought about the English musical -renaissance. One must, however, mention two forces which, acting -somewhat blindly on the individual, yet produced great effects in -the mass. The first of these was the re-cognition that the man who -mattered was the man of the soil. From this re-cognition sprang the -whole folk-song movement--a movement whose depth and importance are -still very little understood in America. The second is the growth of -healthy liberal opinions and the partial reconsideration of the English -caste-system. On this change the example of democratic America has -undoubtedly had great influence. The result of this levelling upwards -and downwards can be seen in the fact that, whereas prior to 1870 the -English composer was generally a scallywag, now he is a gentleman.[77] - -We have already said that England was never quite dead musically. To -the outsider she may have appeared so, but it was really only a 'deep -surgical anæsthesia.' And the analogy holds. She had been operated -on so often by her German specialists that, as she came out of her -sleep, she only very gradually began to ask herself whether, without -another operation, she might not be able to find health by dismissing -her doctors and changing her mode of life. Naturally it was a wrench -to her to send the doctors packing; and her weak system almost, but -not quite, refused her new diet of English bread and English water. In -other words, if we divide the men of the English musical renaissance -into three groups according to age, we shall find that the oldest -group--to whom belongs all the honor of the spade--were almost to a man -foreign-trained. Their main ideals were Joachim and Brahms, and their -chief quarrel with the second and third groups--their pupils, be it -said--was the quarrel between German technique and English. - -To the most distinguished thinker of that school the correct way of -writing a song is still the German way. The rest-of-the-world way is -simply _wrong_. Race, feeling, national sentiment, all go for nothing. -In effect he says: 'You may draw your water from a spring in Kent, -in Maryland, or in Siberia; but it won't travel except in disused -Rhine-wine bottles.' The proposition only needs stating to be condemned. - -This is, in small, the attitude of the oldest group. But we must -remember that most of them continually forget their treasonable -theories and prove their loyalty to national ideals in their practice. -It is not a complete loyalty, but it is one to which all respect -and honor are due. We must not judge it by the tree of which it was -itself the seed, but by the sickly undergrowth among which it managed -to strike root. And this shrivelled stuff is represented to us by -such names as E. J. Loder (1813-65), H. H. Pierson (1815-73), and W. -Sterndale Bennett (1816-75). The last-named composer in especial is -a striking instance of an able but weak personality overwhelmed by -circumstance. When he was a student among the Germans his docility to -their ideals won Schumann's approval. Returning to England, he found -himself, so to speak, hanging in the air like an orchid--without -roots. Naturally he withered away. And for many years England had the -spectacle of her chief musician dribbling out smooth Anglo-German -platitudes, while Germany herself was producing _Lohengrin_, _Tristan_, -and 'The Ring.' Only one work of his has weathered the storm of the -English musical revival--'The Naiads.' But, of course, neither he, -nor Loder, nor Pierson had any closer connection with the English -renaissance than the glow-worm has with the coming sun. All three of -these men were as clever as any living American or English composer. -They were all driven into indignant silence, sullen despair, or musical -madness by the anti-national conditions of their time. - -Contrast their output with that of the seven musical children whom the -fairy-stork brought to the rebirth of English music. Their names and -natal years are: Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1842), Alexander Campbell -Mackenzie (1847), Charles Hubert Hastings Parry (1848), Arthur Goring -Thomas (1851), Frederic Hymen Cowen (1852), Charles Villiers Stanford -(1852), and Edward William Elgar (1857). These seven men then--all -German-trained except Elgar and Thomas--yet draw a large part of their -vitality from the soil on which they were bred. One only needs to -hear an Irish Rhapsody of Stanford, a big chorus of Parry, or a gay -little song of Sullivan to become aware of a 'new something' in art. -And, if the American reader be inclined to doubt this 'new something' -at a first hearing, he may be earnestly advised to ask himself this -question: 'What would be my first impressions of a symphonic poem by -Strauss if that were my first introduction to a German art-work?' - -The fertility of all these composers is so amazing that any attempt -to catalogue their works would stifle the rest of this volume. Songs, -operas, symphonies, sonatas, variations, church music, and choral works -all pour forth in an endless stream. Under the one heading, 'works for -voice and orchestra,' Parry has 33 entries. Stanford's opus numbers -approach 150, and he begins with 7 operas, 7 symphonies, incidental -music to 5 plays, and 27 'orchestral and choral works.' Cowen has -written 4 operas, 4 oratorios, 6 symphonies, and 18 cantatas; and that -is only the beginning of his list. It is plainly impossible even to -hint at this enormous mass of material. We must content ourselves with -a rapid glance at the distinguishing features of each composer. - -Sullivan, the man who endeared himself personally and musically to -a generation, needs no introduction. His work is practically summed -up in the words 'Savoy Opera.' And these words stand everywhere for -melodic charm and fancy, delicate humor, and exquisitely finished -workmanship. On the more æsthetic side we owe him a lasting debt 'for -his recognition of the fact that it was not only necessary to set his -text to music which was pleasing in itself, but to invent melodies in -such close alliance with the words that the two things became (to the -hearer) indistinguishable.' His long series of works beginning with -'Contrabandista,' 'Cox and Box,' and 'Trial by Jury' continued through -'Patience,' 'Pinafore,' 'The Mikado,' 'The Yeomen of the Guard,' 'The -Gondoliers,' and others, till his death interrupted the composition of -his last work, 'The Emerald Isle.' It must be added that both in his -simple concert songs and in his choral music Sullivan enjoyed a wide -popularity. This is now waning. Of his larger concert works 'The Golden -Legend' and the overture 'Di Ballo' possess the greatest vitality. - -Mackenzie, who succeeded Macfarren (1813-87) as principal of the Royal -Academy of Music, is a man of forceful character. Like Sullivan, -he was trained in Germany and came back a brilliant contrapuntist -with wide, far-reaching musical intentions. Familiar with every -nook in the orchestra, he has produced a mass of concert and opera -music all characterized by great technical dexterity and a certain -continual color and warmth. More than once the present writer has -been surprised by some particularly modern stroke of his orchestral -expression and, after ascribing it to the influence of the most neo of -neo-continentals, has discovered that Mackenzie was doing it before its -supposed author was born. It is a common word in London that Stanford -and Mackenzie spend their evenings reading each other's full-scores, -both missing out the German parts. Of Mackenzie's works the best known -are the violin 'Benedictus' and 'Pibroch,' the orchestral ballad -_La Belle Dame sans Merci_, the cantatas 'The Story of Sayid,' 'The -Cottar's Saturday Night,' 'The Dream of Jubal,' and, finally, the -ever-popular overture 'Britannia.' - -The English public connects Parry's name mainly with his colossal -choral writings and with his directorship of The Royal College of -Music. That, however, by no means exhausts the list of his activities. -In the realms of song, of symphonic and chamber music, he has shown -an astonishing fertility. His productions are marked throughout by a -boundless contrapuntal skill based very decidedly on the old order of -things. To his heroic mind forty-part writing is probably very much -what four-part writing is to the rest of mankind. A sort of hard-knit -sincerity and a lyrical grandeur pervade all his works. One feels -that, if Milton's father had had his son's genius, he would have been -a seventeenth-century Parry. Of humor he has none, but in its place a -constant cheerfulness characteristic of a certain very good type of -Englishman. His best-loved work is undoubtedly 'Blest Pair of Sirens.' -But after that we must mention 'The Glories of Our Blood and State,' -_L'Allegro ed il Pensieroso_, 'Lady Radnor's Suite,' the 'Symphonic -Variations in E minor,' and the beautiful series of 'English Lyrics.' - -Goring Thomas was an Englishman who, with the help of great natural -talent and of long residence in France, almost performed the miracle -of successfully changing his nationality. Of course, he had to pay the -price; and it was heavy. After burning incense at the altar of French -ideals he came back to a country where grand opera was only an annual -importation symbolical of financial respectability. He might have done -Sullivan's work better than Sullivan. But the fates were inexorably -against him. He did not even get a knighthood. Imagine Saint-Saëns -caught young and studying Handelian counterpoint at the Royal Academy -of Music; or Stravinsky doing 'fifth grade harmony' at the Royal -College of Music with his eye on the organ-loft at York Minster or -the conductor's seat at the Gaiety as possible goals of his ambition. -Either instance will give the curious reader some idea of Thomas's -difficulties, social and psychological. One must add that he cannot be -denied great charm of manner and a strong selective gift both in his -melody and harmony. He had all the Frenchman's talent for recognizing -dramatic effect and securing it swiftly. His best-known works are -'Esmeralda,' 'Nadeshda,' and 'The Swan and the Skylark.' - -Cowen is a West Indian Jew. His artistic activities, however, have -mainly centred round London and Glasgow. In the former place he has -conducted the 'Philharmonic,' and in the latter the Scottish Orchestra. -As a composer he has been both over-blamed and over-praised. His blood -undoubtedly gives him facility, adaptability, and a somewhat detached -viewpoint. These qualities, academically praised by the Anglo-Saxon, -yet excite in England a certain half-envious distrust when actually -exercised. For instance, the English musician does not care two raps -about the style of composition commonly called 'ye olde English'; but -he thinks it scarcely proper that Cowen should be able to write in -that style so well. Again, in his heart of hearts the professional man -probably thinks that King David's ultimate object in writing Psalm 130 -was the afternoon service at Westminster Abbey; and here, too, Cowen's -pen causes some uneasiness. On the other side of the picture we have -had the composer figuring with the public for years as a miracle of -charm, grace, and delicate fancy. A fair view of Cowen would probably -show him as a composer somewhat isolated from his fellows, naturally -inclined to the lighter side of life, and perhaps more anxious for the -laurel than for the dust. His easy yet punctilious technique is shown -in a long list of popular works. Of these the most successful are his -two sets of 'Old English Dances,' the orchestral suite 'The Language -of Flowers,' the overture 'The Butterflies' Ball,' the 'Scandinavian,' -'Welsh,' and 'Idyllic' symphonies, and the choral works 'Ruth,' 'The -Rose Maiden,' 'The Sleeping Beauty,' and the 'Ode to the Passions.' - -Stanford and Ireland contribute respectively to English musical life -and to the empire what a penn'orth of yeast does to a basin of dough. -As far as one may judge the ferment cannot be stopped. Its chemical -constituents are wit, clarity, and humor, all combined by a delightful -ease and precision of technique. Stanford's scores are models of -elegant reticence and their 'form' is beyond reproach. In all his -work one notices a constant refusal to accept gloom for poetry. He -is a musical Oliver Goldsmith of the nineteenth century. No one has -done more for the preservation, the arranging, and the publishing of -Irish folk-song. Among the best-known of his works are his comic opera -'Shamus O'Brien,' his 'Irish Rhapsodies,' his 'Variations on an English -Theme,' and his many fine string quartets and quintets. In the realm of -song-literature both original and arranged he has a great record; much -of his church music is by now classic on both sides of the Atlantic; -and he has made a very special success with his striking Choral -Ballads. In these last three departments one may mention his 'Cavalier -Songs' and his 'Songs of Old Ireland'; his Services in B-flat, A and -F; 'The Revenge,' 'The Voyage of Maeldune,' 'The Bard,' and 'Phaudrig -Crohoore.' - -Elgar's advantage over the other six members of this group lies, -not merely in his comparative youth, but in the fact that he began -his serious and prolonged husbandry after the others had done the -ploughing. Practically self-educated, he set out with the very noble -determination to conquer the world unaided except by his own brains. -What this determination means in a densely populated, imperialistic -country like England probably very few Americans can realize. From -his home in Malvern and later in London he began to issue a series -of works, few in number as the men of his generation counted these -things, but of unsurpassed poetical quality. His earlier work, such as -'King Olaf' and 'Caractacus,' met with no very wide appreciation; but, -with the appearance of his 'Enigma Variations,' his 'Sea Songs,' and -his beautiful oratorio, 'The Dream of Gerontius,' came general European -recognition. His present unassailable position in England may be gauged -from the fact that his oratorios--saturated with the Roman Catholic -spirit--are welcomed even in the English cathedrals. Nor are the -Deans and Chapters incensed thereby. Of his other works--such as the -overtures 'In the South' and 'Cockaigne,' the 'Pomp and Circumstance' -marches, the two enormous Symphonies, the Violin Concerto, and the -oratorios 'The Kingdom' and 'The Apostles'--it is not possible to speak -here in detail. All Elgar's work is characterized by great sincerity -and purity of intention. He is an ample master both of harmony and -counterpoint; while his sense of orchestral decoration is astonishing. -One must in fairness add that he has often been charged with a certain -indecision and melodic indefiniteness. These are perhaps national -traits; and the gravamen of this charge may be lightened as Teutonic -standards of judgment become less and less generally enforced. - -Before leaving this group of composers we must mention the -fact--already hinted at--that their general education and social level -is undoubtedly high as compared with that of their predecessors. This -point need not be elaborated. But its effect is seen in the publication -of various volumes dealing with the æsthetic and historical sides of -music. Of these, Hubert Parry's two great volumes on 'Johann Sebastian -Bach' and 'Style in Musical Art' are easily first. Only second to them -is the same author's work on 'The Seventeenth Century' contributed to -the 'Oxford History of Music.' And he has three or four others to his -credit. Stanford has published two delightful books of memoirs and a -short treatise on 'Musical Composition.' Frederick Corder, besides -a considerable list of compositions, has produced three volumes, of -which the best-known is 'The Orchestra and How to Write for It.' The -awakening taste for musical study at this period can perhaps be best -appreciated by considering the wide popularity of Ebenezer Prout's dry, -stubborn volumes on musical technique. - -Finally, in order to complete the list of names associated with this -movement, one must add John Stainer and George Martin, both of St. -Paul's Cathedral; Walter Parratt, the distinguished 'Master of the -King's Musick'; and Frederick Bridge of Westminster Abbey. Of the dozen -men named above ten received titles from the Sovereign. - - - III - -The members of the second and third groups shared with Elgar the -advantages of much improved musical conditions. After twenty-five -years' hard work the older generation of composers had educated the -country to a wider, deeper, and purer appreciation of music. They had -even arrived at a tacit understanding with their countrymen that an -Englishman might, under certain conditions, be able to compose. Of this -understanding their pupils took immediate advantage. Let us see of what -these improved conditions consisted. - -In 1880, outside the provincial church festivals, orchestral -opportunity for the English composer meant a few concerts conducted by -August Manns at the Crystal Palace and a few more given by the London -Philharmonic Society. To-day there is a larger number of first-class -orchestral players in London than in any other city in the world. - -To a large extent this is the result of the insatiable London appetite -for musical comedy performed with a beauty and lavishness unknown -in America. For the orchestral player who cannot live by symphony -work alone can live by symphony and theatre work combined. The number -of orchestras both metropolitan and provincial has thus increased -enormously. The percentage of English works played has also increased, -though there is still room for some improvement in that respect. - -In London alone there are, besides the Covent Garden Orchestra--the -Royal Philharmonic, the Queen's Hall,[78] the London Symphony, -the New Symphony, and the Beecham. All of these can and do tackle -successfully the most modern music. A certain number of excellent -amateur orchestras, such as the Royal Amateur, the Stock Exchange, -and the Strolling Players, testify to a wide interest in this form of -music. Outside London there are permanent orchestras at such places as -Bournemouth, Brighton, Glasgow, Harrogate, Liverpool, Manchester, and -Torquay. - -Among conductors who have at one time or other interested themselves -in English music may be mentioned Henry J. Wood, Granville Bantock, -Godfrey, Thomas Beecham, Balfour Gardiner, Landon Ronald. And this -leaves out of account the theatrical conductors, the older musicians -most of whom have conducted either at the Royal Philharmonic or at some -provincial festival, and the conductors of choral societies, such as -George Riseley, Frederick Bridge, Allen Gill, Henry Coward, and Arthur -Fagge. - -The second point which calls for notice is the folk-song movement, -which has forced composers to reconsider some of the fundamentals -of their art and at the same time has furnished them with a mass of -material on which to work. We must remember that, from the early -middle ages until the present day, the traditional music of Europe -(folk-song) has continued to flow in a sort of underground stream, -while the written or professional music has been the main official -waterway. The two have constantly joined their currents, and at times -the underground stream has actually been in advance of the river -overhead. - -The important point is that, in England and Ireland at any rate, the -folk-song, orally transmitted, has practically evolved as a _separate_ -art-form with its own ways and means of expression. And the outstanding -feature of the movement is the recognition of this art-form as a thing -of beauty, of vitality, and of necessity to the nation. One might make -a very fair division of English composers into those who do not use -folk-tunes, those who do for cheque-book reasons, and those who do -because they must. - -In England the missioners of this movement came only just in time. -When they visited the country and seaboard towns of such counties as -Norfolk and Somerset they found the art of folk-singing unknown except -to the oldest inhabitants. Luckily, however, these sturdy grandfathers -kept in their minds a great treasure of folk-song, and it was from -their lips that our present collections were made. With this work the -name of Cecil Sharp will always be honorably joined. There is now very -little chance of folk-song dying, but, as everywhere else, the genuine -folk-singer is practically extinct. - -Irish folk-song has been the subject of conscious literary enquiry -for nearly two hundred years. And this is not to be wondered at when -we consider that, of all folk-song, it is first in musical charm, -variety, and depth of poetical feeling. In this department the most -important recent contribution by far is Stanford's monumental edition -of the complete 'Petrie Collection'; but, besides that, he has -restored and arranged Moore's 'Irish Melodies' and has published two -volumes containing altogether eighty Irish songs and ballads with -accompaniments. Both in Wales and Scotland there has been a similar but -less important activity. - -Before concluding this hasty sketch of the English folk-song movement -we must point out that its effect on English composition was only -gradually felt. The men of the second group had been too strictly -trained in the tradition of the elders to feel quite comfortable -under the new dispensation. They acknowledged but evaded its power. -Their successors, on the other hand, viewed it, not as a curious -archæological discovery, but as a living spring from which they could -draw their vitality. - -The two most eminent names in the second group of composers are -undoubtedly Frederic Delius (b. 1863) and Granville Bantock (b. 1868). - -The former was born in Bradford, lived for some time in the United -States, and finally after long residence and marriage in France -became almost a foreigner. Blessed with abundant means, he has always -been able 'to cherish his genius' and let the world go hang. When he -reappeared in England it was as a solitary stranger unknown even by -name to his co-evals. And this sudden reappearance on the wave-crest of -a vigorous English propaganda was not made the subject of loud-voiced -enthusiasms. His brilliant talents excited a perverse misunderstanding; -and he had to live down a certain sore opposition from his -contemporaries, many of whom had for years been struggling in the Cave -of Æolus to blow up the very wind that sent him into harbor. These are -happily things of past history, and he is now accepted by the world as -a tone-poet of great power and originality. Of his works--most of which -owe their present popularity to the exertions of his friend Thomas -Beecham--one may note 'Paris,' 'Brigg Fair,' 'Appalachia,' 'Seadrift,' -'Dance Rhapsody,' and his great 'Mass of Life.' Of his operas, neither -'Koanga' nor 'A Village Romeo and Juliet' seems to have made a -pronounced success. - - [Illustration: Modern British Composers:] - - Sir G. Hubert H. Parry Sir Arthur Sullivan - Granville Bantock Sir Edward Elgar - -Bantock is a man of quite another kidney. The son of a London -doctor, he has always exerted himself for the benefit of his fellow -countrymen. In his younger days as conductor of the New Brighton -Orchestra he devoted himself largely to the performance of English -music. The present writer, among many others, has to acknowledge that -his first chance was offered him by Bantock. At the present time he -wields great influence as head of the Midland School of Music at -Birmingham. Bantock's work is characterized by fluent expression and -vivid coloring. His early experiences have given him an almost uncanny -touch in the orchestra. Perhaps no one knows better than he how to -'score heavily' by 'scoring lightly.' In his choice of subjects he -leans somewhat toward the exotic and oriental. From his long list -of compositions it is only possible to select the orchestral works -'Sappho,' the 'Pierrot of the Minute,' 'The Witch of Atlas,' 'Fifine -at the Fair'; and his vocal-and-orchestral works 'Omar Khayyám,' 'The -Fire Worshippers,' the six sets of 'Songs of the East,' and the nine -'Sappho' fragments. - - * * * * * - -Hamish MacCunn (b. 1868) and Edward German (b. 1868),[79] the one a -Scot and the other a Welshman, are both more particularly identified -with the theatre. MacCunn's early orchestral poems, such as 'The Land -of the Mountain and the Flood' and 'The Ship o' the Fiend,' at once -brought him wide recognition. Their fine poetical qualities are well -known. A large portion of his time, however, has been devoted to -operatic conducting and composition. In the latter field he has to his -credit such works as 'Jennie Deans' and 'Diarmid.' But, though MacCunn -is known to all as an able, brilliant musician, he has had to pay the -penalty of his association with that musical Cinderella, English Opera. - -German, on the other hand, though never aiming at the sun, has once or -twice hit a star. He succeeded Sullivan at the Savoy and made successes -with 'The Emerald Isle,' 'Merrie England,' 'A Princess of Kensington,' -and elsewhere with 'Tom Jones.' His incidental music to 'Henry VIII' -and 'Nell Gwyn' has been liked into dislike. But German has done a -great deal more than this. No account of him would be complete that did -not mention his 'Welsh Rhapsody,' his 'Rhapsody on March Themes,' his -'Gypsy Suite,' and his 'Overture to Richard III.' - -There is no denying the power, the wide ability, or the technical -resource of Ethel Mary Smyth. Judged by her music alone one would say -that she was only the _nom de guerre_ of a strong masculine personality -saturated with Teutonism. This, however, is only a pleasing fancy. As -a fact, the terrific earnestness of her music could never have come -from the brain of a mere man. Opera is her stronghold, and her greatest -victory therein a fine Cornish drama, 'The Wreckers.' - -Neither Walford Davies nor Charles Wood has produced music in great -quantity. Both have led somewhat secluded lives; the one as organist of -The Temple, and the other as a Cambridge don. - -Davies is a man of fastidious taste, a first-class organist and -contrapuntist, and a profound student of Bach, Browning, and The -Bible. It is said that his coy muse sometimes furls her pinions at the -approach of a too red-blooded humanity. However that may be, she has -inspired him with at least one subtle and delicately beautiful work, -'Everyman.' - -Charles Wood is an Irishman from Armagh, a fine scholarly musician and -probably the best all-round theorist in the country. He has a strong -interest in the folk-song of his native land and has written a set of -orchestral variations on the tune, 'Patrick Sarsfield.' One of his best -things is his string quartet in A minor. In the realm of choral music -his 'Ballad of Dundee' may be selected for mention. He has at any rate -one great song to his credit--'Ethiopia saluting the colors.' - -Arthur Hinton's (b. 1869) work, which is appreciated on both sides -of the Atlantic, includes some elaborate pianoforte music, a two-act -opera, 'Tamara,' a couple of symphonies, the orchestral suite -'Endymion,' and a good deal of chamber music. His compositions are -characteristic of the group to which he belongs. A certain delight in -clean, finished workmanship and an incisiveness of expression are their -main features. - -Arthur Somervell has been throughout his life one of the -standard-bearers of the English revival. And he has kept the -banner flying both by his enthusiasm for folk-music and by his -own compositions. His graceful, refined songs are sung and liked -everywhere. Of these perhaps the best known is his cycle from -Tennyson's 'Maud.' Among his larger works one may mention his -'Normandy' variations for pianoforte and orchestra and his recent -symphony 'Thalassa.' For some years past Somervell has been the -official mainspring which keeps the clock of elementary musical -education ticking. - -One of the most admirable features of the later phases in the English -musical renaissance is the quickened and deepened interest shown -both in English musical history and in the general topic of musical -æsthetics. For the first time since the days of Hawkins and Burney -investigators have begun an elaborate search in college, cathedral, -and secular libraries. The existence of a vast store of madrigals, -of church and instrumental music was scarcely suspected even by -professional musicians; and the treasure when unearthed came as a -revelation to musical England. - -In the field of musical æsthetics there has been an equally remarkable -activity. And it is noteworthy that a number of men who have devoted -their lives to purely musical composition have also produced elaborate -studies either of the technique, the history, or the psychology of -their art. Of these we may name six: Wallace, McEwen, Walker, Tovey, -Macpherson, and Buck. - -William Wallace is, like MacCunn, a Scot from Greenock. His mental -growth had its roots in the stiff classical sub-soil of a public -school, and then pushed its way up through the rocks of a university -medical course till it flowered in the sweet open air of the R.A.M. -composition class. Hence his mind, which almost needs the threefold -pormanteau-word 'musiterific' to describe it. Wallace was the first -Englishman to write a symphonic poem, and he has made this form -something of a specialty. The best known of his six are 'The Passing of -Beatrice' and 'Villon.' Of these the latter has been played everywhere, -and the present writer has had to satisfy more than one puzzled -American enquirer as to how the author of 'Maritana'[80] could possibly -have written it! Some of Wallace's songs, for instance 'Son o' Mine,' -have acquired a popularity in England almost too great for public -comfort. In the field of literature he has produced two remarkable -studies in the development of the musical sense--'The Threshold of -Music' and 'The Musical Faculty.' - -John Blackwood McEwen is, like Wallace, a Scotsman. Furthermore he has -the same mental and physical homes--Glasgow University, the R.A.M., -and London. He has produced much symphonic and chamber music all -characterized by a severe self-criticism, impeccable workmanship, -and at times a certain Scottish exaltation. His quartets in A minor -and C minor are excellent. Of his symphonic poems the border ballad -'Grey Galloway' can hold up its head in any company. He is an untiring -enquirer into musical fundamentals and, of his five published volumes, -the most valuable is 'The Thought in Music.' - -Both Ernest Walker and Donald Francis Tovey are university men. The -former, who is organist of Balliol College, Oxford, has been much -applauded for his songs and chamber music. He has also rendered great -and lasting service by his admirable 'History of Music in England.' - -Tovey--the distinguished occupant of the Reid Chair of Music in -Edinburgh--is a sort of musical Francis Bacon. Few of the English -tales as to his learning and memory would be believed if printed in -America. The most credible is that he is able to play the sketch-books -of Beethoven by heart. His pamphlets of severely analytical criticism -have, in a way, set a new standard in this kind; while his work in -connection with the eleventh edition of the 'Encyclopædia Britannica' -has had the happiest results. Though a very able theorist and -historian, Tovey is by no means that alone. He has written a good deal -of chamber music, a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra and, one -hears, an opera. It is difficult to place these works. Some of the -older musicians have hailed them as greatly instinct with the spirit -of Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms, while some of the younger men have -catalogued them rather as compilations from those three masters. The -composer's own views, throwing a terrific weight onto his isolated -notes and phrases, seem to make of music a burden almost too heavy to -bear. However this may be, it is quite certain that Tovey has not yet -shot his last bolt. - -With Stewart Macpherson and Percy C. Buck we may close this list of -composer-authors. The former, in addition to a considerable amount of -published music, has printed ten volumes, mostly on the technique of -composition: the latter, besides his music, has written two valuable -works--'The Organ' and 'The First Year at the Organ.' Naturally the -greater part of the literary work in connection with this movement -has been done by scholars who are not themselves composers. Most of -these men have been in close touch with the leaders of the renaissance; -but, even when their work has been purely archæological, it has, so to -speak, cleft the rock and released a fountain of inspiration for their -creative brethren. - -Henry Davey's 'History of English Music' is a pioneer work embodying -the results of long and patient research. Its combative determination -to claim honor for the honorable is beyond praise. A similar work, -less scholarly but equally patriotic, is Ernest Ford's 'Short History -of Music in England.' Barclay Squire (of the British Museum), has, -with his brother-in-law J. A. Fuller Maitland, done much to revive -the national pride in Purcell and to spread an accurate knowledge -of the earlier Elizabethan and Jacobean composers. Fuller Maitland -himself, apart from his claims as editor of 'Grove' (2d ed.) and -as a contributor to the 'Oxford History of Music,' always used his -distinguished position at _The Times_ to further the best interests -of English music. To this list we may add the names of three other -scholar-musicians all associated with the 'Oxford History of Music': -W. H. Hadow, the brilliant editor of the work and at present principal -of the Armstrong College; H. E. Wooldridge; and (the late) Edward -Dannreuther, whose life-span stretched from personal contact with -Richard Wagner to patient and sympathetic intercourse with the youngest -school of English musicians. - -In the special field of instrumental construction and development -we have Rev. F. W. Galpin, with his scholarly and delightful volume -'Old English Instruments of Music,' and Kathleen Schlesinger. Of Miss -Schlesinger's painstaking and accurate scholarship her country has by -no means made the acknowledgment it deserves. - -In the realm of more general musical æsthetics and criticism many -names might be mentioned. We must content ourselves with those of -Ernest Newman, whose profound works on 'Gluck' and 'Wagner' are -discussed everywhere, and E. J. Dent, who has studied certain phases of -Mozart's work and has published a classical volume on 'Scarlatti.' - -Though it is somewhat outside our special topic, some reference must -be made here to the English researches into Greek music. For the first -time since the Germans began to inspissate the gloom, a ray or two -of light has been allowed to fall upon this difficult subject. In -particular D. B. Monro, with his volume 'The Modes of Ancient Greek -Music,' has shown that it is not an essential of this study that the -reader should always have the sensation of swimming in glue. Since his -day Cecil Torr has published a clever work on the same topic; while H. -S. Macran and Abdy Williams have both written on Aristoxenus. - -This concludes the list of original writers, but, before leaving the -subject, a word must be spared for the vast improvement that has -appeared during the past few years in the translation of foreign -musical texts into English. The value of the work of such men as Claude -Aveling, Frederick Jameson, and Paul England can only be appreciated by -a comparison of their translations with those of their predecessors. -One may add that there is now a persistent cry in the London press -for fine English finely sung, and this demand--though not always -gratified--is kept before the public by such patriotic critics as Robin -Legge, Edwin Evans, and Henry Cope Colles. - -Finally, before passing on to the third group, we may here conveniently -place together the small band of theatrical composers who have -succeeded Sullivan. Musical comedy and the money that comes from -writing it are the very sour grapes of the average English symphonist. -One and all they applaud what they call 'genuine comic opera' (meaning -Offenbach or anyone else that is _old_ and _dead_), but decry its much -brighter, cleaner, and more musical descendant. The ludicrous snobbery -of English life draws a wide black line between the two classes of -composer; and the stupidest Mus. Doc. that ever drowned a choir would -probably rather have his daughter run off with the butler than marry -a musical comedy composer. Nine times out of ten the theatrical man's -revenge is that it is he and not the Mus. Doc. that has the butler. -For, even under present conditions, the theatre alone in England offers -a composer-conductor the chance of an honorable livelihood. - -During Sullivan's lifetime he and Gilbert _were_ comic opera; and, -though the Savoy cap was tried on such diversely shaped heads as -A. C. Mackenzie, Ernest Ford, Edward Soloman, and J. M. Barrie, -it never really fitted any of them. Cellier alone--brother of -Sullivan's conductor--made a success (elsewhere) with his charming -work, 'Dorothy.' We have already mentioned that, after Sir Arthur's -death, German completed his unfinished opera, 'The Emerald Isle,' and -continued to employ his easy brilliant talents in that field. A later -attempt to run a miniature grand opera, written by an Italian (Franco -Leoni) but sung in English, was defeated by the two gods of fog, -musical and meteorological. - -Toward the end of the century theatre-land began to shift westward and -northward into the Piccadilly Circus and Shaftesbury Avenue district. -The new form of entertainment came into its own, and--if one may quote -the words of an eminent Russian violinist--'Musical comedy at Daly's -became the top-thing.' Of the men who have been providing the music for -the London theatres we may mention four--Jones, Monckton, Talbot, and -Rubens. - -Sidney Jones's music has been played all the world over. In 'The -Geisha,' 'San Toy,' and many other works he has had the opportunity -of exercising his delicate taste and his really very musical mind. -He has written more than one extended finale that is a comic opera -masterpiece; while the alternate sparkle and quaint tenderness of his -melodies are quite irresistible. - -Of recent years Lionel Monckton has had the biggest finger in -the musical comedy pie. And deservedly so. He owes his present -distinguished position mainly to his inexhaustible fund of original -melody. Many of these tunes are, in their way, perfect. Their special -excellence is lightness, vigor, rhythmic variety and constructional -power. If the present writer were subpœnaed before the Court of the -Muses to give evidence as to the best tunes made in the past fifteen -years he would testify, among others, for Monckton. The Folk-Song -Society of 2500 will probably explain him as a solar-myth. - -Howard Talbot[81] and Paul Rubens may be bracketed together. The -former, though a New Yorker born, has lived his musical life in London. -And his charming talent is shown in the many works of which he is -either whole-or part-author. Of these the most popular are perhaps 'A -Chinese Honeymoon,' 'The Arcadians,' and 'The Mousmé.' Rubens may be -specially noticed for his Sullivanesque power of associating his music -intimately with his literary text. Not that his music has anything -in common with Sullivan's. But the special faculty of making the two -things appear one is common to both composers. Rubens nearly always -writes his own lyrics and thus, in a delightful manner, revives and -vindicates the theory and practice of Greek poetic composition. - - - IV - -With the turn of the century the folk-song movement had sunk deep into -the English mind, where it still rests as an anchor for many of their -hopes. Accordingly in this period we find men, like Vaughan Williams, -who either base their music entirely on actual folk-song or invent -tunes in close spiritual alliance with its ideals. In either case the -result is a genuine development of folk-music. On the technical side -this group is marked by a much more decided tendency to refuse the -highly organized German technique as necessary to its salvation. This -again is largely due to an open-minded reconsideration of musical -æsthetics, forced upon composers by the special harmonic and melodic -features of folk-song. The matter is too large for discussion here; but -it is satisfactory to note that more than one Englishman who passed -through his student-days with the reputation of a wrong-headed jackass -has been able to base his honor on his alleged stupidities. - -During recent years there is some change to be noted in the material -side of English musical conditions. Apparently there is less love for -the oratorio; and therefore less scope for writing it. This symptom -of musical life is common to America and England. It is easy to -diagnose the reasons. In England they are two: first, on the part of -the audience, the dislike of prolonged boredom; and, second, on the -part of the composer, an indignant hatred of the organized corruption -associated with choral music. The latter point cannot be dealt with -here, though it is a common theme of talk among English composers. The -musician's compensation is to be found in the extraordinary system of -'choral competitions' and 'festivals' which now honeycomb England with -their sweetness. These, beginning with Miss Wakefield's celebrated -gathering in Cumberland, have spread all over the country and now -offer composers large opportunities for the performance of part-songs -and the smaller sort of choral works. The best and highest aims of -these English festivals are summarized for Americans in the 'Norfolk -Festival' of the Litchfield County Choral Union founded by Mr. and -Mrs. Stoeckel to honor the memory of Robbins Battell. - -On the side of actual orchestral opportunity the English composer of -to-day is undoubtedly more favored than his American brother. There -are more orchestras there; and they are more ready to do native works. -The conditions are not perfect by any means, but they are better there -than here. As far as the publication of serious music goes the English -composer's position is hopelessly bad. He has to contend against -ignorance, apathy, and a short-sighted financial timidity far beyond -American credence. In addition to that he often has to fight hard -against his own seniors who--themselves comfortably off--deny that -music, when written, has any commercial existence. A certain London -firm, in order to encourage its poorer and younger clientèle to take -example thereby, continually cites the readiness of one of its older -wealthy composers to take $25 for a choral work. Words can go no -further. - -It is unnecessary to specify the names of the great English publishing -houses which have associated themselves with the English revival. -Suffice it to say that they have always been at hand, ready to lighten -the burden and the pocket of the composer. But it would not be fair -to ignore the firm of Stainer and Bell, which was founded--under a -directorate of distinguished musicians--with the prime object of -dealing honorably with the composer. The existence of this firm is, -in its way, a landmark; or rather a lighthouse for composers who have -long had to beat up in the straits of chicanery and dishonesty. Nor -must we omit to mention the present extended activity of the Society -of Authors. Though founded by Sir Walter Besant some fifty years ago -for the special protection of literary men, it has recently formed a -sub-committee of composers under the chairmanship of Sir Charles V. -Stanford. It is now known as The Society of Authors, Playwrights, and -Composers and, among the last-named workers, has already done valuable -service. - -The number of composers who might be mentioned in this group is, of -course, very large. Now that music has almost risen to the level of -golf and horse-racing as a national pastime, it employs the brains of -many. The list, we fear, must be ruthlessly pruned. But it will be -pruned so as to leave the more prominent branches and even some of the -buds visible to the American reader. Of his charity he may be asked -to surmise what the author well knows, that some young Englishmen of -great original powers are forced by circumstance to spend their days in -teaching little girls the fiddle, while others who scarcely condescend -below grand opera might just as well be employed on some wholly -uninspired task--such as the writing of these pages. - -Ralph Vaughan Williams--though he is the most characteristically -English of this group--is a Welshman. Large both in body and mind, -he has always kept before himself and his fellows a singularly noble -ideal. It may safely be said of him that he has never trimmed his -course even half a point from what he considered his duty. The music -that comes from this simple and courageous mind is naturally of the -most earnest--perhaps a little awkward at times, but always deeply -sincere. His aims and his outlook are peculiarly national. Let us try -to exemplify this. To a fresh-water people like the Americans the -attempts of Rubinstein, Wagner, and others to illustrate 'the sea' in -music may not appear particularly unsuccessful: to a sea-loving race -like the English they are simply puny and ridiculous. Williams has -taken this subject, and, in his choral 'Sea Symphony' (words by Walt -Whitman), has actually caught up the sounds of the sea as the English -hear them. This is a new and a great achievement. Again in his 'London' -symphony he has somehow managed to express in sound a thing not -hitherto expressed--the poetry both tragic and comic which dwells in -that most wonderful of all towns. In Williams's larger works there is -always, quite apart from their actual length, something vast, shadowy, -and almost primeval. His landscape is always bathed in a pearly, -translucent haze. The subjects loom up and disappear with a suddenness -natural in England but unnatural elsewhere. It is as if a Turner -canvas had been translated into sound. Of Williams's other works, many -of which are directly inspired by the folk-music of which he is an -ardent collector, one may mention the orchestral 'Norfolk Rhapsodies,' -'In the Fen Country,' 'Harnham Down,' and 'Boldrewood'; the 'Five -Mystical Songs' for baritone, chorus, and orchestra; the beautiful -cantata 'Willow-wood' for baritone, female chorus, and orchestra; the -six songs, 'On Wenlock Edge,' for tenor voice, string quartet, and -pianoforte; and, last, his music to 'The Wasps.' - -Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875-1912) and William Young Hurlstone -(1876-1906) both died while still young. The one was an African, the -other a pure Englishman. Both died leaving an example to their friends -of modesty and cultured simplicity. As far as technique went they -could probably have both given Vaughan Williams ninety yards start in -a hundred and beaten him. But, in any more serious race, the handicap -would probably have had to be reversed. Their sailing-orders as -students were perhaps merely to keep the ship's head on Beethoven and -Brahms. But, in the case of Taylor, the powerful lode-stone of Dvořák's -genius spoilt the compass-readings and drew his ship nearer and nearer -to 'the coast of Bohemia.' Of his work the best-known by far is his -'Hiawatha,' the first performance of which at the R.C.M. was heard -by at least three members of the first group of composers--Sullivan, -Stanford, and Parry. After 'Hiawatha' may be mentioned his cantata -'A Tale of Old Japan,' his 'Bamboula Rhapsodic Dance' (written -for Norfolk, Conn.), and his violin 'Ballade' and 'Concerto.' In -Hurlstone's case a constant physical weakness prevented the true -development of his really great musical powers. The best of his refined -work is found in his sonatas, trios, and quartets. Most of these have -been or are now being published in London. - -Joseph Holbrooke (b. 1878) is from the land of Cockaigne. His -purposeful character and his invincible habit of saying in public -what most composers only think in private have made him the -_enfant terrible_ of London musical life. In output, energy, and -material-command he is probably unsurpassed by any living composer. -A strong, blistering style and a constant determination to call his -16-inch guns into action have procured for him many (musical) enemies. -He is blessed with a great sense of humor and a very complete knowledge -of the way to express it in music. His orchestral variations on 'Three -Blind Mice' should be played everywhere. Holbrooke has enjoyed very -exceptional opportunities in the way of dramatic performance and -full-score publication. This is not to be regretted; especially when -one considers the usual disadvantages of the English composer under -these two heads. He has written a large quantity of songs and chamber -music--some of it for the most curious combinations.[82] Among his -larger works one may select his operas 'The Children of Don' and -'Dylan'; his 'Queen Mab' and 'The Bells'; and his 'illuminated' choral -symphony 'Apollo and the Seaman.' - -Percy Grainger (b. 1883)--pianist, composer, arranger, friend of Grieg, -etc.--comes from Australia; and, if that country had not produced -him, the concert-agents of the world would have had to invent him. -His playing is wonderful. He never writes a dull note, and he ranges -from the Faroe Islands to the Antipodes. He crosses no sea but as a -conqueror. Folk-song is his battleship and quaint diatonic harmony his -submarine. 'Molly on the Shore,' 'Father and Daughter,' 'Mock Morris,' -'Händel in the Strand,' and 'I'm Seventeen Come Sunday' all attest the -'certain liveliness' of his very happy gifts. He has been applauded -by thousands and sketched by Sargent. What he will do next nobody -knows--but it is sure to be successful. - -Cyril Scott[83] was born, apparently, in the 'Yellow Book.' His slim -Beardsleyesque nature seems to be always moving through an elegant -exotic shadow-world, beckoned on by his own craving yet fastidious -mind. At Pagani's he sits mysteriously in a black stock and cameo. -A strange personality, distinguished and uneasy! Certain crippling -theories of rhythm and development have at times bent the flight of his -muse. His 'Aubade,' Pianoforte Concerto, and Ballad for baritone and -orchestra, 'Helen of Kirkconnell,' are notable. - -Gustav von Holst[84] for all his name, is English born and bred. -Skegness gave him to the world: he has all the energy and tenacity of -the east-coast man. The main features of his music are an extremely -modern and comprehensive method of handling his subjects, great -warmth and variety of orchestral color, and (occasionally it must be -confessed) excessive length. His successes have been striking and well -deserved. Among his best-known productions are his Moorish work 'In the -Street of the Ouled Nails,'[85] his orchestral suites 'Phantastes,' and -'de Ballet,' and (more particularly) his elaborate vocal and orchestral -works, such as 'The Cloud Messenger' and 'The Mystic Trumpeter.' A -large part of von Holst's time has been given to the composition of -Hindu opera on a vast scale; and, as we have already hinted, composers -who take up opera in England have to pay penalties. Among others who -have been mulcted in this way are Nicholas Gatty (with three operas, -'Greysteel,' 'Duke or Devil,' and 'The Tempest'); Rutland Boughton -(with his scheme of open-air choral drama on the Arthurian legends); -J. E. Barkworth (with 'Romeo and Juliet' set directly to Shakespeare's -text); George Clutsam, Colin McAlpin, and Alec Maclean. - -Norman O'Neill and Balfour Gardiner may be honorably mentioned as among -the very few young English composers who ever picture the Goddess of -Music as not swathed in crêpe. O'Neill's compositions are manifold. -Among the most successful are his capital numbers written as incidental -music to 'The Blue Bird.' Gardiner has a shorter list, but all his -works have a delightfully boyish and open-air spirit. We may mention -his orchestral pieces 'English Dance,' 'Overture to a Comedy,' and -'Shepherd Fennel's Dance.' - -One of the most prominent traits in the musical make-up of the young -English composer is his persistent cry for loud, complex orchestral -expression. Holbrooke was the one who started him on this trail; and -now his constant prayer seems to be: - - '_O mihi si linguæ centum sint, oraque centum._' - -Above this school Frank Bridge (b. 1879) stands head and shoulders. -What the others do well he does better; and, if they ever attempt to -follow him there, he always has a 'best' waiting for them. Though he is -quite unknown outside England, one has no hesitation in saying that his -superior as a plastic orchestral artist would be hard to find. Among -his best works are his three orchestral impressions of 'The Sea,' his -two 'Dance Rhapsodies,' and his beautiful symphonic poem 'Isabella.' -In chamber music he has been very successful, more especially in the -'Fancy' or 'Phantasy' form recently revived in England. His 'Three -Idylls' for string quartet are both charming and distinguished. - -Round Bridge's name may be grouped, for convenience of placing, the -names of York Bowen, who has written everything from symphonies and -sonatas to a waltz on Strauss's _Ein Heldenleben_; A. E. T. Bax, -whose activities are in some measure the musical counterpart of the -'Celtic twilight' school of poetry; W. H. Bell, the author of 'Mother -Cary' and the 'Walt Whitman' symphony; Hamilton Harty, whose 'Comedy -Overture,' 'With the Wild Geese,' and 'The Mystic Trumpeter' are all -much played in England; and Hubert Bath. To the last-named composer -we English owe a debt for his constant refusal to worship the muse -with a cypress-branch. His gay, sprightly choral ballads, such as -'The Wedding of Shon Maclean' and 'The Jackdaw of Rheims,' bring him -friends wherever they are heard. Bath has also made a specialty of -accompanied recitation-music. He has produced nearly two dozen of these -pieces; but in this field Stanley Hawley with his fifty-one published -compositions easily leads the way. Almost all the musicians mentioned -in this paragraph have been before the public at some time or other as -conductors. Harty and Bridge in particular have shown themselves to be -possessed of very strong gifts in this line. - -It is perhaps premature to criticize the very latest swarms of -orchestral composers that have issued from the musical bee-hives of -London. Certain of them, however, show considerable promise and, in -some cases, a rather alarming tendency to soar after the queen-bees of -continental hives. This they will probably outgrow as their summer days -increase. Among the most recent to try their wings are P. R. Kirby (a -Scotsman from Aberdeen), Eugène Goosens, Jr. (with his symphonic poem -'Perseus'), and Oskar Borsdorf (with his dramatic fantasy 'Glaucus and -Ione'). - -Among the members of the third group who have shown special excellence -in the realm of chamber music B. J. Dale stands preëminent. The first -performance of his big sonata in D minor made musical London hold -its breath. He has written a great deal of music for the viola (as -discovered by Lionel Tertis), and has even defied fate by composing a -work for six violas. Dale's powers are very great, and he has probably -a good deal to say yet. Richard Walthew and T. F. Dunhill have both -an honorable record in chamber music. Both, too, have written on the -topic. The former, who, is also a prolific song-writer, has published -a volume on 'The Development of Chamber Music'; while the latter, in -addition to his many-sided activities, has produced a tactful treatise -for students entitled 'Chamber Music.' To the list of those who are -specially devoted to this form of composition one may add the names -of J. N. Ireland and James Friskin, neither of whom has yet had an -opportunity adequate to his undoubted talents. - -Naturally, at all times there has been a considerable literature of -organ music in England. Almost all the composers mentioned above have -written for the instrument. But, among those more specially identified -with it and with church music, are W. Wolstenholme, who has more than -sixty published compositions; Ernest Halsley, also with a long list; -Lemare, whose transcriptions are so well known; T. Tertius Noble; C. -B. Rootham; and Alan Gray. James Lyon, the Liverpool organist, has a -lengthy record of the most varied sort, from orchestral, vocal, and -organ works to church services and technical treatises. A. M. Goodhart, -of Eton, has a similar weighty basketful. He has made a specialty of -the 'choral ballad.' - -We have already given the names of many English song writers. Here -there are two groups of Richmonds in the field; those who write for the -shop-ballad public, and those who do not. Most of the 'do nots' have -naturally already been dealt with among the more serious composers; -though the two spheres of activity by no means always coincide. The -following short list--covering practically three generations--includes -some of both sorts, but excludes the names of composers already -mentioned: Stephen Adams, Frances Allitsen, Robert Batten, A. von Ahn -Carse, Coningsby Clarke, Eric Coates, Noel Johnson, Frank Lambert, -Liza Lehmann, Herman Löhr, Daisy McGeoch, Alicia A. Needham, Montague -Phillips, John Pointer, Roger Quilter, Landon Ronald (principal of -the Guildhall School of Music), Wilfred Sanderson, W. H. Squire, Hope -Temple, Maude V. White, Haydn Wood, and Amy Woodforde-Finden. - -Before closing this highly compressed sketch of the English musical -renaissance an apology must be made for a double omission. First, the -whole subject of English opera has been ignored as too complex and -difficult for treatment. The activities of Carl Rosa, Moody-Manners, -Beecham, and others have therefore to be left almost unnoticed. Second, -no list has been attempted of the many fine executants produced by -England in the past generation. In actual accomplishment some of these -have been second to none in the world; though unfortunately their -connection with the men of the English revival has often been slight -or non-existent. On the other hand, some of the first of these artists -have stood, and do now stand, in a very close relationship with the -composers. And this mutual sympathy has often had happy results. One -can scarcely imagine Stanford's Irish songs without Mr. Plunket Greene -to sing them. - -The reader who has travelled so far with the author should have by -now a fairly clear idea of musical conditions and achievements on the -other side. It is hoped that he will not regard his experiences merely -as a forty-five-years' sojourn 'in darkest England.' He can take the -writer's word for it that there is plenty of light shining there. But, -what with the fogs in the North Sea, the Channel, and the Atlantic, the -rays seldom get beyond the coastguard. - - C. F. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[77] Out of the very small group of living English opera librettists -one is a duke and two are barons--Argyll, Howard de Walden, and -Latymer. A strange transformation in the national attitude towards -music! - -[78] The amount of work done by some of the English orchestras may be -gauged from the fact that during the first nine months of the present -European war the Queen's Hall Orchestra gave 112 concerts. - -[79] Born German Edward Jones. - -[80] By _Vincent_ Wallace. - -[81] Born Munkittrick. - -[82] For instance, a serenade for five saxophones, soprano -_flügelhorn_, baritone _flügelhorn_, _oboe d'amore_, _corno di -bassetto_, and harp. - -[83] B. Oxton, Cheshire. - -[84] B. Cheltenham, 1874. - -[85] In Biskra, a street of dancing and singing girls belonging to the -Walad-Nail tribe. - - - - - GENERAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUMES I, II, AND III - - - _In English_ - - A. W. AMBROS: The Boundaries of Music and Poetry (New York, - 1893). - - W. F. APTHORP: Musicians and Music Lovers (New York, 1897). - - O. B. BOISE: Music and its Masters (Phila., 1902). - - CHARLES BURNEY: A General History of Music (London, 1776). - - ROBERT CHALLONER: History of the Science and Art of Music - (Cincinnati, 1880). - - W. CHAPPELL: History of Music (London, 1874). - - F. J. CROWEST: Story of the Art of Music (New York, 1902). - - EDWARD DICKINSON: The Study of the History of Music (New York, - 1905). - - EDWARD DICKINSON: Guide to the Study of Musical History and - Criticism (Oberlin, 1895). - - JOSEPH GODDARD: The Rise of Music from Primitive Beginnings to - Modern Effects (London, 1908). - - Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5 vols. (new ed., - London, 1904-10). - - W. H. HADOW: Studies in Modern Music, 2 vols. (New York, - 1892-3). - - JOHN HAWKINS: General History of the Science and Practice of - Music (1776, new ed. 1853). - - JOHN HULLAH: Lectures on the History of Modern Music (London, - 1875). - - BONAVIA HUNT: History of Music (New York, 1891). - - A. LAVIGNAC: Music and Musicians (transl. by Marchant, New - York, 1905). - - The Oxford History of Music, 6 vols. (Oxford, 1901, 1905, 1902, - 1902, 1904, 1905). - - C. H. H. PARRY: Evolution of the Art of Music (4th ed., 1905). - - H. RIEMANN: Catechism of Musical History, 2 vols. (Eng. - transl., London, 1888). - - W. S. ROCKSTRO: A General History of Music (1886). - - J. S. ROWBOTHAM: A History of Music (London, 1885). - - ALFREDO UNTERSTEINER: Short History of Music, Eng. transl. by - Very (New York, 1902). - - - _In German_ - - A. W. AMBROS: Geschichte der Musik (Breslau, 1862-1882); new - ed. by H. Leichtentritt, 4 vols. (Leipzig, 1909). - - R. W. A. BATKA: Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik (Stuttgart, - 1911). - - KARL FRANZ BRENDEL: Grundzüge der Geschichte der Musik (7th - ed., Leipzig, 1888). - - KARL FRANZ BRENDEL: Geschichte der Musik in Italien, - Deutschland und Frankreich (Leipzig, 1860). - - ROBERT EITNER: Quellenlexikon der Musiker (Leipzig, 1900-1903). - - PAUL FRANK: Geschichte der Tonkunst (1863, 3rd ed., 1878). - - NIKOLAUS FORKEL: Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik (1778-1801). - - HERMANN KRETZSCHMAR: Führer durch den Konzertsaal (Leipzig, - 1887-1890). - - WILHELM LANGHANS: Geschichte der Musik des 17., 18., u. 19. - Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1912). - - A. NAUMANN: Die Tonkunst in der Kulturgeschichte, 2 vols. - (1869-70). - - EMIL NAUMANN: Illustrierte Musikgeschichte (new ed. by E. - Schmitz, 1913). - - Peters Musikbibliothek Jahrbuch, ed. by Schwartz. - - [Every volume since 1894 contains a complete (or usually - complete) bibliography of books on music published in the - respective year.] - - A. REISSMANN: Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik, 3 vols. (1863-5). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, 2 vols. (5 parts), - (Leipzig, 1904, 1905, 1907, 1912, 1913). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Musiklexikon [misc. articles], (Leipzig, 1909; - new ed., 1915). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Geschichte der Musiktheorie in 9.-19. Jahrhundert - (1898). - - KARL STORCK: Geschichte der Musik (Stuttgart, 1904). - - _Die Musik_ (Berlin, Bi-weekly). - - _Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft_ (Leipzig). - - _Zeitschrift_ and _Sammelbände_ of the _Int. Mus. Ges._ - - - _In French_ - - ALEXANDRE SOFIA BAWR: Histoire de la musique (Paris, 1823). - - CHARLES HENRI BLAINVILLE: Histoire générale, critique et - philologique de la musique (Paris, 1767). - - JACQUES BONNET: Histoire de la musique, et ses effets, depuis - son origine jusqu'à présent (Paris, 1715, Amsterdam, 1725). - - M. BRENET: _Année musicale_. - - A. BRUNEAU: Musiques d'hier et de demain (Paris, 1900). - - A. E. CHORON & J. A. L. DE LAFAGE: Nouveau manuel complet de - musique (Paris, 1838). - - F. CLÉMENT: Histoire de la musique depuis les temps anciens - jusqu'à nos jours (Paris, 1885). - - JULES COMBARIEU: Histoire de la musique, des origines à la mort - de Beethoven, 2 vols. (Paris, 1913). - - JEAN PIERRE OSCAR COMMETTANT: La musique, les musiciens et les - instruments de musique chez les différents peuples du monde - (Paris, 1869). - - HENRI EXPERT: Les Maîtres Musiciens de la Renaissance Française - (20 vols.). - - CAMILLE FAUST: Histoire de la musique européenne (Paris, 1914). - - F. J. FÉTIS: Histoire générale de la musique (1869). - - F. J. FÉTIS: Biographie universelle des musiciens et - bibliographie générale de la musique (Brussels, 1837). - - S. I. M. (Paris, Monthly). - - - _In Italian_ - - ARNALDO BONAVENTURA: Manuale di storia della musica (Livorno, - 1898). - - GIOVANNI ANDREA BONTEMPI: Historia musica (Perugia, 1695). - - PADRE G. B. MARTINI: Storia della musica (Bologna, 1767-1770). - - LUIGI TORCHI: _Arte Musicale_, 8 vols. Published irregularly. - - ALFREDO UNTERSTEINER: Storia della musica (1893). - - _Rivista Musicale Italiana_ (Turin, Quarterly). - -N. B.--See also Special Literature for each chapter (on following -pages). - - - - - SPECIAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUME I - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER I - - _In English_ - - BENJ. IVES GILMAN: Hopi Songs (Boston, 1908). - - RICHARD WALLASCHEK: Primitive Music (London, 1893). - - CARL ENGEL: An Introduction to the Study of National Music - (London, 1866). - - CHARLES RUSSELL DAY in 'Up the Niger,' by Mockler-Ferryman - (London, 1892). - - WILLY PASTOR: The Music of Primitive Peoples and the Beginning - of European Music (Gov't Printing Office, Publ. No. 2223; - Washington, 1913). - - FREDERICK R. BURTON: American Primitive Music (New York, 1909). - - ALICE C. FLETCHER: Indian Story and Song from North America - (Boston, 1900). - - ALICE C. FLETCHER: The Hako: a Pawnee Ceremony (Bureau of - American Ethnology, 22nd Annual Report, Part II, Washington, - 1904). - - NATALIE CURTIS: The Indian's Book (New York, 1907). - - FRANCES DENSMORE: Chippewa Music (Part I, Bulletin No. 45, - 1910; Part II, Bulletin No. 53, 1913, Bureau of Am. Eth.). - - NATHANIEL B. EMERSON: The Unwritten Literature of Hawaii - (Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin No. 38). - - - _In German_ - - CARL STUMPF: Die Anfänge der Musik (Leipzig, 1911). - - KARL BÜCHER: Arbeit und Rhythmus (Leipzig, 1909). - - KARL HAGEN: Über die Musik einiger Naturvölker (1892). - - JOSEF SCHÖNHÄRL: Volkskündliches aus Togo (Dresden, 1909). - - THEODORE BAKER: Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen Wilden - (Leipzig, 1882). - - - _In French_ - - JULIEN TIERSOT: Notes d'ethnographie musicale (Paris, 1905). - - JULIEN TIERSOT: Musiques pittoresques (Paris, 1889). - - ERNEST NOIROT: A travers le Fouta-Diallon et le Bambouc (Paris, - 1885). - - HENRI A. JUNOD: Les chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga - (Lausanne, 1897). - - - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER II - - _In English_ - - CARL ENGEL: Music of the Most Ancient Nations (London, 1909). - - RICHARD WALLASCHEK: Primitive Music (London, 1893). - - W. A. P. MARTIN: A Cycle of Cathay (Chicago, 1897). - - C. R. DAY: The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India - and the Deccan (London, 1891). - - J. A. VAN AALST: Chinese Music (Shanghai, 1884). - - W. LANE: Modern Egyptians (London, 1871). - - J. F. PIGGOT: Music and Musical Instruments of Japan (London, - 1893). - - A. J. ELLIS: On the Musical Scales of Various Nations (1885). - - W. POLE: Philosophy of Music (London, 1879). - - SOURINDRO MOHUN TAGORE: Six Principal Ragas, with a brief - survey of Hindoo music (Calcutta, 1877). - - G. L. RAYMOND: Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music (New - York, 1893). - - - _In German_ - - R. G. KIESEWETTER: Die Musik der Araber (1842). - - - _In French_ - - JULIEN TIERSOT: Notes d'ethnographie musicale (Paris, 1905). - - JUDITH GAUTIER: Les musiques bizarres à l'exposition de 1900. - - CAMILLE SAINT-SAËNS: Harmonie et mélodie (Paris, 1885). - - CHARLES PETTIT: L'Anneau de jade (Paris, 1911). - - - _In Spanish_ - - M. S. FUERTES: Musica Arabe-Española (Barcelona, 1853). - - FELIPE PEDRELL: Organografia Musical Antigua Española - (Barcelona, 1901). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER III - - _In English_ - - DAVID LEVI: A Succinct Account of the Rites and Ceremonies of - the Jews (London, 1783). - - GEORGE RAWLINSON: The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient - Eastern World (London, 1862). - - CARL ENGEL: Musical Instruments, Hand-Book of the South - Kensington Museum. - - CARL ENGEL: Music of the Most Ancient Nations (London, 1864). - - SIR JOHN STAINER: The Music of the Bible (London, 1904). - - JOSEPH BONOMI: Nineveh and Its Palaces (London, 1853). - - SIR GARDNER WILKINSON: Manners and Customs of the Ancient - Egyptians (London, 1878). - - AUSTIN HENRY LAYARD: Nineveh and Its Remains (London, 1849). - - PROF. H. GRAETZ: History of the Jews, 5 vols. (London, 1891-2). - - W. FLINDERS PETRIE: History of Egypt, 3 vols. (London, 1853). - - - _In German_ - - A. F. PFEIFFER: Über die Musik der alten Hebräer (Erlangen, - 1779). - - J. L. SAALSCHÜTZ: Geschichte und Würdigung der Musik bei den - Hebräern (Berlin, 1829). - - C. R. LEPSIUS (Editor): Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Ethiopien, 5 - vols. (Leipzig, 1897-1913). - - F. DIELITZSCH: Physiologie und Musik in ihrer Bedeutung für die - Grammatik, besonders die Hebräische (Leipzig, 1868). - - A. ACKERMANN: Der Synagogal-Gesang in seiner historischen - Entwickelung (1894). - - - _In French_ - - CHARLES ROLLIN: Histoire ancienne des Égyptiens, des - Cartagenois, des Assyriens, des Babyloniens, des Mèdes et des - Perses, des Macédoniens, des Grecs (Paris, 1730, Engl. tr., N. - Y., 1887-88.) - - CORNELIUS VON PAUW: Recherches philosophiques sur les Égyptiens - et sur les Chinois (Berlin, 1773). - - ABBÉ ROUSSIÈRE: Mémoire sur la musique des anciens, ou l'on - expose les principes des proportions authentiques, dites de - Pythagore, et de divers systèmes de musique chez les Grecs, les - Chinois, et les Égyptiens. Avec un parallèle entre le système - des Égyptiens et celui des modernes (Paris, 1770). - - GUILLAUME ANDRÉ VILLOTEAU: Description de l'Égypte. - - FR. AUG. GEVAERT: Histoire et théorie de la musique de - l'antiquité (1875-81). - - JEAN LORET: La musique chez les anciens Égyptiens (_in_ - Bibliothèque de la Faculté des Lettres de Lyon). - - F. VIGOUROUX: Psautier polyglotte; appendix (Paris, 1903). - - CHARLES LENORMONT: Musé des antiquités égyptiennes (Paris, - 1841). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IV - - _A--Sources_ - - PYTHAGORAS, the great philosopher of the sixth century B. C. - - His teachings are known only through his pupils, especially - Philalaos (ca. 540 B. C.), of whose writings fragments are - preserved. - - PLATO (427-347 B. C.). - - In his 'Republic,' 'De legibus,' 'De furore poetico,' 'Timæus,' - 'Gorgias,' 'Alcibiades Philebus,' there are copious references - to music. - - ARCHYTAS OF TARENT, a contemporary of Plato. - - He was the first to recognize the transmission of tones by - air vibration. His theories are cited by Theodore of Smyrna, - Claudius Ptolemy, etc. - - ARISTOTLE (383-320 B. C.). - - In 'Polities' and 'Poetics' he makes frequent references to - music. - - ARISTOXENUS OF TARENT (ca. 320 B. C.), the most important - musical theoretician of ancient Greece. His 'Rhythmics' and his - 'Elements of Harmonics,' the greatest part of which is lost, - have been many times translated and commented on. - - EUCLID, the great mathematician, a follower of Pythagoras. His - 'Sectio canonis' treats of the mathematical relation of tones. - - HERON OF ALEXANDRIA (100 B. C.) - - In his 'Pneumatica' he described the water organ (Hydraulis) - invented by Ktebisius, his teacher. - - ARISTIDES QUINTILIANUS (first to second century, A. D.) of - Smyrna. His 'Introduction to Music' (μοὕσϛ ἁρ ονικἣϛ), completely - preserved, except for corruptions by copyists, is especially - notable for its tables of musical notation. - - PLUTARCH, the celebrated writer of the comparative biographies - (50-120 A. D.), wrote an 'Introduction to Music,' full of - valuable information on the art. - - CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY, the great Græco-Egyptian geographer, - mathematician and astronomer (second century A. D.). His - 'Harmonics'--in three books--is an exhaustive theory of the - ancient scale system. - - ALYPIUS (ca. 360 A. D.). His 'Introduction to Music' is - valuable for the copious tables of notation (Alypian tables). - - BOETHIUS (475-524 A. D.), the chancellor of Theodoric the - Great. He was the chief exponent of Greek musical theory to the - Middle Ages. His five books on music ('De Musica') are chiefly - based on other works of the Roman period, notably on Ptolemy. - - - _B--Early Modern Writers on Greek Music_ - - VINCENZO GALILEO: Dialogo di Vincenzo Galileo ... della musica - antica, et della moderna (Florence, 1581). - - M. MEIBOMIUS (Meibom): Antiquæ musicæ auctores septem - (Amsterdam, 1652). - - - _C--Modern Authorities_ - - AUGUST BÖCKH: De metris Pindari (Ed. of Pindar), 1811, 1819, - 1821. - - AUGUST BÖCKH: Die Entwicklung der Lehren des Philalaos (Berlin, - 1819). - - AUGUST BEGER: Die Würde der Musik im Griechischen Altertume - (Dresden, 1839). - - FR. BELLERMAN (ed.): Anonymi scriptio de musica (Berlin, 1841). - - FR. BELLERMAN (ed.): Die Tonleitern und Musiknoten der Griechen - (Berlin, 1847). - - A. J. H. VINCENT: Notice sur trois manuscrits grecs relatifs à - la musique (1847). - - CARL FR. WEITZMANN: Geschichte der griechischen Musik (Berlin, - 1855). - - MARQUARD: Harmonische Fragmente des Aristoxenus (1868). - - OSKAR PAUL: Boethius' fünf Bücher über die Musik (translated - and elucidated, Leipzig, 1872). - - FR. AUG. GEVAERT: Histoire et théorie de la musique de - l'antiquité (Gand, 1875). - - FR. AUG. GEVAERT: Les problèmes musicaux d'Aristote (_collab. - w._ J. C. Vollgraf). - - RUDOLPH WESTPHAL: Musik des griechischen Alterthumes (1883). - - RUDOLPH WESTPHAL: Aristoxenus von Tarent (1883). - - A. ROSSBACH und R. WESTPHAL: Theorie der musischen Künste der - Hellenen (1885-89). - - D. B. MONRO: The Modes of Ancient Greek Music (Oxford, 1894). - - CARL VON JAN: Musicii Scriptores Græci (Leipzig, 1895). - - H. S. MACRAN: The Harmonies of Aristoxenus (Oxford, 1902). - - R. VON KRALIK: Altgriechische Musik (Stuttgart, 1900). - - ARTHUR FAIRBANKS: The Greek Pæan (Cornell Studies XII, 1900). - - LOUIS LALOY: Aristoxène de Tarente (1904). - - A. J. HIPKINS: Dorian and Phrygian (Sammelbände der Int. - Musik-Ges., Vol. IV, No. 3, pp. 371-81). - - - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER V - - _In English_ - - THE PLAIN-SONG AND MEDIÆVAL MUSIC SOCIETY: Graduale - Sarisburiense, with intro. 'The Sarum Gradual'; 'Early English - Harmony,' etc., etc. - - H. B. BRIGGS: The Elements of Plainsong (London, 1895). - - THE BENEDICTINES OF STANBROOK: Gregorian Music, an outline of - musical paleography (1897). - - - _In German_ - - FERDINAND PROBST: Die Liturgie der ersten drei Jahrhunderte - (1870). - - FERDINAND PROBST: Die abendländische Messe vom 5. bis zum 8. - Jahrhundert (1896). - - H. RIEMANN: Studien zur Geschichte der Notenschrift (1878). - - PH. SPITTA: Über Hucbalds Musica Enchiriadis - (Vierteljahrs-schrift für Musikwissenschaft, 1889, 1890). - - - _In French_ - - J. B. DE LABORDE: Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne - (1780). - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: Histoire de l'harmonie au moyen-âge (1852). - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: Mémoire sur Hucbald (1841). - - J. LEBEUF: Traité historique et pratique sur le chant - ecclésiastique (1741). - - L. LAMBILLOTTI: Antiphonaire de Saint-Grégoire (1851). - - L. LAMBILLOTTI: Esthétique, théorie et pratique de plain-chant - (1855). - - DOM JOSEPH POTHIER: Les mélodies grégoriennes d'après la - tradition (1880). - - PALÉOGRAPHIE MUSICALE: Les principaux manuscrits, etc.; - Instructions, etc. - - DOM GERMAIN MORIN: Les véritables origines du chant grégorien - (1890). - - FR.-AUG. GEVAERT: Les origines du chant liturgique de l'église - latine (1890). - - J. COMBARIEU: Étude de philologie musicale. Théorie du rhythme, - etc. (1896). - - G. L. HOUDARD: L'Art dit grégorien d'après la notation - neumatique (1897). - - - _In Italian_ - - CARDINAL G. BONA: De divina psalmodia (1653, new ed. 1747). - - F. MAGANI: L'anticaliturgia romana (1897-99). - - GUIDO GASPERINI: Storia della semiografia musicale (1905). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VI - - _In English_ - - H. E. WOOLDRIDGE: Early English Harmony from the 10th to the - 15th Century (1897). - - JOHN STAINER: Early Bodleian Music: Dufay and his - contemporaries (Oxford, 1909). - - - _In German_ - - G. JACOBSTHAL: Die Mensuralnotenschrift des 12.-13. Jahrhundert - (1871). - - H. BELLERMANN: Die Mensuralnoten und Taktzeichen im 15. und 16. - Jahrhundert (1858). - - GEORG LANGE: Zur Geschichte der Solmisation (Sammelb. der - Intern. Musik-Ges., I, 1899). - - HANS MÜLLER: Hucbalds echte und unechte Schriften über Musik - (1884). - - HANS MÜLLER: Eine Abhandlung über Mensuralmusik (1886). - - JOHANNES WOLF: Geschichte der Mensuralnotation von 1250-1460 - (1904). - - PH. SPITTA: Die Musica enchiriadis und ihr Zeitalter - (Viertel-jahrsschr. für Musikwissenschaft, 1888 and 1889). - - - _In French_ - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: Mémoire sur Hucbald (1841). - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: Les harmonistes des XII^{me} et XIII^{me} - siècles (Lille, 1864). - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: L'Art harmonique au XII^{me} et XIII^{me} - siècles (Paris, 1865). - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: Histoire de l'harmonie au moyen-âge (1852). - - - _In Italian_ - - L. ANGELINI: Sopra la vita ed il sapere di Guido d'Arezzo - (1811). - - GUIDO GASPERINI: Storia della semiografia musicale (1905). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VII - - _In English_ - - EDMONDSTOUNE DUNCAN: Story of Minstrelsy. - - EDWARD JONES: Musical and Poetical Relicks of the Welsh Bards - (three parts, 1786, 1802, 1824). - - J. F. ROWBOTHAM: The Troubadours and Courts of Love (1896). - - E. HUEFFER: The Troubadours (London, 1895). - - HENRY JOHN CHAYTOR: The Troubadours (Camb., 1912). - - W. H. GRATTAN FLOOD: History of Irish Music (Dublin, 1906). - - - _In French_ - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: Œuvres complètes du trouvère Adam de la - Hâle (1872). - - ED. DE COUSSEMAKER: L'Art harmonique au XII^{me} et XIII^{me} - siècles (1865). - - JULIEN TIERSOT: Histoire de la chanson populaire en France - (1889). - - JOSEPH ANGLADE: Les troubadours (Paris, 1908). - - ANTONY MÉRAY: La vie au temps des trouvères (Paris, 1873). - - E. LANGLOIS: Robin et Marion (Paris, 1896). - - A. JEANROY: Les origines de la poésie lyrique en France au - moyen-âge (Paris, 1892). - - ANONYMOUS: Résumé historique sur la musique en Norvège. - - - _In German_ - - H. RIEMANN: Die Melodik der Minnesänger (Musikalisches - Wochenblatt, 1897-1902). - - R. G. KIESEWETTER: Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen - Gesanges vom frühen Mittelalter, etc. (1841). - - FR. DIEZ: Die Poesie der Troubadours (2nd ed. by K. Bartsch, - 1883). - - FR. DIEZ: Leben und Werke der Troubadours (2nd ed., 1882). - - PAUL RUNGE: Die Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift, etc. - (1896). - - KARL BÜCHER: Arbeit und Rhythmus (4th ed., 1909). - - LUDWIG ERK: Deutscher Liederhort; new ed. by F. N. Böhme - (Leipzig, 1893-94). - - AUG. REISSMANN: Geschichte des Deutschen Liedes (Berlin, 1874). - - E. FREYMOND: Jongleurs und Menestrels (Halle, 1833). - - J. BECK: Die Melodien der Troubadours (Strassburg, 1908). - - R. GENÉE: Hans Sachs und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1902). - - FRIEDRICH SILCHER: Deutsche Volkslieder (Tübingen, 1858). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VIII - - _In English_ - - GROVE'S Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Articles on Josquin - des Près, Okeghem, Schools of Composition (London, 1904-10). - - H. E. WOOLDRIDGE: Early English Harmony from the 10th to the - 15th Century (1897). - - SIR JOHN STAINER: Early Bodleian music: Dufay and His - Contemporaries (Oxford, 1909). - - ERNST PAUER: Musical Form. - - - _In German_ - - R. G. KIESEWETTER: Geschichte der europäisch-abendländischen - oder unserer heutigen Musik (1834). - - JOHANNES WOLF: Geschichte der Mensuralnotation von 1250-1460 - (Kirchenmusik, Jahrband, 1899). - - GUIDO ADLER: Die Wiederholung und Nachahmung in der - Mehrstimmigkeit (1882). - - OSWALD KOLLER: Der Liederkodex von Montpellier - (Vierteljahrsschrift f. Musikwissenschaft, 1888). - - - _In French_ - - GUILLAUME DUBOIS (_called_ Crétin): Déploration de Guillaume - Crétin sur le tré pas de Jean Okeghem, etc. (Paris, 1864). - - FÉLICIEN DE MÉNIL: Josquin de Près (Revue Int. de Musique, - 1899, No. 21, pp. 1322 ff.). - - FÉLICIEN DE MÉNIL: L'Ecole contraponctiste flamande du XV^e - siècle (1895). - - E. VAN DER STRAETEN: La musique aux Pays-bas avant le XIX^e - siècle (Brussels, 1867-88). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IX - - _In English_ - - Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians: art. _Monodia_, etc. - - W. J. HENDERSON: Some Forerunners of Italian Opera (New York, - 1911). - - J. A. SYMONDS: The Renaissance in Italy, 2 vols. - - - _In German_ - - R. G. KIESEWETTER: Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen - Gesanges vom frühesten Mittelalter bis zur Entstehung der Oper - (Leipzig, 1841). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, Vol II (Leipzig, - 1911, 1912, 1913). - - JOHANNES WOLF: Geschichte der Mensuralnotation von 1250-1460 - (Leipzig, 1904). - - JOHANNES WOLF: Florenz in der Musikgeschichte des 14ten - Jahrhunderts (Sammelbände I. M.-G., 1901-1902). - - - _In Italian_ - - A. D'ANGELI: La musica ai tempi di Dante (1904). - - LUIGI TORCHI: La musica istromentale in Italia nei secoli 16º, - 17º, e 18º (_Rivista musicale_, IV-VIII, 1898-1901). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER X - - _In English_ - - EDWARD DICKINSON: Music in the History of the Western Church - (New York, 1902). - - J. A. SYMONDS: Renaissance in Italy, Vol. IV. - - - _In German_ - - P. GRAF WALDERSEE: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, etc. (In - Sammlung musikalischer Vorträge, 1884). - - R. G. KIESEWETTER: Die Verdienste der Niederländer um die - Tonkunst (1829). - - K. VON WINTERFELD: Johannes Pierluigi von Palestrina, etc., - etc. (Breslau, 1832). - - K. VON WINTERFELD: Musiktreiben und Musikempfinden in 16. und - 17. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1851). - - - _In French_ - - A. C. G. MATHIEU: Roland de Lattre [Orlando di Lasso], sa vie, - ses ouvrages (Gand, after 1856). - - F.-J. FÉTIS: Quels ont été les mérites des Néerlandais dans - la musique, principalement au XIV^e, XV^e, et XVI^e siècles? - (1829). - - HENRI FLORENT DELMOTTE: Notice biographique sur Roland de - Lattre connu sous le nom d'Orland de Lassus (Valenciennes, - 1836). - - G. FELIX: Palestrina et la musique sacrée (1896). - - - _In Italian_ - - GIUSEPPE BAINI: Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle - opere di G. Perluigi da Palestrina (Rome, 1828). - - DOM AUG. VERNARECCI: Ottaviano dei Petrucci (second ed. 1882). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XI - - _In English_ - - Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians: _Art._ Opera, Peri, - Caccini, etc. - - R. A. STREATFEILD: The Opera (London, 1897). - - W. F. APTHORP: The Opera Past and Present (New York, 1901). - - - _In German_ - - R. EITNER: Die Oper, etc. (Vol. X of Publikation älterer - praktischer und theoretischer Musikwerke, Berlin, 1881). - - A. HEUSS: Die Instrumentalstücke des 'Orfeo' (1903). - - R. G. KIESEWETTER: Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen - Gesanges vom frühesten Mittelalter bis zur Entstehung der Oper - (Leipzig, 1841). - - HERMANN KRETZSCHMAR: Die venezianische Oper und die - Werke Cavallis und Cestis (_Vierteljahrsschrift für - Musikwissenschaft_, Vol. VIII). - - ARNOLD SCHERING: Die Anfänge des Oratoriums (Leipzig, 1907). - - EMIL VOGEL: Claudio Monteverdi (_Vierteljahrsschrift für - Musikwissenschaft_, Vol. III, pp. 315 ff., Leipzig, 1887). - - - _In French_ - - FR.-A. GEVAERT: La musique vocale en Italie, Vol. I, Les - maîtres florentins 1595-1630 (_Annuaires da Conservatoire - Royale de Bruxelles_, 1882). - - A. REGNARD: La Renaissance du drame lyrique 1600-1876 (Paris, - 1895). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Histoire de l'opéra en Europe avant Lully et - Scarlatti (Paris, 1895). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1912). - - JULES TIERSOT: L'Orféo de Monteverde (_Le Ménestrel_, Vol. LXX, - Paris, 1904). - - - _In Italian_ - - D. ALALEONA: Su Emilio de' Cavalieri, etc. (In Nuova Musica, - Florence, 1905). - - A. D'ANCONA: Sacre Rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV, XV e XVI - (Florence, 1872). - - A. D'ANCONA: Origini del teatro italiano (Palermo, 1900). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XII - - _In German_ - - FRANZ BEIER: J. J. Froberger (Leipzig, 1884). - - OTTO KINKELDEY: Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des 16ten - Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1910). - - TOBIAS NORLAND: Zur Geschichte der Suite (Sammelbände der - Intern. Musik-Ges., X, 4, 1909). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Suite (Sammelbände - der Intern. Musik-Ges., IV, 4, 1905). - - ARNOLD SCHERING: Geschichte des Instrumental-Konzerts (Leipzig, - 1907). - - J. P. SEIFFERT: Sweelinck und seine direkten Schüler - (Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft, 1891). - - J. P. SEIFFERT: Geschichte der Klaviermusik (Leipzig, 1899). - - PHILIPP SPITTA: Heinrich Schütz (Leipzig, 1899). - - JOSEPH VON WASIELIWSKI: Die Violine und ihre Meister (Leipzig, - 1869, 5th ed. 1911). - - JOSEPH VON WASIELIWSKI: Die Violine im 17. Jahrhundert, etc. - (1874). - - - _In French_ - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Histoire de l'opéra avant Lully et Scarlatti - (Paris, 1895). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1912). - - - _In Italian_ - - GIOV.-BATT. DONI: Trattati di musica (Florence, 1763). - - LUIGI TORCHI: La musica istromentale in Italia nei secoli 16º, - 17º e 18º (Rivista musicale italiana, IV-VIII, 1898-1901). - - GUIDO PASQUETTI: L'oratorio musicale in Italia (Florence, 1906). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIII - - _In English_ - - W. H. CUMMINGS: Henry Purcell (2nd ed., 1889). - - A. EDW. JAMES DENT: Alessandro Scarlatti (London, 1905). - - W. BARCLAY SQUIRE: Purcell's Dramatic Music (Sammelbände der - Internationalen Musik-Ges., V, 4, 1904). - - - _In German_ - - HUGO RIEMANN: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Suite (Sammelbände - der Intern. Musik-Ges., IV, 4, 1905). - - HUGO GOLDSCHMIDT: Die italienische Gesangsmethode des 17ten - Jahrhunderts (Breslau, 1890). - - HUGO GOLDSCHMIDT: Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen Oper - im 17. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1901-1904). - - HUGO GOLDSCHMIDT: Zur Geschichte der Arien- und Symphonie-Form - (Monatshefte f. Musikgeschichte, 1901, Nos. 4-5). - - JOSEPH VON WASIELIWSKI: Die Violine im 17. Jahrhundert und die - Anfänge der Instrumentalkomposition (1874). - - HEINZ HESS: Die Opern Alessandro Stradellas (Leipzig, 1906). - - HERMANN KRETZSCHMAR: Führer durch den Konzertsaal (Leipzig, - 1887, 1888, 1890). - - HUGO LEICHTENTRITT: Reinhard Keiser und seine Opern (Berlin, - 1901). - - HUGO LEICHTENTRITT: Der monodische Kammermusikstil in Italien - bis gegen 1650 (in Ambros: Gesch. der Musik, Vol. IV, pp. 774 - ff; new ed., 1909). - - E. O. LINDER: Die erste stehende Oper in Deutschland (Berlin, - 1855). - - - _In French_ - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1908). - - JULES ÉCORCHEVILLE: De Lully à Rameau, 1690-1730 (Paris, 1906). - - CHARLES NUITTER et E. THOINAU: Les origines de l'opéra français - (Paris, 1886). - - ARTHUR POUGIN: Les vrais créateurs de l'opéra français: Perrin - et Cambert (Paris, 1881). - - HENRY PRUNIÈRES: Notes sur la vie de Luigi Rossi (Sammelbände - der Intern. Musik-Ges., XII, 1, 1910). - - HENRY PRUNIÈRES: Lully (Paris, 1910). - - HENRY PRUNIÈRES: Notes sur les origines de l'ouverture - française (Sammelbände der Intern. Musik-Ges., XII, 4, 1911). - - ÉDOUARD RADET: Lully (Paris, 1891). - - - _In Italian_ - - ANGELO CATELANI: Della opera di Alessandro Stradella (Modena, - 1886). - - LUIGI TORCHI: La musica istromentale in Italia nei secoli 16º, - 17º e 18º (_Rivista musicale italiana_, IV-VII, 1898-1901). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIV - - _In English_ - - W. S. ROCKSTRO: Life of Händel (London, 1883). - - VICTOR SCHOELCHER: Life of Händel (London, 1857). - - J. MAINWARING: Memoirs of the Life of Händel (London, 1906). - - R. A. STREATFEILD: Händel (London, 1909). - - C. F. ABDY WILLIAMS: Händel (London, 1913). - - CHARLES BURNEY: Commemoration of Händel. - - SEDLEY TAYLOR: Indebtedness of Händel to Works by Other - Composers (Cambridge, 1906). - - JOSEPH ADDISON: The Spectator, Nos. 18, 231, 235, 258, 278, 405. - - - _In German_ - - FRIEDRICH CHRYSANDER: Georg Friedrich Händel (3 parts, 1859-67, - incomplete). - - FRIEDRICH CHRYSANDER: Die deutsche Oper in Hamburg (Allg. - Musik-Ztg., 1879-1880). - - A. REISSMANN: Händel, sein Leben und seine Werke (Berlin, 1882). - - A. STEIN (H. Nietschmann): Händel, ein Künstlerleben (Halle, - 1882-3). - - HERMANN KRETZSCHMAR: Händel (_In_ Sammlung musikalischer - Vorträge, Leipzig, 1884). - - HUGO LEICHTENTRITT: Reinhard Keiser in seinen Opern - (Dissertation, Berlin, 1901). - - A. SCHERING: Geschichte des Oratoriums (Leipzig, 1911). - - - _In French_ - - MICHEL BRENET: Haendel; biographie critique (Les Musiciens - célèbres, Paris, 1912). - - M. BOUCHER: Israël en Égypte (1888). - - G. VERNIER: L'oratorio biblique de Haendel (1901). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XV - - _In English_ - - C. H. H. PARRY: Johann Sebastian Bach (London and New York, - 1909). - - C. L. HILGENFELDT: Johann Sebastian Bach, from the German of - Hilgenfeldt and Forkel, with additions (London, 1869). - - REGINALD LAND POOLE: Sebastian Bach (London, 1882). - - ALBERT SCHWEITZER: J. S. Bach, with preface by C. M. Widor; - English translation by E. Newman (Leipzig, 1911). - - - _In German_ - - ARNOLD SCHERING: Geschichte des Instrumental-Konzerts (Leipzig, - 1903). - - ARNOLD SCHERING: Geschichte des Oratoriums (Leipzig, 1907). - - ARNOLD SCHERING: Zur Bach-Forschung (Sammelb. der Intern. - Musik-Ges., IV, 234 ff., V, 556 ff.). - - JOHANN FORKEL: Über Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und - Kunstwerke (Leipzig, 1802). - - C. H. BITTER: Johann Sebastian Bach (Berlin, 1862). - - S. JADASSOHN: Erläuterungen der in Johann Sebastian Bachs Kunst - der Fuge enthaltenen Fugen und Kanons (Leipzig, 1899). - - S. JADASSOHN: Zur Einführung in J. S. Bachs Passionsmusik, etc. - (Berlin, 1898). - - ERNST OTTO LINDNER: Zur Tonkunst (Berlin, 1864). - - A. REISSMANN: Johann Sebastian Bach; sein Leben und seine Werke - (Berlin, 1881). - - J. A. P. SPITTA: Johann Sebastian Bach (Leipzig, 1873-80). - - K. GRUNSKY: Bachs Kantaten; eine Anregung (Die Musik, III, No. - 14, pp. 95 ff.). - - - _In French_ - - ANDRÉ PIRRO: J. S. Bach (Paris, 1906). - - ANDRÉ PIRRO: L'esthétique de J. S. Bach (Paris, 1907). - - ALBERT SCHWEITZER: J. S. Bach, le musicien poète (Paris, 1905). - - - SPECIAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUME II - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER I - - _In English_ - - FREDERICK H. MARTENS: The French Chanson galante in the XVIIIth - Century (The Musician, Dec., 1913). - - ERNEST NEWMAN: Gluck and the Opera (London, 1895). - - R. A. STREATFEILD: The Opera (London, 1897). - - - _In German_ - - OSKAR BIE: Die Oper (Berlin, 1913). - - KARL GRUNSKY: Musikgeschichte des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts - (Leipzig, 1905). - - LA MARA: Christoph Willibald Gluck (Leipzig, 1912). - - ADOLPH BERNHARD MARX: Gluck und die Oper (Berlin, 1863). - - R. PECHEL und FELIX POPPENBERG: Rokoko, das galante Zeitalter - in Briefen, Memorien Tagebüchern (Berlin, 1913). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven (Berlin, - 1901). - - A. SCHMID: Christoph Willibald Ritter v. Gluck (Leipzig, 1854). - - - _In French_ - - C. BELLAIGUE: Notes brèves (Paris, 1907). - - C. BELLAIGUE: Un siècle de musique française (Paris, 1907). - - G. DESNOIRESTERRES: Gluck et Puccini (Paris, 1875). - - A. JULIEN: Musiciens d'hier et d'ajourd'hui (Paris, 1910). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1912). - - E. SCHURÉ: Le drame musical (Paris, 1875). - - JULIEN TIERSOT: Gluck (Paris, 1910). - - JEAN D'UDINE: Gluck (Paris, 1912). - - PIERRE AUBRY: Grétry (Paris, 1911). - - HECTOR BERLIOZ: A travers chants (Paris, 1863). - - A. COQUARD: La langue française et la musique (Le Courrier - Musical, Paris, May 1, 1907). - - E. DACIER: Une danseuse française à Londres au début du XVIII - siècle (S. I. M., May 1, 1908). - - ARSÈNE HOUSSAYE: Galerie du XVIII^{me} siècle: La Regence - Melanges extraits des manuscrits de Mme. Necker (Paris, 1798). - - PAUL JEDLINSKI: A propos de la reprise d'Iphigénie en Aulide - (Le Courrier Musical, Paris, Jan. 15th, 1908). - - L. DE LA LAURENCIE: Le goût musical en France (Paris, 1905). - - GASTON MAUGRAS: Le Duc de Lauzun et la cour intime de Louis XV - (Paris, 1895). - - Mémoirs de la Comtesse de Boigne (Paris, 1907). - - PHILIPPE MOMIER: Venise au XVIII^{me} siècle (Paris, 1907). - - C. PITOU: Paris sous Louis XV (Paris, 1906). - - HENRI PRUNIÈRES: Le cerf de la Vieville et le goût classique - (S. I. M., June 15, 1908). - - L. STRIFFLING: Goût musical en France au XVIII^e siècle (Paris, - 1912). - - H. A. TAINE: L'ancien régime. - - G. TOUCHARD-LAFOSSE: Chroniques pittoresques et critiques de - l'œil de bœuf: Des petits appartements de la cour et des salons - de Paris sous Louis XIV, la régence, Louis XV, et Louis XVI - (Paris, 1845). - - - _In Italian_ - - VERNON LEE: Il settecento in Italia (Milan, 1881). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER II - - _In English_ - - CHARLES BURNEY: The Present State of Music in Germany, etc., 2 - vols. (London, 1773). - - CHARLES BURNEY: Present State of Music in France and Italy - (London, 1771). - - H. F. CHORLEY: Music and Manners in France and North Germany, 3 - vols. (London, 1843). - - KUNO FRANCKE: History of German Literature (N. Y., 1913). - - ARTHUR HASSEL: The Balance of Power, 1715-1789 (London, 1908). - - JOHN S. SHEDLOCK: The Pianoforte Sonata, Its Origin and - Development (London, 1895). - - - _In German_ - - K. H. BITTER: Karl Philipp Emanuel and W. Friedemann Bach, 2 - vols. (Leipzig, 1868). - - CARL DITTERS VON DITTERSDORF: Autobiographie (Leipzig, 1801). - - KARL GRUNSKY: Musikgeschichte des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts - (Leipzig, 1905). - - S. BAGGE: Die geschichtliche Entwickelung der Sonata (In - Waldersee Sammlung, Vol. II. No. 19) 1880. - - - _In French_ - - JULES CARLEZ: Grimm et la musique de son temps (Paris, 1872). - - JULES COMBARIEU: L'influence de la musique d'Allemagne sur la - musique française (Petersjahrbuch, 1895). - - T. DE WYZEWA ET G. DE SAINT-FOIX: W. A. Mozart, 1756-77, 2 - vols. (Paris, 1912). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER III - - _In English_ - - CHARLES BURNEY: The Present State of Music in Germany, etc., 2 - vols. (London, 1773). - - CHARLES BURNEY: The Present State of Music in France and Italy - (London, 1771). - - E. J. DENT: Mozart's Operas; a Critical Study (London, 1913). - - W. H. HADOW: A Croatian Composer (Haydn) (London, 1897). - - OTTO JAHN: Life of Mozart (Trans. by Pauline T. Townsend), 3 - vols. (London, 1882). - - GEORGE HENRY LEWES: The Life of Goethe. - - W. A. MOZART: The Letters of W. A. Mozart (1769-1791). Transl. - from the collection of Lady Wallace (New York, 1866). - - LUDWIG NOHL: W. A. Mozart (Engl. transl. London, 1877). - - - _In German_ - - HUGO DAFFNER: Die Entwicklung des Klavierkonzerts bis Mozart - (1908). - - KARL GRUNSKY: Musikgeschichte des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts - (Leipzig, 1905). - - EDUARD HANSLICK: Geschichte des Konzertwesens in Wien, 2 vols. - (Vienna, 1869-70). - - JOSEPH HAYDN: Tagebuch (edited by J. E. Engl), 1909. - - OTTO JAHN: W. A. Mozart, 4th ed., 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1905-7). - - LUDWIG KÖCHEL: Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnis der - Tonwerke W. A. Mozarts (Leipzig, 1862 and 1905). - - HERMANN KRETZSCHMAR: Führer durch den Konzertsaal, 3 vols. - (Leipzig, 1895-9). - - W. A. MOZART: Gesammelte Briefe (herausg. von Ludwig Nohl), - (Salzburg, 1865). - - G. N. VON NISSEN: Biographie W. A. Mozarts, 1828-1848 (Leipzig). - - LUDWIG NOHL: W. A. Mozart (Leipzig, 1882). - - GUSTAV NOTTEBOHM: Mozartiana (Leipzig, 1880). - - C. F. POHL: Joseph Haydn, 2 vols. [Unfinished], (Leipzig, - 1875-82). - - C. F. POHL: Mozart in London; Haydn in London (Vienna, 1876). - - RICHARD WALLASCHEK: Geschichte der Wiener Hofoper (in Die - Theater Wiens, 1907-9). - - F. W. WALTER: Die Entwicklung des Mannheimer Musik- und - Theater-lebens (Leipzig, 1897). - - - _In French_ - - GUISEPPE CARPANI: Le Haydine (Paris, 1812). - - T. DE WYZEWA ET G. DE SAINT-FOIX: W. A. Mozart, 1756-77, 2 - vols. (Paris, 1912). - - HENRI LAVOIX: Histoire de l'instrumentation (Paris, 1878). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'autrefois: Mozart (Paris, 1908). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IV - - _In English_ - - BEETHOVEN: Letters; ed. by A. Kalischer, trans. by J. S. - Shedlock, 2 vols. (London, 1909). - - VINCENT D'INDY: Beethoven, a Critical Biography, trans. by T. - Baker (Boston, 1913). - - SIR GEORGE GROVE: Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies (London, - 1896). - - DANIEL GREGORY MASON: Beethoven and his Forerunners (New York, - 1904). - - KARL REINECKE: The Beethoven Pianoforte Sonatas, trans. by E. - M. T. Dawson (London, 1912). - - A. SCHINDLER: The Life of Beethoven (including correspondence, - etc.); ed. by Moscheles (London, 1841). - - ARTHUR SYMONS: Beethoven (Essay), (London, 1910). - - - _In German_ - - L. VAN BEETHOVEN: Sämtliche Briefe; ed. by A. Kalischer, 5 - vols. (1906-8). - - PAUL BEKKER: Beethoven (Berlin, 1912). - - G. VON BREUNING: Aus dem Schwarzspanierhause (New ed., 1907). - - THEODOR VON FRIMMEL: Ludwig van Beethoven, Berühmte Musiker, v. - 13 (Berlin, 1901). - - THEODOR VON FRIMMEL: Beethoven Studien (Munich, 1905-6). - - LUDWIG NOHL: Beethoven, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1867-77). - - GUSTAV NOTTEBOHM: Beethoveniana, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1872-1887). - - KARL REINECKE: Die Beethovenschen Klaviersonaten (1889, new - ed., 1905). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven, 1800-1900 - (Berlin, 1904). - - ALEXANDER WHEELOCK THAYER: Ludwig van Beethovens Leben, 5 - vols., completed and revised by H. Deiters and H. Riemann (1866 - [1901], 1872 [1910], 1879 [1911], 1907, 1908). - - - _In French_ - - JEAN CHANTAVOINE: Beethoven (Paris, 1907). - - VINCENT D'INDY: Beethoven (Paris, 1913). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Beethoven (Paris, 1909). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER V - - _In English_ - - HENRY F. CHORLEY: Music and Manners in France and Germany - (London, 1844). - - H. SUTHERLAND EDWARDS: Life of Rossini (London, 1869). - - H. SUTHERLAND EDWARDS: Rossini and his School (London, 1881). - - - _In German_ - - OSKAR BIE: Die Oper (Berlin, 1913). - - MAX CHOP: Führer durch die Opernmusik (Berlin, 1912). - - FERD. HILLER: Künstlerleben (Cologne, 1880). - - DR. ADOLPH KOHNT: Meyerbeer (Berlin, 1890). - - DR. ADOLPH KOHNT: Rossini (Berlin, 1892). - - H. MENDEL: Giacomo Meyerbeer (Berlin, 1866). - - EMIL NAUMANN: Italienische Tondichter (Leipzig, 1901). - - W. H. RIEHL: Musikalische Charakterköpfe (Stuttgart, 1899). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven (Berlin, - 1904). - - LEO SCHMIDT: Meister der Tonkunst (Berlin, 1908). - - - _In French_ - - BLAZE DE BURY: La vie de Rossini (Paris, 1854). - - HENRI DE CURZON: Meyerbeer (Paris, 1910). - - LIONEL DAURIAC: Rossini (Paris, 1905). - - LIONEL DAURIAC: Meyerbeer (Paris, 1913). - - L. & M. ESCUDIER: Rossini: Sa Vie et ses Œuvres (Paris, 1854). - - HENRI EYMIEU: L'Œuvre de Meyerbeer (Paris, 1910). - - F. MARCILLAC: Histoire de la musique moderne (Paris, 1875). - - PHILIPPE MONNIER: Venise au XVIII^e Siècle (Paris, 1907). - - PAUL SCUDO: L'Art ancien et l'art moderne (Paris, 1854). - - MME. DE STENDHAL: Vie de Rossini (Paris, 1905). - - - _In Italian_ - - ANTONIO AMORE: Vincenzo Bellini, 2 vols. (1892-4). - - A. CAMETTI: Donizetti a Roma (Rivista Musicale Italiana, Vol. - XI, No. 4). - - LUDOVICO SETTIMO SILVESTRI: Della vita e delle opere di - Gioacchino Rossini (Milan, 1874). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VI - - _In English_ - - HONORÉ DE BALZAC: The Great Man of the Province of Paris (Eng. - trans.). - - HILLAIRE BELLOC: The French Revolution (New York, 1911). - - SIR JULIUS A. BENEDICT: Carl Maria von Weber (In The Great - Musicians, New York, 1881). - - J. R. S. BENNETT: Life of Sterndale Bennett (Cambridge, 1907). - - 'Charles Auchester,' Musical Novel on Mendelssohn and his - Circle. - - HENRY T. FINCK: Chopin and Other Musical Essays (New York, - 1894). - - JAMES HUNEKER: Franz Liszt (New York, 1911). - - SEBASTIAN HEUSE: The Mendelssohn Family, 1729-1847, transl. 2 - vols. (New York, 1882). - - FRANZ LISZT: Letters (Trans. by C. Bache, London, 1894). - - FRANZ LISZT: Frédéric Chopin (Trans. Boston, 1863). - - J. A. FULLER-MAITLAND: Schumann (New York, 1884). - - DANIEL GREGORY MASON: The Romantic Composers (New York, 1906). - - FELIX MENDELSSOHN: Letters and Recollections (Trans. from F. - Hiller by M. E. von Glehn, London, 1874). - - F. NIECKS: Frederick Chopin as Man and Musician (London, 1904). - - LINA RAMANN: Franz Liszt, Artist and Man (In the German, - Leipzig, 1880-1894), trans. - - AUGUST REISSMANN: Life and Works of Schumann (Trans. London, - 1900). - - SIEGFRIED SALOMON: Niels W. Gade (Cassel, 1856-57). - - R. SCHUMANN: Letters. Transl. by May Herbert (London, 1890). - - STEPHEN STRATTON: Mendelssohn (Trans. in English Musical - Biographies, Birmingham, 1897). - - JOSEPH VON WASIELEWSKI: Robert Schumann (Trans. Boston, 1871). - - - _In German_ - - MORITZ KARASOWSKI: Friedrich Chopin (3rd ed., Dresden, 1881). - - W. A. LAMPADIUS: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Leipzig, 1848). - - R. SCHUMANN: Gesammelte Schriften über Musik und Musiker, 4 - vols. (1854). - - R. SCHUMANN: Jugendbriefe, herausg. von Clara Schumann (1885). - - PHILIPP SPITTA: Ein Lebensbild Robert Schumanns (In Waldersee - Sammlung), (1882). - - MAX VON WEBER: Carl Maria von Weber, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1864-6). - - - _In French_ - - HECTOR BERLIOZ: Mémoires, 2 vols. (Paris, 1870). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui: Berlioz (Paris, 1912). - - JULIEN TIERSOT: Hector Berlioz et la société de son temps - (Paris, 1903). - - JULIEN TIERSOT: Les années romantiques, 1819-1842; - correspondance d'Hector Berlioz (Paris, 1903). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VII - - _In English_ - - G. L. AUSTIN: Life of Franz Schubert (Boston, 1873). - - J. BENEDICT: Sketch of Life and Works of the late Felix - Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (London, 1853). - - A. D. COLERIDGE, translator: Kreissle von Hellbron's Life of - Franz Schubert (London, 1869). - - E. P. DEVRIENT: My Recollections of Felix - Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, transl. from the German by Natalia - Macfarren (London, 1869). - - EDMONDSTOUNE DUNCAN: Schubert (London, New York, 1905). - - LOUIS C. ELSON: History of German Song (Boston, 1888). - - HENRY T. FINCK: Songs and Song Writers (New York, 1900). - - H. F. FROST: Schubert (New York, 1881). - - J. A. FULLER-MAITLAND: Schumann (New York, 1884). - - ARTHUR HERVEY: Franz Liszt and His Music (London, New York, - 1909). - - JAMES HUNEKER: Franz Liszt (New York, 1911). - - K. MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY: Goethe and Mendelssohn, 1821-1831. - Transl. by M. E. von Glehn (London, 1872). - - ELSIE POLKO: Reminiscences of Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, - transl. by Lady Wallace (New York, 1869). - - AUGUST REISSMANN: R. Schumann, transl. by A. L. Alger (London, - 1900). - - W. S. ROCKSTRO: Mendelssohn (London, 1898). - - R. SCHUMANN: Letters, Eng. transl. by May Herbert (London, - 1890). - - JOSEPH VON WASIELEWSKI: Robert Schumann, transl. by A. L. Alger - (Boston, 1900). - - JANKA WOHL: François Liszt, transl. by B. Peyton Ward (London, - 1887). - - - _In German_ - - HERMANN ABERT: Robert Schumann (Berlin, 1903). - - Beiträge zur Biographie Carl Loewes (Halle, 1912). - - HEINRICH BULTHAUPT: Carl Loewe (Berlin, 1898). - - WALTER DAHMS: Schubert (Berlin und Leipzig, 1912). - - HERMANN ERLER: Robert Schumanns Leben aus seinen Briefen, 2 - vols. (Berlin, 1886). - - ROBERT FRANZ und ARNOLD FREIHERR SENFFT VON PILSACH: Ein - Briefwechsel, 1861-1888 (Berlin, 1907). - - MAX FRIEDLÄNDER: Gedichte von Goethe in Kompositionen seiner - Zeitgenossen (1896). - - MAX FRIEDLÄNDER: Beiträge zu einer Biographie Franz Schuberts - (1889). - - MAX FRIEDLÄNDER: Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert (1902). - - AUGUST GÖLLERICH: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1908). - - RICHARD HEUBERGER: Franz Schubert (Berlin, 1902). - - FERDINAND HILLER: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Köln, 1874). - - JULIUS KAPP: Franz Liszt (Berlin und Leipzig, 1909). - - HEINRICH VON KREISSLE: Franz Schubert (Wien, 1861). - - LA MARA: Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Liszt und Hans von Bülow - (Leipzig, 1898). - - RUDOLF LOUIS: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1900). - - FELIX MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY: Reisebriefe aus den Jahren - 1830-1832. - - L. RAMANN: Franz Liszt als Künstler und Mensch (Leipzig, 1880). - - HEINRICH REIMANN: Robert Schumanns Leben und Werke (Leipzig, - 1887). - - A. REISSMANN: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Berlin, 1867). - - A. REISSMANN: Robert Schumann, sein Leben und seine Werke - (Berlin, 1871). - - R. SCHUMANN: Gesammelte Schriften über Musik und Musiker, 4 - vols. (1854). - - W. J. V. WASIELEWSKI: Schumanniana (Bonn, 1883). - - AUGUST WELLMER: Karl Loewe (1886). - - ERNST WOLFF: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Berlin, 1906). - - - _In French_ - - M. D. CALVOCORESSI: Franz Liszt (Paris, 1905). - - JEAN CHANTAVOINE: Liszt (Paris, 1911). - - L. SCHNEIDER and M. MARESCHAL: Schumann, sa vie et ses œuvres - (Paris, 1905). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VIII - - _In English_ - - OSKAR BIE: A History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players - (London, 1897). - - THOMAS F. DUNHILL: Chamber Music, a Treatise for Students - (London, 1913). - - JOHN C. FILLMORE: History of Pianoforte Music (1883). - - H. T. FINCK: Chopin and other Musical Essays (New York, 1894). - - J. C. HADDEN: Chopin (Paisley, 1899). - - JAMES HUNEKER: Chopin the Man and his Music (New York, 1905). - - JAMES HUNEKER: Franz Liszt (New York, 1911). - - H. E. KREBHIEL: The Pianoforte and its Music (New York, 1911). - - IGNACE MOSCHELES: Recent Music and Musicians (New York, 1873). - - F. NIECKS: Frederick Chopin as Man and Musician (London, 1904). - - LINA RAMANN: Franz Liszt, Artist and Man, Eng. transl. - - EDGAR STILLMAN-KELLEY: Chopin the Composer (New York, 1913). - - - _In German_ - - MORITZ KARASOWSKI: Friedrich Chopin, 3rd ed. (Dresden, 1881). - - FRANZ LISZT: Friedrich Chopin (Paris, 1852). - - AUGUST REISSMANN: R. Schumann, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1879). - - MAX VON WEBER: Carl Maria von Weber, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1864-6). - - - _In French_ - - JEAN CHANTAVOINE: Franz Liszt: Sa vie et son œuvre (Paris, - 1911). - - FRANZ LISZT: Des Bohemiens et de leur musique en Hongrie - (Paris, 1859). - - GEORGE SAND: Un Hiver a Majorque (Paris, 1867). - - GEORGE SAND: Histoire de ma vie (Paris, 1855). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IX - - _In English_ - - LOUIS A. COERNE: Evolution of Modern Orchestration (New York, - 1908). - - W. J. HENDERSON: The Orchestra and Orchestral Music (New York, - 1899). - - RICHARD WAGNER: Collected Works (Vol. III. Article on Liszt's - Symphonic Poems) (Leipzig, 1857). - - - _In German_ - - RICHARD WAGNER: Sämmtliche Schriften (Vol. III, Liszt's - Symphonische Dichtungen, Leipzig, 1911). - - - _In French_ - - HECTOR BERLIOZ: Soirées d'orchestre (Paris, 1853). - - A. JULLIEN: Hector Berlioz (Paris, 1882). - - HENRI LAVOIX: Histoire de l'Instrumentation (Paris, 1878). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER X - - _In English_ - - RICHARD ALDRICH: Introduction to _Freischütz_ (In Schirmer's - Collection of Operas). - - W. F. APTHORP: The Opera Past and Present (New York, 1901). - - M. A. DE BOVET: Charles Gounod, his Life and Works, Eng. - transl. (London, 1891). - - An Englishman in Paris (Notes and Recollections) (New York). - - ANDRÉ LEBON: Modern France (New York, 1907). - - R. A. STREATFEILD: Modern Music and Musicians (London, 1906). - - R. A. STREATFEILD: The Opera (London, 1897). - - - _In German_ - - OSKAR BIE: Die Oper (Berlin, 1913). - - MAX CHOP: Führer durch die Opernmusik (Berlin, 1912). - - H. HEINE: Musikalische Berichte aus Paris (Hamburg, 1890). - - MAX KALBECK: Opernabende (Berlin). - - OTTO NEITZEL: Führer durch die Oper (Leipzig, 1890). - - - _In French_ - - G. ALLIX: A Propos de l'anniversaire de Bizet (S. I. M. Dec., - 1908). - - Félicien David et les Saint-Simoniens (S. I. M., March, 1907). - - E. J. DE GONCOURT: La du Barry (Paris, 1909). - - E. LAVISSE et A. RAMBAUD: Guerres Nationales (1848-1870). - - EUGÈNE DE MIRECOURT: Auber (Paris, 1859). - - L. PAGNERRE: Charles Gounod, sa vie et ses œuvres (Paris, 1890). - - A. POUGIN: Boieldieu (Paris, 1875). - - J. H. PRUDHOMME: Félicien David d'après sa correspondance - inédite (S. I. M., March, 1907). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - A. SOUBIES: 69 ans à l'Opéra Comique en deux pages (1825-1894) - (Paris, 1894). - - SOUBIES ET MALHERBE: Histoire de l'Opéra Comique, 1840-1860 - (Paris, 1892). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XI - - _In English_ - - W. ASHTON ELLIS: The Prose Writings of Richard Wagner. Transl. - of Wagner's collected prose writings, 8 vols. (London, 1899). - - HENRY T. FINCK: Wagner and his Works, 2 vols. (New York, 1893). - - W. H. HENDERSON: Richard Wagner, his Life and his Dramas (New - York, 1901). - - ALBERT LAVIGNAC: The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. Transl. by - E. Singleton (New York, 1898). - - ERNEST NEWMAN: A Study of Wagner (New York, 1899). - - WAGNER and LISZT: Correspondence, ed. by F. Hueffer (London, - 1888). - - RICHARD WAGNER: My Life (Autobiography), 2 vols. (New York, - 1911). - - - _In German_ - - GUIDO ADLER: Richard Wagner (Leipzig, 1904). - - HOUSTON S. CHAMBERLAIN: Richard Wagner (Munich, 1896). - - GUSTAV ENGEL: Die Bühnenfestspiele von Bayreuth (1876). - - CARL FR. GLASENAPP: Das Leben Richard Wagners, 6 vols. - (Leipzig, 1894). - - JULIUS KAPP: Der junge Wagner (Berlin, 1910). - - JULIUS KAPP: Richard Wagner, eine Biographie (Berlin, 1910). - - FRANZ LISZT: Briefwechsel mit Richard Wagner. - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (Berlin, 1913). - - FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE: Der Fall Wagner (Leipzig, 1892). - - RICHARD WAGNER: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen, 10 vols. - (Leipzig, 1871). - - - _In French_ - - A. JULLIEN: R. Wagner (Paris, 1886). - - ALBERT LAVIGNAC: Le voyage artistique a Bayreuth (Paris, 1897). - - CATULLE MENDÈS: Richard Wagner (Paris, 1900). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XII - - _In English_ - - ALBERT DIETRICH & J. V. WIDMANN: Recollections of Johannes - Brahms, transl. by D. E. Hecht (London, 1889). - - J. A. FULLER-MAITLAND: Brahms (London, 1911). - - W. H. HADOW: Studies in Modern Music (London, 1895). - - JAMES HUNEKER: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, 1899). - - B. LITZMANN: Clara Schumann, transl. by Grace and W. H. Hadow - (London, 1913). - - GUY ROPARTZ: César Franck (Grey's Studies in Music) (New York, - 1901). - - PHILIPP SPITTA: Johannes Brahms, transl. in Grey's Studies in - Music (New York, 1901). - - - _In German_ - - JOHANNES BRAHMS: Briefwechsel, herausg. von der deutschen - Brahmsgesellschaft, Vols. I-VII, 1907-10. - - FRANZ BRENDEL: Geschichte der Musik in Italien, Deutschland und - Frankreich, etc. (1852 and 1906, Leipzig). - - HERMANN DEITERS: Johannes Brahms (in Waldersee Sammlung, - Leipzig, 1880-98). - - ALBERT DIETRICH: Erinnerungen an Johannes Brahms (1908). - - GUSTAVE JENNER: Johannes Brahms als Mensch, Lehrer und Künstler - (Merburg in Hessen, 1905). - - MAX KALBECK: Johannes Brahms, 3 vols. (1904-1911). - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (Berlin, 1913). - - B. RÖTTGER: Der Entwickelungsgang von Johannes Brahms (In the - Neue Musikzeitung, Vol. 25, Nos. 15 & 16). - - - _In French_ - - ARTHUR COQUARD: César Franck (Paris, 1891). - - VINCENT D'INDY: César Franck (Paris, 1906). - - A. JULLIEN: Johannes Brahms, 1833-97 (Paris, 1898). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIII - - _In English_ - - A. A. CHAPIN: Masters of Music (New York, 1901). - - F. J. CROWEST: Verdi, Man and Musician (London, 1897). - - B. LUMLEY: Reminiscences of the Opera (London, 1864). - - B. L. MACCHETTA: Verdi, Milan and Otello (London, 1887). - - A. POUGIN: Verdi, an Anecdotic History, transl. by James E. - Matthew (London, 1887). - - R. A. STREATFEILD: Masters of Italian Music (New York, 1895). - - - _In German_ - - EDUARD HANSLICK: Die moderne Oper, 9 vols. (Berlin, 1875-1900). - - F. GERSHEIM: Giuseppe Verdi (Frankfurt, 1897). - - - _In French_ - - E. DESTRANGES: L'Évolution musicale chez Verdi (Paris, 1895). - - CRISTAL MAURICE: Verdi et les traditions nationales (Lausanne, - 1880). - - C. SAINT-SAËNS: Portraits et souvenirs (Paris, 1900). - - PRINCE DE H. T. VALORI-RUSTICHELLI: Verdi et son œuvre (Paris, - 1895). - - - _In Italian_ - - ABRAMO BASEVI: Studie sulle opere di Giuseppe Verdi (Florence, - 1859). - - B. BERMANI: Schizzi sulla Vita e sulle Opere del Maestro, - Giuseppe Verdi (Milan, 1846). - - G. PEROSIO: Cenni Biografiei su Giuseppe Verdi, etc. (Milan, - 1875). - - MARCHESE G. MONALDI: Verdi e le sue Opere (Florence, 1877). - - V. SASSAROLI: Considerazioni sulla Stato attuale dell'Arte - Musicale in Italia, etc. (Genoa, 1876). - - - - - SPECIAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUME III - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER I - - _In English_ - - HENRY FOTHERGILL CHORLEY: Modern German Music, 2 vols. (London, - 1854). - - ARTHUR ELSON: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905). - - LOUIS C. ELSON: The History of German Song, 1888. - - HENRY T. FINCK: Songs and Song Writers (New York, 1900). - - JAMES G. HUNEKER: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, 1899). - - ERNEST NEWMAN: Musical Studies (London, 1905). - - FELIX WEINGARTNER: Symphony Writers since Beethoven, Eng. - transl. (London, 1907). - - - _In German_ - - HUGO BOTSTIBER: Geschichte der Overtüre (Leipzig, 1913). - - HANS VON BÜLOW: Briefe und ausgewählte Schriften, ed. by Marie - von Bülow, 8 vols. (1895-1898). - - P. J. DURINGER: Albert Lortzing, sein Leben und Wirken - (Leipzig, 1851). - - FERDINAND HILLER: Aus dem Tonleben unserer Zeit, 2 vols. - (Leipzig, 1868-1871). - - FERDINAND HILLER: Musikalisches und Persönliches (Leipzig, - 1876). - - JOSEPH JOACHIM: Briefe von und an Joseph Joachim; ed. by J. J. - and A. Moser (1911). - - OTTO KRONSEDER: Franz Lachner (In Altbayrische Monatsschrift, - IV, 2-3, 1903). - - OTTO NEITZEL: Camille Saint-Saëns (Berlin, 1899). - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913). - - ARNOLD NIGGLI: Adolf Jensen (1900). - - ARNOLD NIGGLI: Theodor Kirchner (1888). - - MORITZ VON SCHWIND: Die Lachner-Rollen (1904). - - E. SEGNITZ: Karl Reinecke (1900). - - KARL THRANE: Friedrich Kuhlau (1886). - - BERNHARD VOGEL: Robert Volkmann (1902). - - HANS VOLKMANN: Robert Volkmann (1875). - - JOSEPH VON WASIELEWSKY: Karl Reinecke (1892). - - - _In French_ - - A. JULLIEN: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui, 2 vols. (Paris, 1891-92). - - E. BAUMANN: L'Œuvre de Saint-Saëns (1905). - - ANTOINE FRANCOIS MARMONTEL: Symphonistes et virtuoses (1881). - - ANTOINE FRANCOIS MARMONTEL: Art classique et moderne du piano - (Paris, 1876). - - JULES MASSENET: Mes Souvenirs, 1842-1912 (Paris, 1912). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (1908). - - CAMILLE SAINT-SAËNS: Portraits et Souvenirs (Paris, 1900). - - OCTAVE SÉRE: Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1911). - - E. SCHNEIDER: Massenet (1908). - - E. DE SOLENIÈRE: Massenet (1897). - - - _In Italian_ - - R. GANDOLFI: La musica di G. Raff (1904). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER II - - _In English_ - - JOHN BENNETT: Russian Melodies (London, 1822). - - CÉSAR CUI: Historical Sketch of Music in Russia (reprinted in - the Century Library of Music), (New York, 1900). - - ARTHUR ELSON: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905). - - EDWARD EVANS: Tschaikowsky (1906). - - JAMES HUNEKER: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, 1899). - - M. MONTAGUE-NATHAN: A History of Russian Music (1914). - - ROSA NEWMARCH: The Russian Opera (New York, 1914). - - ROSA NEWMARCH: Tschaikowsky (London, 1900-1908). - - EDWARD STILLMANN-KELLEY: Tschaikowsky as a Symphonist (New - York, 1906). - - MODEST TCHAIKOVSKY: Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (2 vols., Eng. - transl. by Rosa Newmarch), (London, 1906). - - - _In German_ - - N. D. BERNSTEIN: Anton Rubinstein (Leipzig, 1911). - - M. GLINKA: Gesammelte Briefe; transl. by Findeisen (1908). - - NIKOLAI KASCHKIN: Erinnerungen an P. I. Tschaikowsky (Leipzig, - 1896). - - IVAN KNORR: Tschaikowsky (Berlin, 1908). - - N. RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF: Musikalische Aufsätze und Skizzen, German - transl. (1869-1907). - - ANTON RUBINSTEIN: Erinnerung aus fünfzig Jahren, 1839-1889 - (German transl. by Kretzschmar, 1893). - - EUGEN ZABEL: Anton Rubinstein (Leipzig, 1892). - - - _In French_ - - M. D. CALVOCORESSI: Glinka (1910). - - J. P. O. COMMETTANT: Musique et musiciens (Paris, 1862). - - CÉSAR CUI: La Musique en Russe (1882). - - CAMILLE FAUST: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 - (Paris, 1914). - - ALFRED HABETS: Borodine et Liszt (1894). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - ALBERT SOUBIES: Histoire de la musique en Russe (Paris, 1898). - - - _In Russian_ - - N. KASHKIN: Istory russkoi musyki [History of Russian Music], - (Moscow, 1898). - - A. ILINSKY: Biografii kompositorov (Moscow, 1904). - - N. MAKLAKOFF: O russkoi narodnoi musyki [On Russian National - Music], (Moscow, 1898). - - N. A. RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF: Letopis moei musykalnoi zhizni [The - Memoirs of my Musical Life], (St. Petersburg, 1909). - - N. A. RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF: Musykalnie statii [Musical Articles], - (St. Petersburg, 1911). - - V. STASSOV: Alexandre Porf. Borodine (St. Petersburg, 1887). - - NIKOLAI FINDEISEN: Yeshegodnik imperial teatrov, vol. 2, pp. - 87-129 (1896-7). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER III - - _In English_ - - ARTHUR ELSON: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905). - - L. GILMAN: Phases of Modern Music (New York, 1904). - - JAMES HUNEKER: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, 1899). - - A. E. H. KREBHIEL: The Pianoforte and its Music (New York, - 1911). - - DANIEL GREGORY MASON: From Grieg to Brahms (1903). - - - _In German_ - - DAGMAR GADE: Niels W. Gade (Notes and Letters), (Basle, 1894). - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik Skandinaviens (Leipzig, 1906). - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die moderne Klaviermusik in Skandinavien. _Die - Musik_, vol. 14, No. 5, p. 195. - - WALTER NIEMANN (with Schjelderup): Grieg (1908). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Neuskandinavische Musik, eine orientierende - Übersicht (_Signale_, vol. 61, pp. 124-127, 186-190, Leipzig, - 1903). - - - _In French_ - - M. CRISTAL: La musique en Suède, en Islande, en Norvège, et - dans le Danemark (Revue internat. de musique, Paris, 1898, pp. - 683-694). - - WILLIAM RITTER: Smetana (Les Maîtres de la musique, Paris, - 1907). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - ALBERT SOUBIES: Histoire de la musique en Danemark et Suède - (1901). - - ALBERT SOUBIES: Histoire de la musique en Norvège (1903). - - PAUL VIARDOT: Rapport officiel sur la musique en Scandinavie - (1908). - - - _In Swedish_ - - TOBIAS NORLIND: Svensk musikhistoria (1901). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IV - - _In English_ - - H. T. FINCK: Modern Russian School of Composers (Musician, v. - 9, no. 3, pp. 87-9, Boston, 1904). - - H. E. KREBHIEL: Musical Literature. The Russian School and Its - Leaders. A Bibliography (New York, 1899). - - H. E. KREBHIEL: Russian Music. Folk Songs of Russia (New York, - 1899). - - PETER KROPOTKIN: Russian Literature (1908). - - M. MONTAGUE-NATHAN: History of Russian Music (1914). - - ROSA NEWMARCH: The Russian Opera (New York, 1914). - - ALFRED HABETS: Borodine and Liszt. Transl. by Rosa Newmarch - (London). - - - _In French_ - - M. D. CALVOCORESSI: Moussorgsky (1908). - - COMTESSE MERCI-ARGENTEAU: César Cui (1888). - - N. A. RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF: Chants nationaux Russes (St. - Petersburg, 1876). - - ALBERT SOUBIES: Histoire de la musique en Russe (1897). - - - _In Russian_ - - NICOLAI RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF: Musykalnie statii [Musical Articles], - 1869-1907. - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER V - - _In English_ - - Modern Russian Instrumental Music (Musical Standard, v. 18, no. - 465-469, v. 19, no. 470-472). - - M. MONTAGUE-NATHAN: History of Russian Music (1914). - - ROSA NEWMARCH: The Russian Opera (New York, 1914). - - Program Books of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Chicago - Symphony Orchestra, and the Symphony Society of New York. - - - _In German_ - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner, 1913. - - - _In French_ - - CAMILLE FAUST: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 - (Paris, 1914). - - - _In Russian_ - - A. ILINSKY: Biographii Kompositirov (Moscow, 1904). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VI - - _In English_ - - G. BANTOCK: One Hundred Folk-Songs of All Nations. - - ARTHUR ELSON: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905). - - W. H. HADOW: Studies in Modern Music (London, 1895). - - PHILIP HALE: Modern Composers and their Works (Boston, 1900). - - J. KALDY: History of Hungarian Music (London, 1902). - - WILLIAM RITTER: Smetana (1907). - - Program Books of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Chicago - Symphony Orchestra, and the Symphony Society of New York. - - - _In German_ - - RICHARD BATKA: Geschichte der Musik in Böhmen (Prague, 1906). - - - _In French_ - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - ALBERT SOUBIES: Histoire de la musique en Bohème (Paris, 1898). - - ALBERT SOUBIES: Histoire de la musique en Hongrie (Paris, 1898). - - - _In Italian_ - - G. B. MARCHESI: La musica boema (Riv. d'Italie, Roma, 1910, - anno 13, v. 2, p. 5-25). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VII - - _In English_ - - H. F. CHORLEY: Modern German Music (London, 1854). - - J. A. FULLER-MAITLAND: Masters of German Music (London, 1894). - - ERNEST NEWMAN: Richard Strauss (London, 1908). - - - _In German_ - - OSKAR BIE: Die moderne Musik und Richard Strauss (1906). - - FRANZ BRUNNER: Anton Bruckner (1911). - - FRANZ GRÄFLINGER: Anton Bruckner, Bausteine zu seiner - Lebensgeschichte (1911). - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913). - - HUGO RIEMANN: Max Reger (in Musiklexikon, ed. of 1909). - - LOUIS RUDOLPH: Die deutsche Musik der Gegenwart (1909). - - LOUIS RUDOLPH: Anton Bruckner (1905). - - ARTHUR SEIDL: Richard Strauss, eine Charakterstudie (1895). - - MAX STEINITZER: Straussiana (1910). - - MAX STEINITZER: Richard Strauss (1911). - - - _In French_ - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - PAUL DE STOECKLIN: Max Reger (Le Courrier musical, April, 1906). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VIII - - _In English_ - - H. T. FINCK: Songs and Song Writers (New York, 1900). - - W. H. HADOW: Studies in Modern Music (London, 1895). - - EDGAR ISTEL: German Opera since Richard Wagner (In the _Musical - Quarterly_, April, 1915). - - ERNEST NEWMAN: Richard Strauss (London, 1908). - - ERNEST NEWMAN: Hugo Wolf (London, 1907). - - FELIX VON WEINGARTNER: Symphony Writers since Beethoven, Eng. - trans. (London, 1907). - - - _In German_ - - MICHAEL HABERLANDT: Hugo Wolf, Erinnerungen und Gedanken (1903). - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913). - - LEOPOLD SCHMIDT: Zur Geschichte der Märchenoper (1896). - - LEOPOLD SCHMIDT: Die moderne Musik (1905). - - EUGEN SCHMITZ: Hugo Wolf (1906). - - EUGEN SCHMITZ: Richard Strauss als Musikdramatiker (1907). - - HUGO WOLF: Musikalische Kritiken, ed. by R. Batka and Heinrich - Werner (1911). - - HUGO WOLF: Briefe an Emil Kauffmann (1903), Hugo Faisst (1904), - Oskar Grohe (1905), Paul Müller (Peters Jahrbuch, 1904). - - - _In French_ - - MAURICE KUFFERATH: La Salomé de Richard Strauss (1908). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - EGON WELLESZ: Schoenberg et la jeune école Viennoise (S. I. M., - March, 1912). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IX - - _In English_ - - A. HERVEY: Masters of French Music (London, 1894). - - EDWARD BURLINGAME HILL: Vincent d'Indy: an Estimate (Musical - Quarterly, April, 1915). - - - _In German_ - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913). - - HANS M. SCHLETTERER: Studien zur Geschichte der Französischen - Musik (1884). - - - _In French_ - - CAMILLE FAUST: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 - (Paris, 1914). - - A. JULLIEN: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui, 2 vols. (1891-92). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - OCTAVE SÉRE: Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1911). - - GEORGES SERVIÈRES: Emanuel Chabrier (1911). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER X - - _In English_ - - M. D. CALVOCORESSI: Claude Debussy (_Musical Times_, v. 49, no. - 780, pp. 81-2, London, 1908). - - LAWRENCE GILMAN: The Music of Claude Debussy (_The Musician_, - v. 12, no. 10, pp. 480-1), (Boston, 1907). - - A. DE GUICHARD: Clash between Two Parties in Modern French - School of Music (_Musical America_, v. 17, July 27, p. 21, New - York, 1912). - - PHILIP HALE: History, criticism and story of L'Enfant prodigue - (v. 29, pp. 368-371, v. 30, Boston, 1909-10). - - E. B. HILL: Rise of Modern French Music (_Étude_, vol. 32, no. - 4, pp. 253-4, no. 5, pp. 489-90). - - - _In German_ - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913). - - - _In French_ - - DANIEL CHENNEVIÈRE: Claude Debussy et son œuvre (Paris, 1913). - - ROMAIN ROLLAND: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908). - - OCTAVE SÉRE: Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1911). - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTERS XI AND XII - - _In English_ - - CARLO EDWARDS: Music in Italy of To-day (_Musical America_, - Oct., 1914, p. 13-4). - - ARTHUR ELSON: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905). - - R. LUECCHESI: Music in Italy. Impressions after Thirty-two - Years' Absence (_Musical Courier_, IV, 47, no. 13, pp. 30-31). - - - _In French_ - - CAMILLE FAUST: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 - (Paris, 1914). - - MAURICE TOUCHARD: La musique espagnole contemporaine (Nouvelle - Revue, March, 1914). - - - _In Italian_ - - GIUSEPPE ALBINATI: Piccolo Dizionario di Opere Teatrali, - Oratori, Cantate, etc. - - - LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIII - - _In English_ - - J. R. ST. BENNETT: The Life of Sterndale Bennett (London, 1907). - - CECIL FORSYTH: Music and Nationalism (London, 1911). - - F. J. CROWEST: Dictionary of British Musicians (London, 1895). - - ERNEST NEWMAN: Elgar (London, 1906). - - J. A. F. MAITLAND: English Music in the Nineteenth Century (New - York, 1902). - - ARTHUR ELSON: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905). - - J. B. BROWN and ST. STRATTON: British Musical Biography - (London, 1897). - - - _In German_ - - WALTER NIEMANN: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913). - - - _In French_ - - ALBERT SOUBIES: Histoire de la musique dans les îles - britanniques, 2 parts (1904-5). - - - - - INDEX FOR VOLUME I-III - _Figures in italics indicate major references_ - - - A - - Abel, Carl Friedrich, II. 62; - influence on Mozart, II. 102. - - Abert, Joseph, III. 212, 257. - - Ábrányi, E., III. 199. - - Abt, Franz, III. 19. - - Academicism, I. lx. - - Académie de Musique. See Paris Opéra. - - Academies. See Verona and Bologna. - - Accidentals (origin of), I. 156. - - Accompagnato. See Recitative (accompanied). - - Accompanied recitative. See Recitative. - - Accompaniment, I. xx, lii; - (instrumental, in polyphonic period), I. 246; - (in early vocal solos), I. 262; - (in madrigals), I. 281; - (in early Italian recitative), I. 332; - (17th cent.), I. 353f; - (in early Italian opera), I. 332f, 342f, 380ff; - (in early oratorio), I. 386; - (in early German opera), I. 424; - (in Händel oratorio), I. 439; - (in sacred music, 18 cent.), I. 453; - (Bach), I. 466, 470; - (in passion music), I. 480f; - (in Wolf's songs), III. 261f; - (in Strauss' songs), III. 266. - - Acoustics, I. 105ff. - - Adam, Adolphe-Charles, II. 211f. - - Adam de la Halle (or Hâle), I. 211, 213. - - Adams, Stephen. See Maybrick, M. - - Addison, Joseph, on Italian opera, I. 431. - - Æolian mode, I. 137. - - Æolian school (of Greek composition), I. 115. - - Æschylus, I. 120, 329; - III. 149. - - Africa, primitive music in, I. 27ff. - - Agathon, and early church music, I. 147. - - Agazzari, I. 379. - - Agostini, Muzio, III. 394. - - [d']Agoult, Countess, II. 250. - - Agricola, II. 31. - - Aimara Indians, I. 45. - - Akerberg, Erik, III. 85. - - Akimenko, Feodor, III. 160. - - Albéniz, Isaac, III. 362f, 404, _405f_. - - [d']Albert, III. viii, 243, _244_, 268. - - Albert V, Duke of Bavaria, I. 307ff. - - Alberti, Domenico, II. 55, 56. - - Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg, II. 63, 138. - - Alfano, Franco, III. 389, _390_. - - Alfvén, III. 69, 75, _84_. - - Alkaios, I. 115. - - Allan, Maud, III. 321. - - Allegro (cantabile form of), II. 8. - - Alleluia, the Hebrew, I. 149. - - Allemande, I. 371f, 375. - - Allitsen, Frances, III. 443. - - Alpheraky, A., III. 136. - - Amalarius, I. 137f. - - Amani, A., III. 145. - - Amati family, I. 362. - - Ambros, A. W., quoted (on early Italian music), I. 263; - (on the frottola and madrigal), I. 271ff; - (on early church music), I. 315. - - Ambrosian hymns, I. 135ff, 142f. - - America (Tschaikowsky quoted on), III. 56; - (conditions in, for composers, compared to England), III. 435. - - Amphion, I. 93f, 111. - - Anakreon, I. 115f. - - Ancient Civilized Nations, music of, I. 64ff. - - Andamanese Islanders, I. 8, 41. - - Anders, G. E., II. 405. - - Andersen, Hans Christian, III. 71, 74. - - Anerio, Felice and Giovanni, I. 321. - - Anglican Church, III. 410. - - Animal cries, I. 2, 6. - - [d']Annunzio, Gabriele, III. 381, 389. - - Anschütz, Carl, II. 134. - - Anthem, English, I. 295, 390, 433. - - Antiphonal psalmody, I. 142f. - - _Antiphonarium Romanum_, I. 148. - - Antiphons, I. 140. - - Antiphony (in Greek music), I. 161. - - Apel (author of 'Ghost Tales'), II. 374f. - - Apollo, I. 122. - - Appenzelder, Benedictus, I. 297. - - Arabs (music of), I. 43, 52, 55, 63. - - Arcadelt, Jacques, I. 273f, 305. - - Arcadians, I. 95. - - Archaism, intentional in modern music, III. 331, 334, 337. - - Archangelsky, A. A., III. 143. - - Archilei, Vittoria, I. 342. - - Archilochos (Greek poet), I. 114f. - - Architecture and music in 18th cent., II. 60. - - Arensky, Anton Stephanovich, III. 28, 143, _146ff_. - - [d']Arezzo, Guido. See Guido d'Arezzo. - - Aria, I. liv; - (in early Italian opera), I. 341, 381f, 385, 393f, 428; - II. 3, 16; - (in church music), I. 453; - (Bach), I. 476, 480, 491; - (Mozart), II. 179. - - Aria form, I. 1; - (in the sonata), II. 54; - (Beethoven's use in song), II. 278. - See also Da capo. - - Arion, I. 118. - - Arioso, II. 26, 431. - See also Recitative. - - Ariosti (Attilio) and Händel, I. 435. - - Ariosto, I. 328; - II. 27. - - Aristides Quintilianus, compiler of musical tables, I. 91. - - Aristotle, I. 89, 97. - - Aristoxenus, I. 99, 110. - - Arius, I. 141. - - [d']Arneiro, III. 408. - - Arnaud, Abbé, on Italian opera, II. 179. - - Arnold, Matthew, quoted, III. 238. - - Arnould, Sophie, II. 33. - - Ars nova, I. 228ff, 257, 262ff. - - Arts (plastic) and music, I. 64, 66; - (in Ital. Renaissance), I. 267f. - - 'Art and Revolution,' essay by Wagner, II. 415. - - Art-song, the (before Schubert), II. 30, 269ff, 278; - (Schubert), II. 279ff; - (Schumann), II. 280ff; - (other romanticists), II. 289ff; - (Brahms), II. 465; - III. 259; - (modern development), I. lviii; - III. xiv; - (minor Romantics), III. 18ff, 24; - (Russians), III. 47, 51, 106, 119, 153, 154; - (Scandinavians), III. 79, 87, 89, 95, 99; - (Bohemians), III. 178; - (modern Germans), III. 257ff; - (Wolf), III. 259ff; - (modern French), III. 292f, 309, 311, 328f; - (modern Italian), III. 298ff; - (English), III. 442. - - 'Art Work of the Future' (The), essay by Wagner, II. 415. - - Arteaga, on Stamitz, II. 67. - - Artificial sopranos, I. 426; - II. 10, 21, 26, 29. - - Artusi, Giovanni Maria, on Monteverdi, I. 337f. - - Ashantees, I. 29f. - - Asia. See Oriental music. - - Asor (Assyrian instrument), I. 65f, 78. - - Assyria, I. 65ff; - II. 79, 83ff. - - Attaignant, Pierre, I. 286. - - Atmospheric school, III. 317ff. - - Aubade, I. 207, 218. - - Auber, Daniel-François-Esprit, II. 210; - III. 278; - influence on Meyerbeer, II. 20. - - Aubert, Louis, III. 363. - - Auer (violinist), III. 148. - - Augustus the Strong, II. 6, 12, 78. - - Aulin, Tor, III. 85. - - Aulos (Greek wind-instrument), I. 121ff. - - Aurelian, on early church music, I. 145. - - Australian aborigines, I. 7, 12; - (dance of), I. 18. - - Austrian National Hymn, II. 91. - - [d']Auvergne, Peire, I. 211. - - Aztecs, music of, I. 44f, 52, 53, 55f. - - - B - - Babylonians (ancient), I. 64ff, 73, 83. - - Bach, August Wilhelm, III. 16, 95. - - Bach, Bernard, I. 461. - - Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, I. x, 471, 486; - II. 46, 56, _58ff_, 139. - - Bach, Johann Christian, II. 61f; - (influence on Mozart), II. 102. - - Bach, Johann Christoph (uncle of J. S. Bach), I. 455. - - Bach, Johann Christoph (brother of J. S. Bach), I. 456. - - Bach, Johann Michael, I. 455. - - Bach, Johann Sebastian, I. ix, 1, lii, 353, 416, 419, _449-491_; - III. vii, 2; - (compared with Händel), I. 419f, 445; - (his use of the ternary form), II. 56; - (in rel. to the song), II. 273; - (modern influence), III. 231, 235, 281. - - Bach Society, II. 60. - - Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann, I. 461, 468, 471, 483f; - _II. 60f_; - III. vii. - - Backer-Grondahl, Agathe, III. 99. - - Baini (Abbate), quoted, I. 253. - - Baker, Theodore (quoted), I. 37. - - Balakireff, III. xii, xiv, xvi, 107f, 109ff, 128, 319; - (and Tchaikovsky), III. 111 (footnote); - (and Rimsky-Korsakoff), III. 124; - (influence), III. 138. - - Ballad opera, English, II. 9. - See Beggar's Opera. - - Ballard family, I. 287. - - Ballata, I. 264. - - Ballet (early Italian _intermedii_), I. 327; - (in early Italian opera), I. 336, 382; - (in French and Italian opera), I. 384f; - (source of French opera), I. 402ff; - (Noverre's reforms), II. 13; - (in 19th-century French opera), II. 389ff; - (in modern music), III. 162f, 321, 343, 360, 364. - - Ballet-comique de la royne, II. 401ff. - - Baltasarini, I. 401ff. - - Bamboo drums, I. 16f. - - Banchieri, Adriano, I. 279f, _281_. - - Bantock, Granville, III. x, xi, xiv, xix, 422, 424, 425. - - Barbier (librettist), II. 205, 241. - - Barbieri, Mario, III. 340. - - Bardi, Giovanni, I. 329ff. - - Barcelona, III. 404f. - - Barezzi, Margarita, II. 482. - - Barezzi, patron of Verdi, II. 48. - - Bargiel, Woldemar, III. 14. - - Barnett, J. F., III. 91. - - Barrie, J. M., III. 432. - - Barry, Mme. du, II. 33. - - Bartók, Béla, III. xxi, 198. - - Bass. See Figured Bass; Ground-bass. - - Bass clarinet, II. 341. - - Bass drum, II. 342. - - Bass voice, Russian, III. 144. - - Bassano, I. 327f. - - Basso continuo. See Figured bass. - - Basso ostinato. See Ground-bass. - - Bassoon, II. 340, 341, 343. - - Bastille (capture of), II. 213. - - Batteaux, on relation of arts, II. 24. - - 'Battle of the Huns,' II. 367. - - 'Battle of Vittoria,' II. 352. - - Batten, Robert, III. 443. - - Baudelaire, II. 418; - III. 293. - - Bayreuth, II. 423. - - Bax, A. E. T., III. 441. - - Bazzini, II. 503 (footnote). - - Beaujoyeulx, Baltasar de, I. 401ff. - - Beaulieu (Sieur de), I. 401ff. - - Beaumarchais, II. 182. - - Beccari, I. 328. - - Becker, Albert, III. 212. - - Becker, Dietrich, I. 373. - - Bedouins, I. 28. - - Beecham, Godfrey Thomas, III. 422, 424, 443. - - Beethoven, Ludwig van, I. xv, li, lix, lv, lvi, lviii, 471, 478, 487; - II. 54f, 115, _128ff_, 227, 228f, 443, 444, 445; - III. xi, 2, 95, 201, 202, 230, 282; - (influence of), III. 230, 281; - (influence on Wagner and Brahms), III. 207. - - 'Beggar's Opera,' II. 8. - - Behrens, Johann D., III. 88. - - Belgian school, rise of, I. 234ff. - - Bell, W. H., III. 441. - - Bellini, Vincenzo, II. 195f. - - Belloc, Teresa, II. 185. - - Bells, Assyrian, I. 67. - - Benda, Franz, II. 7, 58. - - Benda, Georg, II. 58, 168; - III. 168. - - Bendix, Victor, III. 76. - - Bendl, Karl, III. 180. - - Benelli (manager of King's Theatre, London), II. 184. - - Bennett, W. Sterndale, II. 263 (footnote), 322, 348f; - III. 414. - - Bentwa (primitive instrument), I. 31f. - - Berger, Wilhelm, III. 209, _211_. - - Berlin (Frederick the Great and his composers), II. 58, 78; - (Spontini), II. 198; - (Meyerbeer), II. 203; - (Mendelssohn), II. 261. - - Berlin circle (19th cent.), III. 15f. - - Berlin Conservatory, III. 15. - - Berlin Domchor, III. 15. - - Berlin Hochschule für Musik, III. 15. - - Berlin Neue Akademie für Tonkunst, III. 15. - - Berlin school (18th cent.), II. 51, 57f. - - Berlin Singakademie, III. 15. - - Berlioz, Hector, I. xvii; - II. _253ff_, _348_, _352ff_, _382ff_; - III. vii, x, xii, 2, 69, 204, 278, 282, 323; - quoted (on Chinese music), I. 48; - on Gluck, II. 29; - on French Revolution, 241. - - Berselli (opera singer), I. 434. - - Berwald, Franz, III. 78. - - Bezzi, Giuseppe, III. 383. - - Bianchi, Renzo, III. 383. - - Bianchini, Guido, III. 400. - - Bible, cited (on Assyrian music), I. 68; - (on musical instruments), I. 70ff. - - 'Biblical Sonatas' (Kuhnau), I. 416. - - Bie, Oskar, quoted, on opera at Stuttgart, II. 13; - on Gluck, II. 17; - on Kreisleriana, II. 308ff; - on Viennese dilettante music, II. 312f; - on effect of Paganini on Liszt, II. 324. - - Bihari, III. 188. - - Billroth, [Dr.] Theodor, II. 455. - - Binary form, I. xxi-f; - _II. 55f_. - - Binchois, Giles, I. 244. - - Birds, song of, I. 2, 6, 8. - - Bis, Hippolyte (librettist), II. 188. - - Bizet, Georges, II. 53, _390ff_; - III. 7, 278, 283. - - Björnsen, III. 87, 89. - - Blaramberg, Paul Ivanovich, III. 135f. - - Blech, Leo, III. 249. - - Bleichmann, J. I., III. 155. - - Bloch, J., III. 196. - - Blodek, Wilhelm, III. 180. - - Blumenfeld, F., III. 145. - - Boccherini, Luigi, II. 67, 68f, 97, _70_; - III. 386; - influence on Mozart, II. 114. - - Böcklin, Arnold, III. 152. - - Boethius, I. 151. - - Bohemia, III. 165; - (political aspects), III. 168. - - Bohemian school (modern), III. xv, 166ff. - - Bohemianism, III. 349. - - Böhm, Georg, I. 451, 457. - - Boieldieu, François-Adrien, II. 209; - III. 278. - - Boïto, Arrigo, III. 93, _368f_; - Wagner assisted in Italy by, II. 440; - friend of Verdi, II. 478; - librettist for Verdi, II. 493, 500ff; - _Mefistofele_ prod. by, II. 503. - - Bologna, Philharmonic Academy of, II. 103. - - Bonaparte, Jérome, II. 132. - - Bonaparte, Napoléon. See Napoléon. - - Bononcini, Giovanni Battista, I. 421, 434ff. - - Borchmann, A. von, III. 155. - - Bordes, Charles, III. 313. - - Bordoni, Faustina. See Hasse. - - Born, Bertrand de, I. 211. - - Borodine, Alexander, III. ix, xi, xiv, xvi, 38, 107, 109, - _112ff_, 319; - and Liszt, III. 112; - and Moussorgsky, III. 118; - (influence), III. 145. - - Börreson, Hakon, III. 76. - - Borsdorf, Oskar, III. 441. - - Bortniansky, III. 107, 143. - - Bossi, Marco Enrico, III. 397. - - Boucheron, Raimondo, II. 503 (footnote). - - _Bouffes Parisiens_, II. 393. - - Bourgeois, Loys, I. 294. - - Bourrée, I. 373. - - Bowdich, T. A., quoted, I. 31, 32. - - Bowen, York, III. 441. - - Bowing, style of, in early violin music, I. 369. - - Bradsky, Menzel, Theodore, III. 180. - - Braganza, Duke of, II. 30. - - Brahms, Johannes, I. lvii, 478; - II. 230, 437, _443-469_; - III. x, xii, xiii, 4, 69, 148, 201f, 203, 206f, 222, 258, 413; - (influence), III. 183, 184, 196, 231, 234, 245; - (influence in Italy), III. 387, 395; - (and Bruckner), III. 220f; - (as song writer, compared to Wolf), III. 263f. - - Brass instruments, perfection of, II. 117, 340. - - Braun, Baron von, II. 161. - - Breitkopf and Härtel (music publishers), II. 139, 146, 147; - III. 11. - - Brentano, Bettina, II. 139f, 145. - - Breton folk-songs, use of, by Ropartz, III. 314. - - Breuning, Stephan von, II. 133, 139, 142, 144. - - Briard, Étienne, and music printing, I. 286. - - Bridge, Frederick, III. 421, 422. - - British folk-song. See Folk-song. - - Broadwood (pianoforte maker), II. 163. - - Brockes, B. H., I. 425, 433, 480. - - Brogi, Renato, III. 383. - - Bronsart, Hans von, III. 237. - - Bronsart, Ingeborg von, III. 237. - - Bruch, Max, III. xii, 93, _207f_. - - Bruckner, Anton, II. 438; - III. viii, x, xiii, 201f, _219ff_, 227; - influence of, III. 230. - - Brüll, Ignaz, III. 256. - - Bruneau, Alfred, III. viii, ix, _342ff_. - - Brunswick, Countess von, II. 145. - - Bücher, Karl, cited, I. 6, 96, 195. - - Buck, Percy C., III. 429. - - Budapest, III. 191. - - Bull, John, I. 306. - - Bull, Ole, III. 87, 91. - - Bülow, Cosima von. See Wagner, Cosima, II. 422. - - Bülow, Hans von, III. 18, 23, 235; - and Wagner, II. 422; - and Brahms, II. 455; - on Verdi's 'Requiem,' II. 498. - - Bulwer-Lytton (Wagner's adaptation of Rienzi), II. 406. - - Bungert, August, III. viii, 240, 268. - - Bürger, II. 223. - - Burma, music in, I. 62. - - Burney, Charles, quoted, I. 84f; - on 17th century opera, I. 377; - on madrigal by Festa, I. 276; - on relation of music to poetry, II. 27; - on Viennese musical supremacy, II. 50; - on Stamitz, II. 64, 67; - travels of, II. 76 (footnote); - description of Vienna, II. 80ff; - and Haydn, II. 89. - - Burton, Frederick R., cited, I. 39. - - Bushmen (Australian), dance of, I. 18. - - Busnois, Antoine, I. 244, 245. - - Busoni, Ferrucio, III. xxi, 275. - - Busser, III. 363. - - Bussine, Romain, III. 284. - - Bustini, Alessandro, III. 383. - - Buttykay, A., III. 199. - - Buva (Japanese lute), I. 53. - - Buxtehude, Dietrich, I. 361, 451, 458, 471, 476. - - Buzzola, Antonio, II. 503 (footnote). - - Byrd, William, I. 305ff. - - Byron, II. 155, 316. - - Byzantine influence, I. 143, 146. - - - C - - Caccia, I. 264. - - Caccini, Francesca, I. 378. - - Caccini, Giulio, I. 329ff, 333ff, 366; - (influence on Gluck), II. 26. - - Cadences, I. liv, 229. - - Cadenza, Rossini's use of, II. 186. - - Cafaro, Pasquale, I. 400; - II. 6. - - Caffarelli (sopranist), II. 4. - - Cagnoni, Antonio, II. 503 (footnote). - - Caldara, Antonio, I. 479. - - Calvin, I. 294. - - Calzabigi, Ranieri di, II. 18f, 26. - - Cammarano (librettist for Verdi), II. 490. - - Cambert, Robert, I. 405ff. - - Cambodia, music of, I. 57f. - - Cambodian scale, modern use of, III. 327. - - Camerata, Florentine, I. 329ff. - - Campion, Thomas, I. 385. - - Camussi, Ezio, III. 383. - - Cannabich, Christian, II. 67. - - Canon (definition), I. 228; - (early English), I. 237f; - (early use of), I. 242ff, 247ff, 312; - (Bach), I. 474; - (modern 'reincarnation'), III. 282. - - Cantata (sacred), I. 302, 387; - (secular), I. 393; - (Händel), I. 420; - (dramatic element in), I. 453; - (Bach), I. 478, 479, 490; - (Porpora), II. 4. - - Cantori a liuto, I. 261, 266, 268. - - Cantu, Agostino, III. 383. - - Cantus firmus (in early church music), I. 312ff; - (Palestrina), I. 320. - - Canzona, I. 207, 356f, 363ff. - - Canzona da sonar, II. 54. - - Canzonetta, II. 69. - - Capocci, Filippo, III. 397. - - Caribs, music of, I. 6, 8. - - Carissimi, Giacomo, I. 386f. - - Carlyle, II. 213. - - Carré, II. 205. - - Carse, A. von Ahn, III. 443. - - Caruso, Enrico, III. 374. - - Cascia, Giovanni da, I. 263, 266. - - Casella, Alfred, III. xxi. - - Cassiodorus, cited, I. 135, 148. - - Castanets, primitive, I. 14. - - Castes, in relation to Egyptian music, I. 76. - - Castillon, Alexis de, III. xviii, _212f_. - - Castrati. See Artificial sopranos. - - Catalani, Angelica, II. 185. - - Catharine, Empress of Russia, II. 15, 16, 40; - III. 41. - - Catoire, George, III. 154. - - Cavalieri, Emilio de', I. 328f, 334ff, 385. - - Cavalli, Francesco, I. 346, 380ff, 407; - (and Rossini), II. 181. - - Cavedagni (teacher of Rossini), II. 180. - - Cavos, C, III. 41. - - Celestine I, Pope, I. 143. - - Cello. See Violoncello. - - Celtic influence on early music, I. 196. - - Ceremonies (in rel. to Indian music), I. 33; - (Oriental music), I. 45, 56; - (Hebrew), I. 74f. - - Cesti, Marc'Antonio, I. 382f. - - Chabrier, Emanuel, III. viii, ix, xviii, 2, 268; - (influence), III. 341. - - Chamber music, I. xviii, lviii; - (Bach's period), I. 462ff; - (Schobert), II. 68; - (Viennese period), II. 96ff, 114f, 165f, 167, 170; - (Romantic period), II. 293-333; - (modern Italian), III. 387; - (modern English), III. 442. - See also String Quartet, etc. - - Chambonnières, Jacques Champion, I. 375. - - Champfleury, II. 418. - - Chandos, Duke of, I. 433f. - - Chanson, of polyphonic period, I. 207, 230f, 245, 254; - (programmistic), I. 276f; - II. 69. - See also Art Song. - - Chant. See Plain-chant. - - Chants (Aztec), I. 55; - (Japanese), I. 60; - (exotic religious), I. 66f; - (kitharœdic), I. 132ff, 138; - (early Christian), I. 135ff, 480. - - Chanteurs de Saint Gervaise, III. 285. - - Characterization (in opera), II. 123, 377; - III. 326; - (in 17th cent. harpsichord music), I. 411f; - (in the song), III. 263f; - (in chamber music), III. 274. - - Charles VII, Emperor, II. 64. - - Charles X, King of France, II. 188. - - Charpentier, Gustave, II. 439; - III. viii, ix, _348ff_. - - Charpentier, Marc Antoine, I. 410. - - Chateaubriand, II. 184. - - Chausson, Ernest, III. viii, ix, xiii, 308. - - Che (Chinese instrument), I. 53. - - Cherubini, Luigi, II. 40ff. - - Chesnikoff, P. G., III. 143. - - Chevillard, Camille, III. 285, 363. - - China, music in, I. 46ff, 56f; - (instruments), I. 52ff. - - Chivalry, I. 215. - - Chivalry (Age of). See Troubadours, Trouvères, Minnesinger. - - Choirs (early church), I. 140; - (in Lutheran Church), I. 289, 291f; - (antiphonal), I. 299f; - (divided, of St. Mark's, Venice), I. 311. - - Choir-training (Bach and), I. 464ff, 470. - - Chopin, Frédéric, I. xvi, lvi; - _II. 256ff_, 291, 305, _314ff_; - III. vii, xii, 49; - (influence), III. 157, 332. - - Choral Dances, Greek, I. 116, 121. - - Choral lyricism (Greek), I. 118f. - - Choral ballad, rise of, III. 7. - - Choral competitions, III. 434. - - Choral music, I. xlviii. - See Chorus; Vocal Music. - - Chorale, Protestant (origin), I. 225, 322, 360, 476; - (Bach's), I. 480ff; - (relation to song), II. 273, 274; - (modern 'reincarnation'), III. 282. - - Chorale-fantasias (Bach), I. 451, 479. - - Chorale-prelude (origin), I. 292, 360f; - (development by Bach), I. 451, 476, 490f. - - Chord progressions (in early Italian music), I. 269f; - (in early choral music), I. 300; - (in early Protestant church music), I. 293; - (vs. old polyphony), I. 322; - (in early 17th cent. music), I. 352f; - (in Bach's music), I. 476f, 490. - - Chords. See Harmony. - - Chorley, Henry Fothergill, on Verdi, II. 485. - - Chorus (in early Italian opera), I. 326, 336, 342, 378, 383f; - (in early oratorios), I. 386f; - (of Henry Purcell), I. 390; - (in early French ballet), I. 402f; - (of Lully), I. 408; - (in passion oratorio), I. 425f, 481; - (developed by Händel), I. 438, 441, 447; - (of Bach), I. 473, 482; - (in symphonic music), II. 171; - III. 228f, 341. - - Choruses, primitive, I. 17; - ancient (Assyrian), I. 68f; - (Greek), I. 118, 121. - - Christian music, conflict with Pagan, I. 188f. - - Christianity, music of early era of, I. _129ff_. - - Chromaticism, Wagner's use of, II. 433f. - - 'Chromatic school' (16th cent.), I. 301f. - - Chrysander, Friedrich, quoted on Händel, I. 437, 444. - - Church, Anglican, III. 410. - - Church, Greek. See Church, Russian. - - Church, Lutheran, II. 288ff, 479ff. - - Church, Roman (suppression of folk-song), I. 202f; - (in rel. to early 17th cent. music), I. 348ff; - (influence on early opera and oratorio), I. 378f. - See also Church music; also Mass. - - Church, Russian, III. 108f. - - Church modes. See Modes, ecclesiastical. - - Church music, I. xii, xlvi, lviii; - (modern), I. liv; - (early), I. 129ff, _133ff_, 187ff, 192; - (development of polyphony), I. _226ff_; - (use of secular melodies), I. 283; - (Renaissance), I. 296f; - (Roman, before Palestrina), I. 312f; - (Palestrina period), I. 313ff; - (Monteverdi), I. 344; - (Bach), I. 452ff, 472; - (German Protestant), I. 478ff; - (Russian), III. 108f, 130, 141ff. - See also Church; Reformation. - - Cicognani, Giuseppe, III. 383. - - Cilea, Francesco, III. 369. - - Cimarosa, Domenico, II. 15. - - Clarke, Coningsby, III. 443. - - Clarinet, II. 265, 339, 340, 341, 342. - - Classicism, definitions of, II. 267. - - Classic Period, foundations of, II. 45ff. - See Viennese classics. - - Classicism (definition), II. 45; - (modern revival of), III. 5. - - Clavecin. See Harpsichord. - - Clavicembalo, II. 162. - See also Harpsichord. - - Clavichord, I. 462, 485; - II. 162; - (description), II. 294. - - Clavichord music. See Harpsichord music; Pianoforte music. - - Clavier. See Clavichord; Harpsichord; Pianoforte, etc. - - Clavier à lumière. See Light keyboard. - - Clefs, metamorphosis of, I. 155. - - Clemens, Jacob (Clemens non Papa), I. 304. - - Clement of Alexandria, quoted, I. 141. - - Clementi, Muzio, II. 106 (footnote), 163. - - Coates, Eric, III. 443. - - Coccia, Carlo, II. 503 (footnote). - - Coda, II. 95. - - Coffey, Charles, II. 8f. - - Colbran, Isabella, II. 184f. - - Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel, III. 437. - - Collan, Karl, III. 100. - - Colonne, Édouard, II. 439. - - 'Color,' (in early church music), I. 296; - (in early orchestral music), I. 341f; - (in instrumental works of Haydn and Mozart), II. 118. - See also Local color; Tone color, orchestral. - - Color symbolism, III. 158. - - Coloratura, II. 26, 390. - - Coloristic school (16th cent.), I. 301f. - - Combarieu, Jules, quoted, I. 410. - - Combined rhythms, I. xlix. - - Comedy, Greek, I. 120. - - Comedy scenes, in early Roman opera, I. 379f; - in early Venetian opera, I. 382f. - - Comic Opera. See Opera buffa; Opéra comique; Singspiel; - Beggars' opera; Operetta; Musical comedy. - - Commercialism, I. xxxii. - - Concert des amateurs, II. 68. - - Concertino, I. 394, 396, 482. - - Composition (Schools of). See Schools of Composition. - - Concerto (in Bach's period), I. 482; - (Bach), I. 490. - See also Pianoforte concerto, Violin concerto. - - Concerto grosso (Corelli), I. 394ff. - - Concerts du Conservatoire, III. 278. - - Concerts Populaires, III. 278. - - Concerts Spirituels, II. 65 (footnote), 68, 104. - - Conflict of styles (in classic period), II. 62. - - Congregational singing, in Lutheran Church, I. 289, 291f, 386. - - Conservatoire de Musique (Paris), II. 42, 44, 254. - - Conservatoire Populaire de Mimi Pinson, III. 350. - - Conservatories (Berlin), III. 15; - (Cologne), III. 10; - (Leipzig), II. 261; III. 5; - (Naples), II. 7, 8, 11, 197; - (Paris), II. 42, 44, 254. - - Conti, Prince, II. 68. - - Continuo. See Figured bass. - - Contrast, I. xxxviii, xlii; - (in sonata), I. xivf; - (germs of, in primitive music), I. 10; - (in Palestrina's music), I. 310; - (rhythmic, in sonata form), II. 52; - (rhythmic, between movements), II. 54f; - (intro. of principle in musical form), II. 63ff. - - Conventions (in musical design), I. xxxv, xxxvii. lii. - - Cook, James, I. 16f, 23. - - Copenhagen, II. 40; - III. 62. - - Coquard, Arthur, II. 471. - - Corder, Frederic. III. 421. - - Corea (musical instruments), I. 53. - - Corelli, Arcangelo, I. 375, _394ff_, 452; - II. 51; - III. 385; - (influence on Händel), II. 446; - (influence on Bach), II. 472. - - Cornelius, Peter, II. 380f; - III. viii, 235f, 239, 245. - - Cornet à pistons, II. 340, 341. - - Corroborie dance, I. 13. - - Corsi, Jacopo, I. 329ff. - - Cortopassi, Domenico, III. 384. - - Costa, P. Mario, III. 401. - - Costumes, in early Italian opera, I. 336. - - Cotto, Johannes, I. 172f. - - Council of Trent, I. 312ff. - - Counterpoint, I. xliii, xlvi, 227; - (in early Italian music), I. 269ff, 282f; - (reaction against), I. 311, 330; - (Palestrina), I. 319f; - (Monteverdi's violation of rules), I. 338ff; - (influence of harmony), I. 352ff; - (Mozart), II. 111. - See Polyphonic style. - - Couperin, François, I. 398, _410ff_, 485; - II. 60, 351. - - Courante, I. 371f. - - Courtney, W. L., III. 321. - - Coward, Henry, III. 422. - - Cowen, Frederic H., III. xiv, 415, _418_. - - Crab canon, I. 248. - - Cramer, Jean Baptiste, II. 259. - - Cremona violins, I. 362. - - Crescendo (intro. by Mannheim school), II. 12, 138; - (Jommelli's), II. 65; - (Rossini's), II. 181. - - Croatian folk-song, Haydn's use of, II. 98. - - Croche, Monsieur (pseudonym), III. 332. - - Crotola (Egyptian instrument), I. 82. - - Csermák, III. 188. - - Cui, César, III. xvi, _131ff_; - (on Scriabine), III. 157. - - Cumberland festival (England), III. 434. - - Curschmann, Friedrich, III. 19. - - Cuscina, Alfredo, III. 384. - - Cuzzoni, Francesca, I. 437. - - Cycle. See Song Cycle, etc. - - Cyclic form. See Sonata. - - Czech music, characteristics of, III. 166ff. - - Czernohorsky, Bohuslav, II. 19. - - Czerny, Carl, on Beethoven's playing, II. 162. - - - D - - _Da capo_ (in aria form), II. 3, 10; - (Gluck), II. 25; - (Haydn), II. 273. - - Dale, B. J., III. 442. - - Dampers (in the pianoforte), II. 297. - - Damrosch, Leopold, III. 237. - - Dance music, I. xliv, xlvii, xlviii. - See also Ballet; Suite. - - Dance rhythms, III. xv. - - Dance song, I. 195f. - - Dance tunes (as constituents of the suite), I. 369ff. - - Dancing (primitive), I. 11f; - (Peruvian), I. 56; - (Oriental), I. 57ff; - (Egyptian), I. 84; - (Greek choral), I. 116ff, 121; - (mediæval), I. 195; - (Troubadours), I. 208f. - See also Ballet; also Folk-dances. - - Dannreuther, Edward, III. 91, 430; - quot., II. 170, 174. - - Dante (songs of), I. 260f, 264; - (Liszt's dramatic symphony), II. 259f. - - Dargomijsky, Alexander Sergeyevitch, III. ix, xvi, xix, 38, 42, - _46ff_, 107, 121. - - Darwin's theory of the origin of music, I. 4f. - - Daudet (L'Arlésienne), II. 391. - - Davey, Henry, III. 430. - - David, Félicien, II. 390; - III. 7. - - Davies, James A., cited, I. 40. - - Davies, Walford. III. 426. - - Day, C. R., cited, I. 49. - - Debussy, Claude, I. xviii; - II. 439; - III. ix, xi, xiv, xviii, 250, _318ff_; - (quoted on Bruneau), III. 346; - (on modern French music), III. 333; - (influence of), III. 335, 336, 364; - (and Ravel), III. 341. - - Declamation (in French opera), I. 408f; - (in song), III. 260. - - Dehmel, Richard, III. 274. - - Dehn, Siegfried, III. 16. - - Délibes, Léo, II. 389; - III. 7, 278. - - Delius, Frederick, III. x, xi, xiv, xix, _424f_. - - Denmark (political aspects), III. 61ff, 62; - (folk-song), III. 65; - (modern composers), III. 70ff. - - Dent, E. J., III. 431. - - Denza, Luigi, III. 401. - - Derepas, Gustave, quot. on Franck, II. 472. - - Descant, I. 162, 235, 270. - See also Polyphony. - - Descriptive color, in early music, I. 276f. - - Després, or Desprez. See Josquin. - - Devil dances, I. 58. - - Diaghileff's Russian ballet, III. 331, 340. - - Dialogue, musical. See Recitative. - - Diaphony, I. 163ff, 237. - - Diatonic scale (used by Egyptians), I. 86. - See Scales. - - Dietrich, Albert, III. 14, 257; - (quot. on Brahms), II. 451. - - Dietsch, Pierre, III. 291. - - Dickinson, Edward, quoted on Beethoven, II. 130. - - Dilettanti, Florentine, I. 329ff. - - Discant. See Descant. - - Dithyrambs, I. 119f. - - Dittersdorf, Carl Ditters von, II. 2, 49, 63, 67, 71, 94, 114. - - Doles, Johann Friedrich, II. 107. - - Domchor, Berlin, III. 15. - - Dohnányi, Ernst von, III. 195f. - - Doni Giovanni Battista, quoted, I. 335. - - Donizetti, Gaetano, II. 187, _192ff_. - - Dorian mode, I. 100, 103, 113, 136. - - Dorian school (of Greek composition), I. 117. - - Dostoievsky, III. 40, 108. - - Double-bass, II. 338. - - Double-bassoon, I. 446; - II. 96, 341. - - Double choir. See Choir (divided). - - Double-stopping, in early violin music, I. 368. - - Dowland, John, I. 306. - - Draeseke, Felix, III. 235, 241. - - Drama (Greek), I. 118ff, 329f; - (English, 17th cent.), I. 430; - (German, 18th cent.), II. 80f. - See Opera; Oratorio. - - Dramatic element (in early madrigals), I. 277f, 281; - (in sacred music), I. 321f; - (in 17th cent. opera), I. 380ff, 384f; - (in 18th cent. opera), I. 428; - (in Händel's operas), I. 429, 435; - (in early oratorio), I. 386; - (in passion oratorio), I. 425, 480. - - Drame lyrique, II. 209f, 390. - See Opera, French. - - Dresden (early opera in), I. 384,416; - (in Hasse's period), II. 5, 78; - (Wagner), II. 406. - - Drums (primitive), I. 15ff; - (Indian), I. 35; - (Aztec), I. 52; - (Assyrian), I. 67; - (Hebraic), I. 73f; - (modern), II. 265, 341. - See also Percussion, instruments of. - - Drum-stick, II. 341. - - _Du Schwert an meiner Linken_, II. 234. - - Dubarry, Jeanne. See Barry, Mme. du. - - Dubois, Théodore, III. 336. - - Duchesne, cited, I. 146. - - Ducis, Benedictus, I. 297. - - Dudevant, Madame. See Sand, George. - - Dudy (Czech instrument), III. 166. - - Duet (in early passion oratorio), I. 425; - (in Italian opera), I. 427f. - - Dufay, Guillaume, I. 235f, _240ff_. - - Dukas, Paul, III. viii, ix, x, xi, xiv, xviii, 321, 334, _357ff_. - - Dulcimer, Assyrian, I. 66. - - Dumas, Alexandre, _fils_, (_Dame aux Camélias_), II. 492. - - Dumka (Czech dance), III. 166. - - Dunhill, T. F., III. 442. - - Duni, E. R., II. 24, 122. - - Dunstable, John, I. 236, 239ff; - III. 409. - - Duparc, Henri, III. x, xviii, 287, _311_. - - Duple rhythm (in early church music), I. 229. - - Durante, Francesco, I. 400f; - II. 8, 11, 14. - - Durazza, II. 31. - - Durchkomponiertes Lied, II. 274, 280. - - Dürnitz, Count von, II. 114. - - Dussek, J. L., II. 90; - III. 165, 166. - - Dvořák, Antonín, II. 455; - III. xiv, xv, 74, 165, 166, _175ff_, 181; - (influence of), III. 183, 184; - (influence in England), III. 437. - - - E - - Ecclesiastical modes. See Modes, ecclesiastical. - - Ecclesiastical music. See Church music. - - Eckhardt, J. Gottfried, II. 67, 102. - - Eclecticism, III. viii, xxii; - (in France), III. 25ff; - (in Russia), III. 146ff. - - École de musique réligieuse, III. 279. - - Egypt, music in, I. 65, 76ff; - (influence on Greece), I. 86; - (compared to Assyrian), I. 78, 82ff. - - Egyptian Flutes, I. 26. - - Ehlert, Louis, III. 20. - - Eist, Diet von, I. 218. - - Elgar, [Sir] Edward, II. 440; - III. x, xi, xiv, xviii, 415, _419_. - - Elling, Cath., III. 98. - - Eloy, I. 244. - - El'ud (Arabian instrument), I. 54. - - Emotion, I. xxxiv, xliv, li, ixi; - (primitive, as the cause of music), I. 5; - (musical expression of, by Monteverdi), I. 345. - - Empiricists (school of Greek composition), I. 109. - - Engel, Carl, quoted, I. 13, 16, 70, 80. - - England (folk-song), I. xliii; III. 422f; - (minstrelsy), I. 200f; - (polyphonic period), I. 237ff, 257; - (Reformation), I. 295; - (16th-17th cent.), I. 305f, 369ff; - (17th cent. masque and opera), I. 385; - (Purcell's period), I. 388ff; - (18th cent.), I. 430ff; - (modern), III. x, xviii, 409ff. - - English horn, II. 341. - - English language (use of, in opera), I. 438. - - English Musical Renaissance (The), III. 409-444. - - English oratorio. See Oratorio (Händel). - - 'English suites,' of Bach, I. 490. - - Enna, August, III. 73f. - - Ensemble, operatic, II. 10; - (development by Mozart), II. 179. - - Epic, mediæval, I. 168ff, 190ff. - - Ephorus, cited, I. 95. - - Epringerie, I. 208. - - Equal temperament, I. 483, 485ff. - - Equilibrium (in art), I. xxxv. - - Érard, Sébastien, II. 163, 198. - - Erkel, Franz, III. 190. - - Ernst, Wilhelm, I. 460. - - Eskimos, I. 11. - - Esposito, E., III. 155. - - Estampida, I. 208f. - - Esterhazy, Princes Anton and Nicolaus, II. 87. - - Etruscans, I. 131. - - Eumolpos, I. 111. - - Euripides, I. 120. - - Eusebius, bishop of Cesarea, I. 139f. - - Exotic music, I. 42-63. - - Exoticism, in modern music, II. 42f, 389f; - III. 199, 269, 279, 327. - - Expression (vs. organization), I. xxxiv; - (in early church music), I. 242; - (in polyphonic period), I. 245. - - Expressive style, in early Italian opera, I. 330ff, 335. - - - F - - Fabo, III. 200. - - Fagge, Arthur, III. 422. - - Fanelli, Ernest, III. 361. - - Farinelli, I. 436f, 398; - II. 4, 185. - - Farkas, III. 200. - - Fasch, Johann Friedrich, II. 7, 8, 52, 56. - - Fauré, Gabriel, III. ix, xiv, xviii, 2, 268, 285, 287, _291ff_, 325; - (influence of), III. 336, 341. - - Faustina. See Hasse, Faustina. - - Faux-bourdon, I. 235, 266. - - Favart, II. 24, 31. - - Feo, Francesco, I. 400f; - II. 6, 8, 11. - - Feodor, Czar, III. 40. - - Ferdinand, King of Naples and Sicily, II. 15, 197. - - Ferrara (opera in), I. 327, 328. - - Ferrata, Giuseppe, III. 397, 398. - - Festa, Constanzo, works of, I. 273ff, 303f. - - Festivals. See Music festivals. - - Fétis, F. J., cited, I. 86f, 263. - - Fibich, Zdenko, III. 181ff. - - Field, John, II. 258. - - Fielitz, Alexander von, III. 20. - - Figuration (in Chopin's music), II. 321. - - Figured Bass (origin), I. 353ff; - (in early violin music), I. 368; - (Corelli), I. 375; - (in monody), II. 51; - (Stamitz), II. 12, 65ff; - (Haydn), II. 95. - - Filtz, Anton, II. 67. - - Finale (operatic), II. 10, 179; - (sonata), II. 54. - - Finck, Heinrich, I. 304. - - Fingering. See Keyboard Instruments. - - Finland (political aspects), III. 61ff; - (folk-music), III. 66ff; - (modern composers), I. 100ff. - - Flat (origin of), I. 156. - - Flemish school, rise of, I. 234. - - Floridia, Pietro, III. 392. - - Florence (ars nova), I. 230, 263ff; - (national festival), I. 324f; - (early opera), I. 326, 330ff, 379. - - Florentine camerata, I. 329ff. - - Florimo, Franc., quoted, II. 16. - - Flotow, Friedrich von, II. 380. - - Flute (in early Germany), I. 198; - (in early Italian opera), I. 333; - (in Händel's orchestra), I. 424; - (modern), II. 117, 265, 335, 337ff, 341. - - Flutes, primitive, I. 22ff; - (Indian), I. 36; - exotic, I. 54; - (in Mohammedan funeral services), I. 62; - ancient (Egyptian), I. 80f, 84; - (Greek), I. 121ff. - - Flutists (Greek), I. 112. - - Foerster, Christoph, II. 7. - - Fokine, M., III. 340. - - Folk-dances, III. 39; - (Bohemian), III. 166f. - See also Dancing. - - Folk-lore, II. 223. - - Folk-music, I. xli, xlii-ff; - (Swedish), III. 65; - (Italian), III. 390f, 391; - (negro), III. 179; - (Spanish), III. 404f. - See also Folk-songs; Primitive music; Exotic music. - - Folk-poetry, III. 61. - - Folk-songs, I. xxxviii; - (in Middle Ages) _I. 186ff_; - (definition), I. 191ff; - (early French), I. 192ff; - (early German, etc.), I. 195ff; - (early English), I. 237f; - (used in the Mass), I. 242; - (Haydn's use of), II. 98; - (Schubert's use of), II. 273; - (Smetana's use of), III. 171ff; - (in rel. to art-song), II. 274; - (general), III. xv, xvi, 39, 61; - (Danish), III. 65; - (Norwegian), III. 66; - (Finnish), III. 66ff; - (Grieg's use of), III. 68; - (Swedish), III. 79; - (Russian), III. 139; - (Bohemian), III. 167; - (Magyar), III. 186; - (Hungarian), III. 198ff; - (Breton), III. 314; - (Italian), III. 391; - (British), III. 422f, 434, 437; - (Irish), III. 423. - - Follino, quoted, I. 343. - - Fontana, Giovanni Battista, I. 368. - - Ford, Ernest, III. 430, 432. - - Forkel, Nikolaus (opposition to Gluck), II. 31. - - Form, I. xxiv-ff, xxxviii, lviii, 264, 350-376, 450; - II. 53ff; - III. 202f; - (conflict with matter), III. 206. - See also Aria, Canzona; Sonata; Song form; Symphonic form, etc. - - Fortunatus, I. 136f. - - Four-movement form. See Symphonic form. - - France (folk-song), I. xliii, xliv, 191ff; - (primitive instruments), I. 24f; - (mediæval minstrelsy), I. 202ff; - (Troubadours, etc.), I. 204ff; - (polyphonic period), I. 228ff, 242f, 266; - (Reformation), I. 294; - (17th cent. harpsichord music), I. 374ff; - (17th century opera and ballet), I. 384, 401ff; - (opera after Lully), I. 413f; - (18th cent.), II. 23; - (early 19th cent.), II. 199ff; - (Romantic period), II. 241f, 253ff, 350ff, 385ff, 469ff; - III. 7; - (modern), III. ix, xvii, 277ff, 317-365; - (modern, influence on Spain), III. 406. - - Franchetti, Alberto, III. 369, 392. - - Francis I of Austria, II. 27. - - Francis II of Austria, II. 91. - - Franck, César, I. 478; - II. 439, _469ff_, 471f; - III. xi, xii, xiv, xviii, 205, 279, 281f; - (the followers of), III. 277ff; - (pupils of, enumerated by d'Indy), III. 296; - (influence of), III. 301, 314; - (and Debussy), III. 319. - - Francke, Kuno, quoted, II. 48. - - Franco-Prussian war, III. 284. - - Franz, Robert, II. 289ff; - III. 18, 257. - - Frauenlob (minnesinger), I. 220, 222. - - Frederick the Great, I. 468f; - II. 31, 48, 50, 58, 70, 78, 107, 204, 277. - - Frederick William III of Prussia, II. 198. - - Frederick William IV of Prussia, II. 261. - - Fredkulla, M. A., III. 88. - - Freemasons, II. 76. - - _Freischützbuch_ (_Das_), II. 375. - - French Revolution. See Revolutions (French). - - French schools, etc. See France. - - Frescobaldi, Girolamo, I. 358ff; - III. 385. - - Friskin, James, III. 442. - - Froberger, John Jacob, I. 359f, 376. - - Frontini, III. 394. - - Frottola (the), I. 271, 326. - - Fugue, I. xiii, xxxix, xli, lii; - (Dufay), I. 236; - (Sweelinck), I. 359; - (before Bach), I. 451, 476; - (Bach), I. 469, 473ff, 487, 489ff; - (after Bach), I. 478; - (modern), III. 282. - - Fulda, Adam von, I. 304. - - Fuller, Loie, III. 364. - - Fuller-Maitland. See Maitland, J. A. Fuller. - - Fumagalli, Polibio, III. 397. - - Fürnberg (von), II. 86. - - Furiant (Czech dance), III. 166. - - Futurists, Italian, III. 392f. - - Fux, Johann Joseph, I. 416; - II. 62. - - Fyffe, quoted, II. 232, 237ff. - - - G - - Gabrieli, Andrea, I. 330, 356. - - Gabrieli, Giovanni, I. 356. - - Gade, Niels W., II. 263, 347; - III. 69, 72, 92. - - Gagliano, Marco da, I. 335, 378; - (quoted), I. 333. - - Galeotti, Cesare, III. 397. - - Galilei, Vincenzo, I. 329f. - - Galliard (the), I. 371f, 375. - - Gallo-Belgian school, I. 234ff. - - Galuppi, Baldassare, II. 15, 179. - - Garcia, Manuel, II. 185. - - Gardiner, Balfour, III. 422. - - Garibaldi Hymn, II. 504. - - Gassmann, F. L., II. 62. - - Gaultier, Denys, I. 374f. - - Gavotte (the), I. 372. - - _Gazette Musicale de Paris_, II. 247. - - Geisha dance, I. 58f. - - _Geistliche Lieder_ (Bach), II. 273. - - Gelinek, Joseph, II. 161f. - - Gellert, II. 49, 275. - - Geminiani, Francesco, II. 51. - - Generative theme, III. 282, 302, 314. - - 'Genre,' musical. See Miniature. - - Genre symphony, III. 7. - - George IV of England, II. 184. - - Gerbert, Martin, I. 142; - II. 67. - - German, Edward, III. 425, _426_, 432. - - German influence (on Jommelli), II. 12; - (in English music), III. 413f. - - 'German Requiem' (Brahms), II. 455. - - Germany (folk-song), I. xliii, 195ff; - (mediæval minstrelsy), I. 200ff; - (minnesingers), I. 214ff; - (Reformation), I. 288ff; - (15th-16th cent.), I. 304f; - (organ music, 16th-17th cent.), I. 359ff; - (instrumental music, 17th cent.), I. 371ff; - (harpsichord music, 17th cent.), I. 374ff; - (opera, oratorio, etc., 17th cent.), I. 384, 387; - (later 17th cent.), I. 414ff; - (opera, 18th cent.), I. 421ff; - (Bach), I. 448ff; - (reaction against Italian opera), II. 9; - (supremacy over Italy), II. 46; - (18th century, social and religious aspects), II. 48ff, 76ff; - (early classic period), II. 50ff; - (Viennese period), II. 75ff; - (Beethoven), II. 128ff; - (Romantic movement), II. 213ff; - (19th cent. national reawakening), II. 231ff; - (devel. of the _lied_), II. 269ff; - (pianoforte music, 19th cent.), II. 299ff; - (Romantic chamber music), II. 328; - (Romantic orchestral music), II. 343ff, 361ff; - (Romantic opera), II. 372ff; - (choral music of Rom. period), II. 394ff; - (Wagner), II. 401ff; - (neo-Romanticism), II. 443ff; - III. 1ff; - (modern symphonists), III. viii, 201ff; - (modern opera), III. 238ff; - (modern song), III. 257ff; - (the ultra-moderns), III. 268ff. - - Gernsheim, Friedrich, III. 209f. - - Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, II. 134. - - Gesualdo, Carlo, I. 276. - - Gevaert, F. A., quoted, I. 131, 135, 140, 144, 146f. - - Gewandhaus (Leipzig), II. 261; - III. 5. - - Giammaria (lutenist), I. 328. - - Gibbons, Orlando, I. xlvii, 306. - - Gigue (the), I. 371f, 375. - - Gilman, Benjamin Ives, cited, I. 14, 40. - - Gill, Allen, III. 422. - - Giordano, Umberto, III. 369, 377. - - Giorgione, I. 327. - - Gipsies. See Gypsies. - - Glazounoff, Alexander Constantinovitch, III. x, xi, xii, - xiv, xvii, _137ff_. - - Glière, Reinhold, III. xvii, 146, 150f. - - Glinka, III. xvi, 38, 39, _42ff_, 107, 134. - - Gluck, Christoph Willibald, II. 8, _17ff_; - (quoted), II. 208. - - Gnecchi, Vittorio, III. 382. - - Gobbi, III. 200. - - Godard, Benjamin, III. 35f, 283. - - Goethe, II. 49, 134, 140, 223, 232, 283; - III. 61, 267, 358. - - Goetz. See Götz. - - Gogol, III. 39, 108, 123, 136, 138. - - Golden Spur, Order of, II. 23, 71, 103. - - Goldicke, A., III. 155. - - Goldmark, Karl, II. 455; - III. viii, x, 102, _241f_. - - Goldschmidt, Adalbert, III. 241. - - Golpin, F. W., III. 430. - - Gombert, Nicolas, I. 296f. - - Gomez, Carlo, III. 408. - - Goodhart, A. M., III. 442. - - Goosens, Eugène, Jr., III. 441. - - Gossec, François Joseph, II. 41, 65, _68_, 106. - - Götz, Hermann, III. viii, 209, 239, _245f_. - - Goudimel, Claude, I. 294f. - - Gounod, Charles, II. 207, _386ff_, 438; - III. 7, 278. - - Goura (African instrument), I. 28. - - Grädener, Karl, III. 14. - - Granados, Enrico, III. 406. - - Grandmougin, Charles, III. 293. - - Grammann, III. 256. - - Graun, Joh. Gottlieb, II. 58. - - Graun, Karl Heinrich, I. 416; - II. 58. - - Gray, Alan, III. 442. - - Greco, II. 8. - - Greece (Ancient), music of, I. 84ff, _88-127_; - (influence on Roman and early Christian music), I. 131ff, 136, - 138, 151ff, 160, 165; - (influence in Italian renaissance), I. 329, 330, 332, 346. - - Greek modes and scales. See Modes, Scales, Tetrachords. - - Greene, Maurice, I. 432. - - Greene, Plunket, III. 443. - - Gregorian tones. See Plain-song. - - Gregorian tradition, I. 145f. - - Gregory I, Pope, I. 144ff, 151, 156. - - Grell, Eduard August, III. 16. - - Gretchaninoff, Alexander, III. 128, 143, _144f_. - - Grétry, André E. M., II. 25, 41, 106. - - Griboiedoff, III. 108. - - Grieg, Edvard, II. 440; - III. xiv, xv, xvi, 64, 68, 69, 70, 77, _89ff_, 96; - (quoted on Hartmann), III. 72; - (influence of), III. 99, 332. - - Grillo, Giovanni Battista, I. 364f. - - Grillparzer, II. 134; - III. 190. - - Grimm, [Baron] Melchior, II. 24, 31, 102 (footnote). - - Grimaldi, Niccolini, I. 432. - - Grisar, Albert, II. 211. - - Grisi, Giulia, II. 193. - - Ground-bass, I. 367. - - Grove, [Sir] George (citations, etc.), I. 313; - II. 143, 150, 157, 162, 166, 168f, 344. - - Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, III. 430. - - Grovlez, Gabriel, III. 407. - - Guarneri family, I. 362. - - Guecco, II. 187. - - _Guerre des bouffons_, I. 414f; - II. 24, 35. - - Guglielmi, Pietro, II. 14. - - Guicciardi, [Countess] Giulia, II. 141, 145. - - Guidicioni, Laura, I. 328. - - Guido d'Arezzo, I. 167ff. - - Guidonian Hand, I. 171. - - Guillaume (the troubadour), I. 205. - - Guilmant, Alexandre, III. 36, 285. - - Gui, Vittorio, III. 400. - - Guy, Abbott of Chalis, I. 174f. - - Gypsies, II. 250, 322; - III. 187, 319. - - - H - - Haarklou, Johannes, III. 98. - - Hadow, W. H., II. 98; - III. 430; - quoted (on Paësiello), II. 15; - (on Sarti), II. 40; - (on Bach's influence), II. 59; - (on musical patronage), II. 88; - (on Mozart's 'Paris symphony'), II. 104; - (on development of art forms), II. 110; - (on difference betw. Haydn and Mozart), II. 112; - (on Mozart's concertos), II. 115; - (on Schubert), II. 227. - - Hägg, J. Adolph, III. 79. - - Häle, Adam de la. See Adam. - - Halévy, Jacques Fromental E., II. 207. - - Halévy, Ludovic, II. 393. - - Halle a.d. Saale, I. 360, 419ff, 422f, 463; - II. 289. - - Hallé, Sir Charles, III. 411. - - Hallén, Andreas, III. 80f. - - Halsley, Ernest, III. 442. - - Hallström, Ivan, III. 79. - - Halvorsen, Johann, III. 98. - - Hamburg (17th century opera), I. 384, 414f, 422ff; - (Brahms), II. 454. - - Hamerik, Asger, III. 73, _74f_. - - Hammer-clavier. See Pianoforte. - - Hammerschmidt, Andreas, I. 387. - - Han, Ulrich, I. 285. - - Hand-Clapping, I. 14, 69, 83. - - Händel, George Frederick, I. 387, 393f, 397, 416f, _418ff_, 463; - II. 8, 56; - III. 410. - - Hanslick, Eduard, II. 436; - (quoted, on Grieg), II. 440. - - Harmonic alteration of melodies, I. xlix. - - Harmonic style, I. xlvii. - See also Monody. - - Harmony, I. xxxix, xl, xlix, l, 43; - (traces of, in primitive music), I. 16, 18ff; - (Oriental meaning of the term), I. 48; - (supposed traces of, in ancient music), I. 69, 88, 97; - (Greek use of the term), I. 90; - (harmonic foundation of early folk-songs), I. 198; - (mediæval beginnings) _I. 160ff_; - (13th cent. example), I. 237; - (15th cent.), I. 269ff; - (16th cent.), I. 293f; - (musica ficta), I. 301f; - (Palestrina), I. 320, 322; - (Monteverdi, chromaticism), I. 341; - (development in 17th cent.), I. 352ff; - (German and English instrumentalists), I. 371f; - (Purcell), I. 389; - (A. Scarlatti), I. 393; - (Lully), I. 409; - (Rameau), I. 414; - (Händel), I. 441; - (Bach), I. 475ff, 487, 489ff; - (influence on form), I. 51ff; - (Haydn and Mozart), II. 111f; - (Beethoven), I. 167; - (Schubert), I. 227; - (Schumann), II. 285, 286, 307; - (influence of the pianoforte), II. 298; - (Chopin), II. 320f; - (Liszt), II. 324f; - (Wagner), II. 433ff; - (Brahms), II. 463; - (Franck), II. 471; - (modern innovations), III. 155ff, 164, 198, 272, 275f, 290, - 295, 325. - - Harps (African), I. 29; - (Assyrian), I. 66; - (Egyptian), I. 78ff; - (Greek), I. 85, 125; - (modern), II. 341. - - Harpsichord (or clavier, in early opera), I. 333; - (in the operatic orchestra), I. 424; - (as _basso continuo_), I. 354; - (description), II. 60, 373ff; - II. 294. - - Harpsichord music (early English), I. 306, 369; - (Chambonnières), I. 375; - (Froberger), I. 376; - (Purcell), I. 390; - (Domenico Scarlatti), I. 398f; - (Couperin), I. 411f; - (Händel), I. 445; - (Bach), I. 471f. - See also Pianoforte music. - - Harpsichord playing, I. 375; - (J. S. Bach's), I. 461, 489; - (improved systems of fingering), I. 484ff; - (C. P. E. Bach's), II. 59. - - Hartmann, Georges, III. 320. - - Hartmann, J. P. E., II. 347; - III. 71f, 73. - - Hasse, Faustina (Bordoni), I. 416, 437; - II. 5ff. - - Hasse, Joh. Adolph, I. 416, 427; - _II. 5ff_, 31. - - Hauschka (author of Austrian national hymn), II. 91. - - Hausegger, Siegmund von, III. 270. - - Hawaiian Islands, I. 22f. - - Hawley, Stanley, III. 441. - - Haydn, Joseph, II. 49 (footnote), 55, 57, 68f, _83ff_; - (and Mozart), II. 105ff, 114, 115, 116; - (and Beethoven), II. 138; - (as song composer), II. 273. - - Haydn, Michael, II. 73ff; - (influence on Mozart), II. 102. - - Health, in relation to music, I. 90ff. - - Hebbel, II. 380. - - Hebrews (ancient), I. 70ff. - - Heidegger, I. 437. - - Heiligenstadt testament (Beethoven's), II. 136, 158, 159, - (illus. facing p. 158). - - Heine, Heinrich, II. 224, 249, 288f. - - Heinrich von Meissen. See Frauenlob. - - Heise, Peter A., III. 73. - - Helen, Grand Duchess of Russia, III. 49. - - Helgaire, quoted, I. 189. - - Heller, André, III. 321. - - Heller, Stephen, II. 322; - III. 17. - - Hemiolia, II. 461. - - Henderson, W. J., quoted, I. 326; - II. 276, 282. - - Henschel, Georg, III. 212. - - Henselt, Adolf, II. 322; - III. 17. - - Heptatonic scale, I. 46ff. - - Herbeck, Johann, III. 212. - - Herder, III. 61. - - Hérold, L. J. F., II. 207, 211. - - Herz, Henri, III. 18. - - Hertzen, III. 108. - - Herzogenberg, Heinrich von, III. 209, _210_. - - Hesiod, I. 92. - - Hexachordal system, I. 167ff. - - Heyden, Sebald, cited, I. 240. - - Hierocles, quoted, I. 90, 109. - - Hilarius, I. 142. - - Hildburghausen, Prince Joseph of, II. 71 (footnote). - - Hill, Aaron, I. 431, 438f. - - Hiller, Ferdinand, II. 263 (footnote); - _III. 9_, 256. - - Hiller, Johann Adam, II. 8, 191. - - Himmel, Friedrich Heinrich, II. 152, 162. - - Hindoos, I. 47ff, 59ff. - - Hinton, Arthur, III. 427. - - History. See Musical History. - - Hobrecht, Jacob, I. 248, 251. - - Hoffmann, E. T. A., II. 308ff, 379. - - Hoffmann, Leopold, II. 63. - - Hoffmeister (publisher), II. 109. - - Hofmann, Heinrich, III. 20, 212, 257. - - Holbrooke, Joseph, III. viii, ix, x, xi, xix, 438. - - Holmès, Augusta, III. 296. - - Holstein, Franz von, III. 256. - - Holtzbauer, Ignaz, II. 67. - - Homer, I. 92. - - Homophonic style, I. xiii. See also Monody. - - Homophony (in Greek music), I. 161; - (and monody), I. 259. - See also Monody. - - Honauer, Leonti, II. 102. - - Hopi Indians, I. 38f. - - Horns (primitive), I. 21; - (in mediæval Germany), I. 198, 218; - (in the classic orchestra), II. 65, 117, 335; - (in the Romantic period), II. 337ff; - (modern), II. 117, 265, 335, 337, 338, 340, 341; - (valve-horn), II. 340. - - Hřimaly, Adalbert, III. 180. - - Hubay, Jenő, III. 190, _194f_. - - Huber, Hans, III. 212. - - Hucbald, I. 162ff. - - Hughes, Rupert (quot.), II. 331. - - Hugo, Victor, II. 244, 486. - - Hullah, John (quoted), I. 256. - - Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, II. 259, 321. - - Humor (in early polyphonic music), I. 254; - (in opera), see Opera buffa. - - Humperdinck, Engelbert, II. 437; - III. viii, x, 238, 245, _247_, 267f. - - Humfrey, Pelham, I. 385. - - Huneker, James (quot.), II. 501. - - Hungary, - (folk-song), I. xliii-f; - (political aspects), III. 186; - (early musical history), III. 187ff; - (modern composers), III. 190; - (ultra-moderns), III. 197. - - Hunold, C. F. See Menantes. - - Hunting bow, I. 28. - - Hurlstone, William Young, III. 437. - - Hüttenbrenner, Anselm, II. 133. - - Hyagnis, I. 112. - - Hymns (early Christian), I. 135ff; - (early Protestant), I. 289ff; - (in passion music), I. 480f. - - - I - - Iadmirault, III. 363. - - Iastian mode, I. 136. - - Ibsen, III. 77, 85, 87, 95. - - Ibykos, I. 115f. - - Idolatry (in relation to ancient music), I. 70, 77. - - Illuminati, II. 76. - - Iljinsky, Alexander A., III. 145. - - Imitation (Greek meaning of term), I. 89; - (in hexachordal system), I. 169; - (free and strict, definition), I. 227f; - (in early polyphonic music), I. 231f, 243; - (early English example), I. 237ff; - (in madrigals), I. 276. - See also Canon; Counterpoint; Fugue. - - Imitation of nature. See Program music. - - Imperfections (in art), I. xxx-f. - - Imperial Musical Society (Russian), III. 107. - - Impressionism (suggestions of, in Liszt), II. 325; - (in Norwegian folk-music), III. 66; - (Grieg), III. 69, 89; - (Sinding), III. 97; - (Moussorgsky), III. 130; - (Reger), III. 231; - (French school) _III. 317ff_; - (in modern piano music), III. 326f; - (and realism), III. 342; - (Eric Satie), III. 361; - (Leo Ornstein), III. 393; - (Albéniz), III. 406. - - Indians, American, I. 13, 33ff. - - [d']Indy, Vincent, II. 439; - III. viii, ix, xi, xiii, xiv, xviii, 282, 284, 285, 287, - _296ff_, 334; - (influence), III. 358. - - Ingegneri, Marc' Antonio, I. 337. - - Instrumental music, I. xliii, xlvii, xlviii, lviii, 305, 306; - (development in early 17th cent.), I. _355ff_; - (Purcell), I. 390f; - (Bach), I. 452; - (Lully, Rameau, Couperin), I. 409f. - See also Accompaniments (instrumental); Chamber music; - Harpsichord music; Pianoforte music; Orchestral music; - Sonata; String quartet; Violin music, etc. - - Instrumentation, I. liii; - (abuse of special effect), I. xxii, lv; - (Monteverdi), I. 337; - (tone-color), I. 481; - II. 12, 118, 266. - See also Orchestration. - - Instruments (primitive), I. 14f, 20ff; - (Chinese), I. 48; - (Hindoo), I. 49; - (miscell. Exotic), I. 52ff; - (Assyrian), I. 65ff; - (Hebrew), I. 70ff; - (Egyptian), I. 78ff; - (Greek), I. 84f, 122ff; - (mediæval), I. 198, 211, 218; - (Renaissance), I. 261ff, 281; - (perfection of modern), II. 335ff. - See also Orchestra, Orchestration; String instruments; - Wind instruments, and specific names of instruments. - - Instruments of Percussion. See Drums. - - Intermedii (Renaissance), I. 326. - - Intermezzi. See Opera buffa. - - Intervals (in primitive music), I. 7, 34, 40f; - (in the sounds of nature), I. 8; - (in Greek music), I. 99, 101ff; - (in plain-song), I. 154; - (in Italian ars nova), I. 264. - - Inverted canon, I. 248. - - Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, M. M., III. 128, 149. - - Ireland (folk-song), I. xliii; - III. 423. - - Ireland, J. N., III. 442. - - Isaac, Heinrich, I. 269, 304f. - - Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, II. 496. - - Isouard, Niccolò, II. 183. - - Italian influence (on early Lutheran music), I. 243; - (on German organ music), I. 358ff; - (in 17th cent.), I. 389, 451, 454f; - (on Händel), I. 427; - (on Bach), I. 471, 476, 479, 489, 490; - (on Gluck), II. 17; - (on J. C. Bach), II. 61; - (in 18th cent. Vienna), II. 80; - (on Mozart), II. 102, 105, 121f; - (on Meyerbeer), II. 199f; - (on Wagner), II. 404, 407. - - Italian opera. See Opera (Italian). - - Italian Renaissance. See Renaissance (the). - - Italy (Renaissance), I. 258ff; - (ars nova), I. 262ff; - (15th cent.), I. 266ff; - (madrigal era), I. 272ff; - (Venetian school), I. 298; - (Palestrina), I. 311ff; - (Florentine monodists), I. 324ff; - (Monteverdi), I. 336ff; - (early organ music), I. 358ff; - (early violin music), I. 361ff; - (harpsichord music), I. 374; - (17th cent. opera), I. 380ff; - (oratorio), I. 386f; - (17th cent. instrumentalists), I. 391ff; - (early 18th cent.), I. 426ff; - (later 18th cent.), II. 1ff; - (political aspects), II. 47; - (sonata form), II. 52f; - (Boccherini), II. 70; - (early 19th cent.), II. 177ff; - (modern opera), III. ix, 366ff; - (modern renaissance of instr. music), III. 385ff; - (modern song writers), III. 398; - (folk-song), III. 349. - See also Opera; also Renaissance. - - - J - - Jadassohn, Salomon, III. 13. - - Jahn, O. (quot.), II. 111, 115. - - Jannequin, Clement, I. 276f, 306; - II. 351; - III. 354. - - Japan, I. 47, 58f. - - Japanese 'color,' III. 199. - - Japanese instruments, I. 53. - - Järnefelt, Armas, III. 101. - - Jaspari (It. composer), II. 503 (footnote). - - Java, I. 57. - - Jennens, Charles, I. 442. - - Jensen, Adolf, III. 18. - - Jeremiaš, Jaroslav, III. 182. - - Jeremiaš, Ottokar, III. 182. - - Jérome Bonaparte, II. 132. - - Joachim, Joseph, II. 413, 447. - - John XXII (Pope), I. 232f. - - John the Deacon, I. 145. - - Johnson, Noel, III. 443. - - Johnson, [Dr.] Samuel (cit. on Italian opera), I. 431. - - Jommelli, Nicola, II. 11ff, 65. - - Jongleurs, I. 203, 206, 210, 212. - See also Troubadours. - - Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, II. 15, 22, 49 (footnote), 106, 124. - - Josephine, Empress, II. 197. - - Josquin des Prés, I. 252ff, 269, 288, 296, 298, 313. - - Jouy, Étienne, II. 188, 197. - - 'Judaism in Music,' essay by Wagner, II. 415. - - Junod, Henry A., cited, I. 8. - - - K - - Káan-Albést, Heinrich von, III. 181. - - Kaffirs, I. 31. - - Kajanus, Robert, III. 100. - - Kalbeck, Max, cit., II. 450; - friend of Brahms, II. 455. - - Kalevala (the), III. 63, 67, 103. - - Kallinikoff, Vasili Sergeievich, III. 140. - - Kalliwoda, J. W., III. 168. - - Kangaroo dance, I. 12. - - Karatigin, W. G., III. 161. - - Karel, Rudolf, III. 182. - - Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg, II. 12. - - Karl Theodor, Elector of the Palatinate, II. 64. - - Kashkin, N. D., III. 53. - - Kaskel, Karl von, III. 257. - - Kastalsky, A. D., III. 143. - - Katona, Josef, III. 190. - - Kaunitz, Count, II. 18. - - Kazachenko, G. A., III. 145. - - Keats, I. xlv. - - Keiser, Reinhard, I. 415, 422ff, 425, 452ff. - - Keller, Maria Anna, II. 86. - - Kerll, Kaspar, I. 384. - - Kettle drum, II. 340, 341, 342. - - Key, Ellen, III. 77. - - Key relationships. See Modulation; Tonality. - - Key signature, I. 230, 232. - See also Accidentals. - - Keyboard instruments. See Clavichord; Harpsichord; Pianoforte; - Organ, etc. - - Keys, in Greek music, I. 105. - See also Scales; also Modulation. - - Kieff, III. 150. - - Kiel, Friedrich, III. 16. - - Kienzl, Wilhelm, III. 243. - - Kiesewetter, R. L., quoted, I. 249, 311. - - Kietz, II. 405. - - Kiober, II. 149. - - Kin (Chinese instrument), I. 53. - - Kind, Friedrich, II. 375. - - King (Chinese instrument), I. 52f. - - King, James, quoted, I. 16f. - - Kinsky, Prince, II. 133, 152. - - Kinsky, Count, II. 18. - - Kirby, P. R., III. 441. - - Kirchner, Theodor, III. 14. - - Kirnberger, Joh. Philipp, II. 31. - - Kissar (Nubian instrument), I. 69. - - Kistler, Cyrill, III. 240. - - Kithara (Greek instrument), I. 123f, 132f. - - Kitharœdic chants, I. 132ff, 138, 141. - - Kittl, J. F., III. 168. - - Kjerulf, Halfdan, III. 87f. - - Kleffel, Arno, III. 20. - - Klindworth, Karl, III. 18. - - Klopstock, II. 30, 48, 49, 50, 153. - - Klose, Friedrich, III. 269f. - - Klughardt, August, III. 236. - - [_Des_] _Knaben Wunderhorn_, German folk-lore collection, II. 223f. - - Kock, Paul de, II. 211. - - Kodály, Z., III. xxi, 198. - - Koenig, III. 200. - - Koessler, Hans, III. 197, 211. - - Kokin (Japanese instrument), I. 53. - - Kopyloff, A., III. 146. - - Korestschenko, A. N., III. 153. - - Korngold, Erich, III. 271. - - Körner, Theodor, II. 234. - - Krehbiel, H. E., quot., II. 311. - - Koss, Henning von, III. 268. - - Koto (Japanese instrument), I. 53. - - Kousmin, III. 161. - - Kovařovic, Karl, III. 181. - - Kreisler, Kapellmeister, II. 308. - - Kretschmer, Edmund, III. 256. - - Kretzschmar, Herman, cit., II. 121. - - Kreutzer, Conradin, II. 379. - - Kricka, K., III. 182. - - Krysjanowsky, J., III. 155. - - Kuhac, F. X., II. 98. - - Kuhnau, Johann, I. 415f, 453; - II. 58. - - Kullak, Theodor, III. 15, 17f. - - - L - - Lablache, Luigi, II. 185, 193. - - Labor, as incentive to song, I. 6f. - - Lachner, Franz, III. 8ff. - - Lagerlöf, Selma, III. 77. - - La Harpe, II. 35. - - Lalo, Edouard, III. viii, xiii, xviii, 24, _33ff_, 279, 280f, 287f. - - Lambert, Frank, III. 443. - - Lamennais, II. 247. - - Lament, primitive, I. 8. - - La Mettrie, II. 76. - - Lamoureux (conductor), II. 439; - III. 285. - - Landi, Stefano, I. 379, 385f. - - Landino, Francesco, I. 263f. - - Lange-Müller, P. E., III. 73, 75. - - Langhans, Wilhelm, quoted, II. 228, 229. - - Languages, confusion of (in opera), I. 424. - - Languedoc, I. 205. - - Langue d'Oïl and langue d'Oc, I. 205. - - Lanier, Nicholas, I. 385. - - Laparra, Raoul, III. 407. - - La Pouplinière, II. 65 (footnote), 68. - - Larivée, II. 33. - - Lasina, II. 490. - - Lassen, Eduard, III. 18, 19, _24_, 213, 235. - - Lasso, Orlando di, I. 306ff, 320, 353. - - Lassus. See Lasso. - - Lavigna, Vincenzo, II. 481. - - Lavotta, III. 188, 195. - - Lawes, Henry, I. 385. - - Leading motives. See Leit-motif. - - Leading-tone, I. 301. - - Le Bé (Le Bec), Guillaume, I. 286f. - - Le Blanc du Roullet, II. 31ff. - - Legendary song. See Folk-song. - - Legras, II. 33. - - Legrenzi, Giovanni, I. 346, 365, 384. - - Le Gros, II. 65. - - Lehmann, Liza, III. 443. - - Leibnitz, II. 48. - - Leipzig, battle of, II. 234. - - Leipzig, I. 262f, 467f, 479; - II. 261ff; - III. 5f. - - Leipzig circle of composers, III. 5, 15. - - Leipzig school, I. 262. - - Leit-motif, I. liii; - (Berlioz), II. 351, 353f; - (Bizet), II. 391; - (Liszt), II. 399; - (Wagner), II. 430f; - (after Wagner), III. 205; - (Chabrier), III. 288; - (d'Indy), III. 305; - (Bruneau), III. 343; - (Perosi), III. 396. - See also Motives. - - Lekeu, Guillaume, III. xviii, _311_. - - Lendway, E., III. 199. - - Lenz, Wilhelm von, on Beethoven, II. 165. - - Leo (or Leonin, Leoninus), I. 184. - - Leo, Leonardo, I. 400f; - II. 11, 14. - - Leo the Great, I. 143. - - Léonard (founder of Théâtre Feydeau), II. 42. - - Leoncavallo, Ruggiero, I. xviii; - III. ix, 369, _371f_, 384. - - Leoni, Franco, III. 384, 432. - - Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Cöthen, I. 461f, 468. - - Lermontov, III. 108. - - Leroy, Adrian, I. 286f. - - Lessing, II. 48, 81, 129. - - Lesueur, Jean François, II. 44, 352; - III. vii. - - Leva, Enrico de, III. 401. - - Levasseur, Nicolas Prosper, II. 185. - - Lewes, George Henry, quoted, II. 75ff. - - Liadoff, Anatol Constantinovich, III. 128, 139. - - Liapounoff, Sergei Mikhailovich, III. xii, xiv, 139f. - - Librettists. See Calzabigi, Metastasio, Rinuccini, Rossi, Scribe, etc. - - Libretto (operatic) (in 18th cent.), II. 3, 26. - - Lichnowsky, Prince, II. 107, 132, 152. - - Lie, Sigurd, III. 98. - - Lied. See Art-song. - - Lieven, Madame de, II. 184. - - Light opera. See Comic opera. - - Light keyboard, III. 158. - - Lind, Jenny, II. 204; - III. 80. - - Lindblad, Adolph Frederik, III. 80. - - Lindblad, Otto, III. 80. - - Ling-Lenu (inventor of Chinese scale), I. 46. - - Lisle, Leconte de, III. 284, 293. - - Lisle-Adam, Villiers de, III. 293. - - Lissenko, N. V., III. 136. - - Liszt, Franz, I. xvii; - _II. 245ff_; - (songs), II. 291; - III. 257f; - (as virtuoso), II. 305, 323ff; - (symphonist), II. 358ff, 361ff; - (rel. to Wagner), II. 412ff; - (rel. to Brahms), II. 447; - (influence), III. vii, x, 69, 212; - (general), III. 111, 157, 190, 192, 202, 203f, 228, 282; - (rel. to Sgambati), III. 386. - - Literary movements (influence on modern music). - See Impressionism, Realism, Symbolism, etc. - - Liturgical plays, III. 324. - - Liturgy (the), I. 138ff, 148ff. - See also Plain-song; also Church music. - - Lobkowitz, Prince, II. 18, 133, 141. - - Local color, - (in early madrigals), I. 276ff, 281; - (Breton), III. 314; - (Spanish), III. 287, 331, 338, 349, 406; - (Italian), III. 349; - (Parisian), III. 353, 354. - See also Exoticism in modern music. - - Locatelli, Pietro, II. 51, 56. - - Locle, Camille du, II. 495. - - Locke, Matthew, I. 373, 385. - - Loder, E. J., III. 414. - - Loeffler, Charles Martin, III. 335. - - Logau, Friedrich von, II. 48. - - Logroscino, Nicolo, II. 8 (footnote), 10. - - Löhr, Hermann, III. 443. - - Lollio, Alberto, I. 328. - - Lomakin, III. 108. - - London (Händel period), I. 430ff; - II. 8; - (18th cent.), II. 15, 79; - (J. C. Bach), II. 61; - (subscr. concerts est.), II. 62; - (Haydn's visit), II. 89; - (Rossini), II. 184; - (Wagner), II. 415; - (Verdi), II. 458ff; - (present conditions), III. 421f. - - London Philharmonic Society, II. 142, 415. - - London Symphony Orchestra, III. 422. - - Lönnrot, Elias, III. 63. - - Lorenzo de' Medici (the Magnificent), I. 267f, 325. - - Lortzing, Albert, II. 379; - III. 20f. - - Loti, Pierre, III. 314. - - Lotti, Antonio, I. 346, 479. - - Louis II, King of Hungary, III. 18. - - Louis XIV, I. 405, 410; - II. 47. - - Louis XVIII, II. 198. - - Louis Philippe, King of France, II. 190. - - Love (as primitive cause of music), I. 4f, 36. - - Love song (in exotic music), I. 51; - (in Middle Ages), I. 202ff. - - Löwe, Carl, II. 284. - - Löwen, Johann Jacob, I. 373. - - Ludwig, King of Württemberg, II. 235. - - Ludwig II, King of Bavaria, II. 419. - - Ludwigslust, II. 12. - - Luis, infante of Spain, II. 70. - - Lulli. See Lully. - - Lully, Jean Baptiste, I. 382, _406ff_, 414; - II. 21; - (influence on German composers), I. 415, 426; - II. 52. - - Lute (primitive), I. 43; - (description), I. 261; - (in 17th cent.), I. 374f. - - Lute music, I. 370. - - Lutenists (Renaissance), I. 261f. - - Luther, Martin, I. 255, 288ff. - - Lutheran Church, I. 224f, 478ff. - - Lydian mode, I. 100, 103. - - Lyon, James, III. 442. - - Lyre (Assyrian), I. 66; - (Egyptian), I. 80; - (Hebrew), I. 70, 73; - (Greek), I. 85, 110, 111, 123f. - - Lyric drama. See Drame lyrique. - - Lyric poetry, I. xlv; - II. 269ff. - - Lyvovsky, G. F., III. 143. - - - M - - Mabellini, Teodulo, II. 503 (footnote). - - Macabrun (the troubadour), I. 211. - - MacCunn, Hamish, III. 425f. - - MacDowell, Edward, II. 347. - - McGeoch, Daisey, III. 443. - - McEwen, John Blackwood, III. 428. - - Machault, Guillaume de, I. 231. - - Mackenzie, Alexander Campbell, III. 415, _416_, 432. - - Macpherson, Stewart, III. 429. - - Macran, H. S., III. 431. - - Macusi Indians, I. 11. - - Madrigal, I. xliii; - (14th cent.), I. 261, 264f, 266; - (16th cent.), I. 272ff; - II. 52; - (English), I. 306; - (Monteverdi), I. 338ff, 345. - - Maeterlinck, III. 105, 145, 199, 322, 359. - - Maffei, Andrea, II. 489. - - Magadis (Greek instrument), I. 124. - - Magadizing, I. 161. - - Maggi (Italian May festivals), I. 324. - - Maggini, Paolo, I. 362. - - Magnard, Alberic, III. 315, 363. - - Mahler, Gustav, III. x, xii, xiii, _226ff_, 266; - (influence), III. 196. - - Maillart, Aimé, II. 212. - - Maitland, J. A. Fuller, III. 430; - (quoted on Händel), I. 447. - - Majorca, II. 257. - - Malays, I. 28. - - Male soprano. See Artificial soprano. - - Malfatti, Therese, II. 140, 145, 150, 159. - - Malibran, Maria (Garcia), II. 185, 187, 312. - - Malichevsky, W., III. 155. - - Malling, Otto, III. 76. - - Malvezzi, Christoforo, I. 329. - - Mancinelli, Luigi, III. 378, 389, 392. - - Manet, Édouard, III. 287. - - Mannheim orchestra, II. 338. - - Mannheim school, I. 481; - II. 12, 57, _63ff_, 67, 138. - - Mantua, I. 326. - - Manzoni, Cardinal, II. 498. - - Maoris of New Zealand, I. 13. - - Marcello, Benedetto, II. 6. - - Marchand, Louis, I. 460f. - - Marenzio, Luca, I. 275f, 329f. - - Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, II. 22, 72. - - Marie, Galti (Mme.), II. 388. - - Marie Antoinette, II. 32. - - Marienklagen, I. 324. - - Marignan, battle of, II. 351. - - Marinetti, III. 392. - - Marini, Biagio, I. 367; - II. 54. - - Marinuzzi, Gino, III. 389, 391. - - Mario, Giuseppe, II. 193. - - Marmontel, II. 24, 33. - - Marot, Clément, I. 294. - - Mars, Mlle., II. 242. - - Marschner, Heinrich (as song writer), II. 283; - (as opera composer), II. 279. - - Marseillaise, III. 328. - - Marsyas, I. 122. - - Martin, George, III. 421. - - Martini, Padre G. B., II. 11, 101. - - Martucci, Giuseppe, III. 387f. - - Marty y Tollens, Francesco, I. 125f. - - Marx, Joseph, III. 266. - - Mascagni, Pietro, I. xviii; - III. ix, 369, _370f_. - - Masini (dir. of Società Filodrammatica, Milan), II. 483. - - Masque (17th cent.), I. 385. - - Mass, I. 242f, 244, 247f, 312f; - (Palestrina), I. 318ff. - See also Liturgy. - - Massé, Victor, II. 212. - - Massenet, Jules, II. 438; - III. viii, 24, _25ff_, 278, 283f; - (influence of), III. 343, 351. - - Mastersingers. See Meistersinger. - - Mathias I, King of Hungary, III. 187. - - Mattei, Padre P. S., II. 180. - - Mattheson, Johann, I. 415, 423, 452ff. - - Maurus, Rhabanus, I. 137. - - Maxner, J., III. 182. - - May festivals (Italian), I. 324. - - Maybrick, M. (Stephen Adams), III. 443. - - Mayr, Simon, II. 180. - - Mc. See Mac. - - Measured music, I. 175ff, 183ff, 229. - - Mensural composition, forms of, I. 183ff. - See also Measured music. - - Meck, Mme. von, III. 56. - - Medicine men (Indian), I. 29. - - Medtner, Nicholas, III. xii, 154. - - Méhul, Étienne, II. 41ff. - - Meilhac, II. 393. - - Meiningen court orchestra, III. 211. - - Meistersinger, I. 222ff; - II. 421. - - Melartin, Erik, III. 101. - - Melgounoff, J. N., III. 136. - - Melodic minor scale, I. 301. - - Melody, styles of (Greek music), I. 98; - (plain-chant), I. 144, 153; - (of early French folk-song), I. 193f; - (early German folk-song), I. 197; - (Netherland schools), I. 245, 269, 333; - (Italian madrigalists), I. 212; - (Palestrina), I. 320ff; - (Florentine monodists), I. 332; - (early instrumental music), I. 368f, 373; - (early Italian opera), I. 380f, 392; - (Purcell), I. 389; - (Lully), I. 408; - (Bach), I. 474ff; - (Pergolesi), II. 8; - (Gluck), II. 26; - (classic period), II. 51; - (Mozart and Haydn), II. 111, 118ff; - (Beethoven), II. 171f; - (Rossini), II. 185f; - (Schubert), II. 227; - (lyric quality), II. 272ff; - (modern pianoforte), II. 297f, 320f, 323; - (modern symphonic), II. 357ff, 364ff; - (Wagner), II. 411, 431f, 433; - (Brahms), II. 462f; - (César Franck), II. 471. - - Melzi, Prince, II. 19. - - Menantes, I. 480. - - Mendelssohn-Bartholdi, Felix, I. xvi, lvii, 318, 478; - II. 200, _260ff_, _290_, _311ff_, _344_, _349ff_, _395ff_; - III. 2; - (influence), III. 9ff, 69, 79, 92. - - Mendelssohn-Schumann school, III. 4. - - Mendès, Catulle, III. 288, 306. - - Mensural system. See Measured music. - - Merbecke, John, I. 305. - - Mercadente, Saverio, II. 187, 196. - - _Mercure de France_, quoted, II. 35, 68. - - Merelli, Bartolomeo, II. 483. - - Merikanto, Oscar, III. 101. - - Merino, Gabriel, I. 328. - - Merula, Tarquinio, I. 368. - - Merulo, Claudio, I. 356. - - Méry (librettist), II. 495. - - Messager, André, III. 287, 363. - - Messmer, Dr., II. 76, 103. - - Metastasio, Pietro, II. 3, 5, 26, 31, 85. - - Methods, technical (in musical composition), I. xxxvii. - - Metternich, Prince, II. 184. - - Mexicans, ancient, I. 16. - - Meyerbeer, Giacomo, II. 199, 244; - III. x, 278. - - Michelangelo, III. 110. - - Mielck, Ernst, III. 101. - - Mihailovsky, III. 108. - - Mihálovich, Ödön, III. 190, 191. - - Milder, Anna, II. 152. - - Millöcker, Karl, III. 22. - - Milton, I. xlv. - - 'Mimi Pinson,' III. 350f. - - Mingotti, Pietro, II. 21. - - Miniature (musical forms), III. 6ff. - - Minnesinger, I. 214ff. - - Minor scales (harmonic and melodic), I. 301. - - Minstrels, wandering (in Middle Ages), I. 200ff. - See also Jongleurs; Minnesinger; Troubadours; Trouvères. - - Minuet, I. 372, 375; - (in classic sonata, etc.), II. 54, 116, 120, 170f. - - Mockler-Ferryman, A. F., I. 11. - - Modal harmony (in modern music), II. 463; - III. xx, 295, 325. - - Modern music (Bach's influence on), I. 477, 488, 490f; - (accepted meanings of the term), III. 1ff. - - Modes (in Greek music), I. 100ff. - - Modes, ecclesiastical, I. xxvxiii, 152ff; - (reaction of modern harmony), I. 270, 322, 352f, 360, 371; - (in Palestrina's music), I. 320. - See also Modal harmony; also Keys; Scales. - - Modulation, I. lix; - (in Greek music), I. 102; - (polyphonic period), I. 246, 352; - (Monteverdi), I. 341; - (in aria form), I. 381; - (D. Scarlatti), I. 399; - (Bach), I. 487, 490; - (in classic sonata), II. 55f; - (Haydn and Mozart), II. 111; - (Beethoven), II. 167; - (Schubert, enharmonic), II. 229; - (Chopin), II. 321; - (Wagner), II. 411, 434; - (Brahms), II. 463. - See also Harmony (modern innovations). - - Mohács, battle of, III. 187. - - Mohammedan music, I. 47, 50, 59ff. - - Molière, I. 407, 410; - ('Le Bourgeois gentilhomme' quoted), I. 208. - - Molnár, Géza, III. 200. - - Monckton, Lionel, III. 433. - - Monochord, I. 109, 124. - - Monodia. See Monody. - - Monodic style. See Monody. - - Monody (in 14th cent.), I. 262ff; - (in 15th cent.), I. 231, 326, 368f; - (in 17th cent.), I. 282, 330; - II. 52; - (in early instr. music), I. 366, 367f. - - Monro, D. B., III. 431. - - Monsigny, Pierre Alexandre, II. 24, 41, 106. - - Montemezzi, Italo, III. ix, 378. - - Monteverdi, Claudio, I. 275, _338ff_, 376, 379f, 382; - II. 27; - III. vii, 307. - - Monteviti, II. 11. - - Mood painting, I. lxi. - - Moody-Manners, III. 443. - - Moór, Emanuel, III. 196. - - Moore's Irish Melodies, III. 423. - - Morlacchi, Francesco, II. 180. - - Morley, Thomas, I. xlvii, 306, 369f. - - Morpurgo, Alfredo, III. 400. - - Morzin, Count, II. 86. - - Moscherosch, II. 48. - - Moscow Conservatory, III. 148. - - Moscow Private Opera, III. 149. - - Mosonyi, M., III. 190. - - Moszkowski, Maurice, III. 212. - - Motet (early), I. 185; - (16th cent. Italian), I. 270; - (Bach), I. 480. - - Motives (Debussy's use of), III. 225; - (Charpentier), III. 355; - (Dukas), III. 359. - See Leit-motif. - - Motta, Jose Vianna da, III. 408. - - Mottl, Felix, II. 382. - - Moussorgsky, Modeste, III. x, xiv, xvi, 38, 107, 109, _116ff_, 250; - (and Rimsky-Korsakoff), III. 125; - (influence of, on modern French music), III. 286, 320; - (and Debussy), III. 320. - - Mouton, Jean, works by, I. 297f. - - Movement plan. See Form; Sonata; Suite; etc. - - Mozart, Leopold, II. 65, _72ff_, 114f; - (influence on W. A. Mozart), II. 101ff. - - Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, I. xlix, 478; - II. 3, 9, 13, 49, 55, 59, 67, 76 (footnote), _100ff_, - 106 (footnote), 163 (footnote); - III. 110, 334; - (and Haydn), II. 111ff; - (as symphonist), II. 115ff; - (operas), II. 121ff; - (rel. to Beethoven), II. 137f; - (influence on Rossini), II. 185; - (comp. with Schubert), II. 227; - (precursor of Weber), II. 240, 373, 377; - (influence on Wagner), II. 404. - - Müller, Wilhelm, II. 283. - - Munich, early opera in, I. 384. - - Murger, Henri, III. 374. - - Muris, Jean de, I. 299. - - Music drama. See Opera. - - Music Festivals, III. 434. - - 'Music of the Future' (Wagner), II. 401. - - Music printing, I. 271, 284. - - Musica ficta, I. 301, 302. - - Musical comedy (English), III. 415f, 422ff, 431ff. - - Musical history, English writers of, III. 430. - - Musical notation. See Notation. - - Musical instruments. See Instruments. - - Mysliveczek, Joseph, III. 165. - - Mystery plays, I. 289. - See Sacred representations. - - Mysticism, III. 229, 361. - - - N - - Nägeli, Hans Georg, II. 147. - - Nanino, Giovanni, I. 321. - - Naples, II. 5, 8, 11, 182, 494. - - Naples, development of opera in, I. 383f; - school of opera in, I. 391f; - decline of opera in, I. 400f. - - Napoleon I, II. 15, 156, 181, 238ff. - - Napoleon III, II. 210, 493. - - Napravnik, Edward Franzovitch, III. 134f. - - National Society of French Music. See Société Nationale. - - Nationalism (influence on German classics), II. 48f; - (in Romantic movement), II. 218f; - (German romanticism), II. 230ff, 236; - (in modern music), III. viii, xv, 59ff; - see also Folk-song; - (in Russian music), III. 38, 107ff; - (in Scandinavian music), III. 60ff; - (in French music), III. 277ff; - (in English music), III. 411ff. - - Nationalistic Schools (rise of), II. 216. - - Nature, imitation of. See Program music. - - Nature, music in, I. 1ff, 8. - - Naumann, Emil, cited, I. 245, 302. - - Navrátil, Karl, III. 181. - - Neapolitan School. See Opera. - - Nedbal, III. 181. - - Needham, Alicia A., III. 443. - - Neefe, Christian Gottlieb, II. 131, 137, 138. - - Negro music, III. 179. - - Neitzel, Otto, III. 249. - - Neo-Romanticism, II. 443-476; - (German), III. 1ff; - (French), III. 24ff; - (Russian), III. 47ff. - See also New German school. - - Neo-Russians, III. xvi, 107ff; - (influence in Russia), III. 137; - (influence on modern French schools), III. 286, 332, 337. - - Neri, Filippo, I. 334f. - - Nero, I. 132. - - Nessler, Victor, III. 21. - - Nesvadba, Joseph, III. 180. - - Netherland schools, I. 226-257, 296, 311; - (influence on Palestrina), I. 320. - - _Neue Zeitschrift für Musik_, II. 264f, 447. - - Neupert, Edmund, III. 88. - - New German school, III. 4, 22. - See also Germany (modern). - - New Guinea, I. 24. - - Newman, Ernest, III. 431. - - New South Wales, I. 13. - - New Symphony Orchestra (London), III. 422. - - New York (Metropolitan Opera House), II. 428. - - New Zealand, aborigines of, I. 8, 13, 20. - - Nibelungenlied (the), II. 424; - III. 63. - - Niccolò. See Isquard. - - Nicodé Jean Louis, III. 268. - - Nicolai, Otto, II. 379. - - Nielsen, Carl, III. 73, 75f. - - Nielson, Ludolf, III. 76. - - Niemann, Walter, cited, II. 429, 458. - - Nietzsche, II. 422; - III. 84. - - Nijinsky (Russian dancer), III. 321. - - Nini, Alessandro, It. composer, II. 503 (footnote). - - Nithart von Riuwenthal (Minnesinger), I. 219. - - Noble, T. Tertius, III. 442. - - Nocturne (origin of form), II. 13. - - Nofre (Egyptian instrument), I. 80. - - Nogueras, Costa, III. 407. - - Noise-making instruments, I. 14. - - Noises, musical, I. 2. - - Norfolk festival (U. S.), III. 434. - - Nordraak, Richard, III. xv, 92. - - Normann, Ludwig, III. 69, 79. - - Norway (political aspects), III. 61ff; - (folk-song), III. 66, 99; - (modern composers), III. 86ff. - - Nose-flute, I. 26. - - Notation (Arabic), I. 51; - (Assyrian), I. 69; - (Greek), I. 125f, 133; - (neumes), I. 154f; - (early staff), I. 155; - (Guido d'Arezzo), I. 171f; - (measured music), I. 175, 176ff; - (Minnesingers), I. 223; - (Netherland schools), I. 228, 229ff, 232f. - See also Tablatures. - - Notker Balbulus, I. 149f. - - Nottebohm, Gustav, quoted, II. 140, 158. - - Nourrit, Adolphe, II. 185. - - Novák, Viteslav, III. 182, 183ff. - - Noverre, Jean Georges, II. 13, 104. - - Novotny, B., III. 182. - - - O - - Oblique motion (in polyphony), I. 165f. - - Oboe, I. 29, 402, 424; - II. 117, 265, 335, 337, 338, 339, 341. - - Obrecht. See Hobrecht. - - Octatonic scale, I. 114, 165. - - Octave transposition, in Greek music, I. 103ff. - - Odington, Walter, I. 228. - - Offenbach, Jacques, II. 392ff. - - Okeghem, Johannes, I. 244, _246ff_, 250, 256. - - Okenheim. See Okeghem. - - Olenin, III. 161. - - Ollivier, II. 418. - - Olsen, Ole, III. 98. - - Olympus, I. 112ff. - - Ongaro, III. 188. - - Opera, I. lviii; - (schools), I. xviii, 409; - (beginnings, Florence), I. 324ff; - (Monteverdi), I. 336ff; - (17th cent.), I. 350f, 376ff; - (Neapolitan school), I. 391ff, 400f; - (intro. in France), I. 405; - (infl. in 17th cent. Germany), I. 414f; - (Händel), I. 426ff; - (in England), I. 430ff, 434ff; - (18th cent.), II. 2ff; - (Gluck's reform), II. 17ff; - (Mozart), II. 103, 121ff; - (early 19th cent.), II. 177ff; - (Rossini), II. 183ff; - (Donizetti-Bellini period), II. 192ff; - (Meyerbeer), II. 200. - See also Opera, English; Opera, French; Opera, German; Opera, - Spanish; Opéra bouffon; Opera buffa; Opéra comique; Operetta; - Singspiel. - - Opera, English (17th cent. masques), I. 385; - (Purcell), I. 388ff, 430; - (ballad opera), II. 8; - (Sullivan), III. 415f; - (modern), III. 426; - (musical comedy), III. 432f. - - Opera, French (origin and early development), I. 401ff; - (Lully), I. 406ff; - (Rameau), I. 413f; - (Gluck), II. 31ff; - (Rossini), II. 188; - (grand historical opera), II. 197ff; - (Berlioz), II. 381ff; - (drame lyrique), II. 385; - (Franck), II. 475; - (Massenet), III. 27ff; - (Saint-Saëns, Lalo, etc.), III. 32f; - (modern), III. 278, 288, 310, 314; - (d'Indy), III. 304; - (impressionists), III. 324, 339; - (realists), III. 342, 350, 354; - (Dukas), III. 359. - See also Opéra comique; Operetta (French). - - Opera German (17th cent.), I. 414f, 421f; - (Händel), I. 423ff; - (Mozart), II. 106, 123f; - (Beethoven), II. 60f; - (Weber), II. 225ff; - (Romantic opera), II. 372-381; - (Wagner), II. 401-442; - (after Wagner), III. 238-257. - See also Singspiel. - - Opera, Italian. See Opera. - - Opera, Spanish, III. 403ff. - - Opéra bouffe. See Operetta. - - Opéra bouffon, II. 25, 31. - See also Opéra comique. - - Opera buffa, - (forerunner), I. 278; - (18th cent.), II. 8ff, 24; - (Mozart), II. 122ff; - (Rossini), II. 183ff, 186; - (Donizetti), II. 193f; - (modern revival), III. 339. - - Opéra comique, II. 23, 36; - (18th cent.), II. 41ff, 68; - (19th cent.), II. 122, 178, 193, 207, 209ff; - (influence on drame lyrique), II. 392. - - Opéra Comique (Paris theatre), II. 43. - - 'Opera and Drama' (essay by Wagner), II. 415. - - Opera houses. See Bouffes Parisiens, Hamburg (17th cent. opera), - Opéra Comique, Paris Opéra, Salle Favart, [La] Scala, - St. Petersburg Opera, Stuttgart, Théâtre des Italiens, - Théâtre Feydeau, Venice (opera houses), Vienna. - - Opera seria. See Opera. - - Opera singers, early Italian, I. 383f. - - Operatic convention (18th cent.), I. 427. - - Operatic style, I. lviii; - (influence of Italian, on Passion music), I. 480, 490. - - Operetta (French), II. 393f; - (Viennese), III. 21. - - Ophicleide, II. 341, 352. - - Oratorio (beginnings), I. 324ff; - (influence on early Italian opera), I. 378f; - (early development, Carissimi), I. 385ff; - (Händel), I. 425f, 429, 433f, 437ff; - (Bach), I. 453f, 472; - (Haydn), II. 91f; - (Romantic period), II. 395ff; - (modern English), III. 420, 434. - See also Passion oratorio. - - Orchestra (in Greek drama), I. 120f; - (incipient), I. 354; - (in Italy, 16th cent.), I. 282; - (of earliest operas), I. 333; - (of Monteverdi), I. 341f, 345; - (of Hamburg opera), I. 424; - (of Händel), I. 440; - (for Bach's church music), I. 466; - (for Bach's concertos), I. 482; - (Mannheim), II. 65; - (development, 18th cent.) _II. 96_; - (Mozart), II. 117; - (Rossini and Meyerbeer), II. 208; - (Berlioz), II. 225; - (development, 19th cent.), II. _334ff_. - See also Instruments. - - Orchestral accompaniment. See Accompaniment. - - Orchestral music (instrumental madrigals, 16th cent.), I. 281f; - (Corelli), I. 394, 396; - (in France, 16th cent.), I. 402; - (Lully), I. 409; - (Händel), I. 433, 445; - (Bach), I. 481ff; - (Mannheim school), II. 12f, 65ff; - (Gluck), II. 25; - (classic period), II. 59, 61, 74, 81, 93ff; - (Haydn), II. 94; - (Mozart), II. 115ff; - (Beethoven), II. 157ff; - (Romantic period), II. 343ff; - (Brahms), II. 456, 466; - (Franck), II. 474f; - (modern), III. x-ff, 201ff. - See also names of specific modern composers. - See also Instrumental music. - - Orchestral polyphony. See Polyphony (orchestral). - - Orchestral style, I. lviii. - - Orchestral tremolo. See Tremolo. - - Orchestration, I. liii; - (classic), II. 28, 40, 65, 117; - (modern development), II. 339f, 342f; - III. 411, 418, 466; - (impressionistic), III. 334. - - Order (principle of), I. xxix, xxxii. - - Orefice, Giacomo, III. 378. - - Organ (early history), I. 156f; - (in 16th-17th cent.), I. 292, 355; - (18th cent.), I. 450. - - Organ music, I. lviii; - (16th-17th cent.), I. 355ff; - (Bach period), I. 450ff, 472, 476, 489, 490; - (modern French), II. 472; III. 36; - (modern), III. 397, 442. - - Organistrum, I. 211. - - Organists, famous (Landino), I. 264; - (16th-17th cent.), I. 356ff; - (18th cent.), I. 450, 461, 467f. - - Organization (principle of), I. xxx, xxxiii-f, xxxvii, lv. - - Organum, I. 162ff, 172, 181ff. - - Oriental color in European music, I. 42f, 52, 63f; - III. 42f. - - Oriental folk-songs, I. xliii. - - Oriental music, I. 42ff. - - Origin of music, theories of, I. 3. - - Orlando di Lasso. See Lasso. - - Orloff, V. C., III. 143. - - Ornstein, Leo, III. 393. - - Orpheus, I. 92f, 111. - - Osiander, Lukas, I. 291. - - 'Ossian,' II. 129, 139, 223. - - Ostřcil, O., III. 182. - - Ostrovsky, III. 108. - - Ostroglazoff, M., III. 155. - - Overture (Italian), I. 336, 341, 393; - (French, in 16th cent.), I. 402; - (French, Lully), I. 409; - (Bach), I. 482f; - (Gluck), II. 28; - (concert overture), II. 347ff. - - Ovid, II. 71. - - Oxford History of Music, III. 420, 430; - quoted, II. 112, 166. - - - P - - Pachelbel, Johann, I. 361, 451. - - Pacino, Giovanni, II. 196. - - Pacius, Frederick, III. 100. - - Paër, Ferdinando, II. 181. - - Paganini, II. 76 (footnote), 249, 323. - - Paësiello, Giovanni, II. 15, 181, 182. - - Painting (art of), I. xxix. - - Paladilhe, Émile, II. 207. - - Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, I. 243, _314ff_, 353, 480; - II. 477; - III. 385. - - Palmgren, Selim, III. 101. - - Parabasco, Girolamo, I. 328. - - Paracataloge, I. 115. - - Parallel motion (in descant), I. 165. - - Paris (14th cent. musical supremacy), I. 228; - (ars nova), I. 230, 231f, 265; - (16th cent. ballet), I. 401; - (early opera), I. 406ff; - (Guerre des bouffons), II. 32ff; - (18th cent. composers), II. 16, 79; - (Gluck), II. 32ff; - (early symphonic concerts), II. 65, 68; - (Mozart), II. 104, 116; - (Rossini), II. 188; - (Berlioz), II. 241ff; - (Meyerbeer), II. 200ff; - (revolutionary era), II. 213, 218; - (Chopin), II. 257ff, 313ff; - (Wagner), II. 405, 418; - (orchestra concerts, modern), III. 285; - (musical glorification of), III. 354; - (Bohemianism), III. 349. - - Paris Conservatory, II. 42, 254; - III. 291, 336. - - Paris Opéra (establishment), I. 406, 407; - (Gluck), II. 32, 34, 35, 39; - (Spontini), II. 197; - (Auber), II. 210; - (Wagner), II. 418. - - Paris Opéra Comique, II. 41, 193, 391. - - Parlando recitative, I. 115; - II. 26. - See Recitative. - - Parratt, Walter, III. 421. - - Parry, [Sir] C. Hubert H., III. xii, xiv, 415, _416f_; - (on evolution of music), I. xxix-lxi; - quoted, I. 476; - II. 164. - - Part-songs (modern), II. 53. - - Pasdeloup, Jules, III. 278. - - Passamezzo, III. 188. - - Passion oratorio (origin and development in Germany), I. 424f, 480f; - (dramatic element introduced), I. 453; - (Bach), I. 472, 477ff. - - Passions. See Emotions. - - Pasta, Giuditta (Negri), II. 185, 187, 194, 195. - - Pasticcio, II. 20. - - Pastoral plays, I. 325, 327f, 405. - - Pastoral songs. See Pastourelle. - - Pastourelle, I. 203, 207f, 264. - - Paul, Jean. See Richter, Jean Paul. - - Pavan, I. 371, 375. - - Pedrell, Felippe, III. 404. - - Pedrotti, Carlo, II. 503 (footnote). - - Pelissier, Olympe, II. 191. - - Pepusch, John, I. 430. - - Pentatonic scale, I. 45ff, 49, 69, 164; - III. 179. - - Percussion, instruments of (primitive), I. 23f; - (Oriental), I. 52ff; - (Assyrian), I. 67; - (Egyptian), I. 82. - See also Drums; Instruments. - - Perfect immutable system (Greek music), I. 102ff. - - Percy, Bishop, II. 129, 223. - - Pergin, Marianna, II. 22. - - Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, II. 7, 8, 52, 55f; - (influence on Mozart), II. 125. - - Peri, Jacopo, I. 329ff, 343, 378; - II. 26, 27. - - Periods. See Classic Period, Romantic Period. - - Perosi, Don Lorenzo, III. 395f. - - Perotin, I. 184. - - Perrin, Pierre, I. 405f. - - Persiani, Fanny, II. 185. - - Personal expression, I. li-f, lxi. - - Peru, I. 24. - - Peruvians (ancient), I. 44f, 52, 56. - - Pesaro, II. 191. - - Peter the Great, III. 40. - - ['_Le_] _Petit prophète de Boehmischbroda_,' II. 24. - - Petersen-Berger, Wilhelm, III. 80, 81ff. - - Petrella, Enrico, II. 503 (footnote). - - Petrograd. See St. Petersburg. - - Petrucci, Ott. dei, I. 245, 271, 285f. - - Pfitzner, Hans, III. viii, 243, _247f_. - - Philammon, I. 111. - - Philidor, François-André-Danican, II. 24, 41, 65 (footnote). - - Phillips, Montague, III. 443. - - Phillips, Stephen, III. 135. - - Phrygian mode, I. 100, 103, 113. - - Pianoforte (mechanical development), II. 162, 296f. - - Pianoforte concerto, II. 72; - (Mozart), II. 115; - (Beethoven), II. 165, 167; - (Weber), II. 303; - (romantic composers), II. 330f; - (Chopin), II. 314, 319; - (Liszt), II. 327; - (Brahms), II. 466; - (Franck), II. 474f; - (Tschaikowsky), III. 50; - (Grieg), III. 70; - (Saint-Saëns), III. 280. - - Pianoforte music (Kuhnau), I. 415f; - (J. S. Bach), I. 474ff, 483ff, 487, 490f; - (C. P. E. Bach), II. 59; - (Mozart), II. 114; - (Beethoven), II. 163ff; - (romantic period), II. 293-333; - (neo-romantic), II. 464f, 472ff; - ('genre' forms), III. 17; - (impressionistic school), III. 326f, 340, 405; - (modern Italian), III. 393f. - See also Harpsichord music; also Pianoforte sonata. - - Pianoforte sonata (D. Scarlatti), I. 399; - II. 51; - (Kuhnau), I. 416; - II. 58; - (C. P. E. Bach), II. 59f; - (Mozart), II. 114; - (Beethoven), II. 165, 167, 170, 173f; - (Schubert), II. 300; - (Weber), II. 302; - (Schumann), II. 310; - (Chopin), II. 319; - (Brahms), II. 453, 464. - - Pianoforte style, I. xx, xxi, 399; - II. 60, 163, 297; - III. 333. - - Piave (librettist), II. 488. - - Piccini, Nicola, II. 14f, 35, 37; - (influence on Mozart), II. 122. - - Piccolo, II. 341. - - Pictorialism, in Wolf's songs, III. 267. - See also Program music; Impressionism; Realism. - - Pierné, Gabriel, III. xiv, 285, 361, _362_. - - Pierson, H. H., III. 414. - - Pietà, Monte di, II. 481. - - Pindar, I. 118f. - - Piombo, Sebastiano del, I. 327f. - - Pipes (primitive), I. 21ff; - (Assyrian), I. 66f; - (Egyptian), I. 80f. - - Plagal modes, I. 151ff. - - Plagiarism (in 18th cent.), I. 434, 441f. - - Plain-chant. See Plain-song. - - Plain-song, I. xlvi, 157, 183, 320, 349; - III. 299. - See also Church music (early Christian); Liturgy. - - Plain-song, the age of, I. 127-159. - - Planer, Minna, II. 405. - - Planquette, Robert, III. 363 (footnote). - - Platania, Pietro, II. 503 (footnote). - - Plato, I. 77, 89f. - - Plautus, I. 325f. - - Play instinct (the) in rel. to music, I. 5f. - - Pleyel, Ignaz, II. 90. - - Plutarch, I. 114. - - Poe, Edgar Allan, III. 152. - - Poetry, in relation to Greek music, I. 90ff. - See also Lyric poetry. - - Pogojeff, W., III. 155. - - Pohl, Karl Ferdinand, II. 94. - - Pointer, John, III. 443. - - Poliziano, I. 326f. - - Polka (dance), III. 166. - - Polonaise, II. 259, 315. - - Polybius, I. 95. - - Poly-harmony, III. xx. - - Polynesia, I. 9. - - Polyphonic style, I. xii, xxxviii, xxxix, xlvi, lvii; - (development in Middle Ages), II. 226ff, 269, 296f, 348, 351; - (early instrumental music), II. 282, 354, 363, 366, 369, 370, 372; - (Lasso), I. 310; - (Palestrina), I. 319ff; - (reaction against), I. 330f, 353, 361; - (fusion with harmonic style), I. 418, 441; - (Bach), I. 472, 481f, 489, 490; - (in string quartet), II. 69; - (Mozart), II. 111; - (orchestral), I. liv; - II. 118, 418, 422; - (Chopin), II. 320f; - (Wagner), III. 426; - (modern), III. xxi, 272, 308; - (ultra-modern), III. 164. - See also Counterpoint; Chanson; Madrigal; Motet. - - Polyphony, the beginnings of, I. 160-183; - (Netherland schools), I. 226-257; - the golden age of, II. 284-323; - (early forms of), see Organum, Diaphony, Descant. - - Ponchielli, Amilcare, II. 478, 503. - - Pontifical Choir, I. 318. - - Popular music (modern), I. xlviii. - - Porges, Heinrich, III. 237. - - Porpora, Nicola, I. 400f, 436; - II. 4ff, 85. - - Porta, Constanzo, I. 304. - - Portman, M. V., cited, I. 9. - - Portraiture musical (in 17th cent. harpsichord music), I. 411f; - (Mozart), II. 123. - See also Characterization. - - Portugal, III. 408. - - Pougin, Arthur, II. 209. - - Prague, II. 107, 235; - III. 168. - - Pre-Raphaelites, III. 321, 361. - - Prelude (origin of form), I. 353; - (Chopin), II. 317; - (dramatic), see Overture. - See also Chorale prelude. - - _Premier coup d'archet_, II. 104. - - Prévost, L'Abbé ('Manon Lescaut'), II. 210. - - Primitive music, I. xxxviii, xli, xliii, _1ff_. - - Printing of music. See Music printing. - - Prix de Rome, II. 254. - - Program music, I. li; - (16th cent.), I. 276f, 296f; - (17th cent.), I. 411f, 416; - (Bach), I. 458; - (Beethoven), II. 172; - (Berlioz), II. 351ff; - (Liszt), II. 359ff; - (defense of), II. 367ff; - (modern), III. 217; - (impressionistic), III. 351. - - Prokofieff, S., III. 155. - - Prosa. See Sequences. - - Prose, in opera, III. 344. - - Prosodies (Greek), I. 117. - - Prosody, I. xxxiv. - - Protestant Church. See Lutheran Church. - - Protestant Reformation. See Reformation. - - Prout, Ebenezer, III. 421. - - Provence, I. 205. - - Psalmody, I. 140, 142f. - - Psychology (in program music), III. 217; - (in music drama), III. 254; - (in the song), III. 262. - - Ptolemy, Claudius, I. 110, 132. - - Publishing. See Music publishing. - - Puccini, Giacomo, III. viii, ix, 250, 335, 369, 370, _372f_. - - Puffendorf, II. 47. - - Pukuta Yemnga, I. 15. - - Purcell, Henry, I. 385, _388ff_, 431, 433; - (influence on Händel), I. 439. - - Pushkin, III. 107, 121, 128, 145, 152. - - Pythagoras, I. 90ff, 105ff. - - Pythic festivals, I. 113. - - Pythic games, I. 94. - - - Q - - Quantz, Joachim, I. 468; - II. 58. - - Quarter-tones, I. 39f, 47, 49, 113; - II. 332. - - Quartet. See String quartet. - - Queens Hall Orchestra, III. 422. - - Quichua Indians, I. 45. - - Quilter, Roger, III. 443. - - Quinault, II. 34. - - - R - - Rabaud, Henri, III. 363. - - Rachmaninoff, Sergei Vassilievich, III. xi, xii, xiv, xvii, _151ff_. - - Racine, Jean (and Lully), I. 409; - II. 31. - - Radecke, Robert, III. 212. - - Radnai, III. 200. - - Raff, Joachim, II. 322, 346f; - III. 22ff. - - Raga, I. 49. - - 'Ragtime,' I. 11; - III. 327. - - 'Rákoczy March,' II. 341f; - III. 189, 193. - - Rameau, Jean Philippe, I. 398, _413f_; - II. 1, 21, 68, 351; - III. 307, 334, 358, 360. - - Ramis de Pareja, B., I. 269. - - Ranat (Burmese instrument), I. 53. - - Raphael, I. 327. - - Rasoumowsky quartet, II. 143. - - Rationalism, II. 48. - - Rattle (as instrument), I. 14f, 35, 52. - - Ravanello, III. 397. - - Ravel, Maurice, III. xiv, xviii, xxi, 318, 321, 328, _335f_; - (and Debussy), III. 341. - - Rawlinson, George (cited), I. 78. - - Realism, III. 318, 339, 342, 344, 351. - See also Verismo. - - Rebikoff, Vladimir, III. 159, 160f. - - Recitative, I. 331f, 335, 381f, 385, 386f, 389; - (French), I. 406, 408; - II. 3, 10; - (accompanied), I. 393; - II. 16, 182; - (in German church music), I. 453, 480; - (Bach), I. 477, 490; - (Gluck), II. 26; - (Rossini), II, 178, 182, 187; - (Wagner), II. 431. - - _Recitativo secco._ See Recitative. - - Reformation, I. 288ff, 387. - See also Church, Lutheran. - - Reger, Max, III. xi, xii, _231ff_, 243, 269, 318, 335; - (songs), III. 266. - - Regino, I. 145. - - Reicha, Anton, III. 165, 168. - - Reichardt, Johann Friedrich, II. 277, 374; - III. 62. - - Reinecke, Carl, II. 263; - III. _11ff_, 257. - - Reinken, Jan Adams, I. 451, 457. - - Reinthaler, Karl, III. 256. - - Reiser, Alois, III. 182. - - Reissiger, Karl Gottlob, II. 409. - - Reiteration, I. xli, xlii; - II. 63. - - Rékai, Ferdinand, III. 200. - - Relativity in art, I. lv. - - Religion, I. xliv, xlvii; - (in rel. to exotic music), I. 50, 55; - (influence on Minnesang), I. 222; - (influence on German music), II. 48. - See also Church. - - Religious emotions (plain-song), I. 157f; - (in music of Bach), I. 452, 454. - - Religious music. See Church music. - - 'Reliques,' Percy's, II. 129, 223. - - Reményi, Eduard, II. 451. - - Renaissance (the), I. 214, 258ff, 306, 322. - - Requiem (Mozart), II. 108, 125; - (Berlioz), II. 398; - (Verdi), II. 498. - - Retroensa, I. 208. - - Reutter, Georg, II. 62, 84. - - Revolutions (Carbonarist), II. 184; - (French), II. 42, 75, 155, 213ff, 443; - (of 1830), II. 207, 241, 246; - (of 1848), II. 413f. - - Reyer, Ernest, II. 390, 438. - - Reznicek, Emil Nikolaus von, III. 181. - - Rheinberger, Joseph, III. 209, _210f_, 257. - - Rhythm, I. xiii, xliii-ff; - (in primitive music), I. 11f, 20f; - (Oriental music), I. 63; - (Assyrian music), I. 68; - (Egyptian music), I. 82; - (Greek music), I. 96, 98, 112, 126; - (plain-song), I. 144; - (measured music), I. 175, 176ff, 185; - (mediæval folk-song), I. 194f; - (Troubadours), I. 209f; - (ars nova), I. 229, 266; - (absence of, in Palestrina style), I. 321, 323, 348f, 351; - (in 17th cent. instrumental music), I. 351, 361, 364f, 369ff, - 371, 373; - (Carissimi oratorios), I. 386; - (Bach), I. 475f; - (Lully), I. 486; - (opéra comique composers), II. 209f; - (Chopin), II. 315; - (Wagner), II. 435; - (Brahms), II. 461; - (Tschaikowsky), III. 57. - - Ricci, Frederico, II. 503. - - Ricercar, I. 356ff. - - Richepin, Jean, III. 293. - - Richter, Franz Xaver, II. 67. - - Richter, Hans, II. 422. - - Richter, Jean Paul, II. 263, 306. - - Ricordi, Tito, III. 381. - - Riddle canons, I. 247. - - Riemann, Hugo, II. 8, 60; - (quoted), I. 88, 115, 121, 137, 165, 207, 225, 229, 231, 264, 274, - 303f, 438, 443, 476; - II. 8, 25, 66, 117f, 120, 125; - III. 232. - - Ries, Franz (b. 1755), II. 131, 145. - - Ries, Franz (b. 1846), III. 212. - - Rietz, Eduard, III. 11. - - Rietz, Julius, III. 10. - - Rimsky-Korsakoff, Nicholas Andreievitch, II. 35, 53; - III. ix, x, xiv, xvi, 38, 107, 112, _123ff_, 134, 143, 319; - (quoted on Moussorgsky), III. 119; - (influence), III. 138, 145; - (and Stravinsky), III. 162. - - Rinuccini, Ottavio, I. 328, 332f, 343; - II. 3. - - Riquier, Guirant, I. 211. - - Ritornello, I. 336. - - Riseley, George, III. 422. - - Ritter, Alexander, III. 213, 214. - - Robert of Normandy, I. 205. - - Roble, Garcia, III. 407. - - Rockstro, W. S. (quoted), I. 233, 427, 440. - - Roger-Ducasse, III. xviii, 363. - - Rogers, Benjamin, I. 373. - - Rohrau, II. 90. - - Rolland, Romain, cited, I. 312f, 325, 336; - II. 253, 254, 283f. - - Roman empire, I. 130ff, 187. - - Romance (Troubadour form), I. 207. - - Romanticism, I. xvi, lvi; - II. 129, 267; - (French), III. 6, 7, 298; - (Russian), III. 37; - (German), II. 129; - III. 5, 209. - See Romantic Movement. - - Romantic Movement, II. 213-268; - (song literature), II. 269-292; - (pianoforte and chamber music), II. 292-333; - (orchestral music), II. 334-371; - (opera and choral song), II. 372-400; - (by- and after-currents), III. 1-36. - - Romberg, Andreas, and Bernhard, II. 132. - - Rome, - (Palestrina), I. 314ff; - (early opera), I. 327, 378f; - (Händel), I. 428; - (Jommelli), II. 11. - See also Church, Roman. - - Ronald, Landon, III. 422, 443. - - Rondeau, I. 195. - - Rondet de carol, I. 208. - - Rondo, II. 54, 167. - - Rootham, C. B., III. 442. - - Ropartz, Guy, III. 313f. - - Rore, Cipriano di, I. 273, 275, 302f. - - Rosa, Carl, III. 443. - - Rose, Algernon (cited), I. 31. - - Rossbach, battle of, II. 48. - - Rossi, Gaetano, works of, II. 187, 196. - - Rossi, Luigi, I. 379, 385f. - - Rossi, Salvatore, I. 367. - - Rossini, Gioachino Antonio, II. 180ff, 503. - - Rotta, I. 211. - - Rousseau, Jean Jacques, I. 162; - II. 24, 28, 29, 32, 35. - - Roussel, Albert, III. xviii, 315, _363_. - - Royal Academy of Music (London), I. 432ff. - - Rozkosny, Joseph, III. 180. - - Rubens, Paul, III. 433. - - Rubenson, Albert, III. 80f. - - Rubini, Giovanni Battista, II. 185, 194. - - Rubinstein, Anton, II. 459; - III. xvi, 47ff. - - Rubinstein, Nicolai, III. 18, 111. - - Ruckers family, I. 373f. - - Rucziszka, II. 225. - - Rudolph, Archduke of Austria, II. 133. - - Rue, Pierre de la, I. 248. - - Rungenhagen, Karl Friedrich, III. 16. - - Rupff, Konrad, I. 290f. - - Ruskin, John (quoted), II. 267. - - Russian ballet, III. 163. - - Russian church music, III. 141ff. - - Russian Imperial Musical Society, III. 107. - - Russian music, I. 63; - III. ix, xvi, 37, 58; - (romanticists), III. 37ff; - (neo-romanticists), III. 47ff; - (nationalists), III. 107ff; - (contemporary), III. 137ff; - (folk-song), III. 139; - (church music), III. 141ff; - (modern eclectics), III. 146f. - - Ruzicska, III. 189. - - Rydberg, III. 102. - - - S - - Sabbata, Vittore de, III. 382, 389, _391_. - - Sacchini, Antonio, II. 14. - - Sachs, Hans, I. 223ff; - II. 421; - III. 190. - - Sackbut. See Trombone. - - Sacred drama. See Oratorio. - - Sacred music. See also Church music; Cantata; Oratorio, etc. - - Sacred representations (sacre rappresentazione), III. 324. - - St. Ambrose, hymns of, I. 135ff, 142f. - - St. Augustine, I. 135, 137, 141. - - St. Basil, I. 140. - - St. Foix, G. de (cited), II. 67 (footnote), 103. - - St. Gregory, I. 144ff, 151, 156. - - St. Hilarius, I. 142. - - St. Leo the Great, I. 143. - - St. Petersburg (18th cent. composers), II. 15; - (composers at court of Catherine II), II. 79. - - St. Petersburg Conservatory, II. 40; III. 48, 126, 138. - - St. Petersburg Free School of Music, III. 107. - - St. Petersburg Opera, III. 134. - - St. Petersburg pitch, II. 40. - - Saint-Saëns, II. 418, 438; - III. viii, x, xii, xiii, xviii, 2, 7f, 24, _31ff_, 48, 93, 278, - 279, 282, 284; - (quoted on Oriental music), I. 52f. - - Saint-Simonism, II. 246. - - Saldoni, Baltasar, III. 404. - - Salieri, Antonio, II. 37, 39f, 92, 225, 238. - - Salle Favart, II. 43. - - Salo, Gasparo da, I. 362. - - Salomon, Johann Peter, II. 89. - - Salon de la Rose-Croix, III. 321. - - Salvai (Signora), I. 434. - - Salzburg, II. 73f, 101ff. - - Samazeuilh, Gustave, III. 315, 362. - - Sammartini, Giovanni Battista, II. 19, 114. - - Samisen (Japanese instrument), I. 53. - - Sand, Georges, II. 257. - - Sanderson, Wilfred, III. 443. - - Sanko (African instrument), I. 30. - - Santoliquido, Francesco, III. 40. - - Sappho, I. 115. - - Sarabande, I. 371f, 423. - - Sarti, Giuseppe, II. 40. - - Sarto, Andrea del, I. 327. - - Satie, Erik, III. 336, _361f_. - - Savages, music of. See Primitive Music. - - [La] Scala, II. 484. - - Scalero, Rosario, III. 395. - - Scales (primitive), I. 6ff, 21ff, 27f, 31, 45; - (Chinese), I. 46ff; - (Oriental), I. 51, 63; - (pentatonic), I. 45ff, 69, 164; - III. 179; - (Greek system), I. 99ff, 113, 110, 301; - (octatonic), I. 114, 165; - (early Christian), I. 152, 164; - (hexachordal division), I. 169; - (modern tonality), I. 301; - (harmonic and melodic minor), I. 301 (footnote); - (equal temperament), I. 483, 485ff. - See also Modes; Modulation. - - Scalp Dance, I. 34. - - Scandinavia, III. xv, 59-106. - See also Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden. - - Scarlatti, Alessandro, I. 347, 388, _392ff_, 397f, 401, 409; - II. 5. - - Scarlatti, Domenico, I. 397ff, 453; - II. 51, 55, 60. - - Scenic display (in 16th cent. pastoral), I. 328; - (in early Venetian opera), I. 382; - (in 17th cent. opera), I. 376f; - (in early French ballet), I. 402ff. - - Schaden, Dr. von, II. 135. - - Schantz, F. von, III. 100. - - Scharwenka, Philipp, III. 212. - - Scharwenka, Xaver, III. 212. - - Scheffer, Ary, II. 388. - - Schenck, Johann, II. 138. - - Schering, Arnold, cited, I. 443. - - Scherzo, II. 54, 167, 170, 311f, 318f. - - Schikaneder, Anton, II. 108, 109, 124. - - Schiller ('Ode to Joy'), II. 171. - - Schillings, Max, III. viii, 243f. - - Schindler, Anton, II. 133, 143. - - Schjelderup, Gerhard, III. 99f. - - Schlesinger, Kathleen, III. 430. - - Schmitt, Florent, III. xi, xiv, xviii, 321, 363, _364_. - - Schobert, Johann, II. 67ff; - influence on Mozart, II. 67, 102. - - Schola Cantorum (mediæval), I. 141, 146, 147. - - Schola Cantorum (Paris), III. 285, 298. - - Schönberg, Arnold, II. 369; - III. xx, 271ff. - - Schönbrunn, II. 22. - - Schoolcraft, quoted, I. 37. - - Schools of composition, I. xii-ff; - (conflict of, in classic period), II. 62; - (rise of nationalistic), II. 216; - See also Berlin school, Leipzig school, Mannheim school, - Netherland schools, Romantic Movement, Venetian school, - Viennese classics, also Impressionism, Realism, - also England, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Scandinavia, etc. - - Schopenhauer, II. 173, 415, 417. - - Schubert, Franz, I. xvi; - II. 115, _221ff_; - (songs), II. 279ff; - (pianoforte works), II. 299ff; - (operas), II. 380; - (general), III. 202, 223, 257. - - Schumann, Clara, II. 264, 449, 452, 453, 455, 457; - III. 14, 69. - - Schumann, Georg, III. 209. - - Schumann, Robert, I. xvi, lvii; - II. 262ff; - (as song writer), II. 284ff; - (pianoforte works), II. 304ff; - (operas), II. 380; - (antagonism to Wagner and Liszt), II. 448f; - (general), III. xi, 257; - (influence), III. 13ff, 78, 92, 95, 105, 183, 202. - - Schumann-Mendelssohn tradition, III. 209. - - Schuppanzigh, Ignaz, II. 143, 152. - - Schuré, Édouard, II. 208. - - Schütz, Heinrich, I. 384f, 387, 424, 478, 480. - - Schweitzer, Albert, I. 476. - - Schytte, Ludwig, III. 76. - - Scotland (folk-song), I. xliii; - III. 424. - - Scott, Cyril, III. xiv, xix, 335. - - Scott, [Sir] Walter, II. 194, 209, 223. - - Scotti, Antonio, III. 374. - - Scriabine, Alexander, III. x, xi, xii, xiv, xx, 2, 155, - _156ff_, 164. - - Scribe, Eugene, II. 187, 200, 203, 210. - - Scudo, Paul, quoted, II. 209. - - Sculpture (art of), I. xxix. - - Sebastiani, Johann, I. 481. - - Secular music, mediæval, I. 186ff; - (in conflict with church music), I. 227; - (early polyphonic), I. 230f; - (in the mass), I. 242, 313, 320; - (in Lutheran hymns), I. 290. - See also Folk-songs; Instrumental music; Madrigals, etc. - - Seghers, Antoine, III. 278. - - Selinoff, III. 155. - - Selmer, Johann, III. 97f. - - Senesino, Francesco Bernardi, I. 434, 437; - II. 4, 185. - - Senfl, Ludwig, I. 288, 304f. - - Sequences, I. 149f. - - Serenade (Troubadours), I. 207; - (orchestral), II. 115. - - Sergius II, and early church music, I. 167. - - Sérieyx, Auguste, III. 307. - - Serpent (instrument), II. 341. - - Sévérac, Déodat de, III. 315, 362. - - Serrao, Paolo, II. 11. - - Seven Years' War, II. 50. - - Sexual attraction, as the cause of music, I. 4f. - - Sgambati, Giovanni, III. 386f. - - Shakespeare, I. xiv; - II. 139, 380, 388, 488f, 500; - III. 110. - - Sharp (origin of), I. 156. - - Sharp, Cecil, III. 423. - - Shelley, I. xlv. - - Shophar (Hebraic instrument), I. 73. - - Shukovsky, III. 42. - - Siam, I. 53, 57f. - - Sibelius, Jean, III. xi, xiv, 64, 67, 68, 70, _101ff_. - - Siklós, III. 200. - - Silbermann, Gottfried, II. 163. - - Silcher, Friedrich, II. 276. - - Silvestre, Armand, III. 293. - - Simonides, I. 118. - - Simphonies d'Allemagne, II. 13, 67. - - Simrock (publisher), II. 132, 147. - - Sinding, Christian, III. xv, 70, _96f_. - - Sinfonia, I. 368; - II. 54, 66 (footnote). - See also Overture (Italian). - - Sinfonietta, III. 7. - - Singers (18th cent.), I. 423, 427; - II. 4, 6, 10, 21, 26, 33, 39; - (19th cent.), II. 185. - See also Opera Singers. - - 'Singing allegro,' II. 8, 52. - - Singing masters (early famous), I. 250, 329ff, 333ff, 400, 436. - - Singspiel, II. 9, 106, 123, 236, 277, 374; - (Danish), II. 40; - III. 62. - See also Opera, German. - - Sinigaglia, Leone, III. 389, 390, 395. - - Sjögren, Emil, III. 80, _81f_. - - Skroup, Frantisek, III. 168. - - Skuherský, Franz, III. 180. - - Slavs (folk-song of), I. xliii. - - Smareglia, Antonio, III. 369. - - Smetana, Friedrich, III. xi, xii, xiv, xv, 165, 166, 169ff, 181; - (influence), III. 183. - - Smithson, Henriette, II. 254, 354. - - Smolenski, Stepan Vassilievitch, III. 142. - - Smyth, Ethel Mary, III. 426. - - Snake Dances, I. 14, 34. - - Social conditions, influence of, I. xxxv. - - Socialism, III. 342, 349, 351. - - Société des Jeunes Artistes du Conservatoire, III. 278. - - Société de Sainte Cécile, III. 278. - - Société Nationale de Musique Française, III. 284, 297. - - Society of Authors, Playwrights and Composers, III. 435f. - - Sociological music drama, III. 345. - - Sokoloff, Nikolai Alexandrovich, III. 145. - - Solfeggi, II. 4. - - Solo, vocal (in 14th cent. art music), I. 262; - (in 16th cent.), I. 281f. - - Solo melody. See Monody. - - Soloman, Edward, III. 432. - - Somervell, Arthur, III. 427. - - Sommer, Hans. III. 240, 268. - - Sonata. See Pianoforte sonata; Violin sonata; Sonata da camera; - Sonata da chiesa; Sonata form. - - Sonata da camera, I. 369ff, 395f. - - Sonata da chiesa, I. 357, 365ff, 395f. - - Sonata form, I. xiv-f, xxvi, l-f, lii, lvi, 8, _52ff_, 58, 72, 174f; - III. 280. - - Sonata period, I. xli. - See also Mannheim school; Viennese classics. - - Song. See Folk-song; Art-song; Part-song; Secular music, mediæval. - - Song cycles (Beethoven), II. 278, 282; - (Schubert), II. 282f; - (Schumann), II. 287f. - - Song form. See Binary form. - - Song style, I. lix. - - Sonnenfels (quoted), II. 29. - - Sontag, Henriette, II. 185. - - Sophistication (rhythmic), I. xlv-ff. - - Soula (Troubadour form), I. 207. - - Sound-producing materials (Chinese classification), I. 48. - - South America (primitive instruments), I. 22. - - Spain, modern, III. 403ff. - - Spanish color. See Local color. - - Spanish influence, on music of American Indians, I. 38f. - - Späth, Friedrich, II. 163. - - Spencer, Herbert, I. 4f. - - Spendiaroff, A., III. 141. - - Spinelli, Niccola, III. 369, 371. - - Spitta, Philipp, I. 455, 467. - - Spohr, Ludwig, II. 329ff, 331f, 346f, 377, 386, 397. - - Spontini, Gasparo, II. 197ff. - - Sports, in rel. to music, I. 6. - - Squire, William Barclay, III. 430, 443. - - Stage directions (Cavalieri's), I. 335. - - Stainer, [Sir] John, III. 421. - - Stainer and Bell (publishers), III. 435. - - Stamitz, Johann, I. xiv (footnote), 481; - II. 8, 12, 57, _63ff_, 67, 94. - - Stanford, [Sir] C. Villiers, III. 415, _419_, 423. - - Standfuss, II. 8. - - Stassoff, Vladimir, III. 38, 107. - - Stcherbacheff, N. V., III. 146. - - Steffani, Agostino, I. 429. - - Stegliano, Prince, II. 8. - - Steibelt, Daniel, II. 161. - - Stein, Johann Andreas, II. 163, 231. - - Steinberg, Maximilian, III. 154. - - Stendhal (Henri Beyle), quoted, II. 186. - - Stenhammer, Wilhelm, III. 69, _85f_. - - Stepán, W., III. 182. - - Stephan I, King of Hungary, III. 187. - - Stile rappresentativo, I. 330ff, 335. - - Stillfried, Ignaz von, II. 71. - - Stockholm, II. 79; - III. 62, 77. - - Stolzer, Thomas, III. 187, 305. - - Stone Age, instruments of, I. 24f. - - Strabo, cited, I. 77, 85. - - Stradella, Alessandro, I. 441f. - - Strindberg, August, III. 77, 105. - - Stradivari, Antonio, I. 362. - - Strauss, Johann, II. 455, 460; - III. 21, 230. - - Strauss, Richard, I. xvii; - II. 362, 411; - III. viii, x, xi, xiii, xiv, xx, 69, 108, 201f, 204, _213ff_, - 227, _249ff_, _265_, 269, 335; - (quoted on Verdi), II. 501. - - Stravinsky, Igor, III. xx-f, 128, 155f, _161ff_. - - Streicher, Nanette, II. 142. - - Streicher, Theodor, III. 268. - - Strepponi, Giuseppina, II. 485. - - Striggio, Alessandro, I. 276f. - - String instruments (primitive), I. 28; - (exotic), I. 53f; - (Assyrian), I. 65f, 68f; - (Greek), I. 122ff; - (mediæval), I. 211; - (modern), II. 335, 338, 339, 340, 342. - See also Double bass; Harp; Lute; Organistrum; Rotta; Viol; - Viola; Violin; Violoncello. - - String quartet, I. xii; - II. 69ff; - (Haydn), II. 97; - (Mozart), II. 114; - (Beethoven), II. 165, 167, 170; - (Schubert), II. 328f; - (Spohr), II. 329f; - (Brahms), II. 467; - (Verdi), II. 498. - - Stumpff, Karl, II. 132. - - Stuttgart, II. 12, 78. - - Styles (differentiation of), I. lviii; - (conflict of, in classic period), II. 51, 62. - - Subjectivity. See Personal expression. - - Subjects. See Themes. - - Suite (the), I. xiii-f, 369ff; - II. 52, 54; - (Bach), I. 472, 474f, 489; - (modern orchestral), III. 7; - (modern), III. 234. - - Suk, Joseph, III. 182f. - - Suk, Vása, III. 181. - - Sullivan, [Sir] Arthur, III. ix, 91, 415f. - - Sully-Prudhomme, III. 293. - - 'Sumer is icumen in,' I. 237. - - Suppé, Franz von, III. 22. - - Suspension, I. xlvii. - - Süssmayr, François Xaver, II. 125. - - Svendsen, Johann, III. xv, 88. - - Sweden (political aspects), III. 61ff; - (folk-music), III. 65, 79; - (modern composers), III. 79ff. - - Sweelinck, Peter, I. 358ff. - - Switzerland (Reformation), I. 294. - - Symbolism, III. 229ff, 351, 361. - See also Impressionism. - - Symbolist poets, influence of, on modern French music, III. 321. - - Symonds, John Addington, quoted, I. 64, 188, 258ff, 268. - - Symons, Arthur, quoted, II. 153, 159, 160, 169. - - Symphonic form (modern), III. 203f; - (applied to song), III. 260. - See Symphony. - - Symphonic poem (the), II. 361ff, 390, 475; - III. 204, 223, 228, 428. - - Symphony (the), I. xv-ff; - II. 65ff, 126f; - (Haydn), II. 93ff; - (Mozart), II. 115ff; - (Beethoven), II. 165, 166, 170f, 173, 174; - (Schubert), II. 344f; - (romanticists), II. 345ff; - (Brahms), II. 456, 466, 468; - (Franck), II. 472; - (modern evolution), III. 204, 221, 227ff, 329; - (choreographic), III. 340; - (modern Italian), III. 387. - See also Sinfonia; also Overture. - - Sympson, Christopher, I. 367. - - Syncopation, I. xlvii; - II. 462. - See also Ragtime. - - Swieten, Baron van, II. 91. - - Szendi, A., III. 197. - - - T - - Tablatures, I. 157, 261, 285. - - Tagelied, I. 218. - - Taine (quoted), II. 112. - - Talbot, Howard, III. 433. - - Tallis, Thomas, I. 305. - - Tambura (Hindoo instrument), I. 54. - - Tamburini, II. 185, 193. - - Taneieff, Sergei Ivanovich, III. x, xiv, xvii, 142, 143, _148ff_. - - Tannhäuser (minnesinger), I. 218. - - Tarenghi, III. 394. - - Tartini, Giuseppe, II. 50. - - Tasca, III. 369, 371. - - Tasso, I. 327; - II. 363. - - Taubert, Wilhelm, III. 18. - - Taubmann, Otto, III. 271. - - Tausig, Karl, II. 442. - - Tchaikovsky. See Tchaikovsky. - - Tcherepnine, III. xvii, 128, 154. - - Tchesnikoff, III. 161. - - Te Deums (Florentine festivals), I. 326; - (Purcell and Händel), II. 432. - - Technique, in musical composition, III. 110f. - - Teile, Johann, I. 422. - - Telemann, Friedrich, I. 415, 422f, 452ff, 465; - II. 45. - - Temperament, equal. See Equal temperament. - - Temple, Hope, III. 443. - - Ternary form. See Sonata form. - - Terpander, I. 112ff. - - Tertis, Lionel, III. 442. - - Tetrachords, I. 99, 101ff, 151, 169, 300. - - Thalberg, Sigismund, II. 313; - III. 18. - - Thaletas, I. 116. - - Thamyris, I. 111. - - Thayer, John Wheelock (quoted), II. 138, 143, 162. - - Théâtre des Italiens (Paris), II. 188, 193. - - Théâtre Feydeau, II. 42. - - Theatres (Greek), I. 120f; - (Renaissance), I. 325. - See also Opera houses. - - Theme and variations (in sonata), II. 54. - - Themes, I. lix; - (transformation of), II. 363. - See also Generative theme. - - Theory of music (ancient Greek), I. 91, 127. - - Theory vs. practice, I. xxxvii. - - Tonality (in musical form), I. xxxix, xlix, l. - - Thespis, I. 120. - - Thibaut, I. 320. - - Thirty Years' War, I. 293f, 417. - - Thomas, Arthur Goring, III. 415, _417f_. - - Thomas, Charles-Louis-Ambroise, II. 388; - III. 278. - - Thomasschule (Leipzig), II. 262. - - Thompson (author of 'The Seasons'), II. 91. - - Thoroughbass. See Counterpoint. - - Thrane, Waldemar, III. 87. - - Thuille, Ludwig, III. 243, 247. - - Thun, Countess, II. 86. - - Tiersot, Julien (cited), I. 43, 190, 194, 199, 339; - II. 43, 472. - - Timbre. See Tone Color. - - Time (in measured music), I. 229f. - See Rhythm. - - Tinctoris, cited, I. 239, 244. - - Tintoretto, I. 327f. - - Tinya (Peruvian instrument), I. 53. - - Toccata, I. 356, 358f, 450f; - II. 307. - - Toëschi, Carlo Giuseppe, II. 67. - - Tolstoy, II. 418; - III. 39, 140, 144, 145, 363. - - Tomášek, III. 168. - - Tonality, in Greek music, I. 100; - (confusion of, in modern music), III. xxi, 198. - See also Keys; Modulation; Scales. - - Tone, definition of, I. 1. - - Tone color, I. liii, lix. - See Instrumentation. - - Tonga Islands, I. 18. - - Tonic key (in sonata form), II. 55, 56. - - Torchi, Luigi, III. 369, 377; - (quoted), III. 396. - - Toscanini, Arturo, III. 400. - - Tosti, Paolo, III. 401. - - Tovey, Donald Francis, III. 429. - - Traetto, Tommaso, II. 14. - - Tragedy (Greek), I. 120, 329; - II. 9. - - Transcriptions, I. xix. - - Transformation of themes, II. 363. - - Transposition, I. 249. - - Transposition scales (Greek), I. 103ff. - - Tremolo (instrumental), I. 345, 368. - - Triads, I. 19, 269f, 320. - - Trigonon (Egyptian), I. 79. - - Trio-sonata, II. 54, 59, 65. - - Triple time (in early church music), I. 229. - - Trombone (primitive), I. 24; - (in early Italian music), I. 344, 363; - (in early French ballet), I. 402; - (modern), II. 341. - - Tropes, I. 150. - - Troubadours, I. 203, 204ff, 216f, 228, 260, 267. - - Trovatori, I. 261. - - Trumpet (primitive), I. 21; - (Assyrian), I. 66; - (Egyptian), I. 81; - (Greek), I. 125; - (modern), II. 265, 335, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342; - (valve), II. 340. - - Tschaikowsky, Peter Ilyitch, I. xvii; - II. 108, 440; - III. xvi, 48, _52ff_, 64, 93, 105, 111, 134, 142, 147, 148, 205; - (on Balakireff), III. 111 (footnote). - - Tscherepnine. See Tcherepnine. - - Tschesnikoff. See Tchesnikoff. - - Tuba, II. 341. - - Tubri, Hindoo, I. 54. - - Turgenieff, II. 238; - III. 40, 108, 110. - - Turini, Francesco, I. 368. - - Tye, Christopher, I. 305. - - Tympani. See Kettledrums. - - Tyrtæus, I. 118. - - - U - - Ugolino, Baccio, I. 326. - - Uhland, Ludwig, II. 223, 291. - - Ultra-modern schools. See France; Germany; Russia, etc. - - Umlauf, Ignaz, II. 106. - - Usandizaga, K., III. 407. - - - V - - Vaccal, Niccolò, II. 196. - - Valve instruments, II. 340. - - Van den Eeden, Gilles, II. 131. - - Vanhall, Johann Baptist, II. 81, 114. - - Variation of musical phrases, I. xlii. - - Variations (in sonata), II. 54; - (French), II. 473; - (modern use), III. 282. - - Vasari, George, cited, I. 328. - - Vassilenko, Sergius, III. 159f. - - Vecchi, Orazio, I. 276ff, 280. - - 'Venerable Bede,' I. 145, 147. - - Venetian school, I. 298, 301f, 306, 346. - - Venezia, Franco da, III. 393. - - Venice (17th cent.), I. 327, 356, 377ff, 387; - (18th cent.), II. 2, 11, 40, 181; - (opera houses in), II. 179; - (Verdi), II. 487ff. - - Ventadour, Bernard de, I. 211. - - Verdelot, Philippe, I. 273f, 277. - - Verdi, Giuseppe, II. 207, _477ff_; - III. viii, ix, 367, 368; - (followers of), III. 366ff. - - Verismo, III. 368, 369ff. - - Verlaine, Paul, III. 287, 293. - - Vernet, Horace, II. 191. - - Verona (Philharmonic Academy), II. 103. - - Verstovsky, Alexei Nikolajevitch, III. 41. - - Vers (Troubadour lyric), I. 206. - - Vestris (dancer), II. 33. - - Vidal, Peire, I. 211. - - Vienna (Gluck), II. 17, 19ff, 37; - (18th cent.), II. 31, 40, 44, 50, 71, 76, 77, _79ff_; - (Haydn), II. 84, 85, 92; - (Mozart), II. 102, 105, 107, 108, 114; - (first German opera), II. 106; - (Beethoven), II. 132, 140ff; - (Donizetti), II. 194; - (Meyerbeer), II. 199; - (19th cent.), II. 222f, 312f. - - Viennese classics, II. 63, 75-178, 227. - - Viennese school, modern, III. 271ff. - - Vierling, Georg, III. 208. - - Vieuxtemps, Henri, III. 194. - - Villoteau, Guillaume André, quoted, I. 51. - - Vina (Hindoo instrument), I. 49, 53f. - - Vinci, Leonardo, I. 400f; - II. 6. - - Vinci, Leonardo da (the painter), I. 325, 327f; - III. 334. - - Viol, I. 211. - - Viola (the), II. 96, 338, 343. - - Viola, Alphonso della, I. 327. - - Viola, Gian Pietro della, I. 326. - - Violin (in early Germany), I. 198; - (development in 17th cent.), I. 362; - (in early French music), I. 402; - (in modern orchestra), II. 338, 339, 341, 343. - - Violin concerto (Mozart), II. 115; - (Beethoven), II. 165; - (Spohr and Mendelssohn), II. 332f; - (Brahms), II. 456; - (Tschaikowsky), III. 50; - (Strauss), III. 214; - (Saint-Saëns), III. 280. - - Violin makers, Italian, I. 362. - - Violin music (early), I. 362; - (Corelli), I. 394ff; - (Bach), I. 474f, 483, 489; - (Spohr, etc.), II. 331f; - (modern Italian), III. 394. - See also Violin Sonata. - - Violin playing (Mozart's method), II. 73. - - Violin sonata (Corelli, etc.), I. 394; - II. 51; - (Mozart), II. 114; - (Beethoven), II. 166; - (Brahms), II. 456; - (Franck), II. 471, 472. - - Violoncello, II. 338, 341. - - Violoncello music (Bach), I. 483, 489. - - Viotti, Giovanni Battista, II. 90. - - Virginal music. See Harpsichord music. - - Virtuoso composers (piano), III. 18. - - Virtuosos, I. 216f, 351. - - Vitali, Giovanni Battista, I. 365f. - - Vitruvius (cited), I. 133. - - Vitry, Philippe de, I. 228. - - Vittoria, Tom. Ludovico de, I. 321. - - Vivaldi, Antonio, I. 396, 471. - - Vives, Amedeo, III. 407. - - Vocal element in symphonic music, III. 228f. - - Vocal music, I. xx, xlviii; - (basis of music), I. 4; - (primitive), I. 17, 44; - (Assyrian), I. 68; - (Greek), I. 95f, 117ff; - (plain-song), I. 128-159; - (early polyphony), I. 160-184; - (beginnings of harmony), I. 161f, 172f, 181f; - (mediæval secular), I. 186-225; - (Netherland schools), I. 226-257; - (14th cent. solo), I. 260ff; - (madrigals), I. 171ff; - (Reformation), I. 288ff; - (Lasso), I. 307ff; - (Palestrina), I. 311; - (expressive style), I. 329ff; - (early 17th cent.), I. 348ff; - (Bach), I. 452ff, 489f; - (romantic period), II. 394ff. - See also Aria; Art-song; Choral music; Cantata; Mass; - Oratorio; Passion Oratorio; Plain-song. - - Vocalizing without text, III. 323. - - Vocalizzi, II. 4. - - Vogl, Johann Michael, II. 225. - - Vogler, Abbé, II. 199. - - Voice. See Singers, Singing masters; - (use of, in symphonic works); - see Vocal element. - - Volkmann, Robert, III. 13, 192. - - Volkslied. See Folk-song (German). - - Voltaire, II. 34, 47, 76. - - - W - - Wagenseil, Georg Christoph, II. 63, 67, 71f, 82 (footnote). - - Wagner, Cosima, II. 422. - - Wagner, Richard, I. xviii, xxxvi, liii, 332, 336, 341; - II. 39, 40, 139, 153, 164, 171, 176, 191, 196, 204, 206, 211, - 265, 359, 372, 381, 391, _401-442_, 448f; - III. vii, xvii, 203f, 206, 207, 223, 228, 239, 253, 320; - (influence), II. 381, 436ff, 497; - III. 100, 157, 177, 193, 201f, 238, 245, 249, 270, 351; - (influence in France), II. 391; - III. viii, x, 290, 296, 298, 304, 343; - (influence in Italy), II. 497; - III. ix, 378, 387; - (in Russia), III. x; - (rel. to Bruckner), III. 221; - (rel. to Sgambati), III. 386. - - Wagner, Siegfried, III. 257. - - Wagner-Liszt school, III. 4, 69. - See also New-German school. - - Waldstein, Count Ferdinand, II. 140, 141. - - Wales (folk-songs), III. 424. - - Walker, Ernest, III. 429. - - Wallace, William, III. x, xi, xix, 428. - - Wallaschek, Richard, cited, I. 26ff. - - Walther, Johann, I. 290f. - - Walthew, Richard, III. 442. - - War dances, I. 13. - - Waserus, C. G., III. 100. - - Waterloo, battle of, II. 234. - - Weber, Carl Maria, Freiherr von, II. 108, 178, 199, - 222, 230, 231, _234ff_, 446, 448; - III. x; - (operas), II. _238ff_; - (pianoforte style), II. _302_; - (influence), III. 78. - - Weber, Constance, II. 106. - - Weber, Dionys, III. 168. - - Wegeler, Dr. Franz Gerhard, II. 148, 151. - - Wegelius, Martin, III. 100, 102. - - Weimar, I. 460; - II. 78, 250; - III. 15. - - Weiner, Leo, III. 197. - - Weingartner, Felix, III. viii, xi, xii, 113, 243, 244, 267. - - Weinlich, Theodor, II. 404. - - 'Well-tempered Clavichord,' I. 472, 474ff, 485ff, 490; - II. 56, 131. - - Welsh folk-songs, III. 424. - - Welsh scale, I. 164. - - Westphalia, peace of, II. 47. - - Whistles (primitive), I. 21f, 61f. - - Whistler, James McNeill, III. 321. - - White, Maude V., III. 443. - - Whitman, Walt, III. 117, 436, 441. - - Whole-tone scale, III. xix-f, 199, 290, 308, 322, 323, 324, - 325, 335, 359. - - Wieck, Clara. See Schumann, Clara. - - Widmann, J. V., II. 450f. - - Widor, Charles-Marie, III. 36. - - Wieland, II. 48. - - Wieniawsky, Henri, III. 194. - - Wihtol, Ossip Ivanovich, III. 141. - - Wilde, Oscar, III. 160, 254. - - Wilkes, Capt., cit., I. 8. - - Willaert, Adrian, I. 272ff, 298ff; - III. 187. - - Wille, Dr., II. 419. - - William II, King of Prussia, II. 115. - - Williams, C. F. Abdy, III. 431. - - Williams, Vaughan, III. 434, _436f_. - - Willmann, Magdalena, II. 145. - - Wind instruments, I. liii; - (primitive), I. 21ff; - (exotic), I. 54; - (Assyrian), I. 66ff; - (Greek), I. 121ff; - (modern), II. 95, 338ff. - See also Bass clarinet, Bassoon, Clarinet, Cornet-à-pistons, - Double bassoon, English Horn, Flute, Horn, Oboe, Ophicleide, - Piccolo, Serpent, Trombone, Trumpet, Tuba. - - Winding, August, III. 73. - - Winter-Hjelm, Otto, III. 88. - - Wizlaw von Rügen (minnesinger), I. 218, 219. - - Wolf, Hugo, III. 201f, _257ff_; - (influence), III. 267, 271. - - Wolf-Ferrari, Ermanno, III. viii, ix, xiv, 369, 375. - - Wolff, Erich W., III. 266f, 268. - - Wolstenholme, W., III. 442. - - Wood, Charles, III. 426f. - - Wood, Haydn, III. 443. - - Wood, Henry J., III. 422. - - Woodforde-Finden, Amy, III. 443. - - Wood-wind. See Wind Instruments. - - Wooldridge, H. E., III. 430; - (cited), I. 183. - - Wordsworth, II. 99. - - Work, as incentive to song, I. 6f. - - Wüllner, Franz, III. 212. - - Wüerst, Richard Ferdinand, III. 11, 257. - - Wyzewa, T. de (cited), II. 67 (footnote), 103. - - - X-Y - - Xylophone, I. 26f, 31. - - Yanowsky, III. 161. - - Yodle song, I. 198. - - Yon, Pietro Alessandro, III. 397. - - Young Hungarian school, III. 197. - - - Z - - Zachau, Friedrich Wilhelm, I. 42f. - - Zamr (Arabian instrument), I. 54. - - Zandonai, Riccardo, III. ix, 378, 379, 389, 399. - - Zarlino, Gioseffo, I. 269ff, 303. - - Zelter, Carl Friedrich, II. 277f; - III. 62. - - Zichy, Count Géza, III. 190, 191f. - - Zingarelli, Nicolo Antonio, II. 182. - - Zmeskall, Baron von, II. 141, 143. - - Zola, Émile, II. 206; - III. 342, 343. - - Zöllner, Heinrich, III. 243. - - Zolotareff, B., III. 146. - - Zumsteeg, Johann Rudolph, II. 278. - - Zwingli, I. 294. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF MUSIC, VOLUME THREE -(OF 14) *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The art of music, Volume three (of 14), by Daniel Gregory Mason</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The art of music, Volume three (of 14)</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Modern Music</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Editor: Daniel Gregory Mason</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: September 14, 2022 [eBook #68990]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Andrés V. Galia and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF MUSIC, VOLUME THREE (OF 14) ***</div> - - - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="cover_up" style="max-width: 62.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="tnote"> - - <p class="center p4 big1">TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</p> - -<p>In the plain text version Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. -The sign ^ represents a superscript; thus ^e represents the lower -case letter “e” written immediately above the level of the previous -character, while ^{text} means the word “text” is written as -surperscript.</p> - -<p>This volume includes a subject index for this and for the previous -two volumes of this collection. In the HTML version only the material -covered in this volume was possible to link to the corresponding page -numbers.</p> - -<p>Obvious punctuation and other printing errors have been corrected.</p> - -<p>The book cover has been modified by the Transcriber and is included in -the public domain.</p> -</div> - -</div> - - -<hr class="tb x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="half-title p6b">THE ART OF MUSIC</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center p2 big3" >The Art of Music</p> -</div> - -<p class="center big1 p1">A Comprehensive Library of Information -for Music Lovers and Musicians</p> - -<p class="center p2">Editor-in-Chief</p> - -<p class="center"><big>DANIEL GREGORY MASON</big><br /> -Columbia University</p> - - -<p class="center p2">Associate Editors</p> - -<p class="p1 center"><span style="padding-right: 5em; ">EDWARD B. HILL</span> <span style="padding-left: 5em; ">LELAND HALL</span><br /> -<span style="padding-left: 3.5em; ">Harvard University</span> <span style="padding-left: 7em; ">Past Professor, Univ. of Wisconsin</span></p> - -<p class="center p2">Managing Editor </p> - -<p class="center"><big>CÉSAR SAERCHINGER</big><br /> -Modern Music Society of New York</p> - -<p class="center p2">In Fourteen Volumes<br /> -Profusely Illustrated</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp77" id="ilo-tp" style="max-width: 4.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo-tp.jpg" alt="ilo-tp" /> -</div> - -<p class="center p4">NEW YORK<br /> -<big>THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC</big></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="front-ilo" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/front-ilo.jpg" alt="frontisilo" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption">Garden Concert</p> - -<p class="center"><em>Painting by Antoine Watteau</em></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span></p> -</div> - - - -<h1>THE ART OF MUSIC: VOLUME THREE<br /> -Modern Music</h1> - -<p class="center">Being Book Three of</p> - -<p class="center big2">A Narrative History of Music</p> - -<p class="center p2">Department Editors:</p> - -<p class="center big2">EDWARD BURLINGAME HILL</p> - -<p class="center">AND</p> - -<p class="center big2">ERNEST NEWMAN</p> - -<p class="center">Music Critic, 'Daily Post,' Birmingham, England<br /> -Author of 'Gluck and the Opera,' 'Hugo Wolf,' 'Richard Strauss,' etc.</p> - -<p class="center p2">Introduction by</p> - -<p class="center big2">EDWARD BURLINGAME HILL </p> - -<p class="center">Instructor in Musical History, Harvard University<br /> -Formerly Music Critic, 'Boston Evening Transcript'<br /> -Editor, 'Musical World,' etc. </p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp77" id="ilo-tp2" style="max-width: 4.9375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo-tp2.jpg" alt="ilo-tp2" /> -</div> - -<p class="center p4">NEW YORK</p> -<p class="center big1">THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> -</div> - - - - -<p class="center p6 p6b"> -Copyright, 1915, by<br /> -THE NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MUSIC, Inc.<br /> -[All Rights Reserved]</p> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span></p> - -<p class="center p2 big2">MODERN MUSIC</p> -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="p2">The direct sources of modern music are to be found -in the works of Berlioz, Chopin, Liszt, and Wagner. -This assertion savors of truism, but, since the achievement -of these four masters in the enlargement of harmonic -idiom, in diversity of formal evolution, and in -intrinsic novelty and profundity of musical sentiment -and emotion remains so unalterably the point of departure -in modern music, reiteration is unavoidable -and essential. It were idle to deny that various figures -in musical history have shown prophetic glimpses of -the future. Monteverdi's taste for unprepared dissonance -and instinct for graphic instrumental effect; the -extraordinary anticipation of Liszt's treatment of the -diminished seventh chord, and the enharmonic modulations -to be found in the music of Sebastian Bach, the -presages of later German romanticism discoverable in -the works of his ill-fated son Wilhelm Friedemann, constitute -convincing details. The romantic ambitions of -Lesueur as to program-music found their reflection in -the superheated imagination of Berlioz, and the music-drama -of Wagner derives as conclusively from <em>Fidelio</em> -as from the more conclusively romantic antecedents of -<em>Euryanthe</em>. But, despite their illuminating quality, -these casual outcroppings of modernity do not reverse -the axiomatic statement made above.</p> - -<p>The trend of modern music, then, may be traced first -along the path of the pervasive domination of Wagner;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span> -second, the lesser but no less tenacious influence of -Liszt; it includes the rise of nationalistic schools, the -gradual infiltration of eclecticism leading at last to recent -quasi-anarchic efforts to expand the technical elements -of music.</p> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>If the critics of the late nineteenth and the twentieth -centuries have successfully exposed not only the æsthetic -flaws in Wagner's theory of the music-drama, -but also his own obvious departures in practice from -pre-conceived convictions, as well as the futility of -much of his polemic and philosophical writings, European -composers of opera, almost without exception, -save in Russia, have frankly adopted his methods in -whole or in part. Bruckner, Bungert, d'Albert, Schillings, -Pfitzner, Goldmark, Humperdinck, Weingartner, -and Richard Strauss in Germany; Saint-Saëns (in varying -degree), Chabrier, Lalo, Massenet (temporarily), -Bruneau and Charpentier (slightly), d'Indy, Chausson, -and Dukas in France; Verdi (more remotely), Puccini, -and possibly Wolf-Ferrari in Italy; Holbrooke in England, -are among the more conspicuous whose obligation -to Wagner is frankly perceptible. In Germany -the most prominent contributors to dramatic literature, -aside from Cornelius, with <em>Der Barbier von Bagdad</em>, and -Goetz with <em>Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung</em>, have been -Goldmark, Humperdinck, and Richard Strauss. The -latter, with an incredibly complex system of leading -motives, an elaborately contrapuntal connotation of -dramatic situations, aided by an intensely psychological -orchestral descriptiveness, has reached the -summit of post-Wagnerian drama. His later dramatic -experiments—a ruthless adaptation of Molière's -<em>Bourgeois gentilhomme</em>, containing the one-act opera -<em>Ariadne auf Naxos</em>, and the ballet 'The Legend of -Joseph'—are distinctly less representative examples of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span> -his dramatic resourcefulness. In France, the Wagnerian -influence is typified in such works as Chabrier's -<em>Gwendoline</em>, d'Indy's<em>Fervaal</em>, and to a lesser extent -Chausson's <em>Le Roi Arthus</em>. Bruneau's realistic operas -and Charpentier's sociological <em>Louise</em> belong, first of -all, to the characteristically French lyric drama in -which the Wagnerian element is relatively unimportant. -In Debussy's <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em>, Dukas' -<em>Ariane et Barbe-bleue</em>, Ravel's <em>L'Heure espagnole</em>, and -Fauré's <em>Pénélope</em>, we find a virtually independent conception -of opera which may be almost described as -anti-Wagnerian. In Italy, the later Verdi shows an -independent solution of dramatic problems, although -conscious of the work of Wagner. Puccini is the successor -of Verdi, rather than the follower of Wagner, -although his use of motives and treatment of the orchestra -shows at least an unconscious assimilation of -Wagnerian practice, Mascagni and Leoncavallo are virtually -negligible except for their early successes, and -one or two other works. Younger composers like -Montemezzi and Zadonai are beginning to claim attention, -but Wolf-Ferrari, combining Italian instinct with -German training, seems on the way to attain a renascence -of the <em>opera buffa</em>, provided that he is not again -tempted by the sensational type represented by 'The -Jewels of the Madonna.' Opera in England has remained -an exotic, save for the operettas of Sullivan, -despite the efforts of British composers to vitalize it. -Holbrooke's attempt to produce an English trilogy -seems fated to join previous failures, notwithstanding -his virtuosity and his dramatic earnestness. Russian -composers for the stage have steadily resisted the invasion -of Wagnerian methods. Adhering, first of all, -to the tenets of Dargomijsky, individuals have gradually -adopted their own standpoint. The most characteristic -works are Borodine's <em>Prince Igor</em>, Rimsky-Korsakoff's -<em>Sniégourutchka</em>, <em>Sadko</em>, <em>Mlada</em>, <em>Le Coq d'Or</em>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span> -and Moussorgsky's <em>Boris Godounoff</em> and <em>Khovanshchina</em>.</p> - -<p>In the field of orchestral composition, the acceptance -of Wagner's procedure in orchestration is even more -universal than his dramatic following. If his system -follows logically from the adoption of valve horns and -valve trumpets, the enlargement of wind instrument -groups and the subdivision of the strings, its far-reaching -application is still a matter of amazement to the -analyst. Even if it be granted that Wagner himself -predaciously absorbed individual methods of treatment -from Weber, Meyerbeer, Berlioz, and Liszt, the -ultimate originality of his idiom justified his manifold -obligations. German composers, except among the followers -of Brahms, appropriated his extension of orchestral -effect as a matter of course, the most notable -being Bruckner, Goldmark, Humperdinck, Mahler, and -Strauss. If the two latter in turn can claim original -idioms of their own, the antecedents of their styles are -none the less evident. French composers from Saint-Saëns -to Dukas have made varying concessions to his -persuasive sonorities; even the stanch Rimsky-Korsakoff -fell before the seduction of Wagnerian amplitude -and variety of color. Glazounoff, Taneieff, Scriabine, -and other Russians followed suit. Among English composers, -Elgar and Bantock fell instinctively into line, -followed in some degree by William Wallace and Frederick -Delius. If Holbrooke is more directly a disciple -of Richard Strauss, that fact in itself denotes an unconscious -acknowledgment to Wagner.</p> - -<p>If Liszt has had a less all-embracing reaction upon -modern composers, his sphere of influence has been -marked and widely extended. To begin with, his harmonic -style has been the subject of imitation second -only to Wagner up to the advent of Richard Strauss -and Debussy. His invention of the structurally elastic -symphonic poem remains the sole original contribution<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span> -in point of form which the nineteenth century can -claim. For even the cyclic sonata form of Franck is -but a modification of the academic type, and was foreshadowed -by Beethoven and Schumann. The vast evolution -of structural freedom, the infinite ramifications -of subtle and dramatic program-music, and the resultant -additions of the most stimulating character to modern -musical literature rest upon the courageous initiative -of Liszt. In France, Saint-Saëns' pioneer examples, -though somewhat slight in substance, prepared the way -for César Franck's <em>Les Éolides</em> and <em>Le Chasseur maudit</em>, -Duparc's <em>Lénore</em>, d'Indy's <em>La forêt enchantée</em>, the programmistic -<em>Istar</em> variations, <em>Jour d'été à la Montagne</em>, -Dukas' <em>L'Apprenti-sorcier</em>, Debussy's <em>Prélude à l'Après-midi -d'un faune</em> and the Nocturnes (programmistic if -impressionistic), Florent Schmitts' <em>Tragédie de Salomé</em>, -and Roussel's <em>Evocations</em>. In Germany, Richard -Strauss' epoch-making series of tone-poems, from <em>Macbeth</em> -to <em>Also sprach Zarathustra</em>, combine descriptive -aptitude and orchestral brilliance with a masterly -manipulation of formal elements. Weingartner's <em>Die -Gefilde der Seligen</em> and Reger's Böcklin symphonic -poems may be added to the list. In Russia, Balakireff's -<em>Thamar</em>, Borodine's 'Sketch from Central Asia,' Rimsky-Korsakoff's -<em>Scheherezade</em> (although a suite), Glazounoff's -<em>Stenka Razine</em> and other less vital works, -Rachmaninoff's 'Isle of the Dead,' Scriabine's 'Poem of -Ecstasy' and 'Poem of Fire' mark the path of evolution. -Smetana's series of six symphonic poems entitled 'My -Home' result directly from the stimulus of Liszt. In -Finland, Sibelius' tone-poems on national legendary -subjects take a high rank for their poetic and dramatic -qualities. If in England, Bantock's 'Dante and Beatrice,' -'Fifine at the Fair' and other works, Holbrooke's -'Queen Mab,' Wallace's 'François Villon,' Delius' 'Paris' -and Elgar's 'Falstaff' exhibit differing degrees of merit, -the example of Liszt is still inspiriting. Moreover, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span> -Lisztian treatment of the orchestra, emphasizing as it -does a felicitous employment of instruments of percussion, -has proved a remarkable liberating force, especially -in Russia and France. Liszt's piano idiom has -been assimilated even more widely than in the case of -the symphonic poem and orchestral style. Smetana, -Saint-Saëns, Balakireff, and Liapounoff occur at once -as salient instances.</p> - -<p>The contributory reaction of Berlioz and Chopin -upon modern music has been relatively less direct, if -still apparent. It was exerted first in fertile suggestions -to Wagner and Liszt at a susceptible and formative -stage in their careers. Both have played some part in -the awakening of Russian musical consciousness, Berlioz -through his revolutionary orchestral style and -programmistic audacity, Chopin through his insinuating -pianistic idiom, which we find strongly reflected in -the earlier works of Scriabine. Some heritage of Berlioz -can undoubtedly be traced in the music of Gustav -Mahler, although expressed in a speech quite alien to -that of the French pioneer of realism.</p> - -<p>It may be remarked in passing that the influence of -Brahms has been intensive rather than expansive. This -statement is entirely compatible with a just appraisal of -the worth and profundity of his music, nor can it in -any way be interpreted as a detraction of his unassailable -position. But in consideration of the absence of -the coloristic and extreme subjective elements in -Brahms' style, and in view of its conserving and reactionary -force, the great symphonist cannot be regarded -as specifically modernistic. Still, with his extraordinary -cohesiveness of form and vital rhythmic -progress, both in symphonic writing, chamber music -and piano pieces, Brahms has affected Reger, Weingartner -and Max Bruch in Germany, but also Glazounoff, -Rachmaninoff, Medtner, Parry, and others outside -of it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p> - -<p>With the four symphonies of Brahms the long evolution -of the classic form in Germany has apparently -come to an end with an involuntary recognition that -little more could be attained upon conventional lines. -The symphonies of Bruckner emphasize this realization. -Following in Wagner's orchestral footsteps, both -their structure and their ideas are of unequal value, in -which separate movements not infrequently rise to -sublimity of expression and dramatic fervor. While -opinion is still divided as to the merit of Mahler's ten -symphonies, they represent isolated instances of powerfully -conceived and tenaciously executed works -whose orchestral eloquence is in singularly apt conformity -with their substance. After a precocious and -conservative symphony, composed at the age of nineteen, -which pleased Brahms, Richard Strauss waited -twenty years before attempting in the <em>Symphonia Domestica</em> -so elastic a form as almost to escape classification -in this type. Despite much foolish controversy -over the programmistic features of this work, its brilliant -musical substance, its fundamental and logical -coherence, and the remarkable plastic coördination of -its themes constitute it a unique experiment in free -symphonic structure. In France, the symphony has -evolved a type somewhat apart from the Teutonic -example, although an outcome of it, namely, the -cyclical, in which its themes are derived from generative -phrases. After three innocuous specimens (one -unpublished) Saint-Saëns' third symphony shows many -of the attributes of classicality. César Franck's symphony -in D minor embodies most of his best qualities, -together with much structural originality. Lalo's more -fragile work in G minor displays a workmanship and -individuality which entitles it to record. Chausson's -Symphony in B-flat, despite its kinship with Franck, -possesses a significance quite beyond its actual recognition. -D'Indy, after composing an excellent cyclic work<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span> -upon a French folk-song, produced his instrumental -masterpiece with a second in B-flat, which for logical -structure and fusion of classic elements with modernistic -sentiment deserves to be classed as one of the -finest of its time. If Russian symphony composers -have not as a whole reached as high a mark as in the -freer and more imaginative forms, nevertheless Rimsky-Korsakoff, -Borodine, Balakireff, Glazounoff, Rachmaninoff, -and Taneieff have displayed sympathy with -classic ideals, and have achieved excellent if not surpassing -results within these limits. The symphonies of -Parry, Cowen and others in England have enlarged -little upon the conventional scope. Elgar raised high -hopes with his first symphony in A-flat, but speedily dismissed -them with his second in E-flat. Sibelius, in Finland, -having given proof of his uncommon creative -force and delineative imagination in his tone-poems, -has also exhibited unusual originality and vitality in -his four symphonies. The last of these virtually departs -from a genuine symphonic form, but its novelty alike in -ideas and treatment suggests that he, too, demands -greater elasticity of resource. For the problem of combining -the native style and technical requirements of -the symphony with modern sentiment is one of increasing -difficulty.</p> - -<p>The field of piano music, chamber works, songs and -choral works is of too wide a range for detailed indication -of achievement. The piano music of Balakireff, -Liapounoff, Rachmaninoff, Scriabine, of Grieg, of -Franck, Debussy, Dukas, and Ravel, of Cyril Scott and -others merits a high place. The chamber music of -Smetana, Dvořák, Grieg (despite its shortcomings), -Franck, d'Indy, Fauré, Ravel, of Wolf, Strauss and -Reger deserves an equal record. The songs of Wolf -and Strauss, of Duparc, Fauré and Debussy, of Moussorgsky, -of Sibelius; the choral works of Franck, d'Indy, -Pierné, Schmitt, of Delius, Bantock, Elgar and other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span> -Englishmen are conspicuous for technical and expressive -mastery.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>Apart from the general assimilation of the innovating -features due to Wagner and Liszt, the most striking -factor in musical evolution of the late nineteenth and -twentieth centuries has been the rise of nationalistic -schools of composition. These have deliberately cultivated -the use of native folk-song and dance-rhythms, -and in the case of operas and symphonic poems have -frequently drawn upon national legend for subjects. -One of the earliest of these groups was the Bohemian, -whose leader, Smetana, already mentioned in connection -with the symphonic poem, chamber and piano -music, also won a distinguished place by his vivacious -comic opera 'The Bartered Bride,' known abroad chiefly -by its inimitable overture. If Dvořák promised to be a -worthy disciple of a greatly talented pioneer, his abilities -were diffused by falling a victim to commissions -from English choral societies, and in endeavoring to -emulate Brahms. In reality he was most significant -when unconscious, as in the Slavic Dances and his naïve -and charming Suite, op. 39, although his symphony -'From the New World' and certain chamber works -based upon negro themes are as enduring as anything -he composed. Hampered by a truly Schubertian lack -of self-criticism, his path toward oblivion has been hastened -by this fatal defect, although his national flavor -and piquant orchestral color deserve a juster fate.</p> - -<p>In the Scandinavian countries Grieg, and, to a lesser -degree, Nordraak, as well as Svendsen and Sinding -tempered nationality with German culture. Grieg, the -more dominant personality, was a born poet, and imparted -a truly national fervor to his songs and piano -pieces. In the sonata form he was pathetically inept, -despite the former popularity of his chamber works and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</span> -piano concerto. Certain mannerisms in abuse of sequence, -and a too persistent cultivation of small forms, -have caused his works to lose ground rapidly; nevertheless -Grieg has given a poetic and nationalistic savor -to his best music that makes it impossible to overlook -its value.</p> - -<p>A coterie of accomplished and versatile musicians -which yields to none for intrinsic charm, vitality, and -poetic spontaneity is that of the so-called Neo-Russians, -self-styled 'the Invincible Band.' Resenting Rubinstein's -almost total surrender to Teutonic standards, -and scorning Tschaikowsky as representing a pitiable -compromise between Russian and German standpoints, -they revolted against conventional technique with as -great pertinacity as did Galileo, Peri, Caccini, and -Monteverdi in the late sixteenth century. Their æsthetic -foster-father, Balakireff, for a time dominated the -studies and even supervised the composition of the -members—Borodine, Cui, Moussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakoff. -Ultimately, each followed his own path, -though not without a certain community of ideal. Aiming -to continue the work of Glinka and Dargomijsky, -both in opera and instrumental music, they wished to -use folk-songs for themes and to utilize national legends -or fairy stories. But they could not resist the -alien form of the symphonic poem, and with it the -orchestra of Liszt, and, while they opposed the Wagnerian -dramatic forms, one at least, Rimsky-Korsakoff, -could not withstand the palpable advantages of the -Wagnerian orchestra. Their works combined the elements -of western and oriental Russia, adhered largely -to folk-song or elements of its style, and in the opera -embodied folk-dances, semi-Pagan worship and ceremonial -with striking nationalistic effect. Many of their -orchestral pieces have taken place in the international -repertory of orchestras; of the operas a smaller number -have penetrated to European theatres. While the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</span> -nationalistic operas of Rimsky-Korsakoff are little -known beyond Russia, they show his talent in a broadly -humanistic and epic standpoint, hardly hinted at in -his orchestral works. Moussorgsky's <em>Boris Godounoff</em>, -one of the finest operas since Wagner, claims attention -from the fact that it attains dramatic vitality -from a standpoint diametrically opposed to Wagner. -The influence of <em>Boris Godounoff</em> is palpable as forming -the subtle dramatic idiom of <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em>.</p> - -<p>Glazounoff, Taneieff, and Glière represent the cosmopolitan -element among Russian composers of to-day. -Of these Glazounoff is the most notable. His -early symphonic poem, <em>Stenka Razine</em>, gave promise -of an original and brilliant career, but instead he has -become steadily more reactionary. Among his eight -symphonies there is scarcely one that is preëminent -from beginning to end. His ballets, <em>Raymonda</em>, 'The -Seasons,' and 'Love's Ruses,' have been surpassed by -younger men. His violin concerto is among his most -able works. A master of technique and structure and -a remarkably erudite figure, his lack of progressiveness -has been against him. A younger composer, Tcherepnine, -is known for his skillful ballets, 'Narcissus,' 'Pan -and Echo,' and 'The Pavilion of Armida,' which incline, -nevertheless, towards the conventional. Rachmaninoff -is also of reactionary tendencies, although his piano -concertos and his fine symphonic poem, 'The Isle of -the Dead,' have shown his distinction.</p> - -<p>The rise of the modern French school, largely owing -to a patriotic reaction after the Franco-Prussian war -and the liberal policies of the National Society, has -brought about one of the most fertile movements in -modern music. The transition from the operas of -Gounod, Thomas, Bizet, and the early Massenet to those -of Chabrier, Lalo, d'Indy, Bruneau, Charpentier, Debussy, -Dukas, Ravel, and Fauré is remarkable for its -concentrated progress in dramatic truthfulness. Similarly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</span> -beginning with the eclectic and facile Saint-Saëns, -the more romantic and fearless Lalo, and the -mystic Franck, through the audacious Chabrier and -the suave and poetic Fauré, including the serious and -devoted followers of Franck, d'Indy, Duparc, de Castillon, -Chausson, and Lekeu, the versatile Dukas, to -the epoch-making Debussy with the younger men -like Ravel, Schmitt and Roussel, French instrumental -music has developed, on the one hand, a fervently -classic spirit despite its modernism and, on -the other, an impressionistic exoticism which is without -parallel in modern music. Aside from a vitally new -harmonic idiom, which in Debussy reaches its greatest -originality despite d'Indy, Fauré, and the later developments -of Ravel, the attainment of racially distinct -dramatic style in such works as Debussy's <em>Pelléas et -Mélisande</em>, Dukas' <em>Ariane et Barbe-bleue</em>, Ravel's -<em>L'Heure espagnole</em>, and Fauré's <em>Pénélope</em> is one of -the crowning achievements of this group. Furthermore, -following the examples of the younger Russians, -the ballets of <em>Jeux</em> and <em>Khamma</em> by Debussy, <em>La Péri</em> -by Dukas, <em>La Tragédie de Salomé</em> by Florent Schmitt, -<em>Le Festin de l'Arraignée</em> by Roussel, <em>Orphée</em> by Roger-Ducasse, -and, most significant of all, <em>Daphnis et Chloé</em> -by Maurice Ravel, have given a remarkable impetus -to a genuine choreographic revival.</p> - -<p>There has been no nationalistic development in England -comparable to that in other countries, although -there has been no lack of serious and sustained effort -to be both modern and individual. The most important -of British composers is undoubtedly Elgar, who has attained -something like independence with his brilliant -and well-made orchestral works, and more especially -for his oratorio 'The Dream of Gerontius.' If Elgar -only carried on further a systematized use of the leading -motive as suggested by Liszt in his oratorios, it was -done with a dramatic resource and eloquence which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</span> -made the method his own. Bantock, gifted with an -orchestral perception above the average, showing a -natural aptitude for exoticism, achieved a successful -fusion of eclectic elements with individuality in his -three-part setting of the Rubaîyat of Omar Khayyám. -Other choral works and orchestral pieces have met -with a more uncertain reception. William Wallace has -been conspicuous for his imaginative symphonic -poems, and the insight of his essays on music. Frederick -Delius, partly German, has maintained a personal -and somewhat detached individuality in orchestral, -choral and dramatic works of distinctive value. -Josef Holbrooke has been mentioned already for his -unusual mastery of orchestral technique, and his courageous -and ambitious attempts in opera. Many -younger composers are striving to be personal and independent, -though involuntarily affected by one or another -of existent currents in modern music. Of these -Cyril Scott attempts a praiseworthy modernistic and -impressionistic sentiment, in which he leans heavily on -Debussy's harmonic innovations. Thus, while English -composers have been active, they have fallen to the -ready temptations of eclecticism, a growing force in -music of to-day, and in consequence their art has not -the same measure of nationalistic import as in Russia, -France, and Germany.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>In the meantime, as the musical world has moved -forward in respect to structure from the symphony to -the symphonic poem, followed by its logical sequence -the tone-poem, in which the elements of various forms -have been incorporated, so has there been progress -and even revolution in the technical material of music -itself. Dargomijsky was probably the pioneer in using -the whole-tone scale, as may be seen in the third act -of his opera 'The Stone Guest,' composed in 1869.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</span> -Rimsky-Korsakoff elaborated on his foundation as early -as 1880 in his opera <em>Sniégourutchka</em>. Moussorgsky -showed unusually individual harmonic tendencies, as -the first edition of <em>Boris Godounoff</em> before the revisions -and alterations by Rimsky-Korsakoff clearly demonstrate. -After casual experiments by Chabrier, d'Indy, -and Fauré, Debussy founded an original harmonic system, -in which modified modal harmony, a remarkable -extension of whole-tone scale chords, the free use of -ninths, elevenths and thirteenths are the chief ingredients. -Dukas has imitated Debussy to some extent, -Ravel owes much to him; both have developed independently, -Ravel in particular has approached if not -crossed the boundaries of poly-harmony. Scriabine, -following the natural harmonic heritage of the Russians, -has evolved an idiom of his own possessing considerable -novelty but disfigured by monotony, in that -it consists chiefly of transpositions of the thirteenth-chord -with the alteration of various constituent intervals. -What he might not have accomplished can only -be conjectured, since his career has been terminated -by his sudden death. Although Richard Strauss has -greatly enlarged modern harmonic resource, his results -must be regarded on the whole as a by-product -of his contrapuntal virtuosity. In his treatise on harmony -Schönberg refers to his 'discovery' of the whole-tone -scale long after both Russians and French had -used it, but it is noteworthy that Schönberg arrived at -the conception of this scale and its chords with an absolute -and unplagiaristic independence.</p> - -<p>The most recent developments affecting the technical -character of music are poly-harmony, or simultaneous -use of chords in different keys, and free dissonant -counterpoint. Striking instances of the former type -of anarchic experiment may be found in the music -of Igor Stravinsky, whose reputation has been made -by the fantastic imagination and the dramatic sincerity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxi">[Pg xxi]</span> -of his ballets 'The Bird of Fire,' <em>Petrouchka</em>, 'The Ceremonial -of Spring,' and 'The Nightingale.' In these he -has mingled Russian and French elements, fusing them -into a highly personal and extremely dissonant style, -which in its pungent freedom and ingenious mosaic of -tonalities is both highly diverting and poignantly expressive. -Stravinsky is one of the most daring innovators -of to-day, and both his dramatic vitality and the -audacity of his musical conceptions mark him as a -notable figure from whom much may be expected.</p> - -<p>If Maurice Ravel, as shown in his ballet <em>Daphnis et -Chloé</em>, was a pioneer in poly-harmony, Alfred Casella, -of Italian parentage but of French education, has gone -considerably further. Similar tendencies may be found -in the music of Bartók, Kodály and other Hungarians.</p> - -<p>It seemed formerly that Strauss had pushed the dissonant -contrapuntal style as far as it could go, but his -style is virtually conventional beside that of the later -Schönberg. Schönberg has already passed through -several evolutionary stages, but his mature idiom abjures -tonality to an incredible extent, and he forces the -procedures of free counterpoint to such audacious disregard -of even unconventional euphony that few can -compass his musical message. Time may prove, however, -that tonality is a needless convention, and it is -possible to declare that there is nothing illogical in his -contrapuntal system. It lies in the extravagant extension -of principles of dissonance which have already -been accepted. It is indubitable that Schönberg succeeds -in expressing moods previously unknown to musical -literature, and it is conceivable that music may -encompass unheard-of developments in this direction, -just as poly-harmony has already proved extremely -fruitful.</p> - -<p>The developments of poly-harmony and dissonant -contrapuntal style prophesy the near inadequacy of -our present musical scale. Busoni and others have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxii">[Pg xxii]</span> -long since advocated a piano in which the sharps and -flats should have separate keys. As music advanced -from the modes to the major and minor keys, and -finally to the chromatic scale, so the necessity for a -new scale may constitute logically the next momentous -problem in musical art.</p> - -<p>Within recent years, the barriers of nationalism have -become relaxed. An almost involuntary interchange of -idioms has caused music to take on an international -character despite a certain maintenance of racial traits. -Eclecticism is becoming to a certain extent universal. -Achievement is too easily communicable from one -country to another. In some respects music was more -interesting when it was more parochial. To prophesy -that music is near to anarchy is to convict one's self of -approaching senility, for the ferment of the revolutionary -element has always existed in art. Since the -time of Wagner and Liszt, however, musical development -has proceeded with such extreme rapidity as to -endanger the endurance of our traditional material. -Poly-harmony, dissonant counterpoint and the agitation -for a new scale are suspicious indications. Disregarding -the future, however, let us realize that the -diversity and complexity of modern music is enthralling, -and that most of us can readily endure it as it -now is for a little longer.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Edward Burlingame Hill.</span></p> - -<p>May, 1915.</p> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiii">[Pg xxiii]</span></p> -<p class="center p4 big1">CONTENTS OF VOLUME THREE</p> -</div> - -<table class="autotable" summary="tv3"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"><small>CHAPTER</small></td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Introduction by Edward Burlingame Hill</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">I.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">By- and After-Currents of the Romantic Movement</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Introductory; the term 'modern'—The 'old-romantic'<br /> -tradition and the 'New German' school—The followers of<br /> -Mendelssohn: Lachner, F. Hiller, Rietz, etc.; Carl Reinecke—Disciples<br /> -of Schumann: Robert Volkmann; Bargiel, Kirchner<br /> -and others; the Berlin circle; the musical genre artists:<br /> -Henselt, Heller, etc. (pianoforte); Jensen, Lassen, Abt, etc.<br /> -(song)—The comic opera and operetta: Lortzing, Johann<br /> -Strauss, etc.—French eclecticism in symphonic and operatic<br /> -composition: Massenet—Saint-Saëns, Lalo, Godard, etc.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">II.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Russian Romanticists</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Romantic Nationalism in Russian Music—Pathfinders;<br /> -Cavos and Verstovsky—Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka; Alexander<br /> -Sergeyevitch Dargomijsky—Neo-Romanticism in Russian<br /> -music; Anton Rubinstein—Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">III.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Music of Modern Scandinavia</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The rise of national schools in the nineteenth century—Growth<br /> -of national expression in Scandinavian lands—Music<br /> -in modern Denmark—Sweden and her music—The<br /> -Norwegian composers; Edvard Grieg—Sinding and other<br /> -Norwegians—The Finnish Renaissance: Sibelius and others.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Russian Nationalists</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The founders of the 'Neo-Russian' nationalistic school:<br /> -Balakireff; Borodine—Moussorgsky—Rimsky-Korsakoff, his<br /> -life and works—César Cui and other nationalists, Napravnik,<br /> -and others.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">V.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Music of Contemporary Russia</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The border nationalists; Alexander Glazounoff, Liadoff,<br /> -Liapounoff, etc.—The renaissance of Russian church music;<br /> -Kastalsky and Gretchaninoff—The new eclectics: Arensky,<br /> -Taneieff, Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, Glière, Rachmaninoff and others—Scriabine<br /> -and the radical foreign influence; Igor Stravinsky.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Musical Development in Bohemia and Hungary</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Characteristics of Czech music; Friedrich Smetana—Antonin<br /> -Dvořák—Zdenko Fibich and others; Joseph Suk and<br /> -Vitešlav Novák—Historical sketch of musical endeavor in<br /> -Hungary—Ödön Mihálovich, Count Zichy and Jenö Hubay—Dohnányi<br /> -and Moór; 'Young Hungary': Weiner, Béla Bartók<br /> -and others.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Post-Classical and Poetic Schools of Modern Germany</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The post-Beethovenian tendencies in the music of Germany<br /> -and their present-day significance; the problem of<br /> -modern symphonic form—The academic followers of<br /> -Brahms: Bruch and others—The modern 'poetic' school:<br /> -Richard Strauss as symphonic composer—Anton Bruckner,<br /> -his life and works—Gustav Mahler—Max Reger—Draeseke<br /> -and others.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">VIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">German Opera after Wagner and Modern German song</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The Wagnerian after-current: Cyrill Kistler; August<br /> -Bungert, Goldmark, etc.; Max Schillings, Eugen d'Albert—The<br /> -successful post-Wagnerians in the lighter genre: Götz,<br /> -Cornelius and Wolf; Engelbert Humperdinck and fairy<br /> -opera; Ludwig Thuille; Hans Pfitzner; the <em>Volksoper</em>—Richard<br /> -Strauss as musical dramatist—Hugo Wolf and the<br /> -modern song; other contemporary German lyricists—The<br /> -younger men: Klose, Hausegger, Schönberg, Korngold.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">IX.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Followers of César Franck</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The foundations of modern French nationalism: Berlioz;<br /> -the operatic masters: Saint-Saëns, Lalo, Franck, etc.;<br /> -conditions favoring native art development—The pioneers<br /> -of ultra-modernism: Emanuel Chabrier and Gabriel Fauré—Vincent<br /> -d'Indy: his instrumental and his dramatic<br /> -works—Other pupils of Franck: Ernest Chausson; Henri<br /> -Duparc; Alexis de Castillon; Guy Ropartz.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">X.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Debussy and the Ultra-Modernists</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Impressionism in Music—Claude Debussy, the pioneer<br /> -of the 'atmospheric' school; his career, his works and his<br /> -influence—Maurice Ravel, his life and work—Alfred<br /> -Bruneau; Gustave Charpentier—Paul Dukas—Miscellany;<br /> -Albert Roussel and Florent Schmitt.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">XI.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Operatic Sequel to Verdi</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">The musical traditions of modern Italy—Verdi's heirs:<br /> -Boito, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Puccini, Wolf-Ferrari, Franchetti,<br /> -Giordano, Orefice, Mancinelli—New paths; Montemezzi,<br /> -Zandonai and de Sabbata.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">XII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Renaissance of Instrumental Music in Italy</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_385">385</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Martucci and Sgambati—The symphonic composers:<br /> -Zandonai, de Sabbata, Alfano, Marinuzzi, Sinigaglia, Mancinelli,<br /> -Floridia; the piano and violin composers: Franco<br /> -da Venezia, Paolo Frontini, Mario Tarenghi; Rosario Scalero,<br /> -Leone Sinigaglia; composers for the organ—The song<br /> -writers: art songs; ballads.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2em;">XIII.</td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The English Musical Renaissance</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_409">409</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl">Social considerations; analogy between English and<br /> -American conditions—The German influence and its results:<br /> -Sterndale Bennett and others; the first group of independents:<br /> -Sullivan, Mackenzie, Parry, Goring Thomas,<br /> -Cowen, Stanford and Elgar—The second group: Delius and<br /> -Bantock; McCunn and German; Smyth, Davies, Wallace<br /> -and others, D. F. Tovey; musico-literary workers, musical<br /> -comedy writers—The third group: Vaughan Williams, Coleridge-Taylor<br /> -and W. Y. Hurlstone; Holbrooke, Grainger,<br /> -Scott, etc.; Frank Bridge and others; organ music, chamber<br /> -music, songs.</td> -<td class="tdl"></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Literature for Vols. I, II and III</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Index for Vols. I, II and III</span></td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxv">[Pg xxv]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxvii">[Pg xxvii]</span></p> -<p class="center p4 big1">ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME THREE</p> -</div> - - - -<table class="autotable" summary=""> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">The Garden Concert; painting by Watteau (in colors)</td> -<td class="tdr"><em>Frontispiece</em></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl"></td> -<td class="tdr"><span style="padding-right: 1em;"><small>FACING</small></span><br /> -<span style="padding-right: 1.5em;"><small>PAGE</small></span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">French Eclectics (Lalo, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Godard)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_30">30</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Russian Romanticists (Glinka, Dargomijsky, Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_48">48</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Edvard Grieg</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_90">90</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Jean Sibelius</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_104">104</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Neo-Russian Composers (Moussorgsky, Balakireff, Borodine, Rimsky-Korsakoff)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_122">122</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Contemporary Russian Composers (Rachmaninoff, Glazounoff, Rebikoff, Glière)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_150">150</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Bohemian Composers (Smetana, Dvořák, Fibich, Suk)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_178">178</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Hungarian Composers (Count Zichy, Jenö Hubay, Dohnányi, Moór)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_192">192</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Modern German Symphonic and Lyric Composers (Mahler, Bruckner, Draeseke, Wolf)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_202">202</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Richard Strauss</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_214">214</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Max Reger</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_226">226</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Modern German Musical Dramatists (Humperdinck, Thuille, Pfitzner, Goldmark)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_246">246</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Modern French Composers (Chabrier, d'Indy, Charpentier, Ravel)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_298">298</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Claude Debussy</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_334">334</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Contemporary Italian Composers (Mascagni, Wolf-Ferrari, Puccini, Zandonai)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_372">372</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdl">Modern British Composers (Bantock, Sullivan, Parry, Elgar)</td> -<td class="tdr" style="padding-right: 2.5em;"><a href="#Page_424">424</a> </td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxix">[Pg xxix]</span></p> - - - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xxx">[Pg xxx]</span></p> -<p class="center p6 big3 p6b">MODERN MUSIC</p> -</div> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER I<br /> -<small>BY- AND AFTER-CURRENTS OF THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Introductory; the term 'modern'—The 'old-romantic' tradition and the -'New German' school—The followers of Mendelssohn: Lachner, F. Hiller, -Rietz, etc.; Carl Reinecke—Disciples of Schumann: Robert Volkmann; Bargiel, -Kirchner and others; the Berlin circle; the musical <em>genre</em> artists: -Henselt, Heller, etc. (pianoforte); Jensen, Lassen, Abt, etc. (song)—The -comic opera and operetta: Lortzing, Johann Strauss, and others—French -eclecticism in symphonic and operatic composition: Massenet—Saint-Saëns, -Lalo, Godard, etc.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p2">The term 'Modern Music,' which forms the title of this -volume, is subject to several interpretations. Just as in -the preceding volume we were obliged to qualify our -use of the words 'classic' and 'romantic,' partly because -all such nomenclature is more or less arbitrary, partly -because of the fusion of styles and dove-tailing of periods -which may be observed in the history of any art, -so it now becomes necessary to define the word 'modern' -in its present application.</p> - -<p>Now 'modern' may mean merely <em>new</em> or <em>up-to-date</em>. -And in that sense it may indicate any degree of newness: -it may include the last twenty-five years or the -last century, or it may be made to apply to contemporaneous -works only. But in another sense—that generally -accepted in connection with music—it means 'advanced,' -progressive, or unprecedented in any other -period. Here, too, we may understand varying degrees -of modernity. The devotees of the most recent development, -impatient of the usual broad application of the -term, have dubbed their school the 'futurist.' In fact, -any of these characterizations, whether in a time sense<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span> -or a quality sense, are merely relative. Wagner's disciples, -disdainful of the romanticists, called his music -the 'music of the future.' Now, alas, critics classify -him as a romantic composer! Bach, on the other hand, -long popularly regarded as an archaic bugaboo, is -now frequently characterized as a veritable modern. -'How modern that is!' we exclaim time and again, while -listening to an organ toccata or fugue arranged by -Busoni! Beethoven, the great classic, is in his later -period certainly more 'modern' than many a romanticist—Mendelssohn, -for instance, or even Berlioz—though -only in a harmonic sense, for he had not the command -of orchestral color that the great and turbulent Frenchmen -made accessible to the world.</p> - -<p>The newness of the music is thus seen to have little -to do with its modernity. Even the word 'contemporary' -gives us no definite clue, for there are men living -to-day—like Saint-Saëns—whose music is hardly modern -when compared to that of a Wolf, dead these -twelve years, or his own late countrymen Chabrier and -Fauré—not to speak of the recently departed Scriabine -with his <em>clavier à lumière</em>.</p> - -<p>But it is quite impossible to include in such a volume -as this only the true moderns—in the æsthetic sense. -We should have to go back to Beethoven with his -famous chord comprising every degree of the diatonic -scale (in the Ninth Symphony), or at least to Chopin, -according to one interpretation. According to another -we should have to exclude Brahms and all his neo-classical -followers who content themselves with composing -in the time-honored forms. (Since there will -always be composers who prefer to devote themselves -to the preservation and continuation of formal tradition, -this 'classical' drift will, as Walter Niemann remarks, -be a 'modernism' of all times.) Brahms has, as -a matter of fact, been disposed of in the preceding volume, -but the inclusion in the present volume of men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> -like Volkmann, Lachner, etc., some of whom were born -long before Brahms, calls for an apology. It is merely -a matter of convenience, just as the treatment of men -like Glinka and Gade in connection with the nationalistic -developments of the later nineteenth century is -merely an expedient. Such chronological liberties are -the historian's license. We have, to conclude, simply -taken the word modern in its widest and loosest sense, -both as regards time and quality, and we shall let the -text explain to what degree a composer justifies his -position in the volume. We may say at the outset that -all the men reviewed in the present chapter would -have been included in Volume II but for lack of space.</p> - -<p>In Volume II the two great movements known as the -classic and the romantic have been fairly brought to a -close. Brahms and Franck on the one side, Wagner -and Liszt on the other, may be considered to have concluded -the romantic period as definitely as Beethoven -concluded the classic. Like him, too, they not only surveyed -but staked out the path of the future. But no -great art movement is ever fully concluded. (It has -been said by æsthetic philosophers that we are still in -the era of the Renaissance.) Just as in the days of Beethoven -there lived the Cherubinis, the Clementis, the -Schuberts (as regards the symphony at least) who trod -in the great man's footsteps or explored important by-paths, -in some respects supplemented and completed -his work; so there are by- and after-currents of the -Romantic Movement which also cannot be ignored. -They are represented by men like Lachner, Ferdinand -Hiller, Reinecke and Volkmann in Germany; by Saint-Saëns, -Massenet and Lalo in France; Gade in Denmark.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -Some of their analogous predecessors have all -but passed from memory, perhaps their own works -will soon disappear from the current répertoire. Especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -in the case of the Germans (whose country has -certainly suffered the strain of over-cultivation and -over-production, and which has produced in this age -the particular brand known as 'kapellmeister music') -is this likely. But it must be borne in mind that these -composers had command of technical resources far beyond -the ken of their elder brothers; also that, by virtue -of the more subjective qualities characteristic of the -music of their period, as well as the vastly broadened -musical culture of this later day, they were able to -appeal more readily to a very wide audience.</p> - - -<p>The historical value of these men lies in their exploitation -of these same technical resources. They thoroughly -grasped the formulæ of their models; what the -pioneers had to hew out by force, these followers acquired -with ease. They worked diligently within these -limits, exhausting the possibilities of the prescribed -area and proving the ground, so to speak, so that newcomers -might tread upon it with confidence. They -were not as uncompromising, perhaps, as the pioneers -and high-priests themselves and therefore fused styles -that others thought irreconcilable. What seemed iconoclastic -became commonplace in their hands. Thus -their eclecticism opened the way for new originalities; -their very conservatism induced progress.</p> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>Germany, it will be remembered, was, during Wagner's -lifetime, divided into two camps: the classic-romantic -Mendelssohn-Schumann school which later -rallied about the person of Brahms, on the one hand, -and the Wagner-Liszt, sometimes called the late-romantic -or 'New German' school, on the other. The adherents -of the former are those whom we have called the -poets, the latter the painters, in music; terms applying -rather to the manner than to the matter, since the -'painters,' for another reason—namely, because they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -believed that a poetic idea should form the basis of the -music and determine its forms—might with equal rights -call themselves 'poets.' And, indeed, their followers, -the 'New Germans,' among whom we reckon Mahler -and Strauss, constitute what in a later chapter we have -called the 'poetic' school of contemporary Germany.</p> - -<p>Few musicians accepted Wagner's gospel in his lifetime. -Raff and other Liszt disciples, the Weimar group, -in other words, were virtually the only ones. A host, -however, worshipped the names of Mendelssohn and -Schumann. They gathered in Leipzig, their citadel, -where Mendelssohn reorganized the Gewandhaus concerts -in 1835,<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and founded the Royal Conservatory in -1843, and in the Rhine cities, where Schumann's influence -was greatest. These men flourished during the -very time that Wagner was the great question of the -day. While preaching the gospel of romanticism, they -also upheld the great classic traditions. The advent of -Brahms, indeed, brought a revival of pure classic feeling. -This persists even to-day in the works of men -whose romantic inspirations, akin to Mendelssohn, -Schumann, and Chopin, find expression in forms of -classic cast.</p> - -<p>Both Schumann and Wagner were reformers interested -in the broadening of musical culture, the improvement -of taste, and the establishment of a standard of -artistic propriety—Wagner on the stage, Schumann in -the concert room. The former was successful, the latter -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span>only partially so. For, while the standards of the concert -room are much higher to-day than they were in -Schumann's day, musical taste in the home, which -should be guided by these standards, has, if anything, -deteriorated. The reason for this lies primarily in one -of the inevitable developments of musical romanticism -itself—the <em>genre</em> tendency; secondarily, in the fact that, -while the Wagnerians were propagandists, writers of -copious polemics and agitators, the classic romanticists -were purely professional musicians who disdained to -write, preferring deeds to words (and incidentally doing -far too much), or else, like Hiller, were <em>feuilletonists</em>, -pleasant gossips about their art and nothing more.</p> - -<p>The development of the small forms, the miniature, -the <em>genre</em> in short, and the corresponding decay of the -larger forms was perhaps the most outstanding result of -the romantic movement. Wagner alone, the dramatic -romanticist, continued to paint large canvases, frescoes -in vivid colors. The 'poetic' romanticists were of a lyric -turn, and required compact and intimate forms of expression. -They had created the song, they had built -up a new piano literature out of small pieces, miniatures -like Schubert's 'Musical Moments,' Schumann's -'Fantasy Pieces,' Mendelssohn's 'Songs without Words,' -Field's 'Nocturnes,' Chopin's Dances, Preludes, and -Études. Franz, Jensen, Lassen, and others continued -the song; Brahms, with his <em>Intermezzi</em>; Henselt, Heller, -and Kirchner, with his piano miniatures, the piano -piece. The first degenerated into Abt, Curschmann, and -worse, the second into the type of thing of which 'The -Last Hope' and 'The Maiden's Prayer' were the ultimate -manifestations. Sentiment ran over in small gushes -and drippings, even the piano study was made the vehicle -for a sigh. The sonata of a former day became a -sonatina or an 'impromptu' of one kind or another.</p> - -<p>The parallel thing now happened in other fields. -The concert overture of Mendelssohn had in a measure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -displaced the symphony. What has been called the -'<em>genre</em> symphony' of Mendelssohn, Schumann, <em>et al.</em> -was also in the direction of minimization. Even Brahms -in his gigantic works emphasizes the tendency by the -intermezzo character of his slow movements, by the -orchestral filigree partaking of the chamber music -style. Now came the revival of the orchestral suite by -Lachner and Raff, the sinfonietta, and the serenade for -small orchestra. Again we sense the same trend in the -appearance of the choral ballad and in the tremendous -output of small dramatic cantatas for mixed or men's -voices.</p> - -<p>In France, instrumental literature during the nineteenth -century had been largely tributary to that of -Germany, just as its opera earlier in the century was -of Italian stock. But the development of the 'grand' -opera of Meyerbeer, on the one hand, and the <em>opéra -comique</em>, on the other, had produced a truly Gallic form -of expression, of which the romanticism of the century -made use. Gounod and his colleagues of the lyric -drama; Bizet, the genius of his generation, with his -sparkling rhythms, his fine tunes and his orchestral -freshness; Délibes and David with their oriental color, -compounded a new French idiom which already found -a quasi-symphonic expression in the <em>L'Arlésienne</em> suites -of Bizet. Berlioz stands as a colossus among his generation -and to this day has perhaps not been quite assimilated -by his countrymen. The Germans have -profited from his orchestral reforms at least as much as -the French. But he gave the one tremendous impetus -to symphonic composition, stimulated interest in Beethoven -and Weber and so pointed the way for his -younger compatriots. Already <em>he</em> speaks of Saint-Saëns -as an accomplished musician.</p> - -<p>Saint-Saëns is, indeed, the next great exponent of the -classic tradition as well as the earliest disciple of the -late romantic school of Liszt and Wagner in France.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -Beside him, Massenet, no less great as technician, forms -the transition to modernism on the operatic side, while -Lalo and Godard devote themselves to both departments. -César Franck, the Belgian, stands aloof in his -ascetic isolation as the real creator of the modern -French idiom.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>We shall now consider some of these 'transition' composers -in detail; first the Germans, then the French.</p> - -<p>Certain attributes they all have in common. Most of -them lived long and prospered, enjoying a wide influence -or popularity in their day; Lachner and Reinecke -both came near to ninety; Volkmann near eighty; Saint-Saëns -is still hale at eighty. All of them were highly -productive: Hiller, Reinecke, Raff, and Lachner surpassed -200 in their opus-numbers; Saint-Saëns has gone -well over a hundred; and Massenet has written no less -than twenty-three operas alone. Nearly all of them -were either virtuosos or conductors: Hiller, Reinecke, -Saint-Saëns, Bülow, Henselt, Heller were brilliant pianists; -Lachner, Saint-Saëns, and Widor also organists; -Godard a violinist. The first four of these were eminent -conductors. Most of them were pedagogues besides; -some, such as Reinecke, Hiller, Jadassohn, Rietz, -and Massenet, among the most eminent of their generation.</p> - -<p>Franz Lachner is the oldest of them. He was born, -1803, in Rain (Upper Bavaria), and died, 1890, in Munich. -Thus he came near filling out four-score and ten, -antedating Wagner by ten years and surviving him by -seven. His career came into actual collision with that -of the Bayreuth master too, since the latter's coming -to Munich as the favorite of the newly ascended King -Ludwig II forced Lachner from his autocratic position -as general musical director.</p> - -<p>Many forces must have reacted upon an artist whose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -life thus spans the ages. He was a friend of Schubert -in Vienna, where he became organist in 1824, and is -said to have found favor even with Beethoven. Sechter -and Abbé Stadler gave him the benefit of their learning. -After holding various conductor's posts in Vienna -and in Mannheim he finally found his way to Munich, -where he had already brought out his D minor symphony -with success. As court kapellmeister he conducted -the opera, the church performances of the royal -chapel choir and the concerts of the Academy, meanwhile -creating a long series of successful works, nearly -all of which exhibit his astounding contrapuntal skill. -His seven orchestral suites, a form which he and Raff revived, -occupy a special place in orchestral literature, -as a sort of direct continuation of Bach's and Händel's -instrumental works. They are veritable treasure stores -of contrapuntal art. Perhaps another generation will -appreciate them better; to-day they have fallen into -neglect. This is even more true of his eight symphonies, -four operas, two oratorios, etc. Of his chamber -music (piano quartets, string quartets, quintets, sextets, -nonet for wind, etc.), his piano pieces and songs, influenced -by Schubert, some few numbers have survived.</p> - -<p>Most prominent in Mendelssohn's immediate train is -Ferdinand Hiller. His junior only by two years (he -was born Oct. 24, 1811, in Frankfurt), he followed -closely in the footsteps of that master. Like him, he -came of Jewish and well-to-do parents; like him, he had -the advantage of an early training, a broad culture -and wide travel. A pupil of Hummel and a brilliant -pianist, he was presented to Beethoven in Vienna; in -Paris he hobnobbed with Cherubini, Rossini, Chopin, -Liszt, Meyerbeer and Berlioz, taught and concertized; -in Milan he produced an opera (<em>Romilda</em>) by the aid -of Rossini. Mendelssohn, already his friend, brought -out his oratorio 'Jerusalem Destroyed' at the Gewandhaus -in 1840, and in 1843-44 (after a sojourn in Rome)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -he himself directed the Gewandhaus concerts made famous -by Mendelssohn. Shortly after, he inaugurated a -series of subscription concerts in Dresden, also conducting -a chorus, and there brought out two operas -(<em>Traum in der Christnacht</em>, 1845, and <em>Konradin</em>, 1847). -Finally he did for Cologne what Mendelssohn had done -for Leipzig by organizing the conservatory and the Gewandhaus -concerts: he established the Cologne conservatory -(1850) and became conductor of the <em>Konzertgesellschaft</em> -and the <em>Konzertchor</em>, both of which participated -in the famous Gürzenich concerts and the -Rhenish music festivals. The eminence of his position -may be deduced from the fact that in 1851-52 he was -asked to direct the Italian opera in Paris. As teacher -and pianist he was no less renowned. For that reason -alone history cannot ignore him.</p> - -<p>As a composer Hiller illustrates what we have said -of the degeneration of the early romantic school into -musical <em>genre</em>, though as a contemporary of Mendelssohn -he must be reckoned as a by-rather than a post-romantic. -He commanded only the small forms, in -which, however, he displayed great technical finish, -polished grace and a 'clever pedantry.' In short piano -pieces, <em>Rêveries</em> (of which he wrote four series), impromptus, -rondos, marches, waltzes, variations, and -études he was especially happy. An F-sharp major -piano concerto, sonatas and suites, as well as his chamber -works (violin and 'cello sonatas, trios, quartets, -etc.), are grateful and pleasing in their impeccable -smoothness. But his six operas, two oratorios, three -symphonies and other large works have gone the way -of oblivion. His numerous overtures, cantatas, choral -ballads, vocal quartets, duets and songs stamp him as -a real, miniature-loving romantic. In productivity, too, -he remains true to the breed; his opus numbers exceed -two hundred. Hiller died in Cologne in 1885.</p> - -<p>Another friend of Mendelssohn was Julius Rietz<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -(1812-77), whose brother Eduard, the violinist, had -been the friend of the greater master's youth. He, too, -after conducting in Düsseldorf, came to the Leipzig -Gewandhaus as Gade's successor in 1848, took Mendelssohn's -place as municipal musical director and taught -at the conservatory until he became court kapellmeister -and head of the conservatory in Dresden. His editorial -work, the complete editions of the works of Bach, Händel, -Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Mozart, published -by the house of Breitkopf and Härtel, are important. -His compositions are wholly influenced by Mendelssohn.</p> - -<p>Among the few who actually had the benefit of Mendelssohn's -personal tuition is Richard Wüerst (1824-81), -whose activities were, however, centred in Berlin, -where he was musical director from 1874, royal -professor from 1877, and a member of the Academy. -His second symphony (op. 21) was prize-crowned in -Cologne and his cantata, <em>Der Wasserneck</em>, is a grateful -composition for mixed chorus. Several of his songs -also have become popular.</p> - -<p>Karl Reinecke is less exclusive in his influence. He -divides his allegiance at least equally between Mendelssohn -and Schumann. He is the example <em>par excellence</em> -of the professional musician, the cobbler who -sticks to his last. He did not, like Hiller, indulge in -literary chit-chat about his art, confining himself to -writings of pedagogical import. He learned his craft -from his father, an excellent musician and drill-master, -and never had to go outside his home for direct instruction. -Thus he became an accomplished pianist -(unrivalled at least in one department—Mozart), at -nineteen appeared as virtuoso in Sweden and Denmark, -and in 1846-48 was court pianist to King Christian VIII. -After spending some time in Paris he joined Hiller's -teaching staff in Cologne conservatory, then held conductor's -posts in Barmen and Breslau, and finally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -(1860) occupied Mendelssohn's place at the Gewandhaus -in Leipzig. There, when the new building was -dedicated in 1884, his bust in marble was placed beside -those of Mendelssohn and Schumann, and not till 1885 -was he dethroned from his seat of authority—with the -advent of Nikisch. At the conservatory, too, his activity -was continuous from 1860 on—as instructor in piano -and free composition. From 1897 to his retirement in -1902 he was director of studies.</p> - -<p>Reinecke was born in 1824 at Altona, near Hamburg, -and enjoyed the characteristic longevity of the 'transition' -composers, living well into the neighborhood of -ninety. In fecundity he surpasses even Hiller, for his -works number well-nigh three hundred. Besides Mendelssohnian -perfection, well-rounded classic form and -fine organization in workmanship, flavored with a -touch of Schumannesque subjectivity, Reinecke shows -traces of more advanced influences. The idioms of -Brahms and even the 'New Germans' crept into his -work as time went on. Of course, since Reinecke was -a famous pedagogue, his piano compositions (sonatas -for two and four hands, sonatinas, fantasy pieces, caprices, -and many other small forms) enjoyed a great -reputation as teaching material, which somewhat overshadowed -their undoubted intrinsic value as music. -His four piano concertos are no longer heard, nor are -those for violin, for 'cello, and for harp. But his chamber -music—the department where thorough musicianship -counts for most—is no doubt the most staple item -in his catalogue. There are a quintet, a quartet, seven -trios, besides three 'cello sonatas, four violin sonatas, -and a fantasy for violin and piano, also a sonata for -flute. His most popular and perhaps his best work are -the <em>Kinderlieder</em>, 'of classic importance in every sense, -easily understood by children and not without interest -for adults.'<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Again it is the miniature form that prevails.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -Similarly in the orchestral field, the overtures -(<em>Dame Kobold</em>, <em>Aladin</em>, <em>Friedensfeier</em>, <em>Festouvertüre</em>, -<em>In memoriam</em>) and the serenade for string orchestra -have outlasted the three symphonies, while the operas -('King Manfred,' 1867, three others, and the <em>singspiel</em> -'An Adventure of Händel'), as well as an oratorio, -masses, etc., have already faded from memory, though -the smaller choral works, with orchestra and otherwise -(including the Fairy Poems for women's voices and -the cycle <em>Von der Wiege bis zum Grabe</em>), still maintain -themselves in the repertoire of German societies.</p> - - -<p>Salomon Jadassohn (1831-1902) was still more of a -pedagogue and less of a composer. Yet he wrote copiously, -over one hundred works being published. It is -to be noted that he was a pupil of Liszt as well as -Moritz Hauptmann, but he gravitated to Leipzig and -lived there from 1852 on. He has a particular fondness -for the canon form and makes his chief mark in orchestral -and chamber music. But his teaching manuals -on harmony and counterpoint are his real monument.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>Undoubtedly the most important contemporary of -Brahms, following in tracks of Schumann, was Robert -Volkmann. His acquaintance with Schumann was the -predominating stimulus of his artistic career, and, since -Brahms is too big and independent a genius to deserve -the epithet, Volkmann may count as the Düsseldorf -master's chief epigone. He was but five years younger -than Schumann, being born April 6, 1815, at Lommatzsch -in Saxony, the son of a cantor, who instructed -him in piano and organ playing. He studied theory -with Anacker in Freiberg and K. F. Becker in Leipzig. -He taught in Prague (1839) and Budapest (1842), lived -in Vienna 1854-58, and again in Prague, where he was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -professor of harmony and counterpoint at the National -Academy of Music, and died in 1893.</p> - -<p>His first published work, the 'Fantasy Pictures' for -piano, appeared in 1839 in Leipzig. Unlike most other -composers of this group, he managed to give his larger -forms a permanent value; his two symphonies, in B -major (op. 44) and D minor (op. 53) respectively, are -still frequently played. Especially the last contains -matter that is imbued with real feeling and effectively -handled. His three serenades for string orchestra -(opera 62, 63, and 69, the last with 'cello obbligato) -are no less pleasing, and, in spite of the tribute which -Volkmann pays to Schumann in all his works, even -original. Of other instrumental music there are two -overtures, the piano trio in B minor, which first made -Volkmann's name more widely known, together with -two string quartets in A minor and G minor, one other -trio and four more quartets, a 'cello concerto, a romance -each for 'cello and violin (with piano), a <em>Konzertstück</em> -for piano and a number of small works for -piano as well as for violin and piano. Among his -vocal compositions two masses for men's voices and -a number of secular pieces for solo voice with orchestral -accompaniment are the most important.</p> - -<p>Woldemar Bargiel (1828-97), Theodor Kirchner -(1824-1903), Karl Grädener (1812-83), and Albert Dietrich -(b. 1829) are all disciples of Schumann. The first, -a stepbrother of Clara Schumann, is perhaps the most -important. He worked chiefly with the orchestra and -chamber combinations, his overture to 'Medea' and his -trios being most noteworthy, but he contributed to choral -and solo song literature as well. Kirchner is known -for his finely emotional piano miniatures (some accompanied -by string instruments) as well as for chamber -music and songs. Grädener, too, composed in all -these forms, and Dietrich, who was court kapellmeister -in Oldenburg and was in close personal touch with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -Schumann in Düsseldorf, left symphonies, overtures, -chamber music and songs altogether in the spirit of -the great arch-romantic.</p> - -<p>The composers so far discussed constitute what is -sometimes called the Leipzig circle. While they can -not in any sense be considered as radicals, and, indeed, -were frequently attacked as conservative or academic -by the followers of the more radical wing which made -its headquarters at Weimar, they appear distinctly progressive -when compared with the ultra-conservative -group of composers centred in Berlin, who made it -their particular duty to uphold tradition and to apply -their energies to the creation of choral music of rather -antique type. 'It may be that the attitude of certain -Berlin masters,' says Pratt,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> 'like Grell, Dehn, and Kiel, -serve a useful purpose as a counterpoise to the impulsive -swing of style away from the traditions of the -old vocal counterpoint. They certainly helped to keep -musical education from forgetting solid structure in -composition amid its desires to exploit impressionistic -and sensational devices. Probably this reactionary -influence did good in the end, though its intolerant -narrowness exasperated the many who were eagerly -searching out new paths. It at least resulted in making -Berlin a centre for choral music of a severe type, for -able teachers of the art of singing, for musical theory -and for scholarly investigators of musical history.' It -may be added that the Royal Academy was the stronghold -of this extreme 'right wing,' and that the chief -institutions which helped to uphold old vocal traditions -were the <em>Singakademie</em>, the <em>Domchor</em>, the <em>Institut -für Kirchenmusik</em> (later merged into the <em>Hochschule -für Musik</em>). The Conservatory, founded in 1850 by -Marx, Kullak, and Stern, and the <em>Neue Akademie der -Tonkunst</em>, established in 1855 by Theodor Kullak, also -acquired considerable importance.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p> -<p>Eduard August Grell (1800-86) gave proof of his -contrapuntal genius in a series of sacred works including -a sixteen-part mass, an oratorio, and a Te -Deum, besides many songs and motets. He assisted -Rungenhagen in conducting the <em>Singakademie</em> from -1832, becoming sole conductor and teacher of composition -at the Academy in 1851, and was a musician of -very wide influence. Siegfried Dehn (1799-1858) is -chiefly important as teacher of a number of the composers -mentioned in this chapter and as the author of -treatises. Friedrich Kiel (1821-85), whose requiem in -F minor has been called among all later works of this -class the most worthy successor of those of Mozart and -Cherubini, has also written a <em>Missa Solemnis</em>, an oratorio -<em>Christus</em>, and another Requiem (A minor)—works -which attest above all the writer's polyphonic -skill, and which prove the appropriateness of applying -such a style to modern works of devotional character. -Kiel's <em>Stabat mater</em>, <em>Te Deum</em>, 130th Psalm and two-part -motets for women's voices, as well as his chamber -music and piano pieces, are all worthy of consideration. -Karl Friedrich Rungenhagen (d. 1851) and August Wilhelm -Bach (d. 1869), both noted as composers of choral -music, may complete our review of the 'Berlin circle.'</p> - -<p>There remain to be mentioned those specialists who -are concerned almost exclusively with the two most -characteristic mediums of the romantic <em>genre</em>—the -piano piece and the song. Schumann and Chopin had -brought the miniature piano composition to its highest -plane of expression and the most advanced technical -standard, which even the dramatic imagination and the -virtuoso brilliance of Liszt could not surpass. They -and such milder romanticists as Mendelssohn and John -Field had brought this class of music within the reach -of amateurs, Schumann even within that of the child. -Brahms, with no thought of the dilettante, had intensified -this form of expression, making a corresponding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> -demand upon technical ability. It remained for men -like Adolf Henselt, Stephen Heller, and Theodor Kullak -to popularize the new pianistic idiom, as Clementi, -Hummel, and Moscheles had popularized that of the -classics. These are the real workers in <em>genre</em>, monochrome -genre, with their pictorial description, their -somewhat bourgeois romanticism and sometimes maudlin -sentimentality. Even their études are cast in an -easy lyrical vein which was made to convey the pretty -sentiment.</p> - -<p>Henselt (1814-89) was an eminent pianist, born in -Silesia, pupil of Hummel and Sechter in Vienna. After -1838 he lived in St. Petersburg. Pieces like the <em>Poème -d'amour</em> and the 'Spring Song' are comparable to Mendelssohn's -'Songs without Words,' but they are more -richly embroidered and of a fuller sonority. His F -minor concerto is justly famous. Stephen Heller (1814-88) -was also famous as a concert pianist. Of his compositions, -to the number of 150, all for his own instrument, -many are truly and warmly poetic in content. -Though lacking Schumann's passion and Chopin's harmonic -genius, he surpasses Mendelssohn in the originality -and individuality of his ideas. In a number of his -things, probably pot-boilers, he leans dangerously to -the salon type of composition, with which many of his -immediate followers flooded the market. We are all -familiar with the album-leaf, fly-leaf, mood-picture, -fairy and flower piece variety of piano literature, as -well as the pseudo-nature study, the travel picture in -which the Rhine and its castles and Loreley, the Alps -and its cowbells, Venice with its barcarolles and Naples -with its tarantellas figure so conspicuously.</p> - -<p>Kullak (1818-82), already mentioned as the founder -of the <em>Neue Akademie</em> of Berlin and famous both as -pianist and teacher, wrote some 130 works, most of -which is in the <em>salon</em> type or in the form of brilliant -fantasias and paraphrases, less important, perhaps,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -than his études ('School of Octave Playing,' etc.). The -piano technicians Henri Hertz (1803-88), Sigismund -Thalberg (1812-71), Karl Klindworth (b. 1830), Karl -Tausig (1841-71), Nicolai Rubinstein (1835-81), brother -of Anton and founder of the Moscow conservatory, and -Hans von Bülow, of whom we shall speak later, might -all be mentioned in this connection, though their work -as virtuosi, teachers, and editors is of greater moment -than their efforts as original composers.</p> - -<p>The song engaged the exclusive activity of numberless -composers of this period, and perhaps to a great -extent with as untoward results as the piano piece. -But there are, on the other hand, men like Eduard Lassen -(1830-1904), Adolf Jensen (1837-79), and Wilhelm -Taubert (1811-91) whose work, in part at least, will -take a place beside that of the great romantics. Robert -Franz, by far the most important of these, has been -treated in Volume II (p. 289). Taubert is to-day chiefly -known for his 'Children's Songs,' full of ingenuous -charm and sincere feeling. It should not be forgotten, -however, that their composer wrote a half dozen operas, -incidental music for Euripides' 'Medea' and Shakespeare's -'Tempest,' as well as symphonies, overtures, -chamber, piano and choral works. Berlin, his birthplace, -remained his headquarters. Here he conducted -the court concerts, the opera and the <em>Singakademie</em>, -and was the president of the musical section in the -Senate of the Royal Academy.</p> - -<p>Adolf Jensen, in Hugo Riemann's judgment, is much -more than Franz entitled to the lyric mantle of Schumann. -His songs, appearing in modest series bearing -no special title, have in them much real poetic imagination. -They are unmistakably influenced by Wagner. -Books 4, 6, and 22, as well as the two cycles <em>Dolorosa</em> -and <em>Erotikon</em>, are picked by Naumann as especially -noteworthy. The popular <em>Lehn' deine Wang</em> is most -frequently sung, but is one of the less meritorious of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -Jensen's songs. The composer has also been successful -with pianoforte works, his sonata op. 25 and the -pieces of opera 37, 38, and 42 being worthy essays along -the lines of Schumann. An eminently aristocratic character -and a profound subjective expression are their -distinguishing features, together with the soft beauty -of their melodic line. Jensen was a native of Königsberg -(1837), and spent some years in Russia in order to -earn sufficient money to live near Schumann in Düsseldorf, -but the tragic end of the latter frustrated this -plan. Hence he followed a call to conduct the theatre -orchestra in Posen, later going to Copenhagen, Königsberg, -Berlin, Dresden, and Graz. He died in Baden-Baden -in 1879.</p> - -<p>Lassen, another song-writer of distinction, came more -definitely under the Liszt influence and will therefore -be treated with the 'New Germans' in another section.</p> - -<p>The degeneration of the song, corresponding to that -of the small piano forms, is to be noted in the productions -of such men as Franz Abt (1819-85) and Karl -Friedrich Curschmann (1804-41). Abt is among song-writers -the typical <em>Spiessbürger</em>, the middle-class Philistine -dear to the <em>Männerchor</em> member's heart. His -songs are of that popular melodiousness which at its -best flavors of the folk-song and at its worst of the -music hall. Of the former variety are '<em>Wenn die -Schwalben heimwärts ziehn</em>' and '<em>Gute Nacht, mein -herziges Kind</em>.' All of Abt's songs and vocal quartets -are of the more or less saccharine sentimentality which -for a time was such an appealing factor in American -popular music. Indeed, when Abt visited the United -States in 1872 he was received with extraordinary acclaim.</p> - -<p>Curschmann's songs are perhaps slightly superior in -musical value, and at one time were equally popular, -but they are not as near to becoming folk-songs as are -some of Abt's. Many others might be mentioned among<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -the purveyors of this sentimental stuff. If, as Naumann -says, Taubert and his kind are the musical bourgeoisie, -these are the small middle class. Arno Kleffel (b. 1840), -Louis Ehlert (1825-84), Heinrich Hofmann (1842-1902), -Alexander von Fielitz (b. 1860) may be regarded as -standing on the border line of the two provinces.</p> - -<p>Much more worthy, from a purely musical standpoint, -are the frank expressions of good humor and -hilarity, the light rhythmic sing-song of the comic opera -and the operetta represented by Lortzing and Johann -Strauss (Jr.), respectively. Albert Lortzing (1801-51) -revived or perpetuated in a new (and more engaging) -form the singspiel of J. A. Hiller and Dittersdorf, the -<em>genre</em> which, as we remember, had its origin in the ballad -operas of eighteenth-century England. For all his -lightheartedness and ingenuousness, and despite his indebtedness -to Italy and the <em>opéra comique</em>, Lortzing belongs -to the Romantic movement. Bie is of that opinion -and says of him: 'He was at bottom a tender and -lightly sentimental nature running over with music and -winning his popularity in the <em>genre</em> of the bourgeois -song and the heart-quality chorus.' Born as the son -of an actor, travelling around from theatre to theatre, -learning to play various instruments, appearing in -juvenile rôles, becoming actor, singer and conductor by -turns, Lortzing fairly absorbed the ingredients that go to -make the successful provider of light amusement. Successful -he was only in an artistic sense—economically -always 'down on his luck.' He began to compose early -and turned out operas by the dozen, all dialogue operas -or <em>singspiele</em>, writing (or adapting) both words and -music. Not till 1835 did he make a hit—with <em>Die -beiden Schützen</em>. <em>Zar und Zimmermann</em>, <em>Der Wildschütz</em>, -<em>Undine</em> (a romantic fairy opera), and <em>Der Waffenschmied</em> -are the most successful of his works, and -still live as vigorous an existence in Germany as the -Gilbert and Sullivan operas do in England. He became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> -more and more popular as time went on, for he had -no successful imitator. No one after him managed to -write such dear old songs, such funny ensembles, and -such touching scenes of every-day life. No one, in short, -could make people laugh and cry by turns with such -perfect musical art. He is a classic, as classic in his -form as Dittersdorf; but, as Bie says, Mozart, Schubert, -and Weber had lived, and, for Lortzing, not in vain.</p> - -<p>In this department, too, we must record a degeneration. -It was accomplished notably by Victor Nessler -(1841-90), whose <em>Trompeter von Säkkingen</em> still haunts -the German opera houses, while its most popular number, -<em>Behüt dich Gott</em>, is still a leading 'cornet solo,' -zither selection, and hurdy-gurdy favorite.</p> - -<p>Johann Strauss (1825-1899)<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> might be denied a place -in many a serious history. But let us not forget that a -large part of the public, when you say 'Strauss,' still -think of him instead of Richard! And neither let us -forget Brahms' remark about the 'Blue Danube' waltz—that -he wished he might have written so beautiful a -melody—was quite sincere. The 'Blue Danube' has -become the second Austrian national anthem—or at -least the leading Viennese folk-song. 'Artist's Life,' -'Viennese Blood,' '<em>Bei uns z'Haus</em>,' '<em>Man lebt nur einmal</em>' -(out of which Taussig made one of the most brilliant of -concert pieces)—these waltzes are hardly less beloved -of the popular heart—and feet unspoiled by one-step or -tango. In his operettas, too, whose style is similar to -that of Offenbach and Lecocq (see II, p. 392 ff.), Strauss -remains the 'waltz king': the pages of <em>Die Fledermaus</em> -('The Bat'), 'The Gypsy Baron,' and 'The Queen's Lace -Handkerchief' teem with fascinating waltz rhythms. -Strauss is as inimitable in his way as Lortzing was in -his—to date he has no serious rival, unless it be the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span>composer of <em>Rosenkavalier</em> himself. Karl Millöcker<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> -(1842-99) with the 'Beggar Student' and Franz von -Suppé (1819-1895) with <em>Das Mädchen vom Lande</em>, -<em>Flotte Bursche</em>, etc., come nearest to him in reputation. -The latter should be remembered for more serious work -as well, and the still popular 'Poet and Peasant' overture. -He was the teacher of the American Reginald -de Koven.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>If Leipzig represents the centre, and Berlin the right -wing, the group of Liszt disciples gathered together in -Weimar must be taken as the 'left' of the romantic -schools. Out of this wing has grown the new German -school which is still in the heyday of its glory and -among whose adherents may be reckoned most of the -contemporary German composers. We have mentioned -in this chapter only two of the older disciples of -this branch, namely Raff (who has already been noticed -in Vol. II), and Lassen, who is most widely known as -a song-writer. The rest we defer to a later chapter.</p> - -<p>Joseph Joachim Raff was born at Lachen, on Zürich -lake, in 1822. The son of an organist, he first became -an elementary teacher. His first encouragement came -from Mendelssohn, but his hope to be able to study -with that master was never realized. Bülow and Liszt -were also helpful to him, but many disappointments -beset his path. He followed Liszt to Weimar in 1850, -became a collaborator on the <em>Neue Zeitschrift für Musik</em>, -and championed Wagner in a brochure entitled -'The Wagner Question' (1854). In the course of his -sixty years (he died in Frankfurt in 1882) he turned -out what is perhaps the largest number of works on -record. His opus numbers go far beyond 200—even -the indefatigable Riemann does not attempt a complete -summary of them. There are 11 symphonies, 3 orchestral<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -suites, 5 overtures and orchestral works; concertos, -sonatas, etc., for various instruments; 8 string quartets, -a string sextet and an octet, piano trios, quartets, and -every kind of smaller form imaginable. The piano -pieces flavor in many cases of the salon. The songs, -duets, vocal quartets and choruses are chiefly remarkable -for their great number. His opera 'King Alfred' -never got beyond Weimar, while some of his six others -(comic, lyric, and grand) were not even performed. -Out of all this mass only the <em>Wald</em> and <em>Leonore</em> symphonies -have stood the test of time, and even these are -rapidly fading.</p> - - -<p>Yet Raff was in some ways an important man. His -extraordinary and extremely fruitful talent was subjected -to the changing influences of the neo-classic and -the late romantic school. If the Mendelssohnian model -led him to emphasize the formalistic elements in his -work, he soon realized that perfect form was only a -means and not an end. That emotion, mood, and expression -were not to be subordinated to it he learned -from Liszt. Hence his works, descriptive in character -as their titles imply, show the conflict between form and -content which had already become a problem with -Berlioz. His symphonies, now purely descriptive (a development -starting with the pastoral symphony of Beethoven), -now dramatic (with Berlioz's <em>Fantastique</em> as -the model), are mildly programmistic and colorful, but -have neither the sweep of imagination of Berlioz nor -the daring brilliance of Liszt.</p> - -<p>At any rate Raff had considerable influence upon -others—Edward MacDowell among them. He 'proved,' -as it were, the methods of the new German school along -mediocre lines. He was a pioneer and not a mere camp -follower as most of his contemporaries.</p> - -<p>Hans von Bülow's (1830-94) importance as pianist, -conductor, and editor overshadows his claim as a creative -musician. As such he has left music for Shakespeare's<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -'Julius Cæsar,' a symphonic mood-picture 'Nirvana,' -an orchestral ballad 'The Singer's Curse,' and -copious piano works. Their style is what may be expected -from their creator's close associations with Liszt -and Wagner, which are too well known for comment. -He became Liszt's pupil in 1853 (marrying his daughter -Cosima in 1857)<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and was Wagner's staunchest champion -as early as 1849. In his later years he gave evidence -of a broad catholicity and progressive spirit by -making propaganda for Brahms and propitiating the -youthful Richard Strauss. In his various executive -activities he accomplished miracles for the cause of -musical culture, and as conductor of the Meiningen and -the Berlin Philharmonic orchestra laid the foundation -of the contemporary conductor's art.</p> - -<p>Eduard Lassen (1830-1904), who, through Liszt's influence, -was made musical director at the Weimar -court in 1858, becoming Hofkapellmeister in 1861, is -chiefly known for his pleasing songs. His early training -was received at the Conservatory, where he won the -<em>prix de Rome</em> in 1851. The fact that his songs betray at -times an almost Gallic grace is therefore not surprising. -He wrote, besides two operas (<em>Frauenlob</em> and <em>Le Captif</em>), -music for Hebbel's <em>Nibelungen</em> (11 'character -pieces' for orchestra), for Sophokles' 'Œdipus Colonos,' -and for Goethe's 'Faust'; also symphonies, overtures, -cantatas, etc.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">C. S.</p> - - -<h3>V</h3> - -<p>Turning to France, we have as the leading 'transition' -composers Massenet, Saint-Saëns, and Lalo, three -musicians strangely difficult to classify. They remain -on the margin of all the turbulent movements in modern -musical evolution. Each pursued his own way and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span>the only point of contact between the three, outside of -their uniformly friendly relations, is their individual -isolation. Each might have turned to the other for -sympathy in his loneliness. No doubt the spoiled and -successful Massenet, the skeptical and mocking Saint-Saëns, -and the noble and sensitive Lalo must have felt -alone in the attacks or indifference of their fellow artists. -Yet, aloof as they were, each in his way has been -an important influence on French music. Massenet by -the essentially French character of his melody, Saint-Saëns -by his eminently Latin sense of form, and Lalo -by the picturesque fondness for piquant rhythms, have -each woven themselves into the very texture of modern -French music, Saint-Saëns and Lalo in particular being -propagandists for the new and vital growth of the -symphonic forms in Paris during the last three decades. -If there is less of the spectacular and the intense in -their productions, there are qualities that make for a -certain recognition and popularity over a relatively -longer space of time. There is nothing enigmatic or -revolutionary with either. Each expressed himself with -varying degrees of sincerity in an idiom which, without -pointing to the future, is nevertheless of the time in -which it was written. If there are retrogressive qualities -in Saint-Saëns, it must not be forgotten that he is -one of the significant exponents of the symphonic poem. -If Massenet attempted no revolutionary harmonic procedure, -he nevertheless made a certain type of lyric -opera all his own. If Lalo was content to compose in -the conventional form known as symphony, concerto, -quartet, etc., he none the less endowed them with a -quality immediately personal and not present heretofore -in these forms. They are all intimately related -to French music as it has been and as it will be.</p> - -<p>'I was born,' wrote Jules-Émile-Frédéric Massenet -(1842-1912) in an article appearing in 'Scribner's Magazine,' -'to the sound of hammers of bronze.' With this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -stentorian statement, which would have better served -to inaugurate the biography of a Berlioz or a Benvenuto -Cellini, Massenet tells us the bare facts of a more -or less colorless life. With the exception of a few hard -years during his apprenticeship at the Conservatoire, -Massenet remains for well over a quarter of a century -the idol, or rather the spoiled child, of the Parisian -public. His reputation abroad is considerably less, the -rôle of his elegant or superficial art being taken in Germany -and America by Sig. Puccini. Nevertheless, even -to the American public, little interested in the refined -neuroticism of this child of the Second Empire, Massenet -is not devoid of a certain charm.</p> - -<p>To obtain an adequate idea of his importance among -the group of composers of the late nineteenth century -it is necessary to close one's ears against the railing of -the snobbish élite. There is much in Massenet to criticize. -If one thinks merely of the spirit which actuates -his productions, one is very apt to be condemnatory. -When one considers, however, a fluid and elegant technique -such as was his, an amazing power of production -that recalls the prolific masters of the Renaissance, and -a power not only to please but even to dictate to the -fickle operatic tastes of a quarter-century, one must stop -one's criticism to murmur one's admiration. Massenet -has probably never been justly appraised. Among his -compatriots the critics allied with the young school are -so vituperative as to render their opinions valueless. -His admirers show an equal lack of proportion, being -ofttimes friends rather than well equipped critics. Any -just observer of musical history, however, must stop -to consider the qualities of a man that could retain his -hold upon the sympathies of a public rather distinguished -for the fickleness and injustice of its tastes. To -find the work that best exemplifies the Massenetian -qualities among an opus that includes twenty-four -operas, seven orchestral suites, innumerable songs,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -some chamber music, and some incidental music for -various popular productions, is not easy.</p> - -<p>Let us pass his operas in rapid review. The first -dramatic work of any importance is <em>Le Roi de Lahore</em>, -given for the first time in April, 1877. In this opera, as -in <em>Hérodiade</em>, which followed it four years later, there -is much that has become permanently fixed in the concert -répertoire. It is doubtful whether either will ever -regain its place in the theatre. With <em>Manon</em>, however, -an opéra comique in five acts, Massenet inaugurates a -success that was to be undimmed until his death in -1912. <em>Manon</em>, since its production in 1884, has enjoyed -a remarkable career of more than 1,200 productions in -Paris. It is typical, as regards the text, of the successful -libretto that the composer of <em>Werther</em>, of <em>Le Jongleur -de Nôtre Dame</em>, and <em>Thaïs</em> was to employ. Massenet -in his attitude toward adaptable literary material may -be said to have had his ear to the ground. It is not surprising, -therefore, that the passionate novelette of the -Abbé Prévost should have attracted him, and in <em>Manon</em> -one may observe the characteristics of the Massenetian -heroine that were to make him so popular among the -sensitive, subtle, spoiled, and restless women of our -time. One enthusiastic biographer asserts that Massenet -has taken one masterpiece to make another. Although -one must acknowledge the undoubted charm of -this fragile little opera, one cannot consider it on the -same intellectual plane as that sincere epic of a young -sentimentalist of the late eighteenth century. Throughout -the five acts are scenes or parts of scenes that show -Massenet at his best. Technically speaking, however, -the work is often inferior to the one or two little masterpieces -composed later on. In it a certain crudity -and hesitation of technique are often apparent. The -casual mingling of musical declamation with spoken -dialogue is often unsatisfactory if not absolutely distasteful. -It is in the splendid love-scene of Saint Sulpice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -that the composer first gives a revelation of his remarkable -powers as a musico-dramatic artist.</p> - -<p>In 1892 at Vienna was presented a work that Massenet -was never to surpass: <em>Werther</em>. This work has -never attained the popularity of <em>Manon</em>, but it is infinitely -superior in every detail. In it Massenet has -achieved an elastic musical declamation that is almost -unique in the history of opera. Throughout, with absolute -deference to the principles of diction, the solo -voice sings a sort of melodic recitative skillfully accompanied -by a transparent yet marvellously colored -orchestra. The comparative lack of success of <em>Werther</em> -is no doubt due to the sentimentalization of a tale -already morbid when fresh from the pen of Goethe. -Naturally in adapting it to the stage, and especially to -the French stage, the idyllic charm of Goethe's extraordinary -tale has been lost. Also, the glamour of its -quasi-autobiographical connection with a great poet -has entirely vanished. With all these qualifications, -one must nevertheless—if his opinion be not too influenced -by musical snobbishness—acknowledge <em>Werther</em> -to be a lyric work of the greatest importance.</p> - -<p>There is only one other work that could add to Massenet's -reputation or show another facet of his genius, -<em>Le Jongleur de Nôtre Dame</em>. This work, founded upon -a legend of the Middle Ages adapted with taste and discretion -by Maurice Lena of the University of Paris, is -a treasure among short operas. The skeptical box-holder -of the theatre rejoices in the fact that there is -no woman's rôle. The three brief acts centre about the -routine of a monastery and the apparition of the Virgin. -Massenet has treated this innocent historiette with a -tenderness and care that belie the casual overproduction -that characterized his career.</p> - -<p>After <em>Le Jongleur</em> one is face to face with a sad succession -of hastily composed, often mediocre, stage -pieces. Upon the occasion of the presentation of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -posthumous opera <em>Cleopatra</em> at Monte Carlo in 1914, -friendly critics pointed to the renewal of Massenet's genius. -An examination of <em>Cleopatra</em>, however, reveals a -deplorable use of conventional procedures with certain -disagreeable mannerisms of the composer at their -worst. <em>Panurge</em>, presented in 1913, is a better work. -No doubt in composing it Massenet wished to achieve -a French <em>Meistersinger</em>. He has fallen far short of this -and one is forced to confess that the Gallic cock crows -in a shrill and fragile falsetto.</p> - -<p>Among Massenet's orchestral suites, it would be unjust -to omit mention of the <em>Scènes Alsaciennes</em>. Also -one can separate from the quantity of stage music composed -for various dramatic pieces <em>Les Erynnies</em>, composed -for the drama of Leconte de Lisle. An examination -of the cantatas, 'Eve' in particular, is interesting as -evidence of Massenet's extraordinary virtuosity.</p> - -<p>So much for the actual works. When one considers -the influence of Massenet upon the new musical school -that sprang up in France after Franck, one can hardly -exaggerate it. Among his pupils are many of the distinguished -young musical Nihilists of to-day, for, if we -admit the meretricious aims of Massenet in contemporary -music, it is impossible not to admit, too, that he -possessed one of the most certain techniques for the -stage since Rameau. Absolutely conversant with the -exactions of dramatic composition, one might say that -in each bar of music he was haunted by the foot-lights. -Musically speaking, the modelling of the Massenetian -melody is characterized by an elegance that is sickly -and cloying. Towards the end of his career there was -no need to subject his music to the polishing that other -composers find necessary. His mannerisms resolved -themselves into tricks. The effect of these tricks was -so certain as to enable this skillful juggler to intersperse -pages of absolutely meaningless filling. In one department -of technique, however, one can think of little but -praise—that is Massenet's clear and sonorous orchestration. -He is one of the shining examples of that economy -of resources to be observed in present-day French composers. -His orchestra is that of the classics, and yet he -seems to endow it with possibilities for color and dramatic -expression unknown in France, at least in the -domain of theatrical composition, before his appearance.</p> - -<p>His dominant fault is a nervous and ever-present desire -to please at all costs. He had an uncanny power -of estimating the receptivity of audiences and was careful -not to go beyond well-defined limits. In <em>Esclarmonde</em> -there is a timid attempt to acclimate the procedures -of Richard Wagner to the stage of the Opéra -Comique. We cannot share the enthusiasm of some of -Massenet's critics for this empty and inflated imitation. -It is not good Massenet, and it is poor Wagnerism, for -the real Massenet, say what you will, is the Massenet -of a few scenes of <em>Manon</em>, of the delicate moonlight -reverie of <em>Werther</em>, and the cloying Meditation from -<em>Thaïs</em>. The mistake of critics in appraising a composer -like Massenet is that they assume that there is a platinum -bar to standardize musical ideals. Massenet set -himself to do something. He wanted to please. -Haunted by the sufferings of his student life at the Conservatoire, -he wanted to be successful; he was eminently -so. If his means of obtaining this success seem -questionable to those of us who believe in a continuous -evolution of art, when we are confronted with the -industry, the achievement, and the mastery of technical -resources that are to be observed in Massenet, we must -unwillingly acclaim him a genius.</p> - -<p>We have already referred to Massenet's prodigious -output. Besides his 23 operas his works include 4 oratorios -and biblical dramas, his incidental music to any -number of plays, his suites, overtures, chamber music, -piano pieces and four volumes of songs, as well as <em>a capella</em> -choruses. Massenet was a native of Montaud, -near St. Étienne (Loire), studied at the Conservatoire -with Laurent (piano), Reber (harmony), and Ambroise -Thomas (composition). He captured the prix de -Rome in 1863 with the cantata <em>David Rizzio</em>.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ilo_fp30" style="max-width: 30.1875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp30.jpg" alt="ilo-fp30" /> - -<p class="center">French Eclectics:</p> - -<p class="caption"><span style="padding-left: 2.0em;">Édouard Lalo</span> <span style="padding-left: 5.5em;">Benjamin Godard</span><br /> -<span style="padding-right: 2.5em;">Camille Saint-Saëns</span> <span style="padding-left: 2.5em;">Jules Massenet</span></p> -</div> -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p> -</div> - -<h3>VI</h3> - -<p>Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns was born October 9th, -1835, in Paris. He lives to-day (1915) in possession of -all his powers as an artist and a witty pamphleteer. -In some respects Saint-Saëns may be dubbed a musical -Voltaire. A master of all the forms peculiar to symphonic -music, he has never succeeded in endowing his -work with any quality save clarity and brilliance. One -would almost think at times that he deliberately stifled -emotional elements in himself of which he disapproved. -There is scarcely any department of music for which he -has not written. Symphonies, chamber music, songs, -operas and a ballet, and all this in quantity. Saint-Saëns, -too, has undeniably lofty musical standards. Prolific, -like Massenet, too prolific, in fact, for the subtle, -sensitive taste of our time, Saint-Saëns seems rather to -defy the public than to make any effort to please. His -skill as a technician and his extraordinary abilities as a -virtuoso have won him immediate recognition with musicians. -In examining the whole of his work, there are -only four orchestral pieces which have enduring qualities. -These are the four symphonic poems in which -Saint-Saëns pays an eloquent tribute to the form espoused -by his friend Franz Liszt. Of these, the finest -is <em>Phaëton</em>. Strange to say, the best known of this -tetralogy of masterpieces is not the best. Beside the -magnificently picturesque <em>Phaëton</em> the <em>Danse macabre</em> -seems a drab and inelegant humoresque. After <em>Phaëton</em>, -<em>Le Rouet d'Omphale</em> must be given the place of distinction -in the long list of Saint-Saëns's compositions.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> -In it the composer has given us a witty delineation of -the irresistible powers of seduction of a truly feminine -woman. The delicate orchestral texture entirely made -up of crystalline timbres marks Saint-Saëns as one of -the surest and most skillful manipulators of the modern -orchestra since Wagner. As is characteristic of -many French composers, there is a remarkable economy -of means. Small aggregations of instruments -achieve brilliant and compelling sonorities.</p> - -<p>In the operatic field, Saint-Saëns is not happy. Here -all of his reactionary neo-classicism found its full vent, -and we are shocked to see a musician of Saint-Saëns's -taste and intelligence employing the pompous conventionalities -of the opera of 1850. 'Samson and Delilah,' -however, has found its way into the répertoire no doubt -on account of its fluent melodic structure and its agreeable -exoticism. No matter what his technical excellences, -one is conscious, with Saint-Saëns, of a certain -sterility. Sometimes his music is so imitative of the -classics as to be absolutely devoid of any reason for -being. Bach and Mendelssohn are his great influences -and Liszt and Berlioz have had a great part in the formation -of his orchestral technique. M. Schuré remarks -aptly: 'One notices with him a subtle and lively imagination, -a constant aspiration to strength, to nobility, to -majesty. From his quartets and his symphonies are -to be detached grandiose moments and rockets of emotion -which disappear too quickly. But it would be impossible -to find the individuality which asserts itself in -the ensemble of his works. One does not feel there the -torment of a soul or the pursuit of an ideal. It is the -Proteus, multiform and polyphonic, of music. Try to -seize him, and he changes into a siren. Are you under -the charm? He undergoes a change into a mocking -bird. You believe that you have got him at last, then -he climbs into the clouds like a hypogriff. His own -nature is best discerned in certain witty fantasies of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -a skeptical and mordant character, like the <em>Danse macabre</em> -and the <em>Rouet d'Omphale</em>.' When one considers -that Saint-Saëns has been before the public ever since -the sixties, a period in which musical evolution has -undergone the most rapid and surprising changes, it -is not strange that he eludes characterization. He is a -musician who has, as Mr. Schuré so aptly says, refused -to set himself the narrow and rocky path of an ideal. -He has consistently avoided extremes. Side by side -with Saint-Saëns the modernist, the champion of the -symphonic poem, is Saint-Saëns the anti-Wagnerian. -He is one of the great pillars, however, in the remarkable -edifice of French symphonic music.</p> - -<p>With Romain Bussine, in 1872, Saint-Saëns founded -the Société Nationale, an organization which was to -have the most far-reaching influence on the development -of French music. Like Lalo, Saint-Saëns worked -for a sort of protective tariff to keep French symphonic -music from being overwhelmed by the more experienced -Teuton neighbors. As a pamphleteer and propagandist, -Saint-Saëns is full of verve and always has the -last word. He was one of the first to appreciate Wagner, -but later, feeling that the popularity of the master -of Bayreuth might overwhelm young French composers, -he withdrew his sympathetic allegiance.</p> - -<p>Édouard-Victor-Antoine Lalo was born in Lille in -1822. This modest, aristocratic, and noble-minded musician -has scarcely enjoyed his just due even in this -late day. He died, exhausted, in 1892. His whole -artistic career was ill-fated. His opera, <em>Le Roi d'Ys</em>, and -his ballet <em>Namouna</em> were both indifferently successful -if not absolute failures. It is doubtful if Lalo ever recovered -from the disappointment and overwork that -attended the composition and production of <em>Namouna</em>. -Without hesitation we should characterize these two -works as his most important. There is an excellent -symphony in G minor, a concerto for 'cello, the <em>Symphonie<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -Espagnole</em> for violin and orchestra, and a concerto -for piano, all of an equally lofty musical texture. -It is difficult to class Lalo with any group of musicians. -He was mildly influenced by Wagner, as were all young -musicians of his time, and yet <em>Le Roi d'Ys</em> is absolutely -his own. Lalo came of Spanish parentage. It is probable -that a certain sort of atavism is responsible for the -constant suggestion of the subtle monotony of Spanish -rhythms in his music. He is too distinct a Latin to be -overwhelmed by Wagner.</p> - -<p>It is very probable that Lalo will never be genuinely -popular. The <em>Symphonie Espagnole</em> is in the répertoire -of every virtuoso violinist. The same may be said of -the concerto for 'cello, and yet it is doubtful if the layman -of symphonic concerts would complain were he -never again to hear anything of Lalo. This is due to a -certain aristocratic aloofness, and emotional reserve, -and an ever-present sense of proportion dear only to the -élite.</p> - -<p>Lalo's influence was not in itself far-reaching. A sincere, -splendidly developed artist, he had none of the -qualities that make disciples. As one of a group of -musicians, however, that were to play an important -rôle in saving French music from foreign domination -and in finding an idiom characteristic and worthy of a -country possessed of the artistic traditions of France, -Lalo cannot be overestimated. As a member of the -Armingaud quartet he worked fervently to create a -taste for symphonic music. His own dignified symphonic -productions supplemented this necessary work -of propaganda, for it must not be forgotten that for -almost a century before the advent of César Franck -there was no French symphonic music. The French -genius, insofar as it expressed itself in music at all, -turned rather to the historical opera so pompously -fashioned, or the witty and amusing opéra comique. -Lalo must be considered with Saint-Saëns and Franck<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -as one of the pioneers in making a regenerate Parisian -taste. His life is colorless and offers little to the critic -in interpretation of his musical ideals. Lalo composed -silently, with conviction, and without self-consciousness. -He was singularly without theories. Concrete -technical problems absorbed him, and in the refinement -and nobility of his music is to be found the most eloquent -essay upon the rôle of an artist who seeks sincere -self-expression rather than general recognition.</p> - -<p>As a leaven to the frivolous musical tastes prevalent -in the French capital before the last three decades Lalo -has played his part nobly. He will always be admired -by all sincere musicians. His art is complete, devoid of -mannerisms, plastically perfect, and yet without the -semblance of dryness. In his symphony one will observe -an unerring sense of form, an exquisite clarity of -orchestration, and a happy choice of ideas suitable for -development, <em>Le Roi d'Ys</em> is scarcely a masterpiece. -The text is constructed from a pretty folk-story, is not -very dramatic and occasionally gives one the impression -of amateurishness and puerility. The music is exquisite -and makes one regret that Lalo could not have -found other and more suitable vehicles for his dramatic -genius. <em>Namouna</em> is a sparkling, colorful ballet. -When it was revived some years ago, a more propitious -public enthusiastically revised the adverse verdict of -1882.</p> - -<p>Little may be said of Benjamin Godard (1849-95) -except that he wrote much, too much perhaps, in nearly -all forms: symphonies (with characteristic titles, such -as the 'Gothic,' 'Oriental,' <em>Symphonie légendaire</em>), concertos -for violin and for piano, orchestral suites, dramatic -overture, symphony, a lyric scene, chamber music, -piano pieces, over a hundred songs, etc. Few of -these are heard nowadays, even in France perhaps. -Neither are his operas, <em>Pédro de Zalaméa</em> (1884), <em>Jocelyn</em> -(1888), <em>Dante et Béatrice</em> (1890), <em>Ruy Blas</em> (1891),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -<em>La Vivandière</em> (1895), and <em>Les Guelfes</em> (1902). <em>Jocelyn</em>—and, -indeed, its composer—are perpetuated by the -charmingly sentimental <em>Berceuse</em>, beloved of amateur -violinists. Godard studied composition with Reber and -violin with Vieuxtemps at the Conservatoire. He won -the <em>grand prix</em> for composition awarded by the city of -Paris with the dramatic symphony 'Tasso.' This, like -the <em>Symphonie légendaire</em>, employs a chorus and solo -voices in combination with the orchestra.</p> - -<p>Two composers, noted especially for their organ -works, should be mentioned in conclusion: Alexandre -Guilmant (born 1837) and Charles-Marie Widor (born -1845). Both made world-wide reputations as virtuosos -upon the organ, the former in the <em>Trinité</em>, the latter in -<em>St. Sulpice</em> in Paris. Guilmant has travelled over the -world and received the world's plaudits; Widor has -remained in Paris while droves of pupils from all over -the globe have gone back to their homes and have -spread his fame. Both have composed copiously for the -organ, Guilmant more exclusively so, also editing and -arranging a great deal for his instrument. Widor has -written two symphonies, choral works, chamber music, -and piano pieces, songs, etc., even a ballet, <em>La Korrigane</em>, -two grand operas, <em>Nerto</em> and <em>Les Pêcheurs de -St. Jean</em>, a comic opera and a pantomime, <em>Jeanne d'Arc</em>. -He is César Franck's successor as professor of organ -at the Conservatoire, and since 1891 has taken Dubois' -place in the chair of composition.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">C. C.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> The last-named is treated with his compatriots in a succeeding chapter.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> The Gewandhaus Concerts properly date from 1763, when regular performances -began under J. A. Hiller, though not given in the building known -as the Gewandhaus until 1781. At that time the present system of government -by a board of directors began. The conductors during the first seventy -years were, from 1763: J. A. Hiller (d. 1804); from 1785, J. G. Schicht -(d. 1823); from 1810, Christian Schulz (d. 1827); and from 1827, Christian -August Pohlenz (d. 1843). The standard of excellence was already famous. -But in 1835 Mendelssohn brought new éclat and enterprise, especially as he -soon had the invaluable help of the violinist David. The list of conductors -has been from 1835: Mendelssohn (d. 1847); from 1843, Ferdinand Hiller -(d. 1885); from 1844, Gade (d. 1890); from 1848, Julius Rietz (d. 1877); -from 1860, Reinecke; and from 1895, Arthur Nikisch.—Pratt, 'The History -of Music.'</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Naumann: <em>Musikgeschichte</em>, new ed. by E. Schmitz, 1913.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Waldo Selden Pratt: 'The History of Music,' New York, 1908.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Strauss' father, Johann, Sr. (1804-1849), was, with his waltzes and -the wonderful travelling orchestra that played them, as much the hero of -the day as his son. The son first established an orchestra of his own, but -after his father's death succeeded him as leader of the older organization.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Karl Millöcker, b. Vienna, 1842; d. 1899, Baden, near Vienna.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> He was divorced from her in 1869 and she became the wife of Richard -Wagner in the following year.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER II<br /> -<small>THE RUSSIAN ROMANTICISTS</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Romantic Nationalism in Russian Music; Pathfinders; Cavoss and Verstovsky—Mikhail -Ivanovich Glinka; Alexander Sergeyevitch Dargomijsky—Neo-Romanticism -in Russian Music; Anton Rubinstein—Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky.</p> -</div> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>Russian music as a whole is a true mirror of Slavic -racial character, life, passion, gloom, struggle, despair, -and agony. One can almost see in its turbulent-lugubrious -or buoyant-hilarious chords the rich colors of -the Byzantine style, the half Oriental atmosphere that -surrounds everything with a romantic halo—gloomy -prisons, wild mountains, wide steppes, luxurious palaces -and churches, idyllic villages and the lonely penal -colonies of Siberia. It really visualizes the life of the -empire of the Czar with a marvellous power. With its -short history and the unique position that it occupies -among the world's classics, it depicts the true type of -a Slav, the melancholy, simple and hospitable <em>moujik</em>, -with more fullness of color and virility than, for instance, -the German or Italian compositions depict the -representative types of those nations. In order to -understand the reason of this peculiar difference between -Russian and West European music it is necessary -to understand the social and psychological elements -upon which it is built.</p> - -<p>While the West European composers founded their -creations upon the traditions of the masters, Russian -music grew out of the very heart, the joys and the sorrows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -of the common people. All the Russian composers -of the early nationalistic era were men of active -life, who became musicians only on the urgency of their -inspiration. Glinka, for instance, was a functionary in -the Ministry of Finance, Dargomijsky was a clerk in -the Treasury Department, Moussorgsky was an army -officer, Rimsky-Korsakoff an officer of the navy, Borodine -was a celebrated inventor and scholar. Academic -musicians are wont to find the stamp of amateurishness -on most of the Russian classic music. To this Stassoff, -the celebrated Russian critic, replied: 'If that is the -case, our composers are only to be congratulated, for -they have not considered the form, the objective issues, -but the spirit, the subjective value of their inspirations. -We may be uneven and amateurish as nature and human -life are, but, thank Heaven, we are not artificial -and sophisticated!'</p> - -<p>Be it a song, instrumental composition, or opera, -everything in Russian music breathes the ethnographic -and social-psychologic peculiarities of the race, -which is semi-Oriental in its foundations. Nationalism -in music has been the watchword of most of the Russian -composers since the very start. But, besides, there -has been a strong tendency to subjective individualism, -that often expresses itself in a wealth of sad nuances. -This has been to a great extent the reason that foreigners -consider melancholy the predominant racial quality, -a view not just to Russian music as a whole, which -is far too vigorous and healthy a growth to remain -continuously under the sway of one emotional influence. -To a foreign, especially an Anglo-Saxon ear Russian -music may sound sometimes too realistic, sometimes -too monotonous and sad without any obvious -reason. It has been declared by foreign academicians -lacking in cohesion, technique, and convincing unity. -However, this is not a defect of Russian art, but a -characteristic trait of its racial soul. Every Russian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -artist, be he a composer, writer, or painter, in avoiding -artificiality puts into his creation all the idiomatic peculiarities -of his race without polishing out of it the -vigor of 'naturalness.' Russian music, more than any -other Russian art, expresses in all its archaic lines, soft -shades, and polyphonic harmonies the peculiar temperament -of the nation, which is just as restless and unbalanced -as its life.</p> - -<p>The fundamental purpose of the pathfinders of Russian -music was to create beauties that emanated, not -from a certain class or school, but directly from the -soul of the masses. Their ideal was to create life from -life. In order to accomplish their tasks they went back -to melodic traditions of early mediæval music, to the -folk-songs, the mythological chants and the folk dances. -Since the Russian people are extremely musical, folk-song -is a great factor in the nation's life and evolution. -Music accompanies <em>moujiks</em> from the cradle to the -grave and plays a leading rôle in their social ceremonies. -Though profound melancholy seems to be the -dominant note, yet along with the gloom are also reckless -hilarity and boisterous humor, which often whirl -one off one's feet, as, notably, in Glinka's <em>Kamarinskaya</em>. -The phenomenon is startling, for music of the -deepest melancholy swings unexpectedly to buoyant -humor and exultant joy. This is explained by the fact -that the average Russian is extremely emotional and -consequently dramatic in his artistic expression. Very -characteristic is a passage of Leo Tolstoy on Russian -folk-song in which he writes:</p> - -<p>'It is both sad and joyous, on a quiet summer evening, -to hear the sweeping song of the peasants. In it is -yearning without end, without hope, also power invisible, -the fateful stamp of destiny, and the faith in -preordination, one of the fundamental principles of our -race, which explains much that in Russian life seems -incomprehensible.'</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> - -<p>The early Russian composers thus became creators -in touch with the common people, the very opposite -of the composers of German and Latin races, who -created only for the salons of aristocracy. The latter -were and remained strangers to the people among -whom they lived. Everything they composed was -strictly academic and expressed all the sentimentality -and stateliness of the nobility. Although geniuses of -great technique, in racial color, emotional quickness -and spontaneity they remain behind the Russians.</p> - -<p>In spite of the fact that all the early Russian composers -were descendants of aristocracy, they remained -in their feelings and in their themes, like Gogol, Dostoievsky, -and Turgenieff in fiction, true portrayers of -the common people's life. There has never been an -aristocratic opera, a nobility music and salon influence -noticeable in Russian musical development. This may -be due to the fact that the Russian aristocracy is not -a privileged superior class of the autocratic régime, as -is that of Germany, Austria, Italy, and England, but -merely an intellectual, more advanced element of the -country. Thanks to Czar Feodor, the father of Peter -the Great, who destroyed all the pedigrees, patents -and papers of the nobility, saying that he did not want -to see their snobbery and intrigue in his empire, there -are no family documents in Russia which go back -beyond the reign of Czar Feodor. There is no doubt -that this autocratic proceeding has been beneficial to -Russian art, particularly to music, in having made it -democratic in its very foundations.</p> - -<p>Though music has been cultivated in Russia since -the time of Peter the Great, the origin of the true nationalistic -school belongs to the Napoleonic era, the -reigns of Alexander I and Nicholas I. Cosmopolitan -that he was, Peter the Great disliked everything national, -and invited Italian musicians to form a school -of systematic musical education in his empire. But<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -Catherine II became deeply interested in encouraging -native music and herself took an active part in the -work. Between her political schemings and romantic -affairs, she took time to write librettos, to invite musicians -to her palace and to instruct them how to use the -themes of the folk plays, fairy tales, and choral dances -for a new Russian stage music. It is said that sixty new -operas were written during her reign and produced on -the stage of the newly-founded municipal opera house. -One of them, 'Annette,' is quoted as the first wholly -Russian opera, in librettist, theme, and composer.</p> - -<p>A very conspicuous figure of the pre-nationalistic -period of Russian musical history is C. Cavos (1776-1840), -an Italian by birth, but a Slav in his work. He -wrote songs, instrumental music and operas, more or -less in Italian style but employing both Russian text -and theme. His opera, 'Ivan Sussanin,' was considered -a sensational novelty and the composer was hailed as a -great genius of the country. But his works died as -soon as they had loomed up under the protection of -the court and nothing of his compositions has survived.</p> - -<p>Close upon Cavos followed Verstovsky, whose operas -'Tomb of Askold' and 'Pan Tvardovsky' were -produced in Moscow when Napoleon invaded Russia -in 1812. The first was built upon an old Slavic saga -in which <em>Askold</em>, the hero, and his brother, <em>Dir</em>, play -the same rôles as do Hengist and Horsa in Saxon chronicles. -The other was founded upon an old Polish story -of adventure somewhat resembling the Faust legend. -Besides the operas Verstovsky composed a large number -of songs, ballads, and dances. By birth a Pole and -by education an Italian, his compositions resemble in -many ways those of Rubinstein.</p> - -<p>Russian musical conditions in the first half of the -past century were very much like those in America at -present. Besides Cavos and Verstovsky there had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> -been and were a number of more or less conspicuous -imitators of the Italian school. Their works were as -little Russian in character as Puccini's 'Girl of the -Golden West' is American. But the advent of Mozart, -Beethoven, and Schubert in Germany made a deep impression -upon the music-loving Russians. The men -upon whom the romantic German music made the -strongest impression were Glinka and Dargomijsky, -both inclined toward romantic ideals and themes. -Their first striking move was to rebel against the Italian -influences. 'Russia, like Germany, shall have its -own music independent of all academic schools and -foreign flavors, and it shall be a music of the masses. -Music is more vigorous and more individual when it -is national. We like individuality in life and literature, -as in all arts and politics. Why should the world not -cling more to the racial than to the cosmopolitan ideal? -The tendency of Italian music is cosmopolitan. I believe -that the tempo of music must correspond to the -tempo of life. Our duty is to speak for all the nation.' -Thus Glinka wrote at the critical moment.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>Naturally Glinka's first attempts were ridiculed by -contemporary salon critics and concert habitués, who -looked at him as a 'moujik-maniac' and naïve dilettante. -His attempt at something truly national in character -was considered plebeian and undignified for a -nobleman. But, encouraged by Shukovsky, the famous -poet of that time and the tutor of the heir-apparent, -later Czar Alexander II, Glinka published in 1833 the -first volume of his songs and ballads, based purely on -themes of folk-songs. As he was merely a functionary -of the Ministry of Finance, without any systematic -musical training and had no professional prestige, his -work was ignored by the press, while society merely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -made fun of him and his songs. It was evident that he -could not get any hearing in this way.</p> - -<p>Shukovsky, whose apartment at the palace was a -rendezvous of artists and reformers of that time, suggested -to Glinka that he compose an opera out of the -rich material in his unpublished ballads, songs, and -instrumental sketches, and he on his part would take -care that it should be produced on the imperial stage. -Shukovsky even outlined a libretto on an historical -subject similar to that used by Cavos and suggested -to name it 'A Death for the Czar.' Baron Rosen, the -poetic private secretary of the Czarevitch, wrote the -libretto under the supervision of Shukovsky and Glinka -named it 'A Life for the Czar.' This was the first distinctly -national Russian opera that stands apart from -the Italian and German style. Instead of effective airs -and elaborate orchestration Glinka emphasized the -use of choruses and spectacular scenic methods, which -are more natural to Russian life than the former. -When the opera was produced in 1837 for the first time -in St. Petersburg the people went wild about it and -the young composer was hailed as a great æsthetic reformer. -The czar appointed him to act as a conductor -of the court choir, the famous <em>pridvornaya kapella</em>. -The phenomenal success embittered the professional -musicians of Russia and they began to fight the composer -with redoubled vigor.</p> - -<p>Fortunately the czar, and especially Shukovsky, -were on the side of Glinka, so that all the intrigues of -his enemies failed. Meanwhile he had composed several -songs and a large number of ballads and orchestral -pieces, of which <em>Kamarinskaya</em> and the 'Spanish Overture' -are the most known. Glinka's songs and instrumental -pieces are full of melody and color, and they -are still sung and played in Russia, but the best he has -created are his two operas. In 1842 he finished his -second opera, 'Russlan and Liudmilla,' which, though<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -more poetic and melodious than 'A Life for the Czar', -failed to arouse the enthusiasm which had greeted his -first opera. The reason for that may have been that it -was distinctly democratic and not historical, and historical -pieces were a fad of that time.</p> - -<p>Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka was born in 1804, in the -province of Smolensk, and his father, a wealthy nobleman, -sent him at the age of thirteen to be educated in -an aristocratic college in St. Petersburg. The young -man was intended for the civil service of the government, -but he loved music so passionately that he neglected -his other studies and took lessons in piano and -the theory of composition from various teachers of the -capital until he was about to be expelled from the -school. Graduated in 1824, he tried to get a position -in the treasury department, but, failing in this, continued -to study music till he secured it. Beethoven, -Weber, and Schubert made a lasting impression upon -his mind and he never ceased to worship them, though -he never imitated them. Byron, Goethe, and Pushkin -were the poets that inspired him most of all, and he -used to say if he could be in his native music what -those men had been in their native poetry he would die -a happy man.</p> - -<p>With all his lack of technical skill, Glinka remains -the founder of the nationalistic school of music -of his native land. In spite of his many shortcomings -he is natural and superior to the opera composers -of his time in Italy and Germany. As all Russians have -inborn love of song and as that is expressed in manifold -ways in their actual life more than in the life of -any other nation, Glinka's main idea was to found the -Russian opera on combined passages of realistic musical -life, giving them a dramatic character. To emphasize -this he made use of picturesque stage glitter and -spectacular scenic effects. This betrays itself forcibly in -the vivid colors that outline the semi-Oriental architecture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -of a cathedral, palace, public building or cottage, -or in the picturesque costumes for marriage, -for burial and for the various other social and official -ceremonies characteristic of Russia.</p> - -<p>In his private life Glinka was just as unfortunate as -Tschaikowsky. The girl he had begun to love passionately -married a man of more promising social career. -He married a woman whom he did not love and they -were divorced after some scandal and difficulty. Then -the woman whom he had first loved and who was -married to a prominent army officer changed her -mind and eloped with Glinka. In order to avoid a -public scandal the czar forced the composer to relinquish -the woman of his choice. Glinka obeyed and fell -into a mood of melancholy which undermined his -health little by little until he died in Berlin in 1857. -But, strange to say, the private life of Glinka did -not affect his compositions, for there is nothing extremely -melancholy or sentimentally sad in his music. -An air of sentimental romanticism emanates from his -numerous ballads, songs, and instrumental works. -Like the rest of his contemporaries he is lyric, full of -color and sentiment in his minor works. One and all -are distinctly national.</p> - -<p>Together with Glinka, Dargomijsky undertook to -carry the idea of nationalism in music into practice, in -spite of all the objections of contemporaries. They -met frequently and became close friends. Their aspirations -were the same, though Glinka was socially -prominent by reason of his official position, and Dargomijsky -was a mere clerk in the treasury department -and composed chiefly for his own pleasure. It was -much more difficult for him than for Glinka to obtain -social recognition, though the majority of his works -are far more national and artistic than Glinka's. His -songs stand close to the heart of the <em>moujik</em>. 'Glinka -is an artist of the nobility, I am of the peasants,' was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> -the way Dargomijsky defined the difference between -Glinka and himself.</p> - -<p>Born on February 2, 1813, in the province of Tula, -Alexander Sergeyevitch Dargomijsky was the son of -a postal official, who lost his position and property in -Moscow when Napoleon occupied that city. The boy -grew up in great poverty and the only education he -received was that given by his parents. At the age -of twenty he made a trip to St. Petersburg and managed -to get the position of clerk in the treasury department. -Here he continued his studies in music, -which had been near his heart since early childhood. -After a few years of strenuous work he realized that -it was more important for him to collect and study -folk-music than to acquire the technique and theory -of the art of music, and with this in view he undertook -excursions to the villages during the summer vacation, -collecting folk-songs, attending festivals and -social ceremonies of the peasants. In this way he -stored up a huge material and knowledge for his individual -work. His first attempt was a series of songs -and ballads. In 1842 Dargomijsky resigned his official -position to devote his time exclusively to music. His -first opera, 'Esmeralda,' had a great success in Moscow -and gave him some prestige and courage to undertake -the composition of his second opera, 'The Triumph of -Bacchus,' which, however, was a failure.</p> - -<p>Dargomijsky's masterpiece is and remains his opera -<em>Russalka</em> ('The Nymph'), which is composed to a libretto -based upon a poem of Pushkin. It takes a listener -to the picturesque and romantic banks of the -Dnieper River, where the heroine, Natasha, the daughter -of a miller, is deserted by a princely lover. In -despair she flings herself into the river and is at once -surrounded by a throng of the <em>russalkas</em>—the nymphs, -with whom Russian imagination has populated every -brook, lake, and river. She herself becomes a nymph<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -and eventually succeeds in enticing her false lover to -her arms beneath the water.</p> - -<p>Dargomijsky's last opera, 'The Marble Guest,' for the -libretto of which he used the poetic drama of Pushkin, -based on the legend of Don Juan, was produced only -after his death in 1872. It differs from his previous -operas by the predominance of recitative, concerted -pieces being almost banished. Like Glinka, he was not -over-prolific in his compositions. Besides the four -operas he wrote only five or six orchestral pieces, some -thirty songs and ballads and a few dances. Tschaikowsky -complained bitterly that he was too lazy, although -he admitted that Dargomijsky was greatly hampered -by lack of systematic musical education.</p> - -<p>Like Glinka, Dargomijsky was unhappy in his private -life. The woman whom he loved so deeply was -the wife of another man, and the one who loved him -found no response on his part. He was relieved of his -worries for daily bread after his <em>Russalka</em> made a success -on the stage. His apartment was the real rendezvous -of the group of young Russian nationalistic composers -who surpassed him by far in their works, such -as Borodine, Moussorgsky, Balakireff, César Cui, Rimsky-Korsakoff, -and Seroff. Dargomijsky died in 1869.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>At the same time that the Balakireff group of Russian -nationalists began its work in St. Petersburg a romantic -temple was founded by Rubinstein. Among the -masters of Russian music he occupies an interesting -place, being, as it were, a link between the lyric Oriental -and the nationalistic Slav. In many ways he was a -phenomenal figure. Though he laid the corner-stone of -the modern Russian musical pedagogic system and was -a dominant authority of his time, he never caught the -true national spirit of Russia and by no means all his -talented pupils became his followers. He died a man -disappointed in his ideals and ambitions. 'All I care -about after my death is that men shall remember me by -this conservatory; let them say, this was Anton Rubinstein's -work,' he said, pointing to the Imperial Conservatory -in St. Petersburg,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> of which he had been not only -the founder but the director for many years.</p> - -<p>During all his influential life Rubinstein was bitterly -opposed to the Russian nationalistic school of music, -at the head of which stood Balakireff, Moussorgsky, and -Rimsky-Korsakoff. He referred to them as to dabblers -and eccentric amateurs. Even toward his pupil, Tschaikowsky, -he assumed a condescending attitude. His -veneration of the classics was almost fanatical. In the -genius of his contemporaries he had no faith. He truly -believed that music ended with Chopin. Even Wagner -and Liszt were small figures in his eyes. To the realistic -style initiated by Berlioz and the music dramas of -Wagner he was indifferent. His aspirations were for -the highest type of pure music, but he lacked the ability -to transform his own ideals into something real. Lyric -romanticism was all he cared for. The slightest innovation -in form, all attempts at realism in music, upset -his æsthetic measuring scale. But, despite his deficiencies -and faults, he deserves more credit from -posterity than it seems willing to accede to him. Saint-Saëns -has said: I have heard Rubinstein's music -reproached for its structure, its large plan, its vast -stretches, its carelessness in detail. The public taste -to-day calls for complications without end, arabesques, -and incessant modulations; but this is a fashion and -nothing more. It seems to me that his fruitfulness, -grand character and personality suffice to class Rubinstein -among the greatest musicians of all times.'</p> - -<p>The outspoken romanticism of Rubinstein's works -is in a sense akin to the spirit of Byron's poems. There -is a passionate sweetness in his melodies that one finds -rarely in composers of his type. But in giving overmuch -attention to objective form, he often missed subjective -warmth, especially in his operas and his larger -instrumental works. He achieved the greatest success -in his songs of Oriental character, from which there -breathes the spirit of a heavy tropic night. But in these -his best moments he remains exotic and inexplicable to -our Occidental ears.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ilo-fp48" style="max-width: 30.0625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo-fp48.jpg" alt="ilo-fp48" /> - - -<p class="center">Russian Romanticists:</p> - -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-left: 3.2em; ">Mikhail Glinka</span> <span style="padding-left: 5.5em; ">Alexander Dargomijsky</span><br /> -<span style="padding-right: 2.2em; ">Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky</span> <span style="padding-left: 2em; ">Anton Rubinstein</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Romantic as his music was the course of Rubinstein's -life. He himself, according to Rimsky-Korsakoff, -blamed the romantic incidents of his life for his -shortcomings. 'I was spoiled by the flattery of high -society, which I received during my first concert tour -as a boy of thirteen,' Rubinstein told his brother composer. -'It made me conceited and fanatical. The misery -that I endured later wasted the best creative years -of my life, and the sudden success which followed -my acquaintance with the Grand Duchess Helen [the -sister of the Czar, who loved him] killed my aspirations -for the higher work by making me unexpectedly -the dictator of Russian musical education. If I had -worked up step by step by my own efforts I would -have reached the goal of my ambition.' At any rate -the unusual career of Rubinstein explains the psychological -side of his achievements and disappointments. -Born in 1829 in the village of Vichvatinetz, in the -Province of Podolia, in southwestern Russia, he began -to study the piano at the age of eight in Moscow. His -teacher, Alexander Villoing, at once realized that his -pupil was a genius and for five years spent his best -efforts upon him. When the boy was thirteen his -teacher undertook a concert tour with him, first -through Russia, later abroad. Rubinstein was a pianistic -marvel and was received everywhere with the -greatest enthusiasm. Chopin and Liszt declared him -a 'wonder child.' After three years of touring he settled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -in Paris, lived in princely style and spent all the -money he had earned. Feeling the pinch of poverty, -he went to Vienna to secure the influence of Liszt, who -advised him to go to Berlin and gave him letters of -introduction. There he found the city in a state of -revolution and abandoned by society. In despair and -almost starving, Rubinstein pushed on to St. Petersburg, -where the once celebrated prodigy began to earn -his living with piano lessons at fifty cents until by a -mere chance he secured the position of pianist in the -court choir. At this time he composed his first opera, -<em>Dimitry Donskoi</em>, which was performed with some -success.</p> - -<p>Rubinstein now undertook another trip to Liszt, at -Weimar, and there he met the Grand Duchess Helen, -who at once invited the young pianist to be her guest in -Italy. This was the beginning of his career. In 1856 -Rubinstein composed some of his songs and piano -pieces and soon after this the Imperial Conservatory -of Music was founded in St. Petersburg and Moscow -with the Grand Duchess as patroness. In 1862 Rubinstein -became the director of the conservatory in St. -Petersburg and held the position until 1867 and later -from 1887 to 1891. In 1865 he married and made his -residence at Peterhof, where he lived in close touch -with Russian society. During this period of power and -comfort Rubinstein composed his sonatas, symphonies, -operas, and piano pieces, few of which are ever performed -nowadays.</p> - -<p>Rubinstein's orchestral and operatic works occupy a -place between Schumann and Meyerbeer. His most -popular orchestral compositions are 'Faust,' 'Ivan IV,' -'Don Quixote,' and his Second Symphony, 'Ocean.' -The other five symphonies are rather stately, cold tone -pictures without any definite foundation. More known, -and even frequently performed, are his chamber music -pieces, the 'cello sonata in D major, and the trio in B<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -major. Of his operas and oratorios only one work, 'The -Demon,' has survived in the classic Russian répertoire. -The rest are long forgotten. Of longer life than Rubinstein's -orchestral and operatic compositions are his -piano pieces, especially his barcarolles, preludes, -études, and dances. All of his larger piano pieces are, -like his orchestral works, prolix, diffuse and full of -unassimilated ideas. Through all his compositions -there blows a breath of Oriental romanticism, something -that reminds one of the 'Thousand and One -Nights.' A peculiar sweetness and brilliancy of harmony -distinguish his style, but these particular qualities -make Rubinstein unpopular in our realistic age. -It is true that his piano pieces have little that is individual, -but they are graceful and aristocratic. To an -ear attuned to modern impressionism they are nothing -but graceful, warmly colored salon pieces devoid of -arresting features. But whatever may be the fate of -Rubinstein's instrumental music, he was a composer of -excellent songs, which will be sung as long as man -lives. They are the very crown of his creations. From -among his numerous ballads and songs 'The Asra,' -'The Dream,' 'Night,' etc., are especially enchanting. -In them he stands unmatched by any composer of his -time. The number of his works surpasses one hundred; -there are ten string quartets, three quintets, -five concertos, three sonatas for violin and piano, two -for 'cello and piano, two for violin and orchestra. -According to Russian critical opinion he was an imitator -of Mendelssohn and Schumann. But the fact is -he suffered from the overwhelming influence of the -German classics, whom he did not assimilate thoroughly, -and from being one of the greatest of piano virtuosi -of his age, which absorbed most of his attention -and time. It is not unnatural that a great executive -artist should acquire the forms of those composers -whose works he performs most. In following these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -models Rubinstein simply demonstrated a psychological -rule.</p> - -<p>Rubinstein's main importance in Russian music resides -in the fact that he laid the foundation of a nation-wide -musical education, so that now the national -and local governments are back of a serious æsthetic -culture. Besides having been twice a director of the -Imperial Conservatory of Music in St. Petersburg, he -was from time to time a director of the Imperial Musical -Society and conductor of the St. Petersburg symphony -concerts. He died in 1894 in Peterhof and is -buried in the graveyard of Alexandro-Nevsky monastery, -near to his rivals, Balakireff, Borodine, and Moussorgsky.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>An artist of the same school as Rubinstein, yet entirely -different in works and spirit, was Peter Ilyitch -Tschaikowsky. Rubinstein was a creative virtuoso, -Tschaikowsky was a creative genius. They took the -same general direction in form and themes, but otherwise -a wide abyss separated these two unique spirits of -Russian music. Tschaikowsky had Rubinstein's passion -and technical skill, the same lyric style, and, like -him, adhered to West European form, but in his essentials -he remains a Russian of the most classic tendencies; -his language is that of an emotional Slav. His -music glows with the peculiar fire that burned in his -soul; rapture and agony, gloom and gayety seem in a -perpetual struggle for expression. With all its nationalistic -riches there is nothing in Tschaikowsky's tonal -structures that resembles those of his contemporaries. -He is a romantic poet of classic pattern, yet wholly a -Russian. He is altogether introspective, sentimentally -subjective, and ecclesiastically fanatic. With all his -Slavic pathos and subjective vigor Tschaikowsky builds -his tone-temples in Gothic style, which he never leaves.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> -That is very largely the reason why his music is so -phenomenally popular abroad, while his contemporaries -have, despite their originality and greatness, remained -in his shadow.</p> - -<p>Tschaikowsky's compositions are as strange as his -inner self. His likening his artistic expressions to a -violent contest between a beast and a god no doubt had -its psychological reason. That there is much mystery -in his life and its relation to his art is apparent from -the following passage with which Kashkin, his biographer, -closes his book,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> 'I have finished my reminiscences. -Of course, they might be supplemented by accounts -of a few more events, but I shall add nothing at -present, and perhaps I shall never do so. One document -I shall leave in a sealed packet, and if thirty -years hence it still has interest for the world the seal -may be broken; this packet I shall leave in the care of -Moscow University. It will contain the history of one -episode in Tschaikowsky's life upon which I have -barely touched in my book.'</p> - -<p>That seal is still unbroken. All we can guess of -the nature of the secret is that it involves a tragedy of -romantic character. We shall get a closer idea of the -great composer when we consider a few characteristic -episodes of his private life in connection with his career -as a musician. Peter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky was -born in 1840, in the province of Viatka, where his -father was the general manager of Kamsko-Botkin's -Mills. He showed already in his early youth a great -liking for music and poetry, but the wish of his parents -was that he should make his career as an official of -the government. With this in view he was educated -in the aristocratic law school in St. Petersburg. Graduated -in 1859, he became an officer in the department of -the Ministry of Justice. While he was a student in the -law school he kept up his studies of music by taking -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span>lessons from F. D. Becker and K. I. Karel and did not -give them up even when he became an active functionary -with less leisure than before. The desire for -a thorough musical education gave him no peace until -he entered the newly founded Conservatory of Music, -where Rubinstein and Zarembi became his teachers. -Though regularly the course was longer, Tschaikowsky -was graduated after three years of study, in 1866, and -at once was invited to become a professor of harmony -in the Imperial Conservatory of Music in Moscow. -During the first years of his life as a teacher Tschaikowsky -composed some smaller instrumental and vocal -pieces, which were performed with marked success, -partly by his pupils, partly by touring musical artists. -His first large compositions were the First Symphony, -which he composed in 1868, and his opera <em>Voyevoda</em>, -which he wrote a year later. Both these compositions -were less successful than his earlier ones. Nevertheless -the disappointment did not discourage the -young composer, for he proceeded to compose new -operas, 'Undine,' <em>Opritchnik</em>, and 'Vakula the Smith,' -besides some music for orchestra. In 1873 he composed -the ballet 'Snow Maiden,' and then followed in -succession his Second, Third, and Fourth Symphonies.</p> - -<p>Assured of a pension of three thousand rubles -($1,500) a year and an extra income from the royalty -of his published music, Tschaikowsky resigned his teaching -post and devoted all his time to composition. His -Fourth Symphony had to some extent satisfied his ambition -as a symphonic composer, since it had been -received enthusiastically by the public in both Moscow -and St. Petersburg; he now threw all his efforts into -opera. In 1878 he finished his <em>Evgheny Onegin</em>, his -greatest opera, besides his two ballets.</p> - -<p>In spite of his stormy private life and various romantic -conflicts Tschaikowsky was a prolific worker. -Besides the above-mentioned operas he wrote six symphonies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -of which the last two have gained world-wide -fame, three ballets, the overtures 'Romeo and Juliet,' -'The Tempest,' 'Hamlet,' and '1812,' the 'Italian Caprice,' -and the symphonic poem 'Manfred.' Besides these he -wrote two concertos for piano and orchestra, one concerto -for violin, three quartets, one trio, over a hundred -songs, some thirty smaller instrumental pieces and a -series of excellent church music. They vary in their -character and quality. Some of them are truly great -and majestic, while others are of mediocre merit. -<em>Opritchnik</em>, <em>Mazeppa</em>, <em>Tcharodeiki</em>, and <em>Jeanne d'Arc</em> -are dramatic operas, while <em>Evgheny Onegin</em>, <em>Pique -Dame</em>, and <em>Yolanta</em> are of outspoken lyric type. <em>Tscherevitschki</em> -and 'Vakula the Smith' are his two comic -operas.</p> - -<p>Though Tschaikowsky's ambition was to excel in -opera, his symphonic compositions represent the best -he has written, especially his Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth -Symphonies, 'The Tempest,' the <em>Marche Slav</em>, 'Manfred,' -his piano concerto in B-flat minor, and his three -ballets, 'Snow Maiden,' 'Sleeping Beauty,' and 'Swan -Lake.' He is a perfect master of counterpoint and -graceful melodies. How well he mastered his technique -is proven by the careful modelling of his themes and -figures. But in opera his grasp is behind those of his -rivals. There is too much of the West European polish -and sentimentality, and too little of the elemental vigor -and grandeur of a Russian dramatist.</p> - -<p>To the period of Tschaikowsky's last years as a -teacher in Moscow, especially from 1875 to 1885, belong -the mysterious romantic troubles which presumably -became the foundation of his creative despair, the -pessimism which has made him the Schopenhauer of -sound. Here may lie the secret of all the turbulent emotionalism -from which emanated those tragic chords, -all the wild musical images, that incessant melancholy -strain which characterize his works. In 1877 he married<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -Antony Ivanovna Millukova, but their married life -was of short duration. There are many strange stories -as to his despair on account of an unhappy love. -Tschaikowsky was an affectionate friend of a Mme. -von Meck, with whom he was in perpetual correspondence -and who gave him material aid in carrying out -his artistic ambitions, though he had never met her. -Why he did not is a mystery. It is said that he contemplated -suicide upon many occasions. He told his -friend Kashkin that twice he had gone up to his knees -in the Moscow River with the idea of drowning himself, -but that the effect of the cold water sobered him. -When his wildest emotions seized him he would rush -out and sit in the snow, if it was winter, or stand in the -river until numb with the cold. This cured him temporarily, -but he insisted that he remained a soul-sick -man. 'I am putting all my virtue and wickedness, passion -and agony into the piece I am writing,' he wrote -to a friend while composing his <em>Symphonie Pathétique</em>.</p> - -<p>In 1890 Tschaikowsky celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary -of his musical activity and was honored with -the degree of Doctor of Music by Cambridge University. -He made a tour of America, of which he spoke in high -terms as a country of new beauties and new life. One -of his remarks is characteristic. 'The rush and roar of -that wild freedom of America still haunts me. It is -like fifty orchestras combined. Although you do not -see any Indians running about the streets of New -York, yet their spirit has put a stamp on its whole life. -It is in the everlasting activity and the stoic attitude -toward what we call fate.'</p> - -<p>One of the peculiar traits of Tschaikowsky was his -indifference to his creations after they had been produced. -He even disliked to hear them and always -found fault with his early compositions, especially with -his operas; yet he did not know how he could have -improved them. Exceptions, however, were his Fourth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -and Sixth Symphonies, his 'Eugen Onegin,' <em>Sérénade -Mélancholique</em>, his Concerto in D, and a few other -compositions. While working upon his favorite opera -he was also engaged upon his Fourth Symphony. When -'Eugen Onegin' was first performed in Moscow, Tschaikowsky -whispered to Rubinstein, who was next to him -in the audience: 'This and the Fourth Symphony are -the decisive works of my career. If they fail I am a -failure.'</p> - -<p>Tschaikowsky died suddenly, October 25, 1893, in -St. Petersburg—of cholera, as it was said officially. -But according to men who knew him intimately he -poisoned himself. This, we may be sure, is one of the -secrets sealed by Kashkin.</p> - -<p>Tschaikowsky was one of the greatest masters of -the orchestra the world has seen. In effects of striking -brilliance and of sombreness he is equally successful, -and it is no doubt in a great measure on account of -this Slavic splendor that his orchestral works have -won the public. Yet he is far more than a colorist. -His mastery over orchestral polyphony is supreme. -There is always movement in his music, a rising and -falling of all the parts, a complicated interweaving, -never with the loss of sonority and richness. He is a -great harmonist as well and an irresistible melodist. -His rhythms are full of life, whether they are march, -waltz or barbarous wild dances. The movement in -five-four time in the Sixth Symphony is in itself a masterpiece -and has stimulated countless efforts in the -directions to which it pointed. It must be admitted -that melody, harmony, and rhythm, all bear the stamp -of the Slavic temperament, and, in so far as they are -Slavic or racial, they are vigorous and healthy; but -often Tschaikowsky becomes morbidly subjective, is -obviously not master of his mood, but slave to it. -Hence, after frequent hearings, there comes a -weight upon the listener, an intangible oppression<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> -which he would be glad to avoid, but which cannot be -shaken off. One detects the line of the individual and -forgets the splendor of the race.</p> - -<p>Yet through Tschaikowsky the glories of Russian -music were revealed to the general public. He occupies -a double position, as a Russian and as a strange -individuality, whose influence has been pronounced -upon modern music. The Russian composers unquestionably -hold a conspicuous place among those composers -who have been specially gifted to hear new possibilities -of orchestral sound and to add to the splendor -of orchestral music. Many of them denied Wagner. -The question of how far the peculiar powers of -the orchestra have been developed by them independently -of Wagner, with results in many ways similar, -may become the source of much speculation. It is -quite possible that, thanks to their own racial sensitiveness, -they have devised a brilliant orchestration similar -but unrelated to Wagner.</p> - - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">I. N.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Established by the Imperial Musical Society in 1862.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Kashkin: 'Life of Tschaikowsky' (in Russian).</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER III<br /> -<small>THE MUSIC OF MODERN SCANDINAVIA</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Rise of national schools in the nineteenth century—Growth of -national expression in Scandinavian lands—Music in modern Denmark—Sweden -and her Music—The Norwegian composers; Edvard Grieg—Sinding -and other Norwegians—The Finnish Renaissance: Sibelius and others.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p2">The most striking characteristic of the music of the -nineteenth century has doubtless been its astonishing -enrichment in technical means. Its next most striking -characteristic is easily its growth in national expression. -National art-music in the modern sense was almost -unknown before the nineteenth century. The -nearest thing to it was a 'Turkish march' in a Mozart -operetta or sonata, or an 'allemand' or 'schottisch' in a -French suite. The national differences in eighteenth -century music were differences of school, not of nationality. -It is true that Italian music usually tended -to lyricism, French to dexterity of form, and German -to technical solidity; it is true further that these qualities -corresponded in a rough way to the characteristics -of the respective nations. But all three used one and -the same musical system; they differed not so much in -their music as in the way they treated their music.</p> - -<p>In the nineteenth century the national feeling found -expression as it never had before. The causes of this -were numerous, but the most important were two of a -political nature: First, the spread of the principles of -the French Revolution made democracy a far more -general fact than it had ever been before; political -authority and moral influence shifted more and more -from the rulers to the people and the character of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> -ordinary men and women became more and more the -character of the nation. Second, the resistance called -forth by Napoleon's wars of aggression aroused national -consciousness as it had never been aroused before. -Napoleon, with a solid national consciousness -behind him, was invincible until he found a national -consciousness opposed to him—in Spain in 1809, in -Russia in 1812, and in Germany in 1813. Only the sense -of nationality had been able to preserve nations; and -it was the sense of nationality that thereafter continued -to maintain them.</p> - -<p>To these two political causes we may perhaps add a -third cause—one of a technical-musical character. -With the early Beethoven the old classical system of -music had reached its apogee. When this was once -complete and firmly implanted in people's consciousness -contrasting sorts of music could be clearly apperceived. -Once the logical course of classical development -was finished, men's minds were free to look elsewhere -for beauties of another sort. So when a political -interest in the common people led men to investigate -the people's folk-songs, musical consciousness was at -the same time prepared to appreciate the striking differences -between art-music and folk-music.</p> - -<p>Now all the national music of the nineteenth century -is based in a very real sense on the folk-music of the -people. The music of the eighteenth century could not -be truly national, because it was supported chiefly by -the aristocracy, and an art will inevitably tend to express -the character of the people who pay its bills. The -differences between the aristocracy of one nation and -that of another are largely superficial. The court of -Louis XV was distinguished from that of Frederick the -Great chiefly by the cut of the courtiers' clothes. But -the France of 1813 was distinguished from the Germany -of 1813 by the mould of the national soul. And -the national soul can be seen very imperfectly in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -official art of a nation; it must be sought for in the -popular art—in the myths, the fairy tales, the ballads, -and the folk-songs. So when the newly awakened national -consciousness began to demand musical expression, -it inevitably sought its materials in the music of -the people.</p> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>In the eighteenth century this popular music was -thought too crude to be of artistic value. The snobbishness -of political life was reflected in the prevailing -attitude toward art. Because the people's melodies -were different from the accepted music they were held -to be wrong. Or rather, one may say that cultivated -people hardly dreamed of their existence. Gradually, -in the latter half of the eighteenth century, scholars -became aware of the value of popular art. Herder was -the first important man to discover it in Germany, and -he passed his appreciation of it on to Goethe. By the -opening of the nineteenth century the appreciation of -folk-art was well under way. Collections of folk-songs -and folk-poetry were appearing, and their high artistic -value was being recognized. With the first decade of -the century the impulse reached the Scandinavian -lands, and their national existence in art began.</p> - -<p>These countries had of course been free from the immediate -turmoil of the Napoleonic wars. They had -suffered, as all Europe had suffered, but they had not -been obliged to defend their nationality with their -blood. Denmark and Norway-Sweden had been for -centuries substantially independent, and Finland, which -had been in loose subjugation alternately to Sweden -and Russia, was practically independent for some time -until a political pact between Napoleon and the Czar -Alexander made her a grand duchy of Russia; but even -as a part of the Russian Empire she suffered no violation -of her national individuality until late in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -nineteenth century. Political independence and geographical -isolation had left the northern nations -somewhat turgid and provincial. Their artistic life had -been largely borrowed. The various courts had their -choirs and kapellmeisters, usually imported from Germany. -Native composers were infrequent; composition -was largely in the hands of second-rate musicians -from Germany who had migrated that they might be -larger fish in a smaller puddle. And the composition -was, of course, entirely in the foreign style. Stockholm -and Copenhagen had their opera in the latter half of -the eighteenth century, but the works performed were -chiefly French and Italian. These imported works set -the standard for most of the native musical composition. -Toward the end of the eighteenth century German -influence began to predominate, especially in Denmark, -where the German <em>Singspiel</em> took root and enjoyed -a long and prosperous career. The German influence -was much more proper to the Scandinavian -lands than that of France or Italy, but it had not the -slightest relation to a national art. Danish stories occasionally -appeared in the subject matter, but the music -was substantially that of Reichardt and Zelter in -Germany. In Sweden the course of events was the -same. Occasionally national subject matter appeared -in operatic librettos, but in the music never. Sweden, -which up to the beginning of the nineteenth century -continued to be a force in European political affairs, -had naturally enjoyed a considerable degree of intercourse -with other nations, and was all the more influenced -by them in her art. Norway and Finland, -however, were completely isolated, and received their -musical ministrations not at second hand but at third. -In all these countries there was a considerable degree -of musical life (choirs, orchestras, and dramatic -works), but this was almost wholly confined to the -large cities. Yet all these nations had the possibilities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> -of a rich artistic life—in national traditions, in folk-song, -and in a common sensitiveness of the racial soul. -All four nations are distinctly musical, and in Denmark -and Finland especially the solo or four-part song was -cultivated lovingly in the home and in the smaller communities.</p> - -<p>From their isolation and provincialism the Scandinavian -countries were awakened, not by direct, but by -reflex impulse. The vigorous national life of other -European lands gradually stimulated a sympathetic -movement in the two Scandinavian peninsulas. Denmark -saw its first good collection of folk-songs in 1812-14, -Sweden in 1814-16. In 1842 came A. P. Berggreen's -famous collection of Danish songs, and about the same -time the 540 Norse folk-songs and dances gathered and -edited by Ludwig Lindeman. Doubtless this interest -had some political significance. But far more important -than these was the appearance in 1835 of the first -portion of the <em>Kalevala</em>, the Finnish national epic, -which has since taken its place beside the Iliad and the -<em>Nibelungenlied</em> as one of the greatest epics of all time. -This remarkable poem seems to have been genuinely -popular in origin. It remained in the mouths and -hearts of the people throughout the centuries, almost -unknown to the scholars. A Finnish physician, Elias -Lönnrot, made it his life work to collect and piece together -the fragments of the great poem. In 1835 he -published thirty-five runes, and in 1849 a new edition -containing fifty—all taken down directly from the -peasants' lips. This work had a decided political significance. -It intensified and solidified the national consciousness, -tending to counterbalance the influence of -the Swedish language, which until then had been unquestionedly -that of the cultivated classes; later it -formed a buffer to the Russian language which the -Czar attempted to force upon the Finns by imperial -edict. It served to arouse the national feeling to such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> -a pitch that Finland has in recent years been the chief -thorn in the Czar's side. And this fact, as we shall see, -helped to give the Finnish music of the last three decades -its intense national character.</p> - -<p>The distinctly national movement in Scandinavian -countries began, as we have said, in the first decade of -the nineteenth century. Its growth thereafter was -steady and uninterrupted and was aided by the generous -spread of choral and symphonic music. In the first -stage the music written was based chiefly on German -models, but it was written more and more by native -Scandinavians. In the second stage (roughly the second -third of the century) the native composers wrote -music that was based on the national folk-music, but -timidly and vaguely. In the third stage, the folk-tunes -were frankly utilized, the national scales and rhythms -were deliberately and continuously called into service, -and the whole musical output given a character homogeneously -and distinctively national. It was in this -stage that the Scandinavian music became known to -the world at large. Grieg, a man of the highest talent, -possibly of genius, made himself one of the best loved -composers of the nineteenth century, and awakened a -widespread taste for the exotic. Together with Tschaikowsky -the Russian he made nationalism in music a -world-wide triumph. After his success it was no longer -counted against a composer that he spoke in a strange -tongue. The very strangeness of the tongue became a -source of interest; and if there was added thereto a -strong and beautiful musical message the new composer -usually had easy sailing. The outward success of -Grieg doubtless stimulated musical endeavor in Scandinavian -lands, and enabled the world at large to become -familiar with many minor talents whose reputations -could otherwise not have passed beyond their -national borders. Finally, there has arisen in Finland -the greatest and most individual of all Scandinavian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -composers, and one of the most powerful writers of -music in the modern world—Jean Sibelius. In him the -most intense nationalism speaks with a universal voice.</p> - -<p>The folk-music which made this Scandinavian nationalism -possible is rich and extensive. Apparently it -is of rather recent growth, but this fact is offset by the -isolation of the countries in which it developed. It is -of pure Germanic stock (with the exception of certain -Eastern influences in the music of Finland). Yet it has -a marked individuality, a perfume of its own. This -is the more remarkable as we discover that in external -qualities it exhibits only slight differences from the German -folk-song. The individuality is not obvious, as -with the Russian or Hungarian folk-music, but subtly -resident in a multitude of details which escape analysis. -Not only is the Scandinavian music clearly distinct -from that of the other Germanic lands, but the -music of each of the four countries is subtly distinguished -from that of all the others. The Danish is most -like the ordinary German folk-song with which we are -familiar. It is not rich in extent or variety of mood. -Its chief qualities are a discreet playfulness and a -gentle melancholy. In formal structure it is good but -not distinguished. It is predominantly vocal; in old -and characteristic dances Denmark is lacking. The -Swedish folk-music is in every way richer. It does not -attain to the extremes of animal and spiritual expression, -like the Russian, but within its fairly broad limits -it can show every variety of feeling. Even in its liveliest -moments it reveals something of the predominant -northern melancholy, but the dances, which are numerous -and spirited, reveal a buoyant health. The thin -veil of melancholy which has been so often noticed is -not nearly so prominent as a certain refined sensuality. -Sweden, more than any of the other Scandinavian -lands, has known periods of cosmopolitan luxury. She -has become a citizen of the world, with something of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -the man-of-the-world's self-indulgence and self-consciousness. -So her folk-songs frequently reveal an exquisite -sense of form which seems French rather than -Germanic.</p> - -<p>The Norse folk-song naturally shows a close relationship -with that of Sweden, but in every point of difference -it tends straight away from the German. Norway -has for centuries been a primitive country in its material -conditions; a country of tiny villages, of valleys -for months isolated one from the other; a country of -pioneer virtues and individualistic values. Large cities -are few; the ordinary machinery of civilization is -even yet limited. The economic activities are still in -great measure primitive, and much of the work is out -of doors, as in shipping, fishing and pasturing. The -scenery is among the grandest in the world. So it is -not surprising that the Norwegian folk-music is vigorous -and sometimes a little crude, and that it reveals -an intense feeling for nature. The people are deeply -religious and filled with the stern Protestant sense of a -personal relation with God. The tender and mystic -aspects of the music are less easy to account for; many -of the songs are an intimate revelation of subtle mood, -and others show a tonal vagueness which in modern -times is called 'impressionistic.' More than the Swedish -songs they are spontaneous and poetic. If they reflect -nature it is in her personal aspect. They show not -so much the Norwegian mountains as the fog which -covers the mountains. They sing not so much the old -Vikings as the quiet people who have settled down -to fishing and trading when their wanderings are over. -They reveal not the face of nature, but her bosom on -which lonely men may rest.</p> - -<p>The Finnish music is of a mixed stock. Primarily -it is an adaptation of the Swedish, and the greater -number of Finnish songs are externally of Swedish -mould. But Lapland has also contributed her child-like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -melodies. The true Finnish music, however, is -that drawn from the legendary sources of the original -race. The melodies of the old runes retain their primitive -aspects, and are unlike those of any other nation. -They are doubtless the very melodies to which the -<em>Kalevala</em> was originally sung. Externally monotonous -and heavy, they reveal strange beauties on closer examination. -They are distinguished by many repetitions -of the same note, by irregular or ill-defined -metre, and by a long and sinuous melodic line. Another -typical sort of melody is the 'horn-call,' developed -from the original blasts of the hunting-horn. The -theme of the trio of the scherzo of Sibelius' second -symphony is typical of the rune melody. Finally the -Russian influence may be felt in many of the older -Finnish tunes—in uncertain tonality and a peculiar use -of the minor. This mixture of musical forces is indicative -of the ethnological and social mixture which is -the Finnish race. The Finns are primarily a Mongolian -people. From the Laplanders to the north they -received what that simple people had to give. For centuries -they were under the domination of Sweden; -Swedish was the language of their literature and their -cultured conversation, and Swedish was their official -civilization. A considerable accession of Swedish immigrants -and infusion of Swedish blood left their affairs -in the control of Germanic influences. (It is on -this account that the Finnish is included in a chapter -on Scandinavian music.) Finally, a nearness to Russia -and an intermittent subjugation to the Czardom -brought into their midst Russian influences which were -assimilated flexibly but incompletely. In the late nineteenth -century Finland experienced a renaissance of -national feeling. The genuine Finnish language gained -the uppermost, and provided a rallying point for the -resistance to the Czar's attempted Russianization of his -duchy. Finnish traditions displaced those of the Vikings.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -And Finland began to stand forth as an oriental -nation with a heroic background. Therefore, though -her music developed largely out of Germanic materials, -it has become, under Sibelius (himself of Teutonic -blood), a thing apart.</p> - -<p>The use of folk-music on the part of the Scandinavian -composers seems to have been less deliberate and -conscious than in the case of the 'neo-Russian' nationalists.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> -In the earliest composers who can be regarded -as national it is scarcely to be noticed. For some years -after Danish music began to have a national character -the actual presence of folk-elements was to be detected -only on close examination. Such a careful writer as -Mr. Finck indignantly denies that Grieg made any deliberate -use of folk-music. In his view the melodies of -the people are so inferior to those of Grieg that to suggest -the latter's indebtedness is something in the nature -of blasphemy. Nevertheless, in the process of nationalizing -the northern music the patriotic composers introduced -the spirit and the technical materials of -the folk-music into conscious works of art. Just what -the process was is hardly to be known, even by the -composers themselves. We know that Grieg was an -ardent nationalist and studied and admired the folk-songs. -To what extent he imitated or borrowed folk-melodies -for his compositions is not of first importance. -Probably, with the best of the nationalists, the process -was one of saturating themselves in the music of their -native land and then composing personally, and from -the heart. At all events, it is certain that the influence -of any folk-music, deeply studied, is too pervasive for -a sensitive composer to escape.</p> - -<p>Since the first third of the nineteenth century the -Scandinavian composers have been heavily influenced -by the prevailing German musical forces. German -musicians were frequent visitors or sojourners in Scandinavian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> -cities, and the musicians of the northern -lands sought their education almost exclusively in Germany. -Hence Scandinavian music has reflected -closely the changes of fashion that prevailed to the -south. Mendelssohn and Schumann (through the work -of Gade) were the first dominating influences. Chopin -influenced their style of pianistic writing, and Wagner -and Liszt in due time influenced their harmonic procedure. -Music dramas were written quite in the Wagnerian -style, and a minor impulse toward programme -music came from Berlioz and Liszt. In the art of instrumentation -Wagner and Strauss received instant -recognition and imitation—an imitation which soon became -a schooling and developed into a pronounced -native art. Even Brahms had his share in the work, -primarily in the shorter piano pieces which have been -so distinctive a part of the Scandinavian musical output, -and latterly in the 'absolute' polyphonic work of -Alfvén, Stenhammar and Norman.</p> - -<p>But though all these strands are distinctly discernible, -that which gives the Scandinavian tonal art a right -to a separate existence is a contribution of its own. -In the larger and more ambitious forms the Scandinavian -composers have usually not been at their best or -most distinctive. It is the smaller forms—songs, piano -pieces, orchestral pictures, etc.—which have carried -the music of the Northland throughout Europe and -America. In these we best see the distinguishing Scandinavian -traits. First there is an impressionism, a -dexterity in the creation of specific mood or atmosphere, -which preceded the recent craze for these qualities. -The music of Grieg, simple as it seems to us now, -was in its time a sort of gospel of what could be done -with music on the intimate or pictorial sides. Vagueness, -mystery, poetry spoke to us out of this music of -the north. Next there was a feeling for nature, for -pictorial values, for delineative music in its more romantic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -terms, which had not been found in the more -strenuous program music of the Germans. The -'Sunrise' of Grieg's 'Peer Gynt Suite' attuned many -thousands of ears to the beauty of natural scenery as -depicted in music. Finally there was a feeling for -tonal qualities as such, which the modern French school -has developed to an almost unbelievable extent. The -tone of the piano became an intimate part of the poetry -of northern piano pieces. Further, the school of Grieg -has shown an astonishing talent in the handling of orchestral -color. Brilliant and poetic instrumentation -has been one of the chief glories of the northern school. -It was the romantic impulse that was behind all the -best work, and accordingly the formal element does -not bulk large in Scandinavian music. But there is -often a wonderful finesse, polish and dexterity which -reveals an exquisite sense of structure and workmanship, -especially in the smaller forms. Vocal music, -especially before the opening of the twentieth century, -flourished, and the songs of certain northern composers -have taken their place beside the best beloved lyric -works of Germany. Finally, there are brilliant exceptions -to the statement that the best northern work has -been achieved in the smaller forms; the concertos of -Grieg, the symphonic pieces of Sinding, and the symphonies -and tone-poems of Sibelius, strike an epic note -in modern music.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>The early history of Danish music is that of any royal -court of post-Renaissance times. Foreign composers -and performers were invited to the capital, and when -the lower classes had been unusually well drained of -their earnings history recorded a 'brilliant musical -age.' In the eighteenth century there was a royal -opera, performing French and Italian pieces. From -time to time various choral or instrumental societies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -were founded. In the conventional sense the musical -life of Copenhagen was flourishing. But in all this -there was no trace of national Danish music.</p> - -<p>The first composer who may be called truly national -began working after a thorough Germanizing of the -country's musical taste had taken place. This man -was Johann Peter Emilius Hartmann (1805-1900). His -extensive work was hardly known outside the limits -of his native land. The few examples which were -played in Germany were speedily forgotten. But he -gradually came to be recognized as the great national -composer of Denmark. Though a large part of his -student years was spent in his native land, he was at -first under the influence of the fashionable composers -of the time, such as Marschner, Spontini, Spohr and -Auber. But, though not a student of Danish folk-songs, -he gradually came to feel the individuality of the national -music, and in 1832 made himself a national -spokesman with his <em>melodrame</em> 'The Golden Horns,' to -Oehlenschlager's text. His opera, 'Little Christine,' to -Andersen's story, performed in 1846, was thoroughly -national and popular in spirit. His output was astonishingly -large and varied. He wrote for nearly every -established form, symphonies, overtures, songs, choral -pieces, religious and secular, sonatas as well as short -romantic pieces for the piano, works for organ and -violin, ballets, and picturesque orchestral poems. His -nationalism does not appear consistently in his work; -he seems to have made it no creed; perhaps he only -imitated it from Weber and Chopin. But when he -chose to work with national materials he came nearer -to the popular spirit than any other composer of the -time, barring the two or three great ones of whom -Weber is the type. His facility was great, his themes -pregnant and arresting. He revealed an energetic structural -power, and together with fine polyphonic ability -a mastery of romantic suggestion in the style of Mendelssohn.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -But it is chiefly by his native feeling for the -folk-style that he established himself as the first Scandinavian -nationalist in music. Grieg wrote of him: -'The dreams of our younger generation of northern men -were his from the time he reached maturity. The best -and deepest thoughts which moved a later generation -of more or less important spirits were spoken first in -him, and found their first echo in us.'</p> - -<p>But it was Niels W. Gade (1817-1890) who represented -the Danish school in the eyes of the outside -world. This was due chiefly to his strategic position as -friend of Mendelssohn and, after Mendelssohn's death, -director of the Gewandhaus orchestra in Leipzig. At -bottom he was thoroughly a German of the conservative -romantic school. His excellence in the eyes of the -time consisted in his ability at writing Mendelssohn's -style of music with almost Mendelssohn's charm and -finish. But he was also the Dane, and in subtle wise -he managed to impregnate his music with Danish musical -feeling. His eight symphonies had a high standing -in his day, the first and last being typically national -in character, serving, in fact, as a sort of propaganda -for the national school that was to come. But -Gade was more thoroughly national in some of his -choral ballads and dramatic cantatas, such as 'Calamus,' -'The Erlking's Daughter,' 'The Stream,' and -others; and especially in his orchestral suite, 'A Summer -Day in the Country,' and his suite for string orchestra, -<em>Holbergiana</em>. His personality was not so vigorous -as that of Hartmann; his culture was more conservative -and classical; the shadow of Mendelssohn -prevented the more aggressive national utterance that -might have been desired. But what he did he did well, -and his immense influence on the future of Scandinavian -music was established through his masterful fusing -of the best German classic manner of the time with -popular national materials.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> - -<p>Among the Danish composers of the same time we -may mention Emil Hartmann (1836-1898), son of the -great Hartmann, prolific composer of orchestral pieces, -chamber music, and operas of professedly national -character; Peter A. Heise (1830-1870), composer of -songs to some of the best national lyric poetry of the -time; and August Winding (1835-1899), composer of -piano, orchestral and chamber music in which national -color and folk humor were discreetly brought to the -foreground.</p> - -<p>In recent times the Danish school, of the four Scandinavian -branches, has been least national in intent. -Foreign gods have exercised their sway in one fashion -or another. Nor can we say that the absolute value of -the more recent works is distinguished. Among the -half dozen Danish composers who have attained to -eminence there is none who can be considered the -equal of either Gade or Hartmann in personal ability. -Much of the best efforts of the younger men has gone -to larger forms, in which either their creative inspiration -or their formal mastery has proved insufficient. -Among them there are four of marked ability: August -Enna, in opera; Asger Hamerik, in symphonic music; -P. E. Lange-Müller, in lyric and piano works; and Carl -Nielsen, in chamber music.</p> - -<p>August Enna (born 1860) is the most prolific and successful -of Denmark's opera composers. Chiefly self-taught, -but mainly German in his influences, he has -written some ten operas in which one influence or style -after another is evident. 'Cleopatra,' after Rider -Haggard's story, is ambitious and theatric, but it reveals, -alongside of frank Wagnerism, the ghost of -Meyerbeer and of Italian opera of the 'transition period' -of the 'eighties. 'Aucassin and Nicolette' attempts -the quaint and naïve style which is supposed to comport -with the late Middle Ages; it has a distinction of -its own, but too often it is mere conventional romantic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -opera. The fairy operas after Andersen—'The Little -Match Girl' and 'The Princess of the Peapod'—are in -more congenial style, but lack the necessary consistent -manner of light fantasy. The truth is that Enna, with -marked abilities, is limited to the expression of tender -sentiment, gentle melancholy, and personal, intimate -moods. His invention is happy, though uneven; his use -of the orchestra colorful but not always in taste. He -lacks the ability to conceive and carry out a large work -in a consistent and elevated manner. He fails in that -ultimate test of the thorough workman—the ability to -execute a whole work in a consistent and homogeneous -style. The trouble is not with his operatic instinct, -which is sufficiently vivid; nor with his melodic invention -as such, for this is often fresh and charming. But -his musicianship and his inspiration have not proven -equal to the task he has set himself.</p> - -<p>Asger Hamerik (born 1843) has undertaken an -equally big task in the field of symphonic music. He -plans on a large scale, but it can hardly be said that he -thinks likewise. We may note a 'Poetic' symphony, a -'Tragic' symphony, a 'Lyric' symphony, a 'Majestic' -symphony, and a choral symphony, among several -others. Of his two operas, one, 'The Vendetta,' received -a performance in Milan. There is considerable choral -and chamber music, and in particular a 'Northern' orchestral -suite by which his artistic personality may be -best known. But he has at bottom little of the national -feeling. He is facilely eclectic, but with no individual -or consistent binding principle. He has a romanticism -that recalls Dvořák's—graceful, mildly sensuous, pleasing -rather than inspiring; he has further a marked gift -as an instrumental colorist. But his harmony is conventional, -and his thematic ideas are usually undistinguished. -Finally, his structural power is not sufficient -to raise his musical material to a high artistic -plane. Hamerik is out of the main line of Scandinavian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -national music, but has not been able to make a -place for himself in music universal.</p> - -<p>Much more to the purpose in intent and achievement -is P. E. Lange-Müller (born 1850). He reveals a graceful -sense of form and a sincere emotional feeling in -his smaller works for piano and voice. His harmony is -conservative and sometimes disappointing; but whenever -he strikes the tender mood of folk-music he saves -himself with a touch of poetry. But he is rather a follower -of the old school of German romanticism than -of Scandinavian nationalism. The four-act opera, -<em>Frau Jeanna</em>, is content with an unobtrusive lyric style, -but the lyricism is not exalted enough to sustain such a -large-scale work. The melodrama <em>Middelalderlig</em>, of -more recent date, shows much poetic color but a fundamental -lack of invention. In the larger works he is at -his best in the fairy-comedy, 'Once upon a Time.' His -symphony 'In Autumn,' his orchestral suite, 'Alhambra,' -and 'Niels Ebbesen' for chorus, have met with indifferent -success. Lange-Müller is primarily a lyric -composer for voice and piano, and in this field he -shows a sort of grace and tenderness which we shall -meet with frequently in recent Swedish music.</p> - -<p>A sincere and able, yet austere, composer is Carl -Nielsen (born 1865). His music is, with that of the -Swede Alfvén, less programmistic and more 'absolute' -than we shall meet with in any other distinguished -Scandinavian musician of modern times. The national -element in his work is almost <em>nil</em>. A master of -counterpoint, and a vigorous innovator in the modern -Russian style, he commands respect rather than love. -His output includes more than half a dozen symphonies, -a number of works for string quartet and violin, -some large compositions for chorus and orchestra, and -a four-act opera, 'Saul and David.' It is by this that -he is best known. This is a work to command respectful -attention from musicians, but hardly enthusiastic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -applause from ordinary audiences. The writing shows -great musical knowledge, careful and ample ability in -counterpoint and in modulation of the complex modern -sort, a certain unity of style, and a command of -special emotional color. But the work is perhaps -rather that of the symphonist than of the operatic poet. -His instrumentation, unlike his harmony, is conservative. -His workmanship is thorough, and his musicianship -wide and soundly based.</p> - -<p>Among the minor names there are several who deserve -mention for one reason or another. Ludolf Nielsen -(born 1876) is a thorough classicist at heart, though -he has become known in Germany through his symphonic -poems 'In Memoriam,' <em>Fra Bjaergene</em>, and 'Summer -Night Moods.' He is more than usually talented, -but very conservative in his style. His themes are interesting -though not striking, and his product is sufficiently -inspired with human feeling to be preserved -from pedantry. Hakon Börresen (born 1876) has distinguished -himself with many songs which preserve the -national tradition established for Norway by Grieg -and Sinding. His chamber music has revealed harmonic -invention and tender coloring which show him -to be one of the chosen of the younger Danish composers. -Finally, we may mention Otto Malling (born -1848), an able writer for organ and string quartet; Victor -Bendix (born 1851), well known in Denmark for a -number of symphonies which combine delicate poetry -with structural beauty; Ludvig Schytte (born 1848), -prolific writer of piano pieces, and Cornelius Rübner, -who commands respect for solidly classic workmanship. -These latter men are of the old school. Of the younger -generation in Denmark we are hardly justified in hoping -for works of great distinction, unless a possible -exception may be made in the case of Börresen. For, -speaking broadly, the national impulse has departed -from Danish composition.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span></p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>Though Scandinavian art was first brought to the -attention of the world at large through the Norwegians -(Grieg in music and Ibsen in literature), Sweden has -in more recent years held her share of international -attention. After Ibsen the Swede Strindberg was perhaps -the most talked-of dramatist in Europe. Still -more recently the novels of Selma Lagerlöf and the -sociological writings of Ellen Key have been widely -translated and read, not only in European lands, but -in America also. Strindberg was a supreme artist, a -personality of an intensity equalling Nietzsche and of a -spiritual variety suggesting that of Goethe. The strain -of violent morbidity in his <em>Weltanschauung</em> was a -purely personal and not at all a national matter. As -executive artist he showed an almost classic balance -and control. Selma Lagerlöf is sane and finely poised, -and Ellen Key has by her moderation and her clearness -of intellectual vision made herself a leader in a department -of modern sociological study which more than -any other is apt to be treated sentimentally and hysterically. -Poise and artistic control are, in fact, to be -noticed generally in modern Swedish art, and especially -in music. The cosmopolitan character of Swedish -political history is here seen in its results. Someone -has called Stockholm 'the Paris of the north.' The -epithet is just: grace, conscious artistry, sensuous self-indulgence, -are to be found in Swedish music in a degree -that contrasts markedly with the militant self-expression -of the Norwegian school. Without losing its -national qualities the art of modern Sweden has spoken -the easy language of the European capitals.</p> - -<p>Sweden's story is like Denmark's: first a thorough -Germanization of her music, then a gradual growth of -the national tone. This tone grew in every case out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -the early German romanticism. The first great Swedish -composer and the earliest romanticist was Franz Berwald -(1796-1868). His position in Sweden is somewhat -analogous to that held in Denmark by Hartmann. His -output was large, and in the largest forms. He undertook -symphonic works which until his time had been -neglected in his native land. Without being known -much outside Sweden he gained a place in the hearts -of his countrymen which he has held ever since. His -most popular work was his <em>Symphonie Sérieuse</em> in G -minor, composed in 1843, sincere, poetic and musicianly. -The influence of Schumann is predominant. A -considerable quantity of symphonic and chamber music, -reflecting chiefly Beethoven and Mendelssohn, -gained him a position as the foremost symphonic writer -of his time. An early violin concerto, composed in -1820, reveals him as a sincere student of Beethoven, -youthful, romantic and progressive. Out of half a -dozen operas we may mention <em>Estrella de Soria</em>, a romantic -work of large proportions, built on the Parisian -model (though showing the homely influence of Weber)—with -hunting chorus, grand ballet, and all. That he -was not unconscious of his nationality is proved by the -names of some of his choral compositions, such as -<em>Gustav Adolph bei Lützen</em>, 'The Victory of Karl XII at -Narwa,' and the <em>Nordische Phantasiebilder</em>. A 'symphonic -poem,' <em>En landtlig Bröllopfest</em>, makes extensive -use of Swedish melodies, but the style is not a national -one, and the themes are merely utilized without being -developed. As a highly trained and spontaneous -worker in the early romantic style Berwald performed -a great service in awakening musical consciousness in -his native land. But here ends his national significance.</p> - -<p>Berwald's tendency was represented in the following -generation by Albert Rubenson (1826-1901), a less talented -but very able composer. He came from the Leipzig<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -school and was thoroughly Germanized, but like -Berwald devoted some attention to Swedish subjects. -Ludwig Normann (1831-1885) anticipated the modern -Swedish composers in his preference for the smaller -forms. In his piano music he is tender and idyllic, delighting -in detail and suggestive device, something of a -poet and tone-painter. Mendelssohn is the chief influence -in his piano work. Though this is thin in style, -it is rich in charming melody and is carried out with -a fine polish. In his larger works, such as the symphony -in E-flat major (1840), he is still the melodist; -his writing is fresh and even original, but his scoring -is without distinction. His romantic overtures are in -the Mendelssohnian manner, with romantic color in -the fashion of the time.</p> - -<p>One of the most talented of the early Swedish composers -was Ivan Hallström (1826-1901), who may be -said to have been the first truly national composer of -his land. He appreciated the artistic possibilities of -the national folk-song and made its use in his music a -chief tenet in his artistic creed. This was preëminently -true in his operas—such as <em>Den Bergtagna</em>, <em>Die Gnomenbraut</em>, -<em>Der Viking</em>, and <em>Neaga</em>. The last-named is -a romantic work teeming with color and poetry, with -traces of Wagnerian influence, but with much vigor, -beauty and depth. Some of these works have been -favorably received in Germany, but they are not sufficiently -personal and dramatic to justify a long life. -The Swedish folk-song was carried into symphonic and -chamber music by J. Adolph Hägg (born 1850), a disciple -of Gade and an able and fruitful composer of -symphonies and sonatas, and romantic pieces for piano, -which are filled with romantic and local color.</p> - -<p>But the early musical generation, of which Hallström -may be considered one of the last, was more distinctive -and national in its songs than in its instrumental -works. The first half of the nineteenth century may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> -called the golden age of the Swedish <em>Lied</em>. It was a -time of choral societies, some of which became famous -throughout the continent. Otto Lindblad (1809-1864) -was a leader and prolific composer for such societies. -It is to his credit to have composed the official national -song of Sweden. But the great lyric genius of Sweden -was Adolph Fr. Lindblad (1801-1879), who is commonly -called 'the Swedish Schubert.' His genius was -tender and elegiac, responding sensitively to the colors -of nature, and, thanks to the art of Jenny Lind, it became -familiar to concert-goers in many lands.</p> - -<p>Swedish music of modern times has maintained a -wide variety of forms and styles. The national feeling -is still strong, though some of the ablest work is being -done in an 'absolute' idiom. On the whole the recent -Swedish school is best represented to the outside world -by Petersen-Berger with his short and graceful piano -pieces, and by Sjögren with his songs. In opera Sweden -has approached an international standing, but has -not quite attained it. Her opera is represented at its -best by Andreas Hallén (born 1846), who used national -tone-material with Wagnerian technique. Like -most other northern musicians of his time he went to -Leipzig for his training and sought in Germany for -his beacon lights. After returning to his native land he -became indispensable in its musical life, serving as director -of the Stockholm Philharmonic Society and of -the Stockholm opera. Besides songs and choral works -he wrote a number of symphonic pieces of a high order, -filled with Swedish melody and Swedish color. -The Swedish Rhapsodies opus 23, based entirely upon -well-known national songs, are of a solid technique -and agreeable variety; the themes themselves are little -developed, but by their scoring and their juxtaposition -they become fused into an admirable whole. The -<em>Sommersaga</em>, opus 36, lacks specific Swedish color, but -is an attractive and able work in the older romantic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -style. The <em>Toteninsel</em>, opus 45, is an ambitious symphonic -poem. The themes are arresting, the development -powerful, and the harmony energetic, but the -work lacks the dithyrambic quality demanded of tone-poems -in recent times, and hence seems outmoded. In -'The Music of the Spheres,' dating from 1909, we discover -an admirable adaptation and fusion of modern -harmonic technique, but the ideas and the construction -speak of a bygone age. In all these works Hallén was -mainly under the influence of Liszt. In the operas, on -which his reputation chiefly rests, he was at first wholly -Wagnerian. His first work for the stage, 'Harald the -Viking,' though presumably Swedish, is utterly Wagnerian -in treatment. Were it not that Wagnerian imitation -cannot be truly creative, this work would surely -take a high rank, for it is powerful, dramatic, and admirably -scored. The national tone becomes more -marked in the later operas—<em>Hexfällen</em> (1896), <em>Waldemarskatten</em> -(1899) and <em>Waldborgsmässa</em> (1901). The -Wagnerian leit-motif and Wagnerian harmony are -still present, but the Swedish material has suitably -modified the general style. In <em>Waldemarskatten</em>, which -is of a light romantic tone, one even feels that the composer -has despaired of being successful in the highest -musical forms and has made a compromise in the direction -of easy popularity. But the work is filled with -beautiful passages. In the spots where Hallén imitates -folk-song or folk-dance, he is fresh and inspiring. His -musical treatment is never highly personal; on the -other hand he shows most valuable qualities—vigor, -passion, folk-feeling, and above all dramatic sense. -His scoring, too, is rich and colorful.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the best known and most typical of the modern -Swedes is Emil Sjögren (born 1853), the undisputed -master of the modern Swedish art-song. No other composer -of his land is so individual as he. No other is -more specifically Swedish, in perfumed grace and sensuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -tenderness. Yet he is by no means a salon composer. -His work is energetic, showing at times even a -touch of the noble and heroic. His nationalism does -not consist so much in his use of actual Swedish material -as in his finely racial manner of treatment. In -his short piano pieces—cycles, novelettes, landscape -pictures, etc.—he has impregnated the salon manner of -a Mendelssohn with something of the color and personal -feeling of a Grieg. His choral works are highly -prized in Sweden. His work in the classical forms, -chiefly for violin and piano, are conservative in form -and (until recently) in harmony. But it is in his songs -that Sjögren has expressed himself most perfectly. -These are very numerous and show a wide range of -emotional expression. Beyond a doubt they are thoroughly -successful only in the tenderer and intimate -moods. They reveal a psychological power recalling -that of Schumann, and an impressionistic harmonic -perfume similar to that in Grieg's best work. In the -brief strophe form Sjögren shows himself master of -the exquisite form which distinguishes the Swedish -folk-song. In his early period his accompaniment followed -closely the regular voice-part, and his harmony, -while always personal, was simple. A middle period -shows a perfect blending of voice and piano, with freedom -and variety in each, much pianistic resourcefulness, -and a remarkable melodic gift. Since this period -his harmony has undergone a striking change. He has -evidently sat at the feet of the modern French masters, -and has adopted an idiom which is complex and difficult. -He has managed to keep it original and personal, -but it is to be doubted whether the recent songs will -ever hold a permanent place beside the lovely ones of -the middle period.</p> - -<p>Of almost equal personal distinction and importance -is Wilhelm Petersen-Berger (born 1867), a master of -romantic piano music in the smaller forms, and a national<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> -voice to his native land. His work is varied. -There is chamber music such as the E minor violin -sonata. There is a 'Banner Symphony' (1904) and one -entitled <em>Sonnenfärd</em> (1910). There are male choruses, -such as <em>En Fjällfärd</em>, and orchestral works such as the -'May Carnival in Stockholm,' together with at least four -operas—<em>Sveagaldrar</em> (1897), <em>Das Glück</em> (1902), <em>Ran</em> -(1903) and <em>Arnljot</em> (1907). Finally there are the piano -pieces, a rich and varied list ranging all the way from -the simplest of 'parlor melodies' to large tone poems -and concert works. Some of the piano pieces bear such -titles as 'To the Roses,' 'Summer Song,' and 'Lawn Tennis.' -Others are ambitiously named 'Northern Rhapsody' -(with orchestra) and 'Swedish Summer.' With -some of these works Petersen-Berger takes a place beside -the ablest and most poetic modern writers for the -pianoforte. Landscape, story and mood are here expressed, -with a technique ranging from that of Schumann's -'Children's Pieces' all the way to the modern -idiom of Ravel. If some of the pieces seem cheap and -sentimental let it be remembered that they are replacing -much less attractive things written by third rate -men, and are helping to raise the taste of the 'ordinary -music-lover' as Mendelssohn's 'Songs without Words' -did half a century before. His melody is truly lyric -and his harmony truly impressionistic. His genius for -the piano is proved by his ability to get full and colorful -effects out of a style of writing which on paper looks -thin. Though sentimentality abounds, the spirit is fundamentally -vigorous and healthy and at times approaches -something like tragic dignity. The 'Northern -Rhapsody' is a wholly admirable treatment of folk-tunes -on a large scale and with the idiom of pianistic -virtuosity. The songs are often charming, though on -the whole less satisfactory than the piano pieces. When -he writes simply he shows almost flawless taste and -artistic selection. When he aims at the mood of high<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -tragedy, as in the songs from Nietzsche, he is sometimes -unexpectedly successful. The Nietzsche songs, radical -in technique, are moving and impressive. In his large -works Petersen-Berger is not so successful. His <em>Sonnenfärd</em> -symphony is lyric, rather than orchestral. It -is lacking in structural power, and in the broad spiritual -sweep which such a large-scale work must have. -But here again his charming melody almost saves the -day. The opera <em>Arnljot</em> can hardly be called a success; -it is long and ambitious, but thinly written, undramatic, -and not very pleasing.</p> - -<p>In direct contrast to Petersen-Berger is Hugo Alfvén -(born 1872), Sweden's most important contrapuntist. -In him the national influence is reduced to a minimum, -though it is sometimes to be noticed in a certain manner -of forming themes and moulding cadences. Swedish -color is, however, noticeable in certain works specifically -national. The <em>Midsommarvaka</em> is built upon Swedish -tunes, organized and developed in the spirit of the -classic composers. The whole spirit is intellectual and -technical, but this has its agreeable side in the composer's -ability to build up long sustained passages. -The 'Upsala Rhapsody,' opus 24, is merely an excuse -for the technical manipulation of a collection of rather -cheap melodies. The symphonies are more able and -even less interesting. The solidity and complexity of -the polyphonic style excite admiration, but the themes -are without distinction and the total effect is pedantic. -In his songs, however, Alfvén gives us a surprise. His -power of development here becomes something like -poetic greatness, especially where the form is free -enough to give the work a symphonic character. The -voice part is unconventional, declamatory and impressive, -and the accompaniment varied and impressive. -Altogether, these songs are among the most admirable -which modern Scandinavian has given us.</p> - -<p>Among the other able composers of modern Sweden<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> -we should mention Tor Aulin (born 1866), who has -consecrated his lyric and poetic talent chiefly to the -violin; Erik Akerberg (born 1860), whose classical predilections -have led him to choral and symphonic work; -and Wilhelm Stenhammar (born 1871). The last is one -of the ablest of modern Swedish composers, a man -whose talents have by no means been adequately recognized, -and a genius, perhaps, who is destined to out-strip -his better-known contemporaries. The list of his -works includes two operas, <em>Tirfing</em> (1898) and 'The -Feast at Solhaug' (the libretto from Ibsen's play); string -quartets, sonatas and concertos for piano and violin; -large choral works, songs, and ballads with orchestral -accompaniment. The piano concerto, opus 23, ranks -with Grieg's finest orchestral works. The themes, not -always remarkable, are lifted into the extraordinary by -Stenhammar's brilliant handling of them. The A minor -quartet, opus 25, shows great beauty of simple material, -and an intellectual and technical dominance which lift -it quite above the usual Swedish chamber music. The -sonata for violin and piano, opus 19, is a fine work, -simple, fresh, original and charming. In much of the -instrumental music the idiom is advanced, with the -emphasis thrown on the voice leading rather than on -the harmony; but it cannot easily be referred to a single -school, for it is always personal and individually expressive. -When we come to a work like <em>Midvinter</em>, -opus 24, a tone poem for large orchestra, we are at the -summit of modern Scandinavian romantic writing. -This work is a masterpiece. The themes, says the composer -in a note, were taken down by ear from the fiddler -Hinns Andersen, except for one, a traditional -Christmas hymn which is sung by a chorus obbligato. -The counterpoint in this work is masterly, the animal -vigor overwhelming. At no point is the composer -found wanting in structural power or invention. On -the whole, no modern Scandinavian composer, unless<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -it be Sinding, approaches Stenhammar in the fusing of -fresh poetry with strong intellectual and technical control. -But not only has he written some of Scandinavia's -finest chamber and symphonic music; he has written -also at least one opera which stands out from -among its contemporaries as genius stands out from -imitation. This is 'The Feast at Solhaug,' opus 6, dated -1896, and performed at the Berlin Royal Opera House -in 1905. This work is utterly lyrical and utterly national; -it is doubtful if there is a more thoroughly Swedish -work in the whole list of modern Scandinavian -music. In the vulgar sense it is not dramatic; it has -little concern for square-cornered emotions and startling -confrontations. Its melody, which is astonishingly -abundant, is always spontaneous and always expressive. -The discreetly managed accompaniment is unfailingly -resourceful in supplying color and emotional -expression. We can say without hesitation that there -has been no more beautiful dramatic work in the whole -history of Scandinavian opera.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>Norway, as it seems, has always been a nation of -great individuals. In her early history she was as isolated -socially as she was geographically. Though nominally -a part of the Swedish Empire, she always maintained -a large measure of independence, and strengthened -the barrier of high mountains with a more impassable -barrier of neighborhood jealousy. Life was -difficult among the mountains and fjords, and each -man was obliged to depend upon his own courage and -energy. Luxury was unknown. Even civilization was -primitive. Hence, when Norway began to attain artistic -expression in the nineteenth century she was as -provincial as a little village in the middle west of -America. But her life, while simple, was intense, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -the narrowness of the spiritual environment fostered a -broad culture of the soul. Norway became a nation of -laborers, of poets, of thinkers, and of religious seers. -The very friction that opposed the current made it give -out more light.</p> - -<p>Ibsen, the first supreme genius of Norway in the arts, -wrote equally from Norway's traditional past and from -Norway's circumscribed present. Out of the combination -of the two he created 'Brand,' one of the noblest -poetic tragedies of modern times. His later social -dramas, as we know, altered the theatre of the whole -world. Beside Ibsen was Björnson, only second to him -in poetry and drama. And it was during Ibsen's early -years that Norway began to attain self-expression in -music. The first composer of national significance was -Waldemar Thrane (1790-1828), composer of overtures, -cantatas, and dances, and of the music to Bjerragaard's -'Adventure in the Mountains.' But the fame of Norway -was first carried outside the peninsula by Ole Bull -(1810-1880), the virtuoso violinist who, after touring -through all the capitals of Europe, settled down in -Pennsylvania as the founder of a Norwegian colony. -His compositions for the violin had an influence out of -all proportion to their inherent value. He was a romantic -voice out of the north to thousands who had -never thought of music except in terms of Mendelssohn -and Händel. His Fantasies and Caprices for the violin -were filled with national melodies and national color. -He was an ardent patriot, and through his national -theatre in Bergen, no less than through his music and -playing, awakened his countrymen to artistic self-consciousness.</p> - -<p>Of far wider power as a composer was Halfdan -Kjerulf (1815-1863), a composer of songs which stand -among the best in spontaneity and delicate charm. His -charming piano pieces in the small forms were filled -with romantic color. In his many songs, simple, yet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -varied and original, he showed a power of evoking -emotional response that forces one to compare his talent -with that of Schubert. With him we should mention -E. Neupert (1842-1888), who carried the romanticism -of Weber and Mendelssohn into Norway, in a long -and varied list of chamber and orchestral music; M. A. -Udbye (1820-1889), composer of Norway's first opera -<em>Fredkulla</em>; and O. Winter-Hjelm (born 1837), who was -a generous composer of songs, choral and orchestral -pieces in the conservative romantic style of Germany. -Johann D. Behrens (1820-1890) proved himself a valuable -conductor and composer for Norway's unbelievably -numerous male singing societies.</p> - -<p>But the greatest composer of the older romantic period -was Johan Svendsen (born 1840). He was solidly -grounded in the methods and ideals of Schumann, -Mendelssohn, Gade and even Brahms, and remained -always true to their vision. A specific national composer -he was not, but with discreet coloring he treated -national subjects in such works as the 'Norwegian -Rhapsody,' the 'Northern Carnival,' the legend for orchestra -<em>Zorahayde</em>, and the prelude to Björnson's <em>Sigurd -Slembe</em>. In the classical forms he wrote two symphonies -and a number of string quartets of marked -value. As a colorist he must be highly ranked. But -his color is not so much that of nationality as that of -romanticism in the conventional sense. His virtues -were the romantic virtues of sensuous beauty, discreet -eloquence, and somewhat self-conscious emotion. But -Norway found her true national propagandist in Richard -Nordraak (1842-1866). This man, who died at the -age of twenty-four, was a remarkably talented musician, -and an unrestrained enthusiast for the integrity -of his native land, both in politics and in art. It is said -that his meeting with Grieg in Copenhagen in 1864, and -their later friendly intercourse, determined the latter -to the strenuously national aspirations which he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -later carried to such brilliant fruition. The funeral -march which Grieg inscribed to him after his death is -one of his deepest and most moving works. Nordraak's -few compositions—incidental music to two of -Björnson's plays, piano pieces and songs—show his -effort after purely national coloring, but have otherwise -no very high value.</p> - -<p>The great apostle of Norwegian nationalism was of -course Grieg. His place among the composers of whom -we are now speaking was partly that of good angel and -partly that of press agent. The other Scandinavian -composers have basked to a great extent in the light -which he shed, have taken their inspiration from him, -and have learned invaluable lessons in the art of musical -picture painting. He was by no means merely a -nationalist. Besides acquainting the world with the -beautiful peculiarities of Norwegian folk-song and with -the fancied beauties of northern scenery, he showed -composers in every part of the world how to use -the melodic peculiarities of these songs to build up a -strange and enchanting harmony, capable of calling -forth mysterious pictures of the earth and sea and their -superhuman inhabitants. Grieg was the first popular -impressionist. He helped to shift the emphasis from -the technical and emotional aspects of music to its -specific pictorial and sensuous aspects. And he prepared -the world at large for the idea of musical nationalism, -which has become one of the two most striking -facts of present-day music.</p> - -<p>When we say that Grieg was the first popular impressionist -we do not mean that he was more able or original -than certain others who were working with the -same tendencies at the same time. His popularity resulted -to a great extent from the form and manner in -which he worked. His piano music was admirably -suited to making a popular appeal. It was often short -and easy; it was nearly always melodious and clear. -Its picturesque titles suggested a reason for its unusual -turns of harmony and phrase. It was never so radical -in its originality as to leave the mind bewildered. -Hence Grieg became extremely popular among amateurs -and casual music-lovers. His piano pieces became -<em>Hausmusik</em> as those of Mendelssohn had been a -generation before. The 'impressionistic' effect was usually -produced by simple means—a slight alteration of -the familiar form of cadence, a gentle blurring of the -major and minor modes, an extended use of secondary -sevenths and other orthodox dissonances. These interested -the musical amateur without repelling him, and, -when listened to in association with the picturesque -titles, suggested all sorts of delightful sensuous things, -such as the mist on the mountains, the sunlight over the -fjords, or the heavy green of the seaside pines. This -musical style of Grieg's was expertly managed; it was -unquestionably individual and was matured to a point -where it showed no relapses to the style out of which -it had developed. As an orchestral colorist Grieg was -talented and original, but by no means revolutionary. -He chose <em>timbres</em> with a nice sense of their picturesque -values, but in orchestration he is not a long step ahead -of the Mendelssohn of the overtures.</p> - -<div class="poetry"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="ilo_fp90" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp90.jpg" alt="ilo-fp91" /> - <p class="caption">Edvard Grieg at the Piano</p> - <p class="center p1b"><em>After a photograph from life</em></p> -</div> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Edvard Hagerup Grieg, the son of Alexander Grieg, -was born in Bergen, Norway, in 1843. He was descended -from Alexander Greig (the spelling of the -name was changed later to accommodate the Norwegian -pronunciation), a merchant of Aberdeen, who -emigrated from Scotland to Norway soon after the -battle of Culloden, in 1746. His father and his grandfather -before him served as British consul at Bergen. -His mother was a daughter of Edvard Hagerup, for -many years the mayor of Bergen, the second city of -Norway. It was from her that Grieg inherited both his -predisposition for music and his intensely patriotic nature. -She was a loyal daughter of Norway and was -possessed of no small musical talent, which her family -was glad to cultivate, sending her to Hamburg in -her girlhood for lessons in singing and pianoforte -playing. These she supplemented later by further -musical studies in London, and she acquired sufficient -skill to enable her to appear acceptably as a soloist at -orchestral concerts in Bergen. It was a home surcharged -with a musical atmosphere into which Edvard -Grieg was born; and his mother must have dreamed -of making him a musician, for she began to give him -pianoforte lessons when he was only six years old.</p> - -<p>Though he disliked school (he appears to have been a -typical youngster in his predilection for truancy), the -boy made commendable progress in his music and -even tried his hand at little compositions of his own; -but before his fifteenth year there was no serious -thought of a musical career for him. In that year Ole -Bull, the celebrated violinist, visited his father's house, -and, having heard the lad play some of his youthful -pieces, prevailed upon his parents to send him to Leipzig -that he might become a professional musician. It -was all arranged very quickly one summer afternoon; -the fond parents needed little coaxing, and to the boy -'it seemed the most natural thing in the world.' Matriculated -at the Leipzig Conservatory in 1858, young Grieg -at first made slow progress. He studied harmony and -counterpoint under Hauptmann and Richter, composition -under Rietz and Reinecke, and pianoforte playing -under Wenzel and Moscheles. At the conservatory at -that time were five English students, among them Arthur -Sullivan, J. F. Barnett, and Edward Dannreuther, -who subsequently became leaders in the musical life -of London; and their unstinting toil and patience in -drudgery inspired the young Norwegian to greater concentration -of effort than his frail physique could stand. -Under the strain he broke down completely. An attack -of pleurisy destroyed his left lung and thus his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -health was permanently impaired. He was taken -home to Norway, where it was necessary for him to remain -the greater part of a year to recuperate. But as -soon as he was able he returned to Leipzig; he was -graduated with honors in 1862.</p> - -<p>At Leipzig Grieg came strongly under the sway of -Mendelssohn and Schumann. He did not escape from -that influence when he went to Copenhagen in 1863 to -study composition informally with Niels Gade. While -Grieg always held Gade in high esteem, the two musicians -really had little in common, and the slight influence -of the Dane was speedily superseded by that of -Nordraak, with whom Grieg now came in contact. -Nordraak was ambitious to produce a genuinely national -Norwegian music, and, brief as their friendship -was, it served to set Grieg, whose talents lay in the -same direction, on the right path. Now fairly launched -upon the career of a piano virtuoso and composer, he -became a 'determined adversary of the effeminate Scandinavianism -which was a mixture of Gade and Mendelssohn,' -and with enthusiasm entered upon the work -of developing independently in artistic forms the musical -idioms of his people. In 1867 Grieg was married -to Nina Hagerup, his cousin, who had inspired and who -continued to inspire many of his best songs, and whose -singing of them helped to spread her husband's fame -in many European cities. In 1867 also he founded in -Christiania a musical union of the followers of the new -Norse school, which he continued to conduct for thirteen -years.</p> - -<p>Besides the giving of concerts in the chief Scandinavian -and German cities and making an artistic -pilgrimage to Italy Grieg at this period was increasingly -industrious in composition. He was remarkably -active for a semi-invalid. He had found himself; -and he continued to develop his creative powers -in the production of music that was not only nationally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -idiomatic, but thoroughly suffused with the real spirit -of his land and his people. In 1868 Liszt happened -upon his first violin sonata (opus 8) and forthwith -sent him a cordial letter of commendation and encouragement, -inviting him to Weimar. This letter was -instrumental in inducing the Norwegian government to -grant him a sum of money that enabled him to go -again to Rome in 1870. There he met Liszt and the -two musicians at once became firm friends. At their -second meeting Liszt played from the manuscript -Grieg's piano concerto (opus 16), and when he had -finished said: 'Keep steadily on; I tell you you have the -capability, and—do not let them intimidate you!' The -big, great-hearted Liszt feared that the frail little man -from the far north might be in danger of intimidation; -but his spirit was brave enough at all times—though -he wrote to his parents: 'This final admonition was of -tremendous importance to me; there was something in -it that seemed to give it an air of sanctification.' -Thenceforward the recognition of his genius steadily -increased. In 1872 he was appointed a member of the -Swedish Academy of Music; in 1883 a corresponding -member of the Musical Academy at Leyden; in 1890 of -the French Academy of Fine Arts. In 1893 the University -of Cambridge conferred on him the doctorate -in music, at the same time that it honored by the bestowal -of this degree Tschaikowsky, Saint-Saëns, Boito, -and Max Bruch. Except when on concert tours his -later years were spent chiefly at his beautiful country -home, the villa Troldhaugen near Bergen, and there -he died on September 4, 1907, after an almost constant -fight with death for more than forty-five years.</p> - -<p>Hans von Bülow called Grieg the Chopin of the -North, and the convenience of the sobriquet helped -to give it a wider popular acceptance than it deserved, -for in truth the basis for such a comparison is rather -slight. Undoubtedly Chopin's bold new harmony was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> -one of the sub-conscious forces that helped to shape -Grieg's musical genius. His mother had appreciated -and delighted in Chopin's music at a time when it was -little understood and much underrated; and from -childhood Chopin was Grieg's best-loved composer. -In his student days he was deeply moved by the 'intense -minor mood of the Slavic folk-music in Chopin's -harmonies and the sadness over the unhappy fate of his -native land in his melodies.' It is certain that there -is a certain kinship in the musical styles of the two -men, in their refinement, in the kind and even the degree -of originality with which each has enriched his -art, in many of their aims and methods. While Grieg -never attained to the heights of Chopin in his pianoforte -music, he surpassed his Polish predecessor in -the ability to handle other instruments as well as in his -songs, of which he published no fewer than one hundred -and twenty-five.</p> - -<p>These songs we hold to constitute Grieg's loftiest -achievement; and in all his music he is first of all the -singer—amazingly fertile in easily comprehensible and -alluring melodies. He patterned these original melodies -after the folk-songs of that Northland he loved so -ardently, just as he often employed the rhythms of its -folk-dances; and by these means he imparted to his -work a fascinating touch of strangeness and succeeded -in evoking as if by magic the moods of the land and -the people from which he sprang. On the wings of his -music we are carried to the land of the fjords; we -breathe its inspiriting air, and our blood dances and -sings with its lusty yet often melancholy sons and -daughters. Much as there is of Norway in his compositions, -there is still more of Grieg. His melodies are his -own and more enchanting than the folk-songs which -provided their patterns; and as a harmonist he is both -bold and skillful.</p> - -<p>Grieg's place, as may be gathered from what has already<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> -been said, is in the small group of the world's -greatest lyricists. He wrote no operas and he composed -no great symphonies. His physical infirmity militated -against the sustained effort necessary for the creation of -works in these kinds; but it is also plain from the work -he did when at his best that his inclination and his -powers led him into other fields. He possessed the -dramatic qualities and ability only slightly, the epic -still less, though it cannot be denied that in moments -of rare exaltation he was 'a poet of the tragic, of the -largely passionate and elemental.' His nearest approach -to symphonic breadth is to be found in his -pianoforte concerto, which Dr. Niemann pronounces -the most beautiful work of its kind since Schumann, -his sonatas for violin and pianoforte, his string quartet -and his 'Peer Gynt' music. Yet these beautiful and -stirring compositions are, after all, only lyrics of a -larger growth. Grieg himself knew well his powers -and his limitations, and he was as modest as he was -candid when he wrote: 'Artists like Bach and Beethoven -erected churches and temples on the heights. -I wanted, as Ibsen expresses it in one of his last dramas, -to build dwellings for men in which they might feel at -home and happy. In other words, I have recorded the -folk-music of my land. In style and form I have remained -a German romanticist of the Schumann school; -but at the same time I have dipped from the rich -treasures of native folk-song and sought to create a -national art out of this hitherto unexploited expression -of the folk-soul of Norway.' The spirit of the man recalls -the pretty little quatrain of Thomas Bailey Aldrich:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container p11 pw15"> -<div class="poetry"> -<p>'I would be the lyric,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ever on the lip,</span><br /> -Rather than the epic<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Memory lets slip.'</span></p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>And this is not to disparage pure and simple song.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -It is enough for Edvard Grieg's lasting fame that he -did have in rare abundance the pure lyric quality—that -close and delicate touch upon the heart strings -which makes them vibrate in sympathy with all the -little importances and importunities of individual human -life.</p> - - -<h3>V</h3> - -<p>The one Norwegian composer, besides Grieg, who has -attained an international position, is Christian Sinding -(born 1856). He is consciously and genuinely national, -but in almost every other way is a complement and -contrast to the other northern master. Where Grieg is -best in the idyllic, Sinding is best in the heroic. Sinding -is apt to be trivial where Grieg is at his best—namely, -in the smaller forms. On the other hand, -Sinding is noble and inspiring in works too long for -Grieg to sustain. In Sinding the Wagnerian influence -is marked and inescapable. He, like Grieg, is most at -home when working with native material—the sharp -rhythms, short periods and angular line of the Norwegian -folk-song—but he develops it objectively where -Grieg developed it intensively. Sinding need not work -from the pictorial; Grieg was obliged to. Sinding's -speech is much more cosmopolitan, his harmony less -pronounced, his form more conventional. At times he -attains a high level of emotional expression. On the -other hand, he has written much, and his reputation -has suffered thereby. Frequently he is uninspired. -But the sustained magnificence of his orchestral and -chamber music has done much to offset the prevailing -idea that the northern composers could work only in -the parlor or <em>genre</em> style. He sounds the epic and -heroic note too often and with too much inspiration to -permit us to question the greatness of his art.</p> - -<p>He has worked in most of the established forms. His<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -D minor symphony, opus 21, is one of the noblest in all -Scandinavian music. His symphonic poem, 'Perpetual -Motion,' with its inexhaustible energy and its glittering -orchestral color, takes a high rank in modern orchestral -music. His chamber music—quartets, quintets, -trios, violin sonatas, etc.—is distinguished by melodic -inspiration, vigorous counterpoint, and sustained structural -power. His piano concerto and two violin concertos, -and his grandiose E-flat minor variations for -two pianos, have taken a firm place in concert programmes. -As a piano composer in the smaller forms -he is of course less personal, less distinguished, than -Grieg. But every piano student knows his <em>Frühlingsrauschen</em> -and <em>Marche Grotesque</em>. As a song composer -he may justly be ranked second to Grieg in all the -Scandinavian lands. His power and sincerity in the -shorter strophic song is astonishing; his strophes have -the cogency and finish of the Swedish folk-song combined -with the intensity and sincerity of the Norwegian. -In his longer songs he is noble and dramatic; he is a -master of poignant emotional expression and of sustained -and mounting energy. Two of his familiar -songs—'The Mother' and 'A Bird Cried'—are masterpieces -of the first rank. Sinding's harmony is vigorous. -An 'impressionist' in the modern sense of the term -he is not. He loves the use of marked dissonance for -specific effect; his harmonic style is broad, solidly -based, square-cornered. It is regrettable, perhaps, that -he did not work more in opera; his only dramatic work, -'The Holy Mountain,' was performed in Germany early -in 1914. But this fact doubtless furnishes us the reason, -for Norway does not offer a career for an opera composer, -who must depend for his success on great wealth -and large cities. As it is, Sinding has made a high, -perhaps a permanent, place for himself in chamber and -orchestral music.</p> - -<p>Johan Selmer (born 1844) has taken a place as the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> -most radical of the 'new romanticists' in Norway. His -work is extensive and varied, and is most impressive -in the larger forms. He has written a series of symphonic -poems, several large choral works, many part -songs and ballads, and the usual quota of <em>Lieder</em>. His -chief influences were Wagner, Liszt, and Berlioz. He -can hardly be called a nationalist in music, for his work -shows little northern feeling except where he makes -use of specific Norwegian tunes; indeed he seems -equally willing to get his local color from Turkey or -Italy. His work is thoroughly disappointing; modelling -himself on the giants, he has been obliged to make -himself a gigantic mask of paper. Neither his melodic -inspiration, his structural power, nor his technical -learning was equal to the task he set himself. His chief -orchestral work, 'Prometheus,' opus 50, is ridiculously -inadequate to its grandiose subject. His <em>Finnländischer -Festklang</em> is the most ordinary sort of rhapsody on borrowed -material. Of his other works we need only say -that they reveal abundantly the effect of large ambitions -on a little man. Along with Selmer we may mention -three opera composers of Norway, none sufficiently -distinguished to carry his name beyond the national -border: Johannes Haarklou (born 1847), Cath. Elling -(born 1858) and Ole Olsen (born 1850). The last, -though yet 'unproduced' as a dramatic composer, deserves -to be better known than he is. His symphonic -and piano music is pleasing without being distinguished; -but the operas <em>Lajla</em> and <em>Hans Unversagt</em> are -charmingly colorful and melodic, revealing musical -scholarship and fine emotional expression. Finally we -may mention Johann Halvorsen (born 1864), a follower -of Grieg and an able composer for violin and -male chorus.</p> - -<p>One of the most promising of the younger Norwegians -was Sigurd Lie (1871-1904), whose early death cut -off a career which bade fair to be internationally distinguished.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> -Surely he would have been one of the most -national of Norwegian composers. His list of works, -brief because of ill health, includes a symphony in A -minor, a symphonic march, an oriental suite for orchestra, -a piano quintet, a goodly list of short piano -pieces, and many songs and choral works. He used the -Norwegian folk-song intensively, combining its spirit -with that of the old ecclesiastical tone. He was a true -poet of music; his moods were usually mystic, gray and -religious, and his effects, even in simple piano pieces, -were obtained with astonishing sureness. His harmony, -though not radical, was personal and highly expressive. -His songs, much sung in his native land, reveal -a genius for precise and poignant expression.</p> - -<p>One of the most popular of Norway's living composers -for the piano is Halfdan Cleve (born 1879), writer -of numerous works of which those in the large forms -are most important. Cleve is cosmopolitan, enamored -of large effects, and of dazzling virtuosity. His -technique is varied and exceedingly sure, but he lacks -the appealing loveliness which has brought reputation -to the works of so many of his countrymen. More -popular is Agathe Backer-Gröndahl (born 1847), industrious -writer of piano pieces in the smaller forms. -Outwardly a classicist, she has drunk of the lore of -Grieg and has achieved charming and able works, distinguished -by delicate feeling and care for detail. Her -children's songs are altogether delightful. But when -she attempts longer works her inspiration is apt to fail -her.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most original and personal composer -after Grieg and Sinding is Gerhard Schjelderup (born -1859), a tone poet of much technical ability and genuine -national feeling. His songs and ballads are very fine, -striking the heroic note with sincerity and conviction. -In his simple songs and piano pieces, Schjelderup's -innate feeling for the folk-tone makes him utterly successful.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -In his operas, 'Norwegian Wedding,' 'Beyond -Sun and Moon,' 'A People in Distress,' and his incidental -music, he lacks the dramatic and structural -power for long sustained passages; but his genius for -expressive simplicity has filled these works with -beauties. Schjelderup's symphonies and chamber music -have made a place for themselves in European concert -halls equally by their freshness of feeling and by their -excellence of technique.</p> - - -<h3>VI</h3> - -<p>Finland's music, centred in its capital Helsingfors, -was from the first under German domination. The national -spirit, as we have seen, grew up under the inspiration -of the <em>Kalevala</em>, then newly made known to -literature. The first national composer of note was -Frederick Pacius (1809-1891), born in Hamburg, but -regarded as the founder of the national Finnish school. -He was under the Mendelssohnian domination, but -gave no little national color to his music and helped -to centre the growing national consciousness. Besides -symphonies, a violin concerto and male choruses, he -wrote an opera 'King Karl's Hunt,' and several <em>Singspiele</em> -which contained national flavor without any specific -national material. To Pacius Finland owes her -official national anthem. Other Finnish composers of -note were Karl Collan (1828-1871), F. von Schantz -(1835-1865) and C. G. Wasenus. The Wagnerian influence -first penetrated the land of lakes in the works -of Martin Wegelius (1846-1906), able composer of operas, -piano and orchestral music, and choral works. -But the first specific national tendency in Finnish music -is due to Robert Kajanus (born 1856), who achieved the -freshness and primitive force of the national folk-song -in works of Wagnerian power and scope. Besides -his piano and lyric pieces we possess several<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -symphonic poems of his—including <em>Aino</em> and <em>Kullervo</em>—all -markedly national in feeling.</p> - -<p>Among the modern Finnish composers of second rank -Armas Järnefelt (born 1869) is distinguished. In orchestral -suites, symphonic poems (for example, the -<em>Heimatklang</em>), overtures, choral works, piano pieces, -and songs, he has shown spontaneity and technical -learning. Poetic feeling and sensitive coloring are -marked in his work. Much the same can be said of -Erik Melartin (born 1875), except that his genius is -more specifically lyric. His songs reflect the energy -and freshness of a race just coming to consciousness. -His smaller piano pieces show somewhat the salon -influence of Sweden, but in all we feel that the artist -is speaking. Ernst Mielck (1877-1899) had made a -place for himself with his symphony and other orchestral -works when death cut short his career. Oscar -Merikanto (born 1868) has written, besides one opera, -many songs and piano pieces, most of them conventional -and undistinguished, and Selim Palmgren (born -1878) has already attained a wide reputation.</p> - -<p>In Sibelius we meet one of the most powerful composers -in modern music. Masterpiece after masterpiece -has come from his pen, and the works which -fall short of distinction are few indeed. He is at once -the most national and the most personal composer -in the whole history of Scandinavian music. His style -is like no one else's; his themes, his mode of development, -his harmonic 'atmosphere,' and his orchestral -coloring are quite his own. But his materials are, -with hardly an exception, drawn from the literature -and folk-lore of the Finnish nation; his melodies, -when not closely allied to the folk-melodies of his land, -are so true to their spirit that they evoke instant response -in his countrymen's hearts; and the moods and -emotions which he expresses are those that are rooted -deepest in the Finnish character. This powerful national<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -tradition and feeling of which he is the spokesman -he has vitalized with a creative energy which is -equalled only by the few greatest composers of the -world to-day. He has touched no department of music -which he has not enriched with powerful and original -works. As an innovator, pure and simple, he seems -likely to prove one of the most productive forces in -modern music. No deeper, more moving voice has ever -come out of the north; only in modern Russia can anything -so distinctly national and so supremely beautiful -be found.</p> - -<p>Jean Sibelius was born in Finland in 1865 and at -first studied for the law. Shifting to music, he entered -the conservatory at Helsingfors and worked under -Wegelius. Later he studied in Berlin and thereafter -went to Vienna. Here, under Goldmark, he developed -his taste for powerful instrumental color, and under -Robert Fuchs his concern for finely wrought detail. -But even in his early works there was little of the German -influence to be traced beyond thorough workmanship. -With his symphonic poem, <em>En Saga</em>, opus 9, he -became recognized as a national composer. The Finns, -longing for self-expression, looked to him eagerly. -They had, as Dr. Niemann<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> has put it, been made silent -heroes by their struggles with forest, plain, cataract -and sea, and by the bitter recent political conflict with -Russia. And, as always happens in such cases, they -sought to give expression to their suppressed national -ideals in art. Sibelius's symphonic poem, <em>Finlandia</em>, -is a thinly veiled revolutionary document and his -great male chorus, 'The Song of the Athenians' (words -by the Finnish poet Rydberg), gave verbal expression -to the thoughts of the patriots of the nation. The -former piece has explicitly been banned in Finland by -Russian edict because of its inflammatory influence on -the people. But all this has not made Sibelius a political<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -figure such as Wagner became in 1848. He has -worked industriously and copiously at his music, -watching it go round the civilized world, keeping himself -aloof the while from outward turmoil, though his -personal sympathies are known to be strongly nationalistic.</p> - - -<p>It was the symphonic poems which first made Sibelius -a world-figure. These include a tetralogy, <em>Lemminkäinen</em>, -consisting of 'Lemminkäinen and the Village -Maidens,' 'The River of Tuonela,' 'The Swan of Tuonela,' -and 'Lemminkäinen's Home-faring'; <em>Finlandia</em>, -<em>En Saga</em>, 'Spring Song,' and the more recent 'Spirits of -the Ocean' and 'Pohjola's Daughter.' The <em>Lemminkäinen</em> -series is based on the Kalevala tale, which narrates -the adventures of the hero Lemminkäinen, his -departure to the river of death (Tuonela), his death -there, and the magic by which his mother charmed his -dismembered limbs to come together and the man to -come to life. Of the four separate works which make -up the series 'The Swan of Tuonela' is the most popular. -It was in this that Sibelius's original mastery of -orchestral tone was first made known to foreign audiences. -With its enchanting theme sung by the English -horn it weaves a long, slow spell of the utmost beauty. -<em>Finlandia</em> tells of the struggles of a submerged nation; -the early parts of the work are filled with passionate -excitement and military bustle; then there emerges the -motive of all this struggle—a majestic chorale melody, -scored with the strings in all their resonance, a song -at once of battle and of devotion, a melody for whose -equal we must go to Beethoven and Wagner. <em>En Saga</em>, -the earliest of the great nationalistic works, is without -a definite program, but is dramatic in the highest degree. -It is a masterpiece of free form, with its long, -swelling climaxes and passionate adagios, surrounded -by a haze of shimmering tone-color, as though the bard -were singing his story among the fogs of the northern -cliffs. The national character of these works is quite -as marked in their themes as in their subject-matter. -Sibelius is fond of the strange rhythms of the old -times—3/4, 7/4, 2/2, or 3/2 time. His accent is almost -crudely exaggerated. His original themes are so true -to the national character that they seem made of one -piece with the folk-tunes. The mood of these works -is rarely gay; the animation is primitive and savage. -The prevailing spirit is one of loneliness and gloom. -In the symphonic poems, which grow increasingly free -in harmony, we see in all its glory the orchestral scoring -which is one of Sibelius's chief claims to fame. It -is no mere virtuoso brilliancy, as is often the case with -Rimsky-Korsakoff. It is always an accentuation of the -character of the music with the character of the tone -of the instrument chosen. It is color from a heavy -palette, chosen chiefly from the deeper shades, showing -its contrast in modulation of tones rather than high -lights, yet kept always free of the turgid and muddy.</p> - -<p>The same qualities are shown in the four symphonies. -Of these the last is a thing of revolutionary import—a -daring work whose full meaning to the future -of music has not begun to be appreciated. The other -three are perhaps less symphonies than symphonic -rhapsodies. They seem to imply a program, being -filled with episodes, dramatic, epic, and lyrical, interspersed -with recitative and legend-like passages. But, -however free the form, the architecture is cogent. In -his development work Sibelius is always masterly. -Some of the passages, like the main theme of the first -movement of the first symphony, or the slow movement -from the same, are amazing in their imaginative -power and beauty. The fourth symphony is a work -apart. In the first and second movements the harmony -is quite as radical as anything in modern German -or French music. It is, in fact, hardly harmony -at all, but the free interplay of monophonic voices.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="ilo-fp105" style="max-width: 27.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo-fp105.jpg" alt="ilo-fp105" /> - <p class="caption">Jean Sibelius</p> - -<p class="center p1b"><em>After a photo from life (1913)</em></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>From this method, which at the present moment is -almost Sibelius's private property, the composer extracts -a quality of poetry which is impressive in its -suggestions of great things beyond.</p> - -<p>Some of Sibelius's best music has been written to -accompany dramatic performances. That for Adolph -Paul's play, 'King Christian II,' has been widely played -as an orchestral suite. The introduction is especially -fine. The warm and sweetly melancholy nocturne, the -'Elegy' for strings, and the profoundly moving Dance -of Death are all movements of rare beauty. The -lovely <em>Valse Triste</em>, a mimic drama in itself, written -for Järnefelt's play, <em>Kuolema</em>, has carried his reputation -far and wide, as the C sharp minor prelude carried -Rachmaninoff's, or the 'Melody in F' Rubinstein's. -There are, further, two orchestral suites from the accompanying -music to Maeterlinck's 'Pelléas and Mélisande,' -and Procopé's 'Belshazzar's Feast.' For orchestra -we may further mention the <em>Karelia</em> Overture, the -<em>Scènes historiques</em>, the Dance-Intermezzo, 'Pan and -Echo,' the melancholy waltzes to accompany Strindberg's -'Snowwhite,' the two canzonettas for small orchestras, -the Romance in C major for string orchestra, -the short symphonic poem, 'The Dryads,' and the Funeral -march.</p> - -<p>The violin concerto, one of the most difficult of the -kind in existence, has already gained its place among -the standard concert pieces for the instrument. It -shows deep feeling and national color, especially in -the rhythmically vigorous finale. The string quartet, -<em>Voces Intimæ</em>, opus 56, is a masterly work in a reserved -style. The first three movements are said to -have as a sort of program certain chapters from Swedenborg. -The piano music is generally on a lower -plane. To a great extent it recalls Schumann and -Tschaikowsky; in such works as the <em>Characterstücke</em>, -opera 5, 24, 41, and 58, in the sonatina, opus 67, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -in the rondinos, opus 68, we find little that can be called -original. But we must remember that in these pieces -Sibelius was writing music to appeal to the people, -and has succeeded to a remarkable degree in raising -the general standard of taste in his native land. For -his most personal piano work we must look to his -transcriptions of Finnish tunes, especially 'The Fratricide' -and 'Evening Comes.'</p> - -<p>In his songs for solo voice Sibelius has achieved remarkable -things. The remarkable 'Autumn Evening' -is a sort of free recitative, always verging on melody, -accompanied by suggestive descriptive figures in the -piano part. Here we see in germ one of his most important -contributions to modern music—an emphasis -on expressive monody. The ballad, <em>Des Fahrmanns -Braut</em>, which has been arranged for orchestral accompaniment, -is weaker musically, but shows the same -genius for expressive melodic recitative. And not the -least important and characteristic part of Sibelius's -work has been in the form of male choruses. Of these -we may mention 'The Origin of Fire' and 'The Imprisoned -Queen,' both with orchestral accompaniment, -and, above all, the magnificent 'Song of the Athenians,' -which has come to have a national significance among -the Finns. As we look over this remarkable list of -works, from the great symphonic forms down to brief -songs, and note the quantity of germinal originality -they contain, their high poetry, their universal beauty -and intense national expression, we must adjudge Sibelius -to be a master with a creative vitality which cannot -be matched by more than half a dozen composers -writing to-day.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">H. K. M.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> See Chapter IV.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Walter Niemann: <em>Die Musik Skandinaviens</em>.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IV<br /> -<small>THE RUSSIAN NATIONALISTS</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The founders of the 'Neo-Russian' Nationalistic School: Balakireff; -Borodine—Moussorgsky—Rimsky-Korsakoff, his life and works—César Cui -and other nationalists, Napravnik, etc.</p> -</div> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>The most significant phase in the history of Russian -music is that which represents the activity of the Balakireff -group and the founders of the St. Petersburg -Free School of Music. This belongs to the middle of -the past century, when the seed sown by Glinka, Dargomijsky -and partly by Bortniansky began to bear its -first fruits. Up to that time the question of Russian -national music had not been aroused. The country -was dominated either by German or the Italian musical -ideals. Art, particularly music, was in every direction -aristocratic, academic, and pedantically ecclesiastic. -The ruling class was foreign to the core and followed -literally the timely æsthetic fads of other countries. -The idea that there could be any art in the life of a -moujik was ridiculed and flatly denied. <em>O, Bóje sohraní!</em> -a patron of music would exclaim at any attempts -at a national music.</p> - -<p>To the middle class and the common people the -admission to high-class musical performances and the -opera was legally denied. The concerts of the Imperial -Musical Society and the performances of the Imperial -Opera were meant only for the <em>élite</em>, and the direction -of those institutions was in the hands of bureaucratic -foreigners. It was at a critical moment that Balakireff,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -who had come as a young lawyer from Nijny Novgorod -to St. Petersburg, laid the foundation of the Free -School of Music. This institution was meant to train -young Russians, to arouse in them an enthusiasm for -the possibilities latent in their native music, and at the -same time to arrange free concerts for the people -and perform the works of those native composers who -were turned away by the existing organizations. -Founded by Balakireff, the composer, Lomakin, the -talented choirmaster, and Stassoff, the celebrated critic, -the free school became the institution of Borodine, -Moussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakoff. Balakireff, Borodine -and Moussorgsky can be considered as the real -founders of the Russian 'realistic' school of music, if -not the pioneers of a new musical art movement altogether. -Upon their principles and examples rest the -original vigor and the subjective glamour of all subsequent -Russian music. The vague initiative given by -Glinka and Dargomijsky underwent a thorough process -of reconstruction at the hands of these three reformers; -the stamp set by them upon the Russian music is as -unique and as lasting as the semi-oriental spirit that -permeates Russian life and character with its exotic -magic.</p> - -<p>The ideal of building up an art out of national material -seemed to hang in the air, for this was the time -of a great national awakening in Russia. Gogol, Lermontov, -Pushkin, Dostoievsky, and Turgenieff in -poetry and fiction, Griboiedoff and Ostrovsky in the -drama, Stassoff, Hertzen, and Mihailovsky in critical -literature, and the revolutionary movement of the so-called -<em>narodno-volts</em> in politics were all symptoms of -a vigorous reform period. It should be noted that in -this great and far-reaching movement the Russian -church, with all its seeming supremacy, exercised but -little influence over matters of art and literature. -While the church in Western Europe was aristocratic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -in its institutions, in Russia it remained throughout -the centuries democratic. A Russian clergyman has -remained nothing but a more or less refined moujik, -a man who lives the life of the common people and -associates with the people. As such he has never been -antagonistic to the spirit of the common people, as -far as their æsthetic tendencies and traditions are concerned. -He has never tried to make art an issue of -the church. Music, less than any other of the arts, has -never been influenced in any way by ecclesiastical -interests. No instrumental music of any kind has ever -been performed in Russian churches. Hence, unlike -those of Western Europe, Russian composers never -came under the sway of the church. The western -church was, as we have seen, originally opposed to the -influence of folk music. In Russia, on the other hand, -it favored any assertion of the people's individuality. -It was, therefore, unlike the aristocratic classes, sympathetic -to such a work as that which the Free School -of Music made the object of its existence.</p> - -<p>Before treating the works of the three great Russian -reformers individually we may remark that none of -them made music his sole profession. Balakireff was -sufficiently well off to devote himself to his art without -thought of material gain. Borodine earned his living -as a scholar and pedagogue, and so maintained his independence -as a composer. Moussorgsky alone felt -the pinch of poverty; his official duties were strenuous -and left him little leisure for composition. Yet, like -his colleagues, he never compromised with public taste.</p> - -<p>The real initiator of this new movement, Mily Alekseyevitch -Balakireff, was born at Nijny Novgorod in -1837. He studied law at the University of Kazan, -though music was his hobby from early childhood on. -His musical ideals were Mozart, Beethoven, and Berlioz. -During one of his summer vacations Balakireff met in -the country near Nijny Novogorod a certain Mr. Oulibitcheff,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> -a retired diplomat and friend of Glinka, an -accomplished musician himself and thoroughly familiar -with the classic composers of every country. It was -he who converted Balakireff to the idea that Russia -should have its own music, and that the lines to be followed -should be those indicated by Glinka. With an -introduction to that apostle of nationalism Balakireff -journeyed to St. Petersburg in 1855. He found the city -under the spell of German and Italian music, and the -masses limited to the musical enjoyment to be derived -from military bands and boulevard artists. With all -the youthful energy at his command Balakireff set himself -to combat the foreign influence and advance nationalistic -ideas of music.</p> - -<p>Balakireff was an artist such as perhaps only Russia -can produce. Without really systematic study he was -an accomplished musician theoretically and practically. -No existing method could measure up to his -ideas of musical study. He had mastered the classics -and made their technique his own; his contemporaries -he approached in a critical spirit, appropriating what -was good and rejecting what he considered wrong. His -watchword was individual liberty. 'I believe in the -subjective, not in the objective power of music,' he -said to his pupils. 'Objective music may strike us with -its brilliancy, but its achievement remains the handiwork -of a mediocre talent. Mediocre or merely talented -musicians are eager to produce <em>effects</em>, but the -ideal of a genius is to reproduce his very self, in unison -with the object of his art. There is no doubt that -art requires technique, but it must be absolutely unconscious -and individual.... Often the greatest pieces -of art are rather rude technically, but they grip the -soul and command attention for intrinsic values. This -is apparent in the works of Michelangelo, of Shakespeare, -of Turgenieff, and of Mozart. The beauty that -fascinates us most is that which is most individual.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> -I regard technique as a necessary but subservient element. -It may, however, become dangerous and kill -individuality as it has done with those favorites of our -public, whose virtuosity I despise more than mere -crudities.'</p> - -<p>The man who launched such a theory at a time when -the rest of the world was merged in admiration of -Wagner and his technique was an interesting combination -of a scholar, poet, revolutionist, and agitator. -Wagner, Rubinstein, and Tschaikowsky were technicians -in his eyes, whose creative power moved merely -in the old-fashioned channels of classicism. Of the -rest of his contemporaries Liszt was the only genius -worthy of attention. Between Balakireff, Rubinstein, -and Tschaikowsky there was continual strife.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Rubinstein -headed the newly founded Imperial Conservatory, -Balakireff his Free School of Music. On Rubinstein's -side were the members of high society, the music critics -and the bureaucratic power. Balakireff and his group -of young composers were outcasts. Music critics and -public opinion stamped him a conceited dilettante, -only a handful of intellectuals subscribed to his creed.</p> - -<p>Balakireff's first composition was a fantasia on Russian -themes for piano and orchestra, which he afterward -rearranged for an orchestral overture. In 1861 -he composed the music to 'King Lear,' which is his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span>only work of a dramatic character. An opera, 'The -Golden Bird,' which he commenced some years later, -was never completed. One of the most significant of -Balakireff's early works is the symphonic poem 'Russia,' -commemorating the thousandth anniversary of -the inauguration of the Russian empire by Rurik. -That his own works are rather limited in number is -explained by the fact that he spent most of his best -years in organizing his campaign and in criticising the -compositions of his followers. The symphonic poem -'Tamara,' some twenty songs and ballades, 'Islamey,' an -oriental fantasy for piano, which was one of the most -cherished numbers in Liszt's repertoire, and his symphonic -poem 'Bohemia' represent the best fruits of his -genius. His First and Second Symphonies are very -beautiful, original and Russian in feeling, but they -have somehow remained behind his above-mentioned -works. Very fiery and popular are his two concertos, -the Spanish Overture and a number of dances. 'Tamara' -is a real gem of oriental wickedness and fascination.</p> - -<p>In 1869 Balakireff was appointed conductor of the -Imperial Musical Society and later of the court choir. -In 1874 he retired from the directorship of the Free -School of Music and the post was taken over by Rimsky-Korsakoff. -From this time until his death Balakireff -lived in seclusion in his comfortable home in St. -Petersburg and avoided society. He died in 1910, having -outlived all his contemporaries and many of his -pupils. The last period of his life was overshadowed -by a strange mystic obsession which caused him to -destroy many of his compositions.</p> - -<p>An artist of wholly different cast was Alexander -Porphyrievitch Borodine. While Balakireff was the -positive type of an active man, a born organizer -and agitator, Borodine was a dreamer and tender-souled -poet, the true Bohemian of his time. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> -was a most remarkable combination of very unusual -abilities: Borodine the surgeon and doctor enjoyed a -nation-wide reputation; Borodine the chemist made -many valuable discoveries and wrote treatises which -were recognized universally as remarkable contributions -to science; Borodine the philanthropist and educator -was tireless from early morning till night; Borodine -the flutist, violinist, and pianist rivalled the best -virtuosi of his time; and Borodine the composer was, -according to Liszt, one of the most gifted orchestral -masters of the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>Here is what Borodine writes of his visit to the hero -of Weimar in 1877: 'Scarcely had I sent my card in -when there arose before me, as though out of the -ground, a long black frock-coat, and long white hair. -"You have written a fine symphony," he began in a -resonant voice. "I am delighted to see you. Only two -days ago I played your symphony to the grand duke, -who was wholly charmed with it. The first movement -is perfect. Your andante is a masterpiece. The scherzo -is enchanting, and then, this passage is wonderful—great!"' -This was his Second Symphony, which -Felix Weingartner has called one of the most beautiful -orchestral works ever written.</p> - -<p>Under what circumstances he produced his enchanting -beauties is best evidenced from one of his letters to -his wife in 1873: 'Thursday I gave two lectures for -women [on surgery], received clothes sent from the -institution, had a letter from Butleroff to take dinner -with him and then to attend the meeting of the chemists. -I brought there all my material and gave an account -of my experiments. Then, Mendeleyev [the -famous chemist] took me to his house. I worked this -morning as usual, took dinner with Miety at Sorokina. -Then Raida and Kleopatra called on me to request -space for a sick man in the hospital.'</p> - -<p>Who would believe that a man of such a versatile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> -nature was at the same time one of the finest composers -and musicians of his generation? In another letter to -his wife he writes how he rushes madly from his laboratory -to his musical study, sits furiously at the piano -and starts to pour out the musical ideas that have -haunted him day and night. His friends thought he -would never be able to continue such a triple life for -any length of time and urged him to devote himself -merely to music. But to him this change of thought -and work seemed a recreation and he lived in this very -turmoil until he died.</p> - -<p>Borodine was born in St. Petersburg in 1834. His -father was Prince Gedeanoff, a descendant of the hereditary -rulers of the kingdom of Imeretia in the Caucasus, -and his mother, Mme. Kleineke, the widow of an -army doctor in Narva. Borodine's oriental tendency -can be traced back through his family. His nationalism -was truly spontaneous and genuine, in spite of the -fact that, unlike his colleagues, Balakireff and Moussorgsky, -he never had an opportunity to come in contact -with the peasantry. Borodine's nationalism is a -product of heredity and owes nothing to environment.</p> - -<p>Having studied medicine in the famous Military -Surgery School in St. Petersburg, Borodine became a -professor in the same institution after a short practice -as a surgeon in various hospitals of the capital. He -was, even as a student in college, an accomplished virtuoso -in music. At the age of eighteen he had composed -a concerto for violin and piano. But his real -musical creative activity started when he met Balakireff -and the members of his circle, to whom he was -introduced by Moussorgsky, then a young officer of the -guard in the military hospital. Though filled with -Balakireff's ideals, Borodine was not close to his teacher. -Balakireff's ideas were grand in outline, but rather -rough in detail; Borodine's preferences were toward refinement -in detail and melodic form. Though the opera<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> -'Prince Igor' may be considered Borodine's masterpiece, -he has enriched Russian musical literature by -exquisite examples of orchestral composition—of which -his Second Symphony and the symphonic poem 'In -Steppes of Central Asia' are the best—chamber music, -songs and dances. Borodine's orchestral compositions -excel in richness of coloring and in the dramatic vigor -of his melodies. Withal he has an almost mathematical -mastery of form and style.</p> - -<p>From all his works emanates a distinctly lyric Slavic-Oriental -glow of sound—brilliant, passionate, gay, and -painful in turns. In the words of a modern Russian -composer, 'it is individually descriptive and extremely -modern—so modern that the audiences of to-day will -not be able to grasp all its intrinsic beauties.'</p> - -<p>In 'Prince Igor' Borodine has produced a work that -has nothing in common with either Italian or German -operas. He employs a libretto of legendary character, -such as Wagner used for his operas, but in construction -and style he follows the very opposite direction of the -German master. The dramatic plot is almost lacking -in the conventional sense, but the interest of the audience -is kept in suspense by means of a unique musical -beauty, by stage effects and the dramatic truth that -shows itself in every detail of the action.</p> - -<p>As compared with Balakireff and Moussorgsky, Borodine -was an aristocratic figure in thought and inclination. -He was more chivalrous and lyric in his style and -more imaginative in his form, therefore less dramatic -and less elemental. Borodine's great significance for -Russian music lies in his individual form of melodic -thought and the relation of that thought to human -life. His realism verged on the point of impressionistic -symbolism, in which he surpassed both Balakireff and -Moussorgsky. He gave to Russian music new forms of -romantic realism, forms that have been used and perfected -by the composers who have followed him. Unlike<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> -Balakireff and Moussorgsky, Borodine was married -and lived a happy family life. He died suddenly at a -costume-ball in St. Petersburg in 1887.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>Of all artists one of the most fought and ridiculed, -the least recognized and a figure almost ignored, yet -doubtless the greatest personality in Russian musical -history, was Modest Petrovitch Moussorgsky. It has -remained for the present generation, especially for -men like Rimsky-Korsakoff, Claude Debussy, Richard -Strauss, and Hugo Wolf, to appreciate this most original -musical genius of the last century. Rubinstein and -Tschaikowsky spoke of Moussorgsky as of a talented -musical heretic, regarding his compositions as the result -of accidental inspiration, crude in their workmanship -and primitive in their form. Though his name -was known through Russia to some extent, especially -after Rimsky-Korsakoff had secured for him some professional -success, he remained always a minor character. -This lasted until the beginning of this century, -when a celebrated foreign composer came out publicly -and said: 'What Shakespeare did in dramatic poetry -Moussorgsky accomplished in vocal music. The -Shakespearian breadth and power of his compositions -are so original that he is still too great to be appreciated, -even in this generation. A century may pass -before he will be fully understood by composers and -music lovers generally. His misfortune was that he -composed music two hundred years ahead of his time.' -After this the whole atmosphere changed. A cult of -Moussorgsky was started at home and abroad. The -public began to dig out the tragic chapters of his life -little by little and the neglected genius of Moussorgsky -loomed up to an extraordinary height, as is usually the -case when the sentiments of the public are stirred.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> -However, this cult of Moussorgsky is merely a timely -fad and adds nothing to his real greatness.</p> - -<p>After the composer had met bitter opposition where -he had expected enthusiastic appreciation he wrote to -Balakireff: 'I do not consider music an abstract element -of our æsthetic emotions, but a living art, which, -going hand in hand with poetry and drama, shall express -the very soul of human life and feeling. The -academic composers and the people who have grown -to love the musical classics take my works for eccentric -and amateurish. This is all because I lack the high -academic air and do not follow the conventional way. -But why should I imitate others when there is so much -within myself that is my own? My idea is that every -tone should express a word. Music to me is speech -without words.'</p> - -<p>Moussorgsky's music reminds us so much of the -poetry of Walt Whitman that we cannot but regard -these two geniuses of two different worlds as intimately -related to each other.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container p11 pw30"> -<div class="poetry"> -<p>'Composers! mighty maestros!<br /> -And you sweet singers of old lands, Soprani, tenori, bassi!<br /> -To you a new bard caroling in the west<br /> -Obeissant sends his love.'</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Like Whitman, Moussorgsky broke loose from the -conventional rhythm and verse. Most of his compositions -are set to his own words and librettos, in a -kind of poetic prose. He said plainly that he never -cared for verse for his compositions, but merely for a -dramatic story to carry a certain thought. 'Thoughts -and words fascinate me more than rhythm and poetic -technique,' he used to say. Every piece of his work -bears the stamp of his individuality; every chord of -his music breathes power and inspiration. It was not -a notion to be original that actuated him, but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> -irresistible necessity to pour out what came to life in -his creative soul and temperament. In his autobiography -Moussorgsky writes characteristically:</p> - -<p>'By virtue of his views and music and of the nature -of his compositions Moussorgsky stands apart from all -existing types of musicians. The creed of his artistic -faith is as follows: Art is a means of human intercourse -and not in itself an end. The whole of his -creative activity was dictated by this guiding principle. -Convinced that human speech is strictly governed by -musical laws, Moussorgsky considered that the musical -reproductions, not of isolated manifestations of sensibility, -but of articulate humanity as a whole, is the -function of his art. He holds that in the domain of -the musical art reformers such as Palestrina, Bach, -Berlioz, Gluck, Beethoven, and Liszt have created certain -artistic laws; but he does not consider these laws -as immutable, holding them to be strictly subject to -conditions of evolution and progress no less than the -whole world of thought.'</p> - -<p>Moussorgsky's life was no less unique than his -thoughts and works. He was born in 1831 in the village -of Kareva in the province of Pskoff, the son of a retired -judicial functionary. He inherited the gift of music -from his mother and from his father the gift of poetry. -At the age of ten he was sent to a military school in -St. Petersburg, where he remained until 1856, when he -became an officer of the Preobrajensky Guard Regiment -in St. Petersburg. A handsome young man of -chivalrous manners, he became the romantic hero of the -<em>beau monde</em> of St. Petersburg. His musical studies, begun -in the college, were taken up more systematically -and energetically after he became an officer. As a -sentinel in the military hospital he met Borodine, the -surgeon, and the two passionate lovers of music soon -grew to be intimate friends. It was through Borodine -that he heard of Balakireff, in whose Free School of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> -Music he at once became a student. Already in 1858 -he composed his first orchestral work, 'Scherzo,' which -was performed two years later by Balakireff's orchestra.</p> - -<p>In 1859 Moussorgsky resigned from the army with -the idea of living for his music alone, but, lacking a -systematic musical education, he found himself an -outcast. He was treated as a dilettante by the professional -musicians and the patrons of music, and this -closed the way to earning a living by his art and getting -his compositions published or produced. The situation -made him desperate and he was glad to accept a -clerkship, first in the Department of Finance, later in -the office of the Imperial Comptroller. The salary was -small and the work hard; he could only compose during -the evenings and on festival days. This made him -bitter about his future. It is rather strange that even -Balakireff did not wholly understand Moussorgsky's -genius when he joined the circle, for Rimsky-Korsakoff -writes in his memoirs that Moussorgsky was always -treated as the least talented of all. This was on account -of the peculiarly passive frame of mind into which the -composer had fallen after leaving the army. He even -changed in his appearance and manners. The once -handsome, chivalrous young social hero was suddenly -transformed into a dreamy vagabond, who cared nothing -for manners and appearances.</p> - -<p>Moussorgsky's masterpieces are his three song cycles -of about twenty numbers each, his few orchestral compositions -and his two operas, <em>Boris Godounoff</em> and -<em>Khovanshchina</em>. There is hardly a work by another -composer which has upon the listener such a ghastly, -hypnotic effect as some of these works of Moussorgsky. -Every chord of them is like a gripping, invisible finger. -His cycle of 'Death Dances,' of which <em>Trepak</em> is the -most popular, are knocks at the very gates of death, -written in the weird rhythms of old Russian peasant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -dances. In this work he makes the listener realize the -indifference of nature to human fate. 'Snow fields in -silence—so cold is the night! And the icy north wind -is wailing, brokenly sobbing, as though a ghastly dirge. -Over the graves it is chanting. Lo! O behold. Through -the night a strange pair approaches; death holds an -old peasant in his clutches.' Thus sings the composer -in the epilogue. The starved peasant is frozen under -the snow. But then the sun shines warmer; spring -comes into the land. The icy fields change into flourishing -meadows, the lark soars to the sky and nature -continues its everlasting alternate play as if individual -joys and sorrows never existed.</p> - -<p>The descriptive power of Moussorgsky's vocal compositions -is marvellously realistic, and of this his songs -of the second and third active period of his life, such -as 'Peasant Cradle Song,' 'Children Songs,' 'Serenade,' -and <em>Polkovodets</em>, give the best illustration. In the -first named composition not only does he visualize the -rocking of the cradle, accompanied by a sweet melody, -but he also draws, with a remarkable power, the interior -of a peasant's hut, the mother bending with tenderness -over her child; her sigh and dreaming of his -future; the child's breathing and the ticking of a primitive -old watch on the wall. One can almost see the -details of an idyllic lonely Russian village. But Moussorgsky -is not only powerful in his gloomy and melancholy -tone pictures, in which he depicts the hopeless -situation of the Russian people in their struggle for -freedom; he is also great in his humorous, gay songs. -<em>Hopak</em>, <em>Pirushki</em>, <em>Po Griby</em>, and the 'Children Songs' -are full of exultant humor, naughtiness or joy. How -well he could make music a satire is proved by -'Classic,' 'Raek,' and others, in which pedantic academicism -is caricatured in ironic chords. Moussorgsky's -musical activity may be divided into three periods: -First, from 1858 until 1865, when, more or less under<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> -the influence of Dargomijsky, he composed 'Edip,' -'Saul,' <em>Salâmmbo</em>, 'Intermezzo,' 'Prelude,' and 'Menuette'; -second, from 1865 until 1875, when he was independent -and wrote the 'Death Dances,' 'Children Songs,' -<em>Boris Godounoff</em>, <em>Khovanshchina</em>, etc.; and the third, -during which he composed the 'Song of Mephisto.' The -works of his second period are overwhelming in their -elemental power and boldness of treatment. In them -he surpasses all Russian composers up to his time.</p> - -<p><em>Boris Godounoff</em>, finished in 1870, was performed -four years later in the Imperial Opera House. The -libretto of this opera he took from the poetic drama of -Pushkin, but he changed it, eliminating much and -adding new scenes here and there, so that as a whole -it is his own creation. In this work Moussorgsky went -against the foreign classic opera in conception as well -as in construction. It is a typically Russian musical -drama, with all the richness of Slavic colors, true Byzantine -atmosphere and characters of the medieval -ages. Based on Russian history of about the middle -of the seventeenth century, when an adventurous regent -ascends the throne and when the court is full of -intrigues, its theme stands apart from all other operas. -The music is more or less, like many of Moussorgsky's -songs, written in imitation of the old folk-songs, folk -dances, ceremonial chants, and festival tunes. Foreign -critics have considered the opera as a piece constructed -of folk melodies. But this is not the case. There is -not a single folk melody in <em>Boris Godounoff</em>, every -phrase is the original creation of Moussorgsky.</p> - -<p>Although there is nothing in the symphonic development -of <em>Boris Godounoff</em> which approaches the complexities -of Wagnerian music drama, the leading motives -are quite definitely associated with the characters -and emotions of the drama. Noteworthy features in -the realm of musical suggestion are those of the music -accompanying the hallucinations of Boris, where Moussorgsky -forsakes the conventional custom of employing -the heavy brass and reproduces the frenzy in musical -terms by means of downward chromatic passage -played tremolo by strings—an effect which succeeds -because it has a far more direct appeal to the nerves -of the listener than the more abstract commentary of -the German operatic masters.</p> - -<p>Moussorgsky's second opera, <em>Khovanshchina</em>, which -was finished by Rimsky-Korsakoff after the death of -the composer, is in its subject and broad style far superior -to 'Boris,' especially because of its more powerful -symbolism and exalted pathos. But the music, -particularly in the last unfinished acts, lacks the originality -and grip of his early opera. If he had been -able to work out this opera under more favorable circumstances -it would have caught more faithfully the -psychology of a nation's life and history in a nutshell -of music than anything written before or later for the -stage. Moussorgsky also wrote a comic opera, 'The -Fair at Sorotchinsk,' which was partly orchestrated and -finished by Sahnovsky and Liadoff and performed for -the first time in the Spring of 1914.</p> - -<p>Moussorgsky's perpetual misery, overwork, and the -thought that his compositions would be hardly understood -and recognized during his lifetime made him so -gloomy and desperate that he drifted away from Balakireff's -circle. For some time he lived at the country -place of his brother, and when he returned to St. -Petersburg he tried to overcome the haunting thoughts, -but in vain. He began to avoid all society and everything -conventional. In the meanwhile his <em>Boris Godounoff</em> -had been given with great success on the stage. -Yet the academic circles would not recognize him in -spite of this public success. The man's pride was -touched and he felt unhappy about everything he had -done. His only contentment he found in playing his -works for himself and in associating with the common -people in dram shops, which he visited with dire results. -Shunning every intelligent circle and society, he -grew melancholy, and his mental and physical health -was seriously affected.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ilo-fp122" style="max-width: 29.5625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo-fp122.jpg" alt="ilo-fp122" /> -</div> - -<p class="center">Russian Nationalists:</p> - -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 5.4em;">Modest Moussorgsky</span> <span style="padding-left: 1em; ">Mily Balakireff</span><br /> -<span style="padding-left: 2.5em;">Alexander Borodine</span> <span style="padding-left: 4em;">Nicholas Rimsky-Korsakoff</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>In 1868 Moussorgsky began to write an opera to the -libretto of Gogol's drama 'Marriage.' This, however, -he never finished. He wrote quite a number of powerful -orchestral works of which his 'Intermezzo,' 'Prelude,' -and <em>Menuette Monstre</em> are the most typical of -all. Having composed several piano pieces and orchestral -works with little satisfaction to himself, he -decided to devote himself only to vocal music. The -period from 1865 to 1875 was the most productive -part of his life. During these ten years he composed -his 'Hamlet' songs, ballads, romances, and operas, -every one of which is more or less original and hypnotizing -in its own way.</p> - -<p>Moussorgsky's letters to his brother throw a remarkable -light on his unique nature and the change that -took place in his mind in regard to his social environment. -They are partly ironic, bitter expressions upon -modern civilization and its wrong standards. Moussorgsky -died in 1881 in the Nicholaevsky Military Hospital -at the age of forty-two and asked the nurse that -instead of a mass in church his 'Death Dance' be played -for him by a few of his admirers.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>The most widely known of the 'neo-Russian' group, -outside of Russia, was Nicholas Andreievich Rimsky-Korsakoff. -This man, the most prolific and the most -expert of the group, proved himself in some ways one -of the supreme masters of modern music. His command -over harmonic color-painting and his astonishing -mastery over all details of modern orchestration have -made him a teacher to the composers of all nations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span></p> - -<p>Rimsky-Korsakoff was born March 18, 1844, at -Tikvin in the department of Novgorod. On his -father's estate he received all the advantages of a childhood -in the open air, and of the best education available. -From the four musicians who furnished music -for the family dances he received his first initiation -into the art of his later years. When he was six he -received his first piano lessons, and when he was nine -he was already composing pieces of his own. But it -was in the family tradition that the sons should enter -the navy, so when he was but twelve years of age the -boy went to the St. Petersburg Naval School and entered -the long required course. He did not, however, -give up his music during this period; he worked hard -at the piano and the 'cello, also receiving lessons in -composition from Kanillé. But music was comparatively -meaningless in his life until, in 1861, he met -Balakireff, who had recently come to the capital to -undertake the musical spiritualization of his country. -Under Balakireff he worked for about a year, and during -this time came into close contact with the other -members of the famous circle. The contact was profoundly -stimulating. 'They aired their opinions and -criticized the giants of the past,' says Mrs. Newmarch,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> -'with a frankness and freedom that was probably very -naïve, and certainly scandalized their academic elders. -They adored Glinka; regarded Haydn and Mozart as -old-fashioned; admired Beethoven's latest quartets; -thought Bach—of whom they could have known little -beyond the "Well Tempered Clavier"—a mathematician -rather than a musician; they were enthusiastic -over Berlioz, while, as yet, Liszt had not begun to influence -them very greatly.' Of these days the composer -has written, 'I drank in all these ideas, although I really -had no grounds for accepting them, for I had only -heard fragments of many of the foreign works under -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span>discussion, and afterwards I retailed them to my comrades -at the naval school who were interested in music -as being my own convictions.'<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>Then, while Rimsky-Korsakoff's technique was still -being molded, while his ideals were unprecise and his -appreciations fluid, he was called away on a long cruise -on the ship <em>Almaz</em>—a cruise which was to last for -three years and take him around the world. But with -the huge energy for which Russians are so notable, he -decided to add music to his regular official duties. He -arranged that he was to send to Balakireff from time to -time the things he would write on shipboard, and was -to receive extended criticisms in return, to be picked -up at the harbors at which his ship should stop. Thus -he would maintain his active pupilship. The work -which he managed to accomplish on shipboard is astonishing. -But Rimsky-Korsakoff was endowed with -a capacity for orderly and methodical work which enabled -him in later life to discharge all sorts of onerous -artistic burdens and keep his creative output undiminished -in quantity. When he returned from the -cruise in 1865 he brought with him his Symphony No. -1, in E minor, the first symphony to be written by a -Russian. It was performed under Balakireff's direction -at one of the concerts of the Free School of Music -and made a favorable impression. For the next few -years the composer's life was chiefly centred in St. -Petersburg, and his association with the Balakireff -group was once more resumed. In this period, too, began -his close friendship with Moussorgsky, which continued -until the latter's death. After composing the -first Russian symphony he produced the first Russian -symphonic poem in <em>Sadko</em>, opus 5, which revealed his -marked power of musical narration and scene-painting. -Directly he followed with the 'Fantasy on Serbian -Tunes,' opus 6, which gave the first signs of his later -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span>brilliancy in orchestration. This work attracted the -attention of Tschaikowsky, who became his ardent supporter -and continued as a personal friend in spite of -the fact that the ideals of the two composers were so -disparate that close association was impossible. In -1870 Rimsky-Korsakoff began his first opera, <em>Pskovitianka</em> -('The Maid of Pskoff'), which was performed -early in 1873 and was well received. Soon afterwards -he completed his 'Second Symphony,' which is in -reality rather a symphonic poem—the <em>Antar</em>, op. 9.</p> - -<p>This may be taken as closing one period of his creative -activity. He had entered music with all the lively -nationalistic ideals of the Balakireff group, and with its -naïveté as to musical technique. Like his associates, -he had written chiefly in an intuitional fashion. But -in 1871 he accepted an invitation to teach at the St. -Petersburg Conservatory of Music. And he has recorded -that in attempting to teach the theory of music -he became convinced that it was first necessary for him -to learn it. He became profoundly dissatisfied with -his musical achievement and set out deliberately to -acquire an exhaustive knowledge of musical technique -by means of hard work. During one summer he wrote -innumerable exercises in counterpoint and sixty-four -fugues, ten of which he sent to Tschaikowsky for inspection. -From this severe period of self-tuition he -emerged with a command of conventional musical -means unsurpassed in Russia, but without any essential -loss either to his individuality or to his nationalism. -By some, Rimsky-Korsakoff's recognition of his need -for further technical learning has been accepted as a -recantation of his nationalistic principles. But it was -not this in reality, for his later operas are all drawn -from national sources and the folk-song continues to -occupy a prominent place among them. The enthusiasm -for classical learning may have changed his -standards somewhat; many critics feel that the revision<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> -to which he later submitted the Moussorgsky -opera scores reveals a pedantic cast of mind, a failure -to appreciate the original genius of his friend. But, -on the other hand, his severe training gave him that -fluent technique which enabled him to accomplish such -a great amount of work on such a high plane of workmanship.</p> - -<p>In point of fact, Rimsky-Korsakoff 'recanted' nothing. -His ideals and his fundamental musical method -had been formed in his early youth. Balakireff's enthusiasm -for folk-song never left him. The influence -of the early ocean cruise was in his work to the end. -Among all musicians Rimsky-Korsakoff is perhaps the -greatest describer of the sea. The effect of lonely days -and nights out in the midst of the swelling ocean, at a -time when his adolescent senses were still deeply impressionable—this -we can trace again and again in his -later music. 'What a thing to be thankful for is the -naval profession!' he wrote in a letter to Cui during the -first voyage.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> 'How glorious, how agreeable, how elevating! -Picture yourself sailing across the North Sea. -The sky is gray, murky, and colorless; the wind -screeches through the rigging; the ship pitches so that -you can hardly keep your legs; you are constantly besprinkled -with spray and sometimes washed from head -to foot by a wave; you feel chilly and rather sick. -Oh, a sailor's life is really jolly!' We see here the -effect of the out-of-door activity on the young artist—that -awakening of sensibilities to the external life of -nature, rather than the introspection of the thinker -who spends his time solely in the study of his art. It -was this voyage, surely, that chiefly helped to make -Rimsky-Korsakoff so objective in his music. He loves -to describe the form and color of nature rather than -the experiences of the soul. He paints for us the life -of the senses. We recall the young naval officer in the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span>mighty swell of the ocean in <em>Scheherezade</em>. We cannot -doubt the effect of this early influence toward making -Rimsky-Korsakoff the great story-teller of modern -music.</p> - -<p>His later life was an extremely active one. He retained -his position at the conservatory for many years, -and numbered among his pupils some of the most talented -composers in modern Russian music—among -them Liadoff, Arensky, Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, Gretchaninoff, -Tcherepnine, and Stravinsky. He was an enthusiastic -collector of national folk-tunes. He revised, -completed, arranged, or orchestrated many large -works, including operas by Moussorgsky, Borodine, and -Glinka. He served for many years as conductor of -the concerts of the Free School, succeeding Balakireff, -and for a time was assistant director of the music at -the Imperial Chapel. A perquisite post as inspector -of naval bands, given him in 1873, enabled him to devote -his time to music; for many years he remained -officially a servant of the government. After 1889 and -up to the time of his death in 1908 he wrote twelve -operas, and at one period was looked to to provide -one dramatic work each year for one or another of -the great lyric theatres of Russia. Once or twice he -was publicly at odds with officialdom, at one time going -so far as to resign his professorship in the conservatory. -But on the whole he was a figure of whom Russia, -both popular and official, was proud. His books -on theory and orchestration have long been standard.</p> - -<p>Rimsky-Korsakoff's works, in addition to the fifteen -operas already mentioned, include three symphonies -(one of them the <em>Antar</em>), a 'Sinfonietta on Russian -Themes,' several symphonic poems, including the 'symphony' -<em>Scheherezade</em>, the <em>Sadko</em>, and the 'Symphonic -Tale' founded on the prologue to Pushkin's 'Russlan and -Ludmilla'; several large orchestral works, including -the famous 'Spanish Caprice,' the 'Fantasia on Serbian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> -Themes,' and the 'Easter Overture'; a fine piano concerto -and a violin fantasia; some church music, a -limited amount of piano music and many songs.</p> - -<p>Rimsky-Korsakoff's operas are the staple of the Russian -opera houses. They are not works of such genius -as those of Moussorgsky and Borodine, but, taken together, -they reveal a creative genius of a high order. -In general their style is lyric rather than declamatory, -but in this respect Rimsky-Korsakoff applied a wide -variety of means to his special problems. Some, like -his first, 'The Maid of Pskoff,' follow loosely the principles -laid down by Dargomijsky in 'The Stone Guest,' -in which the libretto is regarded as a spoken text to -be followed with great literalness by the music. Others, -like <em>Snegourotchka</em>, are almost purely lyric in character. -Yet another, 'Mozart and Salieri,' is written in the -style of the eighteenth century. But in one way or another -the national feeling is in all of them, and folk-tunes -are introduced freely with more or less literalness. -Though Rimsky-Korsakoff could occasionally -reach heights of emotional intensity (as in the last -scene of 'The Maid of Pskoff'), his genius is more -properly lyrical and picturesque. The songs and pictures -of <em>Snegourotchka</em> and <em>Sadko</em>, in which a huge -variety of resource is brought to achieve vividness and -brilliancy of effect, are the work of a rich imagination. -The melody is supple and varied, the harmony -extremely expressive and colorful, but neither is so -original as with Moussorgsky. The orchestration, however, -never fails to be masterful in the highest degree. -This suits admirably the legendary and picturesque -subjects which Rimsky-Korsakoff invariably chose. -With only one or two exceptions, his operas have held -the stage steadily in Russia, and two or three of them -have become familiar, by frequent performances, to -foreign audiences.</p> - -<p>Among Rimsky-Korsakoff's other works the 'Spanish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> -Caprice' and the <em>Scheherezade</em> symphony have become -classics of the concert room. The former is a virtuoso -piece in brilliantly colored orchestration. The other -is one of the most successful musical stories ever told. -In these pieces he is working in his own field, that of -national or oriental color, made vivid by every device -of the modern musician. When he is composing in the -more 'absolute' or classical forms, as in the 'Belaieff -Quartet,' or the piano concerto, his inspiration seems -to wane. Mention should be made of the songs, which -include some of the most perfect in Russian literature, -though in many the slender melody is weighted down -by the richness of the accompaniment. Finally, we -should not forget Rimsky-Korsakoff's great service to -Russian church music, which will be referred to later.</p> - -<p>From this brief outline we can see how great was -the variety of his activities. Very little that he did was -undistinguished. When he was at his best, in the -exploitation of the resources of the modern orchestra, -in painting natural scenery, the sea or the woods, in -narrating a story of fairies or heroes, he was in the -very front rank of composers of the nineteenth century.</p> - -<p>In comparison with Moussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakoff -was a conservative. He inclined toward the sensuous -and regular melody of Borodine, which was always -somewhat Italian. His harmony was far from revolutionary. -He can show us no pages like that wonderful -page of Moussorgsky's, introducing the Kremlin scene -in <em>Boris Godounoff</em>, where the light of the rising sun -is painted striking the towers of the ancient churches—a -page which has become historic in connection with -modern French impressionism. On the whole, indeed, -he seems rather timid about venturing off the beaten -path. His harmonic heterodoxies, where they occur, -are introduced discreetly, obtaining their effect rather -by their appropriateness than by their originality. Nor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> -was Rimsky-Korsakoff so instinctive a nationalist as -either Balakireff or Moussorgsky. In a great quantity -of his music we find nothing to mark it as Russian. -But when we <em>listen</em> to the music of Rimsky-Korsakoff -we feel that it is daring, novel, and exotic. The striking -difference between this music <em>seen</em> and <em>heard</em> is -due chiefly to the orchestration, which so glitters with -strange colors that we forget how orthodox the musical -writing generally is. By tone coloring the composer -gives it qualities of pictorial suggestiveness and Oriental -strangeness which is quite lacking in the piano -score. Sometimes he even covers up musical poverty -by his magnificent scoring; the 'Spanish Rhapsody,' for -instance, is a work of little inherent originality, but is -maintained on our concert programs because of its -inexpressible brilliancy of orchestration. If, on the -whole, we find Rimsky-Korsakoff's music thin, we must -give due credit to the style which enabled the composer -to write a great quantity of music with easy facility, -while his taste kept him almost always above the level -of banality.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>The fifth and last member of the nationalist group -was César Cui, the least distinctive and least important -of the five. He occupied a somewhat anomalous position -in the movement. The son of a Frenchman, he became -an enthusiastic nationalist, being the first of -Balakireff's important converts. As a teacher in the -Government Engineering School in St. Petersburg he -had little time for active composition, but exerted great -energy in defending the nationalist group in the press -and in pamphlets. In all Russia, with the single exception -of Vladimir Stassoff, there was no more vigorous -and overbearing apologist of the Russian school of -composition. Yet his own music is hardly tinged with -Russian elements, being a compound of Schumann and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> -of some of the most superficial of the French composers, -notably Auber. Though he was undoubtedly a -musician of considerable learning and much talent, he -has left nothing of much creative vigor.</p> - -<p>His father came to Russia with Napoleon's army, was -wounded at Smolensk, and later became a teacher of -French in a private school at Vilna, near Poland. Here, -on January 18, 1835, César Antonovich Cui was born. -He received fairly good instruction in piano and violin -in his early years, and at the age of fifteen was sent -to the School of Military Engineering at St. Petersburg. -Here, in a seven years' course, he distinguished himself -so that he was made sub-professor in the school, and -later became a specialist in military fortifications. -(The present czar was at one time his pupil.) All his -life he gave distinguished service in this capacity, and -during the war that is going on at this writing, though -he is past eighty years of age, he is taking a prominent -part in the military defense of Russia.</p> - -<p>It was in 1856, when he was twenty-one years old, -that he was introduced to Balakireff. He immediately -became fired with the latter's enthusiasm for a Russian -school of music. But his first works show no signs of -it. Some early piano pieces are written entirely in the -style of Schumann, and his first dramatic work, an -operetta called 'The Mandarin's Son,' is a weak piece -in the manner of Auber. His first important opera, -'The Prisoner of the Caucasus,' finished about this time -though not performed until twenty years later, shows -some originality and an attempt at local color. Early -in the 'sixties Cui was at work on his opera 'William -Ratcliff,' which established his reputation. It was performed -in the year 1869 at the Imperial Theatre, St. -Petersburg, and though coldly received at the time was -revived with considerable success many years later in -Moscow. But Cui's chief influence on the music of his -time was exerted through his newspaper articles, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> -stoutly championed the 'Big Five.' In these he showed -himself an able, but a somewhat dogmatic, commentator. -He held his ground successfully until the music -of the new school had ceased to depend on the written -word for its prestige. His pamphlet, 'Music in Russia,' -was the chief source of knowledge of Russian composers -to the outside world for many years. Cui further -helped the cause among foreign lands through the -performances of his operas in Belgium and Paris. In -fact, two of his later operas, 'The Filibusterer' and -<em>M'selle Fifi</em>, were composed to French texts. The opera -'Angelo,' performed in 1876 and in some ways his -strongest work, was also drawn from a French source—a -play by Victor Hugo. When we have mentioned -'The Saracen,' founded upon a work of Dumas, and -'The Feast in Plague Time,' based on Pushkin, we have -named all his works for the stage. In these the dramatic -element is always subordinate to the lyrical. -The harmony, though often meticulous, is rarely strong -or original, and in general the style is thin and conventional. -But Cui had a rich fund of melody, and in a -few scenes, as in the love episodes in 'The Saracen,' -he succeeded to a notable degree in the expression of -emotion. But it is in Cui's songs and small pieces for -violin and piano that he shows his talent most markedly. -Here his French feeling for nicety of form and -delicacy of effect revealed itself at its best. We feel -that the pieces were written by some lesser Schumann, -but we admire the taste and judgment displayed in -their execution. Further, we must admire Cui's confining -himself to his own style of music. His enthusiasm -for and appreciation of the neo-Russian composers -is unquestionable, and he might have produced much -flamboyant nonsense in trying to make their style his -own. As it is he has played an important part in the -development of Russian music, and displayed abilities -which are by no means to be overlooked.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p> - -<p>Before leaving the Russian nationalists we should -mention several composers of their generation who -were not definitely allied with them or with their -school, but still demand mention in any history of Russian -music. Edward Franzovitch Napravnik was born -August 12, 1839, in Bohemia, and moved to St. Petersburg -in 1861. He had received his musical education -in his native country and in Paris, where he studied -organ and piano, and later taught. In St. Petersburg -he took charge of Prince Youssipoff's private orchestra, -and thereafter became intimately associated with the -musical life of his adoptive country and worked indefatigably -for its improvement and independence. In -1863 he was appointed organist to the Imperial theatres, -and assistant to the conductor. At the time of the -latter's illness in 1869 he was appointed conductor, -and this post he held for nearly half a century. He -found Russian operatic life under the complete dominance -of the Italian influence and made every effort to -shift the centre of gravity toward native work. His -productions of Glinka's, Tschaikowsky's, and Rimsky-Korsakoff's -operas were notable. He was always distinctly -hospitable to native work, and the subsequent -triumph of Russian musical expression was due in no -small degree to his faith and energy. He further built -up the opera orchestra in St. Petersburg until it became -one of the best in all Europe, and restored to -the opera house its old brilliancy of performance. He -was also an able and frequent conductor of orchestral -concerts in the capital. His compositions, though many -and varied, show chiefly French and Wagnerian influence, -and are not highly important. He has written -four symphonies, among them one with a program -taken from Lermontov; several symphonic poems, of -which 'The Orient' is most important; three string -quartets and a quintet, two piano trios, a piano quartet, -a sonata for violin and piano, two suites for 'cello and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> -piano, a piano concerto; fantasias on Russian themes -for piano and violin, all with orchestral accompaniment; -a suite for violin and numerous vocal and -instrumental pieces in the smaller forms.</p> - -<p>His operas, though they were never very popular, -are perhaps the most important part of his work. The -first, 'The Citizens of Nijny-Novgorod,' was produced -at the Imperial Opera House in 1868. It is somewhat -in the style of Glinka, but is generally thin and uninspired -except in the choral parts, which make effective -use of the old church modes. 'Harold,' produced in -1886, is more Wagnerian in form and dispenses with -the effects which helped the former work to its popularity. -<em>Doubrovsky</em>, produced in 1895, is Napravnik's -most popular work; in it the lyric quality is again most -prominent, and the parts are written with expert skill -for the singers. His last opera, <em>Francesca da Rimini</em>, -founded on Stephen Phillips' play, was first presented -in 1902. It is musically the most able of his works, -though highly reminiscent of the later Wagner. The -music of the love scenes is touching and expressive. -On the whole, we find Napravnik's influence on Russian -music to be notable and salutary, and his original -composition, though not inspired, sincere and workmanlike.</p> - -<p>Paul Ivanovich Blaramberg (b. 1841), the son of a distinguished -general of French extraction, came early -under the influence of the Balakireff circle. But a -number of years spent in foreign countries impressed -other influences on his style, so that his music vacillated -from one manner to another without striking any -distinctive note. Blaramberg was long active as a -teacher of theory in the school of the Philharmonic -Society in Moscow. His works include a fantasia, 'The -Dragon Flies,' for solo, chorus, and orchestra; a musical -sketch, 'On the Volga,' for male chorus and orchestra; -'The Dying Gladiator,' a symphonic poem; a symphony<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> -in B minor; a sinfonietta; a number of songs; -and five operas. His first opera, 'The Mummers,' -founded on a comedy by Ostrovsky, is a mingling of -many styles, from the dramatic declamation of Dargomijsky -to the musical patter of opera buffa. 'The -Roussalka Maiden' contains many pages of marked -lyric beauty, and 'Mary of Burgundy' attains some musical -force in the 'grand manner.' The last opera, 'The -Wave,' contains a number of pleasing melodies and -not a little effective 'oriental color.'</p> - -<p>J. N. Melgounoff (1846-1893) was a theorist rather -than a composer and had some part in the nationalistic -movement through his close and scientific study of -folk-songs at a time when the cult of folk-song was -chiefly sentimental. A. Alpheraky (born 1846) was -also a specialist in folk-song, particularly those of the -Ukrane, where he was born. He composed a number -of songs, as well as piano pieces, in which the -national feeling is evident. N. V. Lissenko (born 1842) -was the author of a number of operas popular in the -Malo-Russian provinces. He was a pupil of Rimsky-Korsakoff -and set music to several texts drawn from -Gogol.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">I. N.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> It is rather interesting that, in spite of Balakireff's opposition to -Tschaikowsky's music, they remained good friends throughout their life. -Tschaikowsky even tried to follow Balakireff's method in his symphonic -poem 'Fatum,' which he dedicated to his friend. As the composition did -not please Balakireff, though he performed it for the first time, Tschaikowsky -destroyed it later and it was never published or performed again. -This is what Balakireff wrote to Tschaikowsky after his attempt at modern -composition: 'You are too little acquainted with modern music. You -will never learn freedom of form from the classic composers. They can -only give you what you already knew when you sat at the student's -benches.' As irritable as Tschaikowsky was in such critical matters, he -never took the expression of Balakireff in an offended spirit. How highly -Tschaikowsky appreciated Balakireff is evident from his letter to Mme. -von Meck: 'Balakireff's songs are actually little masterpieces and I am -passionately fond of them. There was a time when I could not listen to -his "Selim's Song" without tears in my eyes.']</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> 'The Russian Opera.'</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> 'Reminiscences.'</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Quoted by Mrs. Newmarch, <em>op. cit.</em></p> - -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER V<br /> -<small>THE MUSIC OF CONTEMPORARY RUSSIA</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The border nationalists: Alexander Glazounoff, Liadoff, Liapounoff, -etc.—The renaissance of Russian church music: Kastalsky and Gretchaninoff—The -new eclectics: Arensky, Taneieff, Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, Glière, -Rachmaninoff and others—Scriabine and the radical foreign influence; -Igor Stravinsky.</p> -</div> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>The influence of the 'neo-Russian' group did not -continue in any direct line. There is to-day no one -representing the tendency in all its purity. But there -are a number of composers, originally pupils or satellites -of the Balakireff circle, who have carried something -of the nationalistic tendency into their style. -Chief of these, perhaps, is Alexander Constantinovich -Glazounoff, one of the most facile and brilliant of contemporary -Russian writers for the orchestra. His early -career was brilliant in the extreme. He was born in -St. Petersburg on August 10, 1865, of an old and well-known -family of publishers. In his childhood he received -excellent musical education and showed precocious -talents. At the age of fifteen he attracted the -notice and received the advice of Balakireff, who urged -further study, and two years later his first symphony -was performed at a concert of the Free School. In -the following year he entered the university, continuing -the lessons he had begun under Rimsky-Korsakoff. -The first symphony attracted the attention of Liszt, who -conducted it in 1884 at Weimar, and to whom a second -symphony, finished in 1886, was dedicated. Smaller -works written at this time show vivid pictorial and national<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> -tendencies. In 1889 Glazounoff conducted a concert -of Russian works, including his own, at the Paris -exposition, and was honored by the performance of a -new symphonic poem of his—<em>Stenka Razin</em>—in Berlin. -The following years brought more narrative or pictorial -works—the orchestral fantasias 'The Forest' and -'The Sea,' the symphonic sketch 'A Slavonic Festival,' -an 'Oriental Rhapsody,' a symphonic tableau, 'The -Kremlin,' and the ballet 'Raymonda.'</p> - -<p>The last, which was finished in 1897, may be taken -as marking the end of Glazounoff's period of youthful -romanticism. His work thereafter was less bound to -story or picture, more self-contained and notable for -architectural development. There are seven symphonies -already to be recorded, together with a violin concerto -of the utmost brilliancy, though of classical design. -Among the other works of the later period should -be mentioned the Symphonic Prologue 'In Memory of -Gogol,' a Finnish fantasia, performed at Helsingfors -in 1910; the symphonic suite, 'The Middle Ages'; and -another ballet, 'The Seasons.' There is also not a little -chamber music distinguished in form and execution, -and a quantity of songs of facile and graceful quality. -Glazounoff is now director of the St. Petersburg Conservatory.</p> - -<p>Obviously his early ideals were much influenced by -Rimsky-Korsakoff and by Balakireff, from whom he -gained his first distinguished encouragement. He responded -to the romantic appeal of mediæval and national -fairy stories. He felt the grandeur of the sea -and the poetry of heroic legends. Thus in <em>Stenka -Razin</em> he tells of the Cossack brigand whose death was -foretold by his captive Persian princess and who sacrificed -her in expiation of his sins to the river Volga. -But it is evident that this romantic influence was not -lasting. What he chiefly learned from Rimsky-Korsakoff -was not the picturing of nature or of legendary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> -beings, but the manipulation of the orchestra with -the utmost of brilliancy. In his later works this becomes -only technical virtuosity, dazzling but somewhat -empty. His travels in foreign lands impressed foreign -ideals upon him. When we have given due credit to -his thoroughness of workmanship, his sensitive regard -for form and balance, the pregnant beauty of many of -his themes, we still feel that he is only a sublimated -salon composer.</p> - -<p>Anatol Constantinovich Liadoff is another of Rimsky-Korsakoff's -pupils who has shown little enthusiasm for -a distinctly nationalistic music. He was born in St. -Petersburg on April 29, 1855, of a musical family, -both his father and his uncle being members of the -artistic staff of the opera. He entered the violin class -of the conservatory and was chosen for Rimsky-Korsakoff's -class in composition. His graduation cantata was -so fine that he was invited to become a teacher, and -has remained with the institution ever since. In 1893 -he was appointed with Liapounoff to undertake the collection -of Russian folk-songs initiated by the Imperial -Geographical Society. His genius has shown itself -chiefly in the smaller forms, in which he has produced -pieces for the piano distinguished for perfection of -form. His songs, especially those for children, have -had a wide popularity. There are a certain number of -genre pieces for the piano (e. g., 'In the Steppes,' opus -23) and numerous pieces in the well known smaller -forms, such as preludes, études, and dances. The symphonic -scherzo, <em>Baba Yaga</em>, telling of the pranks of an -old witch of children's folk-lore, is one of his ablest -works. We should also mention the orchestral legend, -entitled 'The Enchanted Lake,' opus 62; the 'Amazon's -Dance,' opus 65; and the 'Last Scene from Schiller's -"Bride of Messina,"' opus 28, for mixed chorus and -orchestra.</p> - -<p>Sergei Mikhailovich Liapounoff was born on November<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> -18, 1859, at Yaroslav, and studied at the Imperial -School of Music at Nijny-Novgorod and at the Moscow -Conservatory. Later he came under the influence of -Balakireff, who conducted the first performance of his -'Concert Overture.' For some years he was assistant -conductor at the Imperial Chapel at St. Petersburg. -He is best known by his piano pieces, chiefly the fine -Concerto in E flat minor, and the tremendously difficult -Études. His numerous lighter pieces for piano, -among which are the <em>Divertissements</em>, opus 35, have -become exceedingly popular. His songs show a strong -national or oriental influence. His orchestral compositions -include a symphony, opus 12, the 'Solemn Overture -on a Russian Theme,' opus 7, and a symphonic -poem, opus 37. Mention should also be made of his -rhapsody on Ukranian airs for piano and orchestra, -which is a further proof of his sensitive feeling for folk-song.</p> - -<p>Vasili Sergeievich Kallinikoff, born in 1866 in the -department of Orloff, was at the time of his death in -1900 one of the most promising of the then younger -Russian composers. He studied for eight years in the -school of the Moscow Philharmonic Society, and upon -his graduation became assistant conductor of the Moscow -Private Opera. The oncoming of consumption, -however, forced him to take up his residence in the -Caucasus. His most extraordinary work was the first -symphony, in the key of G minor, which was finished in -1895 and went begging for performance until it was -given several years later in Kieff. Since then it has -figured as one of the most popular of Russian orchestral -works. The second symphony, in A major, is less -distinguished. His other orchestral works, showing -great talent and considerable national feeling, include -two 'symphonic scenes,' 'The Nymphs' and 'The -Cedars,' and the incidental music to Alexander Tolstoy's -play, 'Czar Boris,' written for its performance at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> -the Moscow Art Theatre in 1899. There is also a cantata, -<em>Ivan Damaskin</em>, and a ballad, <em>Roussalka</em>, for -solo, chorus and orchestra. Kallinikoff also left some -songs, chamber music and piano pieces. A marked -originality is revealed in his best work, but it was still -immature when his final illness put an end to creative -activity.</p> - -<p>A. Spendiaroff is loosely associated with the neo-nationalists -and has acquired some little popularity -with his orchestral works, 'The Three Palms' and the -'Caucasian Sketches.' He shows a marked talent of a -pictorial order, and felicity in the invention of expressive -melody. But his technique is that of an age -past, his method rings always true to the conventional, -and his musical content sounds all too reminiscent. -Ossip Ivanovich Wihtol, born in 1863 at Volnar, near -the Baltic Sea, has gained a distinctive position for himself -as a worker with Lettish themes. He was educated -at the St. Petersburg Conservatory and studied composition -under Rimsky-Korsakoff. Until 1908 he was a -teacher of theory in this institution. His best works -are those which are connected with Lettish folk-music, -notably the Symphonic Tableau, opus 4; the Orchestral -Suite, opus 29; and the Fantasia for violin, opus -42. We should also mention the 'Dramatic Overture' -and the <em>Spriditis</em> overture, the piano sonata, a string -quartet, and a number of songs and choruses—some -<em>a cappella</em> and some with orchestral accompaniment.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>We have spoken several times of the absence of a -true 'national school' of Russian composition in present -times. But this statement must be amended. There is -one school which represents in great purity the cult of -the national and has achieved notable results in its -work. This is the school of musicians who have undertaken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> to -build up a pure ritual music for the Russian -church. This group is purely national in character. -It is the most intense contemporary expression of the -'Slavophile' ideal in recent times. The neo-Russian -group of Balakireff was, it is true, only loosely connected -with the Slavophile or nationalistic political -movement of its time, but its relation to the 'Western' -tendency of Tschaikowsky and Rubinstein is analogous -with that of the novelist Dostoievsky to Turgenieff. The -renaissance of Russian church music probably has a -certain political significance, for church and state have -been traditionally close to one another in the land of -the czar. The Eastern church, like that of Rome, suffered -from the musical sentimentalism of the nineteenth -century and received a vast accretion of 'sacred' -music which was flowery, thin, and utterly unsacred in -spirit. And like the Roman church it made strenuous -efforts to effect a reform, choosing as its basis the traditional -ecclesiastical modes. These, in the Eastern -church, are as rich and impressive as the Gregorian -modes of Rome. The first definite step was the establishment, -in 1889, of the Synodical School of Church -Singing in Moscow, under the direction of C. V. Smolenski. -It was only a preparatory step, for, under the -advice of Tschaikowsky and Taneieff, it concentrated -first upon the education of a number of singers thoroughly -grounded in musical art and theory. In 1898 -the school was enlarged and reformed, becoming a regular -academy with a nine-year course and offering a -thorough training in every branch of musical art, from -sight reading up to composition. New methods of -teaching, introduced in 1897, brought the choral work -up to an unprecedented pitch of excellence, and a visit -of the school choir to Vienna in 1899 left a profound impression -upon the outside world. The school instituted, -in addition to its regular theoretical studies, a course in -the history of church music and its use in contrapuntal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> -forms, and thus began the training of its own line of -church composers, of whom the most able is to-day -P. G. Chesnikoff. V. C. Orloff, who notably raised the -standard of singing in the Metropolitan choir in St. -Petersburg, is now director of the school, and with the -help of the choral director, A. D. Kastalsky, has brought -it to astonishing efficiency.</p> - -<p>Kastalsky and Gretchaninoff have attained their eminence -as composers chiefly through their work in the -renaissance of church music. The former was born in -1856, received a regular preparatory school course, and -studied music in the Moscow Conservatory. In 1887 he -became teacher of piano at the Synodical school, and -later of theory. He has composed much for the ritual, -basing his work on the old church melodies and developing -a style which is personal, yet in the highest -degree religious and impressive. His position in Russian -ecclesiastical music is now supreme. But in praising -his work we should not forget to mention that of -his predecessors, who did much to preserve a decent -appropriateness for Russian church music in the dark -days. Following the great Bortniansky came G. F. -Lyvovsky (1830-1894), who was educated in the imperial -choir and was later director of the Metropolitan -choir in St. Petersburg. He was a man of much talent, -and, feeling the approach of the new attitude toward -sacred music, showed in his work the transition from -the old to the new. Other notable church composers, -both in the old and the new style, were A. A. Archangelsky -(born 1846), Taneieff, Arensky, and Rimsky-Korsakoff.</p> - -<p>But Gretchaninoff, though he has by no means given -himself solely to the composition of sacred music, has -brought the greatest genius to bear on it. He is no -mere routineer and theorist. Some of his works for -the ritual will stand as among the most perfect specimens -of sacred music the world over. Combined with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> -the greatest simplicity of method is an exhaustive technical -knowledge and a poetical feeling for the noble -and profound. It is he who has put into tones the -supreme poetry of worship. The profound impressiveness -of this new sacred music in performance is in -part due to the traditional Eastern practice of singing -the ritual unaccompanied. This <em>a cappella</em> tradition -has disciplined a generation of choirs to an accuracy of -intonation which is impossible where singers can depend -upon the support of an organ. Further, there is -the marvellous Russian bass voice, sometimes going as -low as B-flat or A, which furnishes a 'pedal' support to -the choir and makes an accompanying instrument quite -superfluous. The newer church composers have not -been slow in taking advantage of the striking musical -opportunities offered by this peculiar Slavic voice. As -a result of all these influences, the musical renaissance -of the Eastern church has been far more successful -than the parallel awakening in the Roman, and has -produced a music and a tradition of church singing incomparable -in the world to-day for nobility and purity.</p> - -<p>Alexander Tikhonovich Gretchaninoff was born on -October 13, 1864, in Moscow, studied piano in the Moscow -conservatory and went in 1890 to St. Petersburg to -enjoy the advantages of Rimsky-Korsakoff's teaching. -He early gained a prize with a string quartet, and became -known in foreign countries by his songs and -chamber music. His style, outside of his church music, -is not especially national. He is inclined to the lyrical, -preferring Borodine to Moussorgsky, and throughout -his secular work shows German influence. His symphony -in G minor, op. 6, gained for him general recognition -in Russia, and the symphony op. 27 justified -the great hope felt for his talent. Gretchaninoff has -been active in dramatic music. He has written incidental -music to Ostrovsky's 'The Snow Maiden' and to -two of the plays which go to form Alexander Tolstoy's<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> -trilogy on the times of Boris Godounoff. His two operas, -<em>Dobrinya Nikitich</em> and 'Sister Beatrice,' are distinguished -by great melodic impressiveness and in general -by a lyrical style which derives from Rimsky-Korsakoff -and Borodine. The latter opera, founded on -Maeterlinck's play, met with disfavor at the hands of -the Russian clergy, because of its representation of the -Virgin on the stage, and was withdrawn after four -performances.</p> - -<p>A number of minor composers may also be grouped -under the general head of nationalists. Most prominent -of these is Nikolai Alexandrovich Sokoloff, who -was born in St. Petersburg in 1859 and studied composition -in the St. Petersburg Conservatory under Rimsky-Korsakoff. -His chamber music comprises three quartets, -a string quintet, and a serenade. For orchestra -he has written incidental music to Shakespeare's 'A -Winter's Tale' for performance at the Alexandrinsky -Theatre in St. Petersburg; a dramatic poem after Tolstoy's -'Don Juan'; a ballet, 'The Wild Swans'; and an -elegy and serenade for strings. There are numerous -small pieces for piano and violin, and choruses both for -mixed voices and for men's voices alone. A. Amani -(1875-1904) was also a pupil of Rimsky-Korsakoff and -in his piano and chamber music took for his inspiration -the poetry of the Orient and the melody of folk-song. -F. Blumenfeld (born 1863) has distinguished -himself as conductor at the Imperial Opera, St. Petersburg, -and has written, besides the 'Allegro Concerto' -for piano and orchestra and the symphony in C, many -songs and smaller piano pieces which place him with -the newer 'nationalists.' A. A. Iljinsky (born 1859) has -composed an opera on Pushkin's 'Fountain of the Baktchisserai,' -a symphonic scherzo, and an overture to -Tolstoy's <em>Tsar Feodor</em>, besides much chamber and -piano music. G. A. Kazachenko (born 1858) has written -an opera, 'Prince Serebreny,' which was performed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> -in St. Petersburg in 1892, and is now chorus-master at -the Imperial Opera. A. Kopyloff (born 1854) has written -much orchestral music, including a symphony in -C major, a scherzo for orchestra, and a concert overture, -also chamber music, including an effective quartet -in G major, op. 15. N. V. Stcherbacheff (born 1853) -is associated with the younger nationalists and has -composed much for piano and voice, in addition to a -serenade and two 'Idylls' for orchestra. Finally, B. -Zolotareff has distinguished himself in chamber music -and in song-writing, and has shown great ability in his -<em>Fête Villageoise</em>, op. 24, his 'Hebrew Rhapsody,' op. 7, -and his Symphony, op. 8.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>We now come to a group of composers who have -been little influenced by the Russian folk-song. They -all trace their artistic paternity in one way or another -to Tschaikowsky. They are men who have used their -native talent in a scholarly and sincere way, and have -attained to great popularity in their native land and -even outside of it, but they seem likely not to retain -this popularity long. (This judgment may, however, -be premature in the case of Glière.) It is not, of course, -their denial of nationalism which has placed them in -the second class. But their loyalty to the past does not -seem to be coupled with a sufficiently powerful creative -faculty to make secure their hold upon the public.</p> - -<p>Anton Stephanovich Arensky was one of the most -popular composers in Russia. This reputation was -gained in part by his piano pieces, which made -rather too great an effort toward the superficially pleasing -and have now almost passed out of sight. His ambitious -operas, too, have failed to hold the stage, but -his chamber music shows him at his best. He was -the son of a physician and was born at Nijny-Novgorod<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> -on July 31, 1861. His early evinced musical talent was -carefully nurtured in his home, and when he was still -young he was sent to St. Petersburg to study under -Zikke. Later he worked under Rimsky-Korsakoff at -the Conservatory, and gained that institution's gold -medal for composition. His first symphony and his -piano concerto were both given public performance -soon after his graduation in 1882, and Arensky was appointed -professor of harmony and counterpoint at the -Moscow Conservatory. In 1888 he became conductor -of the concerts of the Russian Choral Society in Moscow, -and in 1895 moved to St. Petersburg to accept the -position of director of the Imperial Chapel choir, to -which he had been appointed on the recommendation -of Balakireff. He died in 1906 and it was generally -felt that the death had prevented the composition of -what would have been his best works. Early in his -career he gained the active sympathy and encouragement -of Tschaikowsky, who influenced him strongly in -a personal way. His talent was essentially conservative, -and his scholarly cast of mind is shown in his -published 'method,' which he illustrated with 1,000 -musical examples, and in his book on musical forms.</p> - -<p>His best works date from the Moscow period, since -bad health decreased his creative vigor in his later -years. Some of his smaller works may be placed beside -the best of Tschaikowsky. Most popular outside of -Russia have been the two string quartets, his trio in D -minor, and his piano quintet in D major, op. 51. Of -his two symphonies, the first, written in his boyhood, -is quite the best. The piano fantasia on Russian -themes, the violin concerto, and the cantata, 'The Fountain -of Baktchissarai,' are among his best known works. -His first opera, 'The Dream on the River Volga,' was -written to a libretto which Tschaikowsky had abandoned -and passed on to him 'with his blessing.' He -aimed at dramatic force and truthfulness, but his talent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> -was essentially lyrical, and he proved to be at his best -in his clear and graceful ariosos. His later operas, -'Raphael' and 'Nal and Damayanti' (each in one act), -show an advance in musical power, though the method -still continues conservative. Arensky's ballet, 'A Night -in Egypt,' was produced in 1899. His last work, composed -on his deathbed, was the incidental music composed -for the performance of 'The Tempest' at the -Moscow Art Theatre. Some of these numbers are -among the best things he ever wrote.</p> - -<p>Sergei Ivanovich Taneieff is a conservative both in -mind and in heart, and may be considered the only real -pupil of Tschaikowsky. He was born of a rich and -noble family in Vladimir on November 13, 1856, and at -the age of ten entered the then newly opened Moscow -Conservatory, where he studied the piano under Nicholas -Rubinstein. Under Tschaikowsky he worked at -theory and composition. In 1875 he graduated with -highest honors and with a gold medal for his playing, -which was characterized by purity and strength of -touch, grace and ease of execution, maturity of intellect, -self-control, and a calm objective style of interpretation. -These qualities may well be considered typical -of his compositions. After a long Russian tour with -Auer, the violinist, Taneieff succeeded Tschaikowsky -as professor of orchestration at the Moscow Conservatory. -In 1885 he became director of the institution, -but soon retired to devote himself wholly to composition. -Though he is an admirable pianist, he seldom -appears in public.</p> - -<p>His compositions, though not numerous, are all -marked by sincerity and thoroughness of workmanship. -Some of them have been compared to those of -Brahms. His work is essentially that of a scholar, -and makes little appeal to the emotions. His mastery, -of form is marked. The most ambitious of his works is -the 'trilogy' (in reality a three-act opera) based on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> -the Æschylus 'Oresteia.' This, though never popular -in Russia because of its severity of style, compels admiration -for its nobleness of concept and its scholarly -execution. The overture and last entr'acte are still -frequently performed in Russia. In general the style is -Wagnerian, and the leit-motif is used freely, though -not to excess. A cantata for solo, chorus, and orchestra—the -<em>Ivan Damaskin</em>—is one of the finest works -of its kind in Russian music. Taneieff has also written -three symphonies and an overture on Russian themes. -But his most distinctive work is perhaps to be found -in his eight string quartets (of which the third is the -most popular), in his two string quintets, and his quartet -with piano. There are also a number of male choruses -and smaller piano works.</p> - -<p>A much more likable, though no less conservative, -figure is Michael Mikhaelovich Ippolitoff-Ivanoff. He -was born of a working class family near St. Petersburg -on November 15, 1859, and managed to get to the St. -Petersburg Conservatory, where he studied for six -years under Rimsky-Korsakoff. In 1882 he went to -Tiflis, where he remained a number of years as director -of the local music school, as conductor of the concerts -of the Imperial Musical Society, and for a time as -director of the government theatre. In 1893 he came to -Moscow to teach harmony, instrumentation and free -composition at the Conservatory, to the directorship of -which he succeeded in 1906. But perhaps his greatest -influence on Russian musical life was exerted by him -in his position as director of the Moscow Private Opera, -which he assumed in 1899, and which he helped to build -up to its high artistic standard. His reputation in foreign -lands rests chiefly on his string quartet, opus 13, -and his orchestral suite, 'Caucasian Sketches,' opus 10. -(A second Caucasian suite appeared in 1906 and has -had much success.) The list of his works also includes -notably a Sinfonietta and a piano quartet; three cantatas; -<em>Iberia</em>, for orchestra; and the 'Armenian Rhapsody,' -op. 48. In many of these works, as in his songs, -he is frequently displaying his penchant for Oriental, -Hebrew, and Caucasian music, which he has studied -with a poet's love and appreciation. In his two operas, -'Ruth' and 'Assya,' these qualities are also apparent. -The notable qualities of his music are its freedom from -artificiality, its warmth of expression, and its consistent -thoroughness of workmanship. But it is perhaps as an -organizer and director that he has performed his chief -service to Russian music.</p> - -<p>One of the most promising of the younger conservative -Russians is Reinhold Glière, who is now director -of the Conservatory at Kieff and conductor of the Kieff -Symphony concerts. He has in these positions been a -dominant factor in the provincial, as opposed to the -metropolitan, musical life of Russia, and has by his -energy and progressiveness raised Kieff to a position -in some ways rivalling the capital. He was born at -Kieff on January 11, 1875, and was educated at Moscow, -where he studied with Taneieff and Ippolitoff-Ivanoff. -Though he was thus under conservative influences, he -showed in his earliest compositions a feeling for the -national musical sources which forbade critics to classify -him as a cosmopolitan.</p> - -<p>His first string quartet, in A (op. 2), showed national -material treated with something of western softness, -and his many small pieces for string or wind instruments -often make use of folk-like melodies. It is -in his piano pieces that he shows himself weakest, and -these have contributed to an under-appreciation of -him in his own as well as in foreign lands. Some of -his works (especially the later ones) are thoroughly -national in character. Thus his recently finished opera -'Awakened' is built entirely on folk-material, and -comes with revolutionary directness straight from the -heart of the people. His symphonic poem, 'The Sirens,' -showed French influence, but was hardly a successful -synthesis. His first symphony, in E flat, op. 8, revealed -great promise, and his string quartets have -drawn the attention of music-lovers in foreign lands.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="ilo_fp150" style="max-width: 30.8125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp150.jpg" alt="ilo-fp150" /> - -<p class="center">Contemporary Russian Composers:</p> - -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 3em;">Alexander Glazounoff</span> <span style="padding-left: 1em;">Reinhold Glière</span><br /> -<span style="padding-left: 2em;">Vladimir Rebikoff</span> <span style="padding-left: 4em;">Sergei Rachmaninoff</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>It is in his symphonic work that Glière shows his -greatest ability. His orchestral writing burns with the -heat that is traditional in Russian music, and his handling -of his themes, in development and contrapuntal -treatment, is sometimes masterly. By far his greatest -work is his third symphony, <em>Ilia Mourometz</em>, which is -in reality a long and extremely ambitious symphonic -poem. It tells the tale of the great hero, Ilia, of the -Novgorod cycle of legends, who sat motionless in his -chair for thirty years until some holy pilgrims came -and urged him to arise and become a hero. Then he -went forth, conquering giants and pagans, until he was -finally turned to stone in the Holy Mountains. In this -work the themes, most of which are national in character, -and some of which seem taken directly from the -people, are in the highest degree pregnant and expressive. -They are used cyclically in all four movements, -and are developed at great length and with great complexity. -The harmonic idiom is chromatic, not exactly -radical but yet personal and creative. If we except certain -<em>cliché</em> passages which are unworthy of so fine a -work, we must adjudge the symphony from beginning -to end a masterpiece. Something of this mastery of -the heroic mood is also to be seen in Glière's numerous -songs. Though most of them are conventional in -their harmonic scheme, they reveal great poetry and -expressive power. With but one exception Glière -seems to be the greatest of the conservatives of modern -Russia.</p> - -<p>This exception is Sergei Vassilievich Rachmaninoff, -whose reputation, now extended to all parts of the civilized -world, is by no means beyond his deserts. He -was born on March 20, 1873, in the department of Novgorod,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> -of a landed family of prominence. At the age -of nine he went to St. Petersburg to study music, but -three years later transferred to Moscow, where he -worked under Taneieff and Arensky. He graduated -from the Moscow Conservatory in 1892 with high honors, -and his one-act opera, <em>Aleko</em>, written for graduation, -was promptly performed at the Grand Theatre -and made a deep impression. Two short periods of -his later life were spent in the conducting of opera in -Moscow, but the most of his time he has spent in composition. -He is a pianist of rare abilities, and has -played his own music much on tours. For some years -he resided in Dresden.</p> - -<p>Rachmaninoff's early fame is due to the sensational -popularity of his C-sharp minor prelude for piano, a -fine work of heroic import, holding immense promise -for the future. While much of his later composition -has been somewhat conventional in style, Rachmaninoff -at his best has justified the promise. The magnificent -E minor symphony ranks among the best works -of its kind in all modern music. Scarcely inferior to -it is the symphonic poem, 'The Island of the Dead,' suggested -by Arnold Böcklin's picture. Two later operas -have proved very impressive. The first, 'The Covetous -Knight,' is founded on a tale of Pushkin, and follows -the complete original text with literal exactness, achieving -an impressive dramatic declamation which seems -always on the verge of melody, and entwines itself -with the masterly psychological music of the orchestra. -<em>Francesca da Rimini</em> is more lyrical, and shows much -passion and power in its love scenes.</p> - -<p>Rachmaninoff's only chamber music is an 'elegiac -trio' in memory of Tschaikowsky and a couple of sonatas. -A large choral work, 'Spring,' has attained great -popularity in Russia, and a recent one, founded on -Edgar Allan Poe's poem, 'The Bells,' is said to reveal -abilities of the highest order. For piano there are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> -many pieces—notably the various groups of preludes, -some hardly inferior to the famous one in C-sharp -minor; a set of variations on a theme of Chopin; six -pieces for four hands, op. 11; two suites for two pianos, -op. 5 and op. 17; and two superb concertos for piano -and orchestra, of which the second, op. 18, is the more -popular. His minor piano pieces are among the most -vigorous and finely executed in modern piano literature. -His songs are of wide variety, especially in regard -to national feeling; in some, as, for instance, -'The Harvest Fields,' he is almost on a plane with Moussorgsky. -We should mention also two works for orchestra, -a 'Gypsy Caprice' and a fantasia, 'The Cliff.'</p> - -<p>Rachmaninoff's music is justly to be called conservative -and even academic in its later phase. But this must -not be taken to imply that it is cold or unpoetic. No -modern Russian composer can better strike the tone of -high and heroic poetry. Rachmaninoff has taken the -technique of the West, especially of modern Germany, -and the spirit if not the letter of the tunes of his own -lands and fused them into a music of his own, which, -at once complex and direct, stirs the heart and inflames -the blood. His orchestral palette is powerful and inclined -to be heavy. His contrapuntal style is complex -and masterful. His melody is free and impressive. He -is by all odds the greatest of the modern Russian eclectics.</p> - -<p>A number of other composers, loosely connected -with the 'Western' tradition of Tschaikowsky, should -here be mentioned. Some of these are young men who -may as yet have given no adequate evidence of their -real ability. But all of them are able musicians with -some solid achievement to their credit. A. N. Korestschenko -(born 1870) won the gold medal at the Moscow -Conservatory for piano and theory after studying under -Taneieff and Arensky, and is now professor of harmony -at that institution. His most important work includes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> -three operas, a ballet 'The Magic Mirror,' and -a number of orchestral works, notably the 'Lyric Symphony,' -a 'Festival Prologue,' the Georgian and Armenian -Songs with orchestra, and the usual proportion -of songs and piano pieces. Nicholas Nikolaevich -Tcherepnine was born in 1873 and studied for the law, -but changed to the St. Petersburg Conservatory, where -he energetically studied composition under Rimsky-Korsakoff. -His style is eclectic and flexible. His name -is best known through his two ballets, <em>Narcisse</em> and -<em>Le Pavilon d'Armide</em>, but his overture to Rostand's -<em>Princesse Lointaine</em>, his 'Dramatic Fantasia,' op. 17, -and his orchestral sketch from 'Macbeth,' give further -evidence of marked powers. His songs and duets have -had great popularity, and his pianoforte concerto is -frequently played. He has also been active as a composer -of choral music, accompanied and <em>a cappella</em>.</p> - -<p>Maximilian Steinberg, born in 1883 and trained -under Rimsky-Korsakoff and Glazounoff, has worked -chiefly in an academic way and has shown marked -technical mastery, especially in his quartet, op. 5, and -his second symphony in B minor. Nicholas Medtner, -who is of German parentage, shows the same respect -for classical procedure, together with an abundance -of inspiration and enthusiasm. He was born in Moscow -on December 24, 1879, and carried off the gold -medal at the Conservatory in 1900. Since then he has -been active chiefly as a composer, and has to his credit -a number of very fine piano sonatas, as well as considerable -chamber music. Attention has recently been -attracted to his songs, which combine great technical -resource with a fresh poetical feeling for the texts. -There is nothing of the nationalistic about his work. -The same, however, cannot quite be said for George -Catoire (born Moscow, 1861), who, though educated -in Berlin, has shown a feeling for things Slavic in his -symphonic poem, <em>Mzyri</em>, and in his cantata, <em>Russalka</em>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> -Among his other large works are a symphony in C minor, -a piano concerto, and considerable chamber music. -J. Krysjanowsky is another modern eclectic, known -chiefly by his sonata for piano and violin, which, though -able, shows little poetical inspiration.</p> - -<p>Let us complete this section of the history with a -passing mention of certain minor composers of local -importance. A. von Borchmann has shown a solid musical -ability and a strong classical tendency in his -string quartet, op. 3. J. I. Bleichmann (1868-1909) was -the composer of many popular piano and violin pieces, -of an orchestral work, several sonatas, and a sacred -choral work, 'Sebastian the Martyr.' A. Goedicke has -composed two symphonies, a dramatic overture, a -piano trio, a sonata for piano and violin and another -for piano alone, and numerous smaller pieces. W. -Malichevsky is an able composer of great promise and -has written three symphonies, three quartets and a violin -sonata. M. Ostroglazoff is an 'eclectic' whose true -powers are as yet undetermined. W. Pogojeff is fairly -well known because of his able chamber music and -piano pieces. S. Prokofieff (born 1891) is an able and -classically minded pupil of Glière and Liadoff, and -Selinoff (born 1875) has carried his early German -training into the writing of symphonic poems. We -should also make mention of E. Esposito, an able and -charming composer of operetta.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>Of radical Russian composers two have in recent -years become internationally famous. Alexander -Scriabine is notable for his highly developed harmonic -method, which makes sensible subjective states of emotion -hardly possible to music hitherto. And Igor Stravinsky -has in his ballets carried free counterpoint and -a resultant revolutionary harmony to an extreme almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> -undreamed of in the whole world of music. How -much there is of mere sensation in these two musicians -is at this time hard to determine. The question will be -determined in part not only by the extent to which they -retain a hold over their audiences, but also by the extent -to which the new paths which they are opening -prove fruitful to later followers. If one may judge -by appearances at this writing, it would seem that -Scriabine, who was essentially a theorist and a mystic, -had little to give the world beyond a reworking of the -chromatic style of Wagner's 'Tristan'—a style seemingly -inadequate to the intimate subjective message -he would have it bear. Stravinsky, on the other hand, -though still crude, seems to be at the threshold of a new -and remarkable musical development. In addition to -these new men we find in Russia a number who may -justly be called radicals, being influenced by the radicals -of other lands, chiefly France. No creative ability -of the first order has as yet been discovered among -these minor men.</p> - -<p>Alexander Scriabine was born in Moscow on December -25, 1871. He was destined by his family for a career -in the army, but his leaning toward music determined -him to quit the cadet corps and become a student -in the Moscow Conservatory. Here he studied -piano with Safonoff and composition with Taneieff. He -graduated in 1892, taking a gold medal and setting out -to conquer Europe as a concert performer. In 1898 he -returned to the Moscow Conservatory to teach, but in -1903 resigned, determining to devote all his time to -composition. Since then he has lived in Paris, Budapest, -Berlin, and Switzerland. In 1906-07 he made a -brief visit to the United States, appearing as a pianist. -He died, dreaming great dreams for the future, in 1915. -His compositions have been numerous and have shown -a steady advance from the melodious and conventional -style of his early piano works to the intense harmonic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> -sensualism of his later orchestral pieces. The first -piano works were characterized by Cui as 'stolen from -Chopin's trousseau.' This is not unjust, although the -works show a certain technical originality in the invention -of figures. The first symphony is written in solid -and conservative style, with a due element of Wagnerian -influence, and a choral finale in praise of art -speaking for its composer's good intentions. The second -symphony shows a development of technical skill -and an enlarging of emotional range, but gives few -hints of the later style. The smaller music of this period—as, -for instance, the Mazurkas, op. 25, the Fantasia, -and the Preludes, op. 35—also show progress -chiefly on the technical side. The 'Satanic Poem' for -piano, op. 34, points to Liszt as its source.</p> - -<p>It is the third symphony in C, entitled 'The Divine -Poem,' which first gives distinct evidence of change. -This work, composed in 1905, undertakes to depict the -inner struggles of the artist in his process of creation, -and reveals the subjective trend of its composer's growing -imagination. Its three movements are entitled respectively, -'Struggles,' 'Sensual Pleasures,' and 'Divine -Activity.' Here the emotional element is well to the -fore. The first movement is stirring and dramatic, -the second languorous and rich, the third bold and -brilliant. The orchestra employed is large and the -technique complex. Other ambitious works of the earlier -period are the concerto in F-sharp minor, op. 20, -a work of no outstanding importance, and the 'Reverie' -for orchestra, op. 24, which is distinctly weak. But -by the time we have reached the 'Poem of Ecstasy,' -composed in 1908, we have the composer in all his long-sought -individuality. The harmonic system is vague -to the ear, and weighs terribly on the senses. There is -evidence of some esoteric striving. One feels that -'more is meant than meets the ear.' It is in a single -movement, but in three sections, and these are entitled,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> -respectively, 'His Soul in the Orgy of Love,' 'The Realization -of a Fantastic Dream,' and 'The Glory of His -Own Art.' The orchestration is rich in the extreme and -the development of the motives shows a mature musical -power. The effect on the nerves and senses is undeniably -powerful. But withal it remains vague as a -work of art; it is obviously meant to convey an impression, -but the definite impression, like the 'program,' -is withheld, and perhaps it is as well so.</p> - -<p>But it is the 'Prometheus,' subtitled 'Poem of Fire' -(composed 1911, op. 60), which shows Scriabine at his -most ambitious. The work is written in the general -style of the 'Poem of Ecstasy,' but the style, like the -themes, is more highly developed. And there is super-added -the color-symbolism which has helped to give -the work something of its sensational fame. The music -is meant to tell of the coming of 'fire'—that is, of the -creative principle—to man, and the orchestra describes -(one might better say 'experiences') the various forces -bearing upon incomplete man (represented by the -piano, which serves as a member of the orchestral -body), until the creative principle comes and makes -complete him who accepts it. But in addition to the -<em>tones</em> Scriabine has devised a parallel manipulation of -<em>colors</em>, on a color machine partly of his own invention, -and has 'scored' the 'chords' as he imagines them to -suit the music. 'The light keyboard,' says a commentator, -'traverses one octave with all the chromatic intervals, -and each key projects electrically a given color. -These are used in combination, and a "part" for this -instrument stands at the head of the score. The arrangement -of colors is as follows: C, red; G, rosy-orange; -D, yellow; A, green; E and B, pearly blue and -the shimmer of moonshine; F sharp, bright blue; D-flat, -violet; A-flat, purple; E-flat and B-flat, steely with the -glint of metal; F, dark red.' The first performance of -the work, with the color machine used as the composer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> -planned, was that of the Russian Symphony Orchestra -of New York, in March, 1915. It can hardly be said -that the experiment was convincing to many in the audience, -but it seems altogether possible that some sort -of union of the arts of pure color and pure tone in -an expressive mission may be fruitful for the future.</p> - -<p>In a posthumous work entitled 'Mystery,' Scriabine -intended to use every means possible, including perfume -and the dance, to produce a supreme emotional -effect on the audience. We should also mention the ten -piano sonatas, of which the seventh and ninth are the -best, which show their composer's musical development -with great completeness, but suffer in the later -examples from a harmonic monotony. This seemed to -be Scriabine's besetting sin. It seems doubtful whether -his harmonic method, as he developed it, is flexible -enough for the continued strain to which he put it. -For in truth it is not a daring or extremely original -system, however impressive it may sound in the commentator's -notes. If we may sum the matter up in a -slang phrase we might say that Scriabine's harmony -'listens' better than it sounds.</p> - -<p>The influence of the French 'impressionists' on Russian -composers is represented at its best in the work -of such men as Vassilenko and Rebikoff. The Russians -have ever been citizens of the world and have been -quick to imitate and learn from their western neighbors. -But in the past century they have also been -quick to assimilate and to give back something new -from their own individuality. This may be the destined -course of the French influence on Slavic musicians.</p> - -<p>Sergius Vassilenko was born in Moscow in 1872, entered -the Conservatory in 1896, and was awarded the -gold medal for a cantata written after five years' work -under Taneieff and Ippolitoff-Ivanoff. His early work -was much under the influence of the Russian nationalists, -and his epic poem for orchestra, op. 4, illustrates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> -a taste for mediæval poetry which he supported out of -his profound knowledge of modal and church music. -But his larger works after this were chiefly French in -style. These include the two 'poems' for bass voice -and orchestra, 'The Whirlpool' and 'The Widow'; a -symphonic poem, 'The Garden of Death,' based on -Oscar Wilde, and the orchestral suite <em>Au Soleil</em>, by -which he is chiefly known in foreign lands.</p> - -<p>Feodor Akimenko, though less wholly French in his -manner, may be ranked among those who chiefly speak -of Paris in their music. He was born at Kharkoff on -February 8, 1876, was educated in the Imperial Chapel -in St. Petersburg, and later was instructed in one or -another branch of music by Liadoff, Balakireff, and -Rimsky-Korsakoff. The influence of these masters is -evident in his work, however much he may have absorbed -a French idiom. His is 'a fundamentally Slavonic -personality,' says one commentator,<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> 'which inclines -toward dreaminess more than toward sensuality -or the picturesque. His music resembles the French -only in suppleness of rhythms and elaborateness of -harmonies.' His early works, which are more thoroughly -Russian in method, include many songs and -piano pieces, three choruses for mixed voices, a 'lyric -poem' for orchestra, a string trio and a piano and violin -sonata. After his journey to Paris his style changed -notably. From this later period we may mention such -works for the piano as the <em>Recits d'une âme rêveuse</em>, -<em>Uranie</em>, <em>Pages d'une poésie fantastique</em>, etc. His latest -compositions include a <em>Sonata Fantastique</em> and an -opera, 'The Queen of the Alps.'</p> - -<p>Another composer of much originality and of subjective -tendencies is Vladimir Rebikoff, who was born -on May 16, 1866, at Krasnoyarsk, in Siberia. Even in -his piano pieces he has attempted to mirror psychological -states. But this attempt is carried much further in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span>his operas. 'The Christmas Tree,' in one act, attempts -to contrast the feelings of the rich and the poor, and -it was successful enough in its artistic purpose to gain -much popularity with its Moscow public. Rebikoff has -written two other 'psychological' operas—'Thea,' op. -34, and 'The Woman and the Dagger,' op. 41—not to -mention his early 'The Storm,' produced in 1894. In -his 'melo-mimics,' or pantomimic scenes with closely -allied musical accompaniment, Rebikoff has created a -small art form all his own.</p> - -<p>M. Gniessin is one of the most talented of the younger -Russians who have shown marked foreign influence—in -this case German. His important works include a -'Symphonic Fragment' after Shelley, op. 4; a Sonata-ballad -in C-sharp minor for piano and 'cello, op. 7; -a symphonic poem, <em>Vrubel</em>; and a number of admirable -songs. W. G. Karatigin is known as the editor of -Moussorgsky's posthumous works and composer of -some carefully developed music. Among the remaining -young composers of this group we need only mention -the names of Kousmin, Yanowsky, Olenin and -Tchesnikoff.</p> - -<p>There remains Igor Stravinsky, perhaps the greatest -of all the younger Russian composers in the pregnancy -of his musical style. He is regarded as a true representative -of nationalism in its 'second stage,' for, though -his work bears little external resemblance to that of -Moussorgsky, for instance, its style is indigenous to -Russia and its thematic material is closely connected -with the Russian folk-song. Stravinsky was born at -Oranienbaum on June 5, 1882, the son of Feodor Stravinsky, -a celebrated singer of the Imperial Theatre in -St. Petersburg. Though his precocious talent for music -was recognized and was fostered in piano lessons under -Rubinstein, he received a classical education and was -destined for the law. It was not until he met Rimsky-Korsakoff -at Heidelberg in 1902—that is, at the age of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> -twenty—that he turned definitely and finally to music. -He began work with Rimsky-Korsakoff and learned -something about brilliancy in orchestration. But his -ideals were too radical always to suit his master. The -latter is said to have exclaimed on hearing his pupil -play 'The Fire Bird': 'Stop playing that horrible stuff -or I shall begin to like it.'</p> - -<p>Stravinsky's first important work was his symphony -in E-flat major, composed in 1906, and still in manuscript. -Then came 'Faun and Shepherdess,' a suite for -voice and piano, and, in 1908, the <em>Scherzo Fantastique</em> -for orchestra. His elegy on the death of Rimsky-Korsakoff, -his four piano studies, and a few of his songs, -written about this time, hold a hint of the changed style -that was to come.</p> - -<p>Here begins the list of Stravinsky's important compositions. -'Fireworks,' for orchestra, was written purely -as a technical <em>tour de force</em>. Music in the higher sense -it is not, but it reveals immense technical resource in -scoring and in the invention of suggestive devices. -Pin wheels, sky rockets and exploding bombs among -other things are 'pictured' in this orchestral riot of -tone. In 1909 came the ballet 'The Nightingale,' which -has recently been rewritten, partly in the composer's -later style, and arranged as an opera. This led him to -his first successful ballet. But before entering considering -the three works which have chiefly brought him -his fame let us refer to some of the later songs, e. g., -'The Cloister' and 'The Song of the Dew,' which are -masterful pieces in the ultra-modern manner, and to -the 'Astral Cantata,' which has not yet been published -at this writing.</p> - -<p>Stravinsky's fame in foreign lands (which is doubtless -almost equal to that in his own, a strange thing in -Russian music) rests almost entirely on the three ballets -which were mounted and danced by Diaghileff's -company of dancers, drawn largely from the Imperial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> -Opera House, in St. Petersburg, who for several seasons -made wonderfully successful tours in the European -capitals. It must be understood that this institution, -the so-called 'Russian ballet,' was in no wise official. -It represented the 'extreme left wing' of Russian art in -regard to music, dancing, and scene painting. It was -altogether too radical to be received hospitably in the -official opera house. But it proved to be one of the -most brilliant artistic achievements of recent times, and -on it floated the fame of Igor Stravinsky.</p> - -<p>His first ballet, 'The Fire Bird,' was produced in -Paris in 1910. It tells a long and richly colored story of -the rescue of a beautiful maiden from the snares of a -wicked magician. The music is by no means 'radical,' -but it shows immense talent in expressive melody, colorful -harmony, in precise expression of mood, in the -suggestion of pictures, and in a certain elaborate and -free polyphony which is one of Stravinsky's chief -glories. It is a work irresistible alike to the casual listener -and to the technical musician. The next ballet -was 'Petrouchka,' produced in 1911. This is a fanciful -tale of Petrouchka, the Russian Pierrot, and his unhappy -love for another doll. The little man finds a -rival in a terrible blackamoor, and in the end is most -foully murdered, spilling 'his vital sawdust' upon the -toy-shop floor. The characters are richly varied, and -the carnival music is telling in the extreme. Stravinsky's -musical characterization and picturing here is -masterly. But his greatest achievement is his preservation -of the tone of burlesque throughout—bouncing and -joyous, yet kindly and refined.</p> - -<p>In this work we notice much of the harmonic daring -which is so startling in his third ballet, 'The Consecration -of Spring.' Here is an elaborate dance in two -scenes, setting forth presumably the mystic rites by -which the pre-historic Slavic peoples lured spring, -with its fruitful blessings, into their midst. The character<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> -of the music and of the libretto is determined by -the peculiar theory of the dance on which the ballet is -founded. We cannot here go into this matter. Suffice -it to say that the dancing does not pretend to be 'primitive' -in an ethnological sense, though its angular movements -continually recall the crudities of pre-historic -art. The music is quite terrifying at first hearing. But -a second hearing, or a hasty examination of the score, -will convince one that it is executed with profound -musicianship and a sure understanding of the effects -to be obtained. Briefly, we may describe the musical -style as a free use of telling themes, largely national in -character, contrapuntally combined with such freedom -that harmony, in the classical sense, quite ceases to -exist. Because of the musical mastership displayed in -the writing we can be sure that this is not a 'freak' or a -blind alley experiment. Whether the tendency represents -a complete denial of harmonic relations, with the -attention centred wholly on the polyphonic interweaving, -or whether it is preparing the way for a new harmony -in which the second (major or minor) will be regarded -as a consonant interval, we cannot at this time -say. But Stravinsky's well-proved ability, and his evident -knowledge of what he is about, are at least presumptive -evidence that our enjoyment of this new style -will increase with our understanding of it.</p> - -<p>Certainly men like Scriabine and Stravinsky prove -that Russian music has not been a mere burst of genius, -destined to become embalmed in academicism or -wafted on lyrical breezes into the salons. Probably no -nation in Europe to-day possesses a greater number of -thoroughly able composers than Russia. The Slav -seems to be no whit behind his brothers either in poetic -inspiration or in technical progress. Perhaps it is -a new generation, that has just begun its work—a generation -destined to achievements as fine as those of the -glorious 'Big Five.'</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">H. K. M.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Ivan Narodny in 'Musical America,' August, 1914.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VI<br /> -<small>MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN BOHEMIA AND HUNGARY</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Characteristics of Czech music; Friedrich Smetana—Antonin Dvořák—Zdenko -Fibich and others; Joseph Suk and Viteslav Novák—historical -sketch of musical endeavor in Hungary—Ödön Mihalovics, Count Zichy and -Jenö Hubay—Dohnányi and Moór; 'Young Hungary': Weiner, Béla Bartók, -and others.</p> -</div> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>All that is best in the music of Bohemia is fully represented -in the compositions of her two greatest sons, -Friedrich Smetana (1824-1884) and Antonin Dvořák -(1841-1904). As Louis XIV said that he was the state, -so it may almost be said that, musically speaking, these -two men are Bohemia. And yet, paradoxical as it may -seem, they can be really understood only when studied -in relation to their national background, when considered -the spokesmen of an otherwise voiceless but -richly endowed race. This is the paradox, indeed, of -all so-called 'national' composers. From one point of -view they are personally unimportant; their eloquence -is that of the race that speaks through them; and we -listen to them less as men of a general humanity than -as a special sort of men from a particular spot of -earth. Thus Mr. W. H. Hadow, in his admirable essay -on Dvořák,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> does not hesitate to say of the eighteenth -century Bohemian musicians, Mysliveczek, Reicha, and -Dussek, all of whom lived abroad: 'We may find in -their denial of their country a conclusive reason for -their ultimate failure.' Shift the standpoint a little, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span>however, and it is obvious that something more is necessary -for a Bohemian musician than to live at home -and to incorporate the national melodies, or even express -the national temperament, in his compositions. -He must, that is, have gone to school to the best masters -of the music of the whole world—not literally, of -course, but by study of their works; he must thus have -become a past master of his craft; above all, he must -be a great individual, whatever his country, a man of -broad sympathy, warm heart, and keen intelligence. -'Theme,' wrote one who realized this on the occasion -of Dvořák's death,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> 'is not the main thing in any art; -the part that counts is the manner of handling the -theme. When books are good enough they are literature, -and when music is good enough it is music. -Whether it be "national" or not matters not a jot.' Both -of the truths that oppose each other to form this paradox -are repeatedly exemplified in the history of music -in Bohemia.</p> - -<p>The Czechs, or Bohemians, like other Slavic peoples, -are extremely gifted in music by nature; but, while -their cousins, the Russians, exemplify this gift largely in -songs of a melancholy cast, they are, on the contrary, -gay and sociable, and rejoice above all in dancing. -They are said to have no less than forty native dances. -Of these the most famous is the polka, improvised in -1830 by a Bohemian farm girl, and quickly disseminated -over the whole world. The wild 'furiant' and the -meditative poetic 'dumka' have been happily used by -Smetana, Dvořák, and others. Still other dances bear -such unpronounceable names as the <em>beseda</em>, the <em>dudik</em>, -the <em>hulan</em>, the <em>kozak</em>, the <em>sedlák</em>, the <em>trinozka</em>. They -are accompanied by the national instrument, the -'dudy,' a sort of bagpipe. 'On the whole,' says Mr. -Waldo S. Pratt,<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> 'Bohemian ... music shows a fondness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span> -for noisy and hilarious forms whose origin is in -ardent social merrymaking, or for somewhat grandiose -and sumptuous effects, such as imply a half-barbaric -notion of splendor. In these respects the eastern music -stands in contrast with the much more personal and -subjective musical poesy to which northern composers -have tended.' This characterization, it is interesting to -note, would apply as well to the music of Smetana and -Dvořák, in which the kind of thoughtfulness we find -in Schumann is almost always wanting, as to the folk-music -of their country.</p> - - -<p>The songs, if naturally less boisterous than the -dances, are animated, forthright, and cheerful, rather -than profound. They are usually in major rather than -in minor, and vigorous though graceful in rhythm. As -in the spoken language the accent is almost always -put on the first word or syllable, the music usually begins, -too, with an accented note. Another peculiarity -that may be traceable to the language is that the -phrases are very apt to have an uneven number of accents, -such as three or five, instead of the two or four to -which we are accustomed. This gives them, for our -ears, an indescribable piquant charm. On the other -hand, as Bohemia is the most western of Slav countries, -and consequently the nearest to the seats of musical -culture in Germany, its songs show in the regularity -of their structure and sometimes in considerably -extended development of the musical thought, a superiority -over those of more remote and inaccessible -lands. Music has been taught, too, for many generations -in the Bohemian schools as carefully as 'the three -R's,' and it is usual for the village school teachers to -act also as organists, choir- and bandmasters. The Bohemian -common people seem really to love music. -It has been truly said: 'If a Bohemian school of music -can now be said to exist, it is as much due to the peasant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> -as to the conscious efforts of Bendl, Smetana, Fibich, -A. Stradal, and Dvořák.'<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> - -<p>As in Poland, Russia, Italy, and other countries, however, -music suffered long in Bohemia from political -oppressions and from lack of leadership. In the seventeenth -century, after the Thirty Years' War, Bohemia, -in spite of her proud past, found herself enslaved, intellectually -as well as politically. Her music was overlaid -and smothered by fashions imported from Germany, -France, and Italy, and her gifted musicians, as -Mr. Hadow points out, emigrated thither. During the -eighteenth century her Germanization was almost complete, -and even the Czech language seemed in danger -of dying out. George Benda (1721-1795) wrote fourteen -operas for the German stage; Anton Reicha (1770-1836) -settled in Paris as a teacher; J. L. Dussek (1761-1812), -best known of all, was a cosmopolitan musician, -more German than Czech.</p> - -<p>Then, early in the nineteenth century, began a gradual -reassertion, timid and halting at first, of the national -individuality. Kalliwoda, Kittl, Dionys Weber, -and others tried to restore the prestige of the folk-songs; -Tomášek founded instrumental works upon -them; Skroup made in 1826 a collection of them. This -Frantisek Skroup (1801-1862) deserves as much as any -single musician to be considered the pioneer of the -Czech renaissanace. Conductor of the Bohemian Theatre -at Prague, he composed the first typically national -operas, performed in 1825 and later, and the most universally -loved of Bohemian songs, 'Where is My Home?' -His life spans the whole period of gestation of the -movement, for it was in 1862, the year of his death, that -it reached tangible fruition in the founding of the national -opera house, the 'Interimstheater,' at Prague. -Two years before this, in October, 1860, the gift of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span>political liberty had been granted Bohemia by Austrian -imperial diploma. In May, 1861, Smetana, most gifted -of native musicians, had returned from a long sojourn -in Sweden. Thus the national music now found itself -for the first time with an abiding place, liberty, and a -great leader.</p> - -<p>Friedrich Smetana, born at Leitomischl, Bohemia, -March 2, 1824, showed pronounced musical talent from -the first, and was highly successful as a boy pianist. -His father, however, averse to his becoming a professional -musician, refused to support him when in his -nineteenth year he went to Prague to study. The severe -struggle with poverty and even hunger which he -had at this time, together with his close application to -the theory of music, may have had something to do -with the nervous and mental troubles which later overtook -him. His need of study was great, for his musical -experience had hitherto been chiefly of the national -dances and other popular pieces. In 1848, looking over -a manuscript composition of six years before, he noted -on its title page that it had been 'written in the utter -darkness of mental musical education,' and was preserved -as 'a curiosity of natural composition' only at -the request of 'the owner'—that is, his friend Katharina -Kolář, who in 1849 became his wife. He settled for a -time in Prague as a teacher, and even opened a school -of his own; but musical conditions in Bohemia were -at that time so primitive that in 1857 he accepted an -appointment as director of a choral and orchestral society -at Gothenburg in Sweden.</p> - -<p>During his residence abroad he composed, in addition -to many piano pieces and small works, three symphonic -poems in which are to be found much of the -spontaneity and buoyancy of thought and the brilliancy -of orchestral coloring of his later works of this type. -These are 'Richard III' (1858), 'Wallensteins Lager' -(1859), and 'Hakon Jarl' (1861). Nevertheless he had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> -not yet really found his place. In 1859 his wife died, -and the following year he married Barbara Ferdinandi, -a Bohemian. It was partly due to her homesickness, -partly to the projected erection of the Interimstheater, -that he decided to return to Prague in 1861. He was -then nearly forty, but his lifework was still ahead of -him. He entered with enthusiasm into the national -movement. He established with Ferdinand Heller a -music school, through which he secured an ample living. -He was one of the founders of a singing society, -and also of a general society for the development of -Bohemian arts. Above all, he began the long series of -operas written for the new national opera house with -'The Brandenbergers in Bohemia,' composed in 1863, -and 'The Bartered Bride' (1866). Later came <em>Dalibor</em> -(1868), <em>Libusa</em>, composed in 1872 but not performed -until 1881, <em>Die beiden Witwen</em> (1873-74), <em>Der Kuss</em> -(1876), <em>Das Geheimnis</em> (1878), and <em>Die Teufelsmauer</em> -(1882).</p> - -<p>The most famous of Smetana's operas, 'The Bartered -Bride,' performed for the first time at Prague, in 1866, -became only gradually known outside Bohemia, but is -now a favorite all over the world. It is a story of village -life, full of intrigue, love, and drollery. To this -spirited and amusing story Smetana has set equally -amusing and spirited music. From the whirling violin -figures of the overture to the final chord the good humor -remains unquenchable. In the polka closing Act I -and the furiant opening Act II is village merriment of -the most contagious kind; in the march of the showman -and his troupe, in the third act, orchestrated for drums, -cymbals, trumpet, and piccolo, is humor of the broadest; -and in Wenzel's stammering song, opening the -same act, is characterization of a more subtle kind, in -which humor and real feeling are blended as only a -master can blend them. There are, too, many passages -of simple tenderness, notably Marie's air and the duet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> -of the lovers in the first scene, and their terzet with -Kezal in the last, in which is revealed the composer's -unfailing fund of lyrical melody. 'This opera,' says -Mr. Philip Hale,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> 'was a step in a new direction, for -it united the richness of melody, as seen in Mozart's -operas, with a new and modern comprehension of the -purpose of operatic composition, the accuracy of characterization, -the wish to be realistic.' We may note, -furthermore, how free is this realism of Smetana's -from the brutality of some more modern operas on -similar subjects, such as those of Mascagni, Leoncavallo, -and Puccini. The village life depicted in 'The -Bartered Bride' is never repulsive; it is not even tragic; -it is simply pathetic, comic, and endlessly appealing.</p> - -<p>The simplicity of the musical idiom is notable. Not -only does the composer incorporate folk-tunes bodily -when it suits his purpose, as in the case of the polka and -furiant already mentioned, but the melodies he invents -himself are often equally simple, even naïve, and harmonized -with a similar artlessness. The haunting refrain -of the love duet might be sung by village serenaders. -Yet this simplicity is the simplicity of distinction, -not that of commonplaceness. There is a purity, a -chivalric tenderness about it that can never be counterfeited -by mediocrity, and that is in many of Smetana's -tunes, as it is in Schubert's and in Mozart's. It is a -very cheap form of snobbism that criticises such art as -this for its lack of the complexities of the German music-drama -or symphony. Smetana himself said: 'As -Wagner writes, we cannot compose'—he might have -added 'and would not.' 'To us,' says Mr. Hadow, -speaking of the Bohemian composers in general, 'to us, -who look upon Prague from the standpoints of Dresden -or Vienna, the music of these men may seem unduly -artless and immature: with Wagner on the one -side, with Brahms on the other, we have little time to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span>bestow on tentative efforts and incomplete production. -Some day we shall learn that we are in error. The -"Bartered Bride" is an achievement that would do -credit to any nation in Europe.'</p> - -<p>One effect of the great success of his opera was that -Smetana was appointed conductor of the opera house. -A few years later, in 1873, he also became director of -the opera school connected with it, and one of the two -conductors of the concerts of the Philharmonic Society -at Prague. All these promising new activities, -however, were suddenly arrested by a terrible affliction, -perhaps the worst that can happen to a musician—deafness. -On the score of the <em>Vyšehrad</em>, composed in 1874, -the first of the series of six symphonic poems which -bears the general title 'My Country' and constitutes -his masterpiece in pure orchestral music, is the note, -'In a condition of ear-suffering.' The second, <em>Vltava</em>, -composed later in the same year, bears the inscription, -'In complete deafness.' It was indeed in 1874 that he -was obliged to give up all conducting. Part of a letter -which he wrote some years later is worth quoting, both -for the particulars it gives as to his trouble, and for -the fine spirit of manly endurance it reveals, recalling -vividly the similar spirit displayed by Beethoven in his -famous letter to his brothers. 'The loud buzzing and -roaring in the head,' he says, 'as though I were standing -under a great waterfall, remains to-day, and continues -day and night without any interruption, louder when -my mind is employed actively, and weaker when I am -in a calmer condition of mind. When I compose the -buzzing is noisier. I hear absolutely nothing, not even -my own voice. Shrill tones, as the cry of a child or -the barking of a dog, I hear very well, just as I do loud -whistling, and yet, I cannot determine what the noise -is, or where it comes from. Conversation with me is -impossible. I hear my own piano playing only in fancy, -not in reality. I cannot hear the playing of anybody<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> -else, not even the performance of a full orchestra in -opera or in concert. I do not think that it is possible -for me to improve. I have no pain in the ear, and the -physicians agree that my disease is none of the familiar -diseases of the ear, but something else, perhaps a paralysis -of the nerves and the labyrinth. And so I am -completely determined to endure my sad fate in a -manly and calm way as long as I live.'</p> - -<p>Aside from its deep musical beauty, a peculiar interest -attaches to the string quartet entitled by Smetana -<em>Aus meinen Leben</em> ('From My Life') because of the account -it gives in tones of his great affliction. The autobiographical -character is maintained throughout. The -first movement, in E minor, <em>allegro vivo appassionato</em>, -with its constant turbulence and restless aspiration, -depicts, according to the composer, his 'predisposition -toward romanticism.' The second, <em>quasi polka</em>, 'bears -me,' he says, 'back to the joyance of my youth, when as -composer I overwhelmed the world with dance tunes -and was known as a passionate dancer.' The <em>largo -sostenuto</em>, the third movement, perhaps musically the -finest of all, is built on two exceedingly earnest and -noble melodies which are worked out with elaborate -and most felicitous embroidering detail. They tell of -the composer's love for his wife and his happy marriage. -Of all the movements the finale is the most -dramatic. Indeed, it is one of the most dramatic pieces -in all chamber music. It opens in E major, <em>Vivace, fortissimo</em>—an -indescribable bustle of happy folk themes -jostling each other. A buoyant secondary melody is a -little quieter but still full of childlike joy. These two -themes alternate in rondo fashion, are developed with -never-flagging energy, and suggest the composer's joy -in his native folk-music and its use in his art. At the -height of the jollity there is a sudden pause, a sinister -tremolo of the middle strings, and the first violin sounds -a long high E, shrill, piercing, insistent. 'It is,' says<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> -Smetana, 'the harmful piping of the highest tone in my -ear that in 1878 announced my deafness.'<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> All the -bustle dies away, we hear reminiscences, full now of a -tragic meaning, of the themes of the first movement, -and the music dies out with a mournful murmuring of -the viola and a few pizzicato chords.</p> - -<p>If the string quartet is thus intimately personal in a -high degree, the series of orchestral tone-poems, 'My -Country,' dedicated to the city of Prague, is national in -scope. Number I, <em>Vyšehrad</em>, depicts the ancient fortress, -once a scene of glory, and its melancholy decline -into ruin and decay. In Number II, <em>Vltava</em> or 'The -Moldau,' the most popular of all, we hear the two tiny -rivulets which, rising in the mountain, flow down and -unite to form the mighty river Moldau. 'Sárka,' the -third (1875), refers to a valley north of the capital, -which was named for the noblest of mythical Bohemian -amazons. 'From Bohemia's Fields and Groves,' -Number IV (1875), is built on several intensely Czechic -tunes, and reaches a dizzying climax on a most delightful -polka theme. In 'Tabor,' Number V (1878), is -introduced the favorite war-chorale of the Taborites. -The last of the series, <em>Blaník</em> (1879), pictures the -mountain on which the Hussite warriors sleep until -they shall have to fight again for their country. The -orchestration of the whole series is as brilliant as the -themes are spirited and attractive, and they are universal -favorites in the concert hall.</p> - -<p>Smetana wrote a good deal of choral and piano music, -as well as other orchestral works; but it is by 'My -Country,' the quartet, and 'The Bartered Bride' that he -will continue to be known. Fortunately for him, his -greatness was recognized during his lifetime; he was -idolized by his countrymen; and he knew the pleasure -of public triumphs at the fiftieth anniversary, in 1880, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span>of his first appearance as a pianist, at the opening of -the new national theatre in 1881, and on other occasions. -But when his sixtieth birthday, March 2, 1884, -was honored by a national festival, he was unable to -be present for a tragic reason. His nerves had been -troubling him for some time. When <em>Die Teufelsmauer</em> -was coldly received in 1882 he said, 'I am, then, at last -too old, and I ought not to write anything more, because -nobody wishes to hear from me.' Later he complained, -'I feel myself tired out, sleepy, and I fear that -the quickness of musical thoughts has gone from me.' -Gradually he lost his memory and his power to read. -He was not permitted by the doctors to compose or -even to think music. Only a few weeks before his -sixtieth birthday he had to be put in an asylum, and -there, without regaining his mind, he died, May 12, -1884.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>Untoward as was Smetana's personal fate, he was -fortunate artistically in having at hand a younger -contemporary of genius equal and similar to his to -whom he could pass on the torch he had lighted. His -friend and protégé, Antonin Dvořák, at this time forty-two -years old, had not only felt his direct influence -during formative years, but resembled him in temperament -and in artistic ideals to a degree remarkable even -for fellow citizens of a small country like Bohemia. -Both were impulsive, impressionable, unreflective in -temper; both found in the strong dance rhythms and -the simple yet poignant melodies of the people their -natural expression; in both the classic qualities—reticence, -restraint, balance—were acquired rather than -instinctive. In Dvořák, however, there was an even -greater richness and sensuous warmth than in the older -man, and his music is thus, in the memorable phrase -of Mr. Hadow, 'more Corinthian than, Doric,' has 'a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> -certain opulence, a certain splendor and luxury to -which few other musicians have attained.'</p> - -<p>Antonin Dvořák, born in 1841, eldest of eight children -of the village butcher in Nelahozeves on the Moldau, -knew poverty and music from his earliest days. -At fourteen he could sing and play the violin, the piano, -and the organ. A year later came his first appearance -as an orchestral composer. Planning to persuade his -reluctant father by practical demonstration that he -was destined to write music, he prepared for the village -band an original polka, with infinite pains, but alas! in -ignorance that the brass instruments do not play the -exact notes written. He wrote what he wanted to hear, -but what he heard might well have induced him to -resign himself to butchery. That it did not, that he -still held out against parental opposition and was -finally allowed to go to Prague, is an evidence of that -tenacity which was in the essence of his character. At -Prague he entered the Organ School, played in churches -and restaurants, and earned about nine dollars a -month, on which he lived. An occasional concert he -managed to hear by hiding behind the kettledrums of -a friendly player, but classical music he met for the -first time when, already twenty-one, he borrowed some -scores of Beethoven and Mendelssohn from Smetana. -Symphonic composition he acquired laboriously and -with surprising skill; the polka and the furiant were -in his blood.</p> - -<p>He now spent about ten years composing industriously, -in poverty and complete obscurity. In 1871 -came the long-awaited chance to emerge, in the shape -of an invitation to write an opera for the national -theatre. In writing this his first opera, 'The King and -the Collier' (Prague, 1874), he allowed himself to be -misled by his curious facility in imitating other styles -than his own. Mr. Hadow tells the story at length. -The point of it is that Dvořák, acting on a momentary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> -enthusiasm for Wagner, which his music shows that -he afterwards outgrew, committed the surprising folly -of giving his countrymen, at the very moment when -they were initiating a successful campaign for native -art, a Wagnerian music-drama under the guise of Czech -operetta! It was only a momentary aberration, but it -is worth mentioning because it illustrates a child-like -uncriticalness which was as much a part of Dvořák as -his freshness of feeling, his love of color, and his persistence. -Soon realizing his error he rewrote the music -in a more appropriate style. It then appeared that -the libretto, too, was wrong. Anyone else would have -given the matter up in disgust; but Dvořák had the -book also rewritten, and in this third version his work -won him his first operatic success.<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> - -<p>Soon he began to be known outside Bohemia. In -1875 he received a grant from the Austrian Ministry of -Education, on the strength of a symphony and an opera -submitted. Two years later, offering to the same body -his Moravian duets and some of his recent chamber -music, he was fortunate enough to have them examined -by Brahms, one of the committee. Brahms cordially -recommended his work to Simrock, the great -Berlin music publishing house, with the result that his -compositions began to be widely disseminated and he -was commissioned to write a set of characteristic national -dances. The result of this commission was the -first set of Slavonic Dances, opus 46, later supplemented -by eight more, opus 72. These dances are as characteristic -as any of Dvořák's works. Their melodic and -rhythmic animation is indescribable; while the basis is -national folk-song the themes are imaginatively treated -and led through many distant keys with the happy -inconsequence peculiar to Dvořák; and the whole is -orchestrated with the richness, variety, and delicacy -that make him one of the greatest orchestral masters of -all time. The same qualities are found in the beautiful -Slavonic Rhapsodies, the overtures <em>Mein Heim</em> and -<em>Husitska</em>, both based on Czechish melodies, and, mixed -with more classic elements, in the two sets of symphonic -variations and the five symphonies.</p> - - -<p>In the choral field Dvořák is best known by his admirable -<em>Stabat Mater</em> (1883), written in a pure classical -style, as if based on the best Italian models, and of -large inspiration. There are also an oratorio 'St. Ludmila' -(1886), more conventional, a requiem mass, and -several cantatas. Of many sets of beautiful solo songs, -special mention may be made of the Gypsy Songs, opus -55, <em>Im Volkston</em>, opus 73, and the 'Love Songs,' opus -83. The duets, 'Echos of Moravia,' are fine. There is -much piano music, too, but charming as are the 'Humoresques,' -opus 101, the 'Poetic Mood-Pictures,' opus -85, and some others, it may be said that Dvořák is less -at home with the piano than with other instruments.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, one might with reason place his -chamber music even higher than his orchestral work, -for it is as admirably suited to its medium, and its -soberer palette restrains his almost barbaric love of -color. His pianoforte quintet in A major, opus 81, -with its broadly conceived allegro, its tender andante, -founded on the elegiac dumka of his country, and its -immensely spirited scherzo and finale, is surely one of -the finest quintets written since Schumann immortalized -the combination. As for his string quartets, they -must equally take their place in the front rank of -modern chamber music, beside the quartets of Brahms, -Franck, Tschaikowsky, and d'Indy. The last two, opera -105 and 106, are perhaps the best. Those who charge -Dvořák with 'lack of depth' would do well to penetrate -a little more deeply themselves into such things as the -<em>Lento e molto cantabile</em> of the former.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ilo-fp178" style="max-width: 29.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo-fp178.jpg" alt="ilo-fp178" /> - - -<p class="center">Bohemian Composers:</p> -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 2em;">Antonin Dvořák</span> <span style="padding-left: 1em;">Friedrich Smetana</span><br /> -<span style="padding-right: 5em;">Zdenko Fibich</span> <span style="padding-right: 1em;">Joseph Suk</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>A special niche among the works of this wondrously -fertile mind must be reserved for the so-called American -works, written during his sojourn in New York in -the early nineties. These are the Quartet, opus 96, the -Quintet, opus 97, and the famous symphony, 'From the -New World,' opus 95. The importance of the negro -element in these works has perhaps been exaggerated. -It is true that we find in them the rhythmic snap of -rag-time, the melancholy crooning cadences of the 'spirituals,' -and even the scale of five notes ('pentatonic -scale'). It is even true that there is a more or less close -resemblance between some of their themes and certain -well-known songs, as, for instance, between the second -theme of the first movement of the symphony and -'Swing Low, Sweet Chariot,' or between the scherzo -of the Quintet and 'Old Man Moses, He Sells Roses.' -But, after all, the treatment is more important than -the theme; and it is because Dvořák is a great musician -that the pathos of the largo in the symphony moves -us as it does, and that he can make us as merry with a -bit of rag-time as with a furiant. He was one of the -musicians most richly endowed by nature, and one -who knew nothing of national boundaries; he was, -indeed, a veritable Schubert in fertility and spontaneity. -And, as it was said of Schubert that he 'could set a -wall-advertisement to music,' so it might be said of -Dvořák that he could have made even Indian tunes interesting—had -he tried. It is pleasant to add that he -got universal love in response to this more than Midas-like -transmuting power of his, and that the poor Bohemian -boy, after becoming rich and famous, died full -of honors, but as simple at heart as ever, in 1904. He -was described in an obituary notice as 'Pan Antonin of -the sturdy little figure, the jovial smile, the kindly -heart, and the school-girl modesty.'</p> - -<p>Of other Bohemian composers contemporary with or -earlier than Dvořák none are of sufficient importance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> -to require more than briefest mention. These are: Joseph -Nesvadba (1824-1876), who wrote Bohemian songs -and choral works; Franz Skuherský (1830-1892), who -wrote Czech operas, chamber music, and theoretical -works; Menzel Theodor Bradský (1833-1881), who -wrote both German and Czech operas; Joseph Rozkosny -(born 1833), who wrote Czech operas, masses, -songs, and instrumental music; and Wilhelm Blodek -(1834-1874), who wrote Czech operas and instrumental -music. A somewhat more important figure is that of -Karl Bendl (1838-1897), composer of Czech operas and -ballets, who was conductor of the chief choral society -in Prague, influential in the <em>Interimstheater</em>, and who -'jointly with Smetana and Dvořák enjoys the distinction -of winning general recognition for Czech musical -art.' His operas <em>Lejla</em>, <em>Bretislav and Jitka</em>, <em>Cernahoreí</em>, -<em>Karel Streta</em>, and <em>Dite Tabora</em> are all on the standing -repertory of the National Theatre at Prague.</p> - -<p>Adalbert Hřimalý (1842-1908), who wrote Czech operas, -and whose 'Enchanted Prince' (1870) has proved -a lasting success, deserves mention in this place.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>Between Smetana and Dvořák and the contemporary -Bohemians stands Zdenko Fibich, a most prolific composer, -well known in Bohemia but little heard of outside -it. Fibich was born at Leborschitz in Bohemia, -December 21, 1850. Studying at Prague and later at -the Leipzig Conservatory, he became in 1876 assistant -conductor of the National Theatre in Prague, and in -1878 director of the Russian Church choir. He is said -to have written over seven hundred works, but they are -more facile than profound. Of his many Czechish -operas the most successful was 'Sárka' (1898). He -was much interested in the musical form known as -'melodrama' (not to be confused with the stage melodrama).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> -It is a recited action accompanied by music; -classic examples are Schumann's 'Manfred' and Bizet's -<em>L'Arlésienne</em>. Fibich wrote six melodramas, three -'scenic melodramas,' and a melodramatic trilogy, <em>Hippodamia</em> -(text by Brchliky, 1891). His orchestral -works include several symphonic poems, two symphonies, -and several overtures, of which 'A Night on Karlstein' -is well known. He also wrote chamber music, -songs and choruses, piano pieces, and a method for -pianoforte. He died in 1900.</p> - -<p>A number of minor composers, contemporaries of -Fibich, are only of local importance for their Czechish -operas, produced in Prague. Such are Heinrich von -Káan-Albést (born 1852), director of the Prague Conservatory -in 1907; Vása Suk (born 1861), composer of -the opera <em>Der Waldkönig</em> (1900); Karl Navrátil (born -1867), who writes symphonic poems and chamber music; -and Karl Kovařovic (born 1862), conductor of the -Royal Bohemian <em>Landes und National-Theater</em>. This -theatre was erected in 1883, by subscription from -Czechs in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, northern Hungary, -even the colony in America. The Austrian government -is said to be not very favorable to it, vetoing -the posting of placards announcing performances in -Austrian watering places. The subsidy is raised by -the country of Bohemia, not by the government. In -August, 1903, a cycle of operas was given here, including -Fibich's 'The Fall of Arcana,' Kovařovic's <em>Têtes de -chien</em>, Nedbal's <em>Le Gros Jean</em>,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Dvořák's <em>Roussalka</em> -and several operas of Smetana.</p> - -<p>A better known composer of Czechish operas is Emil -Nikolaus von Reznicek, who was, however, born not in -Bohemia but at Vienna, May 4, 1861. His comic opera -<em>Donna Diana</em>, produced in 1894 at Prague, made so -great a success that in a short time it was heard in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span>forty-three European opera-houses. Other operas by -him are <em>Die Jungfrau von Orleans</em> (1887), <em>Satanella</em> -(1888), <em>Emmerich Fortunat</em> (1889), and <em>Till Eulenspiegel</em> -(1901), on the subject made famous by -Strauss's witty symphonic poem. For orchestra he has -written a 'Tragic Symphony,' an 'Ironic Symphony,' an -'Idyllic Overture,' a 'Comedy Overture,' two symphonic -suites, etc., while a string quartet was played by the -Dessau Quartet at Berlin in 1906.</p> - -<p>Fibich's pupil O. Ostřcil, whose contrapuntal skill -and brilliant orchestration testify to his ability, has -written the operas 'Kunal's Eyes,' 'The Fall of Wlasta,' -and 'Buds' (<em>Knospen</em>), also an Impromptu and a Suite -for orchestra. Of the pupils of Dvořák Rudolf Karel -has written a symphony in E-flat minor and <em>Jugend</em>, a -symphonic poem in which he pictures the struggles of a -youth of genius; and Alois Reiser is known as the composer -of an opera, <em>Gobi</em>, showing melodic and harmonic -originality without exaggeration, and of a trio, a 'cello -concerto, and solo pieces for violin in which his nationality -is reflected. Other contemporaries are Ottokar -Jeremiaš (symphonies, overtures, and chamber music) -and his brother Jaroslav Jeremiaš, a follower in his -two operas of modern French tendencies; K. Krǐcka, -W. Stepán, J. Maxner, B. Novotny, and others.</p> - -<p>Without doubt the two most important living Bohemian -composers are Joseph Suk and Vitešlav Novák. -Suk, who was born at Křecovic, January 4, 1874, became -a pupil of Dvořák at the Prague Conservatory in -1888, and later married his daughter. He is second -violin of the Bohemian Quartet. Among his works may -be mentioned a 'Dramatic Overture,' an overture to -'A Winter's Tale,' a Symphony in E, a suite entitled 'A -Fairy Tale,' a piano quartet, a piano quintet, and two -string quartets. The symphony (in E major, op. 14, -published in Berlin) has charm and is most skillfully -written, especially for the strings, like everything by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> -this violinist-composer, but is somewhat prolix and -student-like, revealing Dvořák in many places, and in -the finale containing a theme too obviously suggested -by the overture to Smetana's 'The Bartered Bride.' 'A -Fairy Tale,' op. 16, sonorously and brilliantly scored, is -of programmistic character, especially the fourth movement. -Both of these orchestral works introduce a -number of folk-themes. This is also the case in an -early string quartet, op. 11 (1896), in B-flat major, the -finale of which is built on a polka tune in six-bar -phrases.</p> - -<p>If one were to judge him by these things one would -say that Suk was a skillful violinist who thoroughly -understood how to write for his instrument, that he -had caught much of the charm of Bohemian folk-melody -and especially of Dvořák's way of treating it, but -that his musical expression was neither very far-reaching -nor very original. He may have felt this himself, -for in his second quartet, op. 31, published in 1911, he -has thrown over his earlier style completely, and -adopted a so-called 'modern idiom.' The work is -played in one movement, without pauses. It is full of -changes of tempo and of key, extremely complicated in -harmony, frightfully difficult for the players as regards -intonation, and difficult for the listeners, too, from its -spasmodic and constantly changing character. So far -as one can tell about such a work from reading the -score, it would seem as if the composer had abandoned -his natural speech here without gaining real eloquence -in exchange. Whether he be misguided or not, however, -there can be no doubt of his marked natural talent -for the same kind of impulsive, fresh musical expression -we find in Smetana and Dvořák.</p> - -<p>The music of Novák, on the other hand, if less immediately -ingratiating, is much more thoughtful. The -influence of Dvořák is less felt in it than those of -Schumann and Brahms. Although the Bohemian and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> -also the allied Moravian and Hungarian-Slovak folk-melodies -are to some extent drawn upon for material, -the treatment is more intellectual than popular, rhythmic -subtleties abound, and the types of construction -are often highly complex and ingenious, there being -considerable use of those cyclic transformations of a -single theme throughout a long composition to which -César Franck and his school attribute so high a value. -It is worth noting that Novák, who was born December -5, 1870, at Kamenitz, Bohemia, is a man of general as -well as technical education, having attended the Bohemian -University and the Conservatory of Music at -Prague. He has continued to live in Prague as a music -teacher, several times receiving a state grant for composition. -Among his works are an Overture to a Moravian -Popular Drama, op. 18, the symphonic poems -'On the Lofty Tatra,' op. 26, and 'Eternal Longing,' op. -33, a 'Slovak Suite,' op. 32, two piano trios, two string -quartets, a piano quartet, a piano quintet, and a piano -sonata.</p> - -<p>In his early compositions Novák shows the influence -of the German romantic school, as in the trio, op. 1, -with its somewhat pompous main theme and its contrasting -theme for 'cello solo, verging dangerously upon -the sentimental. The piano quartet, op. 7 (1900), on a -striking and even noble theme, suffers from Brahmsian -mannerisms of style and a treatment at times drily -academic. On the other hand, the piano quintet, op. -12 (published in 1904, but doubtless written much -earlier), on a plaintively poetic folk-theme in A minor, -and the first string quartet, op. 22 (1902), show clearly -the more native influence of his master Dvořák. He -thus shows the impressionability of all really highly-endowed -minds, and in his mature works writes with -as much flexibility as authority. The <em>Trio quasi una -Ballata</em>, op. 27 (1903), and the second string quartet, -op. 35 (1906), are masterpieces.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span></p> - -<p>The trio is dramatic and powerful in expression, -original in style and structure. It begins, <em>andante -tragico</em>, with a fine bold melody, of folk character, in -D minor, given out by the violin, and later powerfully -developed by the piano. A secondary section in D-flat, -also somewhat 'folkish,' immediately follows, without -break. Next, again without pause, comes a 'quasi -scherzo, allegro burlesca' in G minor, the 'trio' of which -is ingeniously derived from the main theme of the -work. Recitative-like passages in the strings and cadenzas -for the piano then lead back to the original -andante theme, worked out in combination with subsidiary -matter and bringing the whole to an impressive -soft close.</p> - -<p>The string quartet in D major is equally original, -though different in mood. Dramatic declamation here -gives place to a meditative thoughtfulness especially -suited to the four strings. There are but two movements. -The first is a fugue, <em>largo misterioso</em>, on a deliberate, -impressive theme, in the mood of the later -Beethoven—a fugue admirably fresh and spontaneous, -with the accepted 'inversions' of the theme and so on, -to be sure, but coming less as academic prescriptions -than as natural flowerings of the thought. The second -movement, <em>Fantasia</em>, is composite, containing first suggestions -of the root theme (of the fugue), introducing -a sort of sonata-exposition in which the same fugue -then figures as first subject and a new melody as second; -then, instead of a development, a scherzo section, -derived again from the root theme; then the recapitulation -of the two themes, completing the suggested sonata; -and finally, a literal repetition of the last three -pages of the fugue movement, thus binding the two -parts into unity. The scheme of construction is thus as -original as the music itself is impressive and beautiful.</p> - -<p>If Novák can avoid the pitfall of over-intellectualism -peculiar to his temperament, he may easily become one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> -of the most vital forces in contemporary European -music.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">D. G. M.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>It may appear surprising at first that Hungary, a -thousand-year-old nation, has not until our own day -achieved an independent cultural existence, and more -especially an individual musical art. For we know -that the Magyar race is inherently musical and recent -researches have unearthed unsuspected treasures of -folk-song as ancient as they are characteristic. There -has indeed been for some time a recognized Hungarian -'flavor' utilized in the manner of an exotic by various -composers, notably Brahms and Liszt, and the dance -rhythms so utilized have proved no less fascinating -than those of the Slavs, for instance. But native Hungarian -composers have not until recently developed -these artistic germs with sufficient ability to arouse the -attention of the musical world.</p> - -<p>When we consider the political condition of Hungary -during its long history, however, we no longer wonder -at the dearth of national culture. Twice the country -was utterly desolated, for ages the people possessed no -political independence, no constitution, and did not -use their own language—indeed their native tongue -was suppressed by a tyrannical government until late -in the nineteenth century. With the recrudescence of -national independence there came, as elsewhere, a revival -of nationalistic culture, and it is nothing short -of remarkable that within hardly more than a generation -Hungary has raised itself, in music especially, to -a point where its own sons are capable of brilliant -and characteristically native achievement. At any rate -it argues eloquently for the profound musical and poetic -instincts which were latent in the race.</p> - -<p>A brief historical review of early musical endeavor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> -in Hungary may not be without value as an introduction -to our treatment of its modern composers. When -the Hungarians first occupied their present country -(A. D. 896) they found no music whatever in their new -home. The musical instinct born in them, however, -was very strong, for they sang when praying, when preparing -for war, at burials and festivals, and their first -Christian king, Stephan I (997-1038), founded a school -where singing was taught. In fact, the power of music -was respected so much that early musicians were called -<em>hegedös</em>, a word not derived from the Hungarian -<em>hegedü</em> (violin), but from <em>heged</em>—'having healed the -wounds.' In the fourteenth century, when the first gypsies -migrated to Hungary, they found there a people -whose music was already so highly developed that the -newcomers themselves learned their melodies from -them. It was through the songs of the Hungarians that -the gypsies became famous, and we have to bear in -mind that the great merit of the gypsies was not in -creating melodies, but in making them popularly -known from generation to generation.</p> - -<p>Under the reign of the great national king, Mathias I -(1458-1490), music flourished and was even highly -cherished. The king, who made Hungary one of the -greatest powers of Europe in that period, possessed an -organ with silver pipes, and an orchestra. He also had -in his service numerous court singers, who sang of the -heroic deeds of national heroes. That musicians were -highly esteemed there we infer from the fact that such -musicians as Adrian Willaert and Thomas Stolzer were -in the service of King Louis II (1516-1526). After the -battle of Mohács (1526) the whole country was brought -under the yoke of the Turks, and almost every trace -of the high culture of the Hungarians was destroyed, -so that we possess nothing of the musical treasures of -this period. Collections of religious chants (from the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) show that sacred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> -music exerted a notable influence upon Hungarian folk-music. -The folk element, however, was already very -strong at the time of Sebastian Tinody (1510-1554), -whose historical songs displayed genuine and pure -Hungarian qualities. Not before the middle of the sixteenth -century was the character of Hungarian music -reflected outside of Hungary—at first in pieces called -<em>Passamezzo</em> and <em>Ongaro</em>, published in various German -and Italian collections.</p> - -<p>In tracing the further development of Hungarian -music we find that in the latter part of the seventeenth -century some stage productions included songs. At -about the same time the Rákóczyan era of national -struggles brought forth many beautiful and impressive -melodies. These treasures were of no small influence -upon the evolution of national music, brought into still -greater prominence by musicians whom we may call -the real originators of the Hungarian idiom. They -were Lavotta (1764-1820), Csermák (1771-1822), and -Bihari (1769-1827). Lavotta's compositions were genuinely -characteristic Hungarian products, showing -mastery of invention and skill in handling the national -rhythms. He possessed a vivid fancy and a wealth of -ideas, but no technique. While his most important -work had the promising title of 'The Siege of Szigetvár,'<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> -it was composed for a solo violin without accompaniment -and its musical ideas were not over eight -to sixteen measures in length. Lavotta's other compositions, -such as his 'Serenade,'<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> in modern arrangements -are extremely effective. Some of his 'folk-songs' -will live forever.</p> - -<p>Lavotta's pupil, the Bohemian Csermák, produced -some characteristic dances. He, too, lacked solidity of -structure. The compositions of the brilliant gypsy -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span>violinist, Bihari (some of which are preserved in various -transcriptions), are the most valuable examples of -old national Hungarian music. The famous Rákoczy -march, as we know it through the transcriptions of -Liszt and Berlioz, is his work, being a remodelled version -of the original, plaintive Rákoczy song composed -about 1675 by M. Barna.</p> - -<p>Summing up, we may distinguish the following six -periods in the history of Hungarian music from its beginning: -the age of the Pagan Hungarians, those whose -songs were so persistent that three centuries after the -introduction of Christianity the Councils found it necessary -to suppress them; the period from the rise of -Christianity to the fifteenth century, when as elsewhere -music was wholly in the service of the church, while -secular music was cultivated only by wandering minstrels; -the three centuries following, when the growing -influence of the gypsies is most powerfully felt, -when Lutheran and Calvinistic churches spread among -the people, and when the folk-songs alive in the mouths -of the people to-day were born; the eighteenth century, -when Hungarian national music became more independent -and individual, Hungarian rhythms especially -became strongly pronounced, and the fundamental -principles of absolute music were laid down; and the -first half of the nineteenth century, which produced -the first masters. The last of the six periods is that of -the contemporary composers and of 'young Hungary.'</p> - -<p>In a few words we have endeavored to give a sketch -of the first four divisions. The transition to the next—the -period of the first masters—may be marked by the -first opera with a Hungarian libretto. This was 'Duke -Pikko and Tuttka Perzsi,' performed in 1793 under -Lavotta. The work was without any significance whatsoever. -The first noteworthy attempt in the direction -of national grand opera was 'Béla's Flight' by Ruzicska -(1833). That composer preferred the forms of the light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> -and popular Hungarian folk-songs to a more serious -vein. He should be given credit for his ambitious -attempt to create a truly national historical opera, -Hungarian both in music and in text. He was followed -by Franz Erkel (1810-1893), whose operas, with subjects -taken from Hungarian history, are still played to-day. -His music was genuinely Hungarian in character and -had absolute value. The overture to his <em>Hunyady -László</em>, with its classical form and poetic content, was -made popular in Europe through the efforts of Liszt. -Erkel was careful in selecting his dramatic subjects, -drawing freely upon Hungarian history. The subject -of his most successful work, <em>Bánk-Bán</em>, has also inspired -the mediæval German poet Hans Sachs, the eminent -Austrian dramatist Grillparzer, and the Hungarian -Josef Katona, whose tragedy of the same title represents -the best in Hungarian dramatic literature. Contemporary -with Erkel but of much less significance -was M. Mosonyi (1814-1870), who preserved the Hungarian -character in his operas and orchestral compositions -as well as in his piano pieces. His 'Studies' were -highly esteemed by Wagner.</p> - -<p>The further development of Hungarian culture and -music in the nineteenth century closely reflects the influence -of the French, Germans, and Italians, although -the national ambition of the Hungarians to remodel the -foreign examples according to their own genius is evident. -It is upon this principle that Hungary to-day -produces musical works of absolute merit.</p> - - -<h3>V</h3> - -<p>The most significant representatives of modern Hungarian -music are Ödön Mihálovich, Count Géza Zichy, -and Jenö Hubay. The compositions of these men -should be considered first as works of absolute merit, -regardless of their nationality; second, for the Hungarian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> -national elements which they unconsciously display; -and, finally, as noble, though not completely successful, -attempts to apply these elements and characteristics -to serious modern forms. Though much preoccupied -with this problem, they cannot be criticized for -the lack of strong individuality, since their personalities -almost always overshadow the Hungarian qualities -in their works, which, however, are still sufficiently -prominent to typify them as Hungarian composers. -Each of the three received his training under the most -eminent foreign masters, by which fact they were peculiarly -fitted to become the teachers of 'young Hungary,' -and incidentally the real founders of the modern Hungarian -school.</p> - -<p>The oldest of the three, Mihálovich, was born in 1842. -He studied with Hauptmann in Leipzig, with Bülow in -Munich, and was in personal touch with Liszt and -Wagner. In his position as the director of the Hungarian -Royal National Academy of Music in Budapest he -exercises a strong and salutary influence upon present -Hungarian musical life. It is due to his efforts that this -unique school maintains an extraordinarily high standard. -As a composer he is versatile and prolific. He -has successfully applied his talent to every form from -song to grand opera ('Hagbart and Signe,' 'Toldi's -Love,' 'Eliana,' and <em>Wieland der Schmied</em>, upon the -libretto planned by Wagner). He has written a Symphony -in D and several symphonic poems ('Sellö,' -'Pan's Death,' 'The Ship of Ghosts,' 'Hero and Leander,' -<em>Ronde du Sabbat</em>, etc.). He is a master of orchestration -and displays superior craftsmanship in working -out his thematic material. His style shows a fusion -of Wagnerian elements and of the principles of nineteenth-century -program music with Hungarian national -characteristics. His musical ideas are usually lofty and -of refined taste.</p> - -<p>Count Géza Zichy (born 1849) is an aristocrat in the -best sense of the word. The qualities of the man of -noble birth and high rank (he is a privy councillor to -the king, a member of the House of Lords, the president -of the National Music Conservatory, etc.), the -fine sensibility of a man endowed with talent and -trained under the best masters (he studied with and -was a friend of Liszt and Volkmann) are reflected in his -works as a poet, an author, a virtuoso, and a composer. -A man of wealth, he employs his means in the realization -of high artistic ideals. When as a lad of fourteen -he lost his right arm he experienced the lesson of -physical and spiritual suffering and grew up to be a -man of unusually intense energy.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Instead of giving -up his favorite art of piano playing he developed himself -into the greatest of left-arm virtuosos. His remarkable -playing, besides displaying an almost incredible -technique, reflects the feelings of a truly poetic -soul. 'His playing is remarkable in every respect, since -it is gentle and full of soul, of enthusiasm, and of incomparable -<em>bravour</em>,' wrote Fétis,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and Hanslick remarked -'there are many who can play, a few who can -charm, but only Zichy can bewitch with his playing.' -It is characteristic of him as a man and as an artist that -he never accepts any fee for playing; he plays only -for charity. 'I am happy,' he wrote to a critic, 'to be -in the service of the poor and of the unfortunate and to -earn bread for them through my hard work.'</p> - -<p>Count Zichy's compositions for the piano—for the -left hand alone (études, a sonata, a serenade, arrangements -of Bach, Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, Wagner, etc.)—are -unique in pianoforte literature. The climax of his -achievement in this field is his Concerto in E-flat. It -is distinguished by an energetic first movement, by a -deeply felt second movement cast in a Hungarian folk-mood, -by the brilliancy of the finale, and, above all, -by its terrific technical demands upon the left hand.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ilo_fp192" style="max-width: 30.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp192.jpg" alt="ilo-fp192" /> - - -<p class="center">Hungarian Composers:</p> - -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 1em;">Count Géza Zichy</span> <span style="padding-left: 1.5em;">Jenö Hubay</span><br /> -Ernst von Dohnányi <span style="padding-left: 1.2em;">Emanuel Moór</span></p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>In dramatic music Count Zichy began his activity -with the opera <em>Alár</em>, upon a Hungarian subject. This -was followed by the more successful 'Master Roland,' -in which he makes use of a radically modern idiom. -The work lacks the usual characteristics of Hungarian -music. All his libretti were written by himself. Stimulated -by Wagner's idea that 'through music dance and -poetry are reconciled,' he undertook to write a poetic -'dance-poem' (ballet) or melodrama entitled <em>Gemma</em>. -In this dramatic (speaking) actors played the chief -rôles, while the action was supported by recitation, -mimicry, dance and symphonic music. This novel undertaking -proved a failure and Zichy later rewrote the -whole piece as a regular pantomime.</p> - -<p>The most ambitious work is his trilogy comprising -<em>Franz Rákoczy II</em>, <em>Nemo</em>, and <em>Rodosto</em>, and dealing -with the life of the historical Franz Rákoczy (1676-1735), -'the great hero and great character, the loyal, -the most chivalrous, the noblest son of Hungary.' Zichy -made a deep study of the Rákoczyan era and the librettos -themselves as pure dramas are of considerable literary -value. With respect to their historical truth the -author remarked: 'After two years' study of this age -the figure of the great hero became more and more -vivid before my eyes and so I wrote the libretto of my -trilogy—or rather I copied it, since the life of Rákoczy -was itself induced by fate.'</p> - -<p>Into the music of the trilogy there are woven numerous -themes dating from the Rákoczyan period. The -problem of applying the stylistic elements of national -Hungarian music to modern forms, rhythms and harmony, -however, proved a difficult one; Zichy's solution -is a worthy attempt, but nevertheless only partially successful. -Aside from this special purpose the work fascinates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> -by its melodic warmth, its rhythmic energy, -and its masterful workmanship. It is safe to say that -Zichy's Rákoczy trilogy represents a new phase in the -history of national Hungarian grand opera.</p> - -<p>Of the three contemporary Hungarian composers -Hubay's name is the best known internationally.<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> His -career as a brilliant violinist (he frequently played -with Liszt); the fact that he was Wieniawsky's and -Vieuxtemps's successor at the Brussels Conservatory; -the success of his quartet (with Servais as 'cellist), all -helped to direct general attention to him. Both Massenet -and Saint-Saëns were much interested in him. -When as a young man of twenty-seven he was called -home by the Hungarian government, his fame was already -well established. Later he continued playing -in the musical centres of Europe and added to his -fame, and when he began to publish (and play) his -violin compositions he achieved such a sweeping success -that he is still popularly regarded as a composer -of well-known violin pieces, to the detriment of the -reputation of his other works.</p> - -<p>This very attitude of the general public is the highest -praise for Hubay's violin compositions. Indeed, their -poetic charm, their effectiveness and singularly idiomatic -style stamp him as a genuinely inspired poet of -the instrument. In violin literature he occupies perhaps -the most nearly analogous place to that of Chopin -in piano music. His deeply-felt tone-pictures, his -'Csárda (tavern) Scenes,' in which he preserved many -a treasure of Hungarian folk-song, those magnificent -illustrations of <em>Sirva vigad a magyar</em>, those rapturous -Hungarian rhapsodies for the violin, are surely not of -less value than many of Liszt's finest piano compositions.</p> - -<p>The facts that Hubay's name is chiefly associated with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span>his standard violin compositions and that his reputation -is mainly that of a great violin pedagogue were -obstacles to the popularity of his other works. Yet -his creative activity has been most varied: he has written -songs, sonatas, concertos, symphonies, and seven -operas. One of these operas, 'The Violin Maker of -Cremona' (libretto by Coppée), was successfully performed -in seventy European theatres. The music of -the 'Violin Maker' is characterized by refined elegance, -genuine passion, and the nobility of its ideas. The remark -of a Hungarian critic that Hubay's music impresses -one 'as if he had composed it with silk gloves -on his hands' may be accepted as real praise, for Hubay's -technical mastery is applied with uniformly -exquisite taste. He especially shows his superior musicianship -in the operas <em>Alienor</em>, 'Two Little Wooden -Shoes,' 'A Night of Love,' 'Venus of Milo,' and in the -two Hungarian operas, 'The Village Rover' and 'Lavotta's -Love,' the first based on a Hungarian peasant -play, the second on the life of the composer Lavotta.</p> - -<p>Hubay's two essays in the field of national grand -opera are sincere products of his artistic conviction—conscious -manifestations of a national ambition; he -can, therefore, not be accused of trying to hide a lack -of original invention behind a cloak of folk-music.</p> - - -<h3>VI</h3> - -<p>Between Mihálovich, Zichy, Hubay, and the representatives -of 'young Hungary' there are composers of -note who are not young enough to be classified as such -nor old enough to be called masters, if we apply the -term to artistic stature rather than actual age. This -applies especially to Ernst von Dohnányi (born 1877), -a former pupil of the Hungarian Academy and of -d'Albert and at present a professor at the royal <em>Hochschule</em> -in Berlin. Virility, vehement pathos, enthusiasm,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> -and brilliant sonority are the outstanding qualities of -Dohnányi's music. His best works are perhaps in the -field of chamber music: the beautiful string quartet in -D-flat, the 'Trio Serenade,' full of caprice and coquetry, -the violin sonata in C-sharp minor, a work of fine inspiration, -are of solid merit. His four 'Rhapsodies'—well -known to pianists—are interesting. One of them -reveals the author's nationality, while another one re-echoes -his honored ideal, Brahms. His effective and -brilliant piano concerto, too, speaks here and there -in Brahmsian phraseology. Although he reflects slight -special influences in places (as that of Mahler in his -Suite), his style is eclectic and expresses at the same -time a strong individuality. In works of larger form he -has tried his hand at a symphony (D minor), excelling -in beautiful harmonies, and a comic opera, <em>Tante Simonia</em>, -containing a characteristic overture in which -the jovial character of the comedy is successfully reflected. -This, like his pantomime, 'The Veil of the -Pierette,' reveals him as a musical dramatist, with a -special gift for effective orchestration. Dohnányi's substantial -accomplishments already make it unnecessary -to predict for him a place in musical history.</p> - -<p>Undoubtedly the hyper-critical and unreceptive attitude -of modern critics is responsible for the lack of -popularity of certain composers. It would seem that -Emanuel Moór is one of these. Moór is a tremendously -prolific composer. He has written no less than five -hundred songs, seven symphonies, three operas, six -concertos, and a mass of chamber music. Many of these -have real merit; also, they do not lack exponents and -interpreters (witness Marteau, Ysaye, Casals, Bauer, -the Flonzalay Quartet). Still, they have not been able -to gain a general appreciation. Time only will assign -a proper place to their creator. Here, also, should be -mentioned the name of J. Bloch, a successful composer -of numerous violin pieces.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span></p> - -<p>National qualities are displayed to telling advantage -in the 'Aphorisms on Hungarian Folk-songs,' by the -brilliant Liszt pupil A. Szendi. In fact, the 'Aphorisms' -(difficult piano pieces) have perhaps more Hungarian -color than the Rhapsodies of Liszt. Szendi is -also the author of some good chamber music and of -an opera, 'Maria,' which he wrote together with Szabados. -'Maria' is built upon Wagnerian principles. The -subject of this ambitious opera is the struggle between -the Christian and Pagan Hungarians in the twelfth -century. The music, in which Hungarian elements also -have a prominent place, is of exquisite workmanship.</p> - -<p>While Dohnányi and Moór are not living in Hungary, -Szendi, Bloch, and the brilliant group referred to as -'young Hungary' develop their growing talents within -the borders of their native land.</p> - -<p>On the whole, the characteristics of the present products -of the young Hungarian school are above all individual; -but there is also a strong tendency toward -ultra-modernism, and, finally, a certain fragrance of -the Hungarian soil, a quality that one may feel but -can not analyze. The aim of the school is no less than -the creation of a new national style, which they endeavor -to reach by different ways. Brilliance and robust -individualism characterize every one of these disciples, -mostly of Hungarian education. This is especially -true of Leo Weiner (born 1885), whose very first -attempt in the field of composition attested a considerable -technique. If Weiner's first composition took his -master (Hans Koessler<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>) by surprise, a later one, which -he wrote for the final student's concert of his class, fell -little short of being a sensation for musical Europe. -This, his last student work—a 'Serenade'—spread his -fame through the continent. It was performed in almost -every musical centre of Europe. In it the composer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> -displays a really individual style of his own. It -is full of ideas garbed in brilliant orchestration and -glows with the fire of enthusiasm. Weiner's ingenious -harmonic sense and ability is as astonishing for his -age as his fine architectural sense. In his other works—a -quartet in E, a trio in G minor, a sonata for violin -and piano in D (a valuable addition to the list of -modern sonatas)—the harmony, while sonorous and -pure, is quite simple, though his modulations often act -as surprises. In form he never abandons logical progression -and artistic unity, since he never loses the general -outline of his movements. It is true that one may -find dull moments in Weiner, yet of what composer is -that not true? Weiner is less successful where he attempts -to produce Hungarian color, but as dignified -examples of music produced for its own sake his works -are likely to persist.</p> - - -<p>One of the chief representatives of musical ultra-modernism -in Hungary is Béla Bartók, a remarkable -individuality whose modernism has probably reached -its own limits. According to his principles, applied in -his compositions, every kind of key-relationship is possible. -Thus he combines a melody E major with a -motive A-flat major. His waltz, 'My Sweetheart is -Dancing,' is astonishingly grotesque and novel in its -pianistic effects. It will hardly fail to make a listener -smile or laugh—perhaps by direct intention of the composer. -Bartók's colleague in the field of grotesque but -effective dissonances is Z. Kodály, with whom he undertook -the notable task of collecting Hungarian folk-songs -in their genuine natural form. With these -true and unalloyed Hungarian melodies the two 'futurists' -proved that the genuine Hungarian folk-song differed -essentially from those known generally under -that name. Bartók's and Kodály's folk-melodies are -not built on the Hungarian scale, which is of gypsy -invention. They display primitive qualities and preserve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span> -even the influence of the ancient church modes. -They have a great variety of constantly changing -rhythm and metre, and a distinct feature is the frequent -return of characteristic formulas, also the employment -of a peculiar pentatonic scale. Whatever may be his -merits as a composer, Béla Bartók's work as a scholar -in Hungarian music is of unquestioned historical -importance.</p> - -<p>Another young composer whose works are frequently -played in foreign countries (also in America) is E. -Lendway, likewise a pupil of Koessler. His Symphony -has sterling qualities. He has, however, produced -works of greater significance in chamber music, in -piano music, and songs. Especially worthy of mention -is a 'Suite' for female voices <em>a cappella</em>. Old Japanese -poems supply the text. These he has set to music -of genuine poetic <em>finesse</em>, delicate and finely emotional. -The whole gives a series of impressive tone-pictures, -reflecting a fascinating exotic atmosphere. -As a testimony of Lendway's technical skill it has been -pointed out that he has produced Japanese 'color' without -using the Japanese scale. True to his modernist -propensities, he makes free use of the whole-tone scale, -but with a more specific effect than is usually done. -His latest and most ambitious work is an opera, 'Elga,' -after Gerhart Hauptmann's drama.</p> - -<p>Other young Hungarians have attracted international -attention in the field of opera. E. Ábrányi's 'Paolo -and Francesca' and 'Monna Vanna' (after Maeterlinck) -have a dramatic power that is promising. He is at his -best in fantastic tone-painting, and remarkable for harmonic -invention and skill in orchestration. A charming -children's opera, 'Cinderella,' is by Á. Buttykay, -whose more ambitious symphonic works make him an -estimable member of the young Hungarian group. -Some chamber music works of ultra-modern tendencies -and a Symphonic Suite of ingenious orchestration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> -by Radnai raise expectations of still better things to -come.</p> - -<p>Justice can hardly be done by merely mentioning the -names of such men as Chovan, Gobbi, Farkas, Rékai, -Koenig, Siklós, etc., all of whom are engaged in meritorious -creative work. Of no less importance are those -who work in the field of musicography and criticism. -'The Theory of Hungarian Music,' by Géza Molnár, and -'The Evolution of the Hungarian Folk-song,' by Fabo, -as well as shorter essays by A. Kern, P. Kacsoh, etc., are -of especially high value. In conclusion we may say -that even a slight study of contemporary Hungarian -music will convince one that the musical life of the -Hungary of to-day adequately reflects the tendency of -the age, and that the country has definitely entered -the rank of the truly musical nations.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">E. K.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> 'Studies in Modern Music,' by W. H. Hadow, Second Series.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> <em>The Musical Courier</em>, New York, May 4, 1904.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> 'History of Music.'</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Mrs. Edmond Wodehouse; article, 'Song,' in Grove's Dictionary of -Music.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> 'Famous Composers and Their Works,' New Series, Vol. I, p. 178.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> Actually, it was not E, but the chord of the sixth of A-flat, in high -position, that constantly rang in Smetana's ear.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> His operas are: <em>Der König und der Köhler</em> (1874), <em>Die Dickschädel</em> -(1882), <em>Wanda</em> (1876), <em>Der Bauer ein Schelm</em> (1877), <em>Dimitrije</em> (1882), -<em>Jacobin</em> (1889), <em>Der Teufel und die wilde Käthe</em> (1899), <em>Roussalka</em> (1901), -<em>Armida</em> (1904).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Oscar Nedbal (born 1874), pupil of Dvořák, conductor, and viola of -the well-known Bohemian Quartet.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> It consisted of the following movements: 'The Council,' 'The Siege,' -'The Last Farewell,' 'The Prayer' and 'The Attack.'</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Arranged for string quartet by Kún László, published by Rózsavölgyi -in Budapest.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> It is touching to read in his brilliantly written autobiography (3 volumes, -1910), where, as if he had foreseen the terrible present war, he remarks: -'If God will help me, I will write a book for men with one arm, -and the book will be published in five languages!'</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> In <em>Biographie universelle des musiciens</em>, p. 687.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Jenö Hubay, born in 1858 in Budapest, son of Carl Huber, professor -of violin at the National Academy of Music and conductor of the National -Theatre in Budapest.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Composer and head of the theory department of the Royal Hungarian -Academy.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VII<br /> -<small>THE POST-CLASSICAL AND POETIC SCHOOLS OF MODERN GERMANY</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The post-Beethovenian tendencies in the music of Germany and their -present-day significance; the problem of modern symphonic form—The -academic followers of Brahms: Bruch and others—The modern 'poetic' -school: Richard Strauss as symphonic composer—Anton Bruckner, his life -and works—Gustav Mahler—Max Reger, and others.</p> -</div> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>No other European nation can show, within the last -fifty years, so great a variety of schools, and so great -a variety of effort and achievement within each school, -as the German. The reason is that the Germans were the -only race that, by the middle of the nineteenth century, -had beaten out a musical language that was capable of -almost every kind of expression. Within the ample -limits of that language there was room for the realization -of any spirit and any form—post-classical or progressive, -or a union of these two; poetic or abstract; -vocal or instrumental; symphonic or operatic. And in -each sphere the Germans developed both form and -spirit to a point attained by no other nation—in the -opera of Wagner, the post-Beethovenian symphony of -Brahms and Bruckner, the symphonic poem of Strauss, -the song of Hugo Wolf; while within the separate orbit -of each of these leaders there moved a crowd of -lesser but still goodly luminaries. It is remarkable, too, -that each period that seemed a climax of development -in this form or that proved to be only the starting-point -for a new departure. Beethoven's spirit realized -itself afresh in Wagner and Brahms, and in remoter but -still easily traceable ways in Liszt and Strauss; in the -best of Strauss, again, we can see coursing the sap of -Wagner, but with a vitality that throws out unexpected, -new and individual shoots; Schubert and Schumann, -each seemingly so perfect, so complete in himself, blossom -into a new and richer lyrical life in the songs of -Hugo Wolf. To make clear the nature and the meaning -of the modern German developments it will be necessary -to survey rapidly the conditions that led up to -them.</p> - -<p>Beethoven, especially in his later symphonies, sonatas -and quartets, had carried music to an intellectual -and emotional height for a parallel to which we have to -go back a century, to the colossal work of Bach. Beethoven -bequeathed to music an enormous fund of expression -and a perfected instrument of expression. -Both of these were waiting for the new composers who -could use them for the fertilization of modern music. -Wagner seized upon the fund rather than the instrument. -In place of the latter, though, indeed, with its -assistance, he forged a new instrument of his own; but -the impulse to the forging of it, and the strength for the -forging of it, came to him in large measure from the -deep draughts he had drunk of Beethoven's spirit. -Schumann (the symphonic Schumann) and Brahms, -on the other hand, were more content with the instrument -as Beethoven had left it; or, to vary the illustration, -they were satisfied, speaking broadly, to fill with -more or less derivative pictures of their own the frame -that Beethoven had bequeathed to them. But it was inevitable -that a procedure of this kind should lead here -and there to the petrification of form into formalism, -both of idea and of design. For it is an error to suppose, -as the writers of text-books too often do, that -'form' is something that can be conveyed by tuition or -achieved by imitation. There is no such thing as form -apart from the idea; the form <em>is</em> simply the idea made -visible and coherent. It is not the form that shapes -the thought in the truly great masters; rather is the -form simply the expression of the thought, as the form -of a tree is the expression of the idea of a tree, or the -form of the human body the expression of the idea -of man. The post-classicists too often forgot that Beethoven's -form and Beethoven's thought are inseparable—that -they are, in truth, in the profoundest sense, -merely different names for the same thing, the one -totality viewed from different standpoints, as we may -speak for convenience sake of the bodily man and -the spiritual man, though, in truth, the living man is -one and indivisible; and the post-classicists, indeed, -from Brahms downwards, founded themselves upon -the early or middle Beethoven, or even his eighteenth-century -predecessors, rather than upon the Beethoven -of the last works, with their incessant, titanic struggle -to open new roads into art and life. With all his greatness, -Brahms was not great enough to be to the symphony -of his own day what Beethoven was to the symphony -of his. Brahms raises an excellent crop from -the delta fertilized by the waters of the great river as -it debouched into the unknown sea; but that was all. -He himself added nothing to the soil that could make -it fertile enough to support yet another generation. -All the technical mastery of Brahms—and it is very -great indeed—cannot give to his symphonic music the -thoroughly organic air of Beethoven's, the same sense -of the perfect, unanalyzable fusion of form and matter.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ilo_fp202" style="max-width: 30.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp202.jpg" alt="ilo-fp202" /> - - -<p class="center">Modern German Symphonists and Lyricists:</p> - -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 1em;">Anton Bruckner</span> <span style="padding-left: 1em;">Felix Draeseke</span><br /> -<span style="padding-left: 1.5em;">Hugo Wolf</span> <span style="padding-left: 3em;">Gustav Mahler</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>While Brahms was developing the classical heritage -in his own way, Liszt and Wagner were boldly staking -out claims on the future. With each of these composers -the aim was the same—to find a form and an expression -that, by their elasticity, would make music more -equal to the painting of human life in all its manifold -variety. This effort took two lines: the instrumental<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> -and the dramatic. Liszt, anticipated to some extent by -Berlioz, tried to adapt the essence of the symphonic -form to the new spirit. The problems he set himself -have rarely been successfully solved, even to the present -day; they block the path of every modern writer -of symphonic poems, and of every writer of symphonies -the impulse behind which is more or less definitely -poetic.</p> - -<p>The mere fact of the incessant fluctuation of modern -composers between the two forms—the one-movement -form of Liszt and the symphonic poem in general, and -the four-movement form of the poetic or partly poetic -symphony—shows that neither of them is of itself -completely adequate. For against each of them strict -logic can urge some pointed objection. The four-movement -form, growing as it does out of the suite, is and -will always be more appropriate to what may be -roughly called 'pattern-music' rather than to poetic -music; for the mere number of the movements, and -the practically invariable order of their succession, -implies the forcing of the thought into a preconceived -frame, rather than the determining of the frame by -the nature of the picture. The one-movement form is -in itself more logical, but it is always faced by the problem -of conciliating the natural evolution of a poetic -idea and the decorative evolution of a musical pattern; -and the symphonic poems in which this problem is satisfactorily -solved might perhaps be counted on the fingers -of one hand. There is a point in Strauss's <em>Till -Eulenspiegel</em>, for example,</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="score_p205" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/score_p205.jpg" alt="ilo-p205" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span></p> - -<p>in which we feel acutely that the poetic—or shall we -say the novelistic?—scheme that has so far been followed -line by line is being put aside for the moment in -order that the composer, having stated his thematic -material, may subject it, for purely musical reasons, -to something in the nature of the ordinary 'working-out.'</p> - -<p>The four-movement form obviously allows greater -scope to a composer who has a great deal to say upon -a fruitful subject, but it labors under an equally obvious -disability. The modern sense of psychological unity -demands that the symphony of to-day shall justify, in -its own being, the casting of it into this or that number -of movements. Every work of art must, if challenged, -be able to give an answer to what Wagner used to call -the question 'Why?' 'Why,' we have a right to say to -the composer, 'have you chosen to give your work just -this form and these dimensions and no other?' It is -because modern composers cannot quite silence the -voice that whispers to them that the four-movement -form is the form of the suite, in which the charm of -the music comes mainly from the delight of the purely -musical faculty with itself, rather than a form suited -to a music that aims first of all at expressing more -definite feelings about life, that they try to vivify the -merely formal unity of the suite form with a psychological -unity—mainly by means of quasi-leit-motifs -that reappear in each of the movements.</p> - -<p>But, though this system has given us some of our -finest modern works of the symphonic type, it has its -limitations. If the composer does not tell us the poetic -meaning of his themes and all their reappearances, -these reappearances frequently puzzle rather than enlighten -us: this is notably the case with César Franck. -If the composer works upon a single leit-motif, it is, as -a rule, of the 'Fate-and-humanity' type of the Tschaikowsky -symphony—a type that in the end becomes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> -rather painfully conventional. This simplicity of plan, -however, has the advantage of leaving the composer -free to develop his musical material with the minimum -of disturbance from the poetic idea. On the other -hand, if his poetic scheme is at all copious or extensive, -and he allows himself to follow all the vicissitudes of -it, he must either give us a written clue to every page -of his music—which he is generally unwilling and frequently -unable to do—or pay the penalty of our failing -to see in his music precisely what he intended to put -there; for it is as true now as when Wagner wrote, -three-quarters of a century ago, that purely instrumental -music cannot permit itself such sudden and frequent -changes as dramatic music without running the -risk of becoming unintelligible. Always there arises -within us, when the composer's thought branches off -at an angle that does not seem to us justified by the -inner logic of the music <em>quâ</em> music, that awkward question, -"Why?" and to that question only the stage action, -as Wagner says, or a program, as most of us would -say to-day, can supply a satisfactory answer. This conflict -between form and matter can be seen running -through almost all modern German instrumental music -of the poetic order; only the genius of Strauss has been -able to resolve the antinomy with some success. None -of Beethoven's successors has been able, as he was, to -fill every bar of a symphonic composition with equal -meaning, or to convey, as he did in the third symphony, -the fifth and the ninth, the sense of a drama that is -implicit in the music itself, and so coherent, so perspicuous, -that words cannot add anything to it in the -way of definiteness.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>The symphonic work of Brahms (by which one -means not merely the symphonies but the overtures, -the concertos, the chamber music and the piano music)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> -does, indeed, as we have seen, found itself on the middle -rather than the later Beethoven (whereas it was -from the latest Beethoven that Wagner drew <em>his</em> chief -nourishment); but in spite of a certain timidity and a -certain rigidity of form, Brahms's profound nature and -his consummate workmanship give his work an individuality -that enables him to stand by the side of Beethoven, -though he never reaches quite to Beethoven's -height. The other exploiters of the classical heritage -have less individuality. They aim at breaking no new -ground; they are content to till afresh the soil that -the classical masters have fertilized for them.</p> - -<p>Max Bruch may be taken as the type of a whole -crowd of these post-classical writers. Their virtues are -those that are always characteristic of the epigone. -There is in art, as in the animal world, a protective -mimicry that enables certain weaker species to assume -at any rate the external markings of more vigorous -organisms than themselves. In music, minds of this -order clothe themselves with the qualities that lie on -the surface of the great men's work. Their own art -is parasitic (one uses that term, of course, without any -offensive intention, with a biological, not a moral, implication). -The parasitic organism lives easily in virtue -of the fact that the parent organism undertakes all the -labor of the chief vital functions. The epigone manipulates -again and again the forms of his great predecessors. -The substance he pours into these molds is -hardly more his own. Yet work of this kind can have -undeniable charm; after all, it is better for a man -whose strength is not of the first order to live contentedly -upon the side of the great mountain than to -court destruction by trying to scale its dizziest peaks. -The work of these epigones always has the balance -and the clarity that come from the complete absence of -any sense of a new problem to beat their heads against.</p> - -<p>Max Bruch was born in 1838 and evinced the early<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> -precocity of genius; he had a symphony performed in -his native Cologne at the age of fourteen. As a beneficiary -of the Mozart Foundation he became a pupil of -Ferdinand Hiller in composition and of Carl Reinecke -and Ferdinand Breuning in piano. As executive musician -he has had a brilliant career. After teaching in -Cologne he became successively musical director in -Coblentz, court kapellmeister in Sondershausen, chorus -conductor in Berlin (<em>Sternscher Gesangverein</em>), conductor -of the Philharmonic Society of Liverpool, England, -and the <em>Orchesterverein</em> of Breslau. In 1891 he became -head of the 'master school' of composition in the Berlin -Academy, was given the title of professor, received -in 1893 the honorary degree of Doc. Mus. from Cambridge, -and in 1898 became a corresponding member -of the French Academy of Fine Arts.</p> - -<p>His most important creative work is unquestionably -represented by his large choral works with orchestra. -Together with Georg Vierling (1820-1901) he may be -credited with the modern revival of the secular cantata. -<em>Frithjof</em>, op. 23 (1864), written during his stay in Mannheim -(1862-64), was the foundation-stone of his reputation, -followed soon after by the universally known -'Fair Ellen,' op. 25, and later by <em>Odysseus</em>, op. 41 (1873), -<em>Arminius</em>, op. 43, 'The Song of the Bell,' op. 45, 'The -Cross of Fire,' op. 52, all for mixed chorus. There is a -sacred oratorio, 'Moses,' op. 52, and a secular one 'Gustavus -Adolphus,' op. 73, and a large number of other -choral works for mixed, male and female chorus. His -operas, 'Lorelei' (1863) and 'Hermione' op. 40, had only -a <em>succès d'estime</em>. The first violin concerto, in G minor, -op. 26, is perhaps Bruch's most famous composition, -and a grateful constituent of every violinist's repertoire. -There are two other violin concertos (both in D minor), -opera 44 and 45, a Romance, a Fantasia and other violin -pieces with orchestra, also works for 'cello and orchestra, -including the well-known setting of <em>Kol Nidrei</em>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span> -Three symphonies (E-flat minor, F minor and E major), -op. 28, 36 and 51; a few chamber music and piano -pieces complete the catalogue of his works. Bruch's -idiom is frankly melodic, though his harmonic texture -is quite rich and his counterpoint varied. Formally -he is conservative and, all in all, he imposes no strain -upon the listener's power of comprehension. His music -is solid and grateful, but not of striking originality. -Through his masters, Reinecke and Hiller, he represents -the Schumann-Mendelssohn tradition in a vigorous -though inoffensive eclecticism.</p> - -<p>The leading members of this order of composers in -the Germany of the second half of the nineteenth century -besides Bruch, were Hermann Goetz (1840-1876; -symphony in F major), Friedrich Gernsheim (born -1839; four symphonies and much chamber music), -Heinrich von Herzogenberg (1843-1900; chamber music, -church music, symphonies, etc.), Joseph Rheinberger -(1839-1901); Wilhelm Berger (1861-1911; works -for choir and orchestra, chamber music, two symphonies, -etc.); and Georg Schumann (1866; orchestral and -choral works, chamber music, etc).</p> - -<p>Goetz is best known for his work in the operatic field -and may be more appropriately treated in that connection -(see p. <a href="#Page_245">245</a>). Gernsheim, a native of Worms, was -a student in the Leipzig conservatory and broadened -his education by a sojourn in Paris (from 1855). The -posts of musical director in Saarbrücken (1861), teacher -of piano and composition at the Cologne conservatory -(1865), conductor of the Maatschappig concerts in Rotterdam -(1874) successively engaged his activities. From -1890-97 he taught at the Stern conservatory in Berlin -and conducted the <em>Sternsche Gesangverein</em> till 1904, -besides the <em>Eruditio musica</em> of Rotterdam. In 1901 he -became principal of a master-school for composition. -Since 1897 Gernsheim has been a member of the senate -of the Royal Academy. Similar to Bruch in his tendencies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> -Gernsheim has composed, aside from the instrumental -works mentioned above, a number of choral -works of which <em>Salamis</em>, <em>Odin's Meeresritt</em> (both for -men's chorus, baritone and orchestra) and <em>Das Grab im -Busento</em> (men's chorus and orchestra) are especially -notable. Overtures and a concerto each for piano, for -violin, and for 'cello must be added to complete the -list of his works.</p> - -<p>Heinrich von Herzogenberg, too, is chiefly identified -with the revival of choral song, especially of ecclesiastical -character (a Requiem, op. 72; a mass, op. 87; <em>Totenfeier</em>, -op. 80; 'The Birth of Christ,' op. 90; a Passion, -op. 93, etc.). In this department Herzogenberg is the -successor to Friedrich Kiel.</p> - -<p>Rheinberger occupies a peculiar position. He is a -stanch adherent to classical traditions and generally -considered as an academic composer. That his classicism -was not inconsistent with a hankering after the -methods of the New German School, however, is shown -in his Wallenstein symphony (op. 10) and his 'Christophorus' -(oratorio). Having received his early training -upon the organ, he has shown a preponderant tendency -toward organ music and ecclesiastical composition in -general. Nevertheless he has written, besides the works -already named, a symphonic fantasy, three overtures, -and considerable piano and chamber works. Eugen -Schmitz<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> calls him a South German Raff, for 'as many-sided -as Raff, he, in contrast to this master of North -German training, received his musical education in -South Germany.' (Born in Vaduz, in Lichtenstein, he -continued his training in Feldkirch and during 1851-54 -at the Royal School of Music in Munich). In Munich -he became the centre of a veritable school of young -composers, exerting a very broad influence, first as -teacher of theory and later royal professor and inspector -of the Royal School. Rheinberger also conducted -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span>the performances of the Royal Chapel choir. He received -the honorary degree of Ph.D. from the University -of Munich and became a member of the Berlin Academy.</p> - -<p>Riemann's judgment of his merit, voiced in the following -sentences, may be taken as just on the whole. -He says: 'Rheinberger enjoyed a high reputation as -composer, in the vocal as well as in the instrumental -field. However, the contrapuntal mastery and the æsthetic -instinct evident in his workmanship cannot permanently -hide his lack of really warm-blooded emotion.' -His organ works, of classic perfection, will probably -last the longest. His <em>Requiem</em>, <em>Stabat Mater</em>, and a -double-choir Mass stand at the head of his church compositions. -He also wrote an opera, <em>Die Sieben Raben</em>. -Like Bruch's, his style is eclectic, being a fusion of neo-classical -and post-romantic influences.</p> - -<p>Wilhelm Berger is a native of America (Boston, -1861), but was educated in Berlin, where he was a pupil -of Fr. Kiel at the Royal <em>Hochschule</em>. Later he became -teacher at the Klindworth-Scharwenka conservatory -and in 1903 succeeded Fritz Steinbach as conductor of -the famous Meiningen court orchestra. Some of his -songs are widely known, but his choral compositions -(<em>Totentanz</em>, <em>Euphorin</em>, etc.) constitute his most important -work. Berger is a Brahms disciple without -reserve, and so are Hans Kössler (b. 1853, symphonic -variations for orchestra, etc.), Friedrich E. Koch (b. -1862, symphonic fugue in C minor, oratorio <em>Von den -Tageszeiten</em>, etc.), Gustav Schreck (b. 1849), and -Max Zenger (b. 1837). Georg Schumann, the last on -our list of important epigones, has had more hearings -abroad than most of his contemporary brothers-in-faith, -especially with his oratorio 'Ruth' (1908), several -times performed by the New York Oratorio Society. -As conductor of the Berlin <em>Singakademie</em> (since -1900), he has not lacked incentive to choral writing,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> -hence 'Amor and Psyche,' <em>Preis und Danklied</em>, etc. A -symphony in B, a serenade, op. 32, and other orchestral -pieces as well as chamber works have come from his -pen, all in the Brahms idiom.</p> - -<p>The names of the still smaller men are legion. Let -us mention but a few of them: Robert Radecke (1830-1911) -wrote a symphony, overtures, and choral songs; -Johann Herbeck (1831-77), symphonies, etc.; Joseph -Abert (b. 1832), besides operas a symphony, a symphonic -poem, 'Columbus,' and overtures; Albert Becker -(1834-99), a Mass in B minor, a prize-crowned symphony, -choral and chamber works; Franz Wüllner -(1832-1902), chiefly choral works; Heinrich Hofmann -(1842-1902), besides the operas <em>Armin</em> and <em>Ännchen von -Tharau</em>, a symphony, orchestral suites, cantatas, chamber -music and piano music, much of it for four hands; -and Franz Ries (b. 1846), suites for violin and piano, -string quartets, etc. Georg Henschel is especially noted -for his songs (see Vol. V); Hans Huber, a German -Swiss, for his 'Böcklin Symphony' and chamber music; -while the Germanized Poles Maurice Moszkowski (b. -1854) and the brothers Scharwenka (Philipp and Xaver, -b. 1850) claim attention with pleasing and popular -piano pieces. Needless to say, such a list as this can -never be complete.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>Side by side with the neo-classical school, but always -steadily encroaching upon it, is the 'poetic' school that -derives from Liszt and Wagner. It is a truism of -criticism that in musical history the big men end periods -rather than begin them. The composer who inaugurates -a movement appears to posterity as a fumbler -rather than a master, and even in his own day his -methods and his ideals fail to command general respect, -so wide a gulf is there in them between intention -and achievement. It was so, for example, with Liszt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> -and his immediate school. But in the end there comes -a man who, with a greater natural genius than his -predecessors, assimilates all they have to teach him -either imaginatively or formally, and brings to fulfillment -what in them was at its best never more than -promise. The tentative work of Liszt comes to full -fruition in the work of Strauss. He has a richer musical -endowment than any of his predecessors in his own -special line, and a technical skill to which none of -them could ever pretend. Liszt had imagination, but -he never succeeded in making a thoroughly serviceable -technique for himself, no doubt because his early -career as a pianist made it impossible for him to work -seriously at composition until comparatively late in life. -Strauss is of the type of musician who readily learns all -that the pedagogues can teach him, and utilizes the -knowledge thus acquired as the basis for a new technique -of his own.</p> - -<p>Richard Strauss was born June 11, 1864, in Munich, -the son of Franz Strauss, a noted Waldhorn player -(royal chamber musician). He studied composition with -the local court kapellmeister, W. Meyer, and as early -as 1881 gave striking evidence of his talent in a string -quartet in A minor (op. 2), which was played by the -Walter quartet. A Symphony in D minor, an overture -in C minor and a suite for thirteen wind instruments, -op. 7, all performed in public, the last by the famous -'Meininger' orchestra, quickly spread his name among -musicians and in 1885 he was engaged by Hans von -Bülow as musical director to the ducal court at Meiningen. -Here Alexander Ritter is said to have influenced -him in the direction of ultra-modernity. After another -year Strauss returned to Munich as third royal kapellmeister; -three years later (1889) he became Lassen's associate -as court conductor in Weimar; from 1894 to -1898 he was again in Munich, this time as court conductor, -and at the end of that period went to Berlin to -occupy a similar post at the Royal Prussian court. In -1904 he became general musical director (<em>Generalmusikdirektor</em>). -Since the appearance of his first works -mentioned above he has been almost incessantly occupied -with composition.</p> - -<p>These early works and those immediately following -give little hint of the later Strauss, except for the characteristically -hard-hitting strength of it almost from -the first. Works like the B minor piano sonata (op. 5) -and the 'cello sonata (op. 6), for example, have a curious, -cubbish demonstrativeness about them; but it is -plain enough already that the cub is of the great breed. -With the exception of a few songs, and a setting of -Goethe's <em>Wanderers Sturmlied</em> for chorus and orchestra -(op. 14), all his music until his twenty-second year -was in the traditional instrumental forms; it includes, -besides the works already mentioned, a string quartet -(op. 2), a violin concerto (op. 8), a symphony (op. 12), -a quartet for piano and strings (op. 13), a <em>Burleske</em> -for piano and orchestra, and sundry smaller works -for piano solo, etc. According to his own account, he -was first set upon the path of poetic music by Alexander -Ritter—a man of no great account as a composer, -but restlessly alive to the newest musical currents of -his time, and with the literary gift of rousing enthusiasm -in others for his own ideas. He was an ardent -partisan of the 'New German' school of Liszt and Wagner. -Of his own essays in the operatic field only two -saw completion: <em>Der faule Hans</em> (1885) and <em>Wem die -Krone?</em> (1890). They were mildly successful in Munich -and Weimar. Besides these he wrote symphonic poems -that at least partially bridge the gap between Liszt -and Strauss; 'Seraphic Phantasy,' 'Erotic Legend,' -'Olaf's Wedding Procession,' and 'Emperor Rudolph's -Ride to the Grave' are some of the titles. Ritter was -of Russian birth (Narva), but lived in Germany from -childhood (Dresden, Leipzig, Weimar, Würzberg, etc). -He was a close friend of Bülow and married Wagner's -niece, Franziska Wagner.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span></p> - -</div> -<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="ilo_fp214" style="max-width: 33.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp214.jpg" alt="ilo-fp215" /> - <p class="caption"> Richard Strauss </p> - -<p class="center p1b"><em>After a crayon by Faragò (1905)</em></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The first-fruits of Ritter's influence upon Strauss were -the symphonic fantasia <em>Aus Italien</em> (1886). The young -revolutionary as yet moves with a certain amount of -circumspection. The new work is poetic, programmatic, -but it is cast in the conventional four-movement -form, the separate movements corresponding -roughly to those of the ordinary symphony. It is obviously -a 'prentice work,’ but it is of significance in -Strauss's history for a warmth of emotion that had been -only rarely perceptible in his earlier music. Here and -there it has the rude, knockabout sort of energy that -was noticeable in some of the earlier works, and that -in the later works was to degenerate into a mere noisy -slamming about of commonplaces; but it also shows -much poetic feeling, and in particular an ardent romantic -appreciation of nature.</p> - -<p><em>Aus Italien</em> was followed by a series of remarkable -tone-poems—<em>Don Juan</em> (op. 20, 1888), <em>Macbeth</em> (op. -23, written 1886-7 but not published until after the <em>Don -Juan</em>), <em>Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche</em> (op. 28, 1894-95), -<em>Also sprach Zarathustra</em> (op. 30, 1894-95), <em>Don -Quixote</em> (op. 39, 1897), <em>Ein Heldenleben</em> (op. 40, 1898), -and the <em>Symphonia Domestica</em> (op. 53, 1903). With -the last-named work Strauss bade farewell to the concert -room for many years, the next stage of his development -being worked out in the opera house.</p> - -<p>The forms, no less than the titles, of the orchestral -works, reveal the many-sidedness of Strauss's mind, the -keenness of his interest in life and literary art, the individuality -of the point of view from which he regards -each of his subjects, and the peculiarly logical medium -he adopts for the expression of each of them. Bound -up with this adaptability are a certain restlessness that -drives him on to abandon every field in turn before -he has developed all the possibilities of it, and a certain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> -anxiety to 'hit the public between the eyes' each -time that gives him now and then the appearance of -exploiting new sensations for new sensations' sake. -It is perhaps not doing him any injustice, for instance, -to suppose that a very keen finger upon the public pulse -warned him that it would be unwise to bombard it -with another blood-and-lust drama of the type of <em>Salome</em> -and <em>Elektra</em>; so, with an admirably sure instinct, -he relaxes into the broad comedy of <em>Der Rosenkavalier</em>. -Feeling after this that the public wanted something -newer still, he tried, in <em>Ariadne auf Naxos</em>, to combine -drama and opera in the one work. Then, realizing -from the Western European successes of the Russians -that ballet is likely to become the order of the day, -he tries his hand at a modified form of this in 'The -Legend of Joseph.'</p> - -<p>What in the later works has become, however, almost -as much a commercial as an artistic impulse, was -in the early years the genuine quick-change of a very -fertile, eager spirit, with extraordinary powers of poetic -and graphic expression in music. Strauss, like Wagner, -is a musical architect by instinct; he can plan big edifices -and realize them. The sureness of this instinct is -incidentally shown by the varied forms of these early -and middle-period orchestral works of his. As we -have seen, the writer of symphonic poems is always -confronted by the serious problem of harmonizing a -poetic with a musical development; and in practice we -find that, as a rule, either the following of the literary -idea destroys the purely musical logic of the work, or, -in his anxiety to preserve a formal logic in his music, -the composer has to impair the simplicity or the continuity -of the poetic scheme, as Strauss has had to do -in the passage in <em>Till Eulenspiegel</em>, already cited. But, -on the whole, Strauss has come much nearer than any -other composer to solving the problem of combined -poetic and musical form in instrumental music. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span> -<em>Macbeth</em> he has 'internalized' the dramatic action in a -very remarkable way—a procedure he might have -adopted with advantage on other occasions. Here, -where there was every temptation to the superficially -effective painting of externalities, he has dissolved the -pictorial and episodical into the psychological, making -Macbeth's own soul the centre of all the dramatic storm -and stress, and so allowing full scope for the purely -expressive power of music. In <em>Don Juan</em> the form is -rightly quasi-symphonic—a group of workable main -themes representing the hero, with a group of subsidiary -themes suggestive of the minor characters that -cross his path and the circumstances under which he -meets with them. The tissue is not woven throughout -with absolute continuity, but the form as a whole is -lucid and coherent. The episodical adventures of <em>Till -Eulenspiegel</em> could find no better musical frame than -the rondo form that Strauss has chosen for them; while -the variation form is most suited to the figures, the -adventures, and the psychology of Don Quixote and -Sancho Panza. In the <em>Symphonia Domestica</em> the number -and relationship of the characters, and the incidents -that make up the domestic day, are best treated in a -form that is virtually that of the ordinary symphony -compressed into a single movement. A similar congruity -between form and matter will be found in <em>Also -sprach Zarathustra</em> and <em>Ein Heldenleben</em>.</p> - -<p>This fertility of form was only the outward and visible -sign of an extraordinary fertility of conception. No -other composer, before or since, has poured such a -wealth of thinking into program music, created so -many poetic-musical types, or depicted their <em>milieu</em> -with such graphic power. Each new work, dealing as -it did with new characters and new scenes, spontaneously -found for itself a new idiom, melodic, harmonic -and rhythmic; in this unconscious transformation of -his speech in accordance with the inward vision Strauss<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span> -resembles Wagner and Hugo Wolf. The immense energy -of the mind is shown not only in the range and -variety of its psychology, but physically, as it were, in -the wide trajectory of the melodies, the powerful gestures -of the rhythms that sometimes, indeed, become -almost convulsive—and the long-breathed phraseology -of passages like the opening section of <em>Ein Heldenleben</em>.</p> - -<p>It was perhaps inevitable that this extraordinary energy -should occasionally get out of hand and degenerate -into a sort of <em>Unbändigkeit</em>. Strauss is at once a -man of genius and an irresponsible street urchin. -With all his gifts, something that goes to the making -of the artist of the very greatest kind is lacking in him. -He has a giant span of conception that is rare in music; -but he seems to take a pleasure in constructing gigantic -edifices only to spoil them for the admiring spectator -by scrawling a fatuity or an obscenity across the front -of them. He can be, at times, unaccountably perverse, -malicious, childish towards his own creations. This element -in him, or rather the seeds from which it has -developed, first become clearly visible in <em>Till Eulenspiegel</em>. -There, however, it remains pure <em>gaminerie</em>; -it does not clash with the nature of the subject, and -the jovial, youthful spirits and the happy inventiveness -of the composer carry it off. But afterwards it often -assumes an unpleasant form. There are one or two -things in <em>Don Quixote</em> that amuse us a little at first -but afterwards become rather tiresome, as over-insistence -on the purely physical grotesque always does in -time. In <em>Ein Heldenleben</em> a drama that is mostly -worked out on a high spiritual plane is vulgarized by -the crude physical horror of the brutal battle scene, -and by the now well-nigh pointless humor of the ugly -'Adversaries' section. There are pettinesses and sillinesses -in the <em>Symphonia Domestica</em> that one can hardly -understand a man of Strauss's eminence troubling to -put on paper. Altogether, we may say of the Strauss of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span> -the instrumental works alone—we can certainly say it -of the later Strauss of the operas—that he is, in Romain -Rolland's phrase, a curious compound of 'mud, débris, -and genius.' Always he is a spirit at war with itself; -sometimes he seems cursed, like an obverse of Goethe's -Mephistopheles, to will the good and work the ill. But -he has enriched program music with a large fund of -new ideas, and given it a new direction and a new -technique. He has established, more thoroughly than -any other composer, the right of poetic instrumental -music to a place by the side of abstract music. He has -attempted things that were thought impossible in music, -sometimes failing, but more often than not succeeding -extraordinarily.</p> - -<p>His workmanship is equal to his invention; of him -at any rate the post-classicists can never say, as they -said half a century ago of Liszt and his school, that he -writes literary music because he lacks the self-discipline -and the skill necessary for success in the abstract -forms. If anything his technique, especially his orchestral -technique, is too astounding; it tempts him to -do amazing but unnecessary things for the mere sake -of doing them. But with all his faults he is a colossus -of sorts; he bestrides modern German music as Wagner -did that of half a century ago. In wealth and -variety of emotion and in power of graphic utterance -his work as a whole is beyond comparison with that -of any other contemporary composer.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>The life of Strauss overlaps that of his great post-classical -antithesis Brahms by thirty-three years, and by -thirty-six years that of Anton Bruckner (1824-1896), a -symphonist who is still little known, and that for two -reasons. In the first place, his works are as a rule excessively -long; in the second place, he had the misfortune<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> -to live in Vienna, where the Brahms partisans -were at one time all-powerful. Some of them resented -the pretensions of another symphonist to comparison -with their own idol, and by innuendo and neglect, -rather than by direct attack, they contrived to diffuse -a legend that has maintained itself almost down to our -own day, that Bruckner was merely an amiable old -gentleman with a passion for writing symphonies, but -one who need not be taken too seriously. As a matter -of fact, he was a good deal more than that. There is -no necessity to flaunt a defiant Brucknerian banner in -the face of the Brahmsians, but there is every necessity -to say that great as Brahms was he by no means exhausted -the possibilities of the modern symphony, and -that several of the possibilities that he left untouched -were turned to excellent use by Bruckner.</p> - -<p>Bruckner's life was remarkably circumscribed and -offers practically no interest to a biographer. The son -of a country schoolmaster in Ansfelden, Upper Austria -(where he was born Sept. 4, 1824), he spent his early -life following in his father's footsteps, first at Windhag -(near Freistadt), later at St. Florian, where he also -filled a temporary post as organist. By his own efforts -he became highly proficient on that instrument and -in counterpoint. This fact and his constant connection -with the church influenced his creative work strongly. -In 1855 he became cathedral organist at Linz, meantime -studying counterpoint with Sechter in Vienna, -where he later (1867) became his master's successor as -court organist. He also studied composition with Otto -Kitzler in 1861-63. Aside from his activities as professor -of organ, counterpoint and composition at the -Vienna Conservatory and as lecturer on music at the -Vienna University, this constitutes the outward record -of his career. He died in Vienna, Oct. 11, 1896.</p> - -<p>Similarly devoid of variety in their classification are -his compositions—besides his nine symphonies, upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span> -which his reputation rests, there are only three masses -(D minor, 1864; E minor, 1869; F minor, 1872) and a -few more sacred works (including the '150th Psalm'); -four compositions for men's chorus accompanied (<em>Germanenzug</em> -and <em>Helgoland</em>, with orchestra; <em>Das hohe -Lied</em> and <em>Mitternacht</em>, with piano); some others <em>a cappella</em>, -and one string quartet. Mostly works of large -calibre and commensurately broad in conception.</p> - -<p>The error is still frequently made—it was an error -that did him much harm in anti-Wagnerian Vienna -during his lifetime—of regarding Bruckner as one who -tried to translate Wagner into terms of the symphony. -For Wagner, indeed, he had a passionate admiration; -but his own affinities as a composer with Wagner are -so trifling as to be negligible. The real heirs of Wagner -are the men who, like Strauss, aim at making -purely instrumental music a vehicle for the expression -of definite poetic ideas—whose symphonic poems are -really operas without words, with the orchestra as the -actors. Bruckner, even with Liszt's example before -him, passed the symphonic poem by on the other side. -His nine symphonies are almost as purely 'abstract' -music as those of Brahms; if one qualifies the comparison -with an 'almost' it is not because Bruckner -worked upon anything even remotely resembling a -program, but because the rather sudden transitions -here and there in the symphonies, lacking as they do -a strictly logical musical connection, are apt to suggest -that the composer had in his mind some more or less -definite extra-musical symbol. But this explanation of -the undeniable fact that there is more than one hiatus -in the Bruckner movements, though it is not an impossible -one, is not the most probable one in every case.</p> - -<p>A certain disconnectedness was almost inevitable in -such a symphonic method as that of Bruckner. He had -no appetite for the merely formal 'working-out' that -Brahms could manipulate with such facility, but frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> -without convincing us that he is saying anything -very germane to his main topic. For a frank -recognition of Brahms' general mastery of form is not -incompatible with an equally frank recognition that -too often formalism was master of him. The danger -of a transmitted classical technique in any art is -that now and then it tempts its practitioners to talk—and -allows them to talk quite fluently—when they have -really nothing of vital importance to say. Take, as an -example, bars 58-73 of the first movement of Brahms' -fourth symphony. This passage is not merely dull; it -is absolutely meaningless. It carries the immediately -preceding thought no further; it is no manner of necessary -preparation for the thought that comes immediately -after. It is 'padding' pure and simple; a mechanical -manipulation of the clay without any clear idea on -the part of the potter as to what he wishes to model. -Brahms, in fact, knows, or half-knows, that he has -travelled as far as he can go along one road, and has -a little time to wait before etiquette permits him to -proceed up another: so he marks time with the best -grace he can—or, to vary the illustration, having said -all he can think of in connection with A, and not being -due just yet to discuss B, he simply goes on talking -until he can think of something to say. Such a passage -as this would have been impossible for Beethoven: his -rigorously logical mind would have rejected it as being -a mere inorganic patch upon the flesh of a living organism: -he would never have rested until he had re-established -the momentarily interrupted flow of vital -blood between the severed parts.</p> - -<p>For a mechanical technique such as Brahms uses -here, Bruckner had no liking, nor would it have been -of much use in connection with ideas like his. In his -general attitude towards the symphony he reminds us -somewhat of Schubert. He does not start, as Brahms -does, with a subject that, however admirable it may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> -in itself, and however excellently it may be adapted -for the germination of fresh matter from it, has obviously -been chosen in some degree because of its 'workableness.' -With Bruckner, as with Schubert, the subject -sings out at once simply because it must. The composer -is too full of the immediate warmth of the idea -to premeditate 'development' of it. So it inevitably -comes about that, with both Bruckner and Schubert, -repetition takes, in some degree, the place of development. -Symphonic development, speaking broadly, becomes -technically easier in proportion as the thematic -matter to be manipulated is shorter; looking at the music -for the moment as a mere piece of tissue-weaving, -it is evident that more permutations and combinations -can easily be made out of a theme like that of the first -subject of Beethoven's fifth symphony than out of the -main theme of Liszt's <em>Tasso</em>, or the Francesca theme in -Tschaikowsky's <em>Francesca da Rimini</em>. Wagner, with -his keen symphonic sense, gradually realized this; -whereas the leit-motifs of his early works are, as a rule, -fairly lengthy melodies, those of his later works are -of a pregnant brevity. The reason for this change of -style was that, as he came to see more and more clearly -the possibilities of a symphonic development of the -orchestral voice in opera, he saw also that the interweaving -of themes would be at once closer and more -elastic if the motifs themselves were made shorter.</p> - -<p>This generic musical fact is the explanation of much -of the formal unsatisfactoriness of the average symphonic -poem. If the object of the poetic musician is -to depict a character, he will need a fairly wide sweep -of melodic outline. We could not, for example, suggest -Hamlet or Faust in a theme so short and simple -as that of the first subject of the <em>Eroica</em>, or the first -subject of the Second Symphony of Brahms—to say -nothing of the 'Fate' theme of Beethoven's Fifth. But -the wide-stretching poetic theme pays for its psychological<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span> -suggestiveness by sacrificing, in most cases, its -'workableness.' And composers have only latterly -learned how to overcome this disability by constructing -the big, character-drawing theme on a sort of fishing-rod -principle, with detachable parts. It takes Strauss -nearly one hundred and twenty bars in which to draw -the full portrait of his hero in the splendid opening -section of <em>Ein Heldenleben</em>; but various pieces of the -chief theme can be used at will later so as to suggest -some transformation of mood in the hero, or some -change in his circumstances. The curious falling figure -in the third bar of the work, for example, that at first -conveys an idea of headlong energy, afterwards becomes -a roar of pain and rage (full score, pp. 118 ff, and -elsewhere). Had Liszt had the imagination to hit upon -such a device as this, and the technique to manipulate -it, he might have given to the 'development' of his -symphonic poems something of the organic life that -Strauss has infused into his.</p> - -<p>Bruckner also lacked, in the main, this knowledge -of how to work upon sweeping ideas that were conceived -primarily for purely expressive rather than 'developmental' -purposes, and at the same time to make -either the whole theme or various fragments of it plastic -factors in the evolution of an organically-knit texture. -If Brahms would have been none the worse for -a little of that quality in Bruckner that made it impossible -for him to talk unless he had something to say, -Bruckner would have been all the better for a little -of Brahms' gift of making the most of whatever fragment -of material he was using at the moment. When -Bruckner attempts 'development' in the scholastic -sense, as in bars 300 ff of the first movement of the -third symphony, he is almost always awkward and unconvincing. -His logic—and a logic of his own he certainly -had—was less formal than poetic; as one gets to -know the symphonies better one is surprised to find<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span> -emotional continuity coming into many a passage that -had previously appeared a trifle incoherent. His musical -logic is just the logic of any true and spontaneous -thing said simply, naturally and feelingly.</p> - -<p>While it is true in one sense that Bruckner's methods -and outlook remained the same in each of his nine -published symphonies (the ninth, by the way, was left -uncompleted at his death), in another sense it puts a -false complexion on the truth. We do not find in him -any such growth—discernible in the texture not less -than in the manner—as we do from the First Symphony -to the Ninth of Beethoven, or from the <em>Rienzi</em> to the -<em>Parsifal</em> of Wagner. In externals, and to some extent -in essentials also, Bruckner's method and manner are -the same throughout his life—the wide-spun imaginative -first movement, the thoughtful <em>adagio</em>, the wild or -merry <em>scherzo</em>, the rather sprawling <em>finale</em>. But there -was a real evolution of the intensive kind; and in the -last three symphonies in particular everything has become -enormously <em>vertieft</em>. In the ninth, Bruckner often -attains to a Beethovenian profundity and pregnancy. -His greatest fault is his inability to concentrate: his -material is almost invariably excellent, but he is too -prodigal with it. He is not content with two or three -main ideas, that in themselves would constitute material -enough for a movement; to these he needs to -add episodes of all kinds, until the movement expands -to a size that makes listening to it a physical strain, and -renders it difficult for the mind to grasp the true proportions -of it. This is generally the case with his first -and last movements; not even the titanic power of conception -in movements like the finale of his fifth and -eighth symphonies, nor the extraordinary technical -mastery they show, can quite reconcile us to their -length and apparent diffuseness. His most expressive -work is frequently to be found in his adagios, though -there, too, his method is at times so leisurely that in -spite of the fine quality of the material and the depth -of feeling in the music, it is sometimes hard to maintain -one's interest in it to the end. In his <em>scherzi</em> he is more -conciliatory to the average listener. Here he is incontestably -nearer to Beethoven than Brahms ever came -in movements of this type. In place of the charming -but rather irrelevant quasi-pastorals with which -Brahms is content for the scherzi of his symphonies, -Bruckner writes movements overflowing with vitality, -a veritable riot of rhythmic energy. He will never be -popular in the concert room; his excessive length and -his frequent diffuseness are against that. But to musicians -he will always be one of the most interesting -figures in nineteenth-century music—a composer fertile -in ideas of a noble kind, an imaginative artist with the -power of evoking moods of a refined and moving -poetry. And certainly there is no contrast more remarkable -in the whole history of music than that between -the quiet, embarrassed, unlettered recluse that -was the man Bruckner, and the volcano of passion that -was the musician. Undoubtedly he has the great hand, -and at times he can shake the world with it as Beethoven -did with his. His place is between Beethoven -and Schubert: with each of his hands he holds a hand -of theirs.</p> - - -<h3>V</h3> - -<p>The third big figure among the representatives of -the modern 'poetic' school is Gustav Mahler. Like the -other two, he is of the 'southern wing'; like Bruckner's, -his training was Viennese. Born in Kalischt (Bohemia), -he went to the capital as a student in the university -and the conservatory. Already at twenty he -began that brilliant career as conductor which during -his lifetime somewhat overshadowed his recognition -as a creative artist. His first post was at Hall (Upper -Austria), where he conducted a theatre orchestra; -thence he went to Laibach, Olmütz, Kassel (as <em>Vereinsdirigent</em>); -thence to Prague as conductor of the German -National Theatre (1885). In 1886 he substituted for -Nikisch at the Leipzig opera; two years later he became -opera conductor in Budapest, 1891 in Hamburg, and -1897 returned to Vienna, first as conductor, soon after -to become director of the Royal Opera, where he remained -till 1907. During 1898-1900 he conducted the -Philharmonic concerts as well. In 1909 he came to -New York as conductor of the Philharmonic Society -and remained till 1911, when failing health, perhaps -aggravated by uncongenial conditions, forced him to resign. -He died shortly after his return to Vienna, in the -same year.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp49" id="ilo-fp236" style="max-width: 28.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo-fp226.jpg" alt="ilo-fp226" /> - <p class="caption"> Max Reger</p> - -<p class="center p1b"><em>After a photograph from life</em></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span></p> -</div> - - -<p>While still in his youth Mahler wrote an opera, 'The -Argonauts,' besides songs and chamber music. A musical -'fairy play,' <em>Rübezahl</em>, with text by himself, the -<em>Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen</em>, and nine symphonies, -designed on a gigantic scale, constitute the bulk of his -mature works. Other songs, a choral work with orchestra -(<em>Das klagende Lied</em>), and the 'Humoresques' -for orchestra nearly complete the list.</p> - -<p>Bruckner left the problem of modern symphonic -form unsolved. Brahms partly solved it in one way, -by following the classical tradition on its more 'abstract' -side; Strauss has partially solved it in another -way, by making the 'moments' of the musical evolution -of a work tally with those of a program. Mahler, on -the other hand, aimed at a course which was a sort -of compromise between all the others. His nine symphonies -are neither abstract music nor program music -in the ordinary sense of the latter word; yet they are -'programmatic' in the broad sense that in whole and -in detail they are motived more or less by definite -concepts of man and his life in the world. Mahler -faced more clear-sightedly and consistently than any -other composer of his day the problem of the combination<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> -of the vocal and the symphonic form. That this -combination is full of as yet unrealized possibilities -will be doubted by no one familiar with the history of -music since Beethoven. In one shape or another the -problem has confronted probably nine-tenths of our -modern composers. Wagner found one partial solution -of it in his symphonic dramas, in which the orchestra -pours out an incessant flood of eloquent music, -the vague emotions of which are made definite for us -by the words and the stage action. The ordinary symphonic -poem attempts much the same thing by means -of a printed program that is intended to help the hearer -to read into the generalized expression of the music -a certain particular application of each emotion; we -may put it either that the symphonic poem is the Wagnerian -music drama without the stage and the characters, -or that the Wagnerian music drama is the symphonic -poem translated into visible action. But for -the best part of a century the imagination of composers -has been haunted by the experiment made by Beethoven -in his Ninth Symphony, of combining actual -voices with the ordinary symphonic form; it has always -been felt that instrumental music at its highest tension -and utmost expression almost of necessity calls out for -completion in the human cry. Words are often necessary -in order at once to intensify and to elucidate the -vague emotions to which alone the instruments can -give expression. It was the consciousness of this that -impelled Liszt to introduce the chorus at the end of -his 'Dante' and 'Faust' symphonies.</p> - -<p>To a mind like Mahler's, full of striving, of aspiration, -of conscious reflection upon the world, it was even -more necessary that some means should be found of -giving definite direction to the indefinite sequences of -emotion of instrumental music. Almost from the beginning -he adopted the device of introducing a vocal -element into his symphonies. In the Second, a solo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span> -contralto sings, in the fourth movement, some lines -from the <em>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</em>—'O rosebud red! -Mankind lies in sorest need, in sorest pain! In heaven -would I rather be!... I am from God, and back to -God again will go; God in His mercy will grant me a -light, will lighten me to eternal, blessed life'—while -the idea of resurrection that is the theme of the music -of the fifth movement is <em>precisé</em> by a chorus singing -Klopstock's ode, 'After brief repose thou shalt arise -from the dead, my dust; immortal life shall be thine.' -In the fourth movement of the third symphony—the -'Nature' symphony—a contralto solo sings the moving -lines, '<em>O Mensch, gieb Acht!</em>' from Nietzsche's <em>Also -sprach Zarathustra</em>; and in the sixth movement the contralto -and a female choir dialogue with each other in -some verses from <em>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</em>. Five -stanzas from the same poem are set as a soprano solo -in the finale of the Fourth Symphony. And in the First -Symphony, though the voices are not actually used, the -composer, in the first and third movements, draws -upon the themes of certain of his own songs (<em>Lieder -eines fahrenden Gesellen</em>). In the Eighth Symphony -the intermixture of orchestra and voices is so close -that the title of 'symphonic cantata' would fit the work -perhaps as well as that of 'symphony with voices'; -here the kernel of the music is formed by the old Latin -hymn <em>Veni, creator spiritus</em> and some words from the -final scene of the second part of Goethe's <em>Faust</em>.</p> - -<p>Mahler's use of the voice in the orchestra is, as will -be seen, something quite different from merely singing -the 'program' of the work instead of printing it. His -aim is the suggestion of symbols rather than the painting -of realities. Even where, on the face of the case, it -looks at first as if his object had been a realistic one, -his intention was often less realistic than mystical. -In the Seventh Symphony, for instance, he introduces -cowbells; we have it from his own mouth that here<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> -his aim was not simply a piece of pastoral painting, -but the suggestion of 'the last distant greeting from -earth that reaches the wanderer on the loftiest heights.' -'When I conceive a big musical painting,' he said once, -'I always come to a point at which I must bring in -speech as the bearer of my musical idea. So must it -have been with Beethoven when writing his Ninth Symphony, -only that his epoch could not provide him with -the suitable materials—for at bottom Schiller's poem is -not capable of giving expression to the "unheard" that -was within the composer.' In this Mahler is no doubt -right; the modern composer has a wider range of -poetry to draw upon for the equivalent of his musical -thought.</p> - -<p>Mahler's form is in itself a beautiful and a rational -one; and, as with all other forms, the question is not -so much the 'How' as the 'What' of the music. Mahler, -perhaps, never fully realized the best there was in -him; fine as his music often is, it as often suggests a -mind that had not yet arrived at a true inner harmony. -His mind was always an arena in which dim, vast -dreams of music of his own struggled with impressions -from other men's music that incessantly thronged his -brain as they must that of every busy conductor, and -with more or less vague, poetic, philosophical and humanitarian -visions. He never quite succeeded in making -for himself an idiom unmistakably and exclusively -his own; all sorts of composers, from Beethoven and -Bruckner to Johann Strauss, seem to nod to each other -across his pages. As the Germans would say, his -<em>Können</em> was not always equal to his <em>Wollen</em>. His -feverish energy, his excitable imagination, and his lack -of concentration continually drove him to the writing -of works of excessive length, demanding unusually -large forces; the Eighth Symphony, for example, with -its large orchestra, seven soloists, boys' choir and two -mixed choirs, calls for a <em>personnel</em> of something like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span> -one thousand. Yet he could be amazingly simple and -direct at times, as is shown by his lovely songs and -by many a passage in the symphonies that have a folk-song -flavor. His individuality as a symphonist is incontestable, -and it is probable that as time goes on -his reputation will increase. Alone among modern -German composers he is comparable to Strauss for general -vitality, ardor of conception, ambition of purpose, -and pregnancy of theme.</p> - - -<h3>VI</h3> - -<p>In abstract music the biggest figure in the Germany -of to-day is Max Reger (born 1873)<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>—almost the only -composer of our time who has remained unaffected -by the changes everywhere going on in European music, -though in his <em>Romantische Suite</em> he coquets a little -with French impressionism. His output is enormous, -and almost suggests spawning rather than composition -in the ordinary sense of the word. His general idiom -is founded mainly on Bach, with a slight indebtedness -to Brahms; for anything in the nature of program music -he appears to have no sympathy. The bulk of his -work consists of organ music, songs, and piano and -chamber music. His facility is incredible. He speaks -a harmonic and contrapuntal language of exceptional -richness; but it must be said that very often his facility -and the copiousness of his vocabulary tempt him to -over-write his subject; sometimes the contrapuntal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span>web is woven so thickly that no music can get through. -But every now and then this rather heavy-limbed genius -achieves a curious limpidity and grace, and a moving -tenderness. If it be undeniable that had Bach never -lived a large part of Reger's music would not have -been written, it is equally undeniable that some of his -organ works are worthy to be signed by Bach himself.</p> - -<p>It may be a significant fact, as well as helpful in -assaying the value of modern theoretical pedagogy, -that Reger, super-technician that he is, was taught composition, -as Riemann's <em>Lexikon</em> boasts, 'entirely after -the text-books and editions of H. Riemann.' 'And,' it -goes on to say, 'in addition, he studied for five years -under Riemann's personal direction.' Riemann, it must -be borne in mind, is not a composer, but a theoretician -of extraordinary capacity. How little to the liking of -his master Reger's subsequent development has been -may be seen from the following quotation from the -same article: 'Reger evinced already in his (unpublished) -first compositions a tendency to extreme complication -of facture and to an overloading of the technical -apparatus, so that his development ought to have -been the opposite to that of Wagner, for instance, i.e. -a restriction of the imagination aiming at progressive -simplification. Instead of this he has allowed himself -to be influenced by those currents in an opposite direction, -regarding which contemporary criticism has -lost all judgment. With full consciousness he heaps up -daring harmonies and arbitrary feats of modulation in -a manner which is positively intolerant to the listener[!]. -Reger's very strong melodic gifts could not -under such conditions arrive at a healthy development. -Only when a definite form forces him into particular -tracks (variations, fugue, chorale transcription) are his -works unobjectionable; the wealth of his inventive -power and his eminently polyphonic nature enable him -to be sufficiently original and surprising even within<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> -such bounds. On the other hand, in simple pieces of -small dimensions, and in songs, his intentional avoidance -of natural simplicity is actually repugnant. His -continuous prodigality of the strongest means of expression -soon surfeit one, and in the end this excessive -richness becomes a mere stereotyped mannerism.'</p> - -<p>No doubt the learned doctor is somewhat pedantic, -but curiously enough the opinion of less conservative -critics is not dissimilar. Dr. Walter Niemann -refers to Reger's condensed, harmonically overladen -style as a 'modern <em>barock</em>,' a 'degeneration of Brahmsian -classicism.' 'Universally admired is Reger's astounding -contrapuntal routine,' he says, 'the routine -that is most evident in the (now schematic, stereotyped) -construction of his fugues and double fugues; one also -generally admires his enormous constructive ability -(<em>satztechnisches Können</em>), the finished art of subtle -detail which he exhibits most charmingly in his smallest -forms, the Sonatinas, the <em>Schlichte Weisen</em>. But, leaving -out all the hypocrisy of fashion, the all-too-willing, -unintelligent deification of the great name, all musical -cliquism and modernistic partisanship, the hearing of -Reger's music either leaves us inwardly unconcerned -and even bores us, or it strikes us as more or less repulsive. -Details may well please us, and we are often -honestly prepared to praise a delicate mood, the atmospheric -coloring, the masterful construction. But, -impartially, no one will ever remark that Reger's art -exerts heartfelt, profound or ethical influences upon -the listener.'<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> - -<p>The particular partisanship to which Niemann refers -is one of the outstanding features of contemporary -German musical life. Reger has enjoyed a truly extraordinary -vogue in his own country. For that reason -we are devoting somewhat more space to him than -we otherwise should, for we do not acknowledge his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span>right to contend with Strauss for the mastery of his -craft. We certainly do not share the opinion of his -partisans, who have pronounced him a reincarnated -Bach, the completer of Beethoven, the heir to Brahms' -mantle and what not. Great as is his ability, we share -Niemann's view that 'his great power lies not in invention -but in transformation and after-creation' (<em>Um und -Nachschaffen</em>). Give him a good melody and he will -embroider it, metamorphose it, combine it with innumerable -other elements in an erudite—we had almost -said inspired—manner; give him a cast-iron form as a -frame and he will fill it with the most richly colored, -tumultuously crowded canvas, but the style of his -broideries will be curiously similar and all too fiercely -pondered, the colors of his canvas will suggest the studio -instead of the open air, the figures will be abnormal, -fantastic or pathetic to the point of morbidity—they -will not be images of nature.</p> - -<p>Brahms is the prevailing influence in Reger, though -in manner rather than in spirit, the Bach polyphony -and structure, the Liszt-Wagnerian harmonic color, -and the acute German romanticism notwithstanding. -As regards his symphonic and chamber works this is -generally conceded and needs no further comment.</p> - -<p>Like Brahms, by the way, Reger approached the orchestra -reluctantly; sonatas for various instruments, -chamber works in various combinations preceded his -first orchestral essay. The <em>Sinfonietta</em> (op. 90), the Serenade -in G major (op. 95), the Hiller Variations (op. -100), the Symphonic Prologue to a Tragedy (op. 108), -were presumably harbingers of a real symphony. Instead, -however, there followed a <em>Konzert im alten Stil</em> -(op. 123), a 'Romantic Suite' (op. 125) and a 'Ballet -Suite' (op. 130), again showing Reger's prediliction for -the antique forms; and a series of 'Tone Poems after -Pictures by Böcklin' (op. 128),<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> which would indicate -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span>a turn toward the impressionistic mood-painting of the -ultra-modern wing of the 'poetic' school. His violin -concerto, in A minor (op. 101), and the piano concerto, -in F minor (op. 114), are, however, in effect symphonies -with solo instrument—again following Brahms' precept, -but by a hopelessly thick and involved orchestration, -he precludes anything like the interesting Brahmsian -dialogue or discussion between the two elements.</p> - -<p>Of the mass of Reger's chamber music we should -mention the five sonatas for violin and piano, besides -four for violin alone (in the manner of J. S. Bach), in -which he shows his contrapuntal skill to particular advantage; -the three clarinet sonatas, notable for beautiful -slow movements and characteristic Reger scherzos -(which are usually either grotesque, boisterous or -spookish); two trios, three string quartets, a string -quintet, 'cello sonatas, two suites for piano and violin -(of which the first, <em>Im alten Stil</em>, op. 93, is widely -favored), and numerous other pieces for violin, piano, -etc. Reger has essayed choral writing extensively, the -<em>Gesang der Verklärten</em> for five-part chorus and large -orchestra (op. 71), <em>Die Nonnen</em> (op. 112), and several -series of 'Folk Songs' being but part of the output. -The much-favored organ compositions, chorale fantasias, -preludes and fugues and in various other forms -sanctified by the great Bach, are too numerous to mention -and the songs (over 200 in number) will receive -notice in another chapter.</p> - -<p>Of the minor composers who owe allegiance to the -New German School of Wagner and Liszt we may name -first those of the immediate circle at Weimar—Peter -Cornelius, Hans von Bülow, Eduard Lassen, and Felix -Draeseke. Of these Bülow and Lassen have been mentioned -in Chapter I. Cornelius has already been remembered -in connection with the later romantic opera -as having successfully applied Wagner's principles to -the lighter dramatic genre ('Barber of Bagdad'), and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span> -has received further mention as a song-writer (see Vol. -V, pp. 302ff). Here we may pay him a brief tribute as -the composer of beautiful choruses, in which he shows -the influence of the older masters of choral art. Thus -<em>Der Tod das ist die kühle Nacht</em> recalls the gorgeous -color of the Renaissance Venetians. From 1852 on, -when Cornelius joined the Liszt circle, he was one -of the chief standard-bearers of the New German -school.</p> - -<p>Felix Draeseke's (born 1835) association with this -group must be qualified, for, though originally drawn -to Weimar by his enthusiasm for Liszt, he later deserted -the ranks of the New Germans and devoted -himself to the cultivation of the classic forms. This -reversion seems to have been in the nature of a reform, -for his early essays in the freer modernistic manner -are somewhat bizarre. In his harmonic and orchestral -style, however, he continued to adhere to the 'New -German' principles. In fact, he swung like a pendulum -between the two opposite poles of modern German music. -His compositions include three symphonies—G -major, F major, and C minor ('Tragica')—an orchestral -serenade (op. 49); two symphonic preludes, a <em>Jubel-Overtüre</em>; -three string quartets and a number of other -chamber works, a sonata and other pieces for piano, as -well as a number of large choral works (a Mass, op. 60; -a Requiem, op. 30; 'Song of Advent,' op. 60; a mystery, -<em>Christus</em>, consisting of a prelude and three oratorios; -cantatas, etc.); also several operas. Draeseke was a -friend of Bülow. He taught at the Lausanne conservatory -in 1868-69 and later at the Dresden conservatory. -He is a royal Saxon professor, privy councillor, etc.</p> - -<p>Another grand-ducal musical director at Weimar was -August Klughardt (1847-1902), who wrote five symphonies, -a number of overtures, orchestral suites, etc. Like -Draeseke, he was influenced both by the neo-classics -and the 'New Germans.' Heinrich Porges (1837-1900),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span> -also distinguished as a writer and conductor; Leopold -Damrosch (1832-85), who carried the Wagner-Liszt -banner to America; Hans von Bronsart (b. 1828) and -his wife Ingeborg, both pupils of Liszt and distinguished -in piano music (the former also for an orchestral fantasy -and a choral symphony, <em>In den Alpen</em>), should be -mentioned as belonging to the same group.</p> - -<p>There are other names of real importance in absolute -music; there are Pfitzner, Thuille, Schillings, Klose and -Kaskel, there are Bungert, Weingartner, Goldmark -and less significant names, but since these have exercised -their talents chiefly in the dramatic field we shall -defer our treatment of them to the following chapter. -And, finally, there is a host of followers of these, too -numerous to be treated as individuals and if individually -distinguished too recent to have judgment pronounced -upon them. The most recent currents, too, shall -have attention in the next chapter.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">E. N.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - - - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> New ed. of Naumann's <em>Musikgeschichte</em>, 1913.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Reger is a native of Brand, in Bavaria, the son of a school teacher, -from whom he received his earliest musical training. In addition to this -he received instruction from the organist Lindner in Weiden (where his -father settled during Reger's infancy). After his studies under Dr. Riemann -(1890-95), he taught at the Wiesbaden conservatory, and (after -some years' residence in his home town and in Munich) at the Royal -Academy of Munich. In 1907 he became musical director at the Leipzig -University and teacher of composition in the conservatory there, and in -1908 was made 'Royal Professor.' In 1908 he resigned his university -post and in the same year was given the honorary degree of doctor of -philosophy by the University of Jena. Later, until 1915, he conducted the -Meiningen orchestra.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> Walter Niemann: <em>Die Musik seit Richard Wagner</em>, 1914.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> These include <em>Der geigende Eremit</em>; <em>Spiel der Wellen</em>; <em>Die Toteninsel</em> -and <em>Bacchanal</em>.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER VIII<br /> -<small>GERMAN OPERA AFTER WAGNER AND MODERN GERMAN SONG</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The Wagnerian after-current: Cyrill Kistler; August Bungert, Goldmark, -etc.; Max Schillings, Eugen d'Albert—The successful post-Wagnerians -in the lighter genre: Götz, Cornelius, and Wolf; Engelbert Humperdinck's -fairy opera; Ludwig Thuille; Hans Pfitzner; the <em>Volksoper</em>—Richard -Strauss as musical dramatist—Hugo Wolf and the modern song; other -contemporary German lyricists—The younger men: Klose, Hausegger, Schönberg, -Korngold.</p> -</div> - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>It was only to be expected that the titanic personality -of Wagner should drag a number of smaller men after -it, both in his own day and later, by the sheer force -of attraction of a great body for small ones. In one of -his essays Matthew Arnold characterizes the test of -the quality of a critic as the power 'to ascertain the -master current in the literature of an epoch, and to -distinguish this from all the minor currents.' This -sensitiveness to master currents, however, that is so -essential to criticism, is generally a source of danger -to the secondary creative minds; it is apt to tempt -them to follow blindly in the wake of the master spirit, -instead of trying to find salvation on a road of their -own. In the third quarter of the nineteenth century -it was indubitably true that the master current in music -was that set going by Wagner; but it was equally -true that any other mariner who should venture upon -that stream was pretty certain to be swamped by Wagner's -backwash. So it has proved: with the sole exception -of Humperdinck's <em>Hänsel und Gretel</em>, no operatic -work of the late nineteenth century that openly -claimed kinship with Wagner has exhibited any staying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span> -power, while the more durable success has been -reserved for works like Cornelius' <em>Barbier von Bagdad</em> -and Götz's <em>Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung</em>, that frankly -recognized the impossibility of any smaller man than -Wagner continuing Wagner's work.</p> - -<p>As was inevitable, the more self-conscious of the -post-Wagnerians fastened for imitation upon what they -thought to be the essential Wagner, but that a later -day can see was the inessential. To them Wagner was -the re-creator of the world of the German saga. Posterity -has learned that with Wagner, as with all great -creators, the matter is of much less account than his -way of dealing with the matter. It is not the body of -religious and cosmological beliefs underlying the Greek -drama that makes the Greek dramatists what they are -to us to-day. Their very conception of the governance -of the universe is a thing that we find it hard to enter -into even by an effort of the historical imagination; -nevertheless these men are more vital to us than many -of the problem-play writers of our own epoch, simply -because the emotional stuff in which they deal is of the -eternal kind, and they have dealt with it along lines -that are independent of the mere thought of their own -age. Similarly, what is most vital for us in Wagner -now is not his myths, his problems of the will, his conception -of love, of redemption, of renunciation, or the -verse forms into which he threw his ideas, but the depth -of his passion, the truth of his portraiture, the beauty -and eloquence of his speech. The real Wagner, in -truth, was the Wagner that no one could hope to imitate. -But the generation that grew up in his mighty -shadow imagined that all it had to do was to re-exploit -the mere externalities of his work. Like him, it would -delve into German myths or German folk-lore for its -subjects; like him, it would adopt an alliterative mode -of poetic diction; like him, it would treat the less intense -moments of drama in a quasi-recitative that was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span> -supposed to be an intensification of the intervals and -accents of ordinary speech. But all these things in -themselves were merely the clothes without the man; -and not one of Wagner's immediate successors showed -himself big enough to wear his mantle. Many of these -works written in a conspicuously Wagnerian spirit have -still considerable interest for the student of musical -history—the <em>Kunihild</em> (1848), for example, of Cyrill -Kistler (1848-1907)—but not enough vitality to preserve -for them a permanent place in the theatre repertory. -(The same composer's <em>Baldur's Tod</em>, written in the -'eighties, was not performed till 1905 in Düsseldorf.) -The big Homeric tetralogy of August Bungert, <em>Odysseus -Heimkehr</em> (1896), <em>Kirke</em> (1898), <em>Nausikaa</em> (1900-01), -and <em>Odysseus Tod</em> (1903), is an attempt to do for the -Greek myths what Wagner did for the Teutonic. (The -composer is said to be engaged upon a second tetralogy -of the same order, bearing the general title of 'Ilias.') -How seriously one section of the German musical public -took these colossal plans was shown by the proposal -to erect a 'Festspielhaus' on the Rhine that should be to -Bungert music-drama what Bayreuth is to the Wagnerian. -After a fair amount of success in the years immediately -following their production, however, Bungert's -operas have fallen out of the repertory. His talent -is indeed lyrical rather than dramatic. Bungert -was born in Mülheim (Ruhr) in 1846 and studied at -the Cologne Conservatory and in Paris. He became -musical director in Kreuznach (1869) and has since -lived chiefly in Karlsruhe and Berlin. Besides the 'tetralogy' -he wrote a comic opera, <em>Die Studenten von -Salamanka</em> (1884), and some symphonic and chamber -works. His songs (including Carmen Sylva's 'Songs of -a Queen') have probably more permanent value than -the rest of his work.</p> - -<p>The opera has in fact tempted many of the German -lyricists to try to exceed their powers. Hans Sommer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> -(born 1837), who has produced a number of songs of -fine feeling and perspicuous workmanship, attempted -a Wagnerian flight in his opera <em>Loreley</em> (1891), in -which the treatment is a little too heavy for the subject. -Like so many of his contemporaries, he frequently -suffers for the sins of his librettists. Felix Draeseke -(b. 1835) has hovered uncertainly between Schumannesque -and Wagnerian ideals; his most successful opera -is <em>Herrat</em> (1892).<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Adalbert von Goldschmidt (1848-1906) -aimed, as others of his kind did, at continuing -the Wagner tradition not only in the musical but in -the poetic line. He was his own librettist in the opera -<em>Helianthus</em> (1884); but in the music of both this and -the later opera <em>Gaea</em> (1889) the Wagnerian influence -is obvious. Carl Goldmark (1830-1915) brought the best -musical qualities of a mind that was eclectic both by -heredity and environment to bear upon the very successful -operas <em>Die Königin von Saba</em> (1875), <em>Merlin</em> -(1886), and <em>Das Heimchen am Herd</em> (1896), founded -on Dickens's 'Cricket on the Hearth.'</p> - -<p>Though a native of Hungary (Keszthely, 1830), Goldmark -received a thoroughly German training in Vienna, -where he studied the violin with Jansa. He entered the -conservatory in 1847 and, since that institution was -closed the following year, he continued his studies by -himself. In 1865 he aroused attention with his overture -<em>Sakuntala</em>, which is still in the orchestral répertoire. -Happily guided by an artistic instinct, he hit -upon a vein which his talent especially fitted him to -exploit, namely, the painting of vivid oriental color. -His first opera, 'The Queen of Sheba,' produced in -Vienna in 1875, following the same tendency with equal -success, has preserved its popularity till to-day. The -chronological order of his other operas is as follows:</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span></p> -<p><em>Merlin</em> (Vienna, 1886, and revised for Frankfort, 1904); -'The Cricket on the Hearth' (1896); 'The Prisoner of -War' (1899); <em>Götz von Berlichingen</em> (1902); and 'A -Winter's Tale' (1908). His symphonic works include, -besides the <em>Sakuntala</em> overture, an orchestral suite -(symphony) 'The Rustic Wedding,' a symphony in E-flat, -the overtures 'Penthesilea,' 'In Spring,' 'Prometheus -Bound,' 'Sappho,' and 'In Italy'; a symphonic poem -'Zrínyi' (1903), two violin concertos, a piano quintet, a -string quartet, a suite for piano and violin, pianoforte -and choral works.</p> - -<p>An apt criticism of Goldmark's style is given by -Eugen Schmitz in the revision of Naumann's <em>Musikgeschichte</em>: -'In any case, we know of no second composer -of the present time who can paint the exoticism -and <em>fata morgana</em> of the Orient and the tropics, the sultriness -and the effects of a climate that arouses devouring -passions, as well as the peculiarity and special nature -of the inhabitants, in such characteristic and glowing -tone-colors as Goldmark has succeeded in doing. -Herein, however, lies not only his strength but also his -weakness; for he is exclusively a musical colorist, a -colorist <em>à la</em> Makart, who sacrifices drawing and perspective -for the sake of color. Which means, translated -into musical terms: a composer whose melodic invention -and thematic development does not stand in a proportionate -relationship to the intoxicating magic of -tone-color combinations that he employs. Moreover, his -coloring is already beginning to fade beside the corresponding -achievements of the most modern composers -of to-day.'</p> - -<p>A number of minor talents have from time to time -obtained a momentary or a local success, without in -the end doing anything to sustain the hope that something -really vital might be expected of them; of works -of this order we may mention the <em>Urvasi</em> (1886), <em>Der -Evangelimann</em> (1894), <em>Don Quixote</em> (1898), and <em>Kuhreigen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span></em> -(1911) of Wilhelm Kienzl (1857);<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> <em>Die Versunkene -Glocke</em> and <em>Faust</em> of Heinrich Zöllner (1854); the -<em>Ingwelde</em> (1894), <em>Der Pfeifertag</em> (1899), and <em>Moloch</em> -(1906) of Max Schillings (born 1868); the <em>Sakuntala</em> -(1884), <em>Malawika</em> (1886), <em>Genesius</em> (1893), and <em>Orestes</em><a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> -(1902) of Felix Weingartner (born 1863). In these -and some dozen or two of other modern Germans, composition -is an act of the will rather than of the imagination. -The generous eclecticism and superficial effectiveness -of the <em>Tiefland</em> (1903) of Eugen d'Albert (born -1864) have won for it exceptional popularity.</p> - -<p>The classification of Schillings as a 'minor talent' -would probably not meet with the approval of many -critics and musicians in Germany, where his influence -is considerable. Schillings is one of the ramparts of -the progressive musical citadel of Munich, the centre -from which the Reger, Pfitzner and Thuille strands -radiate. If aristocracy and nobility are the outstanding -characteristics of his highly individual muse, a corresponding -exclusiveness, coldness and artificiality accompany -them. His perfection is that of the marble, -finely chiselled, hard and polished. His music is a personal -expression, but his personality is one that never -experienced the depths of human suffering. Schillings -was born in the Rhineland (Düren) in 1868 and finished -his studies in Munich. There he became 'royal professor' -in 1903 and later he went to Stuttgart as general -musical director in connection with the court theatre. -Besides his operas he wrote the symphonic prologue -'Œdipus' (1900), music for the 'Orestes' of Æschylus -(1900) and for Goethe's 'Faust' (Part I). Of non-dramatic -works there are two 'fantasies,' <em>Meergruss</em> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span>and <em>Seemorgen</em>; <em>Ein Zwiegespräch</em> for small orchestra, -solo violin and solo 'cello, a hymn-rhapsody, <em>Dem Verklärten</em> -(after Schiller) for mixed chorus, baritone and -orchestra (op. 21, 1905), <em>Glockenlieder</em> for tenor and -orchestra, some chamber music and about forty songs. -Especially successful are his three 'melodramatic' -works, i.e. music to accompany recitation, of which the -setting of Wildenbruch's <em>Hexenlied</em> is best known.</p> - -<p>Weingartner and d'Albert, too, are considerable figures -in contemporary German music, though their records -as executive artists may outlive their reputations -as composers, the first being a brilliant and authoritative -conductor, the latter a pianist of extraordinary calibre. -Besides the operas mentioned above Weingartner -has written the symphonic poems 'King Lear' and 'The -Regions of the Blest,' two symphonies, three string -quartets and a piano sextet (op. 20), songs and piano -pieces. He has also distinguished himself as a critic -and author of valuable books of a practical and æsthetic -nature. D'Albert's evolution from pianist to composer -was accomplished in the usual manner, by way of the -piano concerto. He wrote two of them (op. 2 and 12), -then a 'cello concerto (op. 20), and promptly embarked -upon a symphonic career with two overtures ('Esther' -and 'Hyperion') and the symphony in F. Then came -chamber music, songs and various other forms. His -piano arrangements of Bach's organ works are justly -popular. His first opera was <em>Der Rubin</em> (1893), then -came <em>Ghismonda</em> (1895), <em>Gernot</em> (1897), <em>Die Abreise</em> -(1898), all of good Wagnerian extraction; then <em>Kain</em> -and <em>Der Improvisator</em> (1900), showing evidences of an -individual style, and, finally, <em>Tiefland</em> (1903), the one -really successful opera of d'Albert, which seems to -have become permanent in the German répertoire. -<em>Flauto solo</em> (1905) and <em>Tragaldabas</em> (1907) have not -made a great stir. D'Albert is of Scotch birth (Glasgow, -1864), though his father was a native of Germany.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span></p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>On the whole, German opera of the more ambitious -kind cannot be said to have produced much that is -likely to be durable between Wagner and Strauss. The -indubitable master works have been for the most part -in the lighter genres—the delightful <em>Der Widerspenstigen -Zähmung</em> (1874) of Hermann Götz (1840-1876), -the <em>Barbier von Bagdad</em> (1858) of Peter Cornelius -(1824-1874) (a gem of grace and humor), and the -<em>Hänsel und Gretel</em> (1893) of Engelbert Humperdinck, -in which the Wagnerian polyphony is applied with the -happiest effect to a style that is the purest distillation -of the German folk-spirit. Of Cornelius's work we have -spoken elsewhere (Vol. II, pp. 380f), of Humperdinck -we shall have something to say presently. Here let us -dwell for a moment on Götz. His one finished opera -(a second, <em>Francesca da Rimini</em>, he did not live to finish) -has been called a 'little <em>Meistersinger</em>.' Whether -applied with justice or not, this epithet indicates the -work's spiritual relationship. Yet, Wagnerian that he -is, this classification must be made with reserve. A -close friend of Brahms, he was certainly influenced -by that master—in a measure he combines the rich and -varied texture of Brahms' chamber music with the symphonic -style of the <em>Meistersinger</em>. Niemann points out -other influences. 'He takes Jensen by the left hand, -Cornelius by the right; like both of these, he is lyrist -and worker in detail without a real dramatic vein and -a model of the idealistic German master of an older -time.' <em>Der Widerspenstigen Zähmung</em> was first heard -in 1874 in Mannheim and achieved wide popularity. -It is based on Shakespeare ('Taming of the Shrew'), -and an English text was used in England. Götz was -born in Königsberg and died near Zürich. He was -a pupil of Köhler, Stern, Bülow and Ulrich, and was -organist in Winterthur from 1867 to 1870, when failing -health forced him into retirement.</p> - -<p>Hugo Wolf's<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> <em>Der Corregidor</em> (1896) is, in its endless -flow of melody and its sustained vitality of characterization, -perhaps the nearest approach in modern music -to the <em>Meistersinger</em>; for some reason or other, however, -a work that is a pure delight in the home does not seem -able to maintain itself on the stage. A second opera -of Wolf's, <em>Manuel Venegas</em>, in which we can trace the -same extraordinary simplification and clarification of -style that is evident in his latest songs, remained only -a fragment at his death. The successes, not less than -the failures, of these and other men showed clearly -that the further they got from the main Wagnerian -stream the safer they were. Cornelius, though living -in Wagner's immediate environment and cherishing a -passionate admiration for the great man, knew well -that his own salvation lay in trying to write as if Wagner -had never lived. The <em>Barbier von Bagdad</em> was -written some years before the composition of the <em>Meistersinger</em> -had begun; if Cornelius went anywhere for -a model for his own work it was to the <em>Benvenuto Cellini</em> -of Berlioz. He knew the danger he was in during -the composition of his second opera, <em>Der Cid</em>, and -strove desperately to shut out Wagner from his mind -at that time; he did not want, as he put it, simply to -hatch Wagnerian eggs. If <em>Der Cid</em> (1865) fails, it is -not because of any Wagnerian influence, but because -Cornelius's genius was of too light a tissue for so big -a stage subject. Nevertheless, if he does not wholly -fill the dramatic frame, he comes very near doing so; -it is no small dramatic gift that is shown in such passages -as the <em>Trauermarsch</em> in the second scene of the -first act and the subsequent monologue of Chimene, in -Chimene's scena in the second scene of the second act, -and in most of the choral writing. A third opera, <em>Gunlöd</em>, -was orchestrated by Lassen and Hoffbauer and -produced seventeen years after Cornelius's death.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="ilo_fp246" style="max-width: 29.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp246.jpg" alt="ilo-fp246" /> - -<p class="center">Modern German Musical Dramatists:</p> -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 3em;">Ludwig Thuille</span> <span style="padding-left: 2em;">Hans Pfitzner</span><br /> -<span style="padding-right: 3em;">Engelbert Humperdinck</span> <span style="padding-right: 1.2em;">Karl Goldmark</span></p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Humperdinck seems destined to go down to posterity -as the composer of one work. His <em>Hänsel und Gretel</em> -owes its incomparable charm not to the Wagnerianisms -of it, which lie only on the surface, but to its expressing -once for all the very soul of a certain order of German -folk-song and German <em>Kindlichkeit</em>. His later works—<em>Die -sieben Geislein</em> (1897), <em>Dornröschen</em> (1902), and -the comic opera <em>Die Heirat wider Willen</em> (1905), though -containing much beautiful music, have on the whole -failed to convince the world that Humperdinck has any -new chapter to add to German opera. For this his -librettists must perhaps share the blame with him. -<em>Die Königskinder</em> (1898), which was originally a melodrama, -was recast as an opera in 1908 and, at least in -America, was more successful. Besides these Humperdinck -wrote incidental music for Aristophanes' <em>Lysistrata</em>, -Shakespeare's 'A Winter's Tale' and 'Tempest.' -Two choral ballads preceded the operas and a 'Moorish -Rhapsody' (1898) was composed for the Leeds Festival. -Humperdinck was born in Siegburg (Rhineland), -studied at the Cologne Conservatory, also in Munich -and in Italy. He taught for a time in Barcelona -(Spain) and in Frankfort (Hoch Conservatory), and in -1900 became head of a master school of composition -in Berlin with the title of royal professor and member -of the senate of the Academy of Arts.</p> - -<p>A worthy companion to <em>Hänsel und Gretel</em> is the -<em>Lobetanz</em> (1898) of Ludwig Thuille (1861-1907). -Thuille's touch is lighter than Humperdinck's. Thuille -was a highly esteemed artist, especially among the Munich -circle of musicians. He is the only one of the -group of important composers settled there since Rheinberger's -demise that may be said to have founded a -'school.' He is the heir and successor of Rheinberger -and by virtue of his pedagogic talent the master of all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> -the younger South German moderns. Though <em>Lobetanz</em> -(which was preceded by <em>Theuerdank</em>, 1897, and -<em>Gugeline</em>, 1901) is the best known of his works, the -chamber music of his later period has probably the -most permanent value.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Thuille was born in Bozen -(Tyrol) and died in Munich, where he was professor at -the Royal Academy of Music.</p> - -<p>Some success has been won by the <em>Donna Anna</em> -(1895) of E. N. von Reznicek (born 1860), a showy work -compact of many styles—grand opera, operetta, the -early Verdi, <em>Tannhäuser</em>, and the Spanish 'national' -idiom all jostling each other's elbows. There is little -real differentiation of character; such differentiation -as there is is only in musical externals—in costume -rather than in psychology. In Germany a certain following -is much devoted to Hans Pfitzner, whose opera -<em>Der arme Heinrich</em> was produced in 1895, and his <em>Die -Rose vom Liebesgarten</em> in 1901. Pfitzner is a musician -of more earnestness than inspiration. He is technically -well equipped, and all that he does indicates refinement -and intelligence; but he lacks the imagination that fuses -into new life whatever material it touches. (He has -also written some fairly expressive songs and a small -amount of chamber music.) Pfitzner, like Alex. Ritter, -is of Russian birth, being born (of German parents) in -Moscow in 1869. His father and the Hoch Conservatory -in Frankfurt were the sources of his musical education. -Since 1892 he has taught and conducted in various -places (Coblentz, Mainz, Berlin, Munich). In 1908 he -became municipal musical director and director of the -conservatory at Strassburg. Besides the two operas -he has written music for Ibsen's play, 'The Festival -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span>of Solhaug' (1889), also for Kleist's <em>Kätchen von Heilbronn</em> -(1908) and Ilse von Stach's <em>Christelflein</em>. An -orchestral Scherzo (1888), several choral works and -vocal works with orchestra complete the list of his -works besides those mentioned above.</p> - -<p>For the sake of completeness, brief mention must -here be made of the German <em>Volksoper</em>, a comparatively -unambitious genre in which much good work has -been done. Among its best products in recent years are -the quick-witted <em>Versiegelt</em> (1908) of Leo Blech (born -1871), and the <em>Barbarina</em> of Otto Neitzel (born 1852).</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>The biggest figure in modern German operatic music, -as in instrumental music, is Richard Strauss. It -was perhaps inevitable that this should be so. The -more massive German opera after Wagner was almost -bound to find what further development was possible -to it in the Wagnerian semi-symphonic form; the difficulty -was to find a composer capable of handling it. -This form was simply the expression of a spirit that had -come down to German music from Beethoven, and -that had to work itself out to the full before the next -great development—whatever that may prove to be—could -be possible; it is the same spirit that is visible, -in different but still related shapes, in the symphonic -tissue of the Wagnerian orchestra, the symphonic -poems of Liszt, the symphonies of Brahms, the pianoforte -accompaniments of Wolf and Marx and their -fellows, and the copious and vivid orchestral speech of -Strauss. It is a method that is perhaps only thoroughly -efficacious for composers whose heredity and environment -make the further working out of the German -tradition their most natural form of musical thinking. -That it is not the form best suited to peoples to whom -this tradition is not part of their blood and being is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span> -shown by the dramatic poignancy attained by such -widely different dramatic methods as those of Moussorgsky, -Puccini, and Debussy. But when a race has, -in the course of generations, made for itself an instrument -so magnificent in its power and scope, and one -so peculiarly its own, as the German quasi-symphonic -form, it is the most natural thing in the world that -virtually all the best of its thinking should be done -by its aid. It was therefore perhaps not an accident, -but the logical outcome of the whole previous development -of German music, that the mind that was to dominate -the German opera of our own day should be the -mind that had already proved itself to be the most fertile, -original, and audacious in the field of instrumental -music. But it was a law for Strauss, no less than for -his smaller contemporaries, that if he was to be something -more than a mere <em>nach-Wagnerianer</em> he must do -his work outside not only the ground Wagner had occupied, -but outside the ground still covered by his -gigantic shadow.</p> - -<p>It was well within that shadow, however, that -Strauss's first dramatic attempt was made. It is not so -much that the musical style of <em>Guntram</em> (1892-93) is -now and then reminiscent of <em>Tannhäuser</em>, of <em>Lohengrin</em> -or of <em>Parsifal</em>, while one of the themes has actually -stepped straight out of the pages of <em>Tristan</em>. A composer -can often indicate unmistakably his musical paternity -and yet give us the clear impression that he has -a genuine personality and style of his own. As a matter -of fact, the general style of <em>Guntram</em> is unquestionably -Strauss, and no one else. Where the Wagnerian -influence is most evident is in the mental world in -which the opera is set. The story, it is true—the text, -by the way, is Strauss's own—is not drawn from the -world of saga; but the general conception of an order -of knights, the object of whose brotherhood is to bind -all humanity in bonds of love, is obviously a last watering-down<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span> -of that doctrine of redemption by love that -played so large a part in the intellectual life of Wagner. -It is possible that this peculiar mentality of <em>Guntram</em> -was the aftermath of a breakdown in Strauss's -health in 1892. The work has a high-mindedness, a -spiritual fervor, an ethos that has never been particularly -prominent in Strauss's work as a whole, and that -has become more and more infrequent in it as he has -grown older. <em>Guntram</em> is a convalescent's work, written -in the mood of exalted idealism that convalescence -so often brings with it in men of complex nature. But -whatever be the physical or psychological explanation -of the origin of <em>Guntram</em>, there is no doubt that the -music lives in a finer, purer atmosphere than that of -Strauss's work as a whole; and for this reason alone -it will perhaps inspire respect even when its purely -musical qualities may have become outmoded. The -musical method of it contains in embryo all the later -Strauss. The orchestral tissue has not, of course, the -extraordinary exuberance of diction and of color of -his subsequent operas, but the affiliation with Wagner -is quite evident. There is a certain melodic angularity -here and there, and a tendency to get harmonic point -by mere audacious and self-conscious singularity—both -defects being characteristic of a powerful and eager -young brain possessed with ideals of expression that it -is not yet capable of realizing. The general idiom is in -the main that of <em>Tod und Verklärung</em> and <em>Don Juan</em>. -It is worth noting that already in Strauss's first opera -we perceive that failure to vivify all the characters -equally that is so pronounced in the later works. It is -one of the signs that, great as he is, he is not of the -same great breed as Wagner.</p> - -<p>By the time he came to write his second opera, -<em>Feuersnot</em> (1900-01), Strauss had passed through all the -main stages of his development as an orchestral composer; -in <em>Till Eulenspiegel</em>, <em>Also sprach Zarathustra</em>, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span> -<em>Don Quixote</em>, and <em>Ein Heldenleben</em> he had come to -thorough consciousness of himself, and attained an -extraordinary facility of technique. Under these circumstances -one would have expected <em>Feuersnot</em> to be a -rather better work than it actually is. One's early enthusiasm -for it becomes dissipated somewhat in the -course of years—no doubt because as we look back -upon it each of its faults has to bear not only its own -burden, but the burden of all the faults of the same -kind that have been piled up by Strauss in his later -works. The passion of the love music, for instance, has -more than a touch of commonplace in it now—as of a -Teutonic Leoncavallo—our eyes having been opened -by <em>Elektra</em> and 'The Legend of Joseph' to the pit of -banality that always yawns at Strauss's elbow, and -into which he finds it harder and harder to keep from -slipping. We see Strauss experimenting here with the -dance rhythms that he has so successfully exploited -in <em>Der Rosenkavalier</em>; but to some of these also time -has given a slightly vulgar air. But a great deal of the -opera still retains its charm; some portions of it are -a very happy distillation from the spirit of German -popular music, and the music of the children will -probably never lose its freshness. On the whole, the -opera is the least significant of all Strauss's work of -this class. It is clear that his long association with -the concert room had made an instrumental rather than -a vocal composer of him; much of the writing for the -voice is awkward and inexpressive.</p> - -<p>In the <em>Symphonia Domestica</em> (1903) were to be distinguished -the first unmistakable signs of a certain -falling off in Strauss's inspiration, a certain coarsening -of the thought and a tendency to be too easily satisfied -with the first idea that came into his head. These symptoms -have become more and more evident in all the -operas that have followed this last of the big instrumental -works, though it has to be admitted that Strauss<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span> -shows an extraordinary dexterity in covering up his -weak places. Wagner's enemies, adapting an old gibe -to him, used to say that his music consisted of some -fine moments and some bad quarters of an hour. That -was not true of Wagner, but it is becoming increasingly -true of the later Strauss. For a while the quality of the -really inspired moments was so superb as to more than -compensate us for the disappointment of the moments -that were obviously less inspired; but as time has gone -on the inspired moments have become extremely rare -and the others regrettably plentiful. We are probably -not yet in a position to estimate justly the ultimate place -of Strauss in the history of the opera. No composer -has ever presented us with a problem precisely like his. -The magnificent things in his work are of a kind that -make us at first believe they will succeed in saving -the weaker portions from the shipwreck that, on the -merits of these alone, would seem to be their fate. -Then, as each new work deepens the conviction that -Strauss is the most sadly-flawed genius in the history -of music, as he passes from banality to banality, each of -them worse than any of its predecessors, we find ourselves, -when we turn back to the earlier works, less -disposed than before to look tolerantly on what is weakest -in them. What will be the final outcome of it all—whether -the halo round his head will ultimately blind -us to the mud about his feet, or whether the mud will -end by submerging the halo, no one can at present say. -The Richard Strauss of to-day is an insoluble mystery.</p> - -<p>Something excessive or unruly appears to be inseparable -from everything he does. A consistent development -is impossible for him; he oscillates violently -like some sensitive electrical instrument in a storm. -But, while only partisanship could blind anyone to -the too palpable evidences of degeneration that his -genius shows at many points, it is beyond question -that in the best of his later stage works he dwarfs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span> -every other composer of his day. We may like or dislike -the subject of <em>Salome</em>, according to our temperament; -how far the question of ethics ought to be allowed -to determine our attitude to an art work is a -point on which it is perhaps hopeless to expect agreement. -For the present writer the point is one of no -importance, because the whole discussion seems to him -to arise out of a confusion of the distinctive spheres -of life and art. A Salome in life would be a dangerous -and objectionable person, but then so would an Iago; -and, as no one calls Shakespeare a monster of iniquity -because he has drawn Iago with zest, one can see no -particular justice in calling Strauss's mind a morbid -one because it has been interested in the psychology -of a pervert like Salome. One is driven to the conclusion -that the root of the whole outcry is to be found -in the prejudice many people have against too close an -analysis of the psychology of sex, especially in its more -perverted manifestations. One can respect that prejudice -without sharing it; but one is bound to say it -unfits the victim of it for appreciation of <em>Salome</em> as a -work of art. The opera as a whole is not a masterpiece. -It lives only in virtue of its great moments; and Strauss -has not been more successful here than elsewhere in -breathing life into every one of his characters. Herod -and Herodias have no real musical physiognomy; we -could not, that is to say, visualize them from their music -alone as we can visualize a Hagen, a Mime, or even -a David. But Salome is characterized with extraordinary -subtlety. Music is here put to psychological uses -undreamt of even by Wagner. The strange thing is -that, in spite of himself, the artist in Strauss has risen -above the subject. Wilde's Salome is a lifeless thing, -a mere figure in some stiffly-woven tapestry. Strauss -pours so full a flood of emotion over her that the music -leaves us a final sensation, not of cold horror but of -sadness and pity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span></p> - -<p>He similarly humanizes the central character of his -next opera, <em>Elektra</em> (1907), making of her one of the -great tragic figures of the stage; and he throws an -antique dignity round the gloomy figure of the fate-bearing -Orestes. But, as with <em>Salome</em>, the opera as -a whole is not a great work. It contains a good deal of -merely sham music, such as that of the opening scene—music -in which Strauss simply talks volubly and noisily -to hide the fact that he has nothing to say; and there -is much commonplace music, such as that of the outburst -of Chrysothemis to Elektra, and most of that of -the final duet of the pair. One is left in the end with -a feeling of blank amazement that the mind that could -produce such great music as that of the opening invocation -of Agamemnon by Elektra, that of the entry of -Orestes, and that of the recognition of brother and -sister, could be so lacking in self-criticism as to place -side by side with these such banalities as are to be met -with elsewhere in the opera. The only conclusion the -close student of Strauss could come to after <em>Elektra</em> -was that the commonplace that was not far from some -of his finest conceptions from the first was now becoming -fatally easy to him.</p> - -<p><em>Der Rosenkavalier</em> (1913) confirmed this impression. -Its waltzes have earned for it a world-wide popularity. -They are charming enough, but there are no doubt a -hundred men in Europe who could have written these. -What no other living composer could have written is -the music—so wise, so human—of the scene between -Octavian and the Marschallin at the end of the first -act, the music of the entry of the Rosenkavalier in the -second act, and the great trio in the third, that can -look the <em>Meistersinger</em> quintet in the face and not be -ashamed. But again and again in the <em>Rosenkavalier</em> -we meet with music that is the merest mechanical product -of an energetic brain working without inspiration—the -bulk of the music of the third act, for instance, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span> -far as the trio. And once more Strauss shows, by his -quite indefinite portraiture of Faninal and Sophia, that -his powers of musical characterization are limited to -the leading personages of his works. Since <em>Der Rosenkavalier</em> -the general quality of his thinking has obviously -deteriorated. There are very few pages of <em>Ariadne -auf Naxos</em> that are above the level of the ordinary -German kapellmeister, while that of the mimodrama, -'The Legend of Joseph,' is the most pretentiously commonplace -that Strauss has ever produced. If his career -were to end now, the best epitaph we could find for -him would be Bülow's remark <em>à propos</em> of Mendelssohn: -'He began as a genius and ended as a talent.' -Strauss's ten years in the theatre have undoubtedly -done him much harm; they have especially made him -careless as to the quality of much of his music, knowing -as he does that the excitement of the action and -the general illusion of the theatre may be trusted to -keep the spectator occupied. But one may perhaps -venture to predict that unless he returns to the concert -room for a while, and forgets there a great deal of -what he has learned in the theatre, he will not easily -recover the position he has latterly lost.</p> - -<p>Less well-known names in contemporary German -opera, some of which, however, are too important to -be omitted, are Ignaz Brüll (1846-1907), a Viennese -whose dialogue opera <em>Das goldene Kreuz</em> (1875) is -still in the German répertoire;<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> Edmund Kretschmer -(b. 1830) with <em>Die Folkunger</em> (1874), on a Scandinavian -subject treated in the earlier Wagnerian style, -and <em>Heinrich der Löwe</em> (1877); and Franz von Holstein -(b. 1826) with <em>Die Heideschacht</em>, etc. Karl Reinthaler -(1822-96) and Karl Grammann (1842-97) also wrote -operas successful in their time, as did also Hiller,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</span> -Wüerst, Reinecke, Dietrich, Abert, Rheinberger, and H. -Hofmann, who are mentioned elsewhere. Siegfried -Wagner (b. 1869), son of the great master and a pupil -of Humperdinck, should not be overlooked. His talent -is unpretentious, with a decided bent for 'folkish' melody, -and an excellent technical equipment. In <em>Der -Bärenhäuter</em> (1899) he follows the fashion for fairy-opera; -his four other operas (from <em>Der Kobold</em> to <em>Sternengebot</em>, -1904) lean toward the popular <em>Spieloper</em>, -with a tinge of romanticism.</p> - -<p>Klose's 'dramatic symphony' <em>Ilsebill</em> (1903) really belongs -to the genus fairy-opera. While Karl von Kaskel's -(b. 1860) two charming works, <em>Die Bettlerin vom Pont -des Arts</em> and <em>Dusle und Babell</em>, are to be classified as -<em>Spielopern</em>.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>As in the case of most other musical genres, Germany -in the second half of the nineteenth century -seemed to have made the province of the song peculiarly -its own. For well over a hundred years it has -never been without a great lyrist. Schubert gave the -German lyric wings. Schumann poured into it the full, -rich flood of German romanticism in its sincerest days. -Robert Franz cultivated a relatively simple song-form, -the texture of which is not always as elastic as one -could wish it to be; but he, too, was a man of pure and -honest spirit, who sang of nothing that he had not -deeply felt. Liszt first brought the song into some sort -of relation with the new ideals of operatic and instrumental -music associated with his name and that of -Wagner; and in spite of his effusiveness of sentiment -and his diffusiveness of style he produced some notable -lyrics. In a song like <em>Es war ein König in Thule</em>, for -example, a new principle of unification can be seen at -work, one germinal theme being used for the construction -of the whole song, which might almost be an excerpt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span> -from a later Wagnerian opera. But the lyrical -history of the latter half of the nineteenth century is -really summed up in the achievements of two men—Brahms -and Hugo Wolf.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<p>Hugo Wolf, the foremost master of modern song, -was born in Windischgrätz (Lower Styria), Austria, -March 13, 1860, and died in an insane asylum in Vienna, -February 22, 1903, the victim of a fatal brain disease, -which afflicted him during the last six years of his -tragic existence. Thus his effective life was practically -reduced to thirty-seven years—not much longer a span -than that other great lyricist, Franz Schubert. Little -can be said of this brief career, impeded as it was by -untoward circumstances and jealous opposition. To -these conditions Wolf opposed a heroic fortitude and a -passionate devotion to his art, which he practiced with -uncompromising sincerity and religious assiduity. -During long periods of work he remained in seclusion, -maintaining a feverish activity and shutting himself off -from outside influences. From 1875 on he lived almost -continually in Vienna, where he studied for a short -time in the conservatory. His only considerable absence -he spent as conductor in Salzburg (1881). In -Vienna he taught and for some years (till 1887) wrote -criticisms for the <em>Salonblatt</em>. These articles have recently -been collected and published. They reflect the -writer's high idealism; his intolerance of all artistic -inferiority and mediocrity show him to have been as -valiant as an upholder of standards as he was discriminating -in the judgment of æsthetic values, though his -attack upon Brahms placed him into a somewhat ridiculous -light with a large part of the musical public.</p> - -<p>Thus he eked out an existence; any considerable recognition -as a composer he did not achieve during his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span>lifetime. None of his works was published till 1888, -when his fifty-three Möricke songs (written within -three months) appeared. The Eichendorff cycle (twenty -songs) came next, and then the <em>Spanisches Liederbuch</em> -(consisting of thirty-four secular and ten sacred songs), -all written during 1889-90. Six songs for female voice -after poems by Gottfried Keller, the <em>Italienisches Liederbuch</em> -(forty-six poems by Paul Heyse, published in -two parts) were composed during 1890-91 and in 1896 -and the three poems by Michelangelo were set in 1897. -Meantime there also came from his pen a hymn, <em>Christnacht</em>, -for soli, chorus and orchestra (1891), incidental -music for Ibsen's 'Festival of Solhaug' (1892), and in -1895 he wrote his <em>Corregidor</em> (already mentioned) -within a few months. Other songs, some dating from -his youth, were also published, as well as several choruses -and chorus arrangements of songs. A string quartet -in D minor (1879-80); a symphonic poem for full -orchestra, <em>Penthesilea</em> (1883); and the charming 'Italian -Serenade' for small orchestra (also arranged for -string quartet by the composer) constitute his instrumental -works—a small but choice aggregation.</p> - -<p>Wolf was to the smaller field of the song what Wagner -was to the larger field of opera. That characterization -of him must not be misunderstood, as is often done, -to mean that he simply took over the methods of -Wagnerian musical drama—especially the principle of -the leit-motif—and applied them to the song. He benefited -by those methods, as virtually every modern composer -has done; but he never applied them in the -merely conscious and imitative way that the 'post-Wagnerians' -did, for instance, in the opera. Wolf -would have been a great lyrist had he been born in the -eighteenth century, the sixteenth, or the twelfth; but it -was his rare good fortune—the fortune that was denied -to Schubert—to live in an epoch that could provide -him with a lyrical instrument capable of responding to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span> -every impulse of his imagination. His was a truly exceptional -brain, that could probably never have come -to its full fruition in any age but the one he happened -to be born into. He had not only the vision of new -things to be done in music, as Liszt and Berlioz and -others have had before and since, but the power, which -Liszt and Berlioz had not, to make for himself a vocabulary -that was copious enough, and a technique that -was strong and elastic enough, to permit the easy -expression of everything he felt. It is another of -the many points in which he resembles Wagner; with -the minimum of school training in his earliest days he -made for himself a technical instrument that was -purely his own—one that, when he had thoroughly mastered -it, never failed him, and that was capable of -steady growth and infinitely delicate adaptation to the -work of the moment.</p> - -<p>He draws, as Wagner did, a line of demarcation between -an old world of feeling and a new one. As Wagner -peopled the stage with more types than Weber, -and saw more profoundly into the psychology of characters -of every kind, so Wolf enlarged the world of -previous and contemporary lyrists and intensified the -whole mental and emotional life of the lyrical form. -Too much stress need not be laid on the mere fact -that he insisted on better 'declamation' than was generally -regarded as sufficient in the song—on a shaping -of the melody that would permit of the just accentuation -of every word and syllable. This in itself could be -done, and indeed has been done, by many composers -who have not thereby succeeded in persuading the -world that they are of the breed of Wolf. The extraordinary -thing with him was that this respect for verbal -values was consistent with the unimpeded flow of an -expressive vocal line and an equally expressive pianoforte -tissue. The basis of his manner is the utilizing -of a quasi-symphonic form for the song. He marks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span> -the end of monody in the lyric as Wagner marks the -end of monody in the opera. With Wagner the orchestra -was not a mere accompanying instrument, a 'big -guitar,' but a many-voiced protagonist in the drama itself. -When the simple-minded hearer of half a century -ago complained that there was no melody in Wagner, -he only meant that the melody was not where he -could distinguish it most easily—at the top. As a matter -of fact, Wagner was giving him at least three times -as much melody as the best of the Italian opera writers, -for in the <em>Meistersinger</em> or <em>Tristan</em> it is not only -the actors who are singing but the orchestra, and not -only the orchestra as a whole but the separate instruments -of it. When the average man complained that -Wagner was starving him of melody, it was like a man -drowning in a pond fifty feet deep crying out that there -was not water enough in the neighborhood for him to -wash in.</p> - -<p>Wolf, too, fills the instrumental part of his songs -with as rich a life as the vocal part. But he does even -more amazing feats in the way of co-operation between -the two factors than Wagner did. Independent as the -piano part seemingly is, developing as if it had nothing -to think of but its own symphonic course, it never distracts -Wolf's attention from the vocal melody, which is -handled with astonishing ease and freedom. Not only -does each phase of the poem enter just where the most -point can be given to it both poetically and declamatorily, -without any regard for the mere four-square -of the ordinary line or bar-divisions, but each significant -word receives its appropriate accent, melodic rise -or fall, or fleck of color. In the <em>Die ihr schwebet um -diese Palmen</em>, for example, the expressive minor sixth -of the voice part on the word <em>Qual</em>, seems to be there -by a special dispensation of Providence. We know -that the interval is one that is characteristic of the main -accompaniment-figure of the song—it has appeared,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span> -indeed, as early as the second bar, and has been frequently -repeated since—that it is almost inevitable that -now and then it should occur in the voice, and, as a -matter of fact, it has already occurred more than once -there—at the <em>schwebet</em> and <em>Palmen</em> of the first line, for -example, and later at the first syllable of <em>Himmel</em> in -the line <em>Der Himmelsknabe duldet Beschwerde</em>. Yet -we know very well that it is not a musical accident, -but a stroke of psychological genius, that brings just -this interval in on the word <em>Qual</em> in the lines <em>Ach nur -im Schlaf ihm leise gesänftigt die Qual zerrinnt</em>, the -interval indeed being in essence just what it has been -all along, but receiving now a new and more poignant -meaning by the way it is approached. We know very -well that no other song-writer but Wolf would have -had the instinct to perceive, in the midst of the flow -of the accompaniment to what seems its own predestined -goal, the expressive psychological possibilities -of that particular note at that particular moment in -that particular line. His songs teem with felicities of -this kind; they represent the employment of one of -Wagner's most characteristic instruments for uses more -subtle even than he ever dreamt of.</p> - -<p>Yet—and the point needs insisting upon, as it is still -the subject of some misunderstanding—this quick and -delicate adaptation of melodic and harmonic and -rhythmic values to the necessities of the poem are not -the result of a mere calculated policy of 'follow the -words.' The song has not been shaped simply to permit -of this coincidence of verbal and musical values, nor -have these been consciously worked into the general -tissue of the song after this has been developed on -other lines. They represent the spontaneous utterance -of a mind to which all the factors of the song were -present in equal proportions from the first bar to the -last. Wolf made no sketches for his songs; the great -majority of them were written at a single sitting; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span> -subject possessed him and made its own language.</p> - -<p>His independence, his originality, his seminal force -for the future of music, are all best shown by comparing -him with Brahms. No one, of course, will question -the greatness of Brahms as a lyrist. But a comparison -with Wolf at once throws the former's limitations into -a very strong light. Wolf was much more the man of -the new time than his great contemporary. Brahms -was the continuer and completer of Schumann, the last -voice that the older romantic movement found for itself. -By nature, training, and personal associations he -was ill fitted to assimilate the new life that Wagner -was pouring into the music of his day. Wolf from the -first made a clean departure from both the matter and -the manner of Brahms—a cleaner departure, indeed, -than Wagner at first made from the romanticism of -his contemporaries, for the kinship between the early -Wagner and the Schumann of the songs is unmistakable. -Wolf's thinking left the mental world of Brahms -completely on one side; his music is free, for instance, -from those touches of sugariness and of the <em>larmoyant</em> -that can be so frequently detected even in the rugged -Brahms, as in all the lyrists who took their stimulus -from romanticism. Brahms' lyric types—his maidens, -his students, his philosophers, his nature-lovers—are -those of Germany in a particular historical phase of -her art, literature, and life. With Wolf the lyric steps -into a wider field. His psychological range is much -broader than that of Brahms. He creates more types -of character and sets them in a more varied <em>milieu</em>. -With Brahms the same personages recur time after -time in his songs, expressing themselves in much the -same way. Even an unsympathetic student of Wolf -would have to admit that no two of the personages he -draws are the same. The characters of Brahms are -mostly of the same household, with the same heredity, -the same physical appearance, the same mental characteristics,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</span> -even the same gait. The man who lies brooding -in the summer fields in <em>Feldeinsamkeit</em> is brother -of the man who loves the maiden of <em>Wir wandelten</em>, -and first cousin of the girl who dies to the strains of -<em>Immer leise wird mein Schlummer</em>. They all feel -deeply but a little sentimentally; they are all extremely -introspective; all speak with a certain slow seriousness -and move about with a certain cumbersomeness. -Wolf's men and women are infinitely varied, both in -the mass and in detail; that is to say, not only is his -crowd made up of many diverse types, but each type—the -lovers, the thinkers, the penitents, and so on—is -full of an inner diversity.</p> - -<p>Wolf surpasses Brahms again in everything that pertains -to the technical handling of the songs. Without -wishing to make out that Brahms was anything but -the great singer he undoubtedly was, it must be said -frankly that he is too content to work within a frame -that he has found to be of convenient size, shape, and -color, instead of letting his picture determine the frame. -The quaint accusation is sometimes brought against -Wolf that he is more of an instrumental writer than -a singer, the pianoforte parts of his songs being self-subsistent -compositions. A devil's advocate might argue -with much more force that it was Brahms who, in -his songs, thought primarily in terms of instrumental -phrases even for his voices. It is his intentness upon -the beauty of an abstract melodic line that makes him -pause illogically as he does after me <em>Königin</em> in the -first line of <em>Wie bist du, meine Königin</em>, thus making -a bad break in the poetical sense of the words, which -is not really complete until the second line is heard, -the <em>Wie bist du</em> not referring, as many thousands of -people imagine, to the <em>Königin</em>, but to the <em>durch sanfte -Güte wonnevoll</em> in the next line. In other songs, such -as <em>An die Nachtigall</em>, Brahms yields at the very beginning -to the fascination of what is unquestionably in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</span> -itself a beautiful phrase, without regard to the fact -that it will get him into difficulties both of psychology -and of 'declamation' as the song goes on, owing to his -applying the same kind of musical line-ending to poetical -line-endings that vary in meaning each time. Wolf -never makes a primitive blunder of this kind. He sees -the poem as a whole before he begins to set it; if he -adopts at the commencement a figure that is to run -through the whole song, it is a figure that can readily -be applied to each phase of it without doing psychological -violence to any. If at any point its application -involves a falsity, it would be temporarily discarded. -Brahms, again, is almost as much addicted to <em>clichés</em> -as Schubert, and with less excuse—the <em>cliché</em> of syncopation -for syncopation's sake; for example, the <em>cliché</em> -of a harmonic darkening of the second or third stanza -of a poem, and so on. From limitations of this sort -Wolf is free; his harmonic and rhythmic idioms are as -varied as his melodic. The great variety of his songs -makes it almost impossible to cite a few of them as -representative of the whole.</p> - - -<h3>V</h3> - -<p>For Wolf the song was the supreme form of expression. -In the case of Strauss the song is only an -overflow from the concert and operatic works. In -spite of the great beauty of some of his songs, such as -the <em>Ständchen</em> and <em>Seitdem dein Aug</em>, we are probably -justified in saying that is not a lyrist <em>pur sang</em>. A large -number of his songs have obviously been turned out -for pot-boiling purposes. Certain undoubted successes -in the smaller forms notwithstanding, it remains true -that he is at his best when he has plenty of space to -work in, and, above all, when he can rely on the backing -of the orchestra, as in the splendid <em>Pilgers Morgenlied</em>, -and the 'Hymnus.' As a rule, he fails to achieve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</span> -Wolf's happy balance between the vocal part and the -accompaniment; very often his songs are simply piano -pieces with a voice part added as skillfully as may be, -which means sometimes not skillfully at all.</p> - -<p>Among Max Reger's numerous songs are some of -great beauty. He is sometimes rather too copious to -be a thoroughly successful lyrist; both the piano and -the vocal ideas are now and then in danger of being -drowned in the flood of notes he pours about them. -But when he has seen his picture clearly and expressed -it simply and directly, his songs—the <em>Wiegenlied</em> and -<em>Allein</em>, for example, to mention two of widely differing -genres—are among the richest and most beautiful -of our time. Mahler poured some of the very best, because -the simplest and truest, of himself into such songs -as the <em>Kindertodtenlieder</em>, the four <em>Lieder eines fahrenden -Gesellen</em>, <em>Ich atmet einen linden Duft</em>, and <em>Mitternacht</em> -(from the four Rückert lyrics), and certain of -the settings of the songs from <em>Des Knaben Wunderhorn</em>. -But the list of good, and even very good, song-composers -in the Germany of the latter half of the nineteenth -century is almost endless; it seems, indeed, as if there -were at least one good song in the blood of every modern -German, just as there was at least one good lyric -or sonnet in the blood of every Elizabethan poet. From -Cornelius to Erich Wolff the stream has never stopped.</p> - -<p>In virtually all these men except Erich Wolff, however, -the stream has been, as with Strauss, a side branch -of their main activity. It was only to be expected that -the next powerful impulse after Hugo Wolf would -come from a composer who, like him, gave to the songs -the best of his mental energies. Joseph Marx resembles -Wolf superficially in just the way that Wolf superficially -resembles Wagner—in the elaboration and expressiveness -of what must still be called, for convenience -sake, the accompaniment to his voice parts. But, -while it would be premature as yet to see in Marx another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span> -Wolf, it is certain that we have in him a lyrist -of considerable individuality. He has managed to utilize -the Wolfian technique and the Wolfian heritage -of emotion, as Wolf utilized those of Wagner, without -copying them; they have become new things in his -hands. He has also drawn, as Wolf did, upon quite -a new range of poetic theme. He is not so keenly interested -as Wolf in the outer world. Wolf, like Goethe, -had the eye of a painter as well as the intuition of a -poet, and his music is peculiarly rich not only in more -or less avowed pictorialism, but in a sort of veiled pictorialism—a -pictorialism at one remove, as it were—that -conveys a subtle suggestion of the movement or -color of some concrete thing without forcing the symbol -for it too obtrusively upon our ear. (Excellent examples -are the suggestion of gently drooping boughs -and softly falling leaves in <em>Anakreons Grab</em>, and, in -another style, the unbroken thirds from first to last of -<em>Nun wandre, Maria</em>, so charmingly suggestive of the -side-by-side journeying of Joseph and Mary.) Marx's -music offers us hardly a recognizable example of this -pictorialism; his most ambitious effort has been in the -<em>Regen</em> (a German version of Verlaine's <em>Il pleure dans -mon cœur</em>), which is one of the least successful of his -lyrics. Like Wolf, he has called in a new harmonic -idiom to express new poetic conceptions or new shades -of old ones; but he is apt to become the slave of his -own manner, which Wolf never did. His intellectual -range, though not equal to that of his great predecessor, -is still a fairly wide one—from the luxuriance of the -splendid <em>Barcarolle</em> to the philosophical warmth of -<em>Der Rauch</em>, from the bizarrerie of the <em>Valse de Chopin</em> -to the humor of <em>Warnung</em>, from the earnest introspectiveness -of <em>Wie einst, Hat dich die Liebe berührt</em>, the -<em>Japanesisches Regenlied</em> and <em>Ein junger Dichter</em> to the -sunny vigor of the <em>Sommerlied</em>.</p> - -<p>Among the rest of the numerous composers—Humperdinck,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span> -Henning von Koss, Hans Sommer (a personality -of much charm and some power), Eugen d'Albert, -Weingartner, Bungert, Jean Louis Nicodé (b. -1853), and others—each of whom has enriched German -music with some delightful songs—a special word -may be said with regard to two of them—Theodor -Streicher (born 1814) and Erich W. Wolff (died 1913). -Streicher follows too faithfully at times in the footprints -of the poet—which is only another way of saying -that the musician in him is not always strong enough -to assert his rights. His work varies greatly in quality. -Some of it is finely imaginative and organically shaped; -the rest of it is a rather formless and expressionless -series of quasi-illustrations of a poetic idea line by line. -He frequently aims at the humorous, the realistic or -the sententious in a way that a composer with more -of the real root of music in him would see to be a mere -temptation to the art to overstrain itself. But, though -he is perhaps not more than half a musician—the other -half being poet, prosist, moralist, or what we will—that -half has produced some good songs, such as the -<em>Fonte des Amores</em>, <em>Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam</em>, the -<em>Lied des jungen Reiters</em>, <em>Maria sass am Wege</em>, the -<em>Nachtlied des Zarathustra</em>, and the <em>Weinschröterlied</em>. -Erich Wolff was never more than a minor composer, -but that he had the genuine lyrical gift is shown by -such songs as <em>Du bist so jung</em>, <em>Sieh, wo du bist ist -Frühling</em>, <em>Einen Sommer lang</em>, and others. He is particularly -charming when, as in <em>Fitzebue</em>, <em>Frisch vom -Storch</em> and <em>Christkindleins Wiegenlied</em>, he exploits -the childlike vein that comes so easily to most Germans, -and that has found its most delightful modern expression -in <em>Hänsel and Gretel</em>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span></p> - - -<h3>VI</h3> - -<p>A survey of German music at the present day leads -to the conclusion that, for the moment at any rate, it -has come to the end of its resources. All the great -traditions have exhausted themselves. Strauss has apparently -said all he has to say of value (though, of -course, he may yet recover himself). Of this he himself -seems uneasily conscious. His later works exhibit -both a tendency to revert to a Mozartian simplicity (as -in the final stages of <em>Ariadne auf Naxos</em>, the duet <em>Ist -ein Traum, kann nicht wirklich sein</em> in <em>Der Rosenkavalier</em>, -and elsewhere), and here and there, as in -'The Legend of Joseph,' a desire to coquet with the -exoticisms of France and the East. All these later -works suggest that Strauss has partly lost faith in the -German tradition, without having yet found a new faith -to take its place. Max Reger is content to sit in the -centre of his own web, spinning for ever the same -music out of the depths of his Teutonic consciousness. -In opera, in the song, in the symphony, in program -music, in chamber music, Germany is apparently doing -little more at present than mark time. Nevertheless -there are undoubtedly germinating forces which will -come to fruition before long. Perhaps the men now -creating will be the instruments of the new voice, perhaps -their pupils. One or two of the younger generation, -at any rate, have done things that may justly claim -our attention. One fact may be noticed in this connection: -that the supremacy seems to have shifted definitely -from the North to the South. Munich and Vienna -are, indeed, the new centres, in place of Leipzig and -Berlin.</p> - -<p>Thuille's successor as teacher of composition in the -Munich Academy of Tonal Art, Friedrich Klose (b. -1862), is, as a pupil of Bruckner, particularly qualified -to represent the South-German branch of the New German<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span> -school. His single dramatic work, <em>Ilsebill</em>, did not -succeed in establishing him among the successful post-Wagnerians. -Walter Niemann<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> speaks of it as showing -that his real strength lies in the direction of symphonic -composition and music for the Catholic Church, -and continues: 'His three-movement symphonic poem -<em>Das Leben ein Traum</em> (1899), with organ, women's -chorus, declamation and wind instruments, and in a -less degree his <em>Elfenreigen</em>, already proved this. -Through him Hector Berlioz enters modern Munich by -the hand of Liszt, Wagner, and Bruckner, and particularly -Berlioz the forest romanticist of the "Dance of the -Sylphs" and "Queen Mab." Again and again Klose returns -to church music—with the D minor Mass, the -prelude and double fugue for organ, lastly, with <em>Die -Wallfahrt nach Kevlaar</em>. * * * If his striving after new -forms, the searching in other directions after the dramatic -element which was denied him in the ordinary -sense, savors of a strongly experimental character, his -music itself is all the less problematic. It is honest -through and through, warm-blooded, felt and natural.' -The quiet breadth of his themes, the deep glow of his -color reveals the pupil of Bruckner. His manner of -development in sequences, approaching the 'endless -melody,' betrays the disciple of Wagner. A <em>Festzug</em> -for orchestra, <em>Vidi aquam</em> for chorus, orchestra, and -organ, and an 'Elegy' for violin and piano are also -among his works.</p> - -<p>Siegmund von Hausegger (b. 1872), son of the distinguished -critic and conductor Friedrich von Hausegger, -though he began his creative activity in the dramatic -field (with <em>Helfrid</em>, performed in 1893 in Graz, -and <em>Zinnober</em>, 1888, in Munich), has earned his chief -distinction with the symphonic poems <em>Barbarossa</em> -(1902) and <em>Wieland der Schmied</em> (1904). In these he -remains true to the Wagnerian formula, while in his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</span>songs he upholds the gospel of Hugo Wolf. A youthful -<em>Dyonysische Phantasie</em> (1899), which preceded these -works, is characterized by Niemann as 'showing the line -of development in the direction of a "kapellmeister music" -in Strauss' style.' Since then there have come from -his pen a number of fine choruses with orchestra, some -for men's voices, others mixed. Hausegger was a pupil -of his father, of Degner, and of Pohlig (in piano) and -has achieved a high standing as conductor, first at the -Graz opera, 1896-97, then of the Kaim concerts in Munich -(from 1899) and the Museum concerts in Frankfort.</p> - -<p>A new impulse may one day be given to German music -by the remarkable boy, Erich Korngold (born 1897), -who, while quite a child, showed an amazing mastery -of harmonic expression and of general technique, and -a not less amazing depth of thought. It remains to be -seen whether, as he grows to manhood, he will develop -a personality wholly his own (there are many signs -of this already), or whether he will merely relapse into -a skilled manipulator of the great traditions of his race. -But it is vain to try to forecast the future of music in -Germany or in any other country. Much music will -continue to be written that owes whatever virtues it -may possess merely to a competent exploitation of the -racial heritage. Of this type a fair sample is the -<em>Deutsche Messe</em> of Otto Taubmann (born 1859). On -the other hand, something may come of the revolt -against tradition that is now being led by Arnold -Schönberg (b. 1874).</p> - -<p>This composer seemed destined, in his earlier works, -to carry still a stage further the great line of German -music; the mind that could produce the beautiful sextet -<em>Verklärte Nacht</em> and the splendid <em>Gurrelieder</em> at the -age of twenty-five or so seemed certain of a harmonious -development, bringing more and more of its own to -build with upon the permanent German foundation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span></p> - -<p>Thanks to this complete change of manner, he has -become one of the 'sensations' of modern music. And -it is still an open question whether these later works -have a real musical value, or whether they are only -fruitless experiments with the impossible. There are -many who say that this later Schönberg is a deliberate -'freak.' He found himself overwhelmed, they say, with -the competition in modern music, unable to make his -name known outside of Vienna among the mass of first- -and second-rate talents that were flooding the concert -halls; he found also a public somewhat weary with -surplus music and ready to respond to novelty in any -form. What more natural, then, than that he should -devise works different from anything existing, and gain -preëminence by the ugliness of his music when he could -not by its beauty? This theory might be more tenable -if Schönberg were a third-rate talent. But there can be -no question of his great ability as shown in his 'early -manner.' This manner, based on Wagner and Strauss, -was one of great energy and complexity. It combined -the resounding crash of great Wagnerian harmonies -with the sensuous beauty that has always been associated -with the music of Vienna. The score of the -<em>Gurrelieder</em> is one of the most complex in existence. -But the complexity does not extend to the harmonic -idiom. In this Schönberg was traditional, though by no -means conventional.</p> - -<p>But there came a time in his development when he -began restlessly searching for new forms of expression. -This he found in a type of writing which completely -rejects the old harmonic system consecrated by -Bach. The composer concentrates his attention on the -interweaving of the polyphonic voices, unconcerned, apparently, -whether or not they 'make harmony.' Considered -purely as a polyphonic writer in this manner he -must be allowed to be masterly. His power of logical -theme-development in a purely abstract way is second<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span> -only to that of Reger among the moderns. But when -this mode of writing is turned to impressionistic purposes -the result is far more questionable. Up to the -present time the musical world has by no means decided -whether or not this is 'music' at all. It is at least probable -that its value lies chiefly in its experimental fruitfulness. -Music since Wagner has been tending steadily -toward a negation of the harmonic principles of the -classics, and there was apparently needed someone who—for -the sake of experiment at least—would overturn -these principles altogether and see what could be developed -out of a purely empirical system.</p> - -<p>The music of the early Schönberg—the Schönberg -who literally lived and starved in a Viennese cellar—is -stimulating in the highest degree. The early songs<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> -strike a heroic note; they sing with a declamatory melody, -sometimes rising into inspired lyricism, which -seems to say that Olympus is speaking. The accompaniment -is invariably pregnant with energetic comment. -But the <em>Gurrelieder</em> is the work on which Schönberg -spent most of his early years. These 'songs' are -in reality a long cantata for soli, chorus and orchestra. -The text, taken from the Danish, tells of King -Waldemar, who journeyed to Gurre and there found -his bride Tove. They lived in bliss for a time, but then -Tove died and Waldemar cursed God. Tove's voice -called to him from the song of a bird, and he gathered -his warriors together and as armed skeletons they -dashed every night among the woods of Gurre, pursuing -their deathly, accursed chase. Tired out with his -immense labor, and despairing of ever securing production -for his work, Schönberg laid aside the <em>Gurrelieder</em> -before it was finished. Some years later, when he had -begun to make a little reputation by his later compositions, -his publisher urged him to finish the work, -promising a public performance with all the paraphernalia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span> -required by the score. This included a huge -chorus and an orchestra probably larger than any other -that a musician has ever demanded. The performance -was given in Vienna and established Schönberg's European -fame. The unity of the work is marred by the -fact that the last quarter of it is written in the composer's -'second manner.' But the great portions of the -<em>Gurrelieder</em> must certainly rank among the noblest -products of modern music. The end of the first part, -in which Waldemar chides God for being a bad king, -in that he takes the last penny from a poor subject—this -scene throbs with a Shakespearean dignity and -power. Tove's funeral march and the scene in which -the dead queen speaks from the song of the bird, are -no less inspired. Finally, the work has a text as beautiful -as any which a modern composer has found. The -other great work of the early period is the sextet, <em>Verklärte -Nacht</em>, performed in America by the Kneisel Quartet. -This takes as a 'scenario' a poem by Richard Dehmel, -telling how the night was 'transfigured' by the -sacrifice of a husband in allowing his wife freedom in -her love. The spiritual story of the poem is closely followed -by the music, though there is no pretense of a -close 'argument' or 'program.' The voices of the various -characters are represented by the various solo instruments. -Yet this is no mere program music. Judged -for itself alone it proves a work of the highest beauty, -one of the finest things in modern chamber music.</p> - -<p>The 'Pelléas and Mélisande' is one of the transition -works, but partakes rather of the character of the 'second -manner.' The greatest work of this period, however, -is the first string quartet, performed in America -by the Flonzaley Quartet in the winter of 1913-14. This -is 'absolute' music of the purest kind. It does not follow -the sonata form, and its various movements are intermingled -(split up, as it were, and shaken together), -but it shows a strict cogency of structure and firm sustaining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span> -of the mood. The 'second manner' is marked by -a mingling, but not a fusing, of the early and later styles. -In the first quartet the first fifty bars or so are in the -severe later style, in which the polyphony is complexly -carried out without regard to the harmonic implications. -In these measures Schönberg shows his great -technical skill in the interweaving of voices and the -economic development of themes. The largo which -comes towards the end of the work is a passage of -magical beauty.</p> - -<p>In the last period come the <em>Kammersymphonie</em>, the -second quartet, the two sets of 'Short Piano Pieces,' the -'Five Orchestral Pieces,' and the <em>Pierrot</em> melodrame. -The <em>Kammersymphonie</em> is in one movement. The music -is lively and the counterpoint complex but clear. -The quartet carries out consistently the absolute non-harmonic -polyphony attempted in the first, but, lacking -the poetical passages of the early work, it has found a -stony road to recognition. <em>Pierrot</em> has been heard in -two or three European cities and has been voted 'incomprehensible.' -The 'Five Orchestral Pieces,' performed -in America by the Chicago Orchestra, carry to -the extreme Schönberg's unamiable impressionism. In -them one seeks in vain for any unity or meaning -(beauty, in the old sense, being here quite out of the -question). They have, however, a certain unity in the -type of materials used and developed in each, though -their architecture remains a mystery. The 'Short Piano -Pieces' (the earlier ones come, in point of time, in the -middle period) have been much admired by the pianist -Busoni, who has made a 'concert arrangement' of them, -and published them with a preface of his own. Busoni -claims that they have discovered new timbres of the -piano, and evoke in the ear a subtle response of a sort -too delicate to have been called forth by the old type -of harmony. In general they are like the Orchestral -Pieces in character, seeming always to seek the <em>outré</em> at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span> -the expense of the beautiful. Many profess to find a -deep and subtle beauty in these pieces. But if the empirical -harmony which they cultivate has any validity -it must attain that validity by empirical means. It is -certain that our ears do not enjoy this music, as they -are at present constituted. But it is possible that as -they hear more of it they may discover in it new values -not to be explained by the old principles. But this -leads us into the physics of musical æsthetics, which is -beyond the scope of this chapter. It should be noted, -however, that one of the by-products of such a crisis as -this in which Schönberg is playing such an important -part, is the stimulation it gives to musical theory. If -Schönberg succeeds in gaining a permanent place in -music with his 'third manner,' it is certain that all our -musical æsthetics hitherto must be reconstructed.</p> - -<p>In closing our cursory review, we may admit that -German music can afford to shed—may, indeed, be -compelled in its own interest to shed—many of the mental -characteristics and the technical processes that -have made it what it is. There is an end to all things; -and there comes a time in the history of an art when -it is the part of wisdom to recognize that, as Nietzsche -says, only where there are graves are there resurrections. -The time is ripe for the next great man.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">E. N.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Other operas by Draeseke are <em>Gudrun</em> (1884) and <em>Sigurd</em> (fragments -performed in 1867). <em>Bertrand de Born</em> (three acts), <em>Fischer und Karif</em> (one -act), and <em>Merlin</em> were not published. Draeseke's symphonic works are more -important. (See p. 236.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> Wilhelm Kienzl, b. Upper Austria in 1857, studied in Graz, Prague, -Leipzig, and Vienna. He visited Wagner in Bayreuth and became conductor -of the opera in Amsterdam (1883), at Krefeld, at Frankfort (1889), and -at the Munich <em>Hofoper</em> (to 1893).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> <em>Orestes</em> is a trilogy based on Æschylus and consisting of: I, <em>Agamemnon</em>; -II, <em>Das Totenopfer</em>; III, <em>Die Erinyen</em>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> For biographical details, see below (p. 258).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> His sextet for piano and wind instruments in B major (op. 6) in -classic style, but of brilliant originality, first made his name known. In -the later works he sacrificed some of the emotionalism, the lyric freshness -and warmth of color of the southern lyricist for the sake of modernity. -This is noticeable in his piano quintet in E-flat, op. 20; his 'cello -sonata, op. 22; and his violin sonata, op. 30. There are also a 'Romantic -Overture' and <em>Traumsommernacht</em> for orchestra, and an organ sonata.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> <em>Das goldene Kreuz</em> is a charming aftergrowth of the German comic -opera of the Lortzing type with a touch of Viennese sentimentality. Others -by the same composer are <em>Der Landfriede</em>, <em>Bianca</em>, <em>Das steinerne Herz</em>, -<em>Schach dem König</em>, <em>etc.</em></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> The work of Brahms as a whole has been treated in another portion -of this work (Vol. II, Chap. XV). It will, however, be necessary to say -a few words with regard to him in this section, in order to bring the -essential nature of Wolf's achievement into a clearer light.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> <em>Die Musik seit Richard Wagner</em>, 1914.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> See Volume V, pp. 342 ff.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER IX<br /> -<small>THE FOLLOWERS OF CÉSAR FRANCK</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Foundations of modern French nationalism: Berlioz; the operatic -masters; Saint-Saëns, Lalo, Franck, etc.; conditions favoring native art -development—The pioneers of ultra-modernism: Emanuel Chabrier and -Gabriel Fauré—Vincent d'Indy: his instrumental and his dramatic works—Other -pupils of Franck: Ernest Chausson; Henri Duparc; Alexis de Castillon; -Guy Ropartz.</p> -</div> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>Ultra-modern French music constitutes a movement -whose significance it may be still too early to estimate -judicially, whose causes are relatively obscure and -unprophetic, but whose attainments are exceedingly -concrete from the historical viewpoint aside from the -æsthetic controversies involved. Emerging from a generation -hampered by over-regard for convention, vacillating -and tentative in technical method in almost all -respects save the theatre, and too often artificial there, -a renascence of French music has been assured comparable -in lucidity of style and markedly racial qualities -to the golden days of a Couperin or a Rameau, -while fearing no contemporary rival in emotional discrimination -and delicate psychological analysis, and -not infrequently attaining a masterly and fundamental -vigor. The French composers of to-day have virtually -freed dramatic procedures from Italian traditions, and -even gradually distanced the Wagnerian incubus. They -have re-asserted a nationalistic spirit in music, with or -without dependence on folk-song material, with a potent -individuality of idiom which has not been so persistent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span> -since the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. -Finally, French critical activity, scholarship, research, -educational institutions, standards of performance -have risen to a pitch of excellence formerly denied -to all save the Germans.</p> - -<p>While the roots of this attainment go back half a -century and more, the flower of achievement is still -so recent as to pique inquiry. It must be acknowledged -that on the surface no causes are discoverable which -are proportionate to the results attained, but closer -examination discloses an unmistakable drift. During -almost three-quarters of the nineteenth century, despite -the epoch-making work of Berlioz, the efforts of -French composers were centred in one or another of -the forms of opera. Auber, Boieldieu, Meyerbeer and -others were succeeded by Gounod, Thomas and Délibes, -leading insensibly to Massenet and Bizet. Gounod's -<em>Faust</em> (1859) and <em>Roméo et Juliette</em> (1867), Thomas' -<em>Mignon</em> (1866), Délibes' ballet <em>Coppélia</em> (1870), Massenet's -early work <em>Don César de Bazan</em> (1872), and -Bizet's <em>Carmen</em> (1875), unjustly pilloried as 'Wagnerian,' -were typical of the characteristic tendencies of -the period.</p> - -<p>Yet it was precisely at a time when Parisians were -seemingly engrossed in the theatre, that signs of radical -departure were apparent, and these may be fittingly -considered the forerunners of the later standpoint. Up -to nearly the middle of the nineteenth century the <em>Concerts -du Conservatoire</em>, themselves the successors to -somewhat anomalous organizations, were the only regular -orchestral concerts in Paris. In 1849 Antoine Seghers -reorganized the <em>Société de Sainte Cécile</em>, at which -works by Gounod, Gouvy, and Saint-Saëns were occasionally -in evidence. In 1851 Jules Pasdeloup founded -the <em>Société des Jeunes Artistes du Conservatoire</em>, -merged ten years later into the <em>Concerts Populaires</em>, -which afforded a definite opportunity, if somewhat<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span> -grudgingly accorded, to young French composers. In -1855 Jules Armingaud formed a string quartet, later -augmented by wind instruments, for the popularization -of chamber music. He persisted against the obstacles -of popular indifference, and ultimately became even -fashionable. About this time also came an awakening -in the study of plain-chant and the religious music of -the sixteenth and preceding centuries. In 1853 Niedermeyer -founded the <em>École de Musique Religieuse</em>, a -significant institution which eventually broadened its -educative scope into a fairly wide survey of musical -literature. Other instrumental organizations of -later date, and one particularly significant attempt at -educational enfranchisement, will receive mention at -the proper place. The foregoing instances serve to -point out the seeming paradox of the rise of instrumental -music at an apparently unpropitious time.</p> - -<p>Without minimizing the genuine impetus given to -instrumental music by the establishment of the foregoing -organizations, the trend of ultra-modern French -tendencies would have been dubious were it not for the -preparatory foundation laid by Camille Saint-Saëns, -Edouard Lalo and César Franck. Since the work of -these men has already been estimated in previous chapters, -it will suffice to indicate the precise nature of the -influence exerted by each.</p> - -<p>Saint-Saëns, possessing marvellous assimilative ingenuity -as well as intellectual virtuosity, brought the -contrapuntal manner of Bach, the forms of Beethoven, -and the romanticism of Mendelssohn and Schumann -into skilled combination with his own somewhat illusive -and paradoxical individuality. To this he added a wayward -fancy for exotic material, not treated however in -its native spirit, but often in a scholastic manner that -nevertheless often had a charm of its own. From the -preparatory standpoint his conspicuous virtue lay in -the incredible fertility with which he produced a long<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span> -series of chamber music works, concertos and symphonies -possessing such salient qualities of invention and -workmanship as to force their acknowledgment from -the Parisian public. If his music at its worst is little -better than sterile virtuosity in which individual conviction -seems in abeyance, such works as the fifth -piano concerto, third violin concerto and third symphony -(to name a few only) bear a well-nigh classic -stamp in balance between expression and formal mastery. -Saint-Saëns, then, popularized the sonata form, -in its various manifestations, by means of a judicious -mixture of conventional form and Gallic piquancy, so -that a hitherto indifferent public was forced to applaud -spontaneously at last. If to a later generation Saint-Saëns -seems over-conventional and at times sententious -rather than eloquent, we must remember that in -its day his music was thought subversive of true progress, -and unduly Teutonic in its artistic predilections. -To-day we ask why he was not more unhesitatingly -subjective. But possibly that would be expecting too -much of a pioneer. Any estimate of Saint-Saëns would -be incomplete without mention of his effective championing -of the symphonic poem at a period when it -was still under suspicion. His four specimens of this -type show impeccable workmanship, piquant grace, -true Gallic economy in the disposition of his material. -They undoubtedly paved the way for works of later -composers manifesting alike greater profundity of -thought and higher qualities of the imagination.</p> - -<p>Edouard Lalo stands in sharp contrast to Saint-Saëns. -He was of an impressionable, dramatic temperament, -drawn spontaneously toward the exotic and -the coloristic. His Spanish origin betrays itself in the -vivacity of his rhythms, and the picturesque quality of -his melodies. If indeed the crowning success of a career -full of reverses was the opera <em>Le Roi d'Ys</em> -(sketched 1875-6, revised 1886-7) produced in 1888<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span> -when the composer was sixty-five, his services to instrumental -music are none the less palpable. If Saint-Saëns -turns to the exotic as a refreshment from a species -of intellectual ennui, with Lalo it is the result of a -fundamental instinct. Lalo's ultimately characteristic -vein is to be found in concertos, of lax if not incoherent -form, employing Spanish, Russian and Norwegian -themes, a Norwegian Rhapsody for orchestra, and scintillant -suites of nationalistic dances from a ballet <em>Namouna</em>. -He became a deliberate advocate of 'local -color' treated with a veracious and not a conventional -atmosphere, in which the brilliant orchestral style was -more than a casual medium. His salient qualities were -romantic conviction and emotional ardor, in which he -provided a sincere and positive example whose influence -is tangible in later composers. Herein lies his -historical import.</p> - -<p>It may seem unnecessary to refer again to the unselfish, -laborious yet exalted personality of César -Franck, or needless to rehearse the humble and patient -obscurity of his life for almost thirty years, the gradual -assembling of his devoted pupils, the unfolding of his -superb later works, and their posthumous general recognition, -but it is only through such reiteration that the -causes of his position become manifest. For it is precisely -through such vicissitudes that convictions are -forged and that the composers' idiom becomes forcefully -eloquent. Franck was not content with superficial -assimilation of technical procedures, nor with a -facile eclecticism, hence it is the moral character of the -artist which has affected his disciples to a degree even -overshadowing his technical instruction. Like Saint-Saëns, -Franck went directly to Bach for the essence of -canonic and fugal style, to Beethoven for the cardinal -principles of the variation and sonata forms. But -unlike Saint-Saëns he did not detach external characteristics -and apply them half-heartedly; he grasped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span> -the basic qualities of the music he studied, yet expressed -himself freely and elastically in his own speech. -He taught and practised not the letter but the spirit of -style.</p> - -<p>As regards historic import, Franck's harmonic idiom -(while remotely related to that of Liszt), perfectly commensurate -with his seraphic ideality, has become infiltrated -more or less into the individuality of all his pupils. -Less imitated but of great intrinsic significance -is Franck's virtual reincarnation of the canon, chorale -prelude, fugue and variation forms in terms of modern -mystical expressiveness. His crowning historical feat -was the fusion of hints from Beethoven (fifth and ninth -symphonies), Berlioz's somewhat artificial but suggestive -manipulation of themes, Liszt's plausible transformation -of musical ideas for a programmistic purpose, -into an independent solution of thematic unity -employing a 'generative' theme to supply all or nearly -all the thematic material. It may be suggested that -Saint-Saëns had anticipated Franck in this respect -(third symphony in C minor), but the latter had already -worked out the idea in his quintet (1878-79) and there -are germs of a similar treatment in his first trio (1841).<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> -If Franck's pupils have adopted this idea of thematic -variety based upon unity, in differing degrees of fidelity, -this device remains a favorite procedure with the -Franckist school, and Vincent d'Indy has employed its -resources with conspicuous success.</p> - -<p>But the secret of Franck's enduring influence does -not consist solely in the genuine creative aspect of his -technical mastery despite its ineffaceable example. It -lies equally in the pervading morality of his æsthetic -principles, and in the intrinsic message of his musical -thought. In place of vivacious, piquant but often artificial -and conventionalized emotion of a recognizably -Gallic type, he brought to music a serenely mystical -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span>Flemish (or, to be more exact, Walloon) temperament, -a nature naïvely pure and lofty, a character of placid -aspiration and consummate trust. His faith moved -technical and expressive mountains. Through the -steadfastly permeating quality of his artistic convictions -he counteracted the superficial and meretricious -elements in French music, and substituted the calm but -radiant ideals of a gospel of beauty which he not only -preached but lived in his own works. Understood only -by the few almost to the hour of his death, he preceded -his epoch so far in fearless self-expression that it seems -almost inaccurate to characterize him as a preparatory -figure. He is not only the greatest of these, a forerunner -in many respects of a later period, but also a -prophet to whom one wing of French composers look -for their inspiration and solace.</p> - -<p>The foregoing names are not alone in their contributory -effect upon modern French composers. Among -many, a few names may be selected as worthy of mention. -Georges Bizet, essentially of the theatre, in his -overtures <em>Roma</em> (1861), <em>Patrie</em> (1875), the suite <em>Jeux -d'Enfants</em> (1872), a charming series of miniatures, as -well as the classic suites from the incidental music to -Daudet's <em>L'Arlésienne</em>, disclose a remarkable and specific -gift for instrumental music, whose continuance -was only limited by his untimely death.</p> - -<p>Benjamin Godard, who presumably may have also -died before attaining the summit of his powers, was -an over-fertile composer of indisputable melodic gift -and spontaneity of mood, whose most conspicuous defect -was an almost total lack of critical discrimination. -In consequence, few of his works have survived, and -then chiefly for the practical usefulness of a few pieces -for violin or piano.</p> - -<p>Jules Massenet, even more emphatically destined for -the theatre than Bizet, showed in his early works, such -as the overtures <em>Pompeia</em> (1865), <em>Phèdre</em> (1873), <em>Les<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</span> -Erynnies</em> (suite from incidental music to the drama by -Leconte de Lisle, 1873), as well as in numerous orchestral -suites and shorter pieces, an unusual instinct -for concise precision of form, clarity of style, and an -extraordinarily dextrous, if at times coarse, manipulation -of the orchestra. But his sympathies were never -with the 'advanced school,' and his influence, a considerable -force despite the sneers of critics, has been -exerted almost entirely in the field of opera.</p> - -<p>As a further preliminary to the evolution of ultra-modern -French music, several important manifestations -of progress must be discussed. The Franco-Prussian -war of 1870, an irretrievable misfortune to the -French people politically, acted as a direct and far-reaching -stimulus toward a nationalistic tendency in -music. It led to the rejection of extra-French influences, -that of Wagner among them, although the current -of imitation became ultimately too strong to be -resisted. It brought about a conscious striving toward -individuality in technical methods and the deliberate -attainment of racial traits in expression. The strength -and unity of this sentiment among French musicians -was strikingly exemplified in the founding as early as -1871 of the National Society of French Music by Romain -Bussine and Camille Saint-Saëns. Its purpose, as -indicated in the device <em>Ars Gallica</em>, was to provide for -and encourage the performance of works by French -composers, whether printed or in manuscript.<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> From -the beginning the Society has striven amazingly, and it -is not too much to assert that its programs constitute a -literal epitome of French musical evolution and progress. -Saint-Saëns, the first president of the Society, -resigned owing to disagreement over a policy adopted. -César Franck then acted virtually as president until -his death in 1890. Since then Vincent d'Indy has been -at its head.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</span></p> -<p>The pioneer efforts of Pasdeloup in establishing orchestral -concerts were ably continued by Édouard Colonne -in connection with different organizations beginning -in 1873, and by Charles Lamoureux in 1881. Colonne's -great memorial was the efficient popularization -of Berlioz, while Lamoureux achieved a like service, -not without surmounting almost insuperable obstacles, -for the music of Wagner. Both coöperated in encouraging -the work of native composers, if less ardently -than the National Society, still to a sufficient extent to -prove to the Parisian public the existence of French -music of worth. In other respects the educational -achievement of both orchestras has been admirable, -and both are active to-day, the Colonne concerts being -directed by Gabriel Pierné, the Lamoureux concerts by -Camille Chevillard.</p> - -<p>In 1892, Charles Bordes (1863-1905) founded a choral -society, <em>Les Chanteurs de Saint Gervaise</em>, to spread a -knowledge of the choral music of Palestrina and his -epoch, as well as the study of plain-chant. Four years -later this society was merged into the <em>Schola Cantorum</em>, -an <em>école supérieure de musique</em>, with Charles Bordes, -Alexandre Guilmant and Vincent d'Indy as founders, to -perpetuate the spirit and teachings of César Franck. -Intended originally as an active protest against the -superficial standpoint of the Conservatoire before the -administration of Gabriel Fauré, the <em>Schola</em> aims to -have the pupil pass through the entire course of musical -evolution with a curriculum of exhaustive thoroughness. -Aside from the practicability or the æsthetic -soundness of this theory, the <em>Schola</em> attempts to furnish -a comprehensive education that is praiseworthy in its -aims. Further than this the attitude of the <em>Schola</em> possesses -an historical import in that it embodies a deliberate -reaction against the revolutionary tendencies of -Debussy and Ravel, and aims to conserve the outlook -of Franck.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</span></p> - -<p>To complete the preparatory influences bearing upon -ultra-modern French music one should mention more -than tentatively the palpable stimulation of the so-called -'Neo-Russian School' comprising Balakireff, -Borodine, Rimsky-Korsakoff, Cui, and more particularly -Moussorgsky. While these men have reacted more -noticeably upon individuals rather than upon modern -French composers as a group, their example has been -none the less tangible. Russian sensitiveness as to orchestral -timbre, their use of folk-song, their predilection -for novel rhythms, exotic atmosphere, have all appealed -to the receptive sensibilities of the ultra-modern -French composer.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>The pioneers of ultra-modern French music are Emmanuel -Chabrier and Gabriel Fauré, men of strikingly -dissimilar temperaments and equally remote style and -achievement. Each is, however, equally significant in -his own province.</p> - -<p>Alexis-Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-94) was born at -Ambert (Puy-de-Dôme) in the South of France. One -can at once infer his temperament from his birthplace. -For Chabrier combined seemingly irreconcilable elements: -robust vigor, ardent sincerity and intense impressionability. -With an inexpressible sense of humor, -he possessed a delicate and distinguished poetic instinct -side by side with deeply human sentiments. His -early bent toward music was only permitted with the -understanding that it remain an avocation. Accordingly -Chabrier came to Paris to be educated at the age -of fifteen, obtained his lawyer's certificate when he was -twenty-one and forthwith entered the office of the Ministry -of the Interior. In the meantime he had acquired -astonishing skill as a pianist, studied harmony and -counterpoint, made friends with many poets, painters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span> -and musicians, among them Paul Verlaine, Édouard -Manet, Duparc, d'Indy, Fauré and Messager. 'Considered -up to then as an amateur,'<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Chabrier surprised -professional Paris with an opéra comique in three acts, -<em>L'Étoile</em> (1877) (played throughout this country <em>without</em> -authorization and <em>with</em> interpolated music by Francis -Wilson as 'The Merry Monarch'), and a one-act -operetta, <em>L'Éducation manquée</em> (1879), both of which -were described as 'exceeding in musical interest the -type of piece represented.'<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> A visit to Germany with -Henri Duparc, where he heard <em>Tristan und Isolde</em>, affected -his impressionable nature so deeply that he resolved -to give himself entirely to music and in 1880 -resigned from his position at the Ministry. (His paradoxical -character was never more succinctly illustrated -than by the fact that he later composed 'Humorous -Quadrilles on Motives from Tristan.')<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> - -<p>In 1881 Chabrier became secretary and chorus master -for the newly founded Lamoureux concerts, and -helped to produce portions of <em>Lohengrin</em> and <em>Tristan</em>. -During this year he composed the 'Ten Picturesque -Pieces' for piano, from which he made a <em>Suite Pastorale</em>, -in which the orchestral idiom was not always -skillful. From his position in the Lamoureux orchestra -he soon learned the secrets of orchestral effect from -their source. In 1882 he went to Spain, notebook in -hand, and in the following year burst upon the Parisian -public with a brilliant rhapsody for orchestra on -Spanish themes entitled <em>España</em>. This highly coloristic, -poetic and impassioned piece at once placed him in the -front rank of contemporary French composers, and -remains a landmark in a new epoch for its conviction, -spontaneous inspiration, rhythmic vitality and individual -treatment of the orchestra. If Lalo had shown the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span>way, Chabrier at once surpassed the older musician on -his own ground.</p> - -<p>During the next few years Chabrier produced some -of his most characteristic works, the 'Three Romantic -Waltzes' for two pianos, one of which evoked enthusiasm -from a Parisian wit for its 'exquisite bad taste,' a -remarkable idyllic <em>scena</em> for solo, chorus and orchestra, -<em>La Sulamite</em>, a <em>Habañera</em>, transcribed for piano and -also for orchestra. But by far the most ambitious work -of these years was a serious opera <em>Gwendoline</em> on a text -by Catulle Mendès, produced at the Théâtre de la Monnaie -in Brussels in 1886. Unfortunately the artistic -success of this opera was abruptly closed by the bankruptcy -of the management. But Germany received -<em>Gwendoline</em> with marked favor, and it was performed -at Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Dresden, Munich and Düsseldorf.</p> - -<p><em>Gwendoline</em>, despite some obvious defects, is a work -of unusual historical import, since it constitutes the -first thorough-going attempt, aside from the tentative -efforts of Reyer, Bizet, Massenet and others, to incorporate -the dramatic reforms of Wagner in an opera of -distinctively French character. Mendès' poem on a -legendary subject is frankly imitative of scenes and -characters from Wagner's music dramas. Chabrier as -frankly uses leading-motives, yet he does not conform -slavishly to the Wagnerian symphonic treatment of -them. Moreover Chabrier is under an equal obligation -to Wagner in the use of the orchestra, if indeed there -are many pages and scenes which are unmistakably -Gallic in their delicacy of conception and in individual -color effects. Indeed, there was nothing in Chabrier's -previous career to presuppose such genuine dramatic -gifts, such fanciful poetry or such depths of sentiment -as are to be discovered in this work, even though -Mendès' text is commonplace, and his drama too ill-proportioned -to form the basis of a satisfactory opera. -It cannot be denied that the apotheosis of the dying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span> -lovers at the end of Act II is somewhat tawdry and -mock heroic in the persistent use of a banal theme; -on the other hand, the opening chorus of Act I, Gwendoline's -ballad in the same act, the delicate sensibility -of the prelude to Act II, the charming bridal music including -the tender <em>Epithalame</em> in the same act, all go to -establish the intrinsic value and the pioneer force of -the work. <em>Gwendoline</em> is and remains a magnificent -experiment, which still preserves much of its vitality -intact.</p> - -<p>Justifiably discouraged, if not overmastered, by the -misfortunes attending the production of <em>Gwendoline</em>, -Chabrier nevertheless brought out in the following -year (1887) an opéra comique, <em>Le Roi malgré lui</em>, in -which the lyric charm, vivacity and humor of the music -achieved an instant success. Within a few days, however, -the Opéra Comique burned to the ground. Despite -this crushing blow, Chabrier continued to persist -in composition. He published many songs, fantastic, -grotesque and sentimental, among them the inimitable -'Villanelle of the Little Ducks,' a poignant and exquisitely -lyric chorus for women's voices and orchestra, 'To -Music' (1890), a rollicking <em>Bourée fantasque</em> (1891) for -piano, one of the boldest and most paradoxical instances -of his combining of humor and poetic atmosphere. -In addition he was working feverishly at another -opera, <em>Briseis</em>, which he hoped to make his masterpiece, -when his health gave way. When, after appalling -struggles, Chabrier had induced the Opéra to -give <em>Gwendoline</em> late in 1893, he was too ill to realize -or participate in his success and in the following year -he died.</p> - -<p>The most striking feature in Chabrier's art was his -uncompromising sincerity and directness. He expressed -himself in his music with undeviating fidelity, despite -the shattering of conventions involved. Herein lies the -intrinsic value of his music, and the potency of his example.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span> -Whether his medium were a humorous song, a -fantastic piano-piece, a pastoral idyl or a tragic drama, -he followed his creative impulse with an outspoken -daring not to be equalled since that stormy revolutionary, -Berlioz. Chabrier possessed a positive genius for -dance-rhythms and humorous marches which he redeemed -from coarseness by surprising turns of melodic -and harmonic inventiveness. Thus the <em>choeur dansé</em> -from the second act of <em>Le Roi malgré lui</em>, the first of -the 'Three Romantic Waltzes,' the witty <em>Joyeuse -Marche</em> and finally <em>España</em> are genuinely classics, despite -their lack of 'seriousness.' But Chabrier was -equally epoch-making in the sincerity and glamour with -which he painted lyric moods of poetic intensity and extremely -personal sentiment. Gwendoline's ballad, the -bridal music and <em>Epithalame</em> from the same opera, <em>La -Sulamite</em> and <em>À la Musique</em> display an astonishing variety -in scope of sentiment for the robust and almost -over-exuberant composer of <em>España</em> and the <em>Bourée -fantasque</em>. In sensuous and poignant imaginativeness -again, Chabrier is the forerunner to a considerable -extent of the later group whose essential purpose was -truthfulness of atmosphere. While as a dramatic composer -Chabrier followed deliberately in the footsteps of -Wagner, his own expressive individuality maintained -itself as persistently as could be expected from the force -of the spell to which it was subjected. Also, Chabrier -was in this respect but one of many, and not until the -fusion of Wagnerian method and French individuality -had been tried out, could the native composer at last -enfranchise himself. Harmonically, Chabrier was bold -and defiant in a generation which was submissive to -convention. With an idiom essentially his own, he -foreshadowed many so-called innovations in sequences -of seventh chords, the use of ninths, startling modulations, -and even a preparing of the whole-tone scale. -In short, Chabrier's legacy to French music was that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span> -of a self-confident personality, daring to express himself -with total unreserve in an assimilative age which -deferred to public taste and superficialities of style.</p> - -<p>Between Chabrier and Gabriel Fauré there can be no -comparison, and no parallel save that both have exerted -a constructive influence on modern French music. -Where Chabrier was high-spirited almost to boisterousness, -Fauré is suave, urbane, polished, a man of society -who nevertheless preserves curiously poetic and -mystical instincts. Born in 1845 at Pamiers, in that -district known as the <em>Midi</em>, he is of the reflective rather -than the spontaneous type. Meeting with a relatively -slight opposition from his father in cultivating his early -manifested gift for music, he came to Paris when only -nine years of age and studied for eleven years at -Niedermeyer's <em>École de Musique Religieuse</em>. He studied -first with Pierre Dietsch, who is remembered chiefly -for his purchase of Wagner's text to 'The Flying Dutchman' -and for the inconspicuous success of his music, -then with Saint-Saëns, who drilled him thoroughly in -Bach and the German romanticists. After four years' -incongenial work at Rennes, as organist and teacher -(in the latter capacity watchful mothers were loath to -confide their daughters' education to the attractive -youth), he served in the Franco-Prussian war. Then, -returning to Paris, he occupied various positions in -Parisian churches before settling finally at the Madeleine. -From 1877 to 1889 he made several trips to Germany -to see Liszt and to hear Wagner's music. During -these journeys he won glowing comments from such -diverse personalities as von Bülow, César Cui and -Tschaikowsky. In 1896 he became teacher of composition -at the Paris Conservatory; in 1905 he became director, -and still holds this position. He has thoroughly -reorganized the Conservatory, enlarged the scope of its -curriculum, especially as regards composition, and has -accomplished significant results as a teacher.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span></p> - -<p>Fauré has not been equally successful in every field -of composition. His development has been inward. -He is first and foremost a composer of songs, and his -attainment in this direction alone would maintain his -position. He has been a fertile writer of piano pieces. -Many of them are disfigured by a light salon style; a -considerable number, however, are of intrinsically -poetic expression. Despite respectable achievements in -chamber music (he has been awarded prizes), the quintet -for piano and strings op. 89 (1906) is the one outstanding -work which is conspicuous in modern French -music, although the early violin sonata, op. 13 (1876), -had its day of popularity. He has written some agreeable -choral music, of which the cantata 'The Birth of -Venus' is notable if unequal. There is noble music in -the Requiem op. 48 (1887) and the final number <em>In -Paradisum</em> is an exceptionally fine instance of mystical -expression. Fauré's orchestral music is relatively insignificant, -and his incidental music to various dramas -has not left a permanent mark, save for the thoroughly -charming suite arranged from the music to <em>Pelléas et -Mélisande</em> op. 80 (1898). Not until the performance of -<em>Pénélope</em> (1913) at Monte Carlo and Paris has Fauré -accomplished a successful opera.</p> - -<p>In song-writing, however, Fauré has achieved a remarkable -distinction not exceeded by any of his countrymen. -Some of the early songs dating from the years -spent at Rennes, as <em>Le Papillon et la Fleur</em> and <em>Mai</em>, -suggest naturally enough the influence of Saint-Saëns. -Others in the first volume, <em>Sérénade Toscane</em>, <em>Après un -rêve</em>, and <em>Sylvie</em>, show clearly a growing independence, -while <em>Lydia</em> in its delicate archaism foreshadows -Fauré's later achievements in this style. From 1880 -onwards, Fauré at once launches into his own subtle -and fascinating vein. If some of the songs in a second -volume suggest the <em>salon</em> as do many of the piano -pieces, they have a peculiar elegance of mood and a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span> -finesse of workmanship which elevate them above any -hint of vulgarity. Such are the songs <em>Nell</em>, <em>Rencontre</em> -and <em>Chanson d'Amour</em>. But there are many songs in -the same volume which bespeak eloquently Fauré's -higher gifts for lyrical interpretation and imaginative -delineation of mood. Among these the most salient are -<em>Le Secret</em> (1882), remarkable for its intimate sentiment, -<em>En Prière</em>, delicately mystical though slightly sentimental, -<em>Nocturne</em> (1886), which is original in its harmonic -idiom; <em>Clair de Lune</em> (1887), adroitly suggestive -of Verlaines' Watteauesque text; <em>Les Berceaux</em> (1882), -expansive in its human emotion; and <em>Les Roses d'Ispahan</em>, -replete with an impassioned exoticism. In a third -volume are two songs which show Fauré's individuality -in a significantly broader scope. These are <em>Au cimitière</em> -(1889), a profound elegy, typical of the outspoken -lamentation of the Latin temperament, and <em>Prison</em>, in -which the tragic emotion is heightened by an intensely -declamatory style. Fauré has published other sets of -songs, among them <em>La Bonne Chanson</em> (1891-92), texts -by Verlaine, and <em>La Chanson d'Ève</em> (1907-10), texts by -Charles Van Lerbergle, which contain many striking -specimens of his delicate lyricism, but none more significant, -except possibly from the virtue of added maturity, -than those already mentioned. As a whole, the -imaginative and expressive traits of Fauré's songs are -partially due to his unerring instinct in the choice of -texts by the most distinguished French poets, including -Leconte de Lisle, Villiers de Lisle-Adam, Paul Verlaine, -Jean Richepin, Sully-Prudhomme, Armand Silvestre, -Charles Grandmougin, Charles Baudelaire and others.</p> - -<p>It is not too much to say that Fauré has vitalized the -song as no French composer had done hitherto, and -that his influence has been paramount among his -younger contemporaries despite divergences of individuality. -Furthermore, weighing the differences of -race and temperament, they can be successfully compared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</span> -with the German romanticists. If they do not -scale the same heights, sound the same depths, or approach -the artless simplicity of German lyricism, their -poetry is far more subtle, imaginative and varied in its -infinite differentiation of mood. In these songs are the -manifestations of suave elegance, individual perfume, -sometimes sensuous, sometimes mystical, a singularly -poetic essence expressed in music that delights alike by -its refined workmanship, melodic and harmonic ingenuity. -In his songs, Fauré is at once transitory and -definitive; he begins experimentally, but soon attains -ultra-modern significance.</p> - -<p><em>Pénélope</em>, text by Réné Fauchois, is a lyric drama -presenting the legend of Ulysses' return with a few unessential -variants. It does not attempt therefore a -drama of large outlines, but is content to remain within -the scope prescribed by its frame. Fauré also has -wisely followed within similar lines as being the more -compatible with his lyric talent. Nevertheless we find -in many episodes the distinguished invention which -marks his songs, a style which if somewhat too restrained -is nevertheless adequate. The first act contains -many passages of lyrical and emotional charm, -but not until the climax of the third act (the slaying -of the suitors) does Fauré arrive at genuine intensity. -If <em>Pénélope</em> cannot be classed with <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em> -or <em>Louise</em>, if it does not convince one that Fauré is a -born dramatist, it contains too much that is poignantly -beautiful to be dismissed hastily. Furthermore it possesses -distinct historical import as owing virtually -nothing to the thralldom of Wagnerism. From this -standpoint it marks a conscious path of effort which -has engaged French composers for thirty years or so.</p> - -<p>If some critical attention should rightfully be given -Fauré's Elegy for violoncello and piano op. 24 (1883), -the quintet, one of his noblest and most individual -works, the Requiem, the incidental music to <em>Pelléas et<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</span> -Mélisande</em>, these omissions are purposely made to concentrate -appreciation on Fauré as a song writer. If he -is a significant figure among French musicians of to-day -on the intrinsic merits of his creative fancy, he deserves -none the less to be recorded as an important -innovator from the technical standpoint. He has -adapted, either literally or freely, modal harmony to -lyrical or dramatic suggestion. If Saint-Saëns had already -done this in his third symphony (finale), Fauré -has employed this medium with greater fluidity and -poetic connotation. Moreover this device has been -partially imitated by Debussy. In his use of secondary -sevenths in conventional sequence, the use of altered -chords suggesting the whole-tone scale, of ninths, elevenths -and thirteenths, he has gone beyond Chabrier, -and furnished many a hint to later composers. He is -also original and evolutionary in his ingeniously transitory -modulations, adding a spice of surprise to his -music. A conspicuous defect, on the other hand, is his -abuse of the sequence, melodic or harmonic, a shortcoming -which has been transmitted in some degree to -his pupil, Maurice Ravel. But after all critical cavilling -and analysis of his harmonic originality his enduring -charm and sincerity of sentiment defy analysis or -reconstruction.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>If the pupils of César Franck are regarded to-day as -constituting a definitely reactionary wing in French -music, they had in their youth to contend with bitter -and outspoken criticism for their propagation of dangerously -'modern' tendencies. On the one hand, they -were under suspicion for their uncompromising fidelity -to their master's technical and æsthetic tenets, on the -other they were abused for their eager receptivity to -Wagnerian principles in dramatic reform and use of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span> -the orchestra. In addition, they had to justify the innovating -features (both harmonically and melodically) -of their own definite individualities.</p> - -<p>To-day we can look back at the struggle and see that -in reality they were contending for principles essentially -moderate and even classical in drift, especially -when viewed in the light of more revolutionary younger -contemporaries. We realize that in the main the influence -of Wagner was enormously salutary, even if it -postponed considerably the final achievement of a positively -nationalistic dramatic idiom. The lesson of an -opera which should genuinely unite music and drama, -of an orchestral style at once of greater scope and of -finesse in illustrative detail, was sadly needed. Moreover -it became at last an honor to have been a pupil -of Franck, and many claimed this distinction who were -not genuine disciples in reality. In addition there were -some, like Augusta Holmès, who studied under Franck -but who were never materially influenced by him, just -as there were others like Paul Dukas who showed the -imprint of Franck's methods without actually having -been his pupil. Vincent d'Indy thus enumerates the -real pupils of Franck: Camille Bênoit, Pierre de Bréville, -Albert Cahen, Charles Bordes, Alexis de Castillon, -Ernest Chausson, Arthur Coquard, Henri Duparc, -Augusta Holmès, Vincent d'Indy, Henri Kinkelmann, -Guillaume Lekeu, Guy Ropartz, Louis de Serres, Gaston -Vallin and Paul de Wailly. Of these de Castillon, -Chausson, Duparc, d'Indy, Lekeu and Ropartz may be -considered as representative, and d'Indy by virtue of -the totality of his activity is entitled to first consideration.</p> - -<p>Vincent d'Indy, born at Paris, March 27, 1851, of a -family of ancient nobility coming from Ardèche in the -Cévennes, has steadily maintained an attitude of intellectual -aristocracy toward his art, although like his -master Franck he has labored most democratically for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span> -the advancement of musical education.<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> Left motherless -when an infant, d'Indy was brought up by his -grandmother, Mme. Théodore d'Indy, of whom he likes -to record that she had 'known Grétry and Monsigny, -and shown a keen appreciation of Beethoven in 1825.'<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> -It was owing to her that d'Indy came early in contact -with the music of Bach and Beethoven. Piano lessons -under Diemer occupied him from the age of ten onwards, -and after 1865 he studied piano and harmony -at the Paris <em>Conservatoire</em> with Marmontel and Lavignac. -But d'Indy was also genuinely interested in composition, -and by 1870 he finished and published some -piano pieces, a short work for baritone and chorus, and -projected others of varying dimensions. When the -Franco-Prussian war broke out, d'Indy enlisted and -served throughout. After the war he took up the study -of law in a half-hearted manner, but his introduction -by Henri Duparc to César Franck in 1872 settled his -musical career definitely. While Franck criticized severely -the piano quartet that d'Indy brought him, he -was quick to perceive the latent qualities of the young -composer. Forthwith d'Indy studied the organ with -Franck at the <em>Conservatoire</em>, but recognizing the inadequate -opportunity of obtaining any technical drill -in composition at this institution, he became Franck's -private pupil. With him he worked faithfully and -pertinaciously, and received not only an exhaustive -technical grounding, but an illuminating æsthetic comradeship -rich in comprehensive discussions of art-principles. -D'Indy soon joined the <em>Société Nationale de -Musique Française</em> and became an energetic worker in -its behalf, being secretary for nearly ten years and becoming -president after the death of Franck in 1890. -Under his leadership the Society has wonderfully extended -its activity. In 1873 he spent a fruitful month -with Liszt at Weimar; in 1876 he heard a performance -of 'The Ring of the Nibelungs' at Bayreuth, and in 1881 -he heard 'Parsifal.' From 1873 to 1878 he was kettle-drummer -and chorus-master in Colonne's orchestra, -and in 1887 chorus-master for Lamoureux, both exceedingly -valuable practical experiences. In 1885 the city -of Paris awarded d'Indy the first prize for his choral -work <em>Le Chant de la Cloche</em>, whose reception in the -following year placed him in the front rank of French -composers. In 1896 d'Indy with Charles Bordes and -Alexandre Guilmant founded the <em>Schola Cantorum</em> as -an <em>école supérieure de musique</em>,<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> to perpetuate the -spirit and practical essence of Franck's teachings, to -restore the study of plain-chant and the music of the -Palestrinian epoch to its proper dignity, and to include -in its curriculum masterpieces from the fifteenth to the -nineteenth centuries. With the death of Bordes in 1909 -(compelled by reason of ill health to live in the south -of France, where he founded a branch of the Schola -at Montpellier in 1905) and of Guilmant in 1911, d'Indy -became sole director of the Schola. In this position he -has been prodigal of thought and strength.</p> - -<p>To comprehend the nature of d'Indy's evolution, it -is essential to detail some of the more significant influences -reacting upon him. Brought up in a cultivated -milieu, d'Indy absorbed Goethe, Schiller, Herder and -Lessing, while not a few of his works are founded on -their writings. The German romantic musicians, Mendelssohn, -Schumann and Weber, affected him fairly -acutely for a while, but in a transitory fashion. While -the spell exercised by Franck on d'Indy is both deep -and permanent, it could not prevent his instant recognition -of the import of Wagner's dramatic procedures, including -the magical euphony of his orchestration. -While there remains of this 'Wagnerianism' only the -normal residue that comes with the acceptance of a -great historical figure, d'Indy's music continued to show -in method or suggestion his admiration and close study -of Wagner. That this is no longer the case is due partly -to the natural ripening of individuality consequent upon -maturity, and also to the Schola. With the profound -study of liturgic music and the literature of the sixteenth -century, d'Indy has reverted to ecclesiastic counterpoint -as a logical foundation for technique despite -his adaptation of its principles to a free and modernistic -expression. Moreover, he has used plain-chant melodies -to an increasing extent in instrumental or dramatic -works. Thus his music has taken on a spiritual -and humanitarian character, analogous in inward -motive if markedly different in outward sentiment -from that of his master.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ilo_fp298" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp298.jpg" alt="ilo-fp299" /> - - -<p class="center">Modern French Composers:</p> -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 3em; ">Emanuel Chabrier</span> Vincent d'Indy<br /> - -<span style="padding-left: 2em; ">Maurice Ravel</span> <span style="padding-left: 3em; ">Gustave Charpentier</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Apart from a relatively small amount of miscellaneous -works for chorus, piano, etc., the greater portion of -d'Indy's productivity can be divided into two general -classes, instrumental (orchestral or chamber music) -and dramatic (choral works or operas). Moreover he -turns (seemingly with deliberate purpose) from one -pole to another of the musical field. If the examination -of d'Indy's chief works in chronological order would -give the best clue to his evolutionary progress, the consideration -of each type by itself has perhaps greater -clarity.</p> - -<p>D'Indy's earliest published instrumental music, the -piano quartet op. 7 (1878-88) and the symphonic ballad -<em>La Forêt enchantée</em> after Uhland (1878), show him to be -too concerned in mastering the technique of his art to -be preoccupied as to individuality. Of this the quartet -contains more, although not of an assertive order, together -with a sedulous attention to detail. <em>La Forêt -enchantée</em> is well planned and effectively carried out in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</span> -a spontaneous adolescent manner, with distinct Teutonic -reflections in the general atmosphere. This is all -changed with the 'Wallenstein Trilogy' (1873-81), three -symphonic poems after Schiller's drama. The subject -has struck fire in d'Indy's imagination. <em>Le Camp de -Wallenstein</em> is a kaleidoscope of passing scenes hit off -with apt characterization, dramatic touches and no little -orchestral brilliancy. <em>Max et Thecla</em> (the earliest -of d'Indy's orchestral works), performed as <em>Ouverture -des Piccolomini</em> in 1874, remodelled to form the second -part of the trilogy, contains all too obvious traces of -ineptitude, side by side with pages of genuine romantic -sensibility. <em>La Mort de Wallenstein</em> is musically the -strongest of the three, and the ablest in technical and -expressive mastery, despite echoes of the <em>Tarnhelm</em> motif -in the introduction and the palpably Franckian canonic -treatment of the chief theme. In inventiveness, -dramatic force and markedly skillful orchestration, the -trilogy is prophetic of later attainments.</p> - -<p>The <em>Poème des Montagnes</em> op. 15 (1881) for piano -deserves mention because it is one of a number of -works concerned with aspects of nature, a source of -evocatory stimulus upon d'Indy in a number of instances. -There are romantic qualities of some grandeur -in these pieces, as well as dramatic vitality in one -idea which d'Indy appropriately used in a later work,<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> -but as a whole they do not rank with his best music. If -a poetic mood is apparent in <em>Saugefleurie</em> op. 21 (1884) -and a vein of piquant fancy is to be found in the suite -op. 24 for trumpet, flutes and strings, both are not unjustly -to be ranked chiefly as steps leading to works of -larger significance.</p> - -<p>After <em>Le Chant de la Cloche</em>, whose performance -brought instant recognition to d'Indy, the 'Symphony -on a Mountain Air' op. 25 (1886) for piano and orchestra<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</span> -is the first instance of d'Indy's deliberate resolve -to follow in the footsteps of Franck as regards -formal and thematic treatment. The basis of the work -is a true folk-song<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> which furnishes through rhythmic -and melodic modification the principal themes of the -symphony. Here we find more assertive individuality -than in any instrumental work since the Wallenstein -trilogy, a genuine capacity for logical developments, -thoughtful sentiment in the slow movement, and great -animation in the vivid Kermesse which forms the finale. -Similarly the trio op. 29 (1887) for clarinet, violoncello -and piano adopts the Franckian method while permitting -an equal freedom of personal idiom. Again passing -over minor works for the piano, a few choral or -vocal pieces which have a contributory rather than a -capital import, and leaving momentarily the opera -<em>Fervaal</em>, d'Indy's next striking contribution to instrumental -music is the set of symphonic variations <em>Istar</em>, -op. 42 (1896). The program of the work, taken from -the Epic of Izdubar, is concerned with the descent of -<em>Istar</em> into the Assyrian abode of the dead to rescue her -lover, leaving a garment or ornament with the guardian -of each of seven gates, until naked she has fulfilled the -test and restores her lover. Accordingly d'Indy has -adroitly reversed the variations from the complex to -the simple, to describe the gradual spoliation of the -heroine, until the theme at last emerges in a triumphal -unison depicting the nudity of Istar. The variations -are in themselves of great ingenuity, of picturesque detail -and gorgeous orchestral color, but the descriptive -purpose is somewhat marred by the artificialities of -technical manipulation. Heard as absolute music, the -intrinsic qualities of the piece delight the listener and -its uncompromising individuality shows the progressive -maturity of the composer.</p> - - -<p>In a second string quartet, op. 45 (1897), d'Indy's inventive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</span> -fertility in evolving not only the chief themes -but accompaniment figures from a motto of four notes, -gives further evidence of his skill along the lines suggested -by Franck. Certain episodes and even entire -movements give cause for suspicion that the composer -was drawn to the realization of technical problems -rather than that of concrete expression. The contrapuntal -texture of the quartet undoubtedly proceeds -from a source anterior to Franck, that of the counterpoint -of the sixteenth century to which d'Indy has reverted -more and more since his connection with the -Schola. But it is combined with a superstructure of -personal and modernistic expression upon classical and -Franckian models in such a way as to achieve a notable -beauty. If the <em>Chanson et Danses</em>, op. 50 (1898), -for wind instruments, is laid out in small forms, its singular -purity of style and its spontaneous mastery of a -difficult medium make it of greater weight than its -scope would indicate.</p> - -<p>D'Indy's instrumental masterpiece, the Symphony in -B-flat, op. 57 (1902-3), easily marks the summit of his -achievement in this field. If, from a technical standpoint, -it surpasses anything hitherto attained by its -composer in logic and elasticity of form, subtle and -compelling development of themes from its generative -phrases, clarity of style despite its external complexity, -its creative inventiveness, richness of detail, profundity -of sentiment and genial orchestration are of equal magnitude. -With the climax of the finale, a chorale derived -from a theme in the introduction to the first -movement, d'Indy attains a comprehensive sublimity -that is not only unique in modern French music, but -which is difficult to find surpassed in the contemporary -symphonic literature of any nation. While the piano -and violin sonata, op. 59 (1903-4), by reason of its -smaller dimensions, can scarcely be compared with the -symphony, the diversity and elasticity of its thematic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</span> -development (on three generative phrases) as well as -the concrete beauty of its substance make it one of the -most distinguished examples of its class since that by -César Franck.</p> - -<p><em>Jour d'été à la montagne</em>, op. 61 (1905), three movements -for orchestra, with an underlying thematic unification -of introduction and conclusion, after prose -poems by Roger de Pampelonne, displays a balance of -greater homogeneity between constructive and descriptive -elements than any of d'Indy's programmistic -works. The use of plain-chant themes in the movement -<em>Jour</em>,<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> with the subtitle <em>Après-midi sous les pins</em>, -and again in <em>Soir</em>, manifests not only a felicitous emotional -connotation, but an increasing desire to correlate -even the music of externals to spiritual sources.</p> - -<p>The poem <em>Souvenirs</em> for orchestra, op. 62 (1906), an -elegy on the death of his wife, is not only profoundly -elegiac in sentiment, but attains an unusual poignancy -through the quotation of the theme of the Beloved from -the earlier <em>Poème des Montagnes</em>. Both in <em>Jour d'été à -la montagne</em> and in <em>Souvenirs</em> d'Indy employs orchestral -effects ranging from delicate subtlety to extreme -force in a manner so entirely his own as to dispel forever -the question of imitative features.</p> - -<p>D'Indy's latest instrumental work, a piano sonata, op. -63 (1907), is more happy in its formal constructive unity -than in a euphonious or natively idiomatic piano style. -Its variations are hardly convincing music despite their -technical skill; the scherzo has brilliant pages but too -much of its thematic material is indifferent. The finale -suffers for the same reason up to the climax and close, -where the theme of the variations (first movement) -and that of the finale are brought together with consummate -contrapuntal perception.</p> - -<p>To summarize, d'Indy as an instrumental composer -has with sure and increasing power fused the methods -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</span>of Franck, with early contrapuntal elements, and his -own individualistic sentiment into music which presents -the strongest achievement in this direction since -that of his master. If d'Indy is sometimes dry or over-complex, -his best works show a blending of the intellectual -with the emotional which constitutes a persuasive -bid for their durability. From a conservative -standpoint it is impossible to imagine an abler unification -of elements that tend to be disparate or antagonistic. -As a master of the orchestra he can still hold his -own against ultra-modern developments although he is -relatively conservative in the forces he employs. If his -piano music, including the <em>Helvetia Waltzes</em> (1882), the -<em>Schumanniana</em> (1887), the <em>Tableaux de Voyage</em> (1889) -and other pieces are, by comparison with others of his -works, insignificant, the cantata <em>Sainte Marie-Magdelène</em> -(1885), the chorus for women's voices <em>Sur la Mer</em> -(1888), the imaginative song <em>Lied Maritime</em> (1896) are -conspicuous instances in a somewhat neglected field.</p> - -<p>D'Indy's development as a dramatic composer follows -a natural path of evolution. Despite the success -of the 'Wallenstein Trilogy,' the largeness of conception -and the pregnant details of <em>Le Chant de la Cloche</em> op. -18 (1879-83), for solos, chorus and orchestra, text by the -composer after Schiller's poem, although preceded by -the dramatic experiments of <em>La Chevauchée du Cid</em>, -op. 11 (1879), scene for baritone, chorus and orchestra; -<em>Clair de Lune</em>, op. 13 (1872-81), dramatic study for soprano -and orchestra, and <em>Attendez-moi sous l'orme</em>, op. -14 (1882), opéra comique in one act, came as a complete -surprise. Even if d'Indy had obviously applied -Wagner's dramatic procedures, with modifications, to -a choral work, the variety and power of expression, the -firm treatment of the whole, and the superb use of a -large orchestra astounded musicians and public alike. -If the influence of both Franck and Wagner could be -discerned in the scenes of 'Baptism' and 'Love,' the assertive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</span> -personality evident in the scenes 'Vision' and -'Conflagration' was entirely original, and the dramatic -strokes in 'Death,' especially the telling use of portions -of the Catholic service for the dead in vigorous modal -harmonization, bespoke a composer of tragic intensity -of imagination.</p> - -<p>Another surprise came several years later, in 1897, -when <em>Fervaal</em>, op. 40 (1889-95), an opera in three acts, -text by the composer, had its <em>première</em> at the <em>Théâtre -de la Monnaie</em> in Brussels. For a time the numerous -and comprehensive Wagnerian obligations obscured -the real qualities of the work, and prevented a judicial -opinion. Resemblances were too many; a legendary -subject, a hero who combined characteristics of Siegfried -and Parsifal, a heroine partly compounded of -Brünnhilde and Kundry, the renunciation of love as in -the 'Ring' and many others. D'Indy furthermore boldly -adopted the systematic use of leading-motives, and system -of orchestration frankly modelled on Wagner. But -though <em>Fervaal</em> was assimilative in underlying treatment, -it was far less experimental than Chabrier's -<em>Gwendoline</em>. It greatly surpassed the older work not -only in thorough absorption of technical method, in -continuity and flexibility of style, but in appropriate -dramatic characterization, and in adroit manipulation -of the orchestral forces. Furthermore, in the essence -of the subject dealing with the passing of Pagan mythology, -with redemption through suffering, and the -outcome a new religious faith whose key-note was the -love of humanity, d'Indy achieved a dramatic elevation -whose moral force indicated an innovation in French -operatic subjects. Its source was ultimately Teutonic, -but its realization was concretely Gallic. Despite the -manifest obligations, <em>Fervaal</em> not only shows a technical -and dramatic skill of a high order, but a tragic -note of distinctive individuality. The symbolic use of -the ancient hymn <em>Pange Lingua</em> as typifying the Christian<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</span> -religion was not only a genuine dramatic inspiration -but a salient instance of effective connotation. -With the revival in 1912 at the Paris <em>Opéra</em>, when Wagnerianism -was no longer an issue,<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> the intrinsic qualities -of <em>Fervaal</em> were appreciated more on their own -merits. The incidental music to Catulle Mendès' drama -<em>Medée</em>, op. 47 (1898), showed afresh d'Indy's ability in -dramatic characterization, as well as his faculty for -realizing noble and tragic conceptions.</p> - -<p>With the opera <em>L'Étranger</em>, op. 53 (1898-1901), d'Indy -made a notable progress in dramatic independence at -the cost of unequal musical invention. In the drama -(text again by d'Indy) is to be found a conflict between -the realistic and the symbolical which was confusing -and prejudicial to the success of the opera. In addition -the symbolism was not always intelligible or convincing. -If there were moral nobility in the drama in -the personality of the unselfish Stranger whose devotion -to humanity was misunderstood or sneered at -until he gave his life in an attempt to relieve ship-wrecked -sailors, many of the scenes were somewhat -obscure in import. D'Indy also resorted to musical -symbolism in the use of a liturgic melody from the office -of Holy Thursday, with the text <em>Ubi caritas et amor, -ibi Deus est</em> as a thematic basis for the entire work. -While this induces an atmosphere of indubitable spiritual -and moral elevation in the opera, there are many -scenes, especially in the first act, in which d'Indy's -dramatic perceptions seem to have deserted him. At -the end of the first act, and in the final scene more -especially, d'Indy has written music of unparalleled -dramatic intensity. In his orchestral style he has virtually -renounced Wagner, and its personal eloquence is -exceedingly powerful.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</span></p> -<p>The evolution of d'Indy as a dramatic composer -forms an epitome of the development of French music -along dramatic lines. First slightly irresolute, then -acknowledging almost too sweepingly the glamour and -originality of Wagner, a nationalistic sentiment has -led to the repudiation of his potent influence, and the -gradual attainment of dramatic freedom. In a movement -whose most characteristic works are <em>Gwendoline</em>, -<em>Esclarmonde</em>, <em>Fervaal</em>, and <em>L'Étranger</em> we are compelled to -pause at the moment of genuine transition, and defer -the completion of this list until later. Report has it -that d'Indy has finished the composition of another -dramatic work, <em>La Légende de Saint-Christophe</em> (1907-14), -which should prove the strongest instance of his -unification of the dramatic and spiritual. D'Indy's art -has tended more and more to concern itself with religious -life and sentiment, and in his unselfish character -he is peculiarly qualified to treat such subjects.</p> - -<p>With the consideration of d'Indy as an instrumental -and dramatic composer, one has traversed the most -significant of his works. In addition one must reiterate -his services to the Société Nationale, the years of laborious -devotion at the Schola and his not infrequent -appearances as conductor of programs of French music -including a visit to the United States in 1905. Besides, -his work as editor and author completes roughly the -sum total of his influence. With the reconstitutions of -Monteverdi's <em>Orfeo</em> and <em>L'Incoronazione di Poppea</em>, revisions -of Rameau's <em>Dardanus</em>, <em>Hippolyte et Aricie</em> and -<em>Zaïs</em>, and many other arrangements, the authorship -(with the collaboration of Auguste Sérieyx) of the -<em>Cours de Composition</em> in two volumes (incomplete as -yet) compiled from Schola lectures and showing an -extraordinarily comprehensive erudition, the biographies -of César Franck and Beethoven, not to mention a -host of articles and addresses or lectures, one is able to -sense the versatility and the solidity of d'Indy's achievements.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</span> -It is easy to visualize the debt owed him by -French music. In the first place he has steadily been a -<em>conserver</em> from the technical standpoint. Using the -sixteenth-century counterpoint as a point of departure, -he has been innovative harmonically even to the point -of prefiguring the whole-tone scale. Using with fluent -adaptability the time-honored canon, fugue, passacaglia, -chorale, variation and sonata forms, he has been -faithful fundamentally to their classic essence, while -clothing them in a musical idiom which is definitely -modern. While d'Indy is out of sympathy with atmospheric -or futuristic tendencies in the music of to-day, -he is not of an invital arch-conservative type. As a -disciple of Franck he believes in the 'liberty that comes -from perfect obedience to the law,' though his speech is -permeated with individual eloquence. No more comprehensively -eminent figure exists in French music to-day. -Others may have shown fresh paths, but they lack -the totality of attainment which is eminently characteristic -of d'Indy.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>After d'Indy, the other representative pupils of -Franck have, with the exception of Guy Ropartz, had -their careers cut short by premature death or illness. -Nevertheless their accomplishment is far from being -negligible, and adds lustre not only to the fame of their -master but a very specific credit to French music.</p> - -<p>Of these the most gifted was Ernest Chausson, born -at Paris in 1855, who did not begin the serious study of -music until after obtaining his bachelor's degree at law. -Entering Massenet's composition class at the Paris <em>Conservatoire</em> -in 1880, he tried for the prix de Rome in the -following year and failed. He accordingly left the -conservatory and worked arduously with César Franck -until 1883. Chausson was a man of considerable property, -who could thus afford to compose. A man of cultivation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</span> -and polish, a gracious host and an amiable -comrade in society, he was in secret almost obsessed -by melancholy, lack of self-confidence despite his affectionate, -lovable and gentle nature. He was retiring -where his own interests were concerned, made no effort -to push his works, and in consequence was not sought -by managers. Possessing unusual discernment in literature -and painting, he had a fine library, and a distinguished -collection of paintings by Delacroix, Dégas, -Lerolle, Besnard and Carrière. Thus like Chabrier before -him and Debussy after him, Chausson's sympathies -were keen in more than one branch of art. Chausson -was eager to advance the cause of the Société Nationale -and labored as its secretary for nearly a dozen -years. His music was played at its concerts and elsewhere, -and began to make its way. Chausson was just -entering a new creative phase with greater self-confidence, -assertion and technical preparedness. At work -on a string quartet at his summer place Chimay, he -went to refresh himself one afternoon with a bicycle -ride, and was found by the roadside, his head crushed -against a wall.</p> - -<p>Chausson's music reflects his temperament with mirror-like -responsiveness. With perhaps more native -gifts than d'Indy, he lacked the latter's force of character -and his passionate ambition for self-development. -For long tormented by indecision as to whether to make -music his profession or not, his technical facility was -uncertain, and not always equal to the tasks he imposed -upon it. Like d'Indy he was influenced both by Franck -and Wagner. But he had a melodic vein that was his -own, a personal harmonic idiom, expressed in music of -poetic and delicately-colored romanticism. Perhaps -the most prominent trait in his music is the indefinably -affectionate sensibility of its emotion.</p> - -<p>Chausson began as a composer of chamber music -and songs. He soon entered the orchestral field with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</span> -prelude 'The Death of Coelio,' the symphonic poem -<em>Viviane</em>, op. 5 (1882), and <em>Solitude dans les bois</em> -(1886), later destroyed. If <em>Viviane</em> shows the insecure -hand of the apprentice, its technical insecurity is more -than counterbalanced by the exquisite poetry and romance -which breathe from its pages. Chausson's orchestral -masterpiece is his symphony in B-flat, op. 20 -(1890), whose conception is noble and dignified, whose -themes are mature and full of sentiment, and which -has many eloquent pages. Though the work is deficient -in rhythmic variety and flexibility of phrase, its -underlying substance is too elevated to permit depreciation. -Its orchestral style, despite Wagnerian obligations, -shows a distinguished coloristic sense even in -comparison with the unusual orchestral style of d'Indy. -Despite certain defects, a <em>Concert</em> for piano, violin and -string quartet, op. 21 (1890-91), a <em>Poème</em>, op. 25 (1896), -for violin and orchestra, frequently played by Ysaye, -a piano quartet, op. 30 (1897), and the unfinished string -quartet bespeak the talent and promise of achievement -which was never to be fulfilled. In the dramatic field, -Chausson composed incidental music for performances -at Bouchor's Marionette theatre of Shakespeare's -<em>Tempest</em>, and Bouchor's <em>Legend of St. Cecilia</em>, a lyric -drama <em>Hélène</em> (unpublished) and an opera, <em>Le Roi -Arthus</em> (text by himself), performed at Brussels in the -<em>Théâtre de la Monnaie</em> in 1903. That Chausson had -dramatic instinct is especially evident in <em>Le Roi Arthus</em>, -but there is immaturity in dramatic technique as -well as a too lyrical treatment which detracts from the -romantic atmosphere and imaginative conception of -the whole. Among the songs, 'The Caravan,' 'Poem of -Love' and 'The Sea' and the well-nigh perfect <em>Chanson -perpétuelle</em> for voice and orchestra show Chausson's -lyric gift at its best.</p> - -<p>Chausson remains a figure of importance, even if -much of his work suggests the possibilities of the future<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</span> -rather than claims a final judgment on its own -account. <em>Viviane</em>, the <em>Poème</em> for violin, the piano quartet, -the <em>Chanson perpétuelle</em> and above all the Symphony -will survive their technical flaws on account of -their individualistic expression of noble thoughts and -fastidiously poetic emotion.</p> - -<p>Henri Duparc, born at Paris in 1848, studied law as -did d'Indy and Chausson. One of the earliest pupils -of César Franck, he was also one of the first Frenchmen -to recognize Wagner, and made journeys with -Chabrier and d'Indy to hear his works in Germany. -From 1869, Duparc composed piano pieces, songs, -chamber music and works for orchestra. A merciless -critic of his own music, he has destroyed several works, -including a sonata for violoncello and piano, and two -orchestral studies. Since 1885 Duparc's career as a -composer has been closed owing to persistent ill health. -He is known by a symphonic poem <em>Lénore</em> (1875) after -the ballad by Bürger, and something more than a -dozen songs. The symphonic poem is interesting if -not remarkable, but the songs reveal the born lyricist. -Through thirty years of silence, the vitality of some of -these persists, especially <em>L'Invitation au voyage</em>, <em>Ecstase</em>, -<em>Lamento</em>, and <em>Phydilé</em>, as possessing distinctive -qualities which place them in the front rank of French -lyrics.</p> - -<p>Guillaume Lekeu (1870-94), another tragically unfulfilled -artist of Belgian descent, played the violin at -fourteen, studied the music of Bach, Beethoven and -Wagner by himself, and at the age of nineteen had an -orchestral piece, <em>Le Chant de triomphale délivrance</em>, -performed at Verviers, 'without having had a single -lesson in composition.'<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> From 1888 he lived in Paris, -where he obtained his bachelor's degree in philosophy. -He became a friend of the poet Mallarmé, at whose -gatherings of poets, painters and philosophers Claude -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</span>Debussy found such illuminating inspiration. Lekeu -completed the study of harmony with Gaston Vallin, a -pupil of Franck, and soon came under the influence of -Franck himself. After Franck's death, he continued -composition lessons with d'Indy. D'Indy urged Lekeu, -as a native Belgian, to compete for the Belgian <em>prix de -Rome</em>. In 1891 he obtained the second prize with a -cantata <em>Andromède</em>. Its performance later was so successful -as to question the decision of the judges. In -1892 Lekeu wrote the sonata for piano and violin, which -was frequently played by Ysaye. In the same year he -finished a <em>Fantasie symphonique</em> on two folk-tunes of -Angers. While working at a piano quartet, Lekeu died -suddenly in 1894 from a relapse after typhoid fever. -Despite the contrary indications in his music, Lekeu -was of a gay, outgoing nature, full of spontaneity and -exuberance.</p> - - -<p>Besides the works mentioned he left songs, a piano -sonata, chamber music and orchestral pieces, among -them symphonic studies on 'Hamlet' and 'Faust' (second -part). It is perhaps inevitable that much of his -music should be immature, but the sonata for piano and -violin and the piano quartet show indisputable gifts -of a very high order, in which melodic inspiration, -frank harmonic experiments (some of them more felicitous -than others), an original and thoughtful kind of -beauty, and strong delineation of tragic moods are the -most salient qualities.</p> - -<p>Alexis de Castillon (1838-73) showed early aptitude -for music, but was educated for the army in deference -to the wishes of his family. After leaving the military -school of Saint-Cyr, he became a cavalry officer. But -the impulse toward music was too strong and after several -years he resigned from the army. He had studied -music in a desultory fashion before, and now turned -to Victor Massé (the composer of a popular operetta, -<em>Les Noces de Jeannette</em>). From him he learned little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</span> -or nothing. In 1868 Duparc introduced de Castillon -to César Franck, who gladly received him as a pupil. -De Castillon served valiantly during the Franco-Prussian -war and then returned to his chosen profession -only to die two years later, leaving piano pieces, songs, -some half a dozen chamber works including the piano -and violin sonata op. 6, a concerto for piano, orchestral -pieces, and a setting of the 84th Psalm. By reason of -the vicissitudes of his life, de Castillon was never able -to do justice to his gifts. The sonata, a string quartet, -and a piano quartet, op. 7, show a native predisposition -for chamber music, which assuredly would have ripened -had the composer's life been spared. At his -funeral were assembled Bizet, Franck, Lalo, Duparc, -d'Indy, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, and others who had -'loved the artist and the man.'<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> Impressed by this assemblage -one of de Castillon's relatives remarked: -'Then he really had talent!'<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> - -<p>Charles Bordes (1865-1905) should receive some mention, -not only for his piano pieces, songs, sacred music, -and orchestral works, but for innumerable transcriptions -and arrangements of folk-songs, cantatas, vocal -pieces by various French composers, and his anthology -of religious music of the fifteenth to the seventeenth -centuries. Furthermore his organization of the <em>Chanteurs -de Saint Gervais</em> gave a decided impulse toward -the revival of sacred music, and his labors at the <em>Schola</em> -in Paris and the branch established at Montpellier give -evidence of his untiring devotion to the cause of art.</p> - -<p>In contrast to the pathetic incompleteness of the careers -of Chausson, Lekeu, de Castillon, and Bordes, Guy -Ropartz has been enabled by reason of his long activity -to round out his talent. Joseph-Guy-Marie Ropartz -was born at Guincamp in the north of France in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</span>1864. After completing his general education he graduated -from the law school at Rennes and was admitted -to the bar. Then, like d'Indy and Chausson, he gave -up law for music, entered the Paris <em>Conservatoire</em>, -where he studied with Dubois and Massenet. In 1887 -he left the <em>Conservatoire</em> to be a pupil of Franck. In -1894 he became director of the conservatory at Nancy, -a position which he still holds.</p> - -<p>Ropartz has been an industrious composer, and -among his works are incidental music for four dramas, -including Pierre Loti's and Louis Tiercelius' drama -<em>Pêcheur d'Islande</em>; a music drama, <em>Le Pays</em>; four symphonies; -a fantasia; a symphonic study, <em>La Chasse du -Prince Arthur</em>; several suites for orchestra; two string -quartets; a sonata for violoncello and piano, and one -for violin and piano; many songs and vocal pieces including -a setting of the 137th Psalm.</p> - -<p>Following the principles of Franck, he tends toward -cyclical forms on generative themes, and in addition -employs Breton folk-songs in orchestral and dramatic -works. The symphony in C major, by its treatment of -a generative phrase, emphasizes his fidelity to his master, -but despite effective and transparent orchestration -the work is lacking in strong individuality and in -inherent logic and continuity in development. The -sonatas for violin and for violoncello with piano display -adequate workmanship and conception of style -but do not possess concrete musical persuasiveness. -Ropartz appears in the most favorable light when his -music gives free utterance to nationalistic sentiment -and 'local color.' His Breton suite and the Fantasia -have a rustic piquancy and rhythmic verve which give -evidence of sincere conviction.</p> - -<p><em>Le Pays</em> is said by no less an authority than Professor -Henri Lichtenberger to belong to 'the little group of -works which, like <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em> of Debussy, -<em>Ariane et Barbe-bleue</em> of Dukas, <em>Le Cœur du Moulin</em><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</span> -of Déodat de Séverac, <em>L'Heure espagnole</em> of Ravel, -have distinct value and significance in the evolution -of our French art.'<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> But a study of the music does not -entirely bear this out. Ropartz shows in this music -drama an obvious gift for the stage, and his music -clearly heightens the dramatic situations. In its freedom -from outside influence it undoubtedly possesses -historical significance, but in compelling originality it -does not maintain the level of the works mentioned -above.</p> - -<p>The foregoing pupils of Franck are those who have -best illustrated the didactic standpoint of their revered -master, both as regards technical treatment and uncompromising -self-expression. Of these d'Indy is incomparably -the most distinguished by virtue of the -continuity of his development, the intrinsic message -of his music, and his remarkable faculty for organization -in educative propaganda. If Chausson, Lekeu, and -Bordes were prevented from reaping the just rewards -to which their gifts entitled them, they attained not -only enough for self-justification but have left a definite -imprint on the course of modern French music.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, though Franck's pupils are not iconoclastic, -though they seem ultra-reactionary in some respects, -their united efforts have preserved intact the -traditions of one of the noblest figures in French music, -and in their works is to be found music of such lofty -conception, admirable technical execution, and fearless -expression of personality as to make the task of -disparagement futile and ungrateful. Moreover, this -influence has not ceased with the actual pupils of -Franck. The names and works of Magnard,<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Roussel, -de Séverac and Samazeuilh attest the fact that the -Franckian tradition is still a living force.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</span></p> - -<p>While Emmanuel Chabrier and Gabriel Fauré -showed the way for new vitality in musical expression -and the pupils of Franck demonstrated that the resources -of conservatism were not yet exhausted, new -movements were also on foot which may be classified -as belonging to the 'impressionistic or atmospheric' -school. A consideration of this movement, together -with some unclassifiable figures and an indication of -the work of some younger men, will follow in the next -chapter.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">E. B. H.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> Vincent d'Indy: <em>César Franck</em>, pp. 82 <em>et seq.</em></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> Romain Rolland: <em>Musiciens d'aujourd'hui</em>, pp. 230 <em>et seq.</em></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> Octave Séré: <em>Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui</em>, p. 83.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> Ibid., p. 83.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> S. I. M., April 15, 1911.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Vincent d'Indy: <em>César Franck</em>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Autobiographical Sketch in 'The Music-Lover's Calendar,' Boston, 1905.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Charles Bordes founded the <em>Chanteurs de St. Gervaise</em> in 1892 to perform -sixteenth-century music, and more worthy later choral works. Including -the study of plain-chant, better standards in modern church music, -and higher requirements in organists, this association became the <em>Schola -Cantorum</em> in 1894. As a school it was incorporated as above.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> The theme of the Beloved, employed in the orchestral poem <em>Souvenirs</em>, -op. 62.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> From the Cévennes region.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> Melody employed in the service proper to the Feast of the Assumption.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> '<em>On accuse les compositeurs de debussysme, on ne leur reproche plus -d'être wagnériens.</em>'—Preface to 2nd edition, <em>Fervaal, Étude thématique</em>, by -Pierre de Bréville and Henri Laubers Villars.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> Octave Séré: <em>Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui</em>, p. 272.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> Louis Gallet: <em>Notes d'un Librettist</em>, quoted by Octave Séré in <em>Musiciens -français d'aujourd'hui</em>, p. 73.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> Ibid.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Lowell Institute Lecture, Jan. 7, 1915. Reported in the 'Boston Transcript.'</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> Magnard died in September, 1914, somewhat quixotically defending his -cause against the Germans.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER X<br /> -<small>DEBUSSY AND THE ULTRA-MODERNISTS</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Impressionism in Music—Claude Debussy, the pioneer of the 'atmospheric' -school; his career, his works and his influence—Maurice Ravel, -his life and work—Alfred Bruneau; Gustave Charpentier—Paul Dukas—Miscellany; -Albert Roussel and Florent Schmitt.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="p2">The trend of ultra-modern French music has been so -swift in its development that the significant episodes -crowd upon one another's heels when they do not stride -along side by side. Within a year or two after the -death of César Franck and Edouard Lalo, while Saint-Saëns -was in the full tide of his ceaseless productivity, -while Massenet, then famed as the composer of <em>Manon</em>, -was shortly to meditate his <em>Thaïs</em> and <em>La Navarraise</em>, -while the irrepressible Chabrier was beginning to pay -the toll of his strenuous activity, while Fauré's songs -had already won recognition for their subtle mixtures -of sensuousness and mysticism, while d'Indy and -Chausson were evolving their individuality on the lines -laid down by their revered master, there arose strikingly -new principles of musical expression, involving -a new æsthetic standpoint, an enlargement of harmonic -resource, supplying a new and vital idiom which is -perhaps the most characteristically Gallic of the ultra-modern -movements centred in Paris. These principles -have crystallized into the impressionistic or 'atmospheric' -school, whose rise during the past fifteen or -twenty years has been little short of meteoric.</p> - -<p>The subject of parallelism between the arts with a -definite interacting influence is a fertile one for discussion. -While but little space can be devoted here to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</span> -enlargement upon this topic, it may be observed that -with the advance of culture the intervening time before -one art reacts upon another becomes shorter. If the -Renaissance was relatively slow in affecting music, the -revolutionary outbreaks of 1830 and 1848 were more -nearly synchronous, while in the case of realism and -impressionism, the resulting confluence of principles -was nearly simultaneous. Fortunately the basic methods -of impressionism in painting and poetry are so well -understood that no definition of their purposes is needful -beyond a reminder that they aim to subordinate -detail in favor of the effect as a whole. In music impressionism -is obtained by procedures analogous if -markedly dissimilar from those employed in painting. -The results are alike in that both arts have gained enormously -in scope of subject as well as in greater brilliancy, -elusive poetry and human significance in their -treatment.</p> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>It is not too much to say that Claude Debussy may -be considered as the real originator of impressionism -in music, although he did not begin to compose in this -manner. But Debussy's success has brought forth a -host of imitators in France, Russia, England, and even -the United States, while so essentially Teutonic a composer -as Max Reger has passed through a Debussian -phase. Another composer who has contributed to the -development of impressionistic method is Maurice -Ravel, and he undoubtedly has derived much from Debussy. -At the same time he displays many original -characteristics which have nothing in common with -Debussy, and hence he cannot be dismissed as a mere -echo of the older composer. Impressionism has become -so essentially a part of ultra-modern French musical -evolution as to merit a clear exposition of its -claims and the achievements of its founders.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</span></p> - -<p>Claude-Achille Debussy was born at St. Germain-en-Laye, -not far from Paris, August 22, 1862. His father -was ambitious to make a sailor of his son, but a certain -Mme. Mautet, whose son was a brother-in-law of -Paul Verlaine, herself a pupil of Chopin, was so impressed -by the boy's piano playing that she prepared -him for entrance into the Paris Conservatory. He obtained -medals in solfeggio and piano playing, but was -less fortunate in the harmony class. In the class of -Émile Durand the study of harmony resolved itself -into an effort to discover the 'author's harmony' for -a given bass or soprano, hampered by rules 'as arbitrary -as those of bridge.'<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Debussy also entered -Franck's organ class at the Conservatory, but here also -he was at odds with the master, whose urgings 'modulate, -modulate!' during the pupil's improvizations -seemed too often without point. In 1879 Debussy journeyed -to Russia with Mme. Metch, the wife of a Russian -railway constructor, in the capacity of domestic -pianist. He made slight acquaintance with Balakireff, -Borodine, and Rimsky-Korsakoff, but never came -across Moussorgsky, who was destined later to exercise -so marked an influence upon his dramatic methods. -The dominant expression which he brought back from -Russia was that of the fantastic gypsy music, whose -rhapsodic and improvisatory character addressed itself -readily to his fancy. At last Debussy entered the composition -class of Ernest Guiraud, and here his ability -quickly asserted itself. After a mention in counterpoint -and fugue in 1882, he obtained a second <em>prix de -Rome</em> in 1885, and the first prize in the year following -with the cantata 'The Prodigal Son,' entitling him to -study in Rome at governmental expense.</p> - -<p>From Rome Debussy sent back to the Institute, as required, -a portion of a setting of Heine's lyrical drama -<em>Almanzor</em>, a suite for women's voices and orchestra, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</span>'Spring,' recently published in a revision for orchestra -alone; a setting of Rossetti's 'The Blessed Damozel' for -voices and orchestra (finished after his return to Paris), -and a fantasy for piano and orchestra which has never -been published or performed.</p> - -<p>On his return to Paris Debussy made the acquaintance -of Moussorgsky's <em>Boris Godounoff</em> in the first edition, -before the revisions and alterations made by Rimsky-Korsakoff. -This work was an immense revelation -of the possibilities of a simple yet poignant dramatic -style, and undoubtedly was fraught with suggestion to -the future composer of <em>Pelléas</em>. A visit to Bayreuth in -1889, where he heard <em>Tristan</em>, <em>Parsifal</em>, and the <em>Meistersinger</em>, -showed Wagner in a new light to Debussy. But -on repeating the trip in the following year he returned -disillusionized and henceforth Wagner ceased to exert -any influence whatever upon him. For some time at -this period Debussy was generously aided by the publisher -Georges Hartmann, who had likewise encouraged -de Castillon and Massenet. During these years Debussy -composed many piano pieces and songs, among -them the <em>Arabesques</em> (1888), the <em>Ballade</em>, <em>Danse</em>, <em>Mazurka</em>, -<em>Reverie</em>, <em>Nocturne</em>, and the <em>Suite Bergamasque</em>, -all dating from 1890. These piano pieces exhibit Debussy -as a frankly melodic composer of indubitable refinement -and imagination, in a vein not far removed -from that of Massenet, although possessing more distinction -and poetic sentiment. Among the songs the -early <em>Nuit d'étoiles</em> (1876), <em>Fleur des blés</em> (1878), and -<em>Beau Soir</em> (1878) are experimental, the last of the -three being the most interesting. The 'Three Melodies' -(1880), containing the songs <em>La Belle au bois dormant</em>, -<em>Voici que le Printemps</em>, and <em>Paysage sentimental</em>, the -<em>Ariettes oubliées</em> (1888, but revised later) show a -marked progress in concreteness of mood and harmonic -subtlety. Three songs (1890) on texts by Verlaine, -<em>L'Échelonnement des haies</em>, <em>La Mer est plus belle</em>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</span> -and <em>Le Son du Cor s'afflige</em>, and the <em>Cinq poëmes de -Baudelaire</em> (1890), show a further evolution of lyric -delineation. If the latter are unequal (<em>Le Balcon</em> and -<em>Le jet d'eau</em> are the most vital) they at least demonstrate -an æsthetic ferment toward the later Debussy. -<em>Mandoline</em> (also 1890) is also a direct premonition of a -maturer style. In confirmation of this steady evolution -one must recall that side by side with the palpable -influence of Massenet in the cantata 'The Prodigal Son' -(especially in the prelude) and in the second movement -of the suite 'Spring' there were likewise harmonic -individualities and expressive sentiments in the first -movement of the suite, and in the delicately pre-Raphaelitic -'Blessed Damozel' which presage the developments -to come.</p> - -<p>However, the direct stimulus which guided Debussy -in his search for personal enfranchisement did not -come from musical sources,<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> but from association with -poets, literary critics, and painters. From 1885 onwards,<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> -the symbolist poets Gustave Kahn, Pierre -Louys, Francis Vielé-Griffin, Stuart Merrill, Paul Verlaine, -Henri de Regnier, the painter Whistler, and -many others were in the habit of meeting at the house -of Stéphane Mallarmé, the symbolist poet, for discussion -on a variety of æsthetic topics. The <em>Salon de la -Rose-Croix</em>, formed by French painters as an outcome -of pre-Raphaelite influence, grew out of these meetings. -Verlaine and Mallarmé had founded the 'Wagnerian -Review' as a medium for exposition of the essential -unity of all the arts. As a result of these critical inquiries -and debates, Debussy was struck with the possibility -of attempting to transfer impressionistic and -symbolistic theories into the domain of music.</p> - -<p>The first concrete instance of a deliberate embodiment -of impressionistic method is to be found in the -exquisite 'Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun' (1882), -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</span>founded on the poem by Mallarmé. Here Debussy succeeded -admirably in translating the vague symbolism -of the poem into music of languorous mood and ineffably -delicate poetry. This brief piece, novel and striking -in both harmonic and expressive idiom, marks a -departure into a field of fertile consequence and far-reaching -import both intrinsically and historically.</p> - -<p>It was in the summer of 1892, also, that Debussy -quite by chance came across Maeterlinck's play <em>Pelléas -et Mélisande</em>. Both the intensely human elements in -the drama and its sensitive symbolism made a strong -appeal to Debussy's newly awakened æsthetic instincts -and, after obtaining permission to utilize the play as -an opera text, he at once set to work upon it. For ten -years Debussy labored upon <em>Pelléas</em> with a patient -striving to realize in music its humanitarian sentiment, -its creative poetry and its tragedy. During these years -of gradual distillation of thought he attained slowly -but surely the inimitable style of his maturity. But in -the meantime he composed also in various other fields.</p> - -<p>Already the songs, <em>Fêtes galantes</em> (1892), on Verlaine's -poems showed in their delicately impressionistic -introspection that the 'Afternoon of a Faun' was no -casual experiment. Similarly, the <em>Proses Lyriques</em> -(1893), although unequal, exhibit clearly, especially in -the songs <em>De Rêve</em> and <em>De Grève</em>, a formulation of the -whole-tone idiom, which was later to become a characteristic -feature of Debussy's style. A string quartet -(also 1893) was, by virtue of its inevitable restriction, -a momentary abandonment of the impressionistic ideal, -but within these limitations Debussy achieved an astonishing -individuality, charm of mood, and clearcut -workmanship, particularly in the thoughtful, slow -movement and the piquant scherzo. In 1898 he returned -to the impressionistic vein with three <em>Chansons -de Bilitis</em> from the like-named volume of poems by -Pierre Louys. The naïveté, humor, and penetrating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</span> -poetry of these lyrics were akin to the imaginative vein -of the <em>Fêtes galantes</em>.</p> - -<p>In the following year Debussy gave a larger affirmation -of his impressionistic creed with the Nocturnes -for orchestra entitled 'Clouds,' 'Festivals,' and 'Sirens' -(the latter with a chorus of women's voices). These -pieces, although avowedly programmistic, do not attempt -realistic tone-painting, but aim rather to suggest -impressionistic moods growing out of their titles. The -slow procession of clouds, the dazzling intermingling -of groups of revellers, the elusive seduction of imaginary -sirens are pictured with an atmospheric verity -that far transcends the possibilities of realistic standpoint. -Musically the Nocturnes are distinguished by -their intrinsic potency of expression, their basic formal -coherence and logic of development, their concreteness -of mood, and their picturesqueness of detail. -The use of a chorus of women's voices, vocalizing -without text, a feature already employed in 'Spring,' -was not original to Debussy, for Berlioz had already -employed it in his highly dramatic but little known -Funeral March for the last scene of 'Hamlet' (1848). -But Debussy's highly coloristic and ingenious application -of the medium greatly enhances the pervasive -poetry of this Nocturne, and transforms it into a virtual -novelty. Not the least interesting harmonic consideration -of this piece is the use, with some definite system, -of the whole-tone scale, which Debussy later exploited -so remarkably, and of which up to this time only -transient suggestions had appeared.</p> - -<p>During his long contemplative absorption in <em>Pelléas</em> -Debussy had not entirely neglected composition for the -piano. A <em>Marche écossaise</em> 'on a popular theme' ('The -Earl of Ross's March') for four hands (1891, orchestrated -in 1908) is piquant and vivacious without being -particularly characteristic. A 'Little Suite' for the -same combination (1894), if somewhat slight musically,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</span> -is pleasing for its clarity and simple directness. In -1901, however, Debussy showed a far more definite -originality, both pianistically and harmonically, in a -set of three pieces entitled <em>Pour le Piano</em>, with the subtitles -'Prelude,' 'Sarabande' and 'Toccata.' If the prelude -suggests something of the style of Bach, if the Sarabande -is to a certain extent a modernization of the -gravity of Rameau, and the toccata bears a resemblance -in its fiery impulsiveness to Domenico Scarlatti, these -pieces are none the less positively characteristic of Debussy -in their fundamentals. The frank use of the -whole-tone scale in the prelude, the harmonic boldness -of the sarabande with its sequences of sevenths, and -the ingenious piano figures in the toccata are the external -evidences of a basically individual conception. -If these pieces do not display the impressionism that -is indigenous to the later Debussy, they represent a -transition stage of far from negligible interest.</p> - -<p>With the performances in 1902 of <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em> -at the Opéra Comique Debussy attained an immediate -and definite renown. There was abundance of -opposition, disparagement, and ill-natured criticism, -but the work was too obviously significant to be downed -by it. To begin with it was epoch-making in the annals -of French dramatic art in that it marked a complete -enfranchisement from the influence of Wagner. Debussy -had been censured for saying that melody in the -voice parts (that is, <em>formal</em> melody) was 'anti-dramatic,' -but his by no means unmelodic recitative with -its fastidious attention to finesse of declamation justified -the restriction of the melodic element to the orchestra. -If the dramatic style of <em>Pelléas</em>, in its economy -of musical emphasis, was directly modelled upon -Moussorgsky's <em>Boris</em>, the evolution of this idea in -which the orchestra throughout, with the exception of -a few climaxes, maintained a transparent delicacy of -sonority, established a new conception of dramatic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</span> -style as well as new resources in sensibility of timbre. -Harmonically, <em>Pelléas</em> shows both a surprising unity -(considering that it occupied Debussy for ten years -at a transitional phase of his career) and a remarkable -extension of devices scarcely more than hinted -at in his earlier works. It is difficult to formulate -these innovations briefly, but they may be grouped -under three general headings. First, an æsthetic abrogation -of certain conventional harmonic procedures; -the free use of consecutive fifths and octaves, sequences -of seventh chords (in which Fauré definitely anticipated -Debussy), and of ninths. In these seemingly anarchistic -over-rulings of tradition Debussy was guided -by a sure and hyper-sensitive instinct. Second, the employment -of modal harmonization, sometimes strict but -more often free, with a singularly felicitous dramatic -connotation. Third, the development of a logical manner -founded on the whole-tone scale. Debussy cannot -claim that he originated the whole-tone scale, since it -was used by Dargomijsky in the third act of 'The -Stone Guest' (1869), by various neo-Russians, notably -Rimsky-Korsakoff, by Chabrier, Fauré, and d'Indy (in -the second act of <em>Fervaal</em>); nevertheless he can be said -to have made this idiom his own by his flexible and discriminating -manipulation of its resources. Debussy -does not employ the whole-tone scale as monotonously -as is often supposed. On the contrary, one of the -marked features of his harmonic style is its resourceful -variety.</p> - -<p>Debussy's use of motives constitutes the very antipodes -of Wagner's somewhat cumbrous symphonic development -of them. If at first Debussy's treatment -seems too fluid and lacking in continuity, a closer study -of the score (especially in the orchestral version) will -reveal not only a flexible adaptation of motives to the -dramatic situations, but a logical and constructive development -often with considerable contrapuntal dexterity.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</span> -Furthermore, a formal coherence is maintained -without the artifices of symphonic development.</p> - -<p>But the import of <em>Pelléas</em> does not consist merely in -the historical or technical value of its innovating features, -although this is patent. It resides primarily in -the basic poignancy with which the music illustrates -and reinforces the touching drama by Maeterlinck, as -well as its intrinsic surpassing beauty and poetic thrall. -It is because Debussy has characterized the innocent, -gentle Mélisande, the ardent Pelléas, Golaud haggard -with jealousy, the childlike carelessness of Yniold during -a questioning of such import to his father, with -such searching fidelity to the creations of the poet that -we find music and drama in accord to an extent seldom -witnessed in the history of opera. It is because Debussy -has brought such freshness of musical invention -and profound aptness of interpretation in such scenes -as the discovery of Mélisande by Golaud, the questioning -end of Act I, the animated scene between Pelléas -and Mélisande in Act II, their long love scene in Act III, -the dramatic duet at the end of Act IV, and the death -scene of Mélisande in Act V, that this opera occupies -a unique position. The characterization of the forest, -of the subterranean vaults of the château, of the remorse -of Golaud after his deed of vengeance, and the -purifying majesty of death show Debussy as a poet -and dramatist of indisputable mastery. Indeed, it is -not too much to say that <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em> occupies -a position in modern French music akin to that of -<em>Tristan und Isolde</em> in German dramatic literature.</p> - -<p>After <em>Pelléas</em>, Debussy turned again to the impressionistic -style in piano pieces and orchestral works of -progressive evolution. With the 'Engravings' for piano -(1903) containing 'Pagodas,' 'Evening in Grenada,' -'Gardens in the Rain,' he continued the impressionistic -method of 'The Afternoon of a Faun' with an amplified -harmonic and expressive idiom. 'Pagodas,'<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</span> -founded on the Cambodian scale, and the Spanish suggestions -in 'Evening in Grenada' are characteristic instances -of the French taste for exoticism; 'Gardens in -the Rain' is founded upon an old French folk-song -which Debussy used later in the orchestral <em>Image, -Rondes de Printemps</em>. All three are markedly individual, -and display the poetic insight of Debussy tempered -by discretion. 'Masks' and 'The Joyous Isle' -(both 1904) contain alike fantastic exuberance and an -increasingly personal pianistic and harmonic style. -The latter in particular contains a homogeneity of thematic -development supposedly incompatible with an -impressionistic method. Two sets of <em>Images</em> (1905 and -1907) make still greater demands upon the impressionistic -capacity of the listener, sometimes at the expense -of concrete musical inventiveness, but those entitled -'Reflections in the Water' and 'Goldfishes' offer no -diminution of imaginative vitality. 'The Children's -Corner' (1908), a collection of miniatures, are sketches -of poetic appeal, though relatively slight. The final -number, 'Golliwog's Cakewalk,' is a fascinating French -version of ragtime style. Mr. André Caplet has orchestrated -these pieces with sensitive taste. Two series of -'Preludes' (1911 and 1913) exhibit both the virtues and -defects of Debussy's piano music. In some the piano -is scarcely equal to the impressionistic demands made -upon it, others touch the high-water mark of Debussy's -versatile invention. In the first set, 'Veils,' 'The Wind -in the Plain,' 'The Enveloped Cathedral' are felicitously -impressionistic; the 'Sounds and Perfumes Turn -in the Evening Air,' 'The Girl with Flaxen Hair' are -lyrically atmospheric, while in 'Minstrels' is to be found -another inimitably humorous transcription of ragtime -idiom. In the second set, <em>La Puerta del Vino</em> is an imaginatively -exotic Habañera; <em>La terrasse des audiences -des clair de lune</em> is of rarefied emotional atmosphere; -'The Fairies are Exquisite Dancers' and <em>Ondine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</span></em> -are brilliant bits of delicate fancy; 'General Lavine—Eccentric' -is another witty adaptation of rag-time in -the Debussian manner. 'Fireworks,' a brilliantly impressionistic -study ending with a distant refrain of -the <em>Marseillaise</em> in a key other than that of the bass, -approaches realism, a final climax, before the above-mentioned -refrain, consisting of a double glissando on -the black and white keys simultaneously. 'Fireworks' -is also notable for a cadenza which is not in Debussy's -harmonic style, and which closely resembles cadenzas -characteristic of Maurice Ravel. But, with the historic -precedent of Haydn in his old age learning of Mozart -in orchestral procedure, one must not deny the same -privilege to Debussy. This detail is not without its -piquant side, because Ravel has been unjustly reproached -for too many 'obligations' to Debussy.</p> - -<p>In the meantime Debussy has published several sets -of songs entitled to mention. A second collection of -<em>Fêtes galantes</em> (1904) shows a slight falling off in spontaneity, -but <em>Le Faune</em> is imaginative and felicitously -inventive, and in the <em>Colloque sentimental</em> an ingenious -quotation is made from an accompaniment figure of -<em>En Sourdine</em> in the first collection, justifiable not only -on account of the sentiments of the text in the second -song, but for the reminiscent alteration of the original -harmonies. A charming song, <em>Le Jardin</em> (presumably -1905), from a collection of settings by various French -composers of poems by Paul Gravollet, having a delightful -running accompaniment over a measured declamation -of the text, must be regarded as one of Debussy's -best. With some departure from his usual -choice of texts, Debussy has successfully set three <em>Ballades</em> -(1910) by François Villon, reproducing with uncommon -picturesqueness the archaic flavor of the -poem. The same year witnessed the publication of <em>Le -Promenoir des amants</em> on poems by Tristan Lhermitte, -whose delicate poetic style is more characteristic of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</span> -established individuality. Of the 'Three Poems by -Mallarmé' (1913) one must admit an exquisite but -somewhat tenuous musical sentiment, not entirely free -from the 'polyharmonic' influence now current in Paris.</p> - -<p>Among Debussy's vocal works, especial stress should -be laid on the spontaneous and spirited settings for -unaccompanied mixed chorus of the <em>Trois Chansons</em> -of Charles d'Orléans (1908). Here Debussy has caught -the spirit of these fifteenth-century poems most aptly, -and yet has not departed essentially from his own individuality. -It is incredible that these choruses are not -better known, and that they are not in the repertory -of more choral societies.</p> - -<p>In the meantime it is not to be supposed that Debussy -had relinquished orchestral composition since -his success with <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em>. In 1904 he wrote -two dances, <em>Danse profane</em> and <em>Danse sacrée</em>, for the -newly invented chromatic harp with accompaniment -of string orchestra. These pieces are pleasingly archaic -in character and yet not unduly so, illustrating an unusual -capacity in Debussy's inventive imagination. -'The Sea,' three symphonic sketches for orchestra -(1903-1905), produced in 1905, cannot be considered -entirely successful in spite of many remarkable qualities. -Here Debussy has attempted a subject which has -proved disillusionizing for many composers, and one -which is perhaps beyond the scope of his imagination. -There are picturesque and beautiful episodes in the -first movement, particularly the last pages, but the effect -of the movement as a whole is disjointed. The -second movement, <em>Jeux des Vagues</em>, is thoroughly -charming in its fanciful delineation of its title, and -possesses more continuity of development. The third -movement, again, is less satisfactory, although the climax -is stirringly triumphant. In 1909 Debussy published -three <em>Images</em> for orchestra: <em>Gigues</em> (not published -until 1913, although announced with the others),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</span> -<em>Ibéria</em>, and <em>Rondes de Printemps</em>. <em>Gigues</em> is a slight -if charming piece, with vivacious rhythms and no little -originality of orchestral effect; <em>Rondes de Printemps</em> -is a fantastic and sensitive impressionistic sketch, -founded upon the same folk-song which Debussy employed -in 'Gardens in the Rain' from the 'Engravings,' -here treated with the contrapuntal resources of imitation -and augmentation. If an episode in the middle of -the piece is less vital both in invention and treatment, -the effect of the whole is full of poetry, especially at -the climax where the strings divided have a sequence -of inverted chords of the eleventh descending diatonically -with magical effect. But the most significant by -far of these <em>Images</em> is <em>Ibéria</em> (the ancient name for -Spain), in which Debussy has given free play to his -exotic imagination and his faculty for impressionistic -treatment. Like Chabrier's <em>España</em>, Debussy's <em>Ibéria</em> -is still Spain seen through a Frenchman's eyes, but -with an enormous temperamental difference in vision. -In the first section, 'Through the Streets and Byways,' -Debussy has never shown more fantastic brilliance -and vivid, almost garish, interplay of color. In the -second portion, 'The Perfumes of Night,' he has never -exceeded its poignant atmosphere of surcharged sensibility. -A theme for divided violas and violoncellos -recalls the emotional heights of <em>Pelléas</em>. The last -movement, 'Morning on a Fête Day,' shows an impressionism -intensified almost to realism. As a whole -<em>Ibéria</em> is perhaps the most satisfying example of Debussy's -mature method, in which we find an undiminished -vitality of imagination combined with irreproachable -workmanship. Debussy's orchestral style, while -difficult to adjust satisfactorily, is full of delicate and -brilliant coloristic effects side by side.</p> - -<p>In 1911 Debussy wrote incidental music for Gabriel -d'Annunzio's drama 'The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian.' -It is a thankless task to appraise dramatic music apart<span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</span> -from its intended adjuncts, especially when it is somewhat -fragmentary in character. There is an abundant -use of the quasi-archaic idiom (already employed in -the first of the Dances for harp and strings), which -found its justification in the mystical character of the -drama. Also there seems a little straining of impressionistic -resources in harmony, and not a little effective -choral writing. An orchestra of unusual constituence -gave opportunity for effects of a striking character. -But the fact remains that the music loses much of its -appeal apart from the conditions for which it was -written.</p> - -<p>Of late Debussy has taken to the ballet, influenced -no doubt by the example of his contemporaries and -the magnificent opportunities for performance offered -by the annual visits of Diaghilev's Russian Ballet. -Florent Schmitt was one of the first of ultra-modern -Frenchmen to try this form with his lurid and masterly -<em>Tragédie de Salomé</em> (1907); then followed Paul Dukas -with <em>La Péri</em> (1910), Maurice Ravel with 'Daphnis and -Chloë' (1911), and other works to be mentioned later.</p> - -<p>In 1912 Debussy published <em>Jeux</em>, ballet in one act on -a scenario by Nijinsky, and <em>Khamma</em>, of the same dimensions, -by W. L. Courtney and Maud Allan. Finally, -in 1913, he composed the miniature ballet-pantomime -<em>La Boîte aux joujoux</em>, by André Heller. In these works -he has shown a natural theatrical and scenic instinct -which is extraordinary, a sensitive adaptation of music -to dramatic situations, and a surprising versatility -in spite of his previous vindications of this quality. -The plot of <em>Jeux</em> is slight and fantastically unreal and -improbable, but it has afforded a basis for impalpable -music of great subtlety and distinction, in which -the appeal to Debussy's imagination was obvious. -<em>Khamma</em>, admirably contrived from the dramatic point -of view for the logical introduction of dancing, exhibits -a breadth of conception and a heroic quality<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</span> -which is rare in Debussy. Unfortunately, incidents -have prevented this ballet from being performed (as -far as may be ascertained), but this assuredly has not -been on account of the inadequacy of the music. <em>La -Boîte aux joujoux</em> differs totally from the two preceding -in being, as its title-page asserts, a ballet for -children. It is not an unalloyed surprise from the pen -of the composer of the 'Children's Corner,' but it combines -genuine poetry, humor, mock-realism, and a judicious -miniature medium that is entirely original. If -musically at least <em>La Boîte aux joujoux</em> presupposes a -very sophisticated child, that does not prevent it from -making an instant appeal to mature listeners.</p> - -<p>For many years it has been announced that Debussy -has been at work on operas taken from Poe's stories -'The Devil in the Belfry' and 'The Fall of the House of -Usher.' There have also been rumors that he was at -work on a version of the story of Tristan. It is a foregone -conclusion that these works will not appear until -their scrupulous composer is satisfied with every detail.</p> - -<p>Like other modern French musicians Debussy has a -ready pen and exceedingly interesting critical opinions. -He has served as critic for the <em>Revue blanche</em> and for -<em>Gil Blas</em>, and many articles on a wide range of subjects -have appeared in these periodicals. His conversations -with M. Croche<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> have served as an amiable disguise -for the expression of his personal views on music.</p> - -<p>When we come to survey as a whole the personality -and achievement of Debussy we discover that he has -been influenced by a fair number of composers, but -that their effect has been for the most part superficial -and transitory. Such was the contributory share of -Chopin and Grieg; Moussorgsky is prominently influential -alike for his dramatic style and his fidelity to -nature; other Neo-Russians have by their orchestral -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</span>idiom helped to cultivate his sense of timbre; Fauré -and Chabrier both guided him harmonically; Massenet -with his sure craftsmanship had more than a casual -admiration from Debussy; even the fantastic figure of -Erik Satie, an exaggerated symbolistic musician of grotesque -ideas but inefficient technique, helped him to -avoid the banal path. But the mainstay of Debussy's -reputation is simply that of his concrete musical gifts, -his inventiveness, his ability to characterize, and pervading -æsthetic instinct. It is not by virtue of his determination -to be impressionistic in music, nor by the -extension of the possibilities of the whole-tone scale, -or free modal harmonization, nor by his original pianistic -style, despite the intrinsic and historic significance -of these, that he has come to be the leading representative -of ultra-modern French composers of the revolutionary -type, in opposition to the reactionary if modernistic -d'Indy. It is because a certain creative field, -which others had approached tentatively, has been -made to yield a scope of subject, a variety of utterance -and an æsthetic import hitherto totally unsuspected. -While the impressionistic (or symbolistic) style has in -Debussy's hand become a flexible, fanciful, fantastic -or poignantly human idiom, its real weight can be appreciated -only by neglecting the harmonic novelty or -the stylistic medium and concentrating on the direct -utterance of the music itself. It is through this basic -eloquence of musical speech that Debussy is significant. -It is for this reason that, with Strauss, he must -be regarded as the chief creative figure of his generation. -To realize the simple, almost primitive, attitude -of Debussy toward his art it may be illuminating -to quote from an article from his pen in response to -inquiries 'On the present state of French music,' put -by Paul Landormy in the <em>Revue bleue</em> (1904), translated -by Philip Hale.<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p> - -<p>'French music is clearness, elegance, simple and natural -declamation; French music wishes, first of all, to -give pleasure. Couperin, Rameau—these are true -Frenchmen.' Debussy has always admired Rameau, -witness his <em>Hommage à Rameau</em> in the first set of the -<em>Images</em> for piano and his obvious predilection for the -eighteenth-century qualities of lucidity and transparent -outline of much of his music. It must not be forgotten -that Debussy has joined Saint-Saëns, d'Indy, and -Dukas in the revision of Rameau's works for the complete -edition. Later in the same article we find Debussy -reiterating the view expressed above as to the function -of music with an insistence that is both Latin and even -Pagan in the best sense. 'Music should be cleared of -all scientific apparatus. Music should seek humbly -<em>to give pleasure</em>; great beauty is possible between these -limits. Extreme complexity is the contrary of art. -Beauty should be perceptible; it should impose itself -on us, or insinuate itself, without any effort on our -part to grasp it. Look at Leonardo da Vinci, Mozart! -These are great artists.'</p> - -<p>To sum up, Debussy has brought the impressionistic -and symbolistic style into music; he has evolved a -supple harmonic idiom devoid of monotony, not chiefly -characterized by the whole-tone scale as many believe, -but comprising a simple style, a taking archaism, an -application of modal style, and an extension of the -uses of ninths and other chords. He has developed an -incredibly simple and yet effective dramatic style, -which makes 'Pelléas and Mélisande' one of the significant -works of the century. He has extended the nuances -and the figures of piano style, and has increased -the subdivision of the orchestra into delicate, almost -opalescent, timbres. But more than all, he has given to -music a new type of poetry, a rarefied humanity, and -new revelations of the imagination. It is too soon to -judge of the durability of his work, but his historical -position is secure—a lineal descendant of French -eighteenth-century great musicians with the vision and -the creative daring of the twentieth.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="ilo_fp334" style="max-width: 35.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp334.jpg" alt="ilo-fp335" /> - <p class="caption">Claude Debussy</p> - -<p class="center p1b"><em>After a photo from life</em></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>If the widespread imitation of Debussy may be taken -as an indication, no further proof of the vitality of his -creative innovations is needed. Richard Strauss has -not disdained to use the whole-tone scale in <em>Salome</em> -(the entrance of Herod), Reger has followed suit in -the 'Romantic Suite'; Puccini has drawn upon the same -idiom in 'The Girl of the Golden West'; Cyril Scott in -England and Charles Martin Loeffler in the United -States have gone to the same source, despite their indisputably -individual attainments. In Paris itself the -followers of Debussy are rife, and his influence is as -contagious as that of Wagner thirty years ago. A -figure long misjudged as a mere echo of Debussy, who -after an interval of fifteen years has shown that he -steadily followed his own path in spite of some manifest -obligations to the founder of impressionism in -music is Maurice Ravel. Since he is easily second in -importance among the members of the 'atmospheric' -group, he deserves, therefore, to be considered immediately -after Debussy.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>Joseph-Maurice Ravel was born March 7, 1875, in -the town of Ciboure, in the department of the Basses-Pyrénées -in the extreme southwest of France, close -to the Spanish border. From early childhood, however, -he lived in Paris. At the age of twelve his predisposition -toward music asserted itself by his delight -in the major seventh chord, which he employed with -such insight later.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> He was accordingly given lessons -in piano-playing and composition. His earliest works -were some variations on a chorale by Schumann, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</span>the first movement of a sonata. In 1889 he entered the -Paris Conservatory, where he studied the piano with -de Bériot, harmony with Pessard, counterpoint and -fugue with Gedalge, and composition with Fauré. -Despite his application he did not meet with the success -his efforts deserved. In 1901, however, he was -awarded the second <em>prix de Rome</em> for his cantata -<em>Myrrha</em>, and it is said that some of the jury favored -him as a choice for the first prize. In the two following -years he was unsuccessful, and in 1904 he did not -attempt to compete. In 1905 he offered himself as -candidate, but was refused permission. This exclusion, -when he had already attracted much attention as a composer, -which may have been partly due to his audacity -in 'writing down' ironically to the reactionary jury of -1901, aroused protests of so violent a nature as to start -an inquiry into conditions at the Conservatory, with -the result that Théodore Dubois was forced to resign -as director and Gabriel Fauré was appointed in his -place. Since then Ravel has devoted himself entirely -to composition and the record of his life is to be found -most persuasively in his work. Ravel has served several -times on the committee of the <em>Société Nationale</em>, -and he is a charter member of the <em>Société Musicale Indépendante</em>.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding to a consideration of Ravel's music, -it may be well to enumerate the various influences -he has undergone. The first was Chabrier, whose <em>Trois -Valses romantiques</em> for two pianos aroused his admiration -when scarcely more than a boy. Then, as in the -case of Debussy, the fantastic personality and curious -music of Erik Satie appealed to his imagination. Some -of Fauré's harmonic procedures and some of his mannerisms, -such as the abuse of sequence, have left their -traces in the pupil. Some of Debussy's harmonic innovations -have obviously affected Ravel, just as he has -accepted his impressionism, but a careful study of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</span> -latter's works will show a definite line of cleavage in -both particulars, beginning at an early stage of his -career. The exoticism of the Neo-Russians and their -sense of orchestral timbre have undoubtedly exercised -a powerful charm over Ravel.</p> - -<p>After some unpublished songs, and a <em>Sérénade grotesque</em> -for piano composed in 1894, Ravel published -his first music in 1895, a <em>Menuet antique</em> for piano, -which Roland Manuel describes as 'a curious work in -which are voluntarily opposed, so it seems, scholastic -contrapuntal artifices and the most charming radicalism -(<em>hardiesses</em>).' Ravel's next work was two pieces -for two pianos entitled <em>Les Sites Auriculaires</em>, one a -<em>Habañera</em> (1895), showing an astonishing harmonic independence -for so young a composer, which was utilized -later in the 'Spanish Rhapsody' for orchestra, the -other <em>Entre Cloches</em> (1896), which is said to have been -incorporated in <em>La Vallée des Cloches</em>, included in the -piano pieces entitled <em>Miroirs</em> in 1896 also. Ravel composed -the first of his published songs, <em>Sainte</em>, on a poem -by Mallarmé, for which the music is charmingly archaic, -somewhat in Fauré's manner, but not devoid of independence. -In 1898 followed the 'Two Epigrams' for -voice and piano, on texts by Clément Marot (fifteenth -century), in which Ravel again appropriately employed -an archaic idiom curiously intermingled with -ninth chords. In this same year Ravel composed his -first orchestral work, the overture <em>Shéhérazade</em> (performed -by the National Society in the following year), -which has never been published. Two piano pieces, a -<em>Pavane pour une infante défunte</em> (1899), whose poignantly -elegiac mood shows its composer in a new light -as regards sensibility, and brilliant <em>tour de force</em>, <em>Jeux -d'eau</em> (1901), full of harmonic novelty and strikingly -original pianistic style, are both significant advances. -It was the bold personality of the latter piece that -served to expose and accentuate the ironic caricature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</span> -of a sentimental style to be found in <em>Myrrha</em> which -prejudiced a reactionary jury against him. A string -quartet (1902-03) at once made a profound impression -on account of the relative youth of its composer, for -its command of a difficult medium, its polish and symmetry -of form, its poetry and depth of sentiment. If -the last two movements are inferior in substance and -inspiration, the scherzo is piquant and novel, while the -first movement, particularly in its poetic close, stands -in the front rank of modern French chamber music -literature. If the theme of the first movement by its -harmonization in a sequence of seventh chords suggests -Fauré, there is no denying the personality of the work -as a whole. Three songs for voice and orchestra, -<em>Shéhérazade</em> (1903), on poems by Tristan Klingsor -(pseudonym for Tristan Leclère), are unequal, but the -first, <em>Asie</em>, reflects the varied exoticism of its text with -sympathetic charm.</p> - -<p>Five pieces for piano entitled <em>Miroirs</em> (1905) present -Ravel's individuality in a clear light as regards his -impressionistic method. Without the maturity of a -later collection of piano pieces, they reflect, as their -title indicates, various aspects of nature with the illusion -demanded by impressionistic method, and at the -same time exhibit profundity of insight and delineative -poetry. The foundation of Ravel's thematic treatment, -unusual pianistic idiom, his personal harmonic flavor, -and his personal sentiment are all to be found therein. -In these pieces no trace is to be found of external influence; -the composer speaks in his own voice. <em>Oiseaux -tristes</em>, a melancholy landscape with some realistic -touches; <em>Une barque sur l'Océan</em>, broadly impressionistic -sketch of large dimensions; <em>Alborada del Graciosa</em>, -exhibiting that Spanish exoticism which has often -tempted Ravel; and <em>La Vallé des Cloches</em>, of sombre -yet highly poetic atmosphere, are the most striking. -A sonatina for piano of the same year pleases by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</span> -polish of its form, its successful correlation of detail -and the individuality of its contents. A humorous song, -'The Toy's Christmas' (also 1905), later provided with -orchestral accompaniment, is an ingenious and vivacious -trifle.</p> - -<p>In 1906 Ravel reasserted his gifts as a delicate realist -with the songs entitled 'Natural Histories,' on texts by -Jules Renard. With a musical imagery that is at once -ironic and replete with sensitive observation, Ravel depicts -the peacock, the cricket, the swan, and other -birds. An Introduction and Allegro (1906) for harp -with accompaniment of string quartet, flute and clarinet -is chiefly remarkable for the grateful virtuosity -with which the harp is treated. In 1907 Ravel showed -at once technical mastery of the orchestra and a skillful -reproduction of Spanish atmosphere with a 'Spanish -Rhapsody,' which is both brilliant and poetic. This -work must be considered with Chabrier's <em>España</em> and -Debussy's <em>Ibéria</em> as one of the graphic pictures of exoticism -in French musical literature. To this same year -belongs 'The Spanish Hour,' text by Franc Nohain entitled -a 'musical comedy' (but not in our sense), in -which Ravel attempted to revive the manner of the -<em>opera buffa</em>. The comedy contains inherent improbabilities -and the text is often far from inspiring, but -Ravel has written ingenious, humorous and poetic music -which far exceeds the book in value. This opera -presents a running commentary in the orchestra on a -few motives, leaving the voices to declaim with freedom, -while the brilliant and picturesque orchestration -adds greatly to vivacity and charm of the music.</p> - -<p>In 1908 Ravel composed a set of four-hand pieces, -'Mother Goose,' of ingenuity, humor, and poetic insight. -These pieces have since been orchestrated with incomparable -finesse and knowledge of instrumental resource, -forming an orchestral suite, and, with the addition -of a prelude and various interludes, they have also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</span> -been transformed into a ballet. In 1908, also, Ravel -composed three poems for the piano, <em>Gaspard de la -Nuit</em>, on prose fragments by Aloysius Bertrand, which -in technical style and contents mark the acme of his -achievement in literature for the piano. <em>Ondine</em> and -<em>Scarbo</em>, the first and third of these pieces, illustrate -their 'programs' with an illuminating poetry that is -both brilliant and profound in insight. The second, -<em>Le Gibbet</em>, with a persistent pedal note in the right -hand over extraordinarily ingenious harmonies, possesses -a genuinely sinister and tragic depth.</p> - -<p>These poems contrast sharply with Debussy's <em>Images</em> -of the same year. The latter are more obviously impressionistic, -but Ravel has disposed his uncanny technical -equipment with such expressive mastery and -such interpretative vitality as to fear no comparison -with the older composer. If by contrast the <em>Valse -nobles et sentimentales</em> (1910) for piano are agreeable -<em>jeux d'esprit</em>, they none the less possess qualities that -win our admiration. Frank boldness of style, fantastic -irony, and sentimental poetry go hand in hand, united -by a grateful piano idiom. The epilogue in particular, -with its reminiscences of various waltzes, gives a formal -continuity which relieves the set as a whole from -any charge of disjointedness.</p> - -<p>Ravel's masterpiece is his 'choreographic symphony' -<em>Daphnis et Chloé</em> (1906-11), first performed by Diaghilev's -Russian Ballet in 1912. In this work Ravel disproves -emphatically the possible charge that he is a -composer of miniatures, for from the formal aspects it -shows continuity and coördination of development in -the symphonic manipulation of its motives. Dramatically -it is in remarkable accord with the atmosphere, -the action and the development of the scenario by the -famous ballet-master and author of plots Michel Fokine. -The music not only possesses interpretative vitality -on a far larger scale than Ravel has ever shown<span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</span> -before, but, aside from its astonishing brilliancy and -its coloristic poetry, it has a contrapuntal vigor of invention -and treatment which are absolutely convincing. -From the harmonic standpoint Ravel has attained a -new freedom and an elastic suppleness of idiom that -is bewildering. His treatment of a large orchestra, -augmented by the use of a mixed chorus behind the -scenes, is vitally brilliant and marvellously poetic even -in the light of his previous achievements. All in all, -<em>Daphnis et Chloé</em> is one of the most significant dramatic -works of recent years, and can worthily be -placed side by side with Debussy's <em>Pelléas et Mélisande</em> -and Dukas' <em>Ariane et Barbe-bleue</em> for its intrinsic merits -and historical attributes.</p> - -<p>For some years Ravel has been engaged upon a setting -of Hauptmann's <em>Versunkene Glocke</em>. It is also -announced that he is at work upon a trio, a concerto -for piano on Basque themes, and an oratorio, <em>Saint -François d'Assise</em>. With his recent successes in mind, -these projected works engage a lively expectation.</p> - -<p>In conclusion, it must be acknowledged that Ravel -cannot, like Debussy, claim to be a pioneer. He was -fortunate in being enabled to profit by the swift development -of new idioms, to absorb the exuberance of -Chabrier, the suave mysticism of Fauré, the illuminating -impressionism of Debussy, and the scintillant exoticism -of the Neo-Russians. But, while he owes no more -to his predecessors than Debussy, he has had the advantage -of having matured his style at an age which -was relatively in advance of Debussy. It must be recognized -that as a whole Ravel's music lies nearer the -surface of the human heart than Debussy's. It is not -usual to find that depth of poetry or of human sentiment -which distinguishes so considerable a portion -of Debussy's music. Ravel, on the other hand, is more -expansive in his scope; he captivates us with his humor, -his irony, his dappling brilliancy, and with an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</span> -almost metallic grasp in execution of a pre-conceived -plan. His harmonic transformations exert a literal -fascination, though their technical facility obscures -their purpose, but underneath there is seldom an inner -deficiency of sentiment. If his impressionism is tinged -with quasi-realistic effects, there is no lack of genuine -homogeneity of style. In fact, his skillful blending of -the two tendencies is one of the chief features of his -originality. In such works as the <em>Pavane</em>, the first -movement of the String Quartet, in <em>Asie</em> from <em>Shéhérazade</em>, -in <em>La Vallée des Cloches</em>, in <em>Ondine</em> and <em>Le Gibbet</em>, -and in many episodes of <em>Daphnis et Chloé</em> Ravel -offers a convincingly human sentiment which only emphasizes -his essential versatility of expression. For in -his characteristic vein of ironic brilliance and fantastic -subtlety he carries all before him.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>If the work of Bruneau and Charpentier does not -follow in historic or chronological sequence that of -Debussy and Ravel, their juxtaposition is defensible -since the former in common with the latter have received -their individual stimulus from sources extraneous -to music. In the case of Bruneau the vitalizing motive -is the literary realism of Émile Zola; in that of -Charpentier the direct inspiration comes from socialism -or at least a socialistic outlook.</p> - -<p>Louis-Charles-Bonaventure-Alfred Bruneau was born -in Paris, on March 1, 1857. His father played the -violin, his mother was a painter, thus an æsthetic environment -favored his artistic development. Alfred -Bruneau entered the Paris Conservatory at the age of -sixteen; three years later he was awarded the first prize -for violoncello playing. He studied harmony for three -years in Savard's class, became a pupil of Massenet and -was the first to win the second <em>prix de Rome</em> in 1881<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</span> -with a cantata <em>Geneviève</em>. For some years previously -Bruneau had been a member of Pasdeloup's orchestra, -and in 1884 an <em>Overture héroïque</em> (1885) was -played by this organization. Other orchestral works—<em>La -Belle au bois dormant</em> (1884) and <em>Penthesilée</em> (a -symphonic poem with chorus, 1888)—belong to this -period.</p> - -<p>Despite some fifty songs, choruses, a Requiem, and -some pieces for various wind instruments and piano, -Bruneau is essentially a dramatic composer, and it is -chiefly as such that he deserves consideration. His -first dramatic work, <em>Kérim</em>, the text by Millet and -Lavedan (1886), is an unpretentious opera of eminently -lyric vein, in which a facile orientalism plays a prominent -part. It displays the technical fluidity which -might be expected of a pupil of Massenet, and possesses -a slight, though palpable, individuality. A ballet, <em>Les -Bacchantes</em> (1887), not published until 1912 and recently -performed, is in the old style of detached pieces -without continuous music. Here Bruneau has been -successful in dramatic characterization, but the music -is again largely a reflection of Massenet.</p> - -<p>It was not until 1891 that Bruneau gave evidence of -his characteristic style and individual dramatic method -which he has since pursued steadily. French musicians -had awakened to the permanent significance of -Wagner's dramatic principles, and it is not surprising, -therefore, to find that Bruneau accepted these in slight -degree. His Wagnerian obligations are virtually limited -to an attempt to unite music and text as intimately -as possible, to employ leading-motives as symbols of -persons or ideas, and to avoid formal melody in the -voice parts except at essentially lyric moments. His -development of motives, while to a certain extent symphonic, -is in fact markedly different from that of Wagner, -and his recitatives depart from the traditional accompanied -recitatives in that they employ as nearly as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</span> -possible the inflections of natural speech over single -chords.</p> - -<p>The kernel of Bruneau's dramatic method lies in his -ardent championing of realism as a guiding principle -in general, and his admiration for Émile Zola as a man -and as a literary artist in particular. With the exception -of <em>Kérim</em> all his operas have been on subjects -taken from Zola's works, or on texts by Zola himself. -With the ideals of realism in mind, Bruneau has -avoided legendary subjects, although many of his -works are symbolic, and he has preferred to treat -dramas of everyday life, animated by the passions of -ordinary mortals. As Debussy reflected the impressionism -or symbolism of poets, painters, and dramatists -in his music, so Bruneau's operas are a counterpart -of the realistic movement. In place, therefore, of -the stilted, unreal action which disfigures even the finest -conceptions of Wagner, Bruneau has sought to replace -it with a lifelike, tense, and rapid simulation of -life itself. His realism has even led to the discarding -in his later operas of verse for prose from obvious -realistic considerations. In spite of some Teutonic -sources, Bruneau is eminently Gallic in his musical and -dramatic standpoint, and, while certain formulas of -his teacher, Massenet, persist for a time, in the main -he is rigorously independent. For a time Bruneau -was considered revolutionary in his harmonic standpoint, -but musically at least he cannot be called iconoclastic, -or even progressive. The strength of his -achievement lies entirely in his qualities as a dramatist -pure and simple.</p> - -<p>The first work which embodied Bruneau's realistic -attitude was <em>Le Rêve</em> (1891), text by Gallet after Zola's -novel. The essence of the work dramatically lies in -the mystical temperament of the heroine, Angélique, -who loves the son of a priest (born before his father, -a widower, entered the priesthood) despite the opposition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</span> -of his father. When she is apparently dying -the priest restores her by a miracle and consents to -the marriage, only to have the bride fall lifeless as she -leaves the church. While Bruneau's musical treatment -of Angélique's mystical hallucinations is in a sentimental -manner that recalls Massenet, the opera as a -whole shows dramatic power of an independent character. -Bruneau's second opera in his new style, <em>L'Attaque -du Moulin</em> (1893), the dramatization by Gallet -of a story by Zola in <em>Les Soirées de Médan</em>, dealing -with an episode of the Franco-Prussian war, is far -more vital both in drama and music. The mill, the -source of life to the miller, Merlier, and his daughter -Françoise, is attacked by the enemy. Dominique, a foreigner, -who is betrothed to Françoise, is found with -powder marks on his hands and is condemned to be -shot. The enemy retreat, leaving a sentinel at the -mill. The sentinel is assassinated and Merlier is to be -shot for the deed. Although Dominique confesses that -he did the deed, Merlier dies in his stead so that his -daughter may be happy. Bruneau has been equally -happy in delineating the peace which reigns at the -mill before the arrival of the enemy and the celebration -of Françoise's betrothal, and in depicting the brutalities -of war and the unselfish death of Merlier. -<em>L'Attaque du Moulin</em> is a work of solid inspiration, -clarity of style and vivid dramatic force. The Institute -of France awarded the Monbinne prize to its composer.</p> - -<p><em>Messidor</em> (1897), text by Zola himself, deals with -the struggle between capital and labor and the love -of the poor Guillaume for the capitalist's daughter -Hélène. The capitalist is ruined, saner economic conditions -are brought about and the lovers are united. For -a drama which is both sociological and symbolistic -Bruneau has written music of broadly humanitarian -character and a vitally descriptive vigor. His musical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</span> -style is firmer and his conceptions are realized with -less crudeness than in previous works. <em>L'Ouragan</em> -(1901), whose action turns upon a devastating hurricane -in a fishing village, and also the tempestuous passions -of its inhabitants, has a primitive quality characteristic -of both author and composer. There is conscious -symbolism in this work also in the distinction -of types found in the three feminine characters. Of -this opera Debussy wrote: 'He (Bruneau) has, among -all musicians, a fine contempt for formulas, he walks -across his harmonies without troubling himself as to -their grammatical sonorous virtue; he perceives melodic -associations that some would qualify too quickly -as "monstrous" when they are simply unaccustomed.'<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p> - -<p><em>L'Enfant roi</em> (1905), <em>Naïs Micoulin</em> (1907), and <em>La -Faute de l'Abbé Mouret</em> (1907) display qualities similar -to Bruneau's other operas, in which close adjustment -to the drama and consistent musical treatment are the -notable features. <em>Naïs Micoulin</em>, text by Bruneau himself -after Zola's novel, is particularly admirable for its -clarity of style, its absence of mannerism, and its vital -depiction of two types of jealousy and the faithful -devotion of the hunchback, Toine.</p> - -<p>Beyond his activity as a dramatic composer, especial -mention should be made of Bruneau's work as a critic. -He has contributed to many magazines, and he has -acted as musical critic for the <em>Gil Blas</em>, <em>Le Figaro</em>, and -<em>Le Matin</em>. He has collected three volumes of able criticism, -<em>Musiques d'hier et de demain</em> (1900), <em>La Musique -Française</em> (1901), containing much valuable historical -material, and <em>Musiques de Russie et Musiciens de -France</em> (1903). In these volumes he has shown himself -a vigorous and broad critic of catholicity of taste and -striking discrimination.</p> - -<p>To sum up the dramatic work of Bruneau as a whole, -he must be considered as representing a sincere phase -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</span>of French evolution at a critical time. While it is -questionable whether realism can be a permanently -successful basis for opera, a form in which æsthetic -compromise and illusion are inherent, there is no denying -the courageous independence of his position and -the plausible defense of his methods which his operas -constitute. It must be confessed, however, that Bruneau's -dramatic instinct takes precedence over his concrete -musical gifts and the former carries off many -scenes and episodes in which the latter lags behind. -In short, Bruneau's gift for the stage is unquestionable, -and his dramatic innovations must remain identified -with French progress in this medium. His most obvious -defect lies in the inequality of his musical inspiration. -If his melodic sense is frank and spontaneous -as in the prelude to Act I of <em>L'Attaque du Moulin</em>, the -broad theme after the curtain rises in Act I of <em>Messidor</em>, -the introduction and 'Sowing Song' in Act II of the -same opera, the 'Song of the Earth' in <em>Naïs Micoulin</em>, -the contour of Bruneau's melodies is, on the other hand, -too often awkward and devoid of distinction. Likewise -his thematic manipulation is lacking in flexibility -or striking development, especially in the too obvious -employment of the devices of 'augmentation' and 'diminution' -(see <em>L'Ouragan</em>, prelude to Act I). Yet the -allegorical Ballet of Gold in Act III of <em>Messidor</em> and the -Introduction to Act IV of the same work show that -Bruneau has sensibility toward symphonic qualities. -Bruneau's harmonic idiom is rather monotonous and -devoid of that subtle recognition of style that we find in -the impressionistic school. On the other side, its wholesome -vigor has the sincerity which is the hall-mark of -realism. As a harmonist Bruneau is not advanced.</p> - -<p>Despite the flaws that one can find in Bruneau the -musician, they are perhaps after all the defects of his -virtues. At a time of wavering and uncertainty, Bruneau -showed uncompromising sincerity, stuck to his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</span> -guns, defied opinion with a resolution and a reckless -adherence to his æsthetic standpoint worthy of a friend -of Zola. If his works have not the involuntary persuasion -that we find in other ultra-modern French -operas, one must acknowledge a preëminent dramatic -gift, possessing in its presentation of sociological and -humanistic problems vitality, high purpose and moments -of indubitable inspiration. If Bruneau's musical -defects hamper to a certain extent his wider recognition, -his fearless independence, his utter contempt -for imitation of others, and the remarkable dramatic -affinity between his conceptions and those of Zola's -are too striking not to be considered an interesting episode -in French dramatic evolution.</p> - -<p>While Bruneau's operas, apart from a few performances -in London, Germany, and New York, have received -attention chiefly in France, Gustave Charpentier, -despite his relatively small productivity, has won a -universal recognition.</p> - -<p>Gustave Charpentier was born in the town of Dieuze -in Lorraine, June 25, 1860. After the Franco-Prussian -war his parents came to live in Tourcoing, not far -from Lille. As a boy Charpentier showed natural -aptitude for the violin, clarinet, and solfeggio, although -he was obliged to work in a factory to support himself. -His employer became so struck with his musical -ability that he sent him to the Conservatory at Lille, -where he obtained numerous prizes. As a result of -this the municipality of Tourcoing granted him an -annual pension of twelve hundred francs to study at -the Paris Conservatory. In 1881 he began his work -there as a pupil of Massart, the violinist. He was not -successful in competition and, moreover, was obliged -to leave to fulfill his military service. Returning to the -Conservatory, he took up the study of harmony and -later entered Massenet's class in composition. He was -unsuccessful in a fugue competition, but in 1887 he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</span> -received the first <em>prix de Rome</em> for his cantata <em>Dido</em>, -which showed distinct dramatic gift and a concise and -logical continuity of musical development.</p> - -<p>From Rome he sent back as the required proofs of -his industry an orchestral suite 'Impressions of Italy,' -permeated with Italian atmosphere and folk-song, a -symphony-drama, 'The Life of a Poet,' for solos, chorus -and orchestra, which may be regarded as a precursor -of his later dramatic work, and the first act of -'Louise.' This last was, however, not presented to the -Institute, as that institution considered that 'The Life -of a Poet' might count for two works.<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - -<p>On returning to Paris Charpentier went to live in -Montmartre, the Bohemian and artistic quarter, and -entered passionately into the life about him. It presented -the inspiration and material which he wished to -embody in musical conceptions. He absorbed both the -socialism of the quarter and its Bohemian disparagement -of artistic and moral convention. Thus he witnessed -the aspiration of artists, their enthusiasm for a -life of freedom, together with its inevitable degradation. -He studied its types avidly, and reproduced them -with a verisimilitude that has made them well nigh -immortal. During these years he composed many of -the <em>Poèmes chantés</em> (published as a whole in 1894), -the songs, <em>Les Fleurs du mal</em> (1895), on poems by Baudelaire; -the <em>Impressions fausses</em>, on poems by Verlaine, -including <em>La Veillée rouge</em> (1894); symbolic variations -for baritone and male chorus with orchestra; -and <em>La Ronde des Compagnons</em> (1895), for the same -combination. In 1896 his <em>Sérénade à Watteau</em> (the -poem by Verlaine) for voices and orchestra was performed -in the Luxembourg gardens. In 1898 a cantata, -<em>Le Couronnement de la muse</em>, depicting an established -Montmartre custom, later incorporated in 'Louise,' was -given in the square of the Hôtel de Ville. As a whole, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</span>these vocal works, with the exception of the cantata, -are of interest merely as showing the early style of -the composer and for their premonitions of his later -idiom. Charpentier is not a born song-writer and his -settings of Baudelaire's <em>Le Jet d'eau</em>, <em>La Mort des amantes</em> -and <em>L'Invitation au voyage</em>, of Verlaine's <em>Chevaux -de bois</em> and <em>Sérénade à Watteau</em> have been easily surpassed -by Debussy and Duparc. The most attractive -are a setting of Mauclair's <em>La Chanson du chemin</em> for -solo voice, women's chorus and orchestra, and the -<em>Impressions fausses</em> by Verlaine, in which his dramatic -and socialistic bent is more plausible.</p> - -<p>In the meantime Charpentier had been working -steadily at his 'musical novel' <em>Louise</em>, both text and -music by himself, which he had begun at Rome. This -work, perhaps the most characteristic of his style, was -performed for the first time at the Opéra-comique, -February 3, 1900. It was an instant and prolonged -success, and its composer was not only famous but prosperous -financially. Since the recognition of 'Louise' -Charpentier has suffered from irregular health. The -production of 'Julien' (1896-1904) at Paris, June 4, -1913, announced as a sequel to 'Louise,' has added little -to his reputation. It is founded largely on the music -of 'The Life of a Poet,' with added episodes which contrast -incongruously with the idiom of the earlier work. -It has been announced that Charpentier has finished -a 'popular epic' entitled a Triptych. This, it is said, -will contain three two-act operas with the sub-titles, -<em>L'Amour au faubourg</em>, <em>Commédiante</em>, and <em>Tragédiante</em>.</p> - -<p>In 1900 Charpentier founded the <em>Conservatoire populaire -de Mimi Pinson</em> (the generic slang title for the -shop-girl) for encouraging the musical education of -working girls. But, despite its worthy sociological purpose, -this institution has failed. Charpentier has occasionally -written critical articles, among them sympathetic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</span> -reviews of Bruneau's <em>L'Attaque du Moulin</em> and -<em>L'Ouragan</em>.</p> - -<p>In considering the music and personality of Charpentier -it must be recognized at the outset that he is -far removed in emotional and intellectual makeup -from other prominent figures in modern French music. -A child of the people, absorbing socialistic tendencies -from his boyhood, he is a musician of the -instinctive type, averse to analysis or pre-conceived -theory. As Bruneau drew his inspiration from the -creed of realism and the works of Zola, so Charpentier -is dominated by his ardent socialistic bent. His -music attempts to embody his impressions of life from -a democratic standpoint, in which realism and symbolism -are sometimes felicitously and sometimes jarringly -mingled.</p> - -<p>In his musical idiom Charpentier stands close to Massenet, -with that involuntary absorption of his teacher's -principles which actuates most of the pupils of that -facile but marvellously grounded composer. Charpentier -is far more sincere, however, in his relations to -his art, in that he has not courted popularity or lowered -his artistic standard for the sake of success. Despite -his obligations to Massenet, Charpentier has a -vigorously independent idiom in which Bohemianism -and a poetic humanity are the chief ingredients. This -asserts itself even if the ultimate source of his style -is obvious. He is also indebted to his master for the -transparent yet coloristic treatment of the orchestra, -in which sonority is obtained without waste or effort. -If at times it is evident that Charpentier has not listened -to Wagner without profit, the main current of his orchestral -procedures, like his basic musical qualities, -is preëminently Gallic.</p> - -<p>In the early suite, 'Impressions of Italy' (1890), Charpentier -has depicted in a pleasing and picturesque style -various aspects of nature, the serenades of young men<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</span> -on leaving the inns at midnight, with responses of -mandolins and guitars; the balanced and stately walk -of peasant maidens carrying water from the spring; -the brisk trot of mules with jingling harnesses and -their driver's songs; the wide stretches of country seen -from the heights near the 'Desert of Sorrento,' the -cries of birds and the distant sounds of convent bells; -and for finale a realistic description of a fête night at -Naples with the tarantella, folk-songs, bands drowning -each other out and general and uproarious gayety. -While the musical substance of this suite is undeniably -light, Charpentier has mingled Italian melodies, descriptions -of nature and a poetic undercurrent with an -unusual atmospheric charm and glamour that outweigh -concretely musical consideration. His instinctive and -coloristic manipulation of orchestral timbres heightens -greatly the programmistic illusion.</p> - -<p>Though the 'Life of a Poet' (1889-91), scenario and -text by Charpentier, is crude and immature, it possesses -indubitable dramatic vitality notwithstanding. -It tells the tragedy of a young and aspiring poet who -would conquer the world of expression, confident in -his ability. Gradually he is assailed by doubt, loses -his faith and ultimately recognizes that he cannot coördinate -the vast problems confronting him into unity. -Seeking oblivion in drunkenness, he acknowledges his -defeat and the drama of his life is over.</p> - -<p>In this work Charpentier has placed symbolism and -realism side by side in a way that is disconcerting. -After an orchestral prelude entitled 'Enthusiasm,' at -once rough, forceful and incoherent, a mysterious chorus -with the title 'Preparation' has dramatic power and -human sentiment. The second and third scenes, respectively -described as 'Incantation' and 'In the Land -of Dreams,' are still occupied with the symbolic appeal -of the poet to inspiration. Throughout this act the -music is effective dramatically, although often not far<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</span> -removed from tawdry. In the second act, 'Doubt,' -there is a luminous charm in the chorus sung by the -'voices of night,' an appropriate interpretation of the -poet's harassing uncertainty in the second scene, and -an extremely poetic orchestral passage descriptive of -his meditations, which ends the act. In the first tableau -of the third act, entitled 'Impotence,' an orchestral introduction -of some length, again crudely dramatic, depicts -graphically the losing struggle of the poet for -his artistic soul. The chorus, 'voices of malediction,' -curse a divinity which permits the ruin of the artist's -dreams. To this, the poet, sombre and fantastic, adds -his last plaint of despair and his curse. In the second -'picture' the poet is at a fête in Montmartre. The orchestra -paints vividly the riot of cheap bands and the -reckless jollity. The chorus echoes the curse of the -preceding act and dies away in mysterious murmurs. -A dance orchestra (in the wings) plays a vulgar polka, -a noisy military band chimes in while passing. To -these a melody is dexterously added in the orchestra. -A reminiscence of a chorus in the first act is ingeniously -contrived with the polka and orchestral melody -as accompaniment. The poet, now drunk, apostrophizes -a wretched girl of the streets, who replies with -mocking laughter. The orchestra suggests the æsthetic -disintegration of the poet, the chorus recalls the aspirations -of his earlier life and finally the poet voices his -defeat.</p> - -<p>'The Life of a Poet' is interesting because it presents -in a somewhat primitive state the essential characteristics -of the mature Charpentier, namely, a palpable -dramatic gift, the faculty of poetic and humanizing -illumination and differentiation of scenes. In the scene -at Montmartre he has not only furnished a precursor of -the Bohemian realism in 'Louise,' but he has displayed -considerable contrapuntal facility. If the 'Life of a -Poet' has the clearly discernible defects of youth, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</span> -has also its vitality and a spontaneous conviction which -was prophetic of the future.</p> - -<p>The universality of appeal to be found in 'Louise' -(finished in 1900, although begun at Rome), a 'musical -novel' in four acts, text by the composer, lies chiefly -in its simple dramatic poignancy. The story is that of -an innocent girl trusting the instincts of her heart in returning -the affection of the irresponsible Bohemian -poet who lives nearby; her elopement with the poet, -her enthralling happiness and brief triumph as 'Muse -of Montmartre' shattered by the false report of her -father's serious illness; her return to the parental -dwelling, her impatient chafing at restraint, her intolerable -longing to return to her lover and the facile -Bohemian life; her father's anger and her brutal dismissal -into the night by him, followed by his curse on -Paris. All is basically human and typical of life under -all conditions and places. But 'Louise' contains other -elements which make alike for retentive charm and -for critical admiration. In the first place, it is pervaded -by an insinuating glorification of Paris as a city of -freedom and provocative attraction, a perpetual Bohemian -paradise. Next, by the nature of the plot it -affords an opportunity for the librettist to voice a socialistic -assertion of the individual's right to personal -liberty, somewhat sententiously uttered, and a condemnation -of restraint symbolized by parental egotism. -'Louise' also contains a plausible and graphic portrayal -of artist life in Montmartre, including the time-honored -ceremony of crowning its 'Muse,' by which Charpentier -has immortalized types doomed to disappear before -the commercialization of the quarter for the foreign -visitor. In addition Charpentier may claim distinction -for his services as a folk-lorist by introducing the -street cries of various vendors to increase 'local color,' -recalling the ingenious choruses by Jannequin (of the -sixteenth century), such as <em>Les Cris de Paris</em> and <em>Le<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</span> -Chant des Oiseaux</em>. Thus in time it may be recognized -that he has fulfilled an ethnographic purpose of some -import.</p> - -<p>As the dramatic attraction of 'Louise' resides in its -simplicity, so also its musical value resides in its continuous -spontaneity, its limpidity of style, devoid of -all pretentious scholasticism, in which, however, there -is plenty of technical skill and unostentatious mastery -of material. Charpentier's dramatic and musical idiom -follows the conception of Massenet, in which the constituent -elements are balanced, without superfluous insistence -upon either. He employs formal lyricism, except -when the situation demands it, uses a flowing and -melodic declamation which gives free play to the annunciation -of the text. He employs motives freely, not -in the Wagnerian fashion, however, but in their flexible -manipulation succeeds in giving the needful touches -of detailed characterization. If his orchestral sonority -verges occasionally upon coarseness, as a whole it enhances -and colors the dramatic emotions with remarkable -skill and poetic fancy.</p> - -<p>But, aside from the question of dramatic method, -it is the freshness of invention, the skill in characterization, -and the ebullient musical imaginativeness of -'Louise' which makes it so unusual among operas. It -is more accurate and illusive in its picture of Bohemianism -than Puccini's <em>La Bohème</em>, and possesses far -more human depth and emotional sincerity throughout. -In this respect also it is far above the generality -of Massenet's operas, and may be compared, despite -their essential difference in musical individuality, to -the operas of Bruneau. Charpentier is more of a poet, -and his musical invention is far readier. While it may -be needless to particularize the domestic scenes in the -first act; the prelude to the second act, 'The City -Awakens,' with the scene before the dawn in which -the rag-pickers, the coal-gleaners, and other characters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</span> -of the night-world discuss of life as they have -found it; the second scene in the same act, the dressmaker's -workshop, with an orchestral part for the -sewing machine, in which the sewers converse idly and -try to account for Louise's moodiness, the whole first -tableau of the third act, in which Julien and Louise -sing of the lure of Paris; Louise's scene with her father -in the fourth act, all these are concrete examples of -the interpretative power of Charpentier the dramatist -and composer.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to be enthusiastic over Julien. If the -hero justifies the opposition of Louise's parents (for -the story of 'The Life of a Poet' forms its dramatic -basis), the introduction of many allegorical or symbolic -episodes not only mars the continuity of the -drama, but their musical style offends by its difference -from that of the music of 'The Life of a Poet,' -upon which Charpentier has drawn so freely for the -later opera. While in many instances Charpentier has -shown ingenuity in adapting his earlier music, the -total result of his labors has not only been disappointing -but disillusionizing in the extreme.</p> - -<p>As a whole, Charpentier, the poet of 'Impressions of -Italy,' the crude but forceful dramatist of the 'Poet's -Life,' the mature artist of 'Louise,' has accomplished -certain unique aspects of realism with a symbolic or -sociological undercurrent. Limited as he is to 'the -quarter,' he has been also universal, and his sincere -and picturesque vision has something of permanence. -As a pupil of Massenet he does not belong to the vanguard, -but his plausible synthesis of seemingly contradictory -elements has left a permanent impress in the -annals of modern French music.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</span></p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>While categorical classification is not always essential -in criticism, it is somewhat discommoding to acknowledge -that a composer cannot conveniently be -placed under one logical and comprehensive heading. -While assimilation of qualities peculiar to two opposing -groups can be unified to a considerable extent, the -work of such an artist is inevitably lacking in complete -homogeneity. Such a figure is Dukas, who, nevertheless, -must be considered a force of considerable vitality -in present-day French music.</p> - -<p>Paul Dukas was born in Paris, October 1, 1865. -Toward his fourteenth year his musical gifts asserted -themselves. In 1881, after some preliminary study, he -entered the Paris Conservatory, where he was a pupil -of Mathias (piano), Dubois (harmony), and Guiraud -(composition). In 1888 he was awarded the second -<em>prix de Rome</em> for his cantata <em>Valleda</em>. Since he was -passed over entirely in the competition of the following -year, he left the Conservatory and fulfilled his military -service. At this period he had composed three overtures, -of which the last, <em>Polyeucte</em>, alone has been published -and performed. In his <em>Cours de Composition</em>,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> -d'Indy discloses that Dukas was ill-satisfied with the -instruction he received at the Conservatory, and that -he subsequently made a profound study of the classics -and evolved his own technical idiom. Dukas, however, -shows the effect of two schools, that of Franck -in much of his instrumental music, and a sympathy -with that of Debussy in the dramatic field. To acknowledge -this does not mean to tax him with lack -of individuality, but merely to recognize the confluence -of opposing viewpoints.</p> - -<p>The overture <em>Polyeucte</em> (1891) shows surprising -command for so young a man of the technique of composition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</span> -and orchestration, although unnecessarily -elaborate in the former particular. It has the classic -dignity of Corneille and at the same time is sincerely -dramatic. The Symphony in C (1895-96) shows considerable -progress in many respects: clearer part writing, -unpretentious yet logical construction, no apparent -ambition other than to write sincerely within the limits -of normal symphonic style. There is also marked advance -in clarity and brilliance in the orchestral style. -In 1897 Dukas made a pronounced hit with his fantastic -and imaginative Scherzo, <em>L'Apprenti sorcier</em>, after -Goethe's ballad, first performed at a concert of the National -Society. This work is one of the landmarks of -modern French music for its elastic fluency of style, -the descriptive imagery of its music, and, above all, its -personal note, in which the orchestra was treated with -dazzling mastery.</p> - -<p>A Sonata for piano (1899-1900) forsakes the vein of -programmistic <em>tour de force</em> entirely and exhibits a -dignified, almost classic, style whose workmanship is -admirable throughout. The theme of the first movement -is distinguished, the second less interesting until -it appears in the recapitulation with deft canonic imitation. -The slow movement is somewhat cold and lacking -in inner sentiment; the scherzo is individual, and -the finale solid. Similarly the 'Variations, Interlude and -Finale,' on a theme by Rameau, for piano (1902), is not -only composed with similar preoccupation for thorough -workmanship, but its spirit, save for some ever-present -harmonic boldness, seems to have proceeded -from the epoch of the theme. As a matter of fact, these -variations show a post-Beethovenian ingenuity, and -genuine skill in perceiving the gracious theme of Rameau -in different and engaging lights that make this -work conspicuous among piano literature in modern -French music. But this music is strongly suggestive of -d'Indy and the Schola. A Villanelle for horn and piano<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</span> -(1906) is a charming piece which achieves individuality -despite the limitations of the horn.</p> - -<p>But when Dukas' music for Maeterlinck's <em>Ariane et -Barbe Bleue</em> (1907) was performed May 10, 1907, after -he had begun and rejected 'Horn and Riemenhild' -(1892) and 'The Tree of Science' (1899), a greater surprise -was in store than upon the occasion when <em>L'Apprenti -Sorcier</em> was played for the first time.</p> - -<p>Instead of the shrinking figure of the fairy-tale, Ariane -is a representative of the feminist movement, if not -almost a militant suffragette, who flatly disobeys Bluebeard, -opens all the forbidden doors to deck herself -with jewels, releases her captive sisters, helps them to -free Bluebeard when the infuriated peasants have attacked -and bound him, and then returns to her home, -leaving her infatuated sisters who have too little imagination -to make a decision. Dukas has treated this -story in a style that at once admits a coherent and almost -symphonic development of motives, and employs -a harmonic idiom that profits by all that Debussy has -done to extend the whole-tone scale. Dukas does not -employ this scale as Debussy has done, but it is obvious -that he never would have gone so far if it had not been -for his pioneer contemporary. Instead of the translucent -orchestra of <em>Pelléas</em>, Dukas has employed one -that is appropriately far more robust, but which he has -nevertheless used with discretion and reserve. He has -taken advantage of the discovery of the jewels in the -first act to employ coloristic resources lavishly. Despite -the complex obligations in the matter of style, -Dukas has produced music of a spontaneously decorative -and dramatic type, which makes this opera significant -among the works of recent years. While <em>Ariane</em> is -unequal, the first scene, excellently worked-out ensemble, -the close of the first act, the introduction and first -scene of the second, and the close of the work cannot -be effaced from the records of modern French opera.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</span></p> - -<p>In 1910, Dukas had another success with his <em>poëme -dansant, La Péri</em>, on a scenario of his own, which has -been exquisitely interpreted by Mlle. Trouhanova, to -whom it is dedicated. Here is a work of the ballet type, -which unites felicitously a sense of structure with a -gift for atmospheric interpretation. In this respect, <em>La -Péri</em> is one of the most satisfactory of Dukas' works, -and one in which his encyclopedic knowledge and his -imaginative gifts are best displayed.</p> - -<p>In addition to his gifts as a composer, Dukas is an -editor and critic of distinction. He has retouched some -concertos for violin and clavecin by Couperin; he has -revised <em>Les Indes galantes</em>, <em>La Princesse de Navarre</em> -and <em>Zephyre</em> by Rameau for the complete edition of -that master's works. He made a four-hand arrangement -of Saint-Saëns' <em>Samson et Dalila</em>, and together -with that distinguished composer finished and orchestrated -<em>Fredegonde</em>, an opera left incomplete by Guiraud -at his death. In addition, Dukas' articles for the <em>Revue -Hebdomadaire</em> and the <em>Gazette des Beaux Arts</em> display -erudition and the clairvoyant judgment of the born -critic.</p> - -<p>Thus, although attaching himself to no one group -exclusively, Dukas has, by his capacity for architectural -treatment of instrumental forms and his atmospheric -gift in dramatic characterization, attained a position of -dignity and individual expression.</p> - - -<h3>V</h3> - -<p>It is not within the province of this chapter to be all-inclusive, -but merely to recognize the achievement of -the more notable figures. In consequence a brief mention -of some composers of lesser stature, and a slight -enlargement upon two of the more distinguished, will -suffice to account for present-day activity. There are, -however, two precursors of modern French music, who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</span> -from the circumstances of their lives and talent have -not reached the fruition which they might have deserved. -The first of these, Ernest Fanelli, for thirty -years lived the life of an obscure and impoverished -musician, playing the triangle in a small orchestra, accompanying -at cafés, laboring as a copyist. By mere -chance, Gabriel Pierné discovered in 1912 an orchestral -work, the first part <em>Thebes</em>, a symphonic poem founded -on Théophile Gautier's <em>Roman de la Mome</em>, composed -1883-87. The music was found to have anticipated -many harmonic effects of a later idiom including a -fairly developed whole-tone system. Other works like -the <em>Impressions Pastorales</em> (1890), some <em>Humoresques</em> -and a quintet for strings entitled <em>L'Ane</em> show their composer -to have poetic and descriptive gifts, whose late -revelation is not without pathos. Fanelli can exert no -historical influence, but he remains an isolated and belated -phenomenon whose temporary vogue is doubtless -likely soon to suffer eclipse.</p> - -<p>Erik Satie, whose name has been mentioned in connection -with Maurice Ravel, and who doubtless was not -unsympathetic to Debussy since he orchestrated two -of his <em>Gymnopédies</em>, was born in 1866 and studied for -a time at the Paris Conservatory. But an examination -of his music would prognosticate his distaste for that -academic institution. He was influenced by the pre-Raphaelites, -and by the <em>Salon de la Rose Croix</em> and by -the mystical movement in literature generally. His -music, chiefly for piano, wavers between an elevated -and symbolic mysticism and an ironic and over-strained -impressionism. Regarded for years as an eccentric -<em>poseur</em> with some admixture of the charlatan, -it must now be recognized that he had glimmerings of -a modern harmonic idiom and subjective expression in -some of its aspects before the generality of modern -Parisian musicians. But these qualities were hampered -in their development by the ultra-fantastic character<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</span> -of his ideas, and an incapacity for a coherent development -of them. He abhors the tyranny of the barline, -and many of his pieces have no rhythmical indication -from one end to the other, beyond the relative -value of the notes. He is also loath to employ cadences, -a prophetic glimpse of the future.</p> - -<p>Among his earlier works, the <em>Sarabandes</em> (1887), -<em>Gymnopédies</em> (1888), incidental music for a drama by -Sar Peladan, <em>Le Fils des Étoiles</em> (1891), <em>Sonneries de la -Rose Croix</em> (1892), <em>Uspud</em>, a 'Christian ballet' with one -character (1892), <em>Pièces froides</em> (1897) and <em>Morceaux -en forme de poire</em> (1903), by their titles alone indicate -the character of their musical substance. The <em>Gymnopédies</em> -and the <em>Sonneries de la Rose Croix</em> are interesting -for their absence of the commonplace and for suggestions -of a poetic vein. The later works dating from -1912 and 1913 have fantastic titles which awake the -curiosity only to disappoint it by the contents of the -music. <em>Aperçus désagréable</em>, <em>Descriptions automatiques</em>, -<em>Chapitres tournés en tous sens</em> seem deliberately -contrived to affront the unwary, and cannot lay claim -to any influence beyond their perverse humor, and occassional -ironic caricature as in <em>Celle qui parle trop</em>, -<em>Danse maigre</em> and <em>Españana</em>.</p> - -<p>Among the many contributors toward the upbuilding -of modern French music one must recall the names of -Gabriel Pierné for his piano concerto, a symphonic -poem for chorus and orchestra, <em>L'An mil</em>, the operas -<em>Vendée</em>, <em>La Fille de Tabarin</em> (1900), the choral works -<em>La Croisade des Enfants</em> (1903) and <em>Les Enfants de -Bethlehem</em> (1907); Deodat de Sévérac for his piano -suites <em>Le Chant de la Terre</em> (1900) and <em>En Languedoc</em> -(1904), the operas <em>Cœur du Moulin</em> (1909) and <em>Heliogabale</em> -(1910); Gustave Samazeuilh for his string -quartet, a sonata for violin and piano, the orchestral -pieces <em>Étude Symphonique d'après 'la Nef'</em> and <em>Le -Sommeil de Canope</em>; Isaac Albéniz, although of Spanish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</span> -birth associated with French composers;<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Roger-Ducasse -for orchestral works, a 'mimodrame' Orphée, -Louis Aubert for a Fantasie for piano and orchestra, -songs, a <em>Suite brêve</em> for orchestra and the opera <em>La -Forêt bleue</em>. In addition the names of Chevillard, Busser, -Ladmirault, Henri Rabaud, André Messager,<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Labey, -Casella, and others might be added. A figure of -some solitary distinction is Alberic Magnard (died -1914), whose operas <em>Yolande</em>, <em>Guercœur</em> and <em>Bérénice</em>, -three symphonies and other orchestral works, chamber -music, piano pieces and songs, show him to be a serious -musician who disdained popularity. Associated with -the Schola he partook of d'Indy's artistic stimulus without -losing his own individuality.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Two composers whose achievements are the strongest -of the younger generation are Albert Roussel and -Florent Schmitt. The former, born in 1869, entered the -navy, and even visited Cochin-China. In 1898 he entered -the Schola, where he studied with d'Indy for nine -years. Since 1902 he has taught counterpoint at the -Schola. His principal works are the piano pieces <em>Rustiques</em> -(1904-6), a <em>Suite</em> (1909), a Trio (1902), a <em>Divertissement</em> -for wind instruments (1906), a Sonata for -piano and violin (1907-08), the orchestral works 'A -Prelude,' after Tolstoy's novel 'Resurrection' (1903), <em>Le -poëme de la Forêt</em>, a symphony (1904-6) and three -symphonic sketches, 'Evolutions' (1910-11), the last -with chorus, a ballet-pantomine, <em>Le Festin de l'Araignée</em> -(1913). Of these the best known are the orchestral -works and the ballet. If the symphony suggests many -traits of d'Indy, there is in it no lack of individual ideas -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</span>and treatment. The 'Evolutions' seem far more personal, -and in both style and contents convince that -Roussel is a genuine creative force. The ballet, 'The -Festival of the Spider,' is an ingenious dramatic conception -in which the characters are the spider, flies, -beetles and worms. The music in its delicate subtlety -is ingeniously adapted to the action, and in addition is -picturesquely orchestrated with a minimum of resource. -Roussel has undergone a long and severe apprenticeship -and his later achievements have proved -its efficacy.</p> - -<p>Florent Schmitt, born 1870, is of Lorraine origin. -After some preliminary study, he entered the Paris -Conservatory in 1889. Dubois and Lavignac were his -first teachers; subsequently he joined the classes of Massenet -and Gabriel Fauré. Leaving the Conservatory to -undergo his military service, he obtained a second <em>prix -de Rome</em> in 1897. In 1900 he was awarded the first -prize with the cantata <em>Semiramis</em>. After his prescribed -stay at the Villa Medicis in Rome, Schmitt travelled to -Germany, Austria and Hungary and even Turkey.</p> - -<p>Schmitt has been a prolific composer and space will -not permit a consideration of all his works. Those -upon which his rising reputation rests are a <em>Quintette</em> -for piano and strings (1905-08), the 47th Psalm for -solo, chorus, orchestra and organ (1904) and two symphonic -poems, <em>Le Palais hanté</em> after Poe, and <em>La Tragédie -de Salomé</em> (1907), in its original form danced as -a <em>drame muet</em> by Loie Fuller. In addition are many -piano pieces for two and four hands, and for two pianos, -songs and choruses.</p> - -<p>In Florent Schmitt's music is to be found alike the -solid contrapuntal workmanship of the Conservatory -and the atmospheric procedures of Debussy. These are -combined with a striking homogeneity and a dominating -force that make Schmitt perhaps the most promising -figure among French younger musicians of to-day.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</span> -If this praise must be qualified, it must be acknowledged -that he is overfluent, and that the triviality of -many of his ideas is only saved by his extraordinary -skill in treating them. In this respect his resourcefulness -is surprising and well-nigh infallible. The massive -architectural quality of the quintet, the barbaric splendor -of the 47th Psalm,<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> and the passionate and sinister -mood of <em>La Tragédie de Salomé</em> make these works significant -of the future even in the face of previous -achievements by his older contemporaries.</p> - -<p>If this survey of modern French composers seem -oversanguine in its assertions, even the most conservative -critic must admit that their work within the last -thirty years has possessed a singularly unified continuity. -Striving deliberately to attain racial independence, -the various composers have attained their end -with a unity of achievement which is not surpassed in -modern times. Whether following the counsel of the -naturalized Franck, or heeding the iconoclastic tendencies -of Chabrier, Fauré and Debussy, and the realistic -aspirations of Bruneau and Charpentier, the impressions -of Ravel with its added graphic touches of -realism, French music has had a distinctive style, a -personal explanation of mood and a racial individuality -such as it has not shown since the days of Rameau. -The question as to its durability may be raised, as has -been done in many epochs and countries, but its position -in the immediate past, and in certain aspects of -the present, leaves no doubt as to its conviction and its -import.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">E. B. H.</p> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Louis Laloy Monograph on Debussy, Paris, Dorbon ainé, 1909, p. 12.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> Laloy: <em>op. cit.</em> p. 52.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> Ibid., pp. 20-21, 24-26.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> Quarter-note.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> Boston Symphony Orchestra Program-book Dec. 21st, 1904.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> Roland Manuel: <em>Maurice Ravel et son œuvre</em> (1904), pp. 8 <em>et seq.</em></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> Quoted by Octave Séré from <em>La Revue Blanche</em>, May 15, 1901.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> Octave Séré: <em>Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui</em>, p. 101.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> <em>Cours de Composition, Deuxième Livre, Première Partie</em>, p. 331.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> See pp. 405f.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> Messager, b. 1853, is most widely known for a number of charming -operettas, continuing the traditions of Offenbach and Lecoq, of which <em>Véronique</em> -(1898), also produced in America, is probably the best. His most -worthy contemporary in this department is Robert Planquette (1850-1903), -whose <em>Les Cloches de Corneville</em> ('Chimes of Normandy') is perennially -popular.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> The 46th in the French Bible.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XI<br /> -<small>THE OPERATIC SEQUEL TO VERDI</small></h2> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The Musical traditions of Modern Italy—Verdi's heirs: Boïto, Mascagni, -Leoncavallo, Puccini, Wolf-Ferrari, Franchetti, Giordano, Orefice, -Mancinelli—New paths; Montemezzi, Zandonai, and de Sabbata.</p> -</div> - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>For those to whom music is an entertainment rather -than an art, the idea that Italy is the 'land of music' -will always exist. Almost an axiom has this popular -notion become among such persons. And there is, indeed, -little purpose in discouraging the belief. For -what is to be gained by destroying an illusion which, in -actual working, does no harm? Italy's musical development -and that, for example, of Germany, are diametrically -opposed to each other. Yet they both stand -to-day for something particular and peculiar to their -own natures. Man in his evolution has subconsciously -wrought certain changes, certain innovations; he has -been guided in doing so not so much by his desires as -by his national characteristics.</p> - -<p>Taking this into consideration there is nothing that -cannot be understood in Italy's musical line from Palestrina -to Montemezzi. Perhaps the road has been travelled -with fewer halts with a view to an ideal than has -that of other nations, but it has been in accordance with -those things which not only shape a nation's fate but -also its art. The Italian race, descended as it is from -the Roman, had traditions. The ideals of that group -of men known as the Florentine monodists were high. -It was their purpose to add such music to the spoken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</span> -word as would intensify its meaning and make its effect -upon an audience more pronounced. In short, as -far back as 1600, when these men flourished, the ambition -of Richard Wagner and the music drama, or, if -you prefer, the Greek tragedy of Sophokles and Æschylus, -was known by Italian musicians who in their composing -tried to establish a union between text and music -such as the master of Bayreuth only accomplished -late in the nineteenth century. With the beginnings -of oratorio and opera—they differed little at first—the -idea that personal success for the performer was -necessary crept in. Had it not, Richard Wagner would -not have been obliged to revolutionize the form of production -given on the lyric stage. Händel, a German -by birth and an Englishman by adoption, wrote florid -Italian opera after 1700; he sacrificed the significance of -the word to the effectiveness of his vocal writing and -produced some things thereby which we of to-day can -look upon only as ludicrous. The musical world knows -how opera was composed in Italy in the latter part of -the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth century. -The librettist was not a poet, but a poetaster; a -composer of eminence would call upon him to supply -words for an aria already composed and especially -adapted to the voice of some great and popular singer. -The result naturally was an art-form which was neither -sincere nor of real value, except from the standpoint of -the singer.</p> - -<p>The early Verdi followed the form which was known -to him by attending the performances of opera given in -his youth in Italy. But he saw the error of his ways -and his masterpieces, <em>Aida</em>, <em>Otello</em> and <em>Falstaff</em>, more -than atone for his early operas, which have little merit -other than their facile melodic flow. Was it not to be -expected that after him would come men who would -emulate the manner of his last works? Was it unnatural -to believe that Italy would interest itself in a more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</span> -faithful setting of words to music? And the direct followers -of the composer of <em>Otello</em> gave forth something -that called the world's attention to their works. That -it maintained Italian opera at a plane equal to the three -final works of Verdi cannot be said. It was a passing -phase and opened the way for the men who are now -raising Italian operatic composition to the highest point -in its history. As such it served its purpose.</p> - -<p>When Giuseppe Verdi died in 1901 there had already -been inaugurated the Realist movement in Italian opera. -Italy's 'grand old man' had seen Pietro Mascagni -achieve world renown with his <em>Cavalleria Rusticana</em> -and Ruggiero Leoncavallo follow him with the popular -<em>I Pagliacci</em>. What he thought of the 'Veritists' we -are not favored with knowing. It would seem safe to -say that he could not have been deeply impressed by -them; for the soul which gave musical expression to -the emotions of the dying lovers Radames and Aïda, -to the grief-stricken Otello after his murder of the -lovely Desdemona, could have had little sympathy with -the productions of men who fairly grovelled in the -dust and covered themselves with mire in their attempts -to picture the primitive feelings of Sicilian -peasantry.</p> - -<p>One man who is still alive and whose best work has a -place in the <em>répertoire</em> of more than one opera house -was a valued friend of Verdi. Arrigo Boïto<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> is his -name. It was he who prepared for Verdi the <em>libretti</em> -of <em>Otello</em> and <em>Falstaff</em> and produced a highly creditable -score himself in his <em>Mefistofele</em>. Time was when this -modern Italian's version of the Faust story was looked -upon by <em>cognoscenti</em> as music of modern trend. In -1895 R. A. Streatfeild, the English critic, spoke of it as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</span>'music of the head, rather than of the heart.' Hear it -to-day and you will wonder how he made such a statement, -for we have gone far since <em>Mefistofele</em> and to us -it sounds pretty much like 'old Italian opera' in the accepted -sense. But in its day it had potency. Boïto is, -however, a finer <em>littérateur</em> than he is a musician. Since -his success with <em>Mefistofele</em> he has not given us anything -else. He has, to be sure, been working for many -years on a <em>Nero</em> opera, the second act of which—there -are to be five—is now completed. But a few years ago -he donned the senatorial toga and matters of state -have so occupied his attention that he is permitted -now to turn his thoughts to music only at intervals. -Further, he is already a man well along in years and -the impulse to create is no longer strong. Those who -know Boïto have reported that he will not complete -<em>Nero</em> and that it will go down as a fragment.</p> - - -<p>Alberto Franchetti, born in 1860 in Turin, has composed -<em>Asrael</em>, <em>Cristoforo Colombo</em> and <em>Germania</em>, three -long, unimportant works, tried and found wanting. -It was Luigi Torchi, the distinguished Italian critic, -who, in discussing <em>Asrael</em> called it 'the most fantastic, -metaphysical humbug that was ever seen on the stage.' -(Torchi wrote this before Charpentier compelled himself -to complete his 'Louise'!) Franchetti's leaning is -toward the historical opera <em>à la Meyerbeer</em>, his method -is Wagnerian. Originality he has none.</p> - -<p>Our Realists are before us: Mascagni, Leoncavallo, -Giordano, Puccini and Wolf-Ferrari. We have purposely -omitted the names of men like Smareglia, Cilea, -Tasca and Spinelli. Their music has long since been -relegated to oblivion even in their own land. Little of -it ever got beyond the Italian boundary. Spinelli's <em>A -Basso Porto</em> reached New York in 1900 and was thus -described by Mr. W. J. Henderson, music critic of the -New York <em>Sun</em>: 'The story is so repulsive, the personages -so repellent, the motives so atrocious and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</span> -whole atmosphere of the thing so foul with the smell -of the scums and stews of life, that one is glad to -escape to the outer air.... As to the music, ... there -is not a measure of it which proclaims inspiration. -There is not an idea which carries with it conviction.' -Mr. Henderson does not even condemn our American -operas so ruthlessly! From all of which the nature of -Spinelli's opera may be understood.</p> - -<p>We in America have for a number of years looked -upon Giacomo Puccini as the greatest of living Italian -opera composers. His devotees call him the greatest -living creator of operatic music. Already his position -is becoming insecure, for younger, more inspired and -more learned men are appearing on the horizon of -Italy's music. The Italians have never held Puccini in -the same esteem as have Americans. Despite his many -failures Pietro Mascagni has been the pride of Italian -musicians and music-lovers. They will grant you that -his <em>L'Amico Fritz</em>, <em>Guglielmo Ratcliff</em> and <em>Iris</em> have -failed somewhat ignominiously. They will admit that -the story of <em>Iris</em> is one of the most revolting subjects -ever chosen for treatment upon the stage. Yet you -will have difficulty in proving to the contrary when they -challenge you to find them a more powerful piece of -orchestral writing by an Italian up to 1910 than the -'Hymn to the Sun' from that opera. We know of nothing -in modern Italian music so moving as this marvellously -conceived prelude, a piece of imaginative writing -of the first rank.</p> - -<p>Mascagni<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> found himself famous after his <em>Cavalleria</em>. -The youthful vigor of that music, crude and immature, -gripped his countrymen and the inhabitants of other -lands and made them believe that a new voice had appeared -whose musical message was to be noteworthy. -Here was a composer who had the training, who possessed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</span> -definite musical ideas, who understood the stage—by -far the most important thing for a composer of -opera—but who has failed to add one iota to his reputation -though he has worked laboriously since the early -nineties to do so. His <em>Ysabeau</em>, which we were promised -a few years ago, has achieved perhaps more success -in his native land than any of his operas since -<em>Cavalleria</em>; some call it a masterpiece, others decry -its style as being unnatural to its composer. A hearing -in America would do much to clarify the situation. -Unfortunately Mascagni is a man who has disputes -with publishers, who disappoints impresarios who -desire to produce his works and whose domestic relations -rise to turbulent climaxes from time to time. This -has played a large part in his failure to receive hearings. -And it is indeed lamentable to think that his -chances for success have been spoiled by such matters.</p> - - -<p>His musical style is realistic, but it is never extreme. -It was <em>Cavalleria</em> and the success gained by it that gave -men like Tasca and Spinelli the idea that they, by -carrying <em>verismo</em> further, would be received as composers -of note. Mascagni has melodic fluency, he writes -well for the voice and his management of the orchestra -in <em>Iris</em> is proof positive that he has learned how to avoid -that ill-balance of instrumental departments which occurs -constantly in <em>Cavalleria</em>.</p> - -<p>A smaller spirit is Leoncavallo (b. 1858). <em>I Pagliacci</em>, -to be sure, remains one of the most popular operas of -the day. But that is no proof of greatness. It must be -granted that in it he touched a responsive chord; that -his music has warmth and emotional force. But what -is there in this little tragedy that lifts one up? What -is there of thematic distinction? Signor Leoncavallo, -like Mascagni, has pursued the muse and written a -dozen or two operas since the world approved of his -<em>I Pagliacci</em>. He has written <em>Chatterton</em>, <em>I Medici</em>, <em>Maia</em>, -a <em>La Bohème</em> after Murger, <em>I Zingari</em> more recently, -and he is now writing an opera called <em>Ave Maria</em>. -They represent <em>in toto</em> a vast amount of work, but little -of achievement. Those who have heard his recent -operas agree unanimously that they lack the spark -which <em>Pagliacci</em> possesses, that they are honest works -by a man who has little to say and who tries to say -that little in an imposing manner.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the place of Giacomo Puccini will be determined -alone by time. He is one of those creators -to whom success in overwhelming measure comes, to -whom the praise of the masses is granted during his -life-time. Signor Puccini has seen his operas made -part and parcel of virtually every operatic institution, -large and small, that pretends to have a respectably -varied repertory. He has witnessed triumphs, he has -the satisfaction of knowing that such a singer as Enrico -Caruso in one of his operas can fill the vast auditorium -of New York's Metropolitan Opera House. His work, -now almost completed, if we are to believe those reports -which are divulged as authentic, is the achievement -of a successful composer. His early operas <em>Edgar</em> -and <em>Le Villi</em> are not in the reckoning. Let us pass -them by. But he has given us a <em>La Bohème</em>, <em>Manon -Lescaut</em>, <em>Madama Butterfly</em> and <em>La Fanciulla del West</em>. -All of them have been accepted, though there may be -some dispute as to the place of the last named. Puccini -is now fifty-seven years old. He was born in 1858 -at Lucca. He has enjoyed worldly possessions as the -result of having written music; he is the idol of the -public. Has he won the respect of discerning musicians? -Has his music been accorded a place alongside -that of the great living masters, such as Richard -Strauss, Jean Sibelius and Claude Debussy?</p> - -<p>Such a problem presents itself in the case of this -popular composer for the stage. We would not deny -Puccini a claim to respect; he deserves that, if for no -other reason than for his having achieved international -approval. But when one comes to a wholly -serious investigation one fears that he will not be -among the elect of his time. And there is this to be -considered in arriving at an evaluation of his achievement. -He has written music in every case to stories -that the world has taken to its heart, witness <em>Manon</em>, -<em>La Bohème</em>, <em>Butterfly</em>, <em>Tosca</em> and 'The Girl.' It mattered -little to him whether they were dramas or novels. -He waited until the public had judged and then set -himself to putting them into operatic form. Such a -procedure is, of course, any composer's right. And it -shows keen insight of, however, a very obvious kind. -If the story of one's opera is already popular and admired -by the world, half the battle for approval is -already won. The big men were often less wise. Weber -wrote music to stories that were not only unknown, but -that had no especial appeal; and he wrote his inspired -music to <em>libretti</em> that were shamefully constructed and -amateurishly written.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp51" id="ilo_fp372" style="max-width: 29.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp372.jpg" alt="ilo-fp373" /> - -<p class="center">Modern Italian Composers:</p> - -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 2em;">Giacomo Puccini</span> <span style="padding-left: 2em;">Riccardo Zandonai</span><br /> -<span style="padding-right: 3em;">Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari</span> <span style="padding-right: 2em;">Pietro Mascagni</span></p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</span></p> -</div> -<p>Men of the first rank, who are artists in everything -they do, do not choose their subjects in the way Puccini -has. For Wagner the writing of a <em>Tristan und -Isolde</em> was life—it was as necessary that he work on -that particular drama as that he breathe. And to deal -with the 'Parsifal' legend when he did was likewise -inevitable. Call 'Parsifal' art or twaddle—it matters -little which—you must admit that it reflects the master -in his almost senile period, interested in just such an -absurd conglomeration as Kundry, Amfortas, Klingsor -and its other dramatic materials compose. The greatest -composers of opera have written because they had -to express certain things and because they found a -drama which dealt with it. Puccini has been led by -what the world approved.</p> - -<p>Puccini has been fortunate, indeed. His <em>La Bohème</em> -is artistically his best work. In it there is a finer -sense of balance and proportion than in anything that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</span> -he has done. He has done what few Italians are able -to do, namely, he has interpreted the French spirit. -This little opera—whose libretto, effective as it is, is in -no wise an adequate reduction of Murger's great novel—is -replete with comic and tragic moments that amuse -and thrill by turns. The fun-making of the jolly Bohemians, -Rodolphe, Marcel, Schaunard and Colline, is -capitally pictured in music that is as care-free as the -souls of the inhabitants of the <em>Quartier Latin</em>. And the -death of little Mimi makes a musical scene that has -potency to-day,—yes, even though Puccini has since -learned to handle his orchestral apparatus with a -firmer grip and a mightier sweep.</p> - -<p><em>La Fanciulla del West</em>, which had its world-première -in America in 1911, is Puccini's biggest, if not his best, -production. We care not a farthing whether his music -be typical of California in 1849—we do wish that the -carpers who claim that it is not, would enlighten us by -telling just what kind of music <em>is</em> typical of it—nor -does it matter whether one hear echoes of his earlier -operas in it. It suffices that in it he has written with a -sweep and a command of his forces such as he exhibits -nowhere else and that he has written gorgeously in -more than one scene in the work. We have heard that -there is not as much melody in it as in his other operas. -But, as a matter of fact, Puccini's melodies in 'The -Girl' are quite as good as those in his other operas. -What is more, they have a pungency which he has attained -nowhere else.</p> - -<p>But we fear that it is music of our time and that -only. We cannot bring ourselves to believe that audiences -of 1975 will find in Puccini anything that will -interest them. Works that depend, to a large extent, -on the appearance of a certain singer in the cast—and -Puccini's operas do—will scarcely exert a hold on the -public of a day when those singers shall have passed -from this world. Antonio Scotti has made Scarpia in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</span> -<em>Tosca</em> so vital a histrionic figure, Mr. Caruso sings -Cavaradossi so beautifully that only the most <em>blasé</em> -opera-goer fails to get real enjoyment from their personations. -And so it is to a large degree with his other -operas. Puccini bids fair to become another Meyerbeer -when fifty years shall have rolled away. He has -enjoyed the same shouts of approval from a public -no more discerning than was that of Paris of the early -nineteenth century; he has been called the most popular -operatic composer of his day. Meyerbeer was, too. -Yet to-day we can only find him tiresome and boring; -we can but wonder how any public listened to his -banalities, his deadly fustian, his woeful lack of inspiration, -and express approval. Already the music of -the future is dawning on our horizon. Those of us who -have given it attention know that it is a very different -thing from what music has been in the past. What we -know of it now may only be a shadow of what is to -come. Will it, when it does come and has been accepted, -allow a place to the long-drawn phrases of -Giacomo Puccini?</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, born (1876) of a German -mother and an Italian father, presents a problem to us. -He is a man whose gifts have not at all times been applied -to that which was his ideal, but rather to the immediately -necessary. If one looks at him in this light—and -it is feasible to do so—one can readily understand -some of his artistic indiscretions. The mob knows him -as the composer of <em>I Gioielli della Madonna</em> ('Jewels -of the Madonna,' 1908), his only essay in operatic realism -of the objectionable type. The art-lover hails him -as the fine spirit that conceived the little operas <em>Il Segreto -di Suzanna</em>, <em>Le Donne Curiose</em>, <em>L'Amore Medico</em>, -the oratorio <em>La Vita Nuova</em>, some charming though not -important songs and several beautiful pieces of chamber<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</span> music, -among them two sonatas for violin and -piano and a quintet for piano and strings.</p> - -<p>Wolf-Ferrari is neither Italian nor German; he is a -mixture and so it is possible to conceive his thinking -music in two ways.<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> By no means is this desirable, -but when it exists, what force can alter it? We feel -that the 'Jewels of the Madonna'—which those for -whom music is an entertainment rather than an art -admire so much—is simply a 'bad dream' of its composer's. -Before one knows his instrumental music one -thinks it was the real Wolf-Ferrari and that the <em>finesse</em> -of his other operas was a pose. There are many things -which caused the 'Jewels' to be written; persons who -know the composer and who were in Munich when it -was being written say that the chief one was the need -of financial aid. Seeing the shekels pouring into the -baskets of composers who did this kind of thing regularly, -Wolf-Ferrari 'tried his hand,' thinking that it -would be lucrative. That part of the adventure has -not been denied him. But it has done him immeasurable -harm in the opinions of many who were looking -to him for greater things. Its chances are limited—it -cannot be sung in Italy on account of its misrepresentation -of Neapolitan life—and the Metropolitan Opera -House has refused to place it in the <em>répertoire</em>.</p> - -<p>What Wolf-Ferrari will do no one can say. His next -production may be in his dainty and at all times -charming manner. It may quite as readily be a lurid -and vulgar thing in the coarse musical style of 'The -Jewels.' One can only hope that the widely expressed -regrets of <em>cognoscenti</em> on the appearance of this unsavory -and uninspired work will have their effect on -the composer and that he will give us more in his -<em>rococo</em> style, which if not original is at any rate delightful -and unique in the music of to-day.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</span></p> -<p>Times change and music develops. There is, in fact, -no branch of art in which metamorphoses are so -quickly accomplished. Not a decade ago Luigi Torchi -wrote that Umberto Giordano (b. 1867) was an ultra-modern -composer! This from a man whose knowledge -and fairness must be viewed with respect. Giordano an -ultra-modern! One hesitates to answer such a fatuous -assertion. Were it not generally known that what is -new in music to-day is <em>rococo</em> to-morrow the case -might be a serious one. Umberto Giordano is inconsequential -in the evaluating of Italian music-drama. -His achievements are the operas <em>Regina Diaz</em>, <em>Mala -Vita</em>, <em>Andrea Chénier</em>, <em>Fedora</em>, <em>Siberia</em> and <em>Mme. Sans-Gêne</em>. -For the opera-goer of to-day the list has little -meaning. <em>Regina Diaz</em>, an early work, occupies a place -in that limbo of the past where Puccini's <em>Le Villi</em> has -long been slumbering. <em>Mala Vita</em> was a failure, <em>Andrea -Chénier</em> and <em>Fedora</em> mild successes. 'Siberia' had -meritorious features, notably the Russian folk-songs -which were employed <em>verbatim</em>; had Signor Giordano -been a musician who had the power to develop them -symphonically and thus make them part and parcel -of his score his opera might have taken a place in the -repertory of the world's opera-houses. <em>Fedora</em>, based -on that wretched example of Sardoodledom, was -quickly consigned to oblivion and now his long-awaited -<em>Madame Sans-Gêne</em>—which he has been thinking -about since the time he went to Giuseppe Verdi and -asked him whether it would be possible to write an -opera in which Napoleon had to sing—has failed to -establish him an iota more firmly in the estimation of -musicians and lovers of music-drama. Many years -have been required for the composition of <em>Sans-Gêne</em>; -Giordano, once looked to as one of the 'younger Italians,' -is no longer to be placed in that category. He is -nearly fifty and he writes slowly. From him little is -to be expected. He remains one of those lesser composers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</span> -whose name was brought into prominence by -his <em>Andrea Chénier</em> at a time when the interest in -Italy's then younger men had been aroused through the -unequivocal success of <em>Cavalleria</em> and <em>I Pagliacci</em>.</p> - -<p>Giacomo Orefice and Luigi Mancinelli are two men -whose activities as composers have resulted in several -operas that have had hearings. Orefice has done the -operas <em>Mariska</em>, <em>Consuelo</em>, <em>Il Gladiatore</em>, <em>Chopin</em>, <em>Cecilia</em>, -<em>Mose</em>, and <em>Il Pane Altri</em>. His <em>Chopin</em> seems to -have aroused the most comment; in it he pictured incidents -in the life of the great Polish piano composer -and in doing so he has employed Chopin's music, setting -some of the nocturnes as solos for the voice, etc. -He is, however, more of a musical scholar than a composer. -Mancinelli, who has divided his time between -conducting and composing, has done a 'Hero and Leander,' -which had a respectable success when first -heard. His other operas are <em>Isora di Provenza</em> and -<em>Paolo e Francesca</em>. He has also done two oratorios, -<em>Isaia</em> and <em>San Agnese</em>. His musical speech is frankly -that of a post-Wagnerian.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>Fortunately for the Italian music-drama there are -two young men living to-day who have achieved art-works -which seem to be the creation of individual -thought. Riccardo Zandonai and Italo Montemezzi -must carry the banner of their land in the music-drama. -The world has not taken them into that much -cherished household-word condition, but one does note -their attracting attention among musicians. And this -is the first step.</p> - -<p>Montemezzi is one of those composers who was absolutely -unknown outside of his own country until -<em>L'Amore dei tre re</em> was heard in New York in 1914. -With little heralding the Metropolitan Opera House produced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</span> -his work; there were rumors of certain influences -being responsible for its being done. Many shook their -heads at its chances of being accepted by the public. -The final rehearsals were not completed when it was -recognized by a few gentlemen of the press that here -was a new composer who, though he had nothing wholly -original to say, was a man who could speak his lines -with distinction. The <em>première</em> came and the little -opera was acclaimed. It was at once seen that Signor -Montemezzi was a man who harked back to the poetic -drama as a basis for his musical structure, that he had -no patience with the veritists in opera. He had, as it -were, a finer soul, a loftier spiritual outlook than the -rank and file of his countrymen who had tried to win -in the field of opera within the last fifteen years.</p> - -<p>Italo Montemezzi was born in 1876. His works, all -operatic, are: <em>Giovanni Gallurese</em>, produced in Turin -at the Victor Emmanuel Theatre on January 28, 1905, -<em>Hellera</em>, at Turin at the Regio Theatre on March 17, -1909, and <em>L'Amore dei tre re</em>, in Milan at La Scala in -the winter of 1913. It is rather strange to note in this -composer a total freedom from the long-drawn phrase -made so popular by Mr. Puccini. Montemezzi seems to -abhor it; and it is to his credit that he can work without -it. His earlier operas were less refined, but to-day -it is always possible to recognize his restraint in working -up his climaxes and his mastery in the highly imaginative -orchestral score which he sets down. Nothing -that modern orchestration includes is unknown to him, -but he is sparing in his use of the instruments: he -avoids monotonous stopped brass effects—which modern -composers dote on to the distress of their listeners—he -speaks a poetic utterance like a man in whom -there is that spark that bids him contribute to the art-work -of mankind.</p> - -<p>But with all his talent he does not possess genius. -The man in Italy who has that is Riccardo Zandonai,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</span> -whose place is at the head of the leaders in his country's -music. Signor Zandonai is in truth young. He is -but thirty-two to-day (1915), and he has already done -an unquestionably important work. When you know -the music of this man you will realize that Italy's place -in the music of the future is to be a glorious one. For -his followers will be path-breakers like himself. Already -one has appeared on the horizon. Of him we -shall speak later. To Dickens and his 'Cricket on the -Hearth,' which the Latins call <em>Il Grillo del Focolare</em>, -Zandonai first gave his attention. This opera was -first given at the Politeama Chiarella in Turin on November -28, 1908, followed by his <em>Conchita</em> at the Dal -Verme in Milan on November 13, 1912. We pause here -to speak of this opera, which though received with an -ovation at its every premier performance, barring New -York, does not seem to have held its place in the <em>répertoire</em>. -The libretto, which is after Pierre Louys's <em>La -Femme et le Pantin</em>, is not one that interests the public. -<em>Conchita</em> was given, as we said, in Milan, then in -London at Covent Garden, then in San Francisco by a -visiting company which came over to give a season of -opera; Cleofonte Campanini produced it in Chicago -and Philadelphia and then brought it to New York for -one of the guest performances in February, 1913. No -further performances in New York were planned. To -pass judgment on it from that performance—which is -what actually happened in the case of the newspaper -reviewers—was idle. Only Tarquinia Tarquini, the -young Italian mezzo-soprano, for whom the composer -wrote the rôle, was adequate. The tenor who sang was -already losing his best qualities, and the other parts -were only moderately well done. The chorus was fair -and the orchestra likewise. Mr. Campanini labored -to put spirit into the performance, but it seemed that -the score was a little too subtle for his rather obvious -powers of comprehension.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</span></p> - -<p>One New York critic agreed with the present writer -that in spite of the performance <em>Conchita</em> was the most -interesting novelty that had been brought out since -<em>Pelléas</em>. Since then everything that this composer has -done has been watched with the greatest interest. <em>Conchita</em> -was accused of lacking melody, of being 'patchy,' -of being overscored in spots. None of these things are -true when one knows the work. A week's study of the -score reveals among the most gorgeous moments that -modern Italy has given us, moments which cannot fail -to impress any fair-minded person with their composer's -genius. Zandonai is an ultra-modern and he -writes without making any concessions to his forces. -<em>Conchita</em> may not be a work that fifty years hence will -know, but it is far too good an achievement to be allowed -to lie on the shelf in these days of semi-sterility -in operatic composition.</p> - -<p>To Zandonai's list of operas we must add <em>Melenis</em>, -which first saw the light at the Dal Verme in Milan on -November 13, 1912. It was not successful. Then did -Zandonai set himself his greatest task, for he began -<em>Francesca da Rimini</em>, using as his libretto a reduction of -d'Annunzio's superb drama, the work of Tito Ricordi, -the noted Italian publisher. It was done at the Scala -in Milan in the spring of 1914 and was a triumph. The -following summer brought it to Covent Garden, London, -where its success was again instantaneous. The -Boston Opera Company had planned to give it in the -winter of 1913-1914, but the illness of Lina Cavalieri -postponed it. Then Mr. Gatti-Casazza was rumored -to have taken it for the Metropolitan Opera in New -York for the season of 1914-1915, but it has not been -forthcoming.</p> - -<p>Of <em>Francesca</em> we can only speak through an acquaintance -with the published score. We have not sat in -the audience and gotten that perspective which is, perhaps, -necessary in estimating a new music-drama's<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</span> -worth. But the impressions thus gained may be recorded -here at any rate. A magnificent drama, containing -everything that the musician who would accomplish -the wedding of the two arts requires, Mr. -Zandonai must have gotten much inspiration in working -on it. And the results are plainly there. The full, -Italian rich melodic flow, which in <em>Conchita</em> was not -always present, the apt sense of illustrating the dramatic -moment in tone, the masterly command of modern -harmony and a vital pulsing surge are in this -music. If Mr. Zandonai ever surpasses the love-scene -of Paolo and Francesca he will go down in history as a -giant. If he does not he will already at the age of -thirty-two have made a distinguished place for himself. -Personally we know nothing in modern French, -German or Russian music-drama that compares with -this, unless it be the great moments in Richard Strauss's -<em>Salomé</em> and <em>Elektra</em>. As for the orchestral score of -<em>Francesca</em>, we have heard Mr. Zandonai's orchestra, -know how he employs his instruments and are certain -that in the time between <em>Conchita</em> and this work he -has, if anything, progressed. That wonderful sweep -which he had at his command in the earlier opera must -be present again in this newer one. Should it not be we -still feel sure that the work will win on the merits of -its distinguished thematic material.</p> - -<p>Rumor has it that Zandonai is now engaged on setting -Rostand's <em>La princesse lointaine</em>. Some day he -may do <em>Cyrano</em>, too, since his publishers acquired all -the Rostand dramas two years ago for operatic use. -And we may rightly expect important things from him, -for he is a musician of the first rank, Italy's genius of -to-day. That he is not only a composer for the stage -will be explained in the next chapter when we shall -treat of his noteworthy art-songs and his orchestral -works.</p> - -<p>The follower of Zandonai who has been mentioned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</span> -though not named, is the boy Vittore de Sabbata. We -have learned that he has completed an opera which -has made his publishers skeptical as to what he will -do in the future. It is said to be so modern in its mode -of expression, so difficult to produce, that it has not -been definitely decided whether or not it will be undertaken. -The score of his Suite for orchestra, written at -eighteen, has made us marvel at his ingenuity and his -pregnant musical ideas. What he will do is not to be -gauged by any rule. He may prove to be a prodigy -whose light will have been extinguished long before he -is thirty. His health is reported to be very poor and so -he may be taken from us before he achieves anything -definite. At any rate his name deserves recording, for -he may be one of those men who will figure prominently -in bearing onward the legion of the Italian music-drama -of the future.</p> - -<p>Vittorio Gnecchi, born in 1876, has done two operas, -<em>Cassandra</em> and <em>Virtù d'Amore</em>. <em>Cassandra</em> was first -produced in 1905 at the Teatro Communale in Bologna -and has since been heard at Ferrara in 1908, in Vienna -at the Volksoper in 1911 and in Philadelphia in 1914. -Gnecchi's instrumentation has been much praised, likened -in fact to that of Richard Strauss. On its American -production several critics found in the scoring of -<em>Cassandra</em> much that recalled that of Strauss's <em>Elektra</em>. -When they were reminded of the date of production -and composition of <em>Cassandra</em>, Gnecchi was soon vindicated -from the charge of having copied the Munich -composer's orchestral writing.</p> - -<p>Worthy of record are Giuseppe Bezzi (b. 1874) with -his <em>Quo Vadis</em>, Renzo Bianchi (b. 1887) with his <em>Fausta</em>, -Renato Brogi (b. 1873) with <em>Oblio</em> and <em>La Prima Notte</em>, -Alessandro Bustini (b. 1876) with <em>Maria Dulcis</em>, Arturo -Cadore (b. 1877) with <em>Il Natale</em>, Ezio Camussi (b. 1883) -with <em>La Du Barry</em>, Agostino Cantu (b. 1878) with <em>Il -Poeta</em>, Leopoldo Cassone (b. 1878) with <em>Al Mulino</em> and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</span> -<em>Velda</em>, Roberto Catolla (b. 1871) with <em>La Campana di -Groninga</em>, Giuseppe Cicognani (b. 1870) with <em>Il Figlio -Del Mare</em>, Domenico Cortopassi (b. 1875) with <em>Santa -Poesia</em>, Alfredo Cuscina (b. 1881) with <em>Radda</em>, Ferruccio -Cusinati (b. 1873) with <em>Medora</em> and <em>Tradita</em>, and -Franco Leoni with <em>Ib e la Piccola Cristina</em>, <em>L'Oracolo</em>, -<em>Raggio di luna</em>, <em>Rip Van Winkle</em> and <em>Tzigana</em>.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">A. W. K.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> B. Padua, Feb. 24, 1842, pupil of the Milan Conservatory, but cosmopolitan -in his influences, having visited Paris, Germany (where he was interested -in Wagner) and Poland, his mother's home. Two cantatas, <em>'The -Fourth of June'</em> (1860) and <em>Le sorelle d'Italia</em> (1862), were his first published -efforts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> B. Livorno, Dec. 7, 1863, pupil of Ponchielli and Saladino in Milan -Conservatory.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> Born in Venice Jan. 12, 1876, he studied with Rheinberger in Munich -in 1893-95, though in the main he is self-taught.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XII<br /> -<small>THE RENAISSANCE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN ITALY</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"><p>Martucci and Sgambati—The symphonic composers: Zandonai, de Sabbata, -Alfano, Marinuzzi, Sinigaglia, Mancinelli, Floridia; the piano and -violin composers: Franco da Venezia, Paolo Frontini, Mario Tarenghi; -Rosario Scalero, Leone Sinigaglia; composers for the organ—The song -writers: art songs; ballads—Modern Spanish composers.</p></div> - - -<p class="p2">One is tempted to halt in the midst of an investigation -of Italy's instrumental music to note the unusual -progress which this nation of opera-lovers has made in -arriving at a point where absolute music has a place -in its æsthetic life. And only because Italy, from Boccherini -to Sgambati, ignored the development of music -apart from that of the stage is it necessary to express -wonderment at this worthy advance. A country that -could produce a Palestrina, a Frescobaldi and a Corelli, -in the days when the art of music was still in its youth, -found that it was chiefly interested in the wedding—or -attempted wedding—of words and music. There were, -to be sure, at all times men who wrote what they -thought symphonies of merit, men for the most part -who had little to say. Some of them were unable to -work with the opera-form as it existed. Their music -was, however, the kind that never gets beyond the borders -of its own country, if it succeeds in passing the -city in which it is first heard. The opera-composers -were much too busy getting ready an aria for Signorina -Batti or Signor Lodi to study the symphonic form. So -Italy went its merry way, without symphony, without -chamber music, without the art-song, in fact without -everything that belongs to the nobler kind, from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</span> -days of Boccherini, of the much venerated Luigi Cherubini -to the appearance in 1843 of the late Giovanni -Sgambati.</p> - -<p>That period covered, then, from 1770, when Boccherini -flourished, till 1850. The reasons for the exclusive -interest in opera must be sought in the conditions -obtaining in Rome, Milan, Florence, Genoa, -Naples and other leading cities. Opera-composers -wrote music that the orchestras could manage with -little or no trouble; symphonic music, naturally more -difficult of execution, was, to begin with, beyond the -ability of most of these orchestras. In fact it is only -recently that the Italian orchestras have been brought -to a real point of efficiency. So Italy went on, still holding -high its head as a musical nation—in its own estimation, -of course. To make a name as a musician one -had to compose a successful opera. A fine string quartet -meant nothing to the public, for it was a public -that did not know what chamber-music was. There -were, to be sure, occasional performances, but they -were sporadic, and they had no significance for the -people. After all it is not strange that this occurred. -Other nations have experienced similar stages in their -development in other arts. Italy went through it in -music. To-day she has found herself and she is rapidly -doing everything in her power to atone for her -shortcomings during those many years when <em>opera</em>, in -the opinion of her people, was synonymous with <em>music</em>.</p> - - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>Giovanni Sgambati was born in 1843. About the -year 1866 he began to make his influence felt and his -compositions appeared from the publishers, who, it -may be of interest to note, were advised by Wagner -to exploit his music. The friendship of Franz Liszt -and Sgambati was a very beautiful one; Liszt, in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</span> -really noble and generous way, championed the young -Italian, saw in him a desire to do something in which -Italians of even that day were not especially absorbed. -Sgambati did not show Liszt an opera in the Rossinian -manner when the master arrived in Rome in 1861. -With serious purpose he brought him a symphony. -And Liszt, intelligent musical spirit that he was, looked -at it and recognized that here was an Italian who knew -what the symphonic form meant, who knew his orchestra, -who could write with some distinction. If one -does not expect the impossible of a pioneer there is -always something to be found in his activity that deserves -our aid and sympathy. So Liszt encouraged the -young man. Sgambati labored arduously; he accomplished -a great deal. In his list of works there are symphonies, -two of them, there are chamber works for -strings with piano, there is a piano concerto, shorter -pieces for the piano, some for violin, many songs, a -'Requiem' and other pieces in various forms. Sgambati -as an innovator is nothing; Sgambati as an Italian -symphonic pioneer is important. There was work to -be done and he did it with a zeal that speaks volumes -for his artistic sense. We of to-day might find his -symphonies tiresome, we might consider them too consciously -Brahmsian without the real Brahms spark, to -hold our attention. But their meaning for those men -who are producing vital things in Italy to-day is undeniable. -Sgambati not only gave the world his compositions; -he saw to it that for the first time the symphonic -works of the great German masters were produced -in his country. And he was among the earliest of the -Italians to champion the music of Richard Wagner. -Such a man, a musician with the breadth to appreciate -Wagner in the days when Wagner was hissed and ridiculed, -must in truth have possessed the soul of an artist.</p> - -<p>With him worked a colleague, Giuseppe Martucci. -Like him, he was a pianist of note as well as a composer.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</span> -Martucci came a little later than Sgambati; he -was born in 1856, and he is still living to-day (1915). -For him, too, there was in music something beyond an -opera that filled the theatre from floor to gallery and -gave some adored singer the opportunity to disport -himself in the unmusical cadenzas and other pyrotechnical -passages which composers all around him were -manufacturing so assiduously. In placing an estimate -on the achievement of Martucci it is not impossible to -consider him quite as important a figure as Sgambati. -His music, too, has traits that are typically Italian, -though based on German models. His two symphonies, -his piano concerto in B-flat minor are admirable compositions, -none of them heaven-storming in originality, -all of them eminently praiseworthy for the solidity of -their texture, for the beauty of their design and for the -unflinching adherence to high ideals which they embody.</p> - -<p>It was hardly to be expected that the two men who -set the example for their countrymen in symphonic -composition would be geniuses of the first rank. Had -they been they would doubtless have worked along -other lines. Italian symphonic composition was to be -placed on a secure basis not by path-breakers, but by -path-makers. This they were. And they were notable -examples of what good such men can work. Italy is -rapidly making felt her individuality in the contemporary -musical world by the strides in original composition -which she is taking. To those two pioneers, Giovanni -Sgambati and Giuseppe Martucci, must go the -credit for having pointed the way to absolute music by -Italians, for having toiled so that the men who came -after them might take what they had done and build on -it individual structures. And also that their followers -might have a public that would listen to them.</p> - -<p>Nowhere in the world to-day is there more activity -in musical composition than among the young Italians.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</span> -The world at large seems to know less about them than -it does, for example, about the modern French or Russians. -This is perhaps largely the fault of the Italian -publishers, who do not seem to spread their publications -about in other lands as do their colleagues. Yet -the sincere and eager investigator cannot go far before -he finds a vast amount of engaging new Italian music.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>In the field of the symphonic orchestra we meet with -Leone Sinigaglia, Riccardo Zandonai, Vittore de Sabbata, -Gino Marinuzzi, Franco Alfano, Luigi Mancinelli. -In the previous chapter we have dwelt on the music of -Zandonai's operas. He is, however, one of those big -men who have been moved to do absolute music as well; -and he has done several fine things for the concert-hall. -Like him, the young de Sabbata, of whom we -have spoken, and the older Mancinelli, who is better -known as a conductor than as a creative musician, -have also contributed to the symphonic literature. The -others, barring Alfano, who has done some four unsuccessful -operas, are composers of absolute music -alone.</p> - -<p>Zandonai, Italy's greatest figure, has a symphonic -poem, <em>Vere Novo</em>, which must be seriously considered. -Though it is really an orchestral piece, the composer -has called in the aid of a baritone solo voice in an Ode -to Spring, the poem being by the distinguished Gabriele -d'Annunzio. In it we find a wonderful command -of orchestral effects, an intimate knowledge of the nature -of the various instruments and a masterly attention -to detail. The strings are subdivided into many -parts—and not in vain—and the whole work is unquestionably -important. There is also a delightful -<em>Serenata Mediovale</em> for orchestra with an important -part for a solo violoncello, a composition which has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</span> -distinction and geniality at the same time. It had a -performance in New York at an all-Italian concert -several years ago, but since then it has been unjustly -allowed to languish.</p> - -<p>Franco Alfano, born in 1876, has done a Symphony -in E and a 'Romantic Suite,' two compositions that have -done much to make his name respected. For those -who do not believe that a real symphony has come out -of Italy of the twentieth century an examination of this -score may well be advised. It will convince even the -most skeptical. Alfano's instrumentation is always -good and he knows how to develop his material. Picturesque -is the suite consisting of <em>Notte Adriatica</em> -(Night on the Adriatic), <em>Echi dell' Appennino</em> (Echoes -of the Apennines), <em>Al chiostro abbandonato</em> (To an -Abandoned Cloister) and <em>Natale campane</em> (Christmas -Bells). These four movements are frankly programmatic. -They are not profound, but they are engaging, -and they should be made known wherever good orchestras -exist. When we think of some of the unsatisfactory -French orchestral novelties, German works of no -especial distinction that have been produced recently, -it would seem the duty of conductors to seek out these -Italian scores and present them to the public.</p> - -<p>In Leone Sinigaglia, a native of Turin—he was born -in 1868—Italy has a composer who has done for the -folk-music of his province, if not his country, something -akin to what such nationalists as Dvořák and -Grieg accomplished. <em>Piemonte</em> is the title of a suite, -his opus 36, and <em>Danze Piemontese</em> are two dances -built on Piedmontese themes. These melodies of the -people, indigenous material that has always proved a -boon to gifted composers, have been treated by Sinigaglia -with rare skill. He has clothed them in an orchestral -garb which sets off their virtues most favorably -and their popular nature should play an interesting -part in gaining for them the approval of concert<span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</span> -audiences. His 'Rustic Dance' from the suite <em>Piemonte</em> -is thrilling, while in the same suite occurs <em>In Montibus -Sanctis</em>, in which there is an invocation to the -Virgin, serene and aloof in its inflections. The Piedmontese -dances are brilliant, racy compositions, a master's -development of tunes born of the soil. In bright -and gay spirit, too, is his overture <em>Le Baruffe Chiozzotte</em> -after a Goldoni comedy. This glistening little -overture has already been played in America and never -fails to arouse the good spirits of all who hear it.</p> - -<p>Sicily comes in for musical picturing in the work of -Gino Marinuzzi, born in 1882, a composer whose name -is little known. The average musician is not aware of -his existence. Yet this modest musician has produced a -symphonic poem <em>Sicania</em> and a <em>Suite Siciliana</em>. What -Sinigaglia does with the folk-melodies of his native -Piedmont Marinuzzi accomplishes by employing Sicilian -tunes. And they are very beautiful, too. After all, -the results obtained in working on the folk-music of -any people depend on the skill of the artist who is -welding them into an art-work. Composers enough -have tried to make symphonic works of the crude tunes -of our Indian aborigines, but few, with the exception -of Edward MacDowell in his 'Indian Suite,' have accomplished -works of art by their labors. It is, then, a -matter of treatment; and both Sinigaglia and Marinuzzi -are well equipped to express in tone their conception -of folk-songs in artistic treatment, as their orchestral -works prove conclusively.</p> - -<p>The boy de Sabbata was born in Trieste in 1892. -Saladino and Orefice were his masters at the conservatory -in Milan and they taught him well. His orchestral -technique matches that of Zandonai already and it is -almost impossible to imagine what he will arrive at in -the future. His Suite in four movements, <em>Risveglio -mattutino</em> (A Morning Awakening), <em>Tra fronda e -fronda</em> ('Mid Leafy Branches), an <em>Idilio</em> and <em>Meriggio</em><span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</span> -(Midday), is one of the most amazing orchestral scores -we have ever seen. It was written at the age of twenty. -De Sabbata is not a Korngold in his musical speech; he -is a modern to be sure, but he has none of the qualities -which have won for the young Viennese composer such -heated discussion. His harmonies are new, yet they do -not seem to have been put down with any desire to be -different. There is a very distinct personality in this -music, and in the third movement of his suite (<em>Idilio</em>) -there is some of the warmest writing that has come to -our notice in a long time. This young man has imagination, -strong fantasy and a keen appreciation of -color. At twenty he can say more than most composers -at forty. And because he says it in his own way one -cannot help thinking that the future will be very bright -for him. The only hindrance is his ill health, which is -already causing those who are interested in him much -concern.</p> - -<p>Pietro Floridia, born in 1860, an Italian musician who -lives in New York, has written a symphony in D minor, -creditable from the standpoint of the student but uninteresting -for the public. It has had a performance in -New York, where it was cordially, if not enthusiastically, -received. Mr. Floridia has also done the operas -<em>Carlotta Clepier</em>, <em>La Colonia Libera</em>, <em>Maruzza</em> and <em>Paoletta</em>. -Of Luigi Mancinelli's orchestral compositions -the Suite <em>Scene Veneziane</em> has been performed in London. -They are interesting examples of an Italian whose -idiom is post-Wagnerian in the broadest sense. And -Alberto Franchetti, better known for his operas, has -composed a symphony which Theodore Thomas played -shortly after it was composed. Like his other productions -it lacks physiognomy totally.</p> - -<p>It may not be amiss to digress here to say a word -about Signor Marinetti and his Futurist fellows. Their -place is not an especially important one in Italy's musical -scheme. Their presence does, however, make<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</span> -them come in for consideration. What Signor Marinetti -and his colleagues would have music become none -of us will be so rash as to endorse. Thus far he has -given performances of works of his own invention, -using instruments which make hideous and inartistic -noises to express his ideas. He calls them 'gurglers,' -'snorters' and 'growlers.' We are not conservative in -our taste; we cannot afford to be, for we have with us -the very interesting Arnold Schönberg, who is a Futurist -in tendencies, though not of the Marinetti type, and Leo -Ornstein, whose music is the <em>dernier cri</em> in our development. -Ornstein's music seems to have no relation with -musical art of the past; he is an impressionist and -writes as he feels. He refuses explanations of his music, -further than his stating that he is oblivious to all -that has gone before in musical composition, and writes -what his emotions tell him to, quite as he hears it before -ever a note is set to paper. He employs the piano, -stringed instruments, the voice, the orchestra, as the -case may be. He is therefore obviously not of Signor -Marinetti's tribe. There might be some interest in -hearing one of the latter's bombardments, but it cannot -have any æsthetic value. It must fail as one of -those wayward retrogressions which all arts have experienced -at some time in their history. From Marinetti -we need fear nothing. He will be forgotten long -before the next decade rolls round, when his aggressive -experiment in what he calls music will have been heartily -exploded as the attempt on the part of an iconoclast -to fuse a passing madness with a lofty art.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>Italian piano composers are few; only one of them -touches the high-water mark. Franco da Venezia is -his name and he has put to his credit a <em>Konzertstück</em><span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</span> -for piano and orchestra and some very unusual shorter -pieces for pianoforte solo. The former is regarded as a -splendid work. Of the <em>morceaux</em> we cannot say too -much. Da Venezia is a man of strong physiognomy. -He makes no compromises to win his public, he writes -no <em>salon</em> music. Look at his 'Caravan and Prayer in -the Desert' and you will know what he can do with the -keyboard of the piano! Then turn the pages of a short -poem for the piano, <em>L'Isle des morts</em>, in which there is -more real feeling than in the volumes of many a fashionable -modern Frenchman. Fire has been struck -here; nor has it been lighted to express some happy -little thought that might please amateur pianists. In -this music a tone-poet speaks and his message is worth -listening to. Paolo Frontini is another man who has -written much for the piano. Not important music is -his like that of da Venezia, but he has done some very -agreeable pieces, musicianly in execution and certainly -worthy of acquaintance. Mario Tarenghi, Muzio Agostini -and a half dozen others, whose names would -scarcely be worth recording, have contributed small -shares. Modern Italy's piano composer is Signor da -Venezia. It is to him that we must look for the Italian -piano music of the day.</p> - -<p>Corelli, Vivaldi, Vitali, Veracini and a host of others -held the high standard of their country in violin music -in the days of the classic foundations. We have not -forgotten Corelli's <em>La Follia</em>, the sonatas of these other -men, nor the superb chaconne of Vitali. These men -were violinists and their répertoire was acquired and -increased by their own compositions. Until Nicolo -Paganini appeared in 1782 the Italian violin literature -was scarcely enlarged. And Paganini's music had -value only as <em>violin music</em>, whereas theirs had and <em>has</em> -a place to-day both as music and as music for the -violin. Now again an Italian violinist has come forward, -the musician who has established a string quartet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</span> -in Rome, where he gives his concerts every year for -a discriminating public. Rosario Scalero has in a sense -atoned for the woeful lack of violin composition in his -country. Scalero is not perhaps as original a composer -as we would like to have him; he has followed German -models and has studied seriously. But his sonata in D -minor for violin and piano is one of the best modern -sonatas we have, and we must be grateful that it has -come to us from a land that has done little since the -seventeenth century in producing chamber music for -the violin. This sonata leans a little on Brahms, but -there is in it at the same time something of that Italian -feeling which one recognizes so easily in music, whether -it be for the violin, piano, orchestra or what not. Scalero -has also put forth revisions of some of the classical -sonatas by the old Italian masters, revisions that show -his erudition and artistic judgment.</p> - -<p>Some short compositions and a 'Piedmontese Rhapsody' -by Sinigaglia constitute that very interesting musician's -contribution to violin music. They are all of -them idiomatically conceived and effective in performance. -The Rhapsody is made up of folk-songs of Piedmont, -quite as are the orchestral dances which have -been discussed. It is an exceptionally felicitous piece -to perform, and with orchestral accompaniment it -should soon replace such hackneyed music as Saint-Saëns's -<em>Rondo Capriccioso</em>. Beyond the efforts of these -two men nothing of value is being written for the violin -by the modern Italians.</p> - -<p>Before turning to the discussion of the art-song we -must speak of that curious musical personality, Don -Lorenzo Perosi, born in 1872, who is the representative -of oratorio in his land to-day. Also the Italian organ -composers. Perosi began his career by startling all -who knew him with his pretentious works in which he -has employed Biblical narratives as the subject for -long oratorios. His 'Resurrection of Lazarus' when first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</span> -produced in Venice fixed the attention of the world -upon him. It was said that a new Palestrina had been -found. All kinds of honors were paid him. A street -in his native Tortona was named after him. His services -as conductor at presentations of his oratorios -were sought. We cannot do better than to quote the -remarks of Luigi Torchi, who seems to have examined -his productions very carefully. He says: 'After all, -why this hurrah about Perosi? He, whose recreation -in times past was to compose cathedral church hymns -after the pattern of the Protestant chorales, writes at -present his vulgarly vaunted oratorios. This little -abbé, born with theatrical, operatic talent, and not being -permitted as a priest to write operas, in fault of -religious feeling gives vent by way of compensation to -the fullness of his romantic and sentimental exultations. -And look at the form of his compositions: a -frequency of tedious recitatives with words that follow -literally the text of the Bible; little melodies, properly -beginnings without endings, without any severe dignity -of line, alternate with more or less long instrumental -pieces of lyrical character; a couple of modern -church anthems, in a work drawn from the New Testament; -plain-song harmonized tragically, and some attempts -at operatic realism, ecclesiastical harmonies and -realistic operatic style.... He follows the lead of -Wagner, and makes use of the <em>leit-motif</em>; soon after -he delights in turning his back on him, and offers a -badly made fugue on a subject that smells of too classic -times. He has a fondness for instrumental phrases of -much color, but his purely orchestral numbers are -puerile, and betray no knowledge of modern orchestration. -He has learned to compose pieces without -ideas, fugues without developments, and, that he might -not be too badly off, orchestral intermezzos, written -and orchestrated with the knowledge of a schoolboy. -Perosi has undertaken the task of illustrating the life<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</span> -of our Saviour in twelve oratorios. If he should keep -his word, he should be pardoned.'</p> - -<p>Thus this abbé-composer is disposed of. Marco Enrico -Bossi, born in 1861 in Brescia, has written two oratorios, -'Paradise Lost' and 'Joan of Arc,' fine, sincere -works along lines that add little to what has been done -in the field before his time. He is at least dignified and -knows his craft and so, unlike Perosi, cannot be charged -with being a <em>poseur</em>. He is the foremost living organ -composer that Italy owns. And it is in this department -of activity that he is at his best. Some will think that -he should have been mentioned with the orchestral -composers. But his orchestral works are of the Sgambati-Martucci -kind, and, since he is one of the younger -men, it would be hardly proper to discuss academic -essays along with the work of those men who are blazing -paths. His chamber music, including a fine trio -'In Memoriam,' is creditable but undistinguished. It is -only in his organ music that an individual note is found.</p> - -<p>Cesare Galeotti, Oreste Ravanello, Polibio Fumagalli, -Filippo Capocci, these are names of men who -have written in recent years and are writing (some of -them) organ music to-day. Capocci has done several -sonatas of a pleasing type, as has Fumagalli, while the -other two have confined themselves to working in the -smaller forms, often with much success.</p> - -<p>Two native Italians who have made their homes in -America must be mentioned here. They are Pietro -Alessandro Yon and Giuseppe Ferrata. Mr. Yon is a -young man of unquestioned talent. He was born in -Settimo in 1886 and occupies the post of organist of -the Church of St. Francis Xavier, New York, devoting -a good portion of his time, however, to composition. -Just as it is the duty of organists of Anglican churches -to turn out an occasional <em>Te Deum</em> or <em>Jubilate</em>, so -must the Catholic church organist produce a Mass every -now and then. Mr. Yon is one of those who when he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</span> -comes forward with a Mass gives us a musical work of -distinction, not a <em>pièce d'occasion</em>. He has written a -number of them, but particularly fine is his recent -Mass in A. Here the true ecclesiastical spirit of the -Roman church is to be found; and what a mastery of -polyphony does this young Italian exhibit! His organ -compositions are also praiseworthy, a charming -'Christmas in Sicily' and a 'Prelude-Pastorale' (<em>Dies -est laetitiæ</em>) being characteristic examples.</p> - -<p>Giuseppe Ferrata (b. 1866) lives in New Orleans, -Louisiana, where he teaches and composes. His list -of works is a long one, including a <em>Messe solennelle</em> for -solo voices, chorus or mixed voices and organ or orchestra, -a Mass in G minor for male voices and organ, -numerous songs, piano pieces, and a dozen or more -violin compositions in small forms. He should be -praised especially for a very fine string quartet in G -major and a group of sterling organ compositions. Mr. -Ferrata's path to success has not been made easier by -his living in America; it has, in a sense, taken him -away from Italy and her ways and, though it has doubtless -given him a freer viewpoint, he has had to struggle -for a hearing. His compositions are only now being -recognized and given performances. He has something -to say, has a fine compositional technique, and he is -disposed to add to his style the innovations of modern -harmonic thought.</p> - - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>Doubtless ninety-nine out of every hundred musicians -and music-lovers still believe that Italy has no -art-song, that her composers are still devoting their -energies to turning out those delectable <em>morceaux</em> in -ballad-style which Italian opera singers have sung in -the past, and still do, to an extent, when they are called -upon to take part in a concert. For these persons,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</span> -whose number is a large one, it will be surprising -information that Italy is working very seriously in -the field of the art-song. And the man who has achieved -the most conspicuous place in this department is that -young genius, Riccardo Zandonai, already spoken of -as a music-dramatist and as a symphonic composer. -Whereas some of the songs which can be placed in this -class by contemporary Italians still contain germs of -the popular Italian song style, Zandonai's songs are -indubitably on the high plane which is uninfluenced -by popular tendencies.</p> - -<p>Mr. Zandonai has doubtless done a great many more -songs than we in America have been made familiar -with. He has perhaps also written many more than -he has published, the case with most composers. Several -years ago there appeared three songs, first a setting -of Verlaine's <em>Il pleure dans mon cœur</em>, then <em>Coucher -de soleil à Kérazur</em> and third <em>Soror dolorosa</em> to -one of Catulle Mendès' finest impassioned outbursts. -The effect of these songs on musicians who, at the time, -had heard no music of Zandonai was tremendous. In -every measure was written plainly the utterance of a -big personality, who commanded modern harmonies -with indisputable mastery. Whether his setting of the -lovely Verlaine poem matches or surpasses the widely -known one of Debussy is of little consequence. It is -not at all like it; Zandonai doubtless was unfamiliar -with the Debussy version when he wrote the song and -his <em>Il pleure</em> has an atmosphere all its own. The Orientalism -of <em>Coucher de soleil à Kérazur</em> is unique—it -gives the impression of a twilight conceived through an -entirely new lens. But it is in the <em>Soror dolorosa</em> that -the composer has written what would seem to be one of -his masterpieces. Every drop of the emotional force -that Mendès has called out in his glorious stanzas, -every bit of the color, of the warmth of the poem is -reflected stunningly in this music. It is a wedding of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</span> -voice and piano, achieved only by the greatest masters -in their most notable songs.</p> - -<p>Then there appeared another set of songs, this time -five in number. <em>Visione invernale</em>, <em>I due tarli</em>, <em>Ultima -rosa</em> (this one to a Foggozzaro poem), <em>Serenata</em> and -<em>L'Assiuolo</em> are the titles. You cannot prefer one of -these songs to the other if you really get their meaning; -only the last one might be said to be not so distinctive. -The wonderful dirge of <em>Visione Invernale</em>, -the thrilling melodic beauty of <em>Ultima rosa</em> and the -lighter <em>Serenata</em> and the tragic narrative of <em>I due tarli</em> -('The Two Worms') grip as do few things in modern -music. If Mr. Zandonai has written difficult songs, that -is, from the singer's standpoint, it was not unexpected. -No composer who really had a message ever wrote to -a singer's taste. And Mr. Zandonai never makes concessions.</p> - -<p>Guido Bianchini, Enrico Morpurgo, Alfredo Brüggemann, -Mario Barbieri—names assuredly strange to -many a music-lover—are all men who have contributed -significantly to song literature. Morpurgo's <em>Una speranza</em> -is typical of him at his best; Bianchini has real -modern tendencies. Francesco Santoliquido is known -to us through two songs, <em>Tristezza crepuscolare</em> and -<em>Alba di luna sul bosco</em>. <em>Tristezza crepuscolare</em> is the -better of the two, a magnificent conception, a song that -is thrilling in every inflection. There is a strong -Puccini tinge in Santoliquido's music, made fine, however, -by more restraint than the composer of <em>Tosca</em> -knows how to exert. Unusually well managed are the -accompaniments, which are rather graphic. Mr. Santoliquido -knows how to achieve a climax within a few -pages as do few of his contemporaries.</p> - -<p>Apart from all these men stands Vittorio Gui, a -young composer and conductor, whose career has been -furthered by Arturo Toscanini. Signor Gui is an 'ultra' -in the best sense of the word. His songs, which have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</span> -not been exploited in America at all, are enigmatic. -In fact his choice of poems makes them so. He has -taken Chinese poems and translated them into Italian, -poems that contain that world of Confucian philosophy -which is still but little known. There are problems -in ultra-modern harmony here which many will not be -willing to solve, but which a few have already given -serious attention to and from which they have gotten -much joy. There is distinction in these songs; a desire -to experiment, perhaps, but still the feeling for new -paths, new moods, and, above all, a new idiom. The -attainment of that may not be so easily accomplished, -but Gui is one of the men who are going prominently -in that direction.</p> - -<p>A word about the ballad composers, Paolo Tosti, P. -Mario Costa, Luigi Denza, and Enrico de Leva. Whereas -their position in serious music is not one of importance, -their appeal to millions entitles them to mention. -Tosti is doubtless the ablest of them. His innumerable -<em>melodie</em>—the characterization of his songs -as such is typical of what Italians thought a song must -be before they attempted the art-song—have a melodic -fascination. Who has not heard his 'Good-bye' and -his <em>L'ultime canzone</em>, two songs which have won a -popularity truly universal in scope! And when 'Good-bye,' -hackneyed as it is, is sung by a Melba it contains -an emotional thrill, theatrical as its appeal may be, insecure -as its structure is from the standpoint of the -art-song. It would be idle to enumerate Tosti's writings. -His songs go into the hundreds. De Leva, Denza, -and Costa are of the same creative blood; they believe -in pure melodies, none of them distinguished, set to -very indifferent Italian texts—not poems—and one and -all gorgeously effective for the singer. What these -men have produced has developed in Italian singers -that failing, namely, the dwelling on all high notes, -which is so objectionable. But it has also brought joy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</span> -to so many Italians whose sole musical interest was -singing, and their place in the development of Italy's -music cannot be overlooked. When a hundred years -have rolled around perhaps the name of Tosti will be -remembered. But it is exceedingly doubtful whether -there will be Italians producing a similar kind of music; -for by that time Italy's music-lovers will have -repudiated this type of banal melodic song, which -makes only an emotional appeal and into whose make-up -the intellectual has never been allowed to enter.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Italy's right to a place among musical nations of the -day cannot be denied. Not only in the producing of -worthy music-dramas, of orchestral works, of chamber -music, but also in the noble art-song is she active. A -change has come over her. Perhaps her musicians are -being better trained. Yet the St. Cecilia Academy in -Rome, the conservatories in Milan, Naples, Genoa, and -Bologna have always equipped their students well. It -may not be this so much as it is the imbuing of those -who choose lives in art with the responsibility of their -calling. Further, it is the advance which musical art -has made all over the world. The young Italian composer -of to-day has behind him Wagner and his glorious -achievement, Strauss and his superb essays in the -operatic and orchestral fields, the Frenchmen and their -innovations. What did he have fifty years ago? Was -it not to the old-style Italian opera that he looked with -a burning to achieve a work of this type and win popular -success? And one point that affects all modern -composition is quite as valid in Italy as it is anywhere: -Composers, in fact, musicians in general, are being -better educated; they are feeling the correlation of the -arts; they have studied the literatures of many nations, -they know the paintings of many masters. In this lie -the wonderful possibilities of the future! And modern -musical art has its pathway, one quite as open and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</span> -as free as that of any of its brothers, in which it must -accomplish its task. Italy will not be behind in the -future as she has been in the past. For she has a Zandonai, -a Montemezzi, a Gui to lead her on.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em; ">A. W. K.</p> - - -<h3>V</h3> - -<p>Since the late Renaissance Spain has been generally -regarded as backward in music. And until recently the -reputation was deserved. But within the last two decades -musicians have become aware that there is a vigorous -and extremely talented school of native and patriotic -Spanish composers, working sincerely and effectively. -As always happens in such cases, we find on -closer examination that the revival of musical creativeness -is not a recent thing, but has been going on definitely -for half a century or more. But every indigenous -musical school must go through a period of internal -development, and the modern Spanish school has been -no exception. It is even probable that this school has -by no means begun to approach maturity. Though it -assiduously cultivates national materials and even issues -national manifestoes, its idiom is borrowed in the -main from France, and it is to Paris that the promising -young composers still look for tuition and inspiration. -The national material as used by the modern -Spanish composers has no more been infused into the -spirit and technique of their product than the Russian -folk-songs were infused into the Russian music of -Glinka's time. Modern Spanish music seems to be in a -preparatory stage. It has two main lines of activity—the -opera and the genre piece for piano. In the former -class Spanish composers have produced little that has -carried beyond the borders, though their industry is -indefatigable. But in piano music they have enriched -modern concert literature with many a piece of sparkling -vitality and able workmanship.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</span></p> - -<p>Among the precursors of the recent renaissance the -name of Baltasar Saldoni (1807-1891) is most eminent. -He was born in Barcelona, and received his education -in the monastery of Monserrat. Throughout the greater -part of his life he was distinguished as an organist, -teacher and scholar as well as a composer. His important -works were a symphony, <em>O mia patria</em>; a 'Hymn -to the god of Art'; some operas and operettas, and a -quantity of church and organ music written in a severe -contrapuntal style. Miguel Eslava (1807-1878) also deserves -mention both as composer and scholar. But -greater than either is Felippe Pedrell (born 1841 and -still living), who with Isaac Albéniz (born 1860) may be -called the founder of modern Spanish music. Both -were ardent nationalists; both were thorough and industrious -scholars; and both wrote with distinction in -large forms as well as small. Though Pedrell, the -student, was particularly eminent in the department of -Spanish ecclesiastical music, Pedrell the composer essayed -chiefly those forms which ordinarily bring the -maximum of worldly success. His early operas—<em>El -último Abencerage</em> (1874), <em>Quasimodo</em> (1875), and -'Cleopatra' (1878)—were produced in Spain at a time -when the native public would hardly lend an ear to -anything except Italian operas of the old school and -its beloved <em>Zarzuelas</em>, or operettas. His orchestral -works are large in design and admirably executed. -They include a <em>Chanson Latine</em>, the <em>March à Mistral</em>, -the <em>Chant de la Montague</em> (a suite of orchestral 'pictures'), -and the symphonic poems—'Tasso at Ferrara' -and 'Mazeppa.' In addition to many songs and small -piano pieces, Pedrell wrote considerable choral music, -in particular the noble 'Gloria Mass.' But his greatest -work, and the one which has chiefly won him the respect -of musicians in outside lands, is his operatic trilogy, -'The Pyrenees,' designed as a sort of hymn of praise -to his native land. The whole work was produced in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</span> -1902 in Barcelona, where the composer has worked indefatigably, -causing the city to attain a peculiar musical -importance somewhat parallel to that which Weimar -attained in Germany under the régime of Liszt. -The three parts of 'The Pyrenees' are denominated, -respectively, <em>Patrie</em>, <em>Amor</em>, and <em>Fides</em>, three words -forming an old and illustrious Spanish armorial inscription. -In the prologue a bard chants the sorrows -of Spain. The first part of the work is the story of -a nation sunk into a despair and then liberated. The -liberator is symbolized in the hero, the Comte de Foix, -while the legendary spirit of the mountains is personified -in a juglara, Raig de Lluna. Especially fine is -the second act of <em>Patrie</em>, where the sombre chant of the -monks mingles with the fanfare of the soldiers, the -music of a passing funeral cortège, and the melancholy -song of the jongluera.</p> - -<p>Whereas Pedrell specialized in ancient Spanish -church music, Albéniz made a study of the folk-tunes -of his people. And this with the deliberate purpose of -using them as a basis for a new Spanish school of composition. -With unfailing energy he carried out his life-program, -and, though he did not succeed in carrying -the fame of his native land into many foreign capitals -(except for his superb piano pieces), he gave energy to -the awakening instincts of native composers, and set -a high standard for their work. He was in his early -youth a 'boy-wonder' pianist, and as such studied under -some of the most famous masters in Europe, among -them Marmontel in Paris, Reinecke in Leipzig, and -Liszt in Rome. As a composer he was largely self-taught. -His early piano work was undistinguished, but -his technical ability grew astonishingly with the course -of the years. His opera, <em>Pepita Jimenez</em>, is regarded as -the most distinguished operatic achievement of modern -Spain. It is frankly a 'folk-opera' and makes lavish -use of the specific Spanish rhythms and tunes which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</span> -composer collected in his years of research among the -people. The score shows an easy mastery of counterpoint, -but the vocal parts are rather uninteresting, and -the work as a whole lacks the charm which one would -expect. Albéniz's other works for the stage are the -operas <em>Enrico Clifford</em> and 'King Arthur,' and the operetta -'The Magic Opal' (produced in London in 1893). -The oratorio <em>Christus</em> also has a high place in the music -of modern Spain. But Albéniz's most successful -works are his piano pieces. These have been called 'the -soul of modern Spain.' They seem to range over the -whole land, paying homage to a city or a valley, picturing -a street scene in festival time or some striking bit -of native scenery. Their melodies and rhythms are -Spanish from beginning to end. But their technique is -that of modern France. Albéniz, and all his compatriots -in music, had their best lessons in Paris, and they -could not fail to reflect the powerful influence from the -north. It is to their credit (to Albéniz's in particular, -since he chiefly insisted upon it) that with a French -technique and a set of æsthetic ideals unmistakably -French they still produced a music that was national -and personal. Albéniz's best works for the piano are -his two suites, 'Iberia' and 'The Alhambra.' These have -taken their place in modern concert programs beside -the works of Debussy and Ravel, and have given their -composer an international reputation as one of the leading -'impressionists' of modern times.</p> - -<p>The most eminent living Spanish composer in this -style is Enrico Granados (born 1867). Like Albéniz, -he has worked in the larger forms, and his works deserved -at least this partial listing: the operas—<em>María -de la Alcarria</em> (1893) and <em>Folletto</em> (1898), the symphonic -poems, <em>La Nit del Mort</em> and 'Dante'; the incidental music -to Mestres' fairy play, <em>Liliano</em>; a quartet and a piano -trio, in addition to many songs. But, again like Albéniz, -it is in his piano pieces that he has done his best work.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</span> -These show all the modern French characteristics—highly -spiced harmony, free use of dissonances of the -second, clear but astonishingly intricate pianistic style, -free use of the whole tone scale and of exotic tonalities, -and daring characterization and realism. But its complexity -is not so much that of development as of ornamentation—which -is a quality more peculiarly Spanish. -As with Albéniz's piano works, the composer pays tribute -to many a Spanish town and to many a Spanish custom, -and loves to introduce a local color at once authentic -and suggestive. Granados' most important groups of -piano pieces are the <em>Goyescas</em>, the 'Songs of Youth,' -the <em>Danzas Españolas</em>, and the 'Poetic Waltzes.'</p> - -<p>Hardly inferior to Granados in the writing of genre -pieces for piano is Joaquin Turina. This composer's -most important piano work is the suite <em>Sevilla</em>, a fascinating -group of tone pictures drawn from the daily -life of the city. His writing is marked by great delicacy -and keen feeling for the finer vibrations of the modern -piano. Among his other works we should mention an -opera, <em>Fea e con Gracia</em> (1905), a string quartet, and a -<em>Scène andalouse</em> for piano and violin (1913). Other -Spanish composers who have gained eminence in their -native land are K. Usandizaga, who is a pupil of d'Indy, -and whose opera <em>Las Coloudrinas</em> was produced in -Madrid in 1914; Vives, the composer of the nationalistic -opera <em>Tabare</em> (1914); and Costa Nogueras, composer -of <em>Flor de almendro</em> (1901), <em>Ines de Castro</em> (1905) -and <em>Valieri</em> (1906). Gabriel Grovlez (born 1882) has -written colorful piano music in the new style, and -Garcia Roble has made successful essays in the larger -forms. The great violinist Pablo Sarasate (1884-1908) is -eminent as a spirited composer for violin. Raoul Laparra, -though he is of Spanish parentage and has -worked with Spanish materials, should rather be -treated among the composers of modern France.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</span></p> -<p>Among the distinguished composers of modern Portugal -should be mentioned Verreira d'Arneiro (born -1838), who has gained a wide reputation with his -'Symphonic Cantata' and his opera, 'The Elixir of -Youth'; and Carlo Gomez (1839-1896), who was chiefly -active as a composer of operas in the Italian style for -Italian theatres. The most eminent Portuguese composer -of recent times, however, is the admirable pianist -Jose Vianna da Motta (born 1868). A quartet and a -symphony from his pen have been played with success, -but he is best known by his piano pieces, notably the -'Portuguese Scenes' and the five 'Portuguese Rhapsodies.'</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">H. K. M.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> See Volume IX, chapter XIV.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</span></p> -</div> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CHAPTER XIII<br /> -<small>THE ENGLISH MUSICAL RENAISSANCE</small></h2> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Social considerations; analogy between English and American conditions—The -German influence and its results: Sterndale Bennett and others; -the first group of independents: Sullivan, Mackenzie, Parry, Goring Thomas, -Cowen, Stanford and Elgar—The second group: Delius and Bantock; McCunn -and German; Smyth, Davies, Wallace and others, D. F. Tovey; musico-literary -workers, musical comedy writers—The third group: Vaughan Williams, -Coleridge Taylor and W. Y. Hurlstone; Holbrooke, Grainger, Scott, -etc.; Frank Bridge and others; organ music, chamber music, songs.</p> -</div> - -<h3>I</h3> - -<p>The word <em>renaissance</em> when applied to English musical -conditions from about 1870 onwards is convenient -but slightly inaccurate. It gives us an easy group-symbol -for a large and unexpected outburst of activity; but -it does not either state or explain a fact. <em>Re-naissance</em> -means 'a being born again,' and that implies previous -death. But the flame of life had never quite died out -in the country to whose first great composer (Dunstable) -the modern world owes the invention of musical -art.</p> - -<p>In its church and choral music especially there had -always been a flicker of life which at least once, in the -reigns of Elizabeth and the first James, had blazed up -into an astounding vitality. However, it was not to be -expected that the nation could go on living at this white -heat. The flame burnt itself down, but not out; and -the embers of a national art that had once been great -enough to light up the wide spaces of the world smouldered -through the eighteenth century and far into the -nineteenth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</span></p> - -<p>The history of this ecclesiastical music might almost -have been predicted. Its postulates are merely the isolation -and selfishness of the English Church from the -days of William and Mary to those of the Oxford movement. -But there are some other factors governing the -productions of 'secular' music; and these we must examine.</p> - -<p>From about the time of Purcell's death onwards -(1695) England was engaged in eating up as much of -the world as possible. And the result was national indigestion. -Already in Charles II's time there had been -alarming signs of an after-dinner torpidity which could -find pleasure only in the latest trickeries imported from -France. The old healthy delight in music as the recreation -of freemen was disappearing; and the Englishman, -spending his long day in the conquest, the civilization, -and the administration of his great empire, found -himself in the evening too weary for anything but contemptuous -applause.</p> - -<p>Hence began the artistic invasion of England. The -foreigner was quick to see his opportunity in the preoccupations -of the nation. Over the sea he came in -shoals, impelled partly by the very natural belief in his -own nation as the source of all <em>kultur</em>, and principally -by his interest in the pound sterling. And, once landed, -there he remained. His motto was that of the old Hanoverian -countess: 'Ve kom for all your goots.'</p> - -<p>It is unnecessary in this place to detail either the -methods or the pernicious effects of this unnatural -domination. Händel was a great, good, and pure-minded -man, but when he came to England in 1710 he -came to be a curse and an incubus brooding over the -English spirit for 150 years. Music very nearly died -there and, when the corpse showed any signs of reviving, -some foreign professor was always at hand to -stifle its faint cries, or, if that was not enough, to do a -little quiet blood-letting 'just to make sure.' Even in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</span> -the third quarter of the nineteenth century England -maintained men like Karl Halle (later Charles Hallé, -and later still <em>Sir</em> Charles Hallé) who were content to -accept position, affluence, and titles, giving in exchange -bitter and persistent opposition to the creative art of -their adopted country.</p> - -<p>This deplorable state of affairs continued more or -less down to the middle year of last century. About -that time certain forces came into play which have -markedly changed the social and artistic conditions of -England. And only in this sense can we say that there -has been such a thing as a renaissance or rebirth of -music. Looked at from the twentieth-century end of -the telescope the changes seem violent and unbelievable; -but, if we put the glass down and walk through -the country itself, we shall be forced to accept them as -only a natural and inevitable broadening of the landscape.</p> - -<p>The main fact on which we wish to dwell here is that -between the years 1870 and 1915 England has been able -to assert her nationality in music. And this is a matter -of the deepest interest to all Americans who love their -country. The preponderance of blood here is Anglo-Saxon -and, though America has the advantages and disadvantages -of a mixed population, she has yet to learn -the lesson already learned by some other peoples, that -only by the paths of nationalism can she scale the -heights of internationalism.</p> - -<p>In more ways than one America's 1915 is England's -1870. The American composer need not engrave this -fact on his notepaper, but he may be recommended -by a sincere well-wisher to keep it in his heart. On -both the material and the spiritual sides it is true. -Watch the orchestral players on a Sunday night at the -'Metropolitan.' They are the sons of the men who were -playing in 1870 at Covent Garden. But since then the -Englishman has asserted his personality; and to-day<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</span> -there is scarcely a foreigner in any first-class English -orchestra. Again, read through the synopses of novelties -in any season's concert programs here. How many -are American? Almost none. A hundred million people -owning half a continent with vast waterways, prairies, -and mountain ranges—yet musically nearly inarticulate! -There must be something wrong here.</p> - -<p>Let us hasten to add that the brain-stuff of the American -composer is just as good as the brain-stuff of any -other composer. More than that, he alone of all his -countrymen seems to be aware that the price of victory -is battle and death in battle.</p> - -<p>No one can say that England has yet conquered the -world in a musical sense. Still her achievements are -much greater than are generally recognized on this side -of the Atlantic. The art-works which represent these -achievements lie mostly on composers' shelves and in -publishers' cellars, kept there partly by their own -strangeness and partly by the timidity and self-effacement -of their authors.</p> - -<p>Already similar works are being produced in America; -and it is therefore hoped that a consideration of -the musical conditions and processes in England between -1870 and 1915 may be helpful to American composers. -One may add that at the earlier date the outside -English public was just as heavily ignorant and -indifferent as the American public is now. In the one -case the leaven came, and in the other is coming from -within.</p> - - -<h3>II</h3> - -<p>In a short sketch like the present it is not possible -to discuss fully the changed social conditions which -brought about the English musical renaissance. One -must, however, mention two forces which, acting somewhat -blindly on the individual, yet produced great effects -in the mass. The first of these was the re-cognition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</span> -that the man who mattered was the man of the soil. -From this re-cognition sprang the whole folk-song -movement—a movement whose depth and importance -are still very little understood in America. The second -is the growth of healthy liberal opinions and the partial -reconsideration of the English caste-system. On this -change the example of democratic America has undoubtedly -had great influence. The result of this levelling -upwards and downwards can be seen in the fact -that, whereas prior to 1870 the English composer was -generally a scallywag, now he is a gentleman.<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p> - -<p>We have already said that England was never quite -dead musically. To the outsider she may have appeared -so, but it was really only a 'deep surgical anæsthesia.' -And the analogy holds. She had been operated -on so often by her German specialists that, as she came -out of her sleep, she only very gradually began to ask -herself whether, without another operation, she might -not be able to find health by dismissing her doctors and -changing her mode of life. Naturally it was a wrench -to her to send the doctors packing; and her weak system -almost, but not quite, refused her new diet of English -bread and English water. In other words, if we -divide the men of the English musical renaissance into -three groups according to age, we shall find that the -oldest group—to whom belongs all the honor of the -spade—were almost to a man foreign-trained. Their -main ideals were Joachim and Brahms, and their chief -quarrel with the second and third groups—their pupils, -be it said—was the quarrel between German technique -and English.</p> - -<p>To the most distinguished thinker of that school the -correct way of writing a song is still the German way. -The rest-of-the-world way is simply <em>wrong</em>. Race, feeling,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</span> -national sentiment, all go for nothing. In effect -he says: 'You may draw your water from a spring in -Kent, in Maryland, or in Siberia; but it won't travel -except in disused Rhine-wine bottles.' The proposition -only needs stating to be condemned.</p> - -<p>This is, in small, the attitude of the oldest group. -But we must remember that most of them continually -forget their treasonable theories and prove their loyalty -to national ideals in their practice. It is not a complete -loyalty, but it is one to which all respect and honor are -due. We must not judge it by the tree of which it was -itself the seed, but by the sickly undergrowth among -which it managed to strike root. And this shrivelled -stuff is represented to us by such names as E. J. Loder -(1813-65), H. H. Pierson (1815-73), and W. Sterndale -Bennett (1816-75). The last-named composer in especial -is a striking instance of an able but weak personality -overwhelmed by circumstance. When he was a student -among the Germans his docility to their ideals won -Schumann's approval. Returning to England, he found -himself, so to speak, hanging in the air like an orchid—without -roots. Naturally he withered away. And for -many years England had the spectacle of her chief musician -dribbling out smooth Anglo-German platitudes, -while Germany herself was producing <em>Lohengrin</em>, <em>Tristan</em>, -and 'The Ring.' Only one work of his has weathered -the storm of the English musical revival—'The -Naiads.' But, of course, neither he, nor Loder, nor -Pierson had any closer connection with the English -renaissance than the glow-worm has with the coming -sun. All three of these men were as clever as any living -American or English composer. They were all driven -into indignant silence, sullen despair, or musical madness -by the anti-national conditions of their time.</p> - -<p>Contrast their output with that of the seven musical -children whom the fairy-stork brought to the rebirth -of English music. Their names and natal years are:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</span> -Arthur Seymour Sullivan (1842), Alexander Campbell -Mackenzie (1847), Charles Hubert Hastings Parry -(1848), Arthur Goring Thomas (1851), Frederic Hymen -Cowen (1852), Charles Villiers Stanford (1852), and Edward -William Elgar (1857). These seven men then—all -German-trained except Elgar and Thomas—yet -draw a large part of their vitality from the soil on -which they were bred. One only needs to hear an -Irish Rhapsody of Stanford, a big chorus of Parry, or -a gay little song of Sullivan to become aware of a 'new -something' in art. And, if the American reader be inclined -to doubt this 'new something' at a first hearing, -he may be earnestly advised to ask himself this question: -'What would be my first impressions of a symphonic -poem by Strauss if that were my first introduction -to a German art-work?'</p> - -<p>The fertility of all these composers is so amazing -that any attempt to catalogue their works would stifle -the rest of this volume. Songs, operas, symphonies, -sonatas, variations, church music, and choral works -all pour forth in an endless stream. Under the one -heading, 'works for voice and orchestra,' Parry has 33 -entries. Stanford's opus numbers approach 150, and he -begins with 7 operas, 7 symphonies, incidental music to -5 plays, and 27 'orchestral and choral works.' Cowen -has written 4 operas, 4 oratorios, 6 symphonies, and 18 -cantatas; and that is only the beginning of his list. It -is plainly impossible even to hint at this enormous mass -of material. We must content ourselves with a rapid -glance at the distinguishing features of each composer.</p> - -<p>Sullivan, the man who endeared himself personally -and musically to a generation, needs no introduction. -His work is practically summed up in the words 'Savoy -Opera.' And these words stand everywhere for melodic -charm and fancy, delicate humor, and exquisitely -finished workmanship. On the more æsthetic side we -owe him a lasting debt 'for his recognition of the fact<span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</span> -that it was not only necessary to set his text to music -which was pleasing in itself, but to invent melodies in -such close alliance with the words that the two things -became (to the hearer) indistinguishable.' His long -series of works beginning with 'Contrabandista,' 'Cox -and Box,' and 'Trial by Jury' continued through 'Patience,' -'Pinafore,' 'The Mikado,' 'The Yeomen of the -Guard,' 'The Gondoliers,' and others, till his death interrupted -the composition of his last work, 'The Emerald -Isle.' It must be added that both in his simple concert -songs and in his choral music Sullivan enjoyed a -wide popularity. This is now waning. Of his larger -concert works 'The Golden Legend' and the overture -'Di Ballo' possess the greatest vitality.</p> - -<p>Mackenzie, who succeeded Macfarren (1813-87) as -principal of the Royal Academy of Music, is a man -of forceful character. Like Sullivan, he was trained in -Germany and came back a brilliant contrapuntist with -wide, far-reaching musical intentions. Familiar with -every nook in the orchestra, he has produced a mass -of concert and opera music all characterized by great -technical dexterity and a certain continual color and -warmth. More than once the present writer has been -surprised by some particularly modern stroke of his -orchestral expression and, after ascribing it to the influence -of the most neo of neo-continentals, has discovered -that Mackenzie was doing it before its supposed -author was born. It is a common word in London -that Stanford and Mackenzie spend their evenings -reading each other's full-scores, both missing out the -German parts. Of Mackenzie's works the best known -are the violin 'Benedictus' and 'Pibroch,' the orchestral -ballad <em>La Belle Dame sans Merci</em>, the cantatas 'The -Story of Sayid,' 'The Cottar's Saturday Night,' 'The -Dream of Jubal,' and, finally, the ever-popular overture -'Britannia.'</p> - -<p>The English public connects Parry's name mainly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</span> -with his colossal choral writings and with his directorship -of The Royal College of Music. That, however, -by no means exhausts the list of his activities. In the -realms of song, of symphonic and chamber music, he -has shown an astonishing fertility. His productions are -marked throughout by a boundless contrapuntal skill -based very decidedly on the old order of things. To -his heroic mind forty-part writing is probably very -much what four-part writing is to the rest of mankind. -A sort of hard-knit sincerity and a lyrical grandeur -pervade all his works. One feels that, if Milton's father -had had his son's genius, he would have been a seventeenth-century -Parry. Of humor he has none, but in its -place a constant cheerfulness characteristic of a certain -very good type of Englishman. His best-loved work -is undoubtedly 'Blest Pair of Sirens.' But after that we -must mention 'The Glories of Our Blood and State,' -<em>L'Allegro ed il Pensieroso</em>, 'Lady Radnor's Suite,' the -'Symphonic Variations in E minor,' and the beautiful -series of 'English Lyrics.'</p> - -<p>Goring Thomas was an Englishman who, with the -help of great natural talent and of long residence in -France, almost performed the miracle of successfully -changing his nationality. Of course, he had to pay the -price; and it was heavy. After burning incense at the -altar of French ideals he came back to a country where -grand opera was only an annual importation symbolical -of financial respectability. He might have done Sullivan's -work better than Sullivan. But the fates were -inexorably against him. He did not even get a knighthood. -Imagine Saint-Saëns caught young and studying -Handelian counterpoint at the Royal Academy of Music; -or Stravinsky doing 'fifth grade harmony' at the -Royal College of Music with his eye on the organ-loft at -York Minster or the conductor's seat at the Gaiety as -possible goals of his ambition. Either instance will give -the curious reader some idea of Thomas's difficulties,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</span> -social and psychological. One must add that he cannot -be denied great charm of manner and a strong selective -gift both in his melody and harmony. He had all -the Frenchman's talent for recognizing dramatic effect -and securing it swiftly. His best-known works are -'Esmeralda,' 'Nadeshda,' and 'The Swan and the Skylark.'</p> - -<p>Cowen is a West Indian Jew. His artistic activities, -however, have mainly centred round London and Glasgow. -In the former place he has conducted the 'Philharmonic,' -and in the latter the Scottish Orchestra. -As a composer he has been both over-blamed and over-praised. -His blood undoubtedly gives him facility, -adaptability, and a somewhat detached viewpoint. -These qualities, academically praised by the Anglo-Saxon, -yet excite in England a certain half-envious distrust -when actually exercised. For instance, the English -musician does not care two raps about the style -of composition commonly called 'ye olde English'; but -he thinks it scarcely proper that Cowen should be able -to write in that style so well. Again, in his heart of -hearts the professional man probably thinks that King -David's ultimate object in writing Psalm 130 was the -afternoon service at Westminster Abbey; and here, too, -Cowen's pen causes some uneasiness. On the other -side of the picture we have had the composer figuring -with the public for years as a miracle of charm, grace, -and delicate fancy. A fair view of Cowen would probably -show him as a composer somewhat isolated from -his fellows, naturally inclined to the lighter side of life, -and perhaps more anxious for the laurel than for the -dust. His easy yet punctilious technique is shown in -a long list of popular works. Of these the most successful -are his two sets of 'Old English Dances,' the -orchestral suite 'The Language of Flowers,' the overture -'The Butterflies' Ball,' the 'Scandinavian,' 'Welsh,' and -'Idyllic' symphonies, and the choral works 'Ruth,' 'The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</span> -Rose Maiden,' 'The Sleeping Beauty,' and the 'Ode to -the Passions.'</p> - -<p>Stanford and Ireland contribute respectively to English -musical life and to the empire what a penn'orth of -yeast does to a basin of dough. As far as one may -judge the ferment cannot be stopped. Its chemical constituents -are wit, clarity, and humor, all combined by -a delightful ease and precision of technique. Stanford's -scores are models of elegant reticence and their 'form' -is beyond reproach. In all his work one notices a constant -refusal to accept gloom for poetry. He is a musical -Oliver Goldsmith of the nineteenth century. No -one has done more for the preservation, the arranging, -and the publishing of Irish folk-song. Among the best-known -of his works are his comic opera 'Shamus -O'Brien,' his 'Irish Rhapsodies,' his 'Variations on an -English Theme,' and his many fine string quartets and -quintets. In the realm of song-literature both original -and arranged he has a great record; much of his church -music is by now classic on both sides of the Atlantic; -and he has made a very special success with his striking -Choral Ballads. In these last three departments one -may mention his 'Cavalier Songs' and his 'Songs of -Old Ireland'; his Services in B-flat, A and F; 'The Revenge,' -'The Voyage of Maeldune,' 'The Bard,' and -'Phaudrig Crohoore.'</p> - -<p>Elgar's advantage over the other six members of -this group lies, not merely in his comparative youth, -but in the fact that he began his serious and prolonged -husbandry after the others had done the ploughing. -Practically self-educated, he set out with the very noble -determination to conquer the world unaided except by -his own brains. What this determination means in a -densely populated, imperialistic country like England -probably very few Americans can realize. From his -home in Malvern and later in London he began to issue -a series of works, few in number as the men of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</span> -generation counted these things, but of unsurpassed -poetical quality. His earlier work, such as 'King Olaf' -and 'Caractacus,' met with no very wide appreciation; -but, with the appearance of his 'Enigma Variations,' his -'Sea Songs,' and his beautiful oratorio, 'The Dream of -Gerontius,' came general European recognition. His -present unassailable position in England may be gauged -from the fact that his oratorios—saturated with the -Roman Catholic spirit—are welcomed even in the English -cathedrals. Nor are the Deans and Chapters incensed -thereby. Of his other works—such as the overtures -'In the South' and 'Cockaigne,' the 'Pomp and Circumstance' -marches, the two enormous Symphonies, -the Violin Concerto, and the oratorios 'The Kingdom' -and 'The Apostles'—it is not possible to speak here in -detail. All Elgar's work is characterized by great sincerity -and purity of intention. He is an ample master -both of harmony and counterpoint; while his sense -of orchestral decoration is astonishing. One must in -fairness add that he has often been charged with a -certain indecision and melodic indefiniteness. These -are perhaps national traits; and the gravamen of this -charge may be lightened as Teutonic standards of judgment -become less and less generally enforced.</p> - -<p>Before leaving this group of composers we must mention -the fact—already hinted at—that their general -education and social level is undoubtedly high as compared -with that of their predecessors. This point need -not be elaborated. But its effect is seen in the publication -of various volumes dealing with the æsthetic and -historical sides of music. Of these, Hubert Parry's two -great volumes on 'Johann Sebastian Bach' and 'Style in -Musical Art' are easily first. Only second to them is -the same author's work on 'The Seventeenth Century' -contributed to the 'Oxford History of Music.' And he -has three or four others to his credit. Stanford has -published two delightful books of memoirs and a short<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</span> -treatise on 'Musical Composition.' Frederick Corder, -besides a considerable list of compositions, has produced -three volumes, of which the best-known is 'The -Orchestra and How to Write for It.' The awakening -taste for musical study at this period can perhaps be -best appreciated by considering the wide popularity of -Ebenezer Prout's dry, stubborn volumes on musical -technique.</p> - -<p>Finally, in order to complete the list of names associated -with this movement, one must add John Stainer -and George Martin, both of St. Paul's Cathedral; Walter -Parratt, the distinguished 'Master of the King's Musick'; -and Frederick Bridge of Westminster Abbey. -Of the dozen men named above ten received titles from -the Sovereign.</p> - - -<h3>III</h3> - -<p>The members of the second and third groups shared -with Elgar the advantages of much improved musical -conditions. After twenty-five years' hard work the -older generation of composers had educated the country -to a wider, deeper, and purer appreciation of music. -They had even arrived at a tacit understanding with -their countrymen that an Englishman might, under certain -conditions, be able to compose. Of this understanding -their pupils took immediate advantage. Let -us see of what these improved conditions consisted.</p> - -<p>In 1880, outside the provincial church festivals, orchestral -opportunity for the English composer meant -a few concerts conducted by August Manns at the Crystal -Palace and a few more given by the London Philharmonic -Society. To-day there is a larger number -of first-class orchestral players in London than in any -other city in the world.</p> - -<p>To a large extent this is the result of the insatiable -London appetite for musical comedy performed with -a beauty and lavishness unknown in America. For<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</span> -the orchestral player who cannot live by symphony -work alone can live by symphony and theatre work -combined. The number of orchestras both metropolitan -and provincial has thus increased enormously. The -percentage of English works played has also increased, -though there is still room for some improvement in that -respect.</p> - -<p>In London alone there are, besides the Covent Garden -Orchestra—the Royal Philharmonic, the Queen's -Hall,<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> the London Symphony, the New Symphony, and -the Beecham. All of these can and do tackle successfully -the most modern music. A certain number of -excellent amateur orchestras, such as the Royal Amateur, -the Stock Exchange, and the Strolling Players, -testify to a wide interest in this form of music. Outside -London there are permanent orchestras at such -places as Bournemouth, Brighton, Glasgow, Harrogate, -Liverpool, Manchester, and Torquay.</p> - -<p>Among conductors who have at one time or other -interested themselves in English music may be mentioned -Henry J. Wood, Granville Bantock, Godfrey, -Thomas Beecham, Balfour Gardiner, Landon Ronald. -And this leaves out of account the theatrical conductors, -the older musicians most of whom have conducted -either at the Royal Philharmonic or at some provincial -festival, and the conductors of choral societies, such as -George Riseley, Frederick Bridge, Allen Gill, Henry -Coward, and Arthur Fagge.</p> - -<p>The second point which calls for notice is the folk-song -movement, which has forced composers to reconsider -some of the fundamentals of their art and at the -same time has furnished them with a mass of material -on which to work. We must remember that, from the -early middle ages until the present day, the traditional -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</span>music of Europe (folk-song) has continued to flow -in a sort of underground stream, while the written or -professional music has been the main official waterway. -The two have constantly joined their currents, -and at times the underground stream has actually been -in advance of the river overhead.</p> - -<p>The important point is that, in England and Ireland -at any rate, the folk-song, orally transmitted, has practically -evolved as a <em>separate</em> art-form with its own ways -and means of expression. And the outstanding feature -of the movement is the recognition of this art-form -as a thing of beauty, of vitality, and of necessity to -the nation. One might make a very fair division of -English composers into those who do not use folk-tunes, -those who do for cheque-book reasons, and those -who do because they must.</p> - -<p>In England the missioners of this movement came -only just in time. When they visited the country and -seaboard towns of such counties as Norfolk and Somerset -they found the art of folk-singing unknown except -to the oldest inhabitants. Luckily, however, these -sturdy grandfathers kept in their minds a great treasure -of folk-song, and it was from their lips that our present -collections were made. With this work the name of -Cecil Sharp will always be honorably joined. There -is now very little chance of folk-song dying, but, as -everywhere else, the genuine folk-singer is practically -extinct.</p> - -<p>Irish folk-song has been the subject of conscious literary -enquiry for nearly two hundred years. And this -is not to be wondered at when we consider that, of all -folk-song, it is first in musical charm, variety, and depth -of poetical feeling. In this department the most important -recent contribution by far is Stanford's monumental -edition of the complete 'Petrie Collection'; but, -besides that, he has restored and arranged Moore's -'Irish Melodies' and has published two volumes containing -altogether eighty Irish songs and ballads with accompaniments. -Both in Wales and Scotland there has -been a similar but less important activity.</p> - -<p>Before concluding this hasty sketch of the English -folk-song movement we must point out that its effect -on English composition was only gradually felt. The -men of the second group had been too strictly trained -in the tradition of the elders to feel quite comfortable -under the new dispensation. They acknowledged but -evaded its power. Their successors, on the other hand, -viewed it, not as a curious archæological discovery, but -as a living spring from which they could draw their -vitality.</p> - -<p>The two most eminent names in the second group -of composers are undoubtedly Frederic Delius (b. 1863) -and Granville Bantock (b. 1868).</p> - -<p>The former was born in Bradford, lived for some time -in the United States, and finally after long residence -and marriage in France became almost a foreigner. -Blessed with abundant means, he has always been able -'to cherish his genius' and let the world go hang. When -he reappeared in England it was as a solitary stranger -unknown even by name to his co-evals. And this sudden -reappearance on the wave-crest of a vigorous English -propaganda was not made the subject of loud-voiced -enthusiasms. His brilliant talents excited a perverse -misunderstanding; and he had to live down a -certain sore opposition from his contemporaries, many -of whom had for years been struggling in the Cave of -Æolus to blow up the very wind that sent him into -harbor. These are happily things of past history, and -he is now accepted by the world as a tone-poet of great -power and originality. Of his works—most of which -owe their present popularity to the exertions of his -friend Thomas Beecham—one may note 'Paris,' 'Brigg -Fair,' 'Appalachia,' 'Seadrift,' 'Dance Rhapsody,' and -his great 'Mass of Life.' Of his operas, neither 'Koanga' -nor 'A Village Romeo and Juliet' seems to have made a -pronounced success.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</span></p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="ilo_fp424" style="max-width: 31em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/ilo_fp424.jpg" alt="ilo-p425" /> - - -<p class="center">Modern British Composers:</p> - -<p class="caption p1b"><span style="padding-right: 1em;">Sir G. Hubert H. Parry</span> Sir Arthur Sullivan<br /> -<span style="padding-right: 2em;">Granville Bantock</span> Sir Edward Elgar</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Bantock is a man of quite another kidney. The son -of a London doctor, he has always exerted himself for -the benefit of his fellow countrymen. In his younger -days as conductor of the New Brighton Orchestra he -devoted himself largely to the performance of English -music. The present writer, among many others, has to -acknowledge that his first chance was offered him by -Bantock. At the present time he wields great influence -as head of the Midland School of Music at Birmingham. -Bantock's work is characterized by fluent expression -and vivid coloring. His early experiences have given -him an almost uncanny touch in the orchestra. Perhaps -no one knows better than he how to 'score heavily' -by 'scoring lightly.' In his choice of subjects he leans -somewhat toward the exotic and oriental. From his -long list of compositions it is only possible to select the -orchestral works 'Sappho,' the 'Pierrot of the Minute,' -'The Witch of Atlas,' 'Fifine at the Fair'; and his vocal-and-orchestral -works 'Omar Khayyám,' 'The Fire Worshippers,' -the six sets of 'Songs of the East,' and the nine -'Sappho' fragments.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>Hamish MacCunn (b. 1868) and Edward German (b. -1868),<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> the one a Scot and the other a Welshman, are -both more particularly identified with the theatre. MacCunn's -early orchestral poems, such as 'The Land of -the Mountain and the Flood' and 'The Ship o' the -Fiend,' at once brought him wide recognition. Their -fine poetical qualities are well known. A large portion -of his time, however, has been devoted to operatic conducting -and composition. In the latter field he has -to his credit such works as 'Jennie Deans' and 'Diarmid.' -But, though MacCunn is known to all as an able, -brilliant musician, he has had to pay the penalty of his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</span>association with that musical Cinderella, English -Opera.</p> - -<p>German, on the other hand, though never aiming -at the sun, has once or twice hit a star. He succeeded -Sullivan at the Savoy and made successes with 'The -Emerald Isle,' 'Merrie England,' 'A Princess of Kensington,' -and elsewhere with 'Tom Jones.' His incidental -music to 'Henry VIII' and 'Nell Gwyn' has been liked -into dislike. But German has done a great deal more -than this. No account of him would be complete that -did not mention his 'Welsh Rhapsody,' his 'Rhapsody -on March Themes,' his 'Gypsy Suite,' and his 'Overture -to Richard III.'</p> - -<p>There is no denying the power, the wide ability, or -the technical resource of Ethel Mary Smyth. Judged -by her music alone one would say that she was only the -<em>nom de guerre</em> of a strong masculine personality saturated -with Teutonism. This, however, is only a pleasing -fancy. As a fact, the terrific earnestness of her music -could never have come from the brain of a mere -man. Opera is her stronghold, and her greatest victory -therein a fine Cornish drama, 'The Wreckers.'</p> - -<p>Neither Walford Davies nor Charles Wood has produced -music in great quantity. Both have led somewhat -secluded lives; the one as organist of The Temple, -and the other as a Cambridge don.</p> - -<p>Davies is a man of fastidious taste, a first-class organist -and contrapuntist, and a profound student of -Bach, Browning, and The Bible. It is said that his -coy muse sometimes furls her pinions at the approach -of a too red-blooded humanity. However that may -be, she has inspired him with at least one subtle and -delicately beautiful work, 'Everyman.'</p> - -<p>Charles Wood is an Irishman from Armagh, a fine -scholarly musician and probably the best all-round -theorist in the country. He has a strong interest in the -folk-song of his native land and has written a set of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</span> -orchestral variations on the tune, 'Patrick Sarsfield.' -One of his best things is his string quartet in A minor. -In the realm of choral music his 'Ballad of Dundee' -may be selected for mention. He has at any rate one -great song to his credit—'Ethiopia saluting the colors.'</p> - -<p>Arthur Hinton's (b. 1869) work, which is appreciated -on both sides of the Atlantic, includes some elaborate -pianoforte music, a two-act opera, 'Tamara,' a couple -of symphonies, the orchestral suite 'Endymion,' and a -good deal of chamber music. His compositions are -characteristic of the group to which he belongs. A -certain delight in clean, finished workmanship and -an incisiveness of expression are their main features.</p> - -<p>Arthur Somervell has been throughout his life one of -the standard-bearers of the English revival. And he -has kept the banner flying both by his enthusiasm for -folk-music and by his own compositions. His graceful, -refined songs are sung and liked everywhere. Of -these perhaps the best known is his cycle from Tennyson's -'Maud.' Among his larger works one may mention -his 'Normandy' variations for pianoforte and orchestra -and his recent symphony 'Thalassa.' For some -years past Somervell has been the official mainspring -which keeps the clock of elementary musical education -ticking.</p> - -<p>One of the most admirable features of the later -phases in the English musical renaissance is the -quickened and deepened interest shown both in English -musical history and in the general topic of musical -æsthetics. For the first time since the days of Hawkins -and Burney investigators have begun an elaborate -search in college, cathedral, and secular libraries. The -existence of a vast store of madrigals, of church and -instrumental music was scarcely suspected even by professional -musicians; and the treasure when unearthed -came as a revelation to musical England.</p> - -<p>In the field of musical æsthetics there has been an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</span> -equally remarkable activity. And it is noteworthy that -a number of men who have devoted their lives to purely -musical composition have also produced elaborate -studies either of the technique, the history, or the psychology -of their art. Of these we may name six: Wallace, -McEwen, Walker, Tovey, Macpherson, and Buck.</p> - -<p>William Wallace is, like MacCunn, a Scot from -Greenock. His mental growth had its roots in the -stiff classical sub-soil of a public school, and then -pushed its way up through the rocks of a university -medical course till it flowered in the sweet open air of -the R.A.M. composition class. Hence his mind, which -almost needs the threefold pormanteau-word 'musiterific' -to describe it. Wallace was the first Englishman -to write a symphonic poem, and he has made this form -something of a specialty. The best known of his six are -'The Passing of Beatrice' and 'Villon.' Of these the -latter has been played everywhere, and the present -writer has had to satisfy more than one puzzled American -enquirer as to how the author of 'Maritana'<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> could -possibly have written it! Some of Wallace's songs, for -instance 'Son o' Mine,' have acquired a popularity in -England almost too great for public comfort. In the -field of literature he has produced two remarkable -studies in the development of the musical sense—'The -Threshold of Music' and 'The Musical Faculty.'</p> - -<p>John Blackwood McEwen is, like Wallace, a Scotsman. -Furthermore he has the same mental and physical -homes—Glasgow University, the R.A.M., and London. -He has produced much symphonic and chamber -music all characterized by a severe self-criticism, impeccable -workmanship, and at times a certain Scottish -exaltation. His quartets in A minor and C minor are -excellent. Of his symphonic poems the border ballad -'Grey Galloway' can hold up its head in any company. -He is an untiring enquirer into musical fundamentals -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</span>and, of his five published volumes, the most valuable is -'The Thought in Music.'</p> - -<p>Both Ernest Walker and Donald Francis Tovey are -university men. The former, who is organist of Balliol -College, Oxford, has been much applauded for his songs -and chamber music. He has also rendered great and -lasting service by his admirable 'History of Music in -England.'</p> - -<p>Tovey—the distinguished occupant of the Reid Chair -of Music in Edinburgh—is a sort of musical Francis -Bacon. Few of the English tales as to his learning and -memory would be believed if printed in America. The -most credible is that he is able to play the sketch-books -of Beethoven by heart. His pamphlets of severely analytical -criticism have, in a way, set a new standard in -this kind; while his work in connection with the eleventh -edition of the 'Encyclopædia Britannica' has -had the happiest results. Though a very able theorist -and historian, Tovey is by no means that alone. He -has written a good deal of chamber music, a concerto -for pianoforte and orchestra and, one hears, an opera. -It is difficult to place these works. Some of the older -musicians have hailed them as greatly instinct with the -spirit of Mozart, Beethoven, and Brahms, while some -of the younger men have catalogued them rather as -compilations from those three masters. The composer's -own views, throwing a terrific weight onto his isolated -notes and phrases, seem to make of music a burden -almost too heavy to bear. However this may be, it is -quite certain that Tovey has not yet shot his last bolt.</p> - -<p>With Stewart Macpherson and Percy C. Buck we -may close this list of composer-authors. The former, -in addition to a considerable amount of published music, -has printed ten volumes, mostly on the technique -of composition: the latter, besides his music, has written -two valuable works—'The Organ' and 'The First -Year at the Organ.' Naturally the greater part of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</span> -literary work in connection with this movement has -been done by scholars who are not themselves composers. -Most of these men have been in close touch -with the leaders of the renaissance; but, even when -their work has been purely archæological, it has, so to -speak, cleft the rock and released a fountain of inspiration -for their creative brethren.</p> - -<p>Henry Davey's 'History of English Music' is a pioneer -work embodying the results of long and patient -research. Its combative determination to claim honor -for the honorable is beyond praise. A similar work, -less scholarly but equally patriotic, is Ernest Ford's -'Short History of Music in England.' Barclay Squire -(of the British Museum), has, with his brother-in-law -J. A. Fuller Maitland, done much to revive the national -pride in Purcell and to spread an accurate knowledge -of the earlier Elizabethan and Jacobean composers. -Fuller Maitland himself, apart from his claims as editor -of 'Grove' (2d ed.) and as a contributor to the 'Oxford -History of Music,' always used his distinguished -position at <em>The Times</em> to further the best interests of -English music. To this list we may add the names of -three other scholar-musicians all associated with the -'Oxford History of Music': W. H. Hadow, the brilliant -editor of the work and at present principal of the Armstrong -College; H. E. Wooldridge; and (the late) Edward -Dannreuther, whose life-span stretched from personal -contact with Richard Wagner to patient and sympathetic -intercourse with the youngest school of English -musicians.</p> - -<p>In the special field of instrumental construction and -development we have Rev. F. W. Galpin, with his scholarly -and delightful volume 'Old English Instruments -of Music,' and Kathleen Schlesinger. Of Miss Schlesinger's -painstaking and accurate scholarship her country -has by no means made the acknowledgment it deserves.</p> - -<p>In the realm of more general musical æsthetics and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</span> -criticism many names might be mentioned. We must -content ourselves with those of Ernest Newman, whose -profound works on 'Gluck' and 'Wagner' are discussed -everywhere, and E. J. Dent, who has studied certain -phases of Mozart's work and has published a classical -volume on 'Scarlatti.'</p> - -<p>Though it is somewhat outside our special topic, some -reference must be made here to the English researches -into Greek music. For the first time since the Germans -began to inspissate the gloom, a ray or two of light has -been allowed to fall upon this difficult subject. In particular -D. B. Monro, with his volume 'The Modes of -Ancient Greek Music,' has shown that it is not an essential -of this study that the reader should always have the -sensation of swimming in glue. Since his day Cecil -Torr has published a clever work on the same topic; -while H. S. Macran and Abdy Williams have both written -on Aristoxenus.</p> - -<p>This concludes the list of original writers, but, before -leaving the subject, a word must be spared for the vast -improvement that has appeared during the past few -years in the translation of foreign musical texts into -English. The value of the work of such men as Claude -Aveling, Frederick Jameson, and Paul England can -only be appreciated by a comparison of their translations -with those of their predecessors. One may add -that there is now a persistent cry in the London press -for fine English finely sung, and this demand—though -not always gratified—is kept before the public by such -patriotic critics as Robin Legge, Edwin Evans, and -Henry Cope Colles.</p> - -<p>Finally, before passing on to the third group, we may -here conveniently place together the small band of -theatrical composers who have succeeded Sullivan. -Musical comedy and the money that comes from writing -it are the very sour grapes of the average English symphonist. -One and all they applaud what they call 'genuine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</span> -comic opera' (meaning Offenbach or anyone else -that is <em>old</em> and <em>dead</em>), but decry its much brighter, -cleaner, and more musical descendant. The ludicrous -snobbery of English life draws a wide black line between -the two classes of composer; and the stupidest -Mus. Doc. that ever drowned a choir would probably -rather have his daughter run off with the butler than -marry a musical comedy composer. Nine times out -of ten the theatrical man's revenge is that it is he and -not the Mus. Doc. that has the butler. For, even under -present conditions, the theatre alone in England offers -a composer-conductor the chance of an honorable livelihood.</p> - -<p>During Sullivan's lifetime he and Gilbert <em>were</em> comic -opera; and, though the Savoy cap was tried on such diversely -shaped heads as A. C. Mackenzie, Ernest Ford, -Edward Soloman, and J. M. Barrie, it never really fitted -any of them. Cellier alone—brother of Sullivan's conductor—made -a success (elsewhere) with his charming -work, 'Dorothy.' We have already mentioned that, -after Sir Arthur's death, German completed his unfinished -opera, 'The Emerald Isle,' and continued to employ -his easy brilliant talents in that field. A later -attempt to run a miniature grand opera, written by an -Italian (Franco Leoni) but sung in English, was defeated -by the two gods of fog, musical and meteorological.</p> - -<p>Toward the end of the century theatre-land began to -shift westward and northward into the Piccadilly Circus -and Shaftesbury Avenue district. The new form -of entertainment came into its own, and—if one may -quote the words of an eminent Russian violinist—'Musical -comedy at Daly's became the top-thing.' Of the -men who have been providing the music for the London -theatres we may mention four—Jones, Monckton, Talbot, -and Rubens.</p> - -<p>Sidney Jones's music has been played all the world<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</span> -over. In 'The Geisha,' 'San Toy,' and many other works -he has had the opportunity of exercising his delicate -taste and his really very musical mind. He has written -more than one extended finale that is a comic opera -masterpiece; while the alternate sparkle and quaint -tenderness of his melodies are quite irresistible.</p> - -<p>Of recent years Lionel Monckton has had the biggest -finger in the musical comedy pie. And deservedly so. -He owes his present distinguished position mainly to his -inexhaustible fund of original melody. Many of these -tunes are, in their way, perfect. Their special excellence -is lightness, vigor, rhythmic variety and constructional -power. If the present writer were subpœnaed -before the Court of the Muses to give evidence as to the -best tunes made in the past fifteen years he would testify, -among others, for Monckton. The Folk-Song Society -of 2500 will probably explain him as a solar-myth.</p> - -<p>Howard Talbot<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> and Paul Rubens may be bracketed -together. The former, though a New Yorker born, has -lived his musical life in London. And his charming -talent is shown in the many works of which he is either -whole-or part-author. Of these the most popular are -perhaps 'A Chinese Honeymoon,' 'The Arcadians,' and -'The Mousmé.' Rubens may be specially noticed for his -Sullivanesque power of associating his music intimately -with his literary text. Not that his music has anything -in common with Sullivan's. But the special faculty -of making the two things appear one is common to both -composers. Rubens nearly always writes his own lyrics -and thus, in a delightful manner, revives and vindicates -the theory and practice of Greek poetic composition.</p> - -<h3>IV</h3> - -<p>With the turn of the century the folk-song movement -had sunk deep into the English mind, where it still -rests as an anchor for many of their hopes. Accordingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</span> -in this period we find men, like Vaughan Williams, -who either base their music entirely on actual -folk-song or invent tunes in close spiritual alliance -with its ideals. In either case the result is a genuine -development of folk-music. On the technical side this -group is marked by a much more decided tendency to -refuse the highly organized German technique as necessary -to its salvation. This again is largely due to an -open-minded reconsideration of musical æsthetics, -forced upon composers by the special harmonic and -melodic features of folk-song. The matter is too large -for discussion here; but it is satisfactory to note that -more than one Englishman who passed through his -student-days with the reputation of a wrong-headed -jackass has been able to base his honor on his alleged -stupidities.</p> - -<p>During recent years there is some change to be noted -in the material side of English musical conditions. Apparently -there is less love for the oratorio; and therefore -less scope for writing it. This symptom of musical -life is common to America and England. It is easy to -diagnose the reasons. In England they are two: first, -on the part of the audience, the dislike of prolonged -boredom; and, second, on the part of the composer, an -indignant hatred of the organized corruption associated -with choral music. The latter point cannot be dealt -with here, though it is a common theme of talk among -English composers. The musician's compensation is to -be found in the extraordinary system of 'choral competitions' -and 'festivals' which now honeycomb England -with their sweetness. These, beginning with Miss -Wakefield's celebrated gathering in Cumberland, have -spread all over the country and now offer composers -large opportunities for the performance of part-songs -and the smaller sort of choral works. The best and -highest aims of these English festivals are summarized -for Americans in the 'Norfolk Festival' of the Litchfield<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</span> -County Choral Union founded by Mr. and Mrs. Stoeckel -to honor the memory of Robbins Battell.</p> - -<p>On the side of actual orchestral opportunity the English -composer of to-day is undoubtedly more favored -than his American brother. There are more orchestras -there; and they are more ready to do native works. -The conditions are not perfect by any means, but they -are better there than here. As far as the publication -of serious music goes the English composer's position -is hopelessly bad. He has to contend against ignorance, -apathy, and a short-sighted financial timidity far beyond -American credence. In addition to that he often -has to fight hard against his own seniors who—themselves -comfortably off—deny that music, when written, -has any commercial existence. A certain London firm, -in order to encourage its poorer and younger clientèle -to take example thereby, continually cites the readiness -of one of its older wealthy composers to take $25 for -a choral work. Words can go no further.</p> - -<p>It is unnecessary to specify the names of the great -English publishing houses which have associated themselves -with the English revival. Suffice it to say that -they have always been at hand, ready to lighten the -burden and the pocket of the composer. But it would -not be fair to ignore the firm of Stainer and Bell, which -was founded—under a directorate of distinguished musicians—with -the prime object of dealing honorably -with the composer. The existence of this firm is, in -its way, a landmark; or rather a lighthouse for composers -who have long had to beat up in the straits of -chicanery and dishonesty. Nor must we omit to mention -the present extended activity of the Society of -Authors. Though founded by Sir Walter Besant some -fifty years ago for the special protection of literary -men, it has recently formed a sub-committee of composers -under the chairmanship of Sir Charles V. Stanford. -It is now known as The Society of Authors, Playwrights,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</span> -and Composers and, among the last-named -workers, has already done valuable service.</p> - -<p>The number of composers who might be mentioned -in this group is, of course, very large. Now that music -has almost risen to the level of golf and horse-racing as -a national pastime, it employs the brains of many. The -list, we fear, must be ruthlessly pruned. But it will be -pruned so as to leave the more prominent branches and -even some of the buds visible to the American reader. -Of his charity he may be asked to surmise what the -author well knows, that some young Englishmen of -great original powers are forced by circumstance to -spend their days in teaching little girls the fiddle, while -others who scarcely condescend below grand opera -might just as well be employed on some wholly uninspired -task—such as the writing of these pages.</p> - -<p>Ralph Vaughan Williams—though he is the most -characteristically English of this group—is a Welshman. -Large both in body and mind, he has always kept -before himself and his fellows a singularly noble ideal. -It may safely be said of him that he has never trimmed -his course even half a point from what he considered -his duty. The music that comes from this simple and -courageous mind is naturally of the most earnest—perhaps -a little awkward at times, but always deeply -sincere. His aims and his outlook are peculiarly national. -Let us try to exemplify this. To a fresh-water -people like the Americans the attempts of Rubinstein, -Wagner, and others to illustrate 'the sea' in music may -not appear particularly unsuccessful: to a sea-loving -race like the English they are simply puny and ridiculous. -Williams has taken this subject, and, in his -choral 'Sea Symphony' (words by Walt Whitman), -has actually caught up the sounds of the sea as the -English hear them. This is a new and a great achievement. -Again in his 'London' symphony he has somehow -managed to express in sound a thing not hitherto<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</span> -expressed—the poetry both tragic and comic which -dwells in that most wonderful of all towns. In Williams's -larger works there is always, quite apart from -their actual length, something vast, shadowy, and almost -primeval. His landscape is always bathed in a -pearly, translucent haze. The subjects loom up and disappear -with a suddenness natural in England but unnatural -elsewhere. It is as if a Turner canvas had been -translated into sound. Of Williams's other works, -many of which are directly inspired by the folk-music -of which he is an ardent collector, one may mention the -orchestral 'Norfolk Rhapsodies,' 'In the Fen Country,' -'Harnham Down,' and 'Boldrewood'; the 'Five Mystical -Songs' for baritone, chorus, and orchestra; the beautiful -cantata 'Willow-wood' for baritone, female chorus, -and orchestra; the six songs, 'On Wenlock Edge,' for -tenor voice, string quartet, and pianoforte; and, last, -his music to 'The Wasps.'</p> - -<p>Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875-1912) and William -Young Hurlstone (1876-1906) both died while still -young. The one was an African, the other a pure Englishman. -Both died leaving an example to their friends -of modesty and cultured simplicity. As far as technique -went they could probably have both given -Vaughan Williams ninety yards start in a hundred -and beaten him. But, in any more serious race, the -handicap would probably have had to be reversed. -Their sailing-orders as students were perhaps merely -to keep the ship's head on Beethoven and Brahms. But, -in the case of Taylor, the powerful lode-stone of -Dvořák's genius spoilt the compass-readings and drew -his ship nearer and nearer to 'the coast of Bohemia.' -Of his work the best-known by far is his 'Hiawatha,' -the first performance of which at the R.C.M. was heard -by at least three members of the first group of composers—Sullivan, -Stanford, and Parry. After 'Hiawatha' -may be mentioned his cantata 'A Tale of Old<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</span> -Japan,' his 'Bamboula Rhapsodic Dance' (written for -Norfolk, Conn.), and his violin 'Ballade' and 'Concerto.' -In Hurlstone's case a constant physical weakness prevented -the true development of his really great musical -powers. The best of his refined work is found in his sonatas, -trios, and quartets. Most of these have been or -are now being published in London.</p> - -<p>Joseph Holbrooke (b. 1878) is from the land of Cockaigne. -His purposeful character and his invincible habit -of saying in public what most composers only think -in private have made him the <em>enfant terrible</em> of London -musical life. In output, energy, and material-command -he is probably unsurpassed by any living composer. -A strong, blistering style and a constant determination -to call his 16-inch guns into action have procured -for him many (musical) enemies. He is blessed -with a great sense of humor and a very complete knowledge -of the way to express it in music. His orchestral -variations on 'Three Blind Mice' should be played -everywhere. Holbrooke has enjoyed very exceptional -opportunities in the way of dramatic performance and -full-score publication. This is not to be regretted; especially -when one considers the usual disadvantages of -the English composer under these two heads. He has -written a large quantity of songs and chamber music—some -of it for the most curious combinations.<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Among -his larger works one may select his operas 'The Children -of Don' and 'Dylan'; his 'Queen Mab' and 'The -Bells'; and his 'illuminated' choral symphony 'Apollo -and the Seaman.'</p> - -<p>Percy Grainger (b. 1883)—pianist, composer, arranger, -friend of Grieg, etc.—comes from Australia; -and, if that country had not produced him, the concert-agents -of the world would have had to invent him. His -playing is wonderful. He never writes a dull note, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</span>and he ranges from the Faroe Islands to the Antipodes. -He crosses no sea but as a conqueror. Folk-song -is his battleship and quaint diatonic harmony his submarine. -'Molly on the Shore,' 'Father and Daughter,' -'Mock Morris,' 'Händel in the Strand,' and 'I'm Seventeen -Come Sunday' all attest the 'certain liveliness' of -his very happy gifts. He has been applauded by thousands -and sketched by Sargent. What he will do next -nobody knows—but it is sure to be successful.</p> - -<p>Cyril Scott<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> was born, apparently, in the 'Yellow -Book.' His slim Beardsleyesque nature seems to be always -moving through an elegant exotic shadow-world, -beckoned on by his own craving yet fastidious mind. -At Pagani's he sits mysteriously in a black stock and -cameo. A strange personality, distinguished and uneasy! -Certain crippling theories of rhythm and development -have at times bent the flight of his muse. His -'Aubade,' Pianoforte Concerto, and Ballad for baritone -and orchestra, 'Helen of Kirkconnell,' are notable.</p> - -<p>Gustav von Holst<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> for all his name, is English born -and bred. Skegness gave him to the world: he has all -the energy and tenacity of the east-coast man. The -main features of his music are an extremely modern -and comprehensive method of handling his subjects, -great warmth and variety of orchestral color, and (occasionally -it must be confessed) excessive length. His -successes have been striking and well deserved. Among -his best-known productions are his Moorish work 'In -the Street of the Ouled Nails,'<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> his orchestral suites -'Phantastes,' and 'de Ballet,' and (more particularly) -his elaborate vocal and orchestral works, such as 'The -Cloud Messenger' and 'The Mystic Trumpeter.' A large -part of von Holst's time has been given to the composition -of Hindu opera on a vast scale; and, as we have -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</span>already hinted, composers who take up opera in England -have to pay penalties. Among others who have -been mulcted in this way are Nicholas Gatty (with three -operas, 'Greysteel,' 'Duke or Devil,' and 'The Tempest'); -Rutland Boughton (with his scheme of open-air -choral drama on the Arthurian legends); J. E. Barkworth -(with 'Romeo and Juliet' set directly to Shakespeare's -text); George Clutsam, Colin McAlpin, and -Alec Maclean.</p> - -<p>Norman O'Neill and Balfour Gardiner may be honorably -mentioned as among the very few young English -composers who ever picture the Goddess of Music as -not swathed in crêpe. O'Neill's compositions are manifold. -Among the most successful are his capital numbers -written as incidental music to 'The Blue Bird.' -Gardiner has a shorter list, but all his works have a -delightfully boyish and open-air spirit. We may mention -his orchestral pieces 'English Dance,' 'Overture to -a Comedy,' and 'Shepherd Fennel's Dance.'</p> - -<p>One of the most prominent traits in the musical -make-up of the young English composer is his persistent -cry for loud, complex orchestral expression. -Holbrooke was the one who started him on this trail; -and now his constant prayer seems to be:</p> - -<p> -'<em>O mihi si linguæ centum sint, oraque centum.</em>'<br /> -</p> - -<p>Above this school Frank Bridge (b. 1879) stands head -and shoulders. What the others do well he does better; -and, if they ever attempt to follow him there, he always -has a 'best' waiting for them. Though he is quite unknown -outside England, one has no hesitation in saying -that his superior as a plastic orchestral artist would be -hard to find. Among his best works are his three orchestral -impressions of 'The Sea,' his two 'Dance Rhapsodies,' -and his beautiful symphonic poem 'Isabella.' -In chamber music he has been very successful, more -especially in the 'Fancy' or 'Phantasy' form recently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</span> -revived in England. His 'Three Idylls' for string quartet -are both charming and distinguished.</p> - -<p>Round Bridge's name may be grouped, for convenience -of placing, the names of York Bowen, who has -written everything from symphonies and sonatas to a -waltz on Strauss's <em>Ein Heldenleben</em>; A. E. T. Bax, whose -activities are in some measure the musical counterpart -of the 'Celtic twilight' school of poetry; W. H. Bell, the -author of 'Mother Cary' and the 'Walt Whitman' symphony; -Hamilton Harty, whose 'Comedy Overture,' -'With the Wild Geese,' and 'The Mystic Trumpeter' are -all much played in England; and Hubert Bath. To the -last-named composer we English owe a debt for his -constant refusal to worship the muse with a cypress-branch. -His gay, sprightly choral ballads, such as -'The Wedding of Shon Maclean' and 'The Jackdaw of -Rheims,' bring him friends wherever they are heard. -Bath has also made a specialty of accompanied recitation-music. -He has produced nearly two dozen of these -pieces; but in this field Stanley Hawley with his fifty-one -published compositions easily leads the way. Almost -all the musicians mentioned in this paragraph have -been before the public at some time or other as conductors. -Harty and Bridge in particular have shown -themselves to be possessed of very strong gifts in this -line.</p> - -<p>It is perhaps premature to criticize the very latest -swarms of orchestral composers that have issued from -the musical bee-hives of London. Certain of them, -however, show considerable promise and, in some -cases, a rather alarming tendency to soar after the -queen-bees of continental hives. This they will probably -outgrow as their summer days increase. Among -the most recent to try their wings are P. R. Kirby (a -Scotsman from Aberdeen), Eugène Goosens, Jr. (with -his symphonic poem 'Perseus'), and Oskar Borsdorf -(with his dramatic fantasy 'Glaucus and Ione').</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</span></p> - -<p>Among the members of the third group who have -shown special excellence in the realm of chamber music -B. J. Dale stands preëminent. The first performance -of his big sonata in D minor made musical London -hold its breath. He has written a great deal of music -for the viola (as discovered by Lionel Tertis), and has -even defied fate by composing a work for six violas. -Dale's powers are very great, and he has probably a -good deal to say yet. Richard Walthew and T. F. Dunhill -have both an honorable record in chamber music. -Both, too, have written on the topic. The former, who, -is also a prolific song-writer, has published a volume -on 'The Development of Chamber Music'; while the -latter, in addition to his many-sided activities, has produced -a tactful treatise for students entitled 'Chamber -Music.' To the list of those who are specially devoted -to this form of composition one may add the names -of J. N. Ireland and James Friskin, neither of whom -has yet had an opportunity adequate to his undoubted -talents.</p> - -<p>Naturally, at all times there has been a considerable -literature of organ music in England. Almost all the -composers mentioned above have written for the instrument. -But, among those more specially identified -with it and with church music, are W. Wolstenholme, -who has more than sixty published compositions; Ernest -Halsley, also with a long list; Lemare, whose transcriptions -are so well known; T. Tertius Noble; C. B. -Rootham; and Alan Gray. James Lyon, the Liverpool -organist, has a lengthy record of the most varied sort, -from orchestral, vocal, and organ works to church -services and technical treatises. A. M. Goodhart, of -Eton, has a similar weighty basketful. He has made a -specialty of the 'choral ballad.'</p> - -<p>We have already given the names of many English -song writers. Here there are two groups of Richmonds -in the field; those who write for the shop-ballad public,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</span> -and those who do not. Most of the 'do nots' have naturally -already been dealt with among the more serious -composers; though the two spheres of activity by no -means always coincide. The following short list—covering -practically three generations—includes some of -both sorts, but excludes the names of composers already -mentioned: Stephen Adams, Frances Allitsen, Robert -Batten, A. von Ahn Carse, Coningsby Clarke, Eric -Coates, Noel Johnson, Frank Lambert, Liza Lehmann, -Herman Löhr, Daisy McGeoch, Alicia A. Needham, -Montague Phillips, John Pointer, Roger Quilter, Landon -Ronald (principal of the Guildhall School of Music), -Wilfred Sanderson, W. H. Squire, Hope Temple, Maude -V. White, Haydn Wood, and Amy Woodforde-Finden.</p> - -<p>Before closing this highly compressed sketch of the -English musical renaissance an apology must be made -for a double omission. First, the whole subject of -English opera has been ignored as too complex and -difficult for treatment. The activities of Carl Rosa, -Moody-Manners, Beecham, and others have therefore -to be left almost unnoticed. Second, no list has been -attempted of the many fine executants produced by -England in the past generation. In actual accomplishment -some of these have been second to none in the -world; though unfortunately their connection with the -men of the English revival has often been slight or non-existent. -On the other hand, some of the first of these -artists have stood, and do now stand, in a very close -relationship with the composers. And this mutual sympathy -has often had happy results. One can scarcely -imagine Stanford's Irish songs without Mr. Plunket -Greene to sing them.</p> - -<p>The reader who has travelled so far with the author -should have by now a fairly clear idea of musical conditions -and achievements on the other side. It is hoped -that he will not regard his experiences merely as a -forty-five-years' sojourn 'in darkest England.' He can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</span> -take the writer's word for it that there is plenty of light -shining there. But, what with the fogs in the North Sea, -the Channel, and the Atlantic, the rays seldom get beyond -the coastguard.</p> - -<p class="right p1" style="padding-right: 2em;">C. F.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<p class="p2 center big1">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> Out of the very small group of living English opera librettists one -is a duke and two are barons—Argyll, Howard de Walden, and Latymer. -A strange transformation in the national attitude towards music!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> The amount of work done by some of the English orchestras may -be gauged from the fact that during the first nine months of the present -European war the Queen's Hall Orchestra gave 112 concerts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> Born German Edward Jones.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> By <em>Vincent</em> Wallace.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> Born Munkittrick.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> For instance, a serenade for five saxophones, soprano <em>flügelhorn</em>, -baritone <em>flügelhorn</em>, <em>oboe d'amore</em>, <em>corno di bassetto</em>, and harp.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> B. Oxton, Cheshire.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> B. Cheltenham, 1874.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> In Biskra, a street of dancing and singing girls belonging to the Walad-Nail -tribe.</p> - -</div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">GENERAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUMES I, II, -AND III</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. W. Ambros</span>: The Boundaries of Music and Poetry (New -York, 1893).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. F. Apthorp</span>: Musicians and Music Lovers (New York, -1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">O. B. Boise</span>: Music and its Masters (Phila., 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Burney</span>: A General History of Music (London, 1776).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Robert Challoner</span>: History of the Science and Art of Music -(Cincinnati, 1880).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. Chappell</span>: History of Music (London, 1874).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. J. Crowest</span>: Story of the Art of Music (New York, 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edward Dickinson</span>: The Study of the History of Music (New -York, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edward Dickinson</span>: Guide to the Study of Musical History -and Criticism (Oberlin, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Goddard</span>: The Rise of Music from Primitive Beginnings -to Modern Effects (London, 1908).</p> - -<p>Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5 vols. (new ed., -London, 1904-10).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Hadow</span>: Studies in Modern Music, 2 vols. (New York, -1892-3).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">John Hawkins</span>: General History of the Science and Practice -of Music (1776, new ed. 1853).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">John Hullah</span>: Lectures on the History of Modern Music -(London, 1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bonavia Hunt</span>: History of Music (New York, 1891).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Lavignac</span>: Music and Musicians (transl. by Marchant, New -York, 1905).</p> - -<p>The Oxford History of Music, 6 vols. (Oxford, 1901, 1905, 1902, -1902, 1904, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. H. H. Parry</span>: Evolution of the Art of Music (4th ed., 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Riemann</span>: Catechism of Musical History, 2 vols. (Eng. -transl., London, 1888).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. S. Rockstro</span>: A General History of Music (1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. S. Rowbotham</span>: A History of Music (London, 1885).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alfredo Untersteiner</span>: Short History of Music, Eng. transl. -by Very (New York, 1902).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. W. Ambros</span>: Geschichte der Musik (Breslau, 1862-1882); -new ed. by H. Leichtentritt, 4 vols. (Leipzig, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. W. A. Batka</span>: Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik (Stuttgart, -1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Franz Brendel</span>: Grundzüge der Geschichte der Musik -(7th ed., Leipzig, 1888).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Franz Brendel</span>: Geschichte der Musik in Italien, -Deutschland und Frankreich (Leipzig, 1860).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Robert Eitner</span>: Quellenlexikon der Musiker (Leipzig, 1900-1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paul Frank</span>: Geschichte der Tonkunst (1863, 3rd ed., 1878).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nikolaus Forkel</span>: Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik (1778-1801).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Kretzschmar</span>: Führer durch den Konzertsaal -(Leipzig, 1887-1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wilhelm Langhans</span>: Geschichte der Musik des 17., 18., u. 19. -Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Naumann</span>: Die Tonkunst in der Kulturgeschichte, 2 vols. -(1869-70).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Emil Naumann</span>: Illustrierte Musikgeschichte (new ed. by E. -Schmitz, 1913).</p> - -<p>Peters Musikbibliothek Jahrbuch, ed. by Schwartz.</p> - - -<p>[Every volume since 1894 contains a complete (or usually complete) -bibliography of books on music published in the respective year.]</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Reissmann</span>: Allgemeine Geschichte der Musik, 3 vols. -(1863-5).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, 2 vols. (5 -parts), (Leipzig, 1904, 1905, 1907, 1912, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Musiklexikon [misc. articles], (Leipzig, -1909; new ed., 1915).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Geschichte der Musiktheorie in 9.-19. Jahrhundert -(1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Storck</span>: Geschichte der Musik (Stuttgart, 1904).</p> - -<p><em>Die Musik</em> (Berlin, Bi-weekly).</p> - -<p><em>Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft</em> (Leipzig).</p> - -<p><em>Zeitschrift</em> and <em>Sammelbände</em> of the <em>Int. Mus. Ges.</em></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alexandre Sofia Bawr</span>: Histoire de la musique (Paris, 1823).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Henri Blainville</span>: Histoire générale, critique et -philologique de la musique (Paris, 1767).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jacques Bonnet</span>: Histoire de la musique, et ses effets, depuis -son origine jusqu'à présent (Paris, 1715, Amsterdam, -1725).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Brenet</span>: <em>Année musicale</em>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Bruneau</span>: Musiques d'hier et de demain (Paris, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. E. Choron</span> & <span class="smcap">J. A. L. de Lafage</span>: Nouveau manuel complet -de musique (Paris, 1838).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Clément</span>: Histoire de la musique depuis les temps anciens -jusqu'à nos jours (Paris, 1885).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jules Combarieu</span>: Histoire de la musique, des origines à la -mort de Beethoven, 2 vols. (Paris, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jean Pierre Oscar Commettant</span>: La musique, les musiciens -et les instruments de musique chez les différents peuples -du monde (Paris, 1869).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Expert</span>: Les Maîtres Musiciens de la Renaissance -Française (20 vols.).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Camille Faust</span>: Histoire de la musique européenne (Paris, -1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. J. Fétis</span>: Histoire générale de la musique (1869).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. J. Fétis</span>: Biographie universelle des musiciens et bibliographie -générale de la musique (Brussels, 1837).</p> - -<p>S. I. M. (Paris, Monthly).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnaldo Bonaventura</span>: Manuale di storia della musica (Livorno, -1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Giovanni Andrea Bontempi</span>: Historia musica (Perugia, 1695).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Padre G. B. Martini</span>: Storia della musica (Bologna, 1767-1770).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Luigi Torchi</span>: <em>Arte Musicale</em>, 8 vols. Published irregularly.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alfredo Untersteiner</span>: Storia della musica (1893).</p> - -<p><em>Rivista Musicale Italiana</em> (Turin, Quarterly).</p> -</div> - -<p>N. B.—See also Special Literature for each chapter (on following -pages).</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</span></p> -</div> -<p class="center p4 big1">SPECIAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUME I</p> - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER I</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Benj. Ives Gilman</span>: Hopi Songs (Boston, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Wallaschek</span>: Primitive Music (London, 1893).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Engel</span>: An Introduction to the Study of National Music -(London, 1866).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Russell Day</span> in 'Up the Niger,' by Mockler-Ferryman -(London, 1892).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Willy Pastor</span>: The Music of Primitive Peoples and the Beginning -of European Music (Gov't Printing Office, Publ. -No. 2223; Washington, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Frederick R. Burton</span>: American Primitive Music (New York, -1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alice C. Fletcher</span>: Indian Story and Song from North America -(Boston, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alice C. Fletcher</span>: The Hako: a Pawnee Ceremony (Bureau -of American Ethnology, 22nd Annual Report, Part II, -Washington, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Natalie Curtis</span>: The Indian's Book (New York, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Frances Densmore</span>: Chippewa Music (Part I, Bulletin No. 45, -1910; Part II, Bulletin No. 53, 1913, Bureau of Am. Eth.).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nathaniel B. Emerson</span>: The Unwritten Literature of Hawaii -(Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin No. 38).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Stumpf</span>: Die Anfänge der Musik (Leipzig, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Bücher</span>: Arbeit und Rhythmus (Leipzig, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Hagen</span>: Über die Musik einiger Naturvölker (1892).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Josef Schönhärl</span>: Volkskündliches aus Togo (Dresden, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Theodore Baker</span>: Über die Musik der nordamerikanischen -Wilden (Leipzig, 1882).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien Tiersot</span>: Notes d'ethnographie musicale (Paris, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien Tiersot</span>: Musiques pittoresques (Paris, 1889).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Noirot</span>: A travers le Fouta-Diallon et le Bambouc -(Paris, 1885).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri A. Junod</span>: Les chants et les contes des Ba-Ronga (Lausanne, -1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER II</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Engel</span>: Music of the Most Ancient Nations (London, -1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Wallaschek</span>: Primitive Music (London, 1893).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. A. P. Martin</span>: A Cycle of Cathay (Chicago, 1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. R. Day</span>: The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern -India and the Deccan (London, 1891).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Van Aalst</span>: Chinese Music (Shanghai, 1884).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. Lane</span>: Modern Egyptians (London, 1871).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. F. Piggot</span>: Music and Musical Instruments of Japan (London, -1893).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. J. Ellis</span>: On the Musical Scales of Various Nations (1885).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. Pole</span>: Philosophy of Music (London, 1879).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sourindro Mohun Tagore</span>: Six Principal Ragas, with a brief -survey of Hindoo music (Calcutta, 1877).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. L. Raymond</span>: Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music -(New York, 1893).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. G. Kiesewetter</span>: Die Musik der Araber (1842).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien Tiersot</span>: Notes d'ethnographie musicale (Paris, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Judith Gautier</span>: Les musiques bizarres à l'exposition de 1900.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Camille Saint-Saëns</span>: Harmonie et mélodie (Paris, 1885).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Pettit</span>: L'Anneau de jade (Paris, 1911).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Spanish</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. S. Fuertes</span>: Musica Arabe-Española (Barcelona, 1853).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Felipe Pedrell</span>: Organografia Musical Antigua Española (Barcelona, -1901).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER III</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">David Levi</span>: A Succinct Account of the Rites and Ceremonies -of the Jews (London, 1783).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">George Rawlinson</span>: The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient -Eastern World (London, 1862).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Engel</span>: Musical Instruments, Hand-Book of the South -Kensington Museum.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Engel</span>: Music of the Most Ancient Nations (London, -1864).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir John Stainer</span>: The Music of the Bible (London, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Bonomi</span>: Nineveh and Its Palaces (London, 1853).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir Gardner Wilkinson</span>: Manners and Customs of the Ancient -Egyptians (London, 1878).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Austin Henry Layard</span>: Nineveh and Its Remains (London, -1849).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prof. H. Graetz</span>: History of the Jews, 5 vols. (London, -1891-2).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. Flinders Petrie</span>: History of Egypt, 3 vols. (London, 1853).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. F. Pfeiffer</span>: Über die Musik der alten Hebräer (Erlangen, -1779).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. L. Saalschütz</span>: Geschichte und Würdigung der Musik bei -den Hebräern (Berlin, 1829).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. R. Lepsius</span> (Editor): Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Ethiopien, -5 vols. (Leipzig, 1897-1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Dielitzsch</span>: Physiologie und Musik in ihrer Bedeutung für -die Grammatik, besonders die Hebräische (Leipzig, -1868).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Ackermann</span>: Der Synagogal-Gesang in seiner historischen -Entwickelung (1894).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Rollin</span>: Histoire ancienne des Égyptiens, des Cartagenois, -des Assyriens, des Babyloniens, des Mèdes et -des Perses, des Macédoniens, des Grecs (Paris, 1730, -Engl. tr., N. Y., 1887-88.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cornelius von Pauw</span>: Recherches philosophiques sur les -Égyptiens et sur les Chinois (Berlin, 1773).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Abbé Roussière</span>: Mémoire sur la musique des anciens, ou -l'on expose les principes des proportions authentiques, -dites de Pythagore, et de divers systèmes de musique -chez les Grecs, les Chinois, et les Égyptiens. Avec un -parallèle entre le système des Égyptiens et celui des -modernes (Paris, 1770).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guillaume André Villoteau</span>: Description de l'Égypte.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Aug. Gevaert</span>: Histoire et théorie de la musique de l'antiquité -(1875-81).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jean Loret</span>: La musique chez les anciens Égyptiens (<em>in</em> Bibliothèque -de la Faculté des Lettres de Lyon).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Vigouroux</span>: Psautier polyglotte; appendix (Paris, 1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Lenormont</span>: Musé des antiquités égyptiennes (Paris, -1841).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IV</p> - - -<p class="center"><em>A—Sources</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p><span class="smcap">Pythagoras</span>, the great philosopher of the sixth century B. C.</p> - - -<p>His teachings are known only through his pupils, especially -Philalaos (ca. 540 B. C.), of whose writings fragments -are preserved.</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p><span class="smcap">Plato</span> (427-347 B. C.).</p> - -<p>In his 'Republic,' 'De legibus,' 'De furore poetico,' 'Timæus,' -'Gorgias,' 'Alcibiades Philebus,' there are copious -references to music.</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p><span class="smcap">Archytas of Tarent</span>, a contemporary of Plato.</p> - -<p>He was the first to recognize the transmission of tones -by air vibration. His theories are cited by Theodore of -Smyrna, Claudius Ptolemy, etc.</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot1"> -<p><span class="smcap">Aristotle</span> (383-320 B. C.).</p> - -<p>In 'Polities' and 'Poetics' he makes frequent references -to music.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Aristoxenus of Tarent</span> (ca. 320 B. C.), the most important -musical theoretician of ancient Greece. His 'Rhythmics' -and his 'Elements of Harmonics,' the greatest part of -which is lost, have been many times translated and -commented on.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Euclid</span>, the great mathematician, a follower of Pythagoras. -His 'Sectio canonis' treats of the mathematical relation -of tones.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heron of Alexandria</span> (100 B. C.)</p> - -<p>In his 'Pneumatica' he described the water organ (Hydraulis) -invented by Ktebisius, his teacher.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Aristides Quintilianus</span> (first to second century, A. D.) of -Smyrna. His 'Introduction to Music' (μοὕσϛ ἁρ ονικἣϛ), -completely preserved, except for corruptions by copyists, -is especially notable for its tables of musical notation.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>, the celebrated writer of the comparative biographies -(50-120 A. D.), wrote an 'Introduction to Music,' full of -valuable information on the art.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Claudius Ptolemy</span>, the great Græco-Egyptian geographer, -mathematician and astronomer (second century A. D.). -His 'Harmonics'—in three books—is an exhaustive -theory of the ancient scale system.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alypius</span> (ca. 360 A. D.). His 'Introduction to Music' is valuable -for the copious tables of notation (Alypian tables).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Boethius</span> (475-524 A. D.), the chancellor of Theodoric the -Great. He was the chief exponent of Greek musical -theory to the Middle Ages. His five books on music ('De -Musica') are chiefly based on other works of the Roman -period, notably on Ptolemy.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center"><em>B—Early Modern Writers on Greek Music</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vincenzo Galileo</span>: Dialogo di Vincenzo Galileo ... della -musica antica, et della moderna (Florence, 1581).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Meibomius</span> (Meibom): Antiquæ musicæ auctores septem -(Amsterdam, 1652).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center"><em>C—Modern Authorities</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Böckh</span>: De metris Pindari (Ed. of Pindar), 1811, -1819, 1821.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Böckh</span>: Die Entwicklung der Lehren des Philalaos -(Berlin, 1819).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Beger</span>: Die Würde der Musik im Griechischen Altertume -(Dresden, 1839).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Bellerman</span> (ed.): Anonymi scriptio de musica (Berlin, -1841).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Bellerman</span> (ed.): Die Tonleitern und Musiknoten der -Griechen (Berlin, 1847).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. J. H. Vincent</span>: Notice sur trois manuscrits grecs relatifs à -la musique (1847).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Fr. Weitzmann</span>: Geschichte der griechischen Musik -(Berlin, 1855).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Marquard</span>: Harmonische Fragmente des Aristoxenus (1868).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oskar Paul</span>: Boethius' fünf Bücher über die Musik (translated -and elucidated, Leipzig, 1872).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Aug. Gevaert</span>: Histoire et théorie de la musique de l'antiquité -(Gand, 1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Aug. Gevaert</span>: Les problèmes musicaux d'Aristote (<em>collab. -w.</em> J. C. Vollgraf).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rudolph Westphal</span>: Musik des griechischen Alterthumes -(1883).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rudolph Westphal</span>: Aristoxenus von Tarent (1883).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Rossbach</span> und <span class="smcap">R. Westphal</span>: Theorie der musischen Künste -der Hellenen (1885-89).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">D. B. Monro</span>: The Modes of Ancient Greek Music (Oxford, -1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl von Jan</span>: Musicii Scriptores Græci (Leipzig, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. S. Macran</span>: The Harmonies of Aristoxenus (Oxford, 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. von Kralik</span>: Altgriechische Musik (Stuttgart, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Fairbanks</span>: The Greek Pæan (Cornell Studies XII, -1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis Laloy</span>: Aristoxène de Tarente (1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. J. Hipkins</span>: Dorian and Phrygian (Sammelbände der Int. -Musik-Ges., Vol. IV, No. 3, pp. 371-81).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER V</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Plain-Song and Mediæval Music Society</span>: Graduale -Sarisburiense, with intro. 'The Sarum Gradual'; 'Early -English Harmony,' etc., etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. B. Briggs</span>: The Elements of Plainsong (London, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Benedictines of Stanbrook</span>: Gregorian Music, an outline -of musical paleography (1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Probst</span>: Die Liturgie der ersten drei Jahrhunderte -(1870).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Probst</span>: Die abendländische Messe vom 5. bis zum -8. Jahrhundert (1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Riemann</span>: Studien zur Geschichte der Notenschrift (1878).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ph. Spitta</span>: Über Hucbalds Musica Enchiriadis (Vierteljahrs-schrift -für Musikwissenschaft, 1889, 1890).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. B. de Laborde</span>: Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne -(1780).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: Histoire de l'harmonie au moyen-âge -(1852).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: Mémoire sur Hucbald (1841).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. Lebeuf</span>: Traité historique et pratique sur le chant ecclésiastique -(1741).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Lambillotti</span>: Antiphonaire de Saint-Grégoire (1851).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Lambillotti</span>: Esthétique, théorie et pratique de plain-chant -(1855).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dom Joseph Pothier</span>: Les mélodies grégoriennes d'après la -tradition (1880).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paléographie musicale</span>: Les principaux manuscrits, etc.; -Instructions, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dom Germain Morin</span>: Les véritables origines du chant grégorien -(1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr.-Aug. Gevaert</span>: Les origines du chant liturgique de l'église -latine (1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. Combarieu</span>: Étude de philologie musicale. Théorie du -rhythme, etc. (1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. L. Houdard</span>: L'Art dit grégorien d'après la notation neumatique -(1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cardinal G. Bona</span>: De divina psalmodia (1653, new ed. 1747).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Magani</span>: L'anticaliturgia romana (1897-99).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guido Gasperini</span>: Storia della semiografia musicale (1905).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VI</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. E. Wooldridge</span>: Early English Harmony from the 10th to -the 15th Century (1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">John Stainer</span>: Early Bodleian Music: Dufay and his contemporaries -(Oxford, 1909).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Jacobsthal</span>: Die Mensuralnotenschrift des 12.-13. Jahrhundert -(1871).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Bellermann</span>: Die Mensuralnoten und Taktzeichen im 15. -und 16. Jahrhundert (1858).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Georg Lange</span>: Zur Geschichte der Solmisation (Sammelb. der -Intern. Musik-Ges., I, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hans Müller</span>: Hucbalds echte und unechte Schriften über -Musik (1884).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hans Müller</span>: Eine Abhandlung über Mensuralmusik (1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Johannes Wolf</span>: Geschichte der Mensuralnotation von 1250-1460 -(1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ph. Spitta</span>: Die Musica enchiriadis und ihr Zeitalter (Viertel-jahrsschr. -für Musikwissenschaft, 1888 and 1889).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: Mémoire sur Hucbald (1841).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: Les harmonistes des XII<sup>me</sup> et XIII<sup>me</sup> -siècles (Lille, 1864).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: L'Art harmonique au XII<sup>me</sup> et XIII<sup>me</sup> -siècles (Paris, 1865).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: Histoire de l'harmonie au moyen-âge -(1852).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Angelini</span>: Sopra la vita ed il sapere di Guido d'Arezzo -(1811).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guido Gasperini</span>: Storia della semiografia musicale (1905).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edmondstoune Duncan</span>: Story of Minstrelsy.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edward Jones</span>: Musical and Poetical Relicks of the Welsh -Bards (three parts, 1786, 1802, 1824).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. F. Rowbotham</span>: The Troubadours and Courts of Love -(1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Hueffer</span>: The Troubadours (London, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry John Chaytor</span>: The Troubadours (Camb., 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Grattan Flood</span>: History of Irish Music (Dublin, 1906).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: Œuvres complètes du trouvère Adam de -la Hâle (1872).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ed. de Coussemaker</span>: L'Art harmonique au XII<sup>me</sup> et XIII<sup>me</sup> -siècles (1865).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien Tiersot</span>: Histoire de la chanson populaire en France -(1889).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Anglade</span>: Les troubadours (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Antony Méray</span>: La vie au temps des trouvères (Paris, 1873).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Langlois</span>: Robin et Marion (Paris, 1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Jeanroy</span>: Les origines de la poésie lyrique en France au -moyen-âge (Paris, 1892).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Anonymous</span>: Résumé historique sur la musique en Norvège.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Riemann</span>: Die Melodik der Minnesänger (Musikalisches -Wochenblatt, 1897-1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. G. Kiesewetter</span>: Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen -Gesanges vom frühen Mittelalter, etc. (1841).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Diez</span>: Die Poesie der Troubadours (2nd ed. by K. Bartsch, -1883).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr. Diez</span>: Leben und Werke der Troubadours (2nd ed., 1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paul Runge</span>: Die Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift, -etc. (1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Bücher</span>: Arbeit und Rhythmus (4th ed., 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludwig Erk</span>: Deutscher Liederhort; new ed. by F. N. Böhme -(Leipzig, 1893-94).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Aug. Reissmann</span>: Geschichte des Deutschen Liedes (Berlin, -1874).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Freymond</span>: Jongleurs und Menestrels (Halle, 1833).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. Beck</span>: Die Melodien der Troubadours (Strassburg, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Genée</span>: Hans Sachs und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Friedrich Silcher</span>: Deutsche Volkslieder (Tübingen, 1858).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VIII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Grove's</span> Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Articles on Josquin -des Près, Okeghem, Schools of Composition (London, -1904-10).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. E. Wooldridge</span>: Early English Harmony from the 10th to -the 15th Century (1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir John Stainer</span>: Early Bodleian music: Dufay and His -Contemporaries (Oxford, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernst Pauer</span>: Musical Form.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. G. Kiesewetter</span>: Geschichte der europäisch-abendländischen -oder unserer heutigen Musik (1834).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Johannes Wolf</span>: Geschichte der Mensuralnotation von 1250-1460 -(Kirchenmusik, Jahrband, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guido Adler</span>: Die Wiederholung und Nachahmung in der -Mehrstimmigkeit (1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oswald Koller</span>: Der Liederkodex von Montpellier (Vierteljahrsschrift -f. Musikwissenschaft, 1888).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guillaume Dubois</span> (<em>called</em> Crétin): Déploration de Guillaume -Crétin sur le tré pas de Jean Okeghem, etc. (Paris, -1864).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Félicien de Ménil</span>: Josquin de Près (Revue Int. de Musique, -1899, No. 21, pp. 1322 ff.).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Félicien de Ménil</span>: L'Ecole contraponctiste flamande du -XV<sup>e</sup> siècle (1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. van der Straeten</span>: La musique aux Pays-bas avant le XIX<sup>e</sup> -siècle (Brussels, 1867-88).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IX</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians: art. <em>Monodia</em>, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. J. Henderson</span>: Some Forerunners of Italian Opera (New -York, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Symonds</span>: The Renaissance in Italy, 2 vols.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. G. Kiesewetter</span>: Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen -Gesanges vom frühesten Mittelalter bis zur Entstehung -der Oper (Leipzig, 1841).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, Vol II (Leipzig, -1911, 1912, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Johannes Wolf</span>: Geschichte der Mensuralnotation von 1250-1460 -(Leipzig, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Johannes Wolf</span>: Florenz in der Musikgeschichte des 14ten -Jahrhunderts (Sammelbände I. M.-G., 1901-1902).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. d'Angeli</span>: La musica ai tempi di Dante (1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Luigi Torchi</span>: La musica istromentale in Italia nei secoli 16º, -17º, e 18º (<em>Rivista musicale</em>, IV-VIII, 1898-1901).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER X</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edward Dickinson</span>: Music in the History of the Western -Church (New York, 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Symonds</span>: Renaissance in Italy, Vol. IV.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">P. Graf Waldersee</span>: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, etc. -(In Sammlung musikalischer Vorträge, 1884).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. G. Kiesewetter</span>: Die Verdienste der Niederländer um die -Tonkunst (1829).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">K. von Winterfeld</span>: Johannes Pierluigi von Palestrina, etc., -etc. (Breslau, 1832).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">K. von Winterfeld</span>: Musiktreiben und Musikempfinden in 16. -und 17. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1851).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. C. G. Mathieu</span>: Roland de Lattre [Orlando di Lasso], sa -vie, ses ouvrages (Gand, after 1856).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F.-J. Fétis</span>: Quels ont été les mérites des Néerlandais dans la -musique, principalement au XIV<sup>e</sup>, XV<sup>e</sup>, et XVI<sup>e</sup> siècles? -(1829).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Florent Delmotte</span>: Notice biographique sur Roland -de Lattre connu sous le nom d'Orland de Lassus (Valenciennes, -1836).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Felix</span>: Palestrina et la musique sacrée (1896).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Giuseppe Baini</span>: Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle -opere di G. Perluigi da Palestrina (Rome, 1828).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dom Aug. Vernarecci</span>: Ottaviano dei Petrucci (second ed. -1882).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XI</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians: <em>Art.</em> Opera, Peri, -Caccini, etc.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. A. Streatfeild</span>: The Opera (London, 1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. F. Apthorp</span>: The Opera Past and Present (New York, -1901).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Eitner</span>: Die Oper, etc. (Vol. X of Publikation älterer praktischer -und theoretischer Musikwerke, Berlin, 1881).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Heuss</span>: Die Instrumentalstücke des 'Orfeo' (1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. G. Kiesewetter</span>: Schicksale und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen -Gesanges vom frühesten Mittelalter bis zur Entstehung -der Oper (Leipzig, 1841).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Kretzschmar</span>: Die venezianische Oper und die -Werke Cavallis und Cestis (<em>Vierteljahrsschrift für -Musikwissenschaft</em>, Vol. VIII).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnold Schering</span>: Die Anfänge des Oratoriums (Leipzig, -1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Emil Vogel</span>: Claudio Monteverdi (<em>Vierteljahrsschrift für Musikwissenschaft</em>, -Vol. III, pp. 315 ff., Leipzig, 1887).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fr.-A. Gevaert</span>: La musique vocale en Italie, Vol. I, Les -maîtres florentins 1595-1630 (<em>Annuaires da Conservatoire -Royale de Bruxelles</em>, 1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Regnard</span>: La Renaissance du drame lyrique 1600-1876 -(Paris, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Histoire de l'opéra en Europe avant Lully -et Scarlatti (Paris, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jules Tiersot</span>: L'Orféo de Monteverde (<em>Le Ménestrel</em>, Vol. -LXX, Paris, 1904).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">D. Alaleona</span>: Su Emilio de' Cavalieri, etc. (In Nuova Musica, -Florence, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. d'Ancona</span>: Sacre Rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV, XV e -XVI (Florence, 1872).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. d'Ancona</span>: Origini del teatro italiano (Palermo, 1900).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Beier</span>: J. J. Froberger (Leipzig, 1884).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Otto Kinkeldey</span>: Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des 16ten -Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tobias Norland</span>: Zur Geschichte der Suite (Sammelbände der -Intern. Musik-Ges., X, 4, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Suite (Sammelbände -der Intern. Musik-Ges., IV, 4, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnold Schering</span>: Geschichte des Instrumental-Konzerts -(Leipzig, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. P. Seiffert</span>: Sweelinck und seine direkten Schüler (Vierteljahrsschrift -für Musikwissenschaft, 1891).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. P. Seiffert</span>: Geschichte der Klaviermusik (Leipzig, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philipp Spitta</span>: Heinrich Schütz (Leipzig, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph von Wasieliwski</span>: Die Violine und ihre Meister (Leipzig, -1869, 5th ed. 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph von Wasieliwski</span>: Die Violine im 17. Jahrhundert, etc. -(1874).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Histoire de l'opéra avant Lully et Scarlatti -(Paris, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1912).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Giov.-Batt. Doni</span>: Trattati di musica (Florence, 1763).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Luigi Torchi</span>: La musica istromentale in Italia nei secoli 16º, -17º e 18º (Rivista musicale italiana, IV-VIII, 1898-1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guido Pasquetti</span>: L'oratorio musicale in Italia (Florence, -1906).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Cummings</span>: Henry Purcell (2nd ed., 1889).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Edw. James Dent</span>: Alessandro Scarlatti (London, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. Barclay Squire</span>: Purcell's Dramatic Music (Sammelbände -der Internationalen Musik-Ges., V, 4, 1904).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Suite (Sammelbände -der Intern. Musik-Ges., IV, 4, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Goldschmidt</span>: Die italienische Gesangsmethode des -17ten Jahrhunderts (Breslau, 1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Goldschmidt</span>: Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen -Oper im 17. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1901-1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Goldschmidt</span>: Zur Geschichte der Arien- und Symphonie-Form -(Monatshefte f. Musikgeschichte, 1901, Nos. -4-5).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph von Wasieliwski</span>: Die Violine im 17. Jahrhundert und -die Anfänge der Instrumentalkomposition (1874).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heinz Hess</span>: Die Opern Alessandro Stradellas (Leipzig, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Kretzschmar</span>: Führer durch den Konzertsaal (Leipzig, -1887, 1888, 1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Leichtentritt</span>: Reinhard Keiser und seine Opern (Berlin, -1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Leichtentritt</span>: Der monodische Kammermusikstil in -Italien bis gegen 1650 (in Ambros: Gesch. der Musik, -Vol. IV, pp. 774 ff; new ed., 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. O. Linder</span>: Die erste stehende Oper in Deutschland (Berlin, -1855).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jules Écorcheville</span>: De Lully à Rameau, 1690-1730 (Paris, -1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Nuitter</span> et <span class="smcap">E. Thoinau</span>: Les origines de l'opéra français -(Paris, 1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Pougin</span>: Les vrais créateurs de l'opéra français: Perrin -et Cambert (Paris, 1881).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry Prunières</span>: Notes sur la vie de Luigi Rossi (Sammelbände -der Intern. Musik-Ges., XII, 1, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry Prunières</span>: Lully (Paris, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry Prunières</span>: Notes sur les origines de l'ouverture française -(Sammelbände der Intern. Musik-Ges., XII, 4, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Édouard Radet</span>: Lully (Paris, 1891).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Angelo Catelani</span>: Della opera di Alessandro Stradella (Modena, -1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Luigi Torchi</span>: La musica istromentale in Italia nei secoli -16º, 17º e 18º (<em>Rivista musicale italiana</em>, IV-VII, 1898-1901).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIV</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. S. Rockstro</span>: Life of Händel (London, 1883).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Victor Schoelcher</span>: Life of Händel (London, 1857).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. Mainwaring</span>: Memoirs of the Life of Händel (London, 1906).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. A. Streatfeild</span>: Händel (London, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. F. Abdy Williams</span>: Händel (London, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Burney</span>: Commemoration of Händel.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sedley Taylor</span>: Indebtedness of Händel to Works by Other -Composers (Cambridge, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Addison</span>: The Spectator, Nos. 18, 231, 235, 258, 278, -405.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Friedrich Chrysander</span>: Georg Friedrich Händel (3 parts, -1859-67, incomplete).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Friedrich Chrysander</span>: Die deutsche Oper in Hamburg (Allg. -Musik-Ztg., 1879-1880).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Reissmann</span>: Händel, sein Leben und seine Werke (Berlin, -1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Stein</span> (H. Nietschmann): Händel, ein Künstlerleben (Halle, -1882-3).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Kretzschmar</span>: Händel (<em>In</em> Sammlung musikalischer -Vorträge, Leipzig, 1884).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Leichtentritt</span>: Reinhard Keiser in seinen Opern (Dissertation, -Berlin, 1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Schering</span>: Geschichte des Oratoriums (Leipzig, 1911).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Michel Brenet</span>: Haendel; biographie critique (Les Musiciens -célèbres, Paris, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Boucher</span>: Israël en Égypte (1888).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Vernier</span>: L'oratorio biblique de Haendel (1901).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XV</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. H. H. Parry</span>: Johann Sebastian Bach (London and New -York, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. L. Hilgenfeldt</span>: Johann Sebastian Bach, from the German -of Hilgenfeldt and Forkel, with additions (London, -1869).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Reginald Land Poole</span>: Sebastian Bach (London, 1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Schweitzer</span>: J. S. Bach, with preface by C. M. Widor; -English translation by E. Newman (Leipzig, 1911).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnold Schering</span>: Geschichte des Instrumental-Konzerts -(Leipzig, 1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnold Schering</span>: Geschichte des Oratoriums (Leipzig, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnold Schering</span>: Zur Bach-Forschung (Sammelb. der Intern. -Musik-Ges., IV, 234 ff., V, 556 ff.).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Johann Forkel</span>: Über Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst -und Kunstwerke (Leipzig, 1802).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. H. Bitter</span>: Johann Sebastian Bach (Berlin, 1862).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">S. Jadassohn</span>: Erläuterungen der in Johann Sebastian Bachs -Kunst der Fuge enthaltenen Fugen und Kanons (Leipzig, -1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">S. Jadassohn</span>: Zur Einführung in J. S. Bachs Passionsmusik, -etc. (Berlin, 1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernst Otto Lindner</span>: Zur Tonkunst (Berlin, 1864).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Reissmann</span>: Johann Sebastian Bach; sein Leben und seine -Werke (Berlin, 1881).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. P. Spitta</span>: Johann Sebastian Bach (Leipzig, 1873-80).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">K. Grunsky</span>: Bachs Kantaten; eine Anregung (Die Musik, III, -No. 14, pp. 95 ff.).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">André Pirro</span>: J. S. Bach (Paris, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">André Pirro</span>: L'esthétique de J. S. Bach (Paris, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Schweitzer</span>: J. S. Bach, le musicien poète (Paris, -1905).</p> -</div> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</span></p> -<p class="center p4 big1">SPECIAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUME II</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER I</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Frederick H. Martens</span>: The French Chanson galante in the -XVIIIth Century (The Musician, Dec., 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Newman</span>: Gluck and the Opera (London, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. A. Streatfeild</span>: The Opera (London, 1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oskar Bie</span>: Die Oper (Berlin, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Grunsky</span>: Musikgeschichte des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts -(Leipzig, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">La Mara</span>: Christoph Willibald Gluck (Leipzig, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Adolph Bernhard Marx</span>: Gluck und die Oper (Berlin, 1863).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Pechel</span> und <span class="smcap">Felix Poppenberg</span>: Rokoko, das galante Zeitalter -in Briefen, Memorien Tagebüchern (Berlin, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven (Berlin, -1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Schmid</span>: Christoph Willibald Ritter v. Gluck (Leipzig, -1854).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. Bellaigue</span>: Notes brèves (Paris, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. Bellaigue</span>: Un siècle de musique française (Paris, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Desnoiresterres</span>: Gluck et Puccini (Paris, 1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Julien</span>: Musiciens d'hier et d'ajourd'hui (Paris, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Schuré</span>: Le drame musical (Paris, 1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien Tiersot</span>: Gluck (Paris, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jean d'Udine</span>: Gluck (Paris, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Pierre Aubry</span>: Grétry (Paris, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hector Berlioz</span>: A travers chants (Paris, 1863).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Coquard</span>: La langue française et la musique (Le Courrier -Musical, Paris, May 1, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Dacier</span>: Une danseuse française à Londres au début du -XVIII siècle (S. I. M., May 1, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arsène Houssaye</span>: Galerie du XVIII<sup>me</sup> siècle: La Regence -Melanges extraits des manuscrits de Mme. Necker (Paris, -1798).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paul Jedlinski</span>: A propos de la reprise d'Iphigénie en Aulide -(Le Courrier Musical, Paris, Jan. 15th, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. de la Laurencie</span>: Le goût musical en France (Paris, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gaston Maugras</span>: Le Duc de Lauzun et la cour intime de Louis -XV (Paris, 1895).</p> - -<p>Mémoirs de la Comtesse de Boigne (Paris, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philippe Momier</span>: Venise au XVIII<sup>me</sup> siècle (Paris, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. Pitou</span>: Paris sous Louis XV (Paris, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Prunières</span>: Le cerf de la Vieville et le goût classique -(S. I. M., June 15, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Striffling</span>: Goût musical en France au XVIII<sup>e</sup> siècle (Paris, -1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. A. Taine</span>: L'ancien régime.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Touchard-Lafosse</span>: Chroniques pittoresques et critiques -de l'œil de bœuf: Des petits appartements de la cour et -des salons de Paris sous Louis XIV, la régence, Louis -XV, et Louis XVI (Paris, 1845).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vernon Lee</span>: Il settecento in Italia (Milan, 1881).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER II</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Burney</span>: The Present State of Music in Germany, -etc., 2 vols. (London, 1773).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Burney</span>: Present State of Music in France and Italy -(London, 1771).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. F. Chorley</span>: Music and Manners in France and North Germany, -3 vols. (London, 1843).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Kuno Francke</span>: History of German Literature (N. Y., 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Hassel</span>: The Balance of Power, 1715-1789 (London, -1908).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">John S. Shedlock</span>: The Pianoforte Sonata, Its Origin and Development -(London, 1895).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">K. H. Bitter</span>: Karl Philipp Emanuel and W. Friedemann -Bach, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1868).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf</span>: Autobiographie (Leipzig, -1801).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Grunsky</span>: Musikgeschichte des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts -(Leipzig, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">S. Bagge</span>: Die geschichtliche Entwickelung der Sonata (In -Waldersee Sammlung, Vol. II. No. 19) 1880.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jules Carlez</span>: Grimm et la musique de son temps (Paris, -1872).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jules Combarieu</span>: L'influence de la musique d'Allemagne sur -la musique française (Petersjahrbuch, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">T. de Wyzewa et G. de Saint-Foix</span>: W. A. Mozart, 1756-77, -2 vols. (Paris, 1912).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER III</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Burney</span>: The Present State of Music in Germany, etc., -2 vols. (London, 1773).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Charles Burney</span>: The Present State of Music in France and -Italy (London, 1771).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. J. Dent</span>: Mozart's Operas; a Critical Study (London, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Hadow</span>: A Croatian Composer (Haydn) (London, 1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Otto Jahn</span>: Life of Mozart (Trans. by Pauline T. Townsend), -3 vols. (London, 1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">George Henry Lewes</span>: The Life of Goethe.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. A. Mozart</span>: The Letters of W. A. Mozart (1769-1791). -Transl. from the collection of Lady Wallace (New York, -1866).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludwig Nohl</span>: W. A. Mozart (Engl. transl. London, 1877).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Daffner</span>: Die Entwicklung des Klavierkonzerts bis -Mozart (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Grunsky</span>: Musikgeschichte des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts -(Leipzig, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eduard Hanslick</span>: Geschichte des Konzertwesens in Wien, 2 -vols. (Vienna, 1869-70).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Haydn</span>: Tagebuch (edited by J. E. Engl), 1909.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Otto Jahn</span>: W. A. Mozart, 4th ed., 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1905-7).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludwig Köchel</span>: Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnis der -Tonwerke W. A. Mozarts (Leipzig, 1862 and 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Kretzschmar</span>: Führer durch den Konzertsaal, 3 -vols. (Leipzig, 1895-9).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. A. Mozart</span>: Gesammelte Briefe (herausg. von Ludwig -Nohl), (Salzburg, 1865).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. N. von Nissen</span>: Biographie W. A. Mozarts, 1828-1848 -(Leipzig).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludwig Nohl</span>: W. A. Mozart (Leipzig, 1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gustav Nottebohm</span>: Mozartiana (Leipzig, 1880).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. F. Pohl</span>: Joseph Haydn, 2 vols. [Unfinished], (Leipzig, -1875-82).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. F. Pohl</span>: Mozart in London; Haydn in London (Vienna, -1876).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Wallaschek</span>: Geschichte der Wiener Hofoper (in -Die Theater Wiens, 1907-9).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. W. Walter</span>: Die Entwicklung des Mannheimer Musik- und -Theater-lebens (Leipzig, 1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guiseppe Carpani</span>: Le Haydine (Paris, 1812).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">T. de Wyzewa et G. de Saint-Foix</span>: W. A. Mozart, 1756-77, 2 -vols. (Paris, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Lavoix</span>: Histoire de l'instrumentation (Paris, 1878).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'autrefois: Mozart (Paris, 1908).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IV</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Beethoven</span>: Letters; ed. by A. Kalischer, trans. by J. S. Shedlock, -2 vols. (London, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vincent d'Indy</span>: Beethoven, a Critical Biography, trans. by -T. Baker (Boston, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir George Grove</span>: Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies (London, -1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Daniel Gregory Mason</span>: Beethoven and his Forerunners (New -York, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Reinecke</span>: The Beethoven Pianoforte Sonatas, trans. by -E. M. T. Dawson (London, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Schindler</span>: The Life of Beethoven (including correspondence, -etc.); ed. by Moscheles (London, 1841).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Symons</span>: Beethoven (Essay), (London, 1910).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. van Beethoven</span>: Sämtliche Briefe; ed. by A. Kalischer, -5 vols. (1906-8).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paul Bekker</span>: Beethoven (Berlin, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. von Breuning</span>: Aus dem Schwarzspanierhause (New ed., -1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Theodor von Frimmel</span>: Ludwig van Beethoven, Berühmte -Musiker, v. 13 (Berlin, 1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Theodor von Frimmel</span>: Beethoven Studien (Munich, 1905-6).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludwig Nohl</span>: Beethoven, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1867-77).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gustav Nottebohm</span>: Beethoveniana, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1872-1887).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Reinecke</span>: Die Beethovenschen Klaviersonaten (1889, -new ed., 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven, 1800-1900 -(Berlin, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alexander Wheelock Thayer</span>: Ludwig van Beethovens -Leben, 5 vols., completed and revised by H. Deiters and -H. Riemann (1866 [1901], 1872 [1910], 1879 [1911], -1907, 1908).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jean Chantavoine</span>: Beethoven (Paris, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vincent d'Indy</span>: Beethoven (Paris, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Beethoven (Paris, 1909).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER V</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry F. Chorley</span>: Music and Manners in France and Germany -(London, 1844).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Sutherland Edwards</span>: Life of Rossini (London, 1869).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Sutherland Edwards</span>: Rossini and his School (London, -1881).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oskar Bie</span>: Die Oper (Berlin, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Chop</span>: Führer durch die Opernmusik (Berlin, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ferd. Hiller</span>: Künstlerleben (Cologne, 1880).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Adolph Kohnt</span>: Meyerbeer (Berlin, 1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dr. Adolph Kohnt</span>: Rossini (Berlin, 1892).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Mendel</span>: Giacomo Meyerbeer (Berlin, 1866).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Emil Naumann</span>: Italienische Tondichter (Leipzig, 1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Riehl</span>: Musikalische Charakterköpfe (Stuttgart, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven (Berlin, -1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Leo Schmidt</span>: Meister der Tonkunst (Berlin, 1908).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Blaze de Bury</span>: La vie de Rossini (Paris, 1854).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri de Curzon</span>: Meyerbeer (Paris, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lionel Dauriac</span>: Rossini (Paris, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lionel Dauriac</span>: Meyerbeer (Paris, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. & M. Escudier</span>: Rossini: Sa Vie et ses Œuvres (Paris, -1854).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Eymieu</span>: L'Œuvre de Meyerbeer (Paris, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Marcillac</span>: Histoire de la musique moderne (Paris, 1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philippe Monnier</span>: Venise au XVIII<sup>e</sup> siècle (Paris, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paul Scudo</span>: L'Art ancien et l'art moderne (Paris, 1854).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Mme. de Stendhal</span>: Vie de Rossini (Paris, 1905).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Antonio Amore</span>: Vincenzo Bellini, 2 vols. (1892-4).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Cametti</span>: Donizetti a Roma (Rivista Musicale Italiana, Vol. -XI, No. 4).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ludovico Settimo Silvestri</span>: Della vita e delle opere di Gioacchino -Rossini (Milan, 1874).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VI</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Honoré de Balzac</span>: The Great Man of the Province of Paris -(Eng. trans.).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hillaire Belloc</span>: The French Revolution (New York, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir Julius A. Benedict</span>: Carl Maria von Weber (In The Great -Musicians, New York, 1881).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. R. S. Bennett</span>: Life of Sterndale Bennett (Cambridge, -1907).</p> - -<p>'Charles Auchester,' Musical Novel on Mendelssohn and his -Circle.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry T. Finck</span>: Chopin and Other Musical Essays (New -York, 1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">James Huneker</span>: Franz Liszt (New York, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sebastian Heuse</span>: The Mendelssohn Family, 1729-1847, transl. -2 vols. (New York, 1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Liszt</span>: Letters (Trans. by C. Bache, London, 1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Liszt</span>: Frédéric Chopin (Trans. Boston, 1863).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Fuller-Maitland</span>: Schumann (New York, 1884).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Daniel Gregory Mason</span>: The Romantic Composers (New -York, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Felix Mendelssohn</span>: Letters and Recollections (Trans. from -F. Hiller by M. E. von Glehn, London, 1874).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Niecks</span>: Frederick Chopin as Man and Musician (London, -1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lina Ramann</span>: Franz Liszt, Artist and Man (In the German, -Leipzig, 1880-1894), trans.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Reissmann</span>: Life and Works of Schumann (Trans. -London, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Siegfried Salomon</span>: Niels W. Gade (Cassel, 1856-57).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Schumann</span>: Letters. Transl. by May Herbert (London, -1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Stephen Stratton</span>: Mendelssohn (Trans. in English Musical -Biographies, Birmingham, 1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph von Wasielewski</span>: Robert Schumann (Trans. Boston, -1871).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moritz Karasowski</span>: Friedrich Chopin (3rd ed., Dresden, -1881).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. A. Lampadius</span>: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Leipzig, -1848).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Schumann</span>: Gesammelte Schriften über Musik und Musiker, -4 vols. (1854).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Schumann</span>: Jugendbriefe, herausg. von Clara Schumann -(1885).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philipp Spitta</span>: Ein Lebensbild Robert Schumanns (In Waldersee -Sammlung), (1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max von Weber</span>: Carl Maria von Weber, 3 vols. (Leipzig, -1864-6).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hector Berlioz</span>: Mémoires, 2 vols. (Paris, 1870).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui: Berlioz (Paris, -1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien Tiersot</span>: Hector Berlioz et la société de son temps -(Paris, 1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julien Tiersot</span>: Les années romantiques, 1819-1842; correspondance -d'Hector Berlioz (Paris, 1903).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. L. Austin</span>: Life of Franz Schubert (Boston, 1873).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. Benedict</span>: Sketch of Life and Works of the late Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy -(London, 1853).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. D. Coleridge</span>, translator: Kreissle von Hellbron's Life of -Franz Schubert (London, 1869).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. P. Devrient</span>: My Recollections of Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, -transl. from the German by Natalia Macfarren -(London, 1869).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edmondstoune Duncan</span>: Schubert (London, New York, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis C. Elson</span>: History of German Song (Boston, 1888).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry T. Finck</span>: Songs and Song Writers (New York, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. F. Frost</span>: Schubert (New York, 1881).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Fuller-Maitland</span>: Schumann (New York, 1884).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Hervey</span>: Franz Liszt and His Music (London, New -York, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">James Huneker</span>: Franz Liszt (New York, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">K. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy</span>: Goethe and Mendelssohn, 1821-1831. -Transl. by M. E. von Glehn (London, 1872).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Elsie Polko</span>: Reminiscences of Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, -transl. by Lady Wallace (New York, 1869).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Reissmann</span>: R. Schumann, transl. by A. L. Alger -(London, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. S. Rockstro</span>: Mendelssohn (London, 1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Schumann</span>: Letters, Eng. transl. by May Herbert (London, -1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph von Wasielewski</span>: Robert Schumann, transl. by A. L. -Alger (Boston, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Janka Wohl</span>: François Liszt, transl. by B. Peyton Ward (London, -1887).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Abert</span>: Robert Schumann (Berlin, 1903).</p> - -<p>Beiträge zur Biographie Carl Loewes (Halle, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heinrich Bulthaupt</span>: Carl Loewe (Berlin, 1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Dahms</span>: Schubert (Berlin und Leipzig, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Erler</span>: Robert Schumanns Leben aus seinen -Briefen, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Robert Franz</span> und <span class="smcap">Arnold Freiherr Senfft von Pilsach</span>: Ein -Briefwechsel, 1861-1888 (Berlin, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Friedländer</span>: Gedichte von Goethe in Kompositionen -seiner Zeitgenossen (1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Friedländer</span>: Beiträge zu einer Biographie Franz Schuberts -(1889).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Friedländer</span>: Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert -(1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Göllerich</span>: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Heuberger</span>: Franz Schubert (Berlin, 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Hiller</span>: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Köln, 1874).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julius Kapp</span>: Franz Liszt (Berlin und Leipzig, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heinrich von Kreissle</span>: Franz Schubert (Wien, 1861).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">La Mara</span>: Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Liszt und Hans von -Bülow (Leipzig, 1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rudolf Louis</span>: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy</span>: Reisebriefe aus den Jahren -1830-1832.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Ramann</span>: Franz Liszt als Künstler und Mensch (Leipzig, -1880).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Heinrich Reimann</span>: Robert Schumanns Leben und Werke -(Leipzig, 1887).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Reissmann</span>: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Berlin, 1867).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Reissmann</span>: Robert Schumann, sein Leben und seine -Werke (Berlin, 1871).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Schumann</span>: Gesammelte Schriften über Musik und Musiker, -4 vols. (1854).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. J. v. Wasielewski</span>: Schumanniana (Bonn, 1883).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Wellmer</span>: Karl Loewe (1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernst Wolff</span>: Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (Berlin, 1906).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. D. Calvocoressi</span>: Franz Liszt (Paris, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jean Chantavoine</span>: Liszt (Paris, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Schneider</span> and <span class="smcap">M. Mareschal</span>: Schumann, sa vie et ses -œuvres (Paris, 1905).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VIII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oskar Bie</span>: A History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players -(London, 1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Thomas F. Dunhill</span>: Chamber Music, a Treatise for Students -(London, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">John C. Fillmore</span>: History of Pianoforte Music (1883).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. T. Finck</span>: Chopin and other Musical Essays (New York, -1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. C. Hadden</span>: Chopin (Paisley, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">James Huneker</span>: Chopin the Man and his Music (New York, -1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">James Huneker</span>: Franz Liszt (New York, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. E. Krebhiel</span>: The Pianoforte and its Music (New York, -1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ignace Moscheles</span>: Recent Music and Musicians (New York, -1873).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Niecks</span>: Frederick Chopin as Man and Musician (London, -1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lina Ramann</span>: Franz Liszt, Artist and Man, Eng. transl.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edgar Stillman-Kelley</span>: Chopin the Composer (New York, -1913).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moritz Karasowski</span>: Friedrich Chopin, 3rd ed. (Dresden, -1881).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Liszt</span>: Friedrich Chopin (Paris, 1852).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</span></p> - -<p><span class="smcap">August Reissmann</span>: R. Schumann, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1879).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max von Weber</span>: Carl Maria von Weber, 3 vols. (Leipzig, -1864-6).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jean Chantavoine</span>: Franz Liszt: Sa vie et son œuvre (Paris, -1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Liszt</span>: Des Bohemiens et de leur musique en Hongrie -(Paris, 1859).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">George Sand</span>: Un Hiver a Majorque (Paris, 1867).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">George Sand</span>: Histoire de ma vie (Paris, 1855).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IX</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis A. Coerne</span>: Evolution of Modern Orchestration (New -York, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. J. Henderson</span>: The Orchestra and Orchestral Music (New -York, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Wagner</span>: Collected Works (Vol. III. Article on -Liszt's Symphonic Poems) (Leipzig, 1857).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Wagner</span>: Sämmtliche Schriften (Vol. III, Liszt's -Symphonische Dichtungen, Leipzig, 1911).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hector Berlioz</span>: Soirées d'orchestre (Paris, 1853).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Jullien</span>: Hector Berlioz (Paris, 1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henri Lavoix</span>: Histoire de l'Instrumentation (Paris, 1878).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER X</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Aldrich</span>: Introduction to <em>Freischütz</em> (In Schirmer's -Collection of Operas).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. F. Apthorp</span>: The Opera Past and Present (New York, -1901).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. A. de Bovet</span>: Charles Gounod, his Life and Works, Eng. -transl. (London, 1891).</p> - -<p>An Englishman in Paris (Notes and Recollections) (New -York).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">André Lebon</span>: Modern France (New York, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. A. Streatfeild</span>: Modern Music and Musicians (London, -1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. A. Streatfeild</span>: The Opera (London, 1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oskar Bie</span>: Die Oper (Berlin, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Chop</span>: Führer durch die Opernmusik (Berlin, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. Heine</span>: Musikalische Berichte aus Paris (Hamburg, 1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Kalbeck</span>: Opernabende (Berlin).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Otto Neitzel</span>: Führer durch die Oper (Leipzig, 1890).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Allix</span>: A Propos de l'anniversaire de Bizet (S. I. M. Dec., -1908).</p> - -<p>Félicien David et les Saint-Simoniens (S. I. M., March, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. J. de Goncourt</span>: La du Barry (Paris, 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Lavisse et A. Rambaud</span>: Guerres Nationales (1848-1870).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eugène de Mirecourt</span>: Auber (Paris, 1859).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Pagnerre</span>: Charles Gounod, sa vie et ses œuvres (Paris, -1890).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Pougin</span>: Boieldieu (Paris, 1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. H. Prudhomme</span>: Félicien David d'après sa correspondance -inédite (S. I. M., March, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Soubies</span>: 69 ans à l'Opéra Comique en deux pages (1825-1894) -(Paris, 1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Soubies et Malherbe</span>: Histoire de l'Opéra Comique, 1840-1860 -(Paris, 1892).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XI</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. Ashton Ellis</span>: The Prose Writings of Richard Wagner. -Transl. of Wagner's collected prose writings, 8 vols. -(London, 1899).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry T. Finck</span>: Wagner and his Works, 2 vols. (New York, -1893).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Henderson</span>: Richard Wagner, his Life and his Dramas -(New York, 1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Lavignac</span>: The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. -Transl. by E. Singleton (New York, 1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Newman</span>: A Study of Wagner (New York, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Wagner</span> and <span class="smcap">Liszt</span>: Correspondence, ed. by F. Hueffer (London, -1888).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Wagner</span>: My Life (Autobiography), 2 vols. (New -York, 1911).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guido Adler</span>: Richard Wagner (Leipzig, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Houston S. Chamberlain</span>: Richard Wagner (Munich, 1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gustav Engel</span>: Die Bühnenfestspiele von Bayreuth (1876).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carl Fr. Glasenapp</span>: Das Leben Richard Wagners, 6 vols. -(Leipzig, 1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julius Kapp</span>: Der junge Wagner (Berlin, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Julius Kapp</span>: Richard Wagner, eine Biographie (Berlin, 1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Liszt</span>: Briefwechsel mit Richard Wagner.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (Berlin, -1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Friedrich Nietzsche</span>: Der Fall Wagner (Leipzig, 1892).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Wagner</span>: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen, 10 -vols. (Leipzig, 1871).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Jullien</span>: R. Wagner (Paris, 1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Lavignac</span>: Le voyage artistique a Bayreuth (Paris, -1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Catulle Mendès</span>: Richard Wagner (Paris, 1900).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Dietrich & J. V. Widmann</span>: Recollections of Johannes -Brahms, transl. by D. E. Hecht (London, 1889).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Fuller-Maitland</span>: Brahms (London, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Hadow</span>: Studies in Modern Music (London, 1895).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">James Huneker</span>: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, -1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">B. Litzmann</span>: Clara Schumann, transl. by Grace and W. H. -Hadow (London, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Guy Ropartz</span>: César Franck (Grey's Studies in Music) (New -York, 1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philipp Spitta</span>: Johannes Brahms, transl. in Grey's Studies -in Music (New York, 1901).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Johannes Brahms</span>: Briefwechsel, herausg. von der deutschen -Brahmsgesellschaft, Vols. I-VII, 1907-10.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Brendel</span>: Geschichte der Musik in Italien, Deutschland -und Frankreich, etc. (1852 and 1906, Leipzig).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hermann Deiters</span>: Johannes Brahms (in Waldersee Sammlung, -Leipzig, 1880-98).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Dietrich</span>: Erinnerungen an Johannes Brahms (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Gustave Jenner</span>: Johannes Brahms als Mensch, Lehrer und -Künstler (Merburg in Hessen, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Kalbeck</span>: Johannes Brahms, 3 vols. (1904-1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (Berlin, -1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">B. Röttger</span>: Der Entwickelungsgang von Johannes Brahms -(In the Neue Musikzeitung, Vol. 25, Nos. 15 & 16).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Coquard</span>: César Franck (Paris, 1891).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Vincent d'Indy</span>: César Franck (Paris, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Jullien</span>: Johannes Brahms, 1833-97 (Paris, 1898).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. A. Chapin</span>: Masters of Music (New York, 1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. J. Crowest</span>: Verdi, Man and Musician (London, 1897).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">B. Lumley</span>: Reminiscences of the Opera (London, 1864).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">B. L. Macchetta</span>: Verdi, Milan and Otello (London, 1887).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Pougin</span>: Verdi, an Anecdotic History, transl. by James E. -Matthew (London, 1887).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. A. Streatfeild</span>: Masters of Italian Music (New York, 1895).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eduard Hanslick</span>: Die moderne Oper, 9 vols. (Berlin, 1875-1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. Gersheim</span>: Giuseppe Verdi (Frankfurt, 1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Destranges</span>: L'Évolution musicale chez Verdi (Paris, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cristal Maurice</span>: Verdi et les traditions nationales (Lausanne, -1880).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">C. Saint-Saëns</span>: Portraits et souvenirs (Paris, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Prince de H. T. Valori-Rustichelli</span>: Verdi et son œuvre -(Paris, 1895).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Abramo Basevi</span>: Studie sulle opere di Giuseppe Verdi (Florence, -1859).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">B. Bermani</span>: Schizzi sulla Vita e sulle Opere del Maestro, -Giuseppe Verdi (Milan, 1846).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Perosio</span>: Cenni Biografiei su Giuseppe Verdi, etc. (Milan, -1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Marchese G. Monaldi</span>: Verdi e le sue Opere (Florence, 1877).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">V. Sassaroli</span>: Considerazioni sulla Stato attuale dell'Arte -Musicale in Italia, etc. (Genoa, 1876).</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</span></p> -</div> - -<p class="center p4 big1">SPECIAL LITERATURE FOR VOLUME III</p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER I</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry Fothergill Chorley</span>: Modern German Music, 2 vols. -(London, 1854).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Elson</span>: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis C. Elson</span>: The History of German Song, 1888.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Henry T. Finck</span>: Songs and Song Writers (New York, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">James G. Huneker</span>: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, -1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Newman</span>: Musical Studies (London, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Felix Weingartner</span>: Symphony Writers since Beethoven, -Eng. transl. (London, 1907).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Botstiber</span>: Geschichte der Overtüre (Leipzig, 1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hans von Bülow</span>: Briefe und ausgewählte Schriften, ed. by -Marie von Bülow, 8 vols. (1895-1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">P. J. Duringer</span>: Albert Lortzing, sein Leben und Wirken -(Leipzig, 1851).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Hiller</span>: Aus dem Tonleben unserer Zeit, 2 vols. -(Leipzig, 1868-1871).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ferdinand Hiller</span>: Musikalisches und Persönliches (Leipzig, -1876).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph Joachim</span>: Briefe von und an Joseph Joachim; ed. by -J. J. and A. Moser (1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Otto Kronseder</span>: Franz Lachner (In Altbayrische Monatsschrift, -IV, 2-3, 1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Otto Neitzel</span>: Camille Saint-Saëns (Berlin, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnold Niggli</span>: Adolf Jensen (1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arnold Niggli</span>: Theodor Kirchner (1888).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Moritz von Schwind</span>: Die Lachner-Rollen (1904).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Segnitz</span>: Karl Reinecke (1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Karl Thrane</span>: Friedrich Kuhlau (1886).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bernhard Vogel</span>: Robert Volkmann (1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hans Volkmann</span>: Robert Volkmann (1875).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Joseph von Wasielewsky</span>: Karl Reinecke (1892).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Jullien</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui, 2 vols. (Paris, 1891-92).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Baumann</span>: L'Œuvre de Saint-Saëns (1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Antoine Francois Marmontel</span>: Symphonistes et virtuoses -(1881).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Antoine Francois Marmontel</span>: Art classique et moderne du -piano (Paris, 1876).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Jules Massenet</span>: Mes souvenirs, 1842-1912 (Paris, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Camille Saint-Saëns</span>: Portraits et souvenirs (Paris, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Octave Sére</span>: Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. Schneider</span>: Massenet (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. de Solenière</span>: Massenet (1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Gandolfi</span>: La musica di G. Raff (1904).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER II</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">John Bennett</span>: Russian Melodies (London, 1822).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">César Cui</span>: Historical Sketch of Music in Russia (reprinted -in the Century Library of Music), (New York, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Elson</span>: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edward Evans</span>: Tschaikowsky (1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">James Huneker</span>: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, -1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Montague-Nathan</span>: A History of Russian Music (1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rosa Newmarch</span>: The Russian Opera (New York, 1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rosa Newmarch</span>: Tschaikowsky (London, 1900-1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edward Stillmann-Kelley</span>: Tschaikowsky as a Symphonist -(New York, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Modest Tchaikovsky</span>: Peter Ilyitch Tchaikovsky (2 vols., -Eng. transl. by Rosa Newmarch), (London, 1906).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. D. Bernstein</span>: Anton Rubinstein (Leipzig, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Glinka</span>: Gesammelte Briefe; transl. by Findeisen (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nikolai Kaschkin</span>: Erinnerungen an P. I. Tschaikowsky -(Leipzig, 1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ivan Knorr</span>: Tschaikowsky (Berlin, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. Rimsky-Korsakoff</span>: Musikalische Aufsätze und Skizzen, -German transl. (1869-1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Anton Rubinstein</span>: Erinnerung aus fünfzig Jahren, 1839-1889 -(German transl. by Kretzschmar, 1893).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eugen Zabel</span>: Anton Rubinstein (Leipzig, 1892).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. D. Calvocoressi</span>: Glinka (1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. P. O. Commettant</span>: Musique et musiciens (Paris, 1862).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">César Cui</span>: La Musique en Russe (1882).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Camille Faust</span>: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 -(Paris, 1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alfred Habets</span>: Borodine et Liszt (1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Soubies</span>: Histoire de la musique en Russe (Paris, -1898).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Russian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. Kashkin</span>: Istory russkoi musyki [History of Russian Music], -(Moscow, 1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Ilinsky</span>: Biografii kompositorov (Moscow, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. Maklakoff</span>: O russkoi narodnoi musyki [On Russian National -Music], (Moscow, 1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. A. Rimsky-Korsakoff</span>: Letopis moei musykalnoi zhizni -[The Memoirs of my Musical Life], (St. Petersburg, -1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. A. Rimsky-Korsakoff</span>: Musykalnie statii [Musical Articles], -(St. Petersburg, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">V. Stassov</span>: Alexandre Porf. Borodine (St. Petersburg, 1887).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nikolai Findeisen</span>: Yeshegodnik imperial teatrov, vol. 2, pp. -87-129 (1896-7).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER III</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Elson</span>: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">L. Gilman</span>: Phases of Modern Music (New York, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">James Huneker</span>: Mezzotints in Modern Music (New York, -1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. E. H. Krebhiel</span>: The Pianoforte and its Music (New York, -1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Daniel Gregory Mason</span>: From Grieg to Brahms (1903).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Dagmar Gade</span>: Niels W. Gade (Notes and Letters), (Basle, -1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik Skandinaviens (Leipzig, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die moderne Klaviermusik in Skandinavien. -<em>Die Musik</em>, vol. 14, No. 5, p. 195.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span> (with Schjelderup): Grieg (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Neuskandinavische Musik, eine orientierende -Übersicht (<em>Signale</em>, vol. 61, pp. 124-127, 186-190, Leipzig, -1903).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Cristal</span>: La musique en Suède, en Islande, en Norvège, et -dans le Danemark (Revue internat. de musique, Paris, -1898, pp. 683-694).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">William Ritter</span>: Smetana (Les Maîtres de la musique, Paris, -1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Soubies</span>: Histoire de la musique en Danemark et Suède -(1901).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Soubies</span>: Histoire de la musique en Norvège (1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paul Viardot</span>: Rapport officiel sur la musique en Scandinavie -(1908).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Swedish</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Tobias Norlind</span>: Svensk musikhistoria (1901).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IV</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. T. Finck</span>: Modern Russian School of Composers (Musician, -v. 9, no. 3, pp. 87-9, Boston, 1904).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. E. Krebhiel</span>: Musical Literature. The Russian School and -Its Leaders. A Bibliography (New York, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. E. Krebhiel</span>: Russian Music. Folk Songs of Russia (New -York, 1899).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Peter Kropotkin</span>: Russian Literature (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Montague-Nathan</span>: History of Russian Music (1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rosa Newmarch</span>: The Russian Opera (New York, 1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Alfred Habets</span>: Borodine and Liszt. Transl. by Rosa Newmarch -(London).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. D. Calvocoressi</span>: Moussorgsky (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Comtesse Merci-Argenteau</span>: César Cui (1888).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">N. A. Rimsky-Korsakoff</span>: Chants nationaux Russes (St. -Petersburg, 1876).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Soubies</span>: Histoire de la musique en Russe (1897).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Russian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakoff</span>: Musykalnie statii [Musical Articles], -1869-1907.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER V</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p>Modern Russian Instrumental Music (Musical Standard, v. 18, -no. 465-469, v. 19, no. 470-472).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. Montague-Nathan</span>: History of Russian Music (1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Rosa Newmarch</span>: The Russian Opera (New York, 1914).</p> - -<p>Program Books of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Chicago -Symphony Orchestra, and the Symphony Society of New -York.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner, 1913.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Camille Faust</span>: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 -(Paris, 1914).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Russian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Ilinsky</span>: Biographii Kompositirov (Moscow, 1904).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VI</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. Bantock</span>: One Hundred Folk-Songs of All Nations.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Elson</span>: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Hadow</span>: Studies in Modern Music (London, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philip Hale</span>: Modern Composers and their Works (Boston, -1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. Kaldy</span>: History of Hungarian Music (London, 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">William Ritter</span>: Smetana (1907).</p> - -<p>Program Books of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, Chicago -Symphony Orchestra, and the Symphony Society of New -York.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Richard Batka</span>: Geschichte der Musik in Böhmen (Prague, -1906).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Soubies</span>: Histoire de la musique en Bohème (Paris, -1898).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Soubies</span>: Histoire de la musique en Hongrie (Paris, -1898).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">G. B. Marchesi</span>: La musica boema (Riv. d'Italie, Roma, 1910, -anno 13, v. 2, p. 5-25).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. F. Chorley</span>: Modern German Music (London, 1854).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. Fuller-Maitland</span>: Masters of German Music (London, -1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Newman</span>: Richard Strauss (London, 1908).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Oskar Bie</span>: Die moderne Musik und Richard Strauss (1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Brunner</span>: Anton Bruckner (1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Franz Gräflinger</span>: Anton Bruckner, Bausteine zu seiner -Lebensgeschichte (1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Riemann</span>: Max Reger (in Musiklexikon, ed. of 1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis Rudolph</span>: Die deutsche Musik der Gegenwart (1909).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Louis Rudolph</span>: Anton Bruckner (1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Seidl</span>: Richard Strauss, eine Charakterstudie (1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Steinitzer</span>: Straussiana (1910).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Max Steinitzer</span>: Richard Strauss (1911).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Paul de Stoecklin</span>: Max Reger (Le Courrier musical, April, -1906).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER VIII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">H. T. Finck</span>: Songs and Song Writers (New York, 1900).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">W. H. Hadow</span>: Studies in Modern Music (London, 1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edgar Istel</span>: German Opera since Richard Wagner (in the -<em>Musical Quarterly</em>, April, 1915).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Newman</span>: Richard Strauss (London, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Newman</span>: Hugo Wolf (London, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Felix von Weingartner</span>: Symphony Writers since Beethoven, -Eng. trans. (London, 1907).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Michael Haberlandt</span>: Hugo Wolf, Erinnerungen und Gedanken -(1903).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Leopold Schmidt</span>: Zur Geschichte der Märchenoper (1896).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Leopold Schmidt</span>: Die moderne Musik (1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eugen Schmitz</span>: Hugo Wolf (1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Eugen Schmitz</span>: Richard Strauss als Musikdramatiker (1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Wolf</span>: Musikalische Kritiken, ed. by R. Batka and Heinrich -Werner (1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hugo Wolf</span>: Briefe an Emil Kauffmann (1903), Hugo Faisst -(1904), Oskar Grohe (1905), Paul Müller (Peters Jahrbuch, -1904).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Maurice Kufferath</span>: La Salomé de Richard Strauss (1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Egon Wellesz</span>: Schoenberg et la jeune école Viennoise (S. I. -M., March, 1912).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER IX</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Hervey</span>: Masters of French Music (London, 1894).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Edward Burlingame Hill</span>: Vincent d'Indy: an Estimate (Musical -Quarterly, April, 1915).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Hans M. Schletterer</span>: Studien zur Geschichte der Französischen -Musik (1884).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Camille Faust</span>: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 -(Paris, 1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. Jullien</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui, 2 vols. (1891-92).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Octave Sére</span>: Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Georges Servières</span>: Emanuel Chabrier (1911).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER X</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">M. D. Calvocoressi</span>: Claude Debussy (<em>Musical Times</em>, v. 49, -no. 780, pp. 81-2, London, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Lawrence Gilman</span>: The Music of Claude Debussy (<em>The Musician</em>, -v. 12, no. 10, pp. 480-1), (Boston, 1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">A. de Guichard</span>: Clash between Two Parties in Modern French -School of Music (<em>Musical America</em>, v. 17, July 27, p. 21, -New York, 1912).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Philip Hale</span>: History, criticism and story of L'Enfant prodigue -(v. 29, pp. 368-371, v. 30, Boston, 1909-10).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">E. B. Hill</span>: Rise of Modern French Music (<em>Étude</em>, vol. 32, no. -4, pp. 253-4, no. 5, pp. 489-90).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Daniel Chennevière</span>: Claude Debussy et son œuvre (Paris, -1913).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Romain Rolland</span>: Musiciens d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Octave Sére</span>: Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1911).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTERS XI AND XII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Carlo Edwards</span>: Music in Italy of To-day (<em>Musical America</em>, -Oct., 1914, p. 13-4).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Elson</span>: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">R. Luecchesi</span>: Music in Italy. Impressions after Thirty-two -Years' Absence (<em>Musical Courier</em>, IV, 47, no. 13, pp. -30-31).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Camille Faust</span>: Histoire de la musique européenne, 1850-1914 -(Paris, 1914).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Maurice Touchard</span>: La musique espagnole contemporaine -(Nouvelle Revue, March, 1914).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In Italian</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Giuseppe Albinati</span>: Piccolo Dizionario di Opere Teatrali, -Oratori, Cantate, etc.</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p2">LITERATURE FOR CHAPTER XIII</p> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In English</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. R. St. Bennett</span>: The Life of Sterndale Bennett (London, -1907).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cecil Forsyth</span>: Music and Nationalism (London, 1911).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">F. J. Crowest</span>: Dictionary of British Musicians (London, -1895).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Ernest Newman</span>: Elgar (London, 1906).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. A. F. Maitland</span>: English Music in the Nineteenth Century -(New York, 1902).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Arthur Elson</span>: Modern Composers of Europe (Boston, 1905).</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">J. B. Brown</span> and <span class="smcap">St. Stratton</span>: British Musical Biography -(London, 1897).</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</span></p> - -<p class="center p1"><em>In German</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Walter Niemann</span>: Die Musik seit Richard Wagner (1913).</p> -</div> - - -<p class="center p1"><em>In French</em></p> - -<div class="blockquot1"> - -<p><span class="smcap">Albert Soubies</span>: Histoire de la musique dans les îles britanniques, -2 parts (1904-5).</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX FOR VOLUME I-III</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center"><em>Figures in italics indicate major references</em></p> - - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">A</p> - -<p>Abel, Carl Friedrich, II. 62;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Mozart, II. 102.</span><br /> - -Abert, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Ábrányi, E., III. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -Abt, Franz, III. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> - -Academicism, I. lx.<br /> - -Académie de Musique. See Paris Opéra.<br /> - -Academies. See Verona and Bologna.<br /> - -Accidentals (origin of), I. 156.<br /> - -Accompagnato. See Recitative (accompanied).<br /> - -Accompanied recitative. See Recitative.<br /> - -Accompaniment, I. xx, lii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(instrumental, in polyphonic period), I. 246;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early vocal solos), I. 262;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in madrigals), I. 281;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Italian recitative), I. 332;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th cent.), I. 353f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Italian opera), I. 332f, 342f, 380ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early oratorio), I. 386;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early German opera), I. 424;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Händel oratorio), I. 439;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in sacred music, 18 cent.), I. 453;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 466, 470;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in passion music), I. 480f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Wolf's songs), III. <a href="#Page_261">261</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Strauss' songs), III. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</span><br /> - -Acoustics, I. 105ff.<br /> - -Adam, Adolphe-Charles, II. 211f.<br /> - -Adam de la Halle (or Hâle), I. 211, 213.<br /> - -Adams, Stephen. See Maybrick, M.<br /> - -Addison, Joseph, on Italian opera, I. 431.<br /> - -Æolian mode, I. 137.<br /> - -Æolian school (of Greek composition), I. 115.<br /> - -Æschylus, I. 120, 329;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</span><br /> - -Africa, primitive music in, I. 27ff.<br /> - -Agathon, and early church music, I. 147.<br /> - -Agazzari, I. 379.<br /> - -Agostini, Muzio, III. <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -[d']Agoult, Countess, II. 250.<br /> - -Agricola, II. 31.<br /> - -Aimara Indians, I. 45.<br /> - -Akerberg, Erik, III. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> - -Akimenko, Feodor, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> - -Albéniz, Isaac, III. <a href="#Page_362">362</a>f, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <em><a href="#Page_405">405</a>f</em>.<br /> - -[d']Albert, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <em><a href="#Page_244">244</a></em>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Albert V, Duke of Bavaria, I. 307ff.<br /> - -Alberti, Domenico, II. 55, 56.<br /> - -Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg, II. 63, 138.<br /> - -Alfano, Franco, III. <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <em><a href="#Page_390">390</a></em>.<br /> - -Alfvén, III. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <em><a href="#Page_84">84</a></em>.<br /> - -Alkaios, I. 115.<br /> - -Allan, Maud, III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Allegro (cantabile form of), II. 8.<br /> - -Alleluia, the Hebrew, I. 149.<br /> - -Allemande, I. 371f, 375.<br /> - -Allitsen, Frances, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Alpheraky, A., III. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> - -Amalarius, I. 137f.<br /> - -Amani, A., III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Amati family, I. 362.<br /> - -Ambros, A. W., quoted (on early Italian music), I. 263;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on the frottola and madrigal), I. 271ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on early church music), I. 315.</span><br /> - -Ambrosian hymns, I. 135ff, 142f.<br /> - -America (Tschaikowsky quoted on), III. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(conditions in, for composers, compared to England), III. <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</span><br /> - -Amphion, I. 93f, 111.<br /> - -Anakreon, I. 115f.<br /> - -Ancient Civilized Nations, music of, I. 64ff.<br /> - -Andamanese Islanders, I. 8, 41.<br /> - -Anders, G. E., II. 405.<br /> - -Andersen, Hans Christian, III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> - -Anerio, Felice and Giovanni, I. 321.<br /> - -Anglican Church, III. <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.<br /> - -Animal cries, I. 2, 6.<br /> - -[d']Annunzio, Gabriele, III. <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.<br /> - -Anschütz, Carl, II. 134.<br /> - -Anthem, English, I. 295, 390, 433.<br /> - -Antiphonal psalmody, I. 142f.<br /> - -<em>Antiphonarium Romanum</em>, I. 148.<br /> - -Antiphons, I. 140.<br /> - -Antiphony (in Greek music), I. 161.<br /> - -Apel (author of 'Ghost Tales'), II. 374f.<br /> - -Apollo, I. 122.<br /> - -Appenzelder, Benedictus, I. 297.<br /> - -Arabs (music of), I. 43, 52, 55, 63.<br /> - -Arcadelt, Jacques, I. 273f, 305.<br /> - -Arcadians, I. 95.<br /> - -Archaism, intentional in modern music, III. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> - -Archangelsky, A. A., III. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -Archilei, Vittoria, I. 342.<br /> - -Archilochos (Greek poet), I. 114f.<br /> - -Architecture and music in 18th cent., II. 60.<br /> - -Arensky, Anton Stephanovich, III. <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <em><a href="#Page_146">146</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -[d']Arezzo, Guido. See Guido d'Arezzo.<br /> - -Aria, I. liv;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Italian opera), I. 341, 381f, 385, 393f, 428;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1.0em;">II. 3, 16;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in church music), I. 453;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 476, 480, 491;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 179.</span><br /> - -Aria form, I. 1;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the sonata), II. 54;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven's use in song), II. 278.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Da capo.</span><br /> - -Arion, I. 118.<br /> - -Arioso, II. 26, 431.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Recitative.</span><br /> - -Ariosti (Attilio) and Händel, I. 435.<br /> - -Ariosto, I. 328;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 27.</span><br /> - -Aristides Quintilianus, compiler of musical tables, I. 91.<br /> - -Aristotle, I. 89, 97.<br /> - -Aristoxenus, I. 99, 110.<br /> - -Arius, I. 141.<br /> - -[d']Arneiro, III. <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.<br /> - -Arnaud, Abbé, on Italian opera, II. 179.<br /> - -Arnold, Matthew, quoted, III. <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> - -Arnould, Sophie, II. 33.<br /> - -Ars nova, I. 228ff, 257, 262ff.<br /> - -Arts (plastic) and music, I. 64, 66;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Ital. Renaissance), I. 267f.</span><br /> - -'Art and Revolution,' essay by Wagner, II. 415.<br /> - -Art-song, the (before Schubert), II. 30, 269ff, 278;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert), II. 279ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schumann), II. 280ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(other romanticists), II. 289ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 465;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern development), I. lviii;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(minor Romantics), III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>ff, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Russians), III. <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Scandinavians), III. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bohemians), III. <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern Germans), III. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wolf), III. <a href="#Page_259">259</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern French), III. <a href="#Page_292">292</a>f, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern Italian), III. <a href="#Page_298">298</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(English), III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</span><br /> - -'Art Work of the Future' (The), essay by Wagner, II. 415.<br /> - -Arteaga, on Stamitz, II. 67.<br /> - -Artificial sopranos, I. 426;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 10, 21, 26, 29.</span><br /> - -Artusi, Giovanni Maria, on Monteverdi, I. 337f.<br /> - -Ashantees, I. 29f.<br /> - -Asia. See Oriental music.<br /> - -Asor (Assyrian instrument), I. 65f, 78.<br /> - -Assyria, I. 65ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 79, 83ff.</span><br /> - -Attaignant, Pierre, I. 286.<br /> - -Atmospheric school, III. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>ff.<br /> - -Aubade, I. 207, 218.<br /> - -Auber, Daniel-François-Esprit, II. 210;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Meyerbeer, II. 20.</span><br /> - -Aubert, Louis, III. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Auer (violinist), III. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> - -Augustus the Strong, II. 6, 12, 78.<br /> - -Aulin, Tor, III. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> - -Aulos (Greek wind-instrument), I. 121ff.<br /> - -Aurelian, on early church music, I. 145.<br /> - -Australian aborigines, I. 7, 12;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(dance of), I. 18.</span><br /> - -Austrian National Hymn, II. 91.<br /> - -[d']Auvergne, Peire, I. 211.<br /> - -Aztecs, music of, I. 44f, 52, 53, 55f.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">B</p> - -<p>Babylonians (ancient), I. 64ff, 73, 83.<br /> - -Bach, August Wilhelm, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> -Bach, Bernard, I. 461.<br /> -Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, I. x, 471, 486;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 46, 56, <em>58ff</em>, 139.</span><br /> - -Bach, Johann Christian, II. 61f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Mozart), II. 102.</span><br /> - -Bach, Johann Christoph (uncle of J. S. Bach), I. 455.<br /> - -Bach, Johann Christoph (brother of J. S. Bach), I. 456.<br /> - -Bach, Johann Michael, I. 455.<br /> - -Bach, Johann Sebastian, I. ix, 1, lii, 353, 416, 419, <em>449-491</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(compared with Händel), I. 419f, 445;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(his use of the ternary form), II. 56;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in rel. to the song), II. 273;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern influence), III. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span><br /> - -Bach Society, II. 60.<br /> - -Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann, I. 461, 468, 471, 483f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>II. 60f</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>.</span><br /> - -Backer-Grondahl, Agathe, III. <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> - -Baini (Abbate), quoted, I. 253.<br /> - -Baker, Theodore (quoted), I. 37.<br /> - -Balakireff, III. <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>f, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>ff, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">(and Tchaikovsky), III. 111 (<a href="#Footnote_12">footnote</a>);</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">(and Rimsky-Korsakoff), III. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</span><br /> - -Ballad opera, English, II. 9.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Beggar's Opera.</span><br /> - -Ballard family, I. 287.<br /> - -Ballata, I. 264.<br /> - -Ballet (early Italian <em>intermedii</em>), I. 327;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Italian opera), I. 336, 382;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in French and Italian opera), I. 384f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(source of French opera), I. 402ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Noverre's reforms), II. 13;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 19th-century French opera), II. 389ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in modern music), III. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>f, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</span><br /> - -Ballet-comique de la royne, II. 401ff.<br /> - -Baltasarini, I. 401ff.<br /> - -Bamboo drums, I. 16f.<br /> - -Banchieri, Adriano, I. 279f, <em>281</em>.<br /> - -Bantock, Granville, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<br /> - -Barbier (librettist), II. 205, 241.<br /> - -Barbieri, Mario, III. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br /> - -Bardi, Giovanni, I. 329ff.<br /> - -Barcelona, III. <a href="#Page_404">404</a>f.<br /> - -Barezzi, Margarita, II. 482.<br /> - -Barezzi, patron of Verdi, II. 48.<br /> - -Bargiel, Woldemar, III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> - -Barnett, J. F., III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> - -Barrie, J. M., III. <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br /> - -Barry, Mme. du, II. 33.<br /> - -Bartók, Béla, III. <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> - -Bass. See Figured bass; Ground-bass.<br /> - -Bass clarinet, II. 341.<br /> - -Bass drum, II. 342.<br /> - -Bass voice, Russian, III. <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> - -Bassano, I. 327f.<br /> - -Basso continuo. See Figured bass.<br /> - -Basso ostinato. See Ground-bass.<br /> - -Bassoon, II. 340, 341, 343.<br /> - -Bastille (capture of), II. 213.<br /> - -Batteaux, on relation of arts, II. 24.<br /> - -'Battle of the Huns,' II. 367.<br /> - -'Battle of Vittoria,' II. 352.<br /> - -Batten, Robert, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Baudelaire, II. 418;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</span><br /> - -Bayreuth, II. 423.<br /> - -Bax, A. E. T., III. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Bazzini, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Beaujoyeulx, Baltasar de, I. 401ff.<br /> - -Beaulieu (Sieur de), I. 401ff.<br /> - -Beaumarchais, II. 182.<br /> - -Beccari, I. 328.<br /> - -Becker, Albert, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Becker, Dietrich, I. 373.<br /> - -Bedouins, I. 28.<br /> - -Beecham, Godfrey Thomas, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Beethoven, Ludwig van, I. xv, li, lix, lv, lvi, lviii, 471, 478, 487;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 54f, 115, <em>128ff</em>, 227, 228f, 443, 444, 445;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of), III. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Wagner and Brahms), III. <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</span><br /> - -'Beggar's Opera,' II. 8.<br /> - -Behrens, Johann D., III. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -Belgian school, rise of, I. 234ff.<br /> - -Bell, W. H., III. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Bellini, Vincenzo, II. 195f.<br /> - -Belloc, Teresa, II. 185.<br /> - -Bells, Assyrian, I. 67.<br /> - -Benda, Franz, II. 7, 58.<br /> - -Benda, Georg, II. 58, 168;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span><br /> - -Bendix, Victor, III. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Bendl, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> - -Benelli (manager of King's Theatre, London), II. 184.<br /> - -Bennett, W. Sterndale, II. 263 (footnote), 322, 348f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</span><br /> - -Bentwa (primitive instrument), I. 31f.<br /> - -Berger, Wilhelm, III. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <em><a href="#Page_211">211</a></em>.<br /> - -Berlin (Frederick the Great and his composers), II. 58, 78;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Spontini), II. 198;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Meyerbeer), II. 203;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mendelssohn), II. 261.</span><br /> - -Berlin circle (19th cent.), III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>f.<br /> - -Berlin Conservatory, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> - -Berlin Domchor, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> - -Berlin Hochschule für Musik, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> - -Berlin Neue Akademie für Tonkunst, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> - -Berlin school (18th cent.), II. 51, 57f.<br /> - -Berlin Singakademie, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> - -Berlioz, Hector, I. xvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. <em>253ff</em>, <em>348</em>, <em>352ff</em>, <em>382ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted (on Chinese music), I. 48;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Gluck, II. 29;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on French Revolution, 241.</span><br /> - -Berselli (opera singer), I. 434.<br /> - -Berwald, Franz, III. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br /> - -Bezzi, Giuseppe, III. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Bianchi, Renzo, III. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Bianchini, Guido, III. <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.<br /> - -Bible, cited (on Assyrian music), I. 68;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on musical instruments), I. 70ff.</span><br /> - -'Biblical Sonatas' (Kuhnau), I. 416.<br /> - -Bie, Oskar, quoted, on opera at Stuttgart, II. 13;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Gluck, II. 17;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Kreisleriana, II. 308ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Viennese dilettante music, II. 312f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on effect of Paganini on Liszt, II. 324.</span><br /> - -Bihari, III. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> - -Billroth, [Dr.] Theodor, II. 455.<br /> - -Binary form, I. xxi-f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>II. 55f</em>.</span><br /> - -Binchois, Giles, I. 244.<br /> - -Birds, song of, I. 2, 6, 8.<br /> - -Bis, Hippolyte (librettist), II. 188.<br /> - -Bizet, Georges, II. 53, <em>390ff</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</span><br /> - -Björnsen, III. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> - -Blaramberg, Paul Ivanovich, III. <a href="#Page_135">135</a>f.<br /> - -Blech, Leo, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<br /> - -Bleichmann, J. I., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Bloch, J., III. <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> - -Blodek, Wilhelm, III. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> - -Blumenfeld, F., III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Boccherini, Luigi, II. 67, 68f, 97, <em>70</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Mozart, II. 114.</span><br /> - -Böcklin, Arnold, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> - -Boethius, I. 151.<br /> - -Bohemia, III. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(political aspects), III. <a href="#Page_168"> 168</a>.</span><br /> -<br /> -Bohemian school (modern), III. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>ff.<br /> - -Bohemianism, III. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.<br /> - -Böhm, Georg, I. 451, 457.<br /> - -Boieldieu, François-Adrien, II. 209;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> - -Boïto, Arrigo, III. <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <em><a href="#Page_368">368</a>f</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wagner assisted in Italy by, II. 440;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">friend of Verdi, II. 478;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">librettist for Verdi, II. 493, 500ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>Mefistofele</em> prod. by, II. 503.</span><br /> - -Bologna, Philharmonic Academy of, II. 103.<br /> - -Bonaparte, Jérome, II. 132.<br /> - -Bonaparte, Napoléon. See Napoléon.<br /> - -Bononcini, Giovanni Battista, I. 421, 434ff.<br /> - -Borchmann, A. von, III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Bordes, Charles, III. <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> - -Bordoni, Faustina. See Hasse.<br /> - -Born, Bertrand de, I. 211.<br /> - -Borodine, Alexander, III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <em><a href="#Page_112">112</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Liszt, III. <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Moussorgsky, III. <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</span><br /> - -Börreson, Hakon, III. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Borsdorf, Oskar, III. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Bortniansky, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -Bossi, Marco Enrico, III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Boucheron, Raimondo, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -<em>Bouffes Parisiens</em>, II. 393.<br /> - -Bourgeois, Loys, I. 294.<br /> - -Bourrée, I. 373.<br /> - -Bowdich, T. A., quoted, I. 31, 32.<br /> - -Bowen, York, III. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Bowing, style of, in early violin music, I. 369.<br /> - -Bradsky, Menzel, Theodore, III. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> - -Braganza, Duke of, II. 30.<br /> - -Brahms, Johannes, I. lvii, 478;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 230, 437, <em>443-469</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>f, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>f, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence in Italy), III. <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Bruckner), III. <a href="#Page_220">220</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(as song writer, compared to Wolf), III. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>f.</span><br /> - -Brass instruments, perfection of, II. 117, 340.<br /> - -Braun, Baron von, II. 161.<br /> - -Breitkopf and Härtel (music publishers), II. 139, 146, 147;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> - -Brentano, Bettina, II. 139f, 145.<br /> - -Breton folk-songs, use of, by Ropartz, III. <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> - -Breuning, Stephan von, II. 133, 139, 142, 144.<br /> - -Briard, Étienne, and music printing, I. 286.<br /> - -Bridge, Frederick, III. <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -British folk-song. See Folk-song.<br /> - -Broadwood (pianoforte maker), II. 163.<br /> - -Brockes, B. H., I. 425, 433, 480.<br /> - -Brogi, Renato, III. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Bronsart, Hans von, III. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> - -Bronsart, Ingeborg von, III. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> - -Bruch, Max, III. <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <em><a href="#Page_207">207</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Bruckner, Anton, II. 438;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>f, <em><a href="#Page_219">219</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, III. <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br /> - -Brüll, Ignaz, III. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> - -Bruneau, Alfred, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <em><a href="#Page_342">342</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -Brunswick, Countess von, II. 145.<br /> - -Bücher, Karl, cited, I. 6, 96, 195.<br /> - -Buck, Percy C., III. <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.<br /> - -Budapest, III. <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> - -Bull, John, I. 306.<br /> - -Bull, Ole, III. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> - -Bülow, Cosima von. See Wagner, Cosima, II. 422.<br /> - -Bülow, Hans von, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Wagner, II. 422;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Brahms, II. 455;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Verdi's 'Requiem,' II. 498.</span><br /> - -Bulwer-Lytton (Wagner's adaptation of Rienzi), II. 406.<br /> - -Bungert, August, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Bürger, II. 223.<br /> - -Burma, music in, I. 62.<br /> - -Burney, Charles, quoted, I. 84f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on 17th century opera, I. 377;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on madrigal by Festa, I. 276;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on relation of music to poetry, II. 27;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Viennese musical supremacy, II. 50;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Stamitz, II. 64, 67;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">travels of, II. 76 (footnote);</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of Vienna, II. 80ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Haydn, II. 89.</span><br /> - -Burton, Frederick R., cited, I. 39.<br /> - -Bushmen (Australian), dance of, I. 18.<br /> - -Busnois, Antoine, I. 244, 245.<br /> - -Busoni, Ferrucio, III. <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.<br /> - -Busser, III. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Bussine, Romain, III. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> - -Bustini, Alessandro, III. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Buttykay, A., III. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -Buva (Japanese lute), I. 53.<br /> - -Buxtehude, Dietrich, I. 361, 451, 458, 471, 476.<br /> - -Buzzola, Antonio, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Byrd, William, I. 305ff.<br /> - -Byron, II. 155, 316.<br /> - -Byzantine influence, I. 143, 146.<br /> -</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">C</p> -</div> - -<p>Caccia, I. 264.<br /> - -Caccini, Francesca, I. 378.<br /> - -Caccini, Giulio, I. 329ff, 333ff, 366;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Gluck), II. 26.</span><br /> - -Cadences, I. liv, 229.<br /> - -Cadenza, Rossini's use of, II. 186.<br /> - -Cafaro, Pasquale, I. 400;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 6.</span><br /> - -Caffarelli (sopranist), II. 4.<br /> - -Cagnoni, Antonio, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Caldara, Antonio, I. 479.<br /> - -Calvin, I. 294.<br /> - -Calzabigi, Ranieri di, II. 18f, 26.<br /> - -Cammarano (librettist for Verdi), II. 490.<br /> - -Cambert, Robert, I. 405ff.<br /> - -Cambodia, music of, I. 57f.<br /> - -Cambodian scale, modern use of, III. <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.<br /> - -Camerata, Florentine, I. 329ff.<br /> - -Campion, Thomas, I. 385.<br /> - -Camussi, Ezio, III. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Cannabich, Christian, II. 67.<br /> - -Canon (definition), I. 228;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early English), I. 237f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early use of), I. 242ff, 247ff, 312;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 474;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern 'reincarnation'), III. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> - -Cantata (sacred), I. 302, 387;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(secular), I. 393;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 420;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(dramatic element in), I. 453;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 478, 479, 490;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Porpora), II. 4.</span><br /> - -Cantori a liuto, I. 261, 266, 268.<br /> - -Cantu, Agostino, III. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Cantus firmus (in early church music), I. 312ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 320.</span><br /> - -Canzona, I. 207, 356f, 363ff.<br /> - -Canzona da sonar, II. 54.<br /> - -Canzonetta, II. 69.<br /> - -Capocci, Filippo, III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Caribs, music of, I. 6, 8.<br /> - -Carissimi, Giacomo, I. 386f.<br /> - -Carlyle, II. 213.<br /> - -Carré, II. 205.<br /> - -Carse, A. von Ahn, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Caruso, Enrico, III. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.<br /> - -Cascia, Giovanni da, I. 263, 266.<br /> - -Casella, Alfred, III. <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>.<br /> - -Cassiodorus, cited, I. 135, 148.<br /> - -Castanets, primitive, I. 14.<br /> - -Castes, in relation to Egyptian music, I. 76.<br /> - -Castillon, Alexis de, III. <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <em><a href="#Page_212">212</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Castrati. See Artificial sopranos.<br /> - -Catalani, Angelica, II. 185.<br /> - -Catharine, Empress of Russia, II. 15, 16, 40;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> - -Catoire, George, III. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Cavalieri, Emilio de', I. 328f, 334ff, 385.<br /> - -Cavalli, Francesco, I. 346, 380ff, 407;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Rossini), II. 181.</span><br /> - -Cavedagni (teacher of Rossini), II. 180.<br /> - -Cavos, C, III. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> - -Celestine I, Pope, I. 143.<br /> - -Cello. See Violoncello.<br /> - -Celtic influence on early music, I. 196.<br /> - -Ceremonies (in rel. to Indian music), I. 33;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Oriental music), I. 45, 56;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Hebrew), I. 74f.</span><br /> - -Cesti, Marc'Antonio, I. 382f.<br /> - -Chabrier, Emanuel, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> - -Chamber music, I. xviii, lviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach's period), I. 462ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schobert), II. 68;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Viennese period), II. 96ff, 114f, 165f, 167, 170;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic period), II. 293-333;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern Italian), III. <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern English), III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also String Quartet, etc.</span><br /> - -Chambonnières, Jacques Champion, I. 375.<br /> - -Champfleury, II. 418.<br /> - -Chandos, Duke of, I. 433f.<br /> - -Chanson, of polyphonic period, I. 207, 230f, 245, 254;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(programmistic), I. 276f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 69.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Art Song.</span><br /> - -Chant. See Plain-chant.<br /> - -Chants (Aztec), I. 55;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Japanese), I. 60;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(exotic religious), I. 66f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(kitharœdic), I. 132ff, 138;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early Christian), I. 135ff, 480.</span><br /> - -Chanteurs de Saint Gervaise, III. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> - -Characterization (in opera), II. 123, 377;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 17th cent. harpsichord music), I. 411f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the song), III. <a href="#Page_263">263</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in chamber music), III. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</span><br /> - -Charles VII, Emperor, II. 64.<br /> - -Charles X, King of France, II. 188.<br /> - -Charpentier, Gustave, II. 439;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <em><a href="#Page_348">348</a>ff</em>.</span><br /> - -Charpentier, Marc Antoine, I. 410.<br /> - -Chateaubriand, II. 184.<br /> - -Chausson, Ernest, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.<br /> - -Che (Chinese instrument), I. 53.<br /> - -Cherubini, Luigi, II. 40ff.<br /> - -Chesnikoff, P. G., III. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -Chevillard, Camille, III. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -China, music in, I. 46ff, 56f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(instruments), I. 52ff.</span><br /> - -Chivalry, I. 215.<br /> - -Chivalry (Age of). See Troubadours, Trouvères, Minnesinger.<br /> - -Choirs (early church), I. 140;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Lutheran Church), I. 289, 291f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(antiphonal), I. 299f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(divided, of St. Mark's, Venice), I. 311.</span><br /> - -Choir-training (Bach and), I. 464ff, 470.<br /> - -Chopin, Frédéric, I. xvi, lvi;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>II. 256ff</em>, 291, 305, <em>314ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span><br /> - -Choral Dances, Greek, I. 116, 121.<br /> - -Choral lyricism (Greek), I. 118f.<br /> - -Choral ballad, rise of, III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> - -Choral competitions, III. <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Choral music, I. xlviii.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Chorus; Vocal Music.</span><br /> - -Chorale, Protestant (origin), I. 225, 322, 360, 476;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach's), I. 480ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(relation to song), II. 273, 274;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern 'reincarnation'), III. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> - -Chorale-fantasias (Bach), I. 451, 479.<br /> - -Chorale-prelude (origin), I. 292, 360f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development by Bach), I. 451, 476, 490f.</span><br /> - -Chord progressions (in early Italian music), I. 269f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early choral music), I. 300;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Protestant church music), I. 293;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(vs. old polyphony), I. 322;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early 17th cent. music), I. 352f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Bach's music), I. 476f, 490.</span><br /> - -Chords. See Harmony.<br /> - -Chorley, Henry Fothergill, on Verdi, II. 485.<br /> - -Chorus (in early Italian opera), I. 326, 336, 342, 378, 383f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early oratorios), I. 386f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of Henry Purcell), I. 390;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early French ballet), I. 402f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of Lully), I. 408;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in passion oratorio), I. 425f, 481;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(developed by Händel), I. 438, 441, 447;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of Bach), I. 473, 482;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in symphonic music), II. 171;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>f, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> - -Choruses, primitive, I. 17;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient (Assyrian), I. 68f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 118, 121.</span><br /> - -Christian music, conflict with Pagan, I. 188f.<br /> - -Christianity, music of early era of, I. <em>129ff</em>.<br /> - -Chromaticism, Wagner's use of, II. 433f.<br /> - -'Chromatic school' (16th cent.), I. 301f.<br /> - -Chrysander, Friedrich, quoted on Händel, I. 437, 444.<br /> - -Church, Anglican, III. <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.<br /> - -Church, Greek. See Church, Russian.<br /> - -Church, Lutheran, II. 288ff, 479ff.<br /> - -Church, Roman (suppression of folk-song), I. 202f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in rel. to early 17th cent. music), I. 348ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on early opera and oratorio), I. 378f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Church music; also Mass.</span><br /> - -Church, Russian, III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>f.<br /> - -Church modes. See Modes, ecclesiastical.<br /> - -Church music, I. xii, xlvi, lviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), I. liv;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early), I. 129ff, <em>133ff</em>, 187ff, 192;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development of polyphony), I. <em>226ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(use of secular melodies), I. 283;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Renaissance), I. 296f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Roman, before Palestrina), I. 312f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina period), I. 313ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi), I. 344;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 452ff, 472;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(German Protestant), I. 478ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Russian), III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>f, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Church; Reformation.</span><br /> - -Cicognani, Giuseppe, III. <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.<br /> - -Cilea, Francesco, III. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Cimarosa, Domenico, II. 15.<br /> - -Clarke, Coningsby, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Clarinet, II. 265, 339, 340, 341, 342.<br /> - -Classicism, definitions of, II. 267.<br /> - -Classic Period, foundations of, II. 45ff.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Viennese classics.</span><br /> - -Classicism (definition), II. 45;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern revival of), III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> - -Clavecin. See Harpsichord.<br /> - -Clavicembalo, II. 162.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Harpsichord.</span><br /> - -Clavichord, I. 462, 485;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 162;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(description), II. 294.</span><br /> - -Clavichord music. See Harpsichord music; Pianoforte music.<br /> - -Clavier. See Clavichord; Harpsichord; Pianoforte, etc.<br /> - -Clavier à lumière. See Light keyboard.<br /> - -Clefs, metamorphosis of, I. 155.<br /> - -Clemens, Jacob (Clemens non Papa), I. 304.<br /> - -Clement of Alexandria, quoted, I. 141.<br /> - -Clementi, Muzio, II. 106 (footnote), 163.<br /> - -Coates, Eric, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Coccia, Carlo, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Coda, II. 95.<br /> - -Coffey, Charles, II. 8f.<br /> - -Colbran, Isabella, II. 184f.<br /> - -Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel, III. <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.<br /> - -Collan, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Colonne, Édouard, II. 439.<br /> - -'Color,' (in early church music), I. 296;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early orchestral music), I. 341f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in instrumental works of Haydn and Mozart), II. 118.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Local color; Tone color, orchestral.</span><br /> - -Color symbolism, III. <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.<br /> - -Coloratura, II. 26, 390.<br /> - -Coloristic school (16th cent.), I. 301f.<br /> - -Combarieu, Jules, quoted, I. 410.<br /> - -Combined rhythms, I. xlix.<br /> - -Comedy, Greek, I. 120.<br /> - -Comedy scenes, in early Roman opera, I. 379f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in early Venetian opera, I. 382f.</span><br /> - -Comic Opera. See Opera buffa; Opéra comique; Singspiel; Beggars' opera; Operetta; Musical comedy.<br /> - -Commercialism, I. xxxii.<br /> - -Concert des amateurs, II. 68.<br /> - -Concertino, I. 394, 396, 482.<br /> - -Composition (Schools of). See Schools of Composition.<br /> - -Concerto (in Bach's period), I. 482;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 490.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Pianoforte concerto, Violin concerto.</span><br /> - -Concerto grosso (Corelli), I. 394ff.<br /> - -Concerts du Conservatoire, III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Concerts Populaires, III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Concerts Spirituels, II. 65 (footnote), 68, 104.<br /> - -Conflict of styles (in classic period), II. 62.<br /> - -Congregational singing, in Lutheran Church, I. 289, 291f, 386.<br /> - -Conservatoire de Musique (Paris), II. 42, 44, 254.<br /> - -Conservatoire Populaire de Mimi Pinson, III. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.<br /> - -Conservatories (Berlin), III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Cologne), III. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Leipzig), II. 261; III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Naples), II. 7, 8, 11, 197;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Paris), II. 42, 44, 254.</span><br /> - -Conti, Prince, II. 68.<br /> - -Continuo. See Figured bass.<br /> - -Contrast, I. xxxviii, xlii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in sonata), I. xivf;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(germs of, in primitive music), I. 10;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Palestrina's music), I. 310;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rhythmic, in sonata form), II. 52;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rhythmic, between movements), II. 54f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(intro. of principle in musical form), II. 63ff.</span><br /> - -Conventions (in musical design), I. xxxv, xxxvii. lii.<br /> - -Cook, James, I. 16f, 23.<br /> - -Copenhagen, II. 40;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> - -Coquard, Arthur, II. 471.<br /> - -Corder, Frederic. III. <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br /> - -Corea (musical instruments), I. 53.<br /> - -Corelli, Arcangelo, I. 375, <em>394ff</em>, 452;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 51;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_385">385</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Händel), II. 446;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Bach), II. 472.</span><br /> - -Cornelius, Peter, II. 380f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>f, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</span><br /> - -Cornet à pistons, II. 340, 341.<br /> - -Corroborie dance, I. 13.<br /> - -Corsi, Jacopo, I. 329ff.<br /> - -Cortopassi, Domenico, III. <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.<br /> - -Costa, P. Mario, III. <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.<br /> - -Costumes, in early Italian opera, I. 336.<br /> - -Cotto, Johannes, I. 172f.<br /> - -Council of Trent, I. 312ff.<br /> - -Counterpoint, I. xliii, xlvi, 227;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Italian music), I. 269ff, 282f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(reaction against), I. 311, 330;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 319f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi's violation of rules), I. 338ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of harmony), I. 352ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 111.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Polyphonic style.</span><br /> - -Couperin, François, I. 398, <em>410ff</em>, 485;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 60, 351.</span><br /> - -Courante, I. 371f.<br /> - -Courtney, W. L., III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Coward, Henry, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Cowen, Frederic H., III. <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <em><a href="#Page_418">418</a></em>.<br /> - -Crab canon, I. 248.<br /> - -Cramer, Jean Baptiste, II. 259.<br /> - -Cremona violins, I. 362.<br /> - -Crescendo (intro. by Mannheim school), II. 12, 138;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Jommelli's), II. 65;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini's), II. 181.</span><br /> - -Croatian folk-song, Haydn's use of, II. 98.<br /> - -Croche, Monsieur (pseudonym), III. <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br /> - -Crotola (Egyptian instrument), I. 82.<br /> - -Csermák, III. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> - -Cui, César, III. <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <em><a href="#Page_131">131</a>ff</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Scriabine), III. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br /> - -Cumberland festival (England), III. <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Curschmann, Friedrich, III. <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> - -Cuscina, Alfredo, III. <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.<br /> - -Cuzzoni, Francesca, I. 437.<br /> - -Cycle. See Song Cycle, etc.<br /> - -Cyclic form. See Sonata.<br /> - -Czech music, characteristics of, III. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>ff.<br /> - -Czernohorsky, Bohuslav, II. 19.<br /> - -Czerny, Carl, on Beethoven's playing, II. 162.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">D</p> - -<p><em>Da capo</em> (in aria form), II. 3, 10;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 25;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn), II. 273.</span><br /> - -Dale, B. J., III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Dampers (in the pianoforte), II. 297.<br /> - -Damrosch, Leopold, III. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> - -Dance music, I. xliv, xlvii, xlviii.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Ballet; Suite.</span><br /> - -Dance rhythms, III. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>.<br /> - -Dance song, I. 195f.<br /> - -Dance tunes (as constituents of the suite), I. 369ff.<br /> - -Dancing (primitive), I. 11f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Peruvian), I. 56;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Oriental), I. 57ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian), I. 84;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek choral), I. 116ff, 121;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval), I. 195;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Troubadours), I. 208f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Ballet; also Folk-dances.</span><br /> - -Dannreuther, Edward, III. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quot., II. 170, 174.</span><br /> - -Dante (songs of), I. 260f, 264;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Liszt's dramatic symphony), II. 259f.</span><br /> - -Dargomijsky, Alexander Sergeyevitch, III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_xix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <em><a href="#Page_46">46</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> - -Darwin's theory of the origin of music, I. 4f.<br /> - -Daudet (L'Arlésienne), II. 391.<br /> - -Davey, Henry, III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br /> - -David, Félicien, II. 390;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br /> - -Davies, James A., cited, I. 40.<br /> - -Davies, Walford. III. <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.<br /> - -Day, C. R., cited, I. 49.<br /> - -Debussy, Claude, I. xviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 439;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <em><a href="#Page_318">318</a>ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted on Bruneau), III. <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on modern French music), III. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of), III. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Ravel), III. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> - -Declamation (in French opera), I. 408f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in song), III. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span><br /> - -Dehmel, Richard, III. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.<br /> - -Dehn, Siegfried, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> - -Délibes, Léo, II. 389;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> - -Delius, Frederick, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xix">xix</a>, <em><a href="#Page_424">424</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Denmark (political aspects), III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>ff, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(folk-song), III. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern composers), III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Dent, E. J., III. <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br /> - -Denza, Luigi, III. <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.<br /> - -Derepas, Gustave, quot. on Franck, II. 472.<br /> - -Descant, I. 162, 235, 270.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Polyphony.</span><br /> - -Descriptive color, in early music, I. 276f.<br /> - -Després, or Desprez. See Josquin.<br /> - -Devil dances, I. 58.<br /> - -Diaghileff's Russian ballet, III. <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br /> - -Dialogue, musical. See Recitative.<br /> - -Diaphony, I. 163ff, 237.<br /> - -Diatonic scale (used by Egyptians), I. 86.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Scales.</span><br /> - -Dietrich, Albert, III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quot. on Brahms), II. 451.</span><br /> - -Dietsch, Pierre, III. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br /> - -Dickinson, Edward, quoted on Beethoven, II. 130.<br /> - -Dilettanti, Florentine, I. 329ff.<br /> - -Discant. See Descant.<br /> - -Dithyrambs, I. 119f.<br /> - -Dittersdorf, Carl Ditters von, II. 2, 49, 63, 67, 71, 94, 114.<br /> - -Doles, Johann Friedrich, II. 107.<br /> - -Domchor, Berlin, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> - -Dohnányi, Ernst von, III. <a href="#Page_195">195</a>f.<br /> - -Doni Giovanni Battista, quoted, I. 335.<br /> - -Donizetti, Gaetano, II. 187, <em>192ff</em>.<br /> - -Dorian mode, I. 100, 103, 113, 136.<br /> - -Dorian school (of Greek composition), I. 117.<br /> - -Dostoievsky, III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Double-bass, II. 338.<br /> - -Double-bassoon, I. 446;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 96, 341.</span><br /> - -Double choir. See Choir (divided).<br /> - -Double-stopping, in early violin music, I. 368.<br /> - -Dowland, John, I. 306.<br /> - -Draeseke, Felix, III. <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.<br /> - -Drama (Greek), I. 118ff, 329f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(English, 17th cent.), I. 430;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(German, 18th cent.), II. 80f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Opera; Oratorio.</span><br /> - -Dramatic element (in early madrigals), I. 277f, 281;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in sacred music), I. 321f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 17th cent. opera), I. 380ff, 384f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 18th cent. opera), I. 428;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Händel's operas), I. 429, 435;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early oratorio), I. 386;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in passion oratorio), I. 425, 480.</span><br /> - -Drame lyrique, II. 209f, 390.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Opera, French.</span><br /> - -Dresden (early opera in), I. 384,416;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Hasse's period), II. 5, 78;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 406.</span><br /> - -Drums (primitive), I. 15ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Indian), I. 35;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Aztec), I. 52;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 67;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Hebraic), I. 73f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 265, 341.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Percussion, instruments of.</span><br /> - -Drum-stick, II. 341.<br /> - -<em>Du Schwert an meiner Linken</em>, II. 234.<br /> - -Dubarry, Jeanne. See Barry, Mme. du.<br /> - -Dubois, Théodore, III. <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.<br /> - -Duchesne, cited, I. 146.<br /> - -Ducis, Benedictus, I. 297.<br /> - -Dudevant, Madame. See Sand, George.<br /> - -Dudy (Czech instrument), III. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Duet (in early passion oratorio), I. 425;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Italian opera), I. 427f.</span><br /> - -Dufay, Guillaume, I. 235f, <em>240ff</em>.<br /> - -Dukas, Paul, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <em><a href="#Page_357">357</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -Dulcimer, Assyrian, I. 66.<br /> - -Dumas, Alexandre, <em>fils</em>, (<em>Dame aux Camélias</em>), II. 492.<br /> - -Dumka (Czech dance), III. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Dunhill, T. F., III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Duni, E. R., II. 24, 122.<br /> - -Dunstable, John, I. 236, 239ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</span><br /> - -Duparc, Henri, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <em><a href="#Page_311">311</a></em>.<br /> - -Duple rhythm (in early church music), I. 229.<br /> - -Durante, Francesco, I. 400f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 8, 11, 14.</span><br /> - -Durazza, II. 31.<br /> - -Durchkomponiertes Lied, II. 274, 280.<br /> - -Dürnitz, Count von, II. 114.<br /> - -Dussek, J. L., II. 90;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br /> - -Dvořák, Antonín, II. 455;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, -<em><a href="#Page_175">175</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of), III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence in England), III. <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</span></p> - - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">E</p> - -<p>Ecclesiastical modes. See Modes, ecclesiastical.<br /> - -Ecclesiastical music. See Church music.<br /> - -Eckhardt, J. Gottfried, II. 67, 102.<br /> - -Eclecticism, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_xxii">xxii</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in France), III. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Russia), III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>ff.</span><br /> - -École de musique réligieuse, III. <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br /> - -Egypt, music in, I. 65, 76ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Greece), I. 86;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(compared to Assyrian), I. 78, 82ff.</span><br /> - -Egyptian Flutes, I. 26.<br /> - -Ehlert, Louis, III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> - -Eist, Diet von, I. 218.<br /> - -Elgar, [Sir] Edward, II. 440;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, -<a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <em><a href="#Page_419">419</a></em>.</span><br /> - -Elling, Cath., III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> - -Eloy, I. 244.<br /> - -El'ud (Arabian instrument), I. 54.<br /> - -Emotion, I. xxxiv, xliv, li, ixi;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(primitive, as the cause of music), I. 5;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(musical expression of, by Monteverdi), I. 345.</span><br /> - -Empiricists (school of Greek composition), I. 109.<br /> - -Engel, Carl, quoted, I. 13, 16, 70, 80.<br /> - -England (folk-song), I. xliii; III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(minstrelsy), I. 200f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(polyphonic period), I. 237ff, 257;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Reformation), I. 295;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th-17th cent.), I. 305f, 369ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th cent. masque and opera), I. 385;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Purcell's period), I. 388ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), I. 430ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>ff.</span><br /> - -English horn, II. 341.<br /> - -English language (use of, in opera), I. 438.<br /> - -English Musical Renaissance (The), III. <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-444.<br /> - -English oratorio. See Oratorio (Händel).<br /> - -'English suites,' of Bach, I. 490.<br /> - -Enna, August, III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>f.</p> - -<p>Ensemble, operatic, II. 10;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development by Mozart), II. 179.</span></p> - -<p>Epic, mediæval, I. 168ff, 190ff.<br /> - -Ephorus, cited, I. 95.<br /> - -Epringerie, I. 208.<br /> - -Equal temperament, I. 483, 485ff.<br /> - -Equilibrium (in art), I. xxxv.<br /> - -Érard, Sébastien, II. 163, 198.<br /> - -Erkel, Franz, III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> - -Ernst, Wilhelm, I. 460.<br /> - -Eskimos, I. 11.<br /> - -Esposito, E., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Estampida, I. 208f.<br /> - -Esterhazy, Princes Anton and Nicolaus, II. 87.<br /> - -Etruscans, I. 131.<br /> - -Eumolpos, I. 111.<br /> - -Euripides, I. 120.<br /> - -Eusebius, bishop of Cesarea, I. 139f.<br /> - -Exotic music, I. 42-63.<br /> - -Exoticism, in modern music, II. 42f, 389f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> - -Expression (vs. organization), I. xxxiv;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early church music), I. 242;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in polyphonic period), I. 245.</span><br /> - -Expressive style, in early Italian opera, I. 330ff, 335.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">F</p> - -<p>Fabo, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Fagge, Arthur, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Fanelli, Ernest, III. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> - -Farinelli, I. 436f, 398;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 4, 185.</span><br /> - -Farkas, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Fasch, Johann Friedrich, II. 7, 8, 52, 56.<br /> - -Fauré, Gabriel, III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, -<a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <em><a href="#Page_291">291</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of), III. <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> - -Faustina. See Hasse, Faustina.<br /> - -Faux-bourdon, I. 235, 266.<br /> - -Favart, II. 24, 31.<br /> - -Feo, Francesco, I. 400f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 6, 8, 11.</span><br /> - -Feodor, Czar, III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> - -Ferdinand, King of Naples and Sicily, II. 15, 197.<br /> - -Ferrara (opera in), I. 327, 328.<br /> - -Ferrata, Giuseppe, III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.<br /> - -Festa, Constanzo, works of, I. 273ff, 303f.<br /> - -Festivals. See Music festivals.<br /> - -Fétis, F. J., cited, I. 86f, 263.<br /> - -Fibich, Zdenko, III. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>ff.<br /> - -Field, John, II. 258.<br /> - -Fielitz, Alexander von, III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> - -Figuration (in Chopin's music), II. 321.<br /> - -Figured Bass (origin), I. 353ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early violin music), I. 368;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Corelli), I. 375;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in monody), II. 51;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Stamitz), II. 12, 65ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn), II. 95.</span><br /> - -Filtz, Anton, II. 67.<br /> - -Finale (operatic), II. 10, 179;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(sonata), II. 54.</span><br /> - -Finck, Heinrich, I. 304.<br /> - -Fingering. See Keyboard Instruments.<br /> - -Finland (political aspects), III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(folk-music), III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern composers), I. 100ff.</span><br /> - -Flat (origin of), I. 156.<br /> - -Flemish school, rise of, I. 234.<br /> - -Floridia, Pietro, III. <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> - -Florence (ars nova), I. 230, 263ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(national festival), I. 324f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early opera), I. 326, 330ff, 379.</span><br /> - -Florentine camerata, I. 329ff.<br /> - -Florimo, Franc., quoted, II. 16.<br /> - -Flotow, Friedrich von, II. 380.<br /> - -Flute (in early Germany), I. 198;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Italian opera), I. 333;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Händel's orchestra), I. 424;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 117, 265, 335, 337ff, 341.</span><br /> - -Flutes, primitive, I. 22ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Indian), I. 36;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exotic, I. 54;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Mohammedan funeral services), I. 62;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient (Egyptian), I. 80f, 84</span><br />; -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 121ff.</span><br /> - -Flutists (Greek), I. 112.<br /> - -Foerster, Christoph, II. 7.<br /> - -Fokine, M., III. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.<br /> - -Folk-dances, III. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bohemian), III. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Dancing.</span><br /> - -Folk-lore, II. 223.<br /> - -Folk-music, I. xli, xlii-ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Swedish), III. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Italian), III. <a href="#Page_390">390</a>f, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(negro), III. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Spanish), III. <a href="#Page_404">404</a>f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Folk-songs; Primitive music; Exotic music.</span><br /> - -Folk-poetry, III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> - -Folk-songs, I. xxxviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Middle Ages) <em>I. 186ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(definition), I. 191ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early French), I. 192ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early German, etc.), I. 195ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early English), I. 237f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(used in the Mass), I. 242;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn's use of), II. 98;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert's use of), II. 273;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Smetana's use of), III. <a href="#Page_171">171</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in rel. to art-song), II. 274;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(general), III. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Danish), III. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Norwegian), III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Finnish), III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Grieg's use of), III. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Swedish), III. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Russian), III. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bohemian), III. <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Magyar), III. <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Hungarian), III. <a href="#Page_198">198</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Breton), III. <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Italian), III. <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(British), III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>f, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Irish), III. <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</span><br /> - -Follino, quoted, I. 343.<br /> - -Fontana, Giovanni Battista, I. 368.<br /> - -Ford, Ernest, III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br /> - -Forkel, Nikolaus (opposition to Gluck), II. 31.<br /> - -Form, I. xxiv-ff, xxxviii, lviii, 264, 350-376, 450;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 53ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(conflict with matter), III. <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Aria, Canzona; Sonata; Song form; Symphonic form, etc.</span><br /> - -Fortunatus, I. 136f.<br /> - -Four-movement form. See Symphonic form.<br /> - -France (folk-song), I. xliii, xliv, 191ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(primitive instruments), I. 24f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval minstrelsy), I. 202ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Troubadours, etc.), I. 204ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(polyphonic period), I. 228ff, 242f, 266;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Reformation), I. 294;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th cent. harpsichord music), I. 374ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th century opera and ballet), I. 384, 401ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(opera after Lully), I. 413f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), II. 23;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early 19th cent.), II. 199ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic period), II. 241f, 253ff, 350ff, 385ff, 469ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>ff, -<a href="#Page_317">317-365</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern, influence on Spain), III. <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</span><br /> - -Franchetti, Alberto, III. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> - -Francis I of Austria, II. 27.<br /> - -Francis II of Austria, II. 91.<br /> - -Franck, César, I. 478;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 439, <em>469ff</em>, 471f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, -<a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(the followers of), III. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(pupils of, enumerated by d'Indy), III. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of), III. <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Debussy), III. <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span><br /> - -Francke, Kuno, quoted, II. 48.<br /> - -Franco-Prussian war, III. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.<br /> - -Franz, Robert, II. 289ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span><br /> - -Frauenlob (minnesinger), I. 220, 222.<br /> - -Frederick the Great, I. 468f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 31, 48, 50, 58, 70, 78, 107, 204, 277.</span><br /> - -Frederick William III of Prussia, II. 198.<br /> - -Frederick William IV of Prussia, II. 261.<br /> - -Fredkulla, M. A., III. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -Freemasons, II. 76.<br /> - -<em>Freischützbuch</em> (<em>Das</em>), II. 375.<br /> - -French Revolution. See Revolutions (French).<br /> - -French schools, etc. See France.<br /> - -Frescobaldi, Girolamo, I. 358ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</span><br /> - -Friskin, James, III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Froberger, John Jacob, I. 359f, 376.<br /> - -Frontini, III. <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Frottola (the), I. 271, 326.<br /> - -Fugue, I. xiii, xxxix, xli, lii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Dufay), I. 236;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Sweelinck), I. 359;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(before Bach), I. 451, 476;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 469, 473ff, 487, 489ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(after Bach), I. 478;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> - -Fulda, Adam von, I. 304.<br /> - -Fuller, Loie, III. <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.<br /> - -Fuller-Maitland. See Maitland, J. A. Fuller.<br /> - -Fumagalli, Polibio, III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Fürnberg (von), II. 86.<br /> - -Furiant (Czech dance), III. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Futurists, Italian, III. <a href="#Page_392">392</a>f.<br /> - -Fux, Johann Joseph, I. 416;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 62.</span><br /> - -Fyffe, quoted, II. 232, 237ff.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">G</p> - -<p>Gabrieli, Andrea, I. 330, 356.<br /> - -Gabrieli, Giovanni, I. 356.<br /> - -Gade, Niels W., II. 263, 347;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span><br /> - -Gagliano, Marco da, I. 335, 378;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted), I. 333.</span><br /> - -Galeotti, Cesare, III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Galilei, Vincenzo, I. 329f.<br /> - -Galliard (the), I. 371f, 375.<br /> - -Gallo-Belgian school, I. 234ff.<br /> - -Galuppi, Baldassare, II. 15, 179.<br /> - -Garcia, Manuel, II. 185.<br /> - -Gardiner, Balfour, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Garibaldi Hymn, II. 504.<br /> - -Gassmann, F. L., II. 62.<br /> - -Gaultier, Denys, I. 374f.<br /> - -Gavotte (the), I. 372.<br /> - -<em>Gazette Musicale de Paris</em>, II. 247.<br /> - -Geisha dance, I. 58f.<br /> - -<em>Geistliche Lieder</em> (Bach), II. 273.<br /> - -Gelinek, Joseph, II. 161f.<br /> - -Gellert, II. 49, 275.<br /> - -Geminiani, Francesco, II. 51.<br /> - -Generative theme, III. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> - -'Genre,' musical. See Miniature.<br /> - -Genre symphony, III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> - -George IV of England, II. 184.<br /> - -Gerbert, Martin, I. 142;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 67.</span><br /> - -German, Edward, III. <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <em><a href="#Page_426">426</a></em>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br /> - -German influence (on Jommelli), II. 12;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in English music), III. <a href="#Page_413">413</a>f.</span><br /> - -'German Requiem' (Brahms), II. 455.<br /> - -Germany (folk-song), I. xliii, 195ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval minstrelsy), I. 200ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(minnesingers), I. 214ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Reformation), I. 288ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(15th-16th cent.), I. 304f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(organ music, 16th-17th cent.), I. 359ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(instrumental music, 17th cent.), I. 371ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(harpsichord music, 17th cent.), I. 374ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(opera, oratorio, etc., 17th cent.), I. 384, 387;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(later 17th cent.), I. 414ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(opera, 18th cent.), I. 421ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 448ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(reaction against Italian opera), II. 9;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(supremacy over Italy), II. 46;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th century, social and religious aspects), II. 48ff, 76ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early classic period), II. 50ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Viennese period), II. 75ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 128ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic movement), II. 213ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(19th cent. national reawakening), II. 231ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(devel. of the <em>lied</em>), II. 269ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(pianoforte music, 19th cent.), II. 299ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic chamber music), II. 328;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic orchestral music), II. 343ff, 361ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic opera), II. 372ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(choral music of Rom. period), II. 394ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 401ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(neo-Romanticism), II. 443ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern symphonists), III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern opera), III. <a href="#Page_238">238</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern song), III. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(the ultra-moderns), III. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Gernsheim, Friedrich, III. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>f.<br /> - -Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, II. 134.<br /> - -Gesualdo, Carlo, I. 276.<br /> - -Gevaert, F. A., quoted, I. 131, 135, 140, 144, 146f.<br /> - -Gewandhaus (Leipzig), II. 261;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> - -Giammaria (lutenist), I. 328.<br /> - -Gibbons, Orlando, I. xlvii, 306.<br /> - -Gigue (the), I. 371f, 375.<br /> - -Gilman, Benjamin Ives, cited, I. 14, 40.<br /> - -Gill, Allen, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Giordano, Umberto, III. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.<br /> - -Giorgione, I. 327.<br /> - -Gipsies. See Gypsies.<br /> - -Glazounoff, Alexander Constantinovitch, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, -<a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a>, <em><a href="#Page_137">137</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -Glière, Reinhold, III. <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>f.<br /> - -Glinka, III. <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <em><a href="#Page_42">42</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> - -Gluck, Christoph Willibald, II. 8, <em>17ff</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted), II. 208.</span><br /> - -Gnecchi, Vittorio, III. <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.<br /> - -Gobbi, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Godard, Benjamin, III. <a href="#Page_35">35</a>f, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> - -Goethe, II. 49, 134, 140, 223, 232, 283;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span><br /> - -Goetz. See Götz.<br /> - -Gogol, III. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> - -Golden Spur, Order of, II. 23, 71, 103.<br /> - -Goldicke, A., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Goldmark, Karl, II. 455;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <em><a href="#Page_241">241</a>f</em>.</span><br /> - -Goldschmidt, Adalbert, III. <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.<br /> - -Golpin, F. W., III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br /> - -Gombert, Nicolas, I. 296f.<br /> - -Gomez, Carlo, III. <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.<br /> - -Goodhart, A. M., III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Goosens, Eugène, Jr., III. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Gossec, François Joseph, II. 41, 65, <em>68</em>, 106.<br /> - -Götz, Hermann, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <em><a href="#Page_245">245</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Goudimel, Claude, I. 294f.<br /> - -Gounod, Charles, II. 207, <em>386ff</em>, 438;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> - -Goura (African instrument), I. 28.<br /> - -Grädener, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> - -Granados, Enrico, III. <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.<br /> - -Grandmougin, Charles, III. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Grammann, III. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> - -Graun, Joh. Gottlieb, II. 58.<br /> - -Graun, Karl Heinrich, I. 416;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 58.</span><br /> - -Gray, Alan, III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Greco, II. 8.<br /> - -Greece (Ancient), music of, I. 84ff, <em>88-127</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Roman and early Christian music), I. 131ff, 136, 138, 151ff, 160, 165;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence in Italian renaissance), I. 329, 330, 332, 346.</span><br /> - -Greek modes and scales. See Modes, Scales, Tetrachords.<br /> - -Greene, Maurice, I. 432.<br /> - -Greene, Plunket, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Gregorian tones. See Plain-song.<br /> - -Gregorian tradition, I. 145f.<br /> - -Gregory I, Pope, I. 144ff, 151, 156.<br /> - -Grell, Eduard August, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> - -Gretchaninoff, Alexander, III. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <em><a href="#Page_144">144</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Grétry, André E. M., II. 25, 41, 106.<br /> - -Griboiedoff, III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Grieg, Edvard, II. 440;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, -<a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, -<em><a href="#Page_89">89</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted on Hartmann), III. <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of), III. <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span><br /> - -Grillo, Giovanni Battista, I. 364f.<br /> - -Grillparzer, II. 134;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> - -Grimm, [Baron] Melchior, II. 24, 31, 102 (footnote).<br /> - -Grimaldi, Niccolini, I. 432.<br /> - -Grisar, Albert, II. 211.<br /> - -Grisi, Giulia, II. 193.<br /> - -Ground-bass, I. 367.<br /> - -Grove, [Sir] George (citations, etc.), I. 313;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 143, 150, 157, 162, 166, 168f, 344.</span><br /> - -Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br /> - -Grovlez, Gabriel, III. <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -Guarneri family, I. 362.<br /> - -Guecco, II. 187.<br /> - -<em>Guerre des bouffons</em>, I. 414f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 24, 35.</span><br /> - -Guglielmi, Pietro, II. 14.<br /> - -Guicciardi, [Countess] Giulia, II. 141, 145.<br /> - -Guidicioni, Laura, I. 328.<br /> - -Guido d'Arezzo, I. 167ff.<br /> - -Guidonian Hand, I. 171.<br /> - -Guillaume (the troubadour), I. 205.<br /> - -Guilmant, Alexandre, III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> - -Gui, Vittorio, III. <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.<br /> - -Guy, Abbott of Chalis, I. 174f.<br /> - -Gypsies, II. 250, 322;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span></p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">H</p> - -<p>Haarklou, Johannes, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> - -Hadow, W. H., II. 98;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted (on Paësiello), II. 15;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Sarti), II. 40;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Bach's influence), II. 59;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on musical patronage), II. 88;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Mozart's 'Paris symphony'), II. 104;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on development of art forms), II. 110;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on difference betw. Haydn and Mozart), II. 112;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Mozart's concertos), II. 115;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Schubert), II. 227.</span><br /> - -Hägg, J. Adolph, III. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> - -Häle, Adam de la. See Adam.<br /> - -Halévy, Jacques Fromental E., II. 207.<br /> - -Halévy, Ludovic, II. 393.<br /> - -Halle a.d. Saale, I. 360, 419ff, 422f, 463;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 289.</span><br /> - -Hallé, Sir Charles, III. <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.<br /> - -Hallén, Andreas, III. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>f.<br /> - -Halsley, Ernest, III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Hallström, Ivan, III. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> - -Halvorsen, Johann, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> - -Hamburg (17th century opera), I. 384, 414f, 422ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 454.</span><br /> - -Hamerik, Asger, III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <em><a href="#Page_74">74</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Hammer-clavier. See Pianoforte.<br /> - -Hammerschmidt, Andreas, I. 387.<br /> - -Han, Ulrich, I. 285.<br /> - -Hand-Clapping, I. 14, 69, 83.<br /> - -Händel, George Frederick, I. 387, 393f, 397, 416f, <em>418ff</em>, 463;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 8, 56;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</span><br /> - -Hanslick, Eduard, II. 436;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted, on Grieg), II. 440.</span><br /> - -Harmonic alteration of melodies, I. xlix.<br /> - -Harmonic style, I. xlvii.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Monody.</span><br /> - -Harmony, I. xxxix, xl, xlix, l, 43;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(traces of, in primitive music), I. 16, 18ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Oriental meaning of the term), I. 48;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(supposed traces of, in ancient music), I. 69, 88, 97;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek use of the term), I. 90;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(harmonic foundation of early folk-songs), I. 198;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval beginnings) <em>I. 160ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(13th cent. example), I. 237;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(15th cent.), I. 269ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th cent.), I. 293f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(musica ficta), I. 301f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 320, 322;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi, chromaticism), I. 341;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development in 17th cent.), I. 352ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(German and English instrumentalists), I. 371f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Purcell), I. 389;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(A. Scarlatti), I. 393;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lully), I. 409;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rameau), I. 414;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 441;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 475ff, 487, 489ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on form), I. 51ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn and Mozart), II. 111f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), I. 167;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert), I. 227;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schumann), II. 285, 286, 307;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of the pianoforte), II. 298;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 320f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Liszt), II. 324f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 433ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 463;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Franck), II. 471;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern innovations), III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>ff, -<a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>f, -<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</span><br /> - -Harps (African), I. 29;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 66;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian), I. 78ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 85, 125;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 341.</span><br /> - -Harpsichord (or clavier, in early opera), I. 333;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the operatic orchestra), I. 424;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(as <em>basso continuo</em>), I. 354;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(description), II. 60, 373ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 294.</span><br /> - -Harpsichord music (early English), I. 306, 369;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chambonnières), I. 375;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Froberger), I. 376;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Purcell), I. 390;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Domenico Scarlatti), I. 398f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Couperin), I. 411f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 445;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 471f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Pianoforte music.</span><br /> - -Harpsichord playing, I. 375;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(J. S. Bach's), I. 461, 489;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(improved systems of fingering), I. 484ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(C. P. E. Bach's), II. 59.</span><br /> - -Hartmann, Georges, III. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.<br /> - -Hartmann, J. P. E., II. 347;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_71">71</a>f, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br /> - -Hasse, Faustina (Bordoni), I. 416, 437;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 5ff.</span><br /> - -Hasse, Joh. Adolph, I. 416, 427;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>II. 5ff</em>, 31.</span><br /> - -Hauschka (author of Austrian national hymn), II. 91.<br /> - -Hausegger, Siegmund von, III. <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.<br /> - -Hawaiian Islands, I. 22f.<br /> - -Hawley, Stanley, III. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Haydn, Joseph, II. 49 (footnote), 55, 57, 68f, <em>83ff</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Mozart), II. 105ff, 114, 115, 116;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Beethoven), II. 138;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(as song composer), II. 273.</span><br /> - -Haydn, Michael, II. 73ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Mozart), II. 102.</span><br /> - -Health, in relation to music, I. 90ff.<br /> - -Hebbel, II. 380.<br /> - -Hebrews (ancient), I. 70ff.<br /> - -Heidegger, I. 437.<br /> - -Heiligenstadt testament (Beethoven's), II. 136, 158, 159, (illus. facing p. 158).<br /> - -Heine, Heinrich, II. 224, 249, 288f.<br /> - -Heinrich von Meissen. See Frauenlob.<br /> - -Heise, Peter A., III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> - -Helen, Grand Duchess of Russia, III. <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> - -Helgaire, quoted, I. 189.<br /> - -Heller, André, III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Heller, Stephen, II. 322;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br /> - -Hemiolia, II. 461.<br /> - -Henderson, W. J., quoted, I. 326;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 276, 282.</span><br /> - -Henschel, Georg, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Henselt, Adolf, II. 322;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br /> - -Heptatonic scale, I. 46ff.<br /> - -Herbeck, Johann, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Herder, III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> - -Hérold, L. J. F., II. 207, 211.<br /> - -Herz, Henri, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> - -Hertzen, III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Herzogenberg, Heinrich von, III. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <em><a href="#Page_210">210</a></em>.<br /> - -Hesiod, I. 92.<br /> - -Hexachordal system, I. 167ff.<br /> - -Heyden, Sebald, cited, I. 240.<br /> - -Hierocles, quoted, I. 90, 109.<br /> - -Hilarius, I. 142.<br /> - -Hildburghausen, Prince Joseph of, II. 71 (footnote).<br /> - -Hill, Aaron, I. 431, 438f.<br /> - -Hiller, Ferdinand, II. 263 (footnote);<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>III. <a href="#Page_9">9</a></em>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</span><br /> - -Hiller, Johann Adam, II. 8, 191.<br /> - -Himmel, Friedrich Heinrich, II. 152, 162.<br /> - -Hindoos, I. 47ff, 59ff.<br /> - -Hinton, Arthur, III. <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br /> - -History. See Musical History.<br /> - -Hobrecht, Jacob, I. 248, 251.<br /> - -Hoffmann, E. T. A., II. 308ff, 379.<br /> - -Hoffmann, Leopold, II. 63.<br /> - -Hoffmeister (publisher), II. 109.<br /> - -Hofmann, Heinrich, III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Holbrooke, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, -<a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.<br /> - -Holmès, Augusta, III. <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.<br /> - -Holstein, Franz von, III. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> - -Holtzbauer, Ignaz, II. 67.<br /> - -Homer, I. 92.<br /> - -Homophonic style, I. xiii. See also Monody.<br /> - -Homophony (in Greek music), I. 161;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and monody), I. 259.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Monody.</span><br /> - -Honauer, Leonti, II. 102.<br /> - -Hopi Indians, I. 38f.<br /> - -Horns (primitive), I. 21;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in mediæval Germany), I. 198, 218;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the classic orchestra), II. 65, 117, 335;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the Romantic period), II. 337ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 117, 265, 335, 337, 338, 340, 341;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(valve-horn), II. 340.</span><br /> - -Hřimaly, Adalbert, III. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> - -Hubay, Jenő, III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <em><a href="#Page_194">194</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Huber, Hans, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Hucbald, I. 162ff.<br /> - -Hughes, Rupert (quot.), II. 331.<br /> - -Hugo, Victor, II. 244, 486.<br /> - -Hullah, John (quoted), I. 256.<br /> - -Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, II. 259, 321.<br /> - -Humor (in early polyphonic music), I. 254;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in opera), see Opera buffa.</span><br /> - -Humperdinck, Engelbert, II. 437;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, -<a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <em><a href="#Page_247">247</a></em>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>f.</span><br /> - -Humfrey, Pelham, I. 385.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p>Huneker, James (quot.), II. 501.</p> -</div> - -<p>Hungary,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(folk-song), I. xliii-f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(political aspects), III. <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early musical history), III. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern composers), III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ultra-moderns), III. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span><br /> - - -Hunold, C. F. See Menantes.<br /> - -Hunting bow, I. 28.<br /> - -Hurlstone, William Young, III. <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.<br /> - -Hüttenbrenner, Anselm, II. 133.<br /> - -Hyagnis, I. 112.<br /> - -Hymns (early Christian), I. 135ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early Protestant), I. 289ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in passion music), I. 480f.</span></p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">I</p> - -<p>Iadmirault, III. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Iastian mode, I. 136.<br /> - -Ibsen, III. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> - -Ibykos, I. 115f.<br /> - -Idolatry (in relation to ancient music), I. 70, 77.<br /> - -Illuminati, II. 76.<br /> - -Iljinsky, Alexander A., III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Imitation (Greek meaning of term), I. 89;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in hexachordal system), I. 169;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(free and strict, definition), I. 227f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early polyphonic music), I. 231f, 243;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early English example), I. 237ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in madrigals), I. 276.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Canon; Counterpoint; Fugue.</span><br /> - -Imitation of nature. See Program music.<br /> - -Imperfections (in art), I. xxx-f.<br /> - -Imperial Musical Society (Russian), III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> - -Impressionism (suggestions of, in Liszt), II. 325;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Norwegian folk-music), III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Grieg), III. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Sinding), III. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Moussorgsky), III. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Reger), III. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French school) <em>III. <a href="#Page_317">317</a>ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in modern piano music), III. <a href="#Page_326">326</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and realism), III. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Eric Satie), III. <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Leo Ornstein), III. <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Albéniz), III. <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</span><br /> - -Indians, American, I. 13, 33ff.<br /> - -[d']Indy, Vincent, II. 439;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, -<a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, -<a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <em><a href="#Page_296">296</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span><br /> - -Ingegneri, Marc' Antonio, I. 337.<br /> - -Instrumental music, I. xliii, xlvii, xlviii, lviii, 305, 306;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development in early 17th cent.), I. <em>355ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Purcell), I. 390f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 452;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lully, Rameau, Couperin), I. 409f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Accompaniments (instrumental); Chamber music; Harpsichord music; Pianoforte music; Orchestral music; Sonata; String quartet; Violin music, etc.</span><br /> - -Instrumentation, I. liii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(abuse of special effect), I. xxii, lv;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi), I. 337;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(tone-color), I. 481;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 12, 118, 266.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Orchestration.</span><br /> - -Instruments (primitive), I. 14f, 20ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chinese), I. 48;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Hindoo), I. 49;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(miscell. Exotic), I. 52ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 65ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Hebrew), I. 70ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian), I. 78ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 84f, 122ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval), I. 198, 211, 218;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Renaissance), I. 261ff, 281;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(perfection of modern), II. 335ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Orchestra, Orchestration; String instruments; Wind instruments, and specific names of instruments.</span><br /> - -Instruments of Percussion. See Drums.<br /> - -Intermedii (Renaissance), I. 326.<br /> - -Intermezzi. See Opera buffa.<br /> - -Intervals (in primitive music), I. 7, 34, 40f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the sounds of nature), I. 8;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Greek music), I. 99, 101ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in plain-song), I. 154;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Italian ars nova), I. 264.</span><br /> - -Inverted canon, I. 248.<br /> - -Ippolitoff-Ivanoff, M. M., III. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> - -Ireland (folk-song), I. xliii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</span><br /> - -Ireland, J. N., III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Isaac, Heinrich, I. 269, 304f.<br /> - -Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, II. 496.<br /> - -Isouard, Niccolò, II. 183.<br /> - -Italian influence (on early Lutheran music), I. 243;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on German organ music), I. 358ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 17th cent.), I. 389, 451, 454f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Händel), I. 427;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Bach), I. 471, 476, 479, 489, 490;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Gluck), II. 17;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on J. C. Bach), II. 61;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 18th cent. Vienna), II. 80;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Mozart), II. 102, 105, 121f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Meyerbeer), II. 199f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Wagner), II. 404, 407.</span><br /> - -Italian opera. See Opera (Italian).<br /> - -Italian Renaissance. See Renaissance (the).<br /> - -Italy (Renaissance), I. 258ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ars nova), I. 262ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(15th cent.), I. 266ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(madrigal era), I. 272ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Venetian school), I. 298;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 311ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Florentine monodists), I. 324ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi), I. 336ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early organ music), I. 358ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early violin music), I. 361ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(harpsichord music), I. 374;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th cent. opera), I. 380ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(oratorio), I. 386f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th cent. instrumentalists), I. 391ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early 18th cent.), I. 426ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(later 18th cent.), II. 1ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(political aspects), II. 47;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(sonata form), II. 52f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Boccherini), II. 70;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early 19th cent.), II. 177ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern opera), III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern renaissance of instr. music), III. <a href="#Page_385">385</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern song writers), III. <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(folk-song), III. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Opera; also Renaissance.</span></p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">J</p> - -<p>Jadassohn, Salomon, III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> - -Jahn, O. (quot.), II. 111, 115.<br /> - -Jannequin, Clement, I. 276f, 306;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 351;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> - -Japan, I. 47, 58f.<br /> - -Japanese 'color,' III. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -Japanese instruments, I. 53.<br /> - -Järnefelt, Armas, III. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> - -Jaspari (It. composer), II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Java, I. 57.<br /> - -Jennens, Charles, I. 442.<br /> - -Jensen, Adolf, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> - -Jeremiaš, Jaroslav, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Jeremiaš, Ottokar, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Jérome Bonaparte, II. 132.<br /> - -Joachim, Joseph, II. 413, 447.<br /> - -John XXII (Pope), I. 232f.<br /> - -John the Deacon, I. 145.<br /> - -Johnson, Noel, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Johnson, [Dr.] Samuel (cit. on Italian opera), I. 431.<br /> - -Jommelli, Nicola, II. 11ff, 65.<br /> - -Jongleurs, I. 203, 206, 210, 212.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Troubadours.</span><br /> - -Joseph II, Emperor of Austria, II. 15, 22, 49 (footnote), 106, 124.<br /> - -Josephine, Empress, II. 197.<br /> - -Josquin des Prés, I. 252ff, 269, 288, 296, 298, 313.<br /> - -Jouy, Étienne, II. 188, 197.<br /> - -'Judaism in Music,' essay by Wagner, II. 415.<br /> - -Junod, Henry A., cited, I. 8.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">K</p> - -<p>Káan-Albést, Heinrich von, III. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Kaffirs, I. 31.<br /> - -Kajanus, Robert, III. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Kalbeck, Max, cit., II. 450;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">friend of Brahms, II. 455.</span><br /> - -Kalevala (the), III. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> - -Kallinikoff, Vasili Sergeievich, III. <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> - -Kalliwoda, J. W., III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> - -Kangaroo dance, I. 12.<br /> - -Karatigin, W. G., III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> - -Karel, Rudolf, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg, II. 12.<br /> - -Karl Theodor, Elector of the Palatinate, II. 64.<br /> - -Kashkin, N. D., III. <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> - -Kaskel, Karl von, III. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Kastalsky, A. D., III. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -Katona, Josef, III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> - -Kaunitz, Count, II. 18.<br /> - -Kazachenko, G. A., III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Keats, I. xlv.<br /> - -Keiser, Reinhard, I. 415, 422ff, 425, 452ff.<br /> - -Keller, Maria Anna, II. 86.<br /> - -Kerll, Kaspar, I. 384.<br /> - -Kettle drum, II. 340, 341, 342.<br /> - -Key, Ellen, III. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -Key relationships. See Modulation; Tonality.<br /> - -Key signature, I. 230, 232.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Accidentals.</span><br /> - -Keyboard instruments. See Clavichord; Harpsichord; Pianoforte; Organ, etc.<br /> - -Keys, in Greek music, I. 105.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Scales; also Modulation.</span><br /> - -Kieff, III. <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> - -Kiel, Friedrich, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> - -Kienzl, Wilhelm, III. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -Kiesewetter, R. L., quoted, I. 249, 311.<br /> - -Kietz, II. 405.<br /> - -Kiober, II. 149.<br /> - -Kin (Chinese instrument), I. 53.<br /> - -Kind, Friedrich, II. 375.<br /> - -King (Chinese instrument), I. 52f.<br /> - -King, James, quoted, I. 16f.<br /> - -Kinsky, Prince, II. 133, 152.<br /> - -Kinsky, Count, II. 18.<br /> - -Kirby, P. R., III. <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Kirchner, Theodor, III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> - -Kirnberger, Joh. Philipp, II. 31.<br /> - -Kissar (Nubian instrument), I. 69.<br /> - -Kistler, Cyrill, III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br /> - -Kithara (Greek instrument), I. 123f, 132f.<br /> - -Kitharœdic chants, I. 132ff, 138, 141.<br /> - -Kittl, J. F., III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> - -Kjerulf, Halfdan, III. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>f.<br /> - -Kleffel, Arno, III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> - -Klindworth, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> - -Klopstock, II. 30, 48, 49, 50, 153.<br /> - -Klose, Friedrich, III. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>f.<br /> - -Klughardt, August, III. <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> - -[<em>Des</em>] <em>Knaben Wunderhorn</em>, German folk-lore collection, II. 223f.<br /> - -Kock, Paul de, II. 211.<br /> - -Kodály, Z., III. <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> - -Koenig, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Koessler, Hans, III. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> - -Kokin (Japanese instrument), I. 53.<br /> - -Kopyloff, A., III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> - -Korestschenko, A. N., III. <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> - -Korngold, Erich, III. <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> - -Körner, Theodor, II. 234.<br /> - -Krehbiel, H. E., quot., II. 311.<br /> - -Koss, Henning von, III. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Koto (Japanese instrument), I. 53.<br /> - -Kousmin, III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> - -Kovařovic, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Kreisler, Kapellmeister, II. 308.<br /> - -Kretschmer, Edmund, III. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> - -Kretzschmar, Herman, cit., II. 121.<br /> - -Kreutzer, Conradin, II. 379.<br /> - -Kricka, K., III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Krysjanowsky, J., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Kuhac, F. X., II. 98.<br /> - -Kuhnau, Johann, I. 415f, 453;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 58.</span><br /> - -Kullak, Theodor, III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>f.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">L</p> - -<p>Lablache, Luigi, II. 185, 193.<br /> - -Labor, as incentive to song, I. 6f.<br /> - -Lachner, Franz, III. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>ff.<br /> - -Lagerlöf, Selma, III. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> - -La Harpe, II. 35.<br /> - -Lalo, Edouard, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, -<em><a href="#Page_33">33</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>f, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>f.<br /> - -Lambert, Frank, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Lamennais, II. 247.<br /> - -Lament, primitive, I. 8.<br /> - -La Mettrie, II. 76.<br /> - -Lamoureux (conductor), II. 439;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span><br /> - -Landi, Stefano, I. 379, 385f.<br /> - -Landino, Francesco, I. 263f.<br /> - -Lange-Müller, P. E., III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> - -Langhans, Wilhelm, quoted, II. 228, 229.<br /> - -Languages, confusion of (in opera), I. 424.<br /> - -Languedoc, I. 205.<br /> - -Langue d'Oïl and langue d'Oc, I. 205.<br /> - -Lanier, Nicholas, I. 385.<br /> - -Laparra, Raoul, III. <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -La Pouplinière, II. 65 (footnote), 68.<br /> - -Larivée, II. 33.<br /> - -Lasina, II. 490.<br /> - -Lassen, Eduard, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <em><a href="#Page_24">24</a></em>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> - -Lasso, Orlando di, I. 306ff, 320, 353.<br /> - -Lassus. See Lasso.<br /> - -Lavigna, Vincenzo, II. 481.<br /> - -Lavotta, III. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> - -Lawes, Henry, I. 385.<br /> - -Leading motives. See Leit-motif.<br /> - -Leading-tone, I. 301.<br /> - -Le Bé (Le Bec), Guillaume, I. 286f.<br /> - -Le Blanc du Roullet, II. 31ff.<br /> - -Legendary song. See Folk-song.<br /> - -Legras, II. 33.<br /> - -Legrenzi, Giovanni, I. 346, 365, 384.<br /> - -Le Gros, II. 65.<br /> - -Lehmann, Liza, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Leibnitz, II. 48.<br /> - -Leipzig, battle of, II. 234.<br /> - -Leipzig, I. 262f, 467f, 479;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 261ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>f.</span><br /> - -Leipzig circle of composers, III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> - -Leipzig school, I. 262.<br /> - -Leit-motif, I. liii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Berlioz), II. 351, 353f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bizet), II. 391;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Liszt), II. 399;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 430f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(after Wagner), III. <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chabrier), III. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(d'Indy), III. <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bruneau), III. <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Perosi), III. <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Motives.</span><br /> - -Lekeu, Guillaume, III. <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <em><a href="#Page_311">311</a></em>.<br /> - -Lendway, E., III. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> - -Lenz, Wilhelm von, on Beethoven, II. 165.<br /> - -Leo (or Leonin, Leoninus), I. 184.<br /> - -Leo, Leonardo, I. 400f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 11, 14.</span><br /> - -Leo the Great, I. 143.<br /> - -Léonard (founder of Théâtre Feydeau), II. 42.<br /> - -Leoncavallo, Ruggiero, I. xviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <em><a href="#Page_371">371</a>f</em>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</span><br /> - -Leoni, Franco, III. <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br /> - -Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Cöthen, I. 461f, 468.<br /> - -Lermontov, III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Leroy, Adrian, I. 286f.<br /> - -Lessing, II. 48, 81, 129.<br /> - -Lesueur, Jean François, II. 44, 352;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>.</span><br /> - -Leva, Enrico de, III. <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.<br /> - -Levasseur, Nicolas Prosper, II. 185.<br /> - -Lewes, George Henry, quoted, II. 75ff.<br /> - -Liadoff, Anatol Constantinovich, III. <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> - -Liapounoff, Sergei Mikhailovich, III. <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>f.<br /> - -Librettists. See Calzabigi, Metastasio, Rinuccini, Rossi, Scribe, etc.<br /> - -Libretto (operatic) (in 18th cent.), II. 3, 26.<br /> - -Lichnowsky, Prince, II. 107, 132, 152.<br /> - -Lie, Sigurd, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> - -Lied. See Art-song.<br /> - -Lieven, Madame de, II. 184.<br /> - -Light opera. See Comic opera.<br /> - -Light keyboard, III. <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.<br /> - -Lind, Jenny, II. 204;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> - -Lindblad, Adolph Frederik, III. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> - -Lindblad, Otto, III. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> - -Ling-Lenu (inventor of Chinese scale), I. 46.<br /> - -Lisle, Leconte de, III. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Lisle-Adam, Villiers de, III. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Lissenko, N. V., III. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> - -Liszt, Franz, I. xvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><em>II. 245ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(songs), II. 291;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(as virtuoso), II. 305, 323ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(symphonist), II. 358ff, 361ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rel. to Wagner), II. 412ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rel. to Brahms), II. 447;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(general), III. <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, -<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>f, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rel. to Sgambati), III. <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</span><br /> - -Literary movements (influence on modern music). See Impressionism, Realism, Symbolism, etc.<br /> - -Liturgical plays, III. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> - -Liturgy (the), I. 138ff, 148ff.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Plain-song; also Church music.</span><br /> - -Lobkowitz, Prince, II. 18, 133, 141.<br /> - -Local color,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early madrigals), I. 276ff, 281;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Breton), III. <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Spanish), III. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, -<a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Italian), III. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Parisian), III. <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Exoticism in modern music.</span><br /> - -Locatelli, Pietro, II. 51, 56.<br /> - -Locle, Camille du, II. 495.<br /> - -Locke, Matthew, I. 373, 385.<br /> - -Loder, E. J., III. <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Loeffler, Charles Martin, III. <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br /> - -Logau, Friedrich von, II. 48.<br /> - -Logroscino, Nicolo, II. 8 (footnote), 10.<br /> - -Löhr, Hermann, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Lollio, Alberto, I. 328.<br /> - -Lomakin, III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -London (Händel period), I. 430ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 8;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), II. 15, 79;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(J. C. Bach), II. 61;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(subscr. concerts est.), II. 62;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn's visit), II. 89;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini), II. 184;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 415;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Verdi), II. 458ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(present conditions), III. <a href="#Page_421">421</a>f.</span><br /> - -London Philharmonic Society, II. 142, 415.<br /> - -London Symphony Orchestra, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Lönnrot, Elias, III. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> - -Lorenzo de' Medici (the Magnificent), I. 267f, 325.<br /> - -Lortzing, Albert, II. 379;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_20">20</a>f.</span><br /> - -Loti, Pierre, III. <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> - -Lotti, Antonio, I. 346, 479.<br /> - -Louis II, King of Hungary, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> - -Louis XIV, I. 405, 410;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 47.</span><br /> - -Louis XVIII, II. 198.<br /> - -Louis Philippe, King of France, II. 190.<br /> - -Love (as primitive cause of music), I. 4f, 36.<br /> - -Love song (in exotic music), I. 51;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Middle Ages), I. 202ff.</span><br /> - -Löwe, Carl, II. 284.<br /> - -Löwen, Johann Jacob, I. 373.<br /> - -Ludwig, King of Württemberg, II. 235.<br /> - -Ludwig II, King of Bavaria, II. 419.<br /> - -Ludwigslust, II. 12.<br /> - -Luis, infante of Spain, II. 70.<br /> - -Lulli. See Lully.<br /> - -Lully, Jean Baptiste, I. 382, <em>406ff</em>, 414;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 21;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on German composers), I. 415, 426;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 52.</span><br /> - -Lute (primitive), I. 43;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(description), I. 261;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 17th cent.), I. 374f.</span><br /> - -Lute music, I. 370.<br /> -Lutenists (Renaissance), I. 261f.<br /> - -Luther, Martin, I. 255, 288ff.<br /> - -Lutheran Church, I. 224f, 478ff.<br /> - -Lydian mode, I. 100, 103.<br /> - -Lyon, James, III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Lyre (Assyrian), I. 66;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian), I. 80;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Hebrew), I. 70, 73;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 85, 110, 111, 123f.</span><br /> - -Lyric drama. See Drame lyrique.<br /> - -Lyric poetry, I. xlv;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 269ff.</span><br /> - -Lyvovsky, G. F., III. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">M</p> - -<p>Mabellini, Teodulo, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Macabrun (the troubadour), I. 211.<br /> - -MacCunn, Hamish, III. <a href="#Page_425">425</a>f.<br /> - -MacDowell, Edward, II. 347.<br /> - -McGeoch, Daisey, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -McEwen, John Blackwood, III. <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.<br /> - -Machault, Guillaume de, I. 231.<br /> - -Mackenzie, Alexander Campbell, III. <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <em><a href="#Page_416">416</a></em>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br /> - -Macpherson, Stewart, III. <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.<br /> - -Macran, H. S., III. <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br /> - -Macusi Indians, I. 11.<br /> - -Madrigal, I. xliii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(14th cent.), I. 261, 264f, 266;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th cent.), I. 272ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 52;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(English), I. 306;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi), I. 338ff, 345.</span><br /> - -Maeterlinck, III. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> - -Maffei, Andrea, II. 489.<br /> - -Magadis (Greek instrument), I. 124.<br /> - -Magadizing, I. 161.<br /> - -Maggi (Italian May festivals), I. 324.<br /> - -Maggini, Paolo, I. 362.<br /> - -Magnard, Alberic, III. <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Mahler, Gustav, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <em><a href="#Page_226">226</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> - -Maillart, Aimé, II. 212.<br /> - -Maitland, J. A. Fuller, III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted on Händel), I. 447.</span><br /> - -Majorca, II. 257.<br /> - -Malays, I. 28.<br /> - -Male soprano. See Artificial soprano.<br /> - -Malfatti, Therese, II. 140, 145, 150, 159.<br /> - -Malibran, Maria (Garcia), II. 185, 187, 312.<br /> - -Malichevsky, W., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Malling, Otto, III. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Malvezzi, Christoforo, I. 329.<br /> - -Mancinelli, Luigi, III. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> - -Manet, Édouard, III. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.<br /> - -Mannheim orchestra, II. 338.<br /> - -Mannheim school, I. 481;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 12, 57, <em>63ff</em>, 67, 138.</span><br /> - -Mantua, I. 326.<br /> - -Manzoni, Cardinal, II. 498.<br /> - -Maoris of New Zealand, I. 13.<br /> - -Marcello, Benedetto, II. 6.<br /> - -Marchand, Louis, I. 460f.<br /> - -Marenzio, Luca, I. 275f, 329f.<br /> - -Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria, II. 22, 72.<br /> - -Marie, Galti (Mme.), II. 388.<br /> - -Marie Antoinette, II. 32.<br /> - -Marienklagen, I. 324.<br /> - -Marignan, battle of, II. 351.<br /> - -Marinetti, III. <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> - -Marini, Biagio, I. 367; -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 54.</span><br /> - -Marinuzzi, Gino, III. <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.<br /> - -Mario, Giuseppe, II. 193.<br /> - -Marmontel, II. 24, 33.<br /> - -Marot, Clément, I. 294.<br /> - -Mars, Mlle., II. 242.<br /> - -Marschner, Heinrich (as song writer), II. 283;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(as opera composer), II. 279.</span><br /> - -Marseillaise, III. <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.<br /> - -Marsyas, I. 122.<br /> - -Martin, George, III. <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br /> - -Martini, Padre G. B., II. 11, 101.<br /> - -Martucci, Giuseppe, III. <a href="#Page_387">387</a>f.<br /> - -Marty y Tollens, Francesco, I. 125f.<br /> - -Marx, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> - -Mascagni, Pietro, I. xviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <em><a href="#Page_370">370</a>f</em>.</span><br /> - -Masini (dir. of Società Filodrammatica, Milan), II. 483.<br /> - -Masque (17th cent.), I. 385.<br /> - -Mass, I. 242f, 244, 247f, 312f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 318ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Liturgy.</span><br /> - -Massé, Victor, II. 212.<br /> - -Massenet, Jules, II. 438;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, -<em><a href="#Page_25">25</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of), III. <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</span><br /> - -Mastersingers. See Meistersinger.<br /> - -Mathias I, King of Hungary, III. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.<br /> - -Mattei, Padre P. S., II. 180.<br /> - -Mattheson, Johann, I. 415, 423, 452ff.<br /> - -Maurus, Rhabanus, I. 137.<br /> - -Maxner, J., III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -May festivals (Italian), I. 324.<br /> - -Maybrick, M. (Stephen Adams), III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Mayr, Simon, II. 180.<br /> - -Mc. See Mac.<br /> - -Measured music, I. 175ff, 183ff, 229.<br /> - -Mensural composition, forms of, I. 183ff.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Measured music.</span><br /> - -Meck, Mme. von, III. <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> - -Medicine men (Indian), I. 29.<br /> - -Medtner, Nicholas, III. <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Méhul, Étienne, II. 41ff.<br /> - -Meilhac, II. 393.<br /> - -Meiningen court orchestra, III. <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> - -Meistersinger, I. 222ff; -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 421.</span><br /> - -Melartin, Erik, III. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> - -Melgounoff, J. N., III. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> - -Melodic minor scale, I. 301.<br /> - -Melody, styles of (Greek music), I. 98;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(plain-chant), I. 144, 153;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of early French folk-song), I. 193f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early German folk-song), I. 197;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Netherland schools), I. 245, 269, 333;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Italian madrigalists), I. 212;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 320ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Florentine monodists), I. 332;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early instrumental music), I. 368f, 373;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early Italian opera), I. 380f, 392;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Purcell), I. 389;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lully), I. 408;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 474ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Pergolesi), II. 8;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 26;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(classic period), II. 51;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart and Haydn), II. 111, 118ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 171f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini), II. 185f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert), II. 227;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(lyric quality), II. 272ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern pianoforte), II. 297f, 320f, 323;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern symphonic), II. 357ff, 364ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 411, 431f, 433;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 462f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(César Franck), II. 471.</span><br /> - -Melzi, Prince, II. 19.<br /> - -Menantes, I. 480.<br /> - -Mendelssohn-Bartholdi, Felix, I. xvi, lvii, 318, 478;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 200, <em>260ff</em>, <em>290</em>, <em>311ff</em>, <em>344</em>, <em>349ff</em>, <em>395ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>ff, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</span><br /> - -Mendelssohn-Schumann school, III. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> - -Mendès, Catulle, III. <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.<br /> - -Mensural system. See Measured music.<br /> - -Merbecke, John, I. 305.<br /> - -Mercadente, Saverio, II. 187, 196.<br /> - -<em>Mercure de France</em>, quoted, II. 35, 68.<br /> - -Merelli, Bartolomeo, II. 483.<br /> - -Merikanto, Oscar, III. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> - -Merino, Gabriel, I. 328.<br /> - -Merula, Tarquinio, I. 368.<br /> - -Merulo, Claudio, I. 356.<br /> - -Méry (librettist), II. 495.<br /> - -Messager, André, III. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Messmer, Dr., II. 76, 103.<br /> - -Metastasio, Pietro, II. 3, 5, 26, 31, 85.<br /> - -Methods, technical (in musical composition), I. xxxvii.<br /> - -Metternich, Prince, II. 184.<br /> - -Mexicans, ancient, I. 16.<br /> - -Meyerbeer, Giacomo, II. 199, 244;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> - -Michelangelo, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> - -Mielck, Ernst, III. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> - -Mihailovsky, III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Mihálovich, Ödön, III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.<br /> - -Milder, Anna, II. 152.<br /> - -Millöcker, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> - -Milton, I. xlv.<br /> - -'Mimi Pinson,' III. <a href="#Page_350">350</a>f.<br /> - -Mingotti, Pietro, II. 21.<br /> - -Miniature (musical forms), III. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>ff.<br /> - -Minnesinger, I. 214ff.<br /> - -Minor scales (harmonic and melodic), I. 301.<br /> - -Minstrels, wandering (in Middle Ages), I. 200ff.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Jongleurs; Minnesinger; Troubadours; Trouvères.</span><br /> - -Minuet, I. 372, 375;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in classic sonata, etc.), II. 54, 116, 120, 170f.</span><br /> - -Mockler-Ferryman, A. F., I. 11.<br /> - -Modal harmony (in modern music), II. 463;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</span><br /> - -Modern music (Bach's influence on), I. 477, 488, 490f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(accepted meanings of the term), III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Modes (in Greek music), I. 100ff.<br /> - -Modes, ecclesiastical, I. xxvxiii, 152ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(reaction of modern harmony), I. 270, 322, 352f, 360, 371;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Palestrina's music), I. 320.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Modal harmony; also Keys; Scales.</span><br /> - -Modulation, I. lix;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Greek music), I. 102;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(polyphonic period), I. 246, 352;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi), I. 341;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in aria form), I. 381;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(D. Scarlatti), I. 399;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 487, 490;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in classic sonata), II. 55f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn and Mozart), II. 111;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 167;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert, enharmonic), II. 229;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 321;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 411, 434;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 463.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Harmony (modern innovations).</span><br /> - -Mohács, battle of, III. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.<br /> - -Mohammedan music, I. 47, 50, 59ff.<br /> - -Molière, I. 407, 410;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">('Le Bourgeois gentilhomme' quoted), I. 208.</span><br /> - -Molnár, Géza, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Monckton, Lionel, III. <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> - -Monochord, I. 109, 124.<br /> - -Monodia. See Monody.<br /> - -Monodic style. See Monody.<br /> - -Monody (in 14th cent.), I. 262ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 15th cent.), I. 231, 326, 368f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 17th cent.), I. 282, 330;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 52;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early instr. music), I. 366, 367f.</span><br /> - -Monro, D. B., III. <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br /> - -Monsigny, Pierre Alexandre, II. 24, 41, 106.<br /> - -Montemezzi, Italo, III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.<br /> - -Monteverdi, Claudio, I. 275, <em>338ff</em>, 376, 379f, 382;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 27;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span><br /> - -Monteviti, II. 11.<br /> - -Mood painting, I. lxi.<br /> - -Moody-Manners, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Moór, Emanuel, III. <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> - -Moore's Irish Melodies, III. <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.<br /> - -Morlacchi, Francesco, II. 180.<br /> - -Morley, Thomas, I. xlvii, 306, 369f.<br /> - -Morpurgo, Alfredo, III. <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.<br /> - -Morzin, Count, II. 86.<br /> - -Moscherosch, II. 48.<br /> - -Moscow Conservatory, III. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> - -Moscow Private Opera, III. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> - -Mosonyi, M., III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.<br /> - -Moszkowski, Maurice, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Motet (early), I. 185;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th cent. Italian), I. 270;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 480.</span><br /> - -Motives (Debussy's use of), III. <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Charpentier), III. <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Dukas), III. <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Leit-motif.</span><br /> - -Motta, Jose Vianna da, III. <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.<br /> - -Mottl, Felix, II. 382.<br /> - -Moussorgsky, Modeste, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, -<a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <em><a href="#Page_116">116</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Rimsky-Korsakoff), III. <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of, on modern French music), III. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Debussy), III. <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> - -Mouton, Jean, works by, I. 297f.<br /> - -Movement plan. See Form; Sonata; Suite; etc.<br /> - -Mozart, Leopold, II. 65, <em>72ff</em>, 114f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on W. A. Mozart), II. 101ff.</span><br /> - -Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, I. xlix, 478;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 3, 9, 13, 49, 55, 59, 67, 76 (footnote), <em>100ff</em>, 106 (footnote), 163 (footnote);</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Haydn), II. 111ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(as symphonist), II. 115ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(operas), II. 121ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rel. to Beethoven), II. 137f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Rossini), II. 185;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(comp. with Schubert), II. 227;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(precursor of Weber), II. 240, 373, 377;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Wagner), II. 404.</span><br /> - -Müller, Wilhelm, II. 283.<br /> - -Munich, early opera in, I. 384.<br /> - -Murger, Henri, III. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.<br /> - -Muris, Jean de, I. 299.<br /> - -Music drama. See Opera.<br /> - -Music Festivals, III. <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -'Music of the Future' (Wagner), II. 401.<br /> - -Music printing, I. 271, 284.<br /> - -Musica ficta, I. 301, 302.<br /> - -Musical comedy (English), III. <a href="#Page_415">415</a>f, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>ff, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>ff.<br /> - -Musical history, English writers of, III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br /> - -Musical notation. See Notation.<br /> - -Musical instruments. See Instruments.<br /> - -Mysliveczek, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.<br /> - -Mystery plays, I. 289.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Sacred representations.</span><br /> - -Mysticism, III. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">N</p> - -<p>Nägeli, Hans Georg, II. 147.<br /> - -Nanino, Giovanni, I. 321.<br /> - -Naples, II. 5, 8, 11, 182, 494.<br /> - -Naples, development of opera in, I. 383f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">school of opera in, I. 391f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline of opera in, I. 400f.</span><br /> - -Napoleon I, II. 15, 156, 181, 238ff.<br /> - -Napoleon III, II. 210, 493.<br /> - -Napravnik, Edward Franzovitch, III. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>f.<br /> - -National Society of French Music. See Société Nationale.<br /> - -Nationalism (influence on German classics), II. 48f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Romantic movement), II. 218f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(German romanticism), II. 230ff, 236;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in modern music), III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">see also Folk-song;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Russian music), III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Scandinavian music), III. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in French music), III. <a href="#Page_277">277</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in English music), III. <a href="#Page_411">411</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Nationalistic Schools (rise of), II. 216.<br /> - -Nature, imitation of. See Program music.<br /> - -Nature, music in, I. 1ff, 8.<br /> - -Naumann, Emil, cited, I. 245, 302.<br /> - -Navrátil, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Neapolitan School. See Opera.<br /> - -Nedbal, III. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Needham, Alicia A., III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Neefe, Christian Gottlieb, II. 131, 137, 138.<br /> - -Negro music, III. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br /> - -Neitzel, Otto, III. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.<br /> - -Neo-Romanticism, II. 443-476;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(German), III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French), III. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Russian), III. <a href="#Page_47">47</a>ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also New German school.</span><br /> - -Neo-Russians, III. <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence in Russia), III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on modern French schools), III. <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span><br /> - -Neri, Filippo, I. 334f.<br /> - -Nero, I. 132.<br /> - -Nessler, Victor, III. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> - -Nesvadba, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> - -Netherland schools, I. 226-257, 296, 311;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Palestrina), I. 320.</span><br /> - -<em>Neue Zeitschrift für Musik</em>, II. 264f, 447.<br /> - -Neupert, Edmund, III. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -New German school, III. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Germany (modern).</span><br /> - -New Guinea, I. 24.<br /> - -Newman, Ernest, III. <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br /> - -New South Wales, I. 13.<br /> - -New Symphony Orchestra (London), III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -New York (Metropolitan Opera House), II. 428.<br /> - -New Zealand, aborigines of, I. 8, 13, 20.<br /> - -Nibelungenlied (the), II. 424;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> - -Niccolò. See Isquard.<br /> - -Nicodé Jean Louis, III. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Nicolai, Otto, II. 379.<br /> - -Nielsen, Carl, III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>f.<br /> - -Nielson, Ludolf, III. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Niemann, Walter, cited, II. 429, 458.<br /> - -Nietzsche, II. 422;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</span><br /> - -Nijinsky (Russian dancer), III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Nini, Alessandro, It. composer, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Nithart von Riuwenthal (Minnesinger), I. 219.<br /> - -Noble, T. Tertius, III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Nocturne (origin of form), II. 13.<br /> - -Nofre (Egyptian instrument), I. 80.<br /> - -Nogueras, Costa, III. <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -Noise-making instruments, I. 14.<br /> - -Noises, musical, I. 2.<br /> - -Norfolk festival (U. S.), III. <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> - -Nordraak, Richard, III. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> - -Normann, Ludwig, III. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.<br /> - -Norway (political aspects), III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(folk-song), III. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern composers), III. <a href="#Page_86">86</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Nose-flute, I. 26.<br /> - -Notation (Arabic), I. 51;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 69;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 125f, 133;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(neumes), I. 154f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early staff), I. 155;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Guido d'Arezzo), I. 171f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(measured music), I. 175, 176ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Minnesingers), I. 223;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Netherland schools), I. 228, 229ff, 232f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Tablatures.</span><br /> - -Notker Balbulus, I. 149f.<br /> - -Nottebohm, Gustav, quoted, II. 140, 158.<br /> - -Nourrit, Adolphe, II. 185.<br /> - -Novák, Viteslav, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>ff.<br /> - -Noverre, Jean Georges, II. 13, 104.<br /> - -Novotny, B., III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">O</p> - -<p>Oblique motion (in polyphony), I. 165f.<br /> - -Oboe, I. 29, 402, 424;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 117, 265, 335, 337, 338, 339, 341.</span><br /> - -Obrecht. See Hobrecht.<br /> - -Octatonic scale, I. 114, 165.<br /> - -Octave transposition, in Greek music, I. 103ff.<br /> - -Odington, Walter, I. 228.<br /> - -Offenbach, Jacques, II. 392ff.<br /> - -Okeghem, Johannes, I. 244, <em>246ff</em>, 250, 256.<br /> - -Okenheim. See Okeghem.<br /> - -Olenin, III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> - -Ollivier, II. 418.<br /> - -Olsen, Ole, III. <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> - -Olympus, I. 112ff.<br /> - -Ongaro, III. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> - -Opera, I. lviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(schools), I. xviii, 409;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(beginnings, Florence), I. 324ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Monteverdi), I. 336ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th cent.), I. 350f, 376ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Neapolitan school), I. 391ff, 400f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(intro. in France), I. 405;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(infl. in 17th cent. Germany), I. 414f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 426ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in England), I. 430ff, 434ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), II. 2ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck's reform), II. 17ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 103, 121ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early 19th cent.), II. 177ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini), II. 183ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Donizetti-Bellini period), II. 192ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Meyerbeer), II. 200.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Opera, English; Opera, French; Opera, German; Opera, Spanish; Opéra bouffon; Opera buffa; Opéra comique; Operetta; Singspiel.</span><br /> - -Opera, English (17th cent. masques), I. 385;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Purcell), I. 388ff, 430;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ballad opera), II. 8;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Sullivan), III. <a href="#Page_415">415</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(musical comedy), III. <a href="#Page_432">432</a>f.</span><br /> - -Opera, French (origin and early development), I. 401ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lully), I. 406ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rameau), I. 413f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 31ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini), II. 188;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(grand historical opera), II. 197ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Berlioz), II. 381ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(drame lyrique), II. 385;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Franck), II. 475;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Massenet), III. <a href="#Page_27">27</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Saint-Saëns, Lalo, etc.), III. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(d'Indy), III. <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(impressionists), III. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(realists), III. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Dukas), III. <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Opéra comique; Operetta (French).</span><br /> - -Opera German (17th cent.), I. 414f, 421f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 423ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 106, 123f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 60f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Weber), II. 225ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic opera), II. 372-381;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 401-442;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(after Wagner), III. <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-257.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Singspiel.</span><br /> - -Opera, Italian. See Opera.<br /> - -Opera, Spanish, III. <a href="#Page_403">403</a>ff.<br /> - -Opéra bouffe. See Operetta.<br /> - -Opéra bouffon, II. 25, 31.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Opéra comique.</span><br /> - -Opera buffa,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(forerunner), I. 278;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), II. 8ff, 24;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 122ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini), II. 183ff, 186;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Donizetti), II. 193f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern revival), III. <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br /> - -Opéra comique, II. 23, 36;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), II. 41ff, 68;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(19th cent.), II. 122, 178, 193, 207, 209ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on drame lyrique), II. 392.</span><br /> - -Opéra Comique (Paris theatre), II. 43.<br /> - -'Opera and Drama' (essay by Wagner), II. 415.<br /> - -Opera houses. See Bouffes Parisiens, Hamburg (17th cent. opera), Opéra Comique, Paris Opéra, Salle Favart, [La] Scala, St. Petersburg Opera, Stuttgart, Théâtre des Italiens, Théâtre Feydeau, Venice (opera houses), Vienna.<br /> - -Opera seria. See Opera.<br /> - -Opera singers, early Italian, I. 383f.<br /> - -Operatic convention (18th cent.), I. 427.<br /> - -Operatic style, I. lviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence of Italian, on Passion music), I. 480, 490.</span><br /> - -Operetta (French), II. 393f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Viennese), III. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</span><br /> - -Ophicleide, II. 341, 352.<br /> - -Oratorio (beginnings), I. 324ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on early Italian opera), I. 378f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early development, Carissimi), I. 385ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 425f, 429, 433f, 437ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 453f, 472;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn), II. 91f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic period), II. 395ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern English), III. <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Passion oratorio.</span><br /> - -Orchestra (in Greek drama), I. 120f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(incipient), I. 354;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Italy, 16th cent.), I. 282;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of earliest operas), I. 333;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of Monteverdi), I. 341f, 345;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of Hamburg opera), I. 424;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of Händel), I. 440;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(for Bach's church music), I. 466;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(for Bach's concertos), I. 482;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mannheim), II. 65;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development, 18th cent.) <em>II. 96</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 117;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini and Meyerbeer), II. 208;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Berlioz), II. 225;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development, 19th cent.), II. <em>334ff</em>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Instruments.</span><br /> - -Orchestral accompaniment. See Accompaniment.<br /> - -Orchestral music (instrumental madrigals, 16th cent.), I. 281f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Corelli), I. 394, 396;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in France, 16th cent.), I. 402;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lully), I. 409;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 433, 445;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 481ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mannheim school), II. 12f, 65ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 25;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(classic period), II. 59, 61, 74, 81, 93ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn), II. 94;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 115ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 157ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Romantic period), II. 343ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 456, 466;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Franck), II. 474f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_x">x-ff</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also names of specific modern composers. See also Instrumental music.</span><br /> - -Orchestral polyphony. See Polyphony (orchestral).<br /> - -Orchestral style, I. lviii.<br /> - -Orchestral tremolo. See Tremolo.<br /> - -Orchestration, I. liii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(classic), II. 28, 40, 65, 117;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern development), II. 339f, 342f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(impressionistic), III. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</span><br /> - -Order (principle of), I. xxix, xxxii.<br /> - -Orefice, Giacomo, III. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.<br /> - -Organ (early history), I. 156f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 16th-17th cent.), I. 292, 355;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), I. 450.</span><br /> - -Organ music, I. lviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th-17th cent.), I. 355ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach period), I. 450ff, 472, 476, 489, 490;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern French), II. 472; III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</span><br /> - -Organistrum, I. 211.<br /> - -Organists, famous (Landino), I. 264;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th-17th cent.), I. 356ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), I. 450, 461, 467f.</span><br /> - -Organization (principle of), I. xxx, xxxiii-f, xxxvii, lv.<br /> - -Organum, I. 162ff, 172, 181ff.<br /> - -Oriental color in European music, I. 42f, 52, 63f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>f.</span><br /> - -Oriental folk-songs, I. xliii.<br /> - -Oriental music, I. 42ff.<br /> - -Origin of music, theories of, I. 3.<br /> - -Orlando di Lasso. See Lasso.<br /> - -Orloff, V. C., III. <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> - -Ornstein, Leo, III. <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> - -Orpheus, I. 92f, 111.<br /> - -Osiander, Lukas, I. 291.<br /> - -'Ossian,' II. 129, 139, 223.<br /> - -Ostřcil, O., III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Ostrovsky, III. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> - -Ostroglazoff, M., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Overture (Italian), I. 336, 341, 393;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French, in 16th cent.), I. 402;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French, Lully), I. 409;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 482f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 28;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(concert overture), II. 347ff.</span><br /> - -Ovid, II. 71.<br /> - -Oxford History of Music, III. <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, II. 112, 166.</span></p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">P</p> - -<p>Pachelbel, Johann, I. 361, 451.<br /> - -Pacino, Giovanni, II. 196.<br /> - -Pacius, Frederick, III. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Paër, Ferdinando, II. 181.<br /> - -Paganini, II. 76 (footnote), 249, 323.<br /> - -Paësiello, Giovanni, II. 15, 181, 182.<br /> - -Painting (art of), I. xxix.<br /> - -Paladilhe, Émile, II. 207.<br /> - -Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, I. 243, <em>314ff</em>, 353, 480;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 477;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</span><br /> - -Palmgren, Selim, III. <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> - -Parabasco, Girolamo, I. 328.<br /> - -Paracataloge, I. 115.<br /> - -Parallel motion (in descant), I. 165.<br /> - -Paris (14th cent. musical supremacy), I. 228;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ars nova), I. 230, 231f, 265;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th cent. ballet), I. 401;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early opera), I. 406ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Guerre des bouffons), II. 32ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent. composers), II. 16, 79;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 32ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early symphonic concerts), II. 65, 68;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 104, 116;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini), II. 188;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Berlioz), II. 241ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Meyerbeer), II. 200ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(revolutionary era), II. 213, 218;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 257ff, 313ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 405, 418;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(orchestra concerts, modern), III. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(musical glorification of), III. <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bohemianism), III. <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span><br /> - -Paris Conservatory, II. 42, 254;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</span><br /> - -Paris Opéra (establishment), I. 406, 407;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 32, 34, 35, 39;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Spontini), II. 197;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Auber), II. 210;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 418.</span><br /> - -Paris Opéra Comique, II. 41, 193, 391.<br /> - -Parlando recitative, I. 115;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 26.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Recitative.</span><br /> - -Parratt, Walter, III. <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br /> - -Parry, [Sir] C. Hubert H., III. <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <em><a href="#Page_416">416</a>f</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on evolution of music), I. xxix-lxi;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, I. 476;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 164.</span><br /> - -Part-songs (modern), II. 53.<br /> - -Pasdeloup, Jules, III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Passamezzo, III. <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> - -Passion oratorio (origin and development in Germany), I. 424f, 480f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(dramatic element introduced), I. 453;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 472, 477ff.</span><br /> - -Passions. See Emotions.<br /> - -Pasta, Giuditta (Negri), II. 185, 187, 194, 195.<br /> - -Pasticcio, II. 20.<br /> - -Pastoral plays, I. 325, 327f, 405.<br /> - -Pastoral songs. See Pastourelle.<br /> - -Pastourelle, I. 203, 207f, 264.<br /> - -Paul, Jean. See Richter, Jean Paul.<br /> - -Pavan, I. 371, 375.<br /> - -Pedrell, Felippe, III. <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> - -Pedrotti, Carlo, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Pelissier, Olympe, II. 191.<br /> - -Pepusch, John, I. 430.<br /> - -Pentatonic scale, I. 45ff, 49, 69, 164;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</span><br /> - -Percussion, instruments of (primitive), I. 23f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Oriental), I. 52ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 67;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian), I. 82.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Drums; Instruments.</span><br /> - -Perfect immutable system (Greek music), I. 102ff.<br /> - -Percy, Bishop, II. 129, 223.<br /> - -Pergin, Marianna, II. 22.<br /> - -Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, II. 7, 8, 52, 55f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Mozart), II. 125.</span><br /> - -Peri, Jacopo, I. 329ff, 343, 378;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 26, 27.</span><br /> - -Periods. See Classic Period, Romantic Period.<br /> - -Perosi, Don Lorenzo, III. <a href="#Page_395">395</a>f.<br /> - -Perotin, I. 184.<br /> - -Perrin, Pierre, I. 405f.<br /> - -Persiani, Fanny, II. 185.<br /> - -Personal expression, I. li-f, lxi.<br /> - -Peru, I. 24.<br /> - -Peruvians (ancient), I. 44f, 52, 56.<br /> - -Pesaro, II. 191.<br /> - -Peter the Great, III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> - -['<em>Le</em>] <em>Petit prophète de Boehmischbroda</em>,' II. 24.<br /> - -Petersen-Berger, Wilhelm, III. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>ff.<br /> - -Petrella, Enrico, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Petrograd. See St. Petersburg.<br /> - -Petrucci, Ott. dei, I. 245, 271, 285f.<br /> - -Pfitzner, Hans, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <em><a href="#Page_247">247</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Philammon, I. 111.<br /> - -Philidor, François-André-Danican, II. 24, 41, 65 (footnote).<br /> - -Phillips, Montague, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Phillips, Stephen, III. <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> - -Phrygian mode, I. 100, 103, 113.<br /> - -Pianoforte (mechanical development), II. 162, 296f.<br /> - -Pianoforte concerto, II. 72;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 115;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 165, 167;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Weber), II. 303;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(romantic composers), II. 330f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 314, 319;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Liszt), II. 327;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 466;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Franck), II. 474f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Tschaikowsky), III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Grieg), III. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Saint-Saëns), III. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</span><br /> - -Pianoforte music (Kuhnau), I. 415f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(J. S. Bach), I. 474ff, 483ff, 487, 490f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(C. P. E. Bach), II. 59;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 114;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 163ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(romantic period), II. 293-333;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(neo-romantic), II. 464f, 472ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">('genre' forms), III. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(impressionistic school), III. <a href="#Page_326">326</a>f, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern Italian), III. <a href="#Page_393">393</a>f.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Harpsichord music; also Pianoforte sonata.</span><br /> - -Pianoforte sonata (D. Scarlatti), I. 399;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 51;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Kuhnau), I. 416;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 58;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(C. P. E. Bach), II. 59f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 114;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 165, 167, 170, 173f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert), II. 300;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Weber), II. 302;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schumann), II. 310;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 319;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 453, 464.</span><br /> - -Pianoforte style, I. xx, xxi, 399;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 60, 163, 297;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> - -Piave (librettist), II. 488.<br /> - -Piccini, Nicola, II. 14f, 35, 37;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Mozart), II. 122.</span><br /> - -Piccolo, II. 341.<br /> - -Pictorialism, in Wolf's songs, III. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Program music; Impressionism; Realism.</span><br /> - -Pierné, Gabriel, III. <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <em><a href="#Page_362">362</a></em>.<br /> - -Pierson, H. H., III. <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.<br /> - -Pietà, Monte di, II. 481.<br /> - -Pindar, I. 118f.<br /> - -Piombo, Sebastiano del, I. 327f.<br /> - -Pipes (primitive), I. 21ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 66f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian), I. 80f.</span><br /> - -Plagal modes, I. 151ff.<br /> - -Plagiarism (in 18th cent.), I. 434, 441f.<br /> - -Plain-chant. See Plain-song.<br /> - -Plain-song, I. xlvi, 157, 183, 320, 349;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Church music (early Christian); Liturgy.</span><br /> - -Plain-song, the age of, I. 127-159.<br /> - -Planer, Minna, II. 405.<br /> - -Planquette, Robert, III. <a href="#Page_363">363</a> (footnote).<br /> - -Platania, Pietro, II. 503 (footnote).<br /> - -Plato, I. 77, 89f.<br /> - -Plautus, I. 325f.<br /> - -Play instinct (the) in rel. to music, I. 5f.<br /> - -Pleyel, Ignaz, II. 90.<br /> - -Plutarch, I. 114.<br /> - -Poe, Edgar Allan, III. <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> - -Poetry, in relation to Greek music, I. 90ff.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Lyric poetry.</span><br /> - -Pogojeff, W., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Pohl, Karl Ferdinand, II. 94.<br /> - -Pointer, John, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Poliziano, I. 326f.<br /> - -Polka (dance), III. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.<br /> - -Polonaise, II. 259, 315.<br /> - -Polybius, I. 95.<br /> - -Poly-harmony, III. <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>.<br /> - -Polynesia, I. 9.<br /> - -Polyphonic style, I. xii, xxxviii, xxxix, xlvi, lvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development in Middle Ages), II. 226ff, 269, 296f, 348, 351;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early instrumental music), II. 282, 354, 363, 366, 369, 370, 372;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lasso), I. 310;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 319ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(reaction against), I. 330f, 353, 361;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(fusion with harmonic style), I. 418, 441;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 472, 481f, 489, 490;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in string quartet), II. 69;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 111;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(orchestral), I. liv;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 118, 418, 422;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 320f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), III. <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ultra-modern), III. <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Counterpoint; Chanson; Madrigal; Motet.</span><br /> - -Polyphony, the beginnings of, I. 160-183;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Netherland schools), I. 226-257;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the golden age of, II. 284-323;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early forms of), see Organum, Diaphony, Descant.</span><br /> - -Ponchielli, Amilcare, II. 478, 503.<br /> - -Pontifical Choir, I. 318.<br /> - -Popular music (modern), I. xlviii.<br /> - -Porges, Heinrich, III. <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> - -Porpora, Nicola, I. 400f, 436;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 4ff, 85.</span><br /> - -Porta, Constanzo, I. 304.<br /> - -Portman, M. V., cited, I. 9.<br /> - -Portraiture musical (in 17th cent. harpsichord music), I. 411f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 123.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Characterization.</span><br /> - -Portugal, III. <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.<br /> - -Pougin, Arthur, II. 209.<br /> - -Prague, II. 107, 235;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span><br /> - -Pre-Raphaelites, III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> - -Prelude (origin of form), I. 353;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 317;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(dramatic), see Overture.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Chorale prelude.</span><br /> - -<em>Premier coup d'archet</em>, II. 104.<br /> - -Prévost, L'Abbé ('Manon Lescaut'), II. 210.<br /> - -Primitive music, I. xxxviii, xli, xliii, <em>1ff</em>.<br /> - -Printing of music. See Music printing.<br /> - -Prix de Rome, II. 254.<br /> - -Program music, I. li;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(16th cent.), I. 276f, 296f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(17th cent.), I. 411f, 416;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 458;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 172;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Berlioz), II. 351ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Liszt), II. 359ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(defense of), II. 367ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(impressionistic), III. <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</span><br /> - -Prokofieff, S., III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Prosa. See Sequences.<br /> - -Prose, in opera, III. <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> - -Prosodies (Greek), I. 117.<br /> - -Prosody, I. xxxiv.<br /> - -Protestant Church. See Lutheran Church.<br /> - -Protestant Reformation. See Reformation.<br /> - -Prout, Ebenezer, III. <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br /> - -Provence, I. 205.<br /> - -Psalmody, I. 140, 142f.<br /> - -Psychology (in program music), III. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in music drama), III. <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the song), III. <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span><br /> - -Ptolemy, Claudius, I. 110, 132.<br /> - -Publishing. See Music publishing.<br /> - -Puccini, Giacomo, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, -<a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <em><a href="#Page_372">372</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Puffendorf, II. 47.<br /> - -Pukuta Yemnga, I. 15.<br /> - -Purcell, Henry, I. 385, <em>388ff</em>, 431, 433;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Händel), I. 439.</span><br /> - -Pushkin, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> - -Pythagoras, I. 90ff, 105ff.<br /> - -Pythic festivals, I. 113.<br /> - -Pythic games, I. 94.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">Q</p> - -<p>Quantz, Joachim, I. 468;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 58.</span><br /> - -Quarter-tones, I. 39f, 47, 49, 113;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 332.</span><br /> - -Quartet. See String quartet.<br /> - -Queens Hall Orchestra, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Quichua Indians, I. 45.<br /> - -Quilter, Roger, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Quinault, II. 34.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">R</p> - -<p>Rabaud, Henri, III. <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Rachmaninoff, Sergei Vassilievich, III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, -<a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a>, <em><a href="#Page_151">151</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -Racine, Jean (and Lully), I. 409;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 31.</span><br /> - -Radecke, Robert, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Radnai, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Raff, Joachim, II. 322, 346f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Raga, I. 49.<br /> - -'Ragtime,' I. 11;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> - -'Rákoczy March,' II. 341f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> - -Rameau, Jean Philippe, I. 398, <em>413f</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 1, 21, 68, 351;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</span><br /> - -Ramis de Pareja, B., I. 269.<br /> - -Ranat (Burmese instrument), I. 53.<br /> - -Raphael, I. 327.<br /> - -Rasoumowsky quartet, II. 143.<br /> - -Rationalism, II. 48.<br /> - -Rattle (as instrument), I. 14f, 35, 52.<br /> - -Ravanello, III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Ravel, Maurice, III. <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, -<a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <em><a href="#Page_335">335</a>f</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Debussy), III. <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span><br /> - -Rawlinson, George (cited), I. 78.<br /> - -Realism, III. <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Verismo.</span><br /> - -Rebikoff, Vladimir, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>f.<br /> - -Recitative, I. 331f, 335, 381f, 385, 386f, 389;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French), I. 406, 408;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 3, 10;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(accompanied), I. 393;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 16, 182;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in German church music), I. 453, 480;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 477, 490;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Gluck), II. 26;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Rossini), II, 178, 182, 187;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 431.</span><br /> - -<em>Recitativo secco.</em> See Recitative.<br /> - -Reformation, I. 288ff, 387.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Church, Lutheran.</span><br /> - -Reger, Max, III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <em><a href="#Page_231">231</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, -<a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(songs), III. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</span><br /> - -Regino, I. 145.<br /> - -Reicha, Anton, III. <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> - -Reichardt, Johann Friedrich, II. 277, 374;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> - -Reinecke, Carl, II. 263;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_11"><em>11ff</em></a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span><br /> - -Reinken, Jan Adams, I. 451, 457.<br /> - -Reinthaler, Karl, III. <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.<br /> - -Reiser, Alois, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Reissiger, Karl Gottlob, II. 409.<br /> - -Reiteration, I. xli, xlii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 63.</span><br /> - -Rékai, Ferdinand, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Relativity in art, I. lv.<br /> - -Religion, I. xliv, xlvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in rel. to exotic music), I. 50, 55;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on Minnesang), I. 222;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence on German music), II. 48.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Church.</span><br /> - -Religious emotions (plain-song), I. 157f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in music of Bach), I. 452, 454.</span><br /> - -Religious music. See Church music.<br /> - -'Reliques,' Percy's, II. 129, 223.<br /> - -Reményi, Eduard, II. 451.<br /> - -Renaissance (the), I. 214, 258ff, 306, 322.<br /> - -Requiem (Mozart), II. 108, 125;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Berlioz), II. 398;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Verdi), II. 498.</span><br /> - -Retroensa, I. 208.<br /> - -Reutter, Georg, II. 62, 84.<br /> - -Revolutions (Carbonarist), II. 184;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French), II. 42, 75, 155, 213ff, 443;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of 1830), II. 207, 241, 246;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(of 1848), II. 413f.</span><br /> - -Reyer, Ernest, II. 390, 438.<br /> - -Reznicek, Emil Nikolaus von, III. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Rheinberger, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <em><a href="#Page_210">210</a>f</em>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Rhythm, I. xiii, xliii-ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in primitive music), I. 11f, 20f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Oriental music), I. 63;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian music), I. 68;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian music), I. 82;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek music), I. 96, 98, 112, 126;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(plain-song), I. 144;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(measured music), I. 175, 176ff, 185;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval folk-song), I. 194f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Troubadours), I. 209f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(ars nova), I. 229, 266;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(absence of, in Palestrina style), I. 321, 323, 348f, 351;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 17th cent. instrumental music), I. 351, 361, 364f, 369ff, 371, 373;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Carissimi oratorios), I. 386;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 475f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lully), I. 486;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(opéra comique composers), II. 209f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chopin), II. 315;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Wagner), II. 435;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 461;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Tschaikowsky), III. <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> - -Ricci, Frederico, II. 503.<br /> - -Ricercar, I. 356ff.<br /> - -Richepin, Jean, III. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Richter, Franz Xaver, II. 67.<br /> - -Richter, Hans, II. 422.<br /> - -Richter, Jean Paul, II. 263, 306.<br /> - -Ricordi, Tito, III. <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.<br /> - -Riddle canons, I. 247.<br /> - -Riemann, Hugo, II. 8, 60;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted), I. 88, 115, 121, 137, 165, 207, 225, 229, 231, 264, 274, 303f, 438, 443, 476;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 8, 25, 66, 117f, 120, 125;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</span><br /> - -Ries, Franz (b. 1755), II. 131, 145.<br /> - -Ries, Franz (b. 1846), III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Rietz, Eduard, III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> - -Rietz, Julius, III. <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> - -Rimsky-Korsakoff, Nicholas Andreievitch, II. 35, 53;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, -<a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <em><a href="#Page_123">123</a>ff</em>, -<a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted on Moussorgsky), III. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(and Stravinsky), III. <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span><br /> - -Rinuccini, Ottavio, I. 328, 332f, 343;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 3.</span><br /> - -Riquier, Guirant, I. 211.<br /> - -Ritornello, I. 336.<br /> - -Riseley, George, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Ritter, Alexander, III. <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.<br /> - -Robert of Normandy, I. 205.<br /> - -Roble, Garcia, III. <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -Rockstro, W. S. (quoted), I. 233, 427, 440.<br /> - -Roger-Ducasse, III. <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> - -Rogers, Benjamin, I. 373.<br /> - -Rohrau, II. 90.<br /> - -Rolland, Romain, cited, I. 312f, 325, 336;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 253, 254, 283f.</span><br /> - -Roman empire, I. 130ff, 187.<br /> - -Romance (Troubadour form), I. 207.<br /> - -Romanticism, I. xvi, lvi;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 129, 267;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French), III. <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Russian), III. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(German), II. 129;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Romantic Movement.</span><br /> - -Romantic Movement, II. 213-268;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(song literature), II. 269-292;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(pianoforte and chamber music), II. 292-333;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(orchestral music), II. 334-371;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(opera and choral song), II. 372-400;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(by- and after-currents), III. <a href="#Page_1">1</a>-36.</span><br /> - -Romberg, Andreas, and Bernhard, II. 132.<br /> - -Rome,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 314ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early opera), I. 327, 378f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Händel), I. 428;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Jommelli), II. 11.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Church, Roman.</span><br /> - -Ronald, Landon, III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Rondeau, I. 195.<br /> - -Rondet de carol, I. 208.<br /> - -Rondo, II. 54, 167.<br /> - -Rootham, C. B., III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Ropartz, Guy, III. <a href="#Page_313">313</a>f.<br /> - -Rore, Cipriano di, I. 273, 275, 302f.<br /> - -Rosa, Carl, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Rose, Algernon (cited), I. 31.<br /> - -Rossbach, battle of, II. 48.<br /> - -Rossi, Gaetano, works of, II. 187, 196.<br /> - -Rossi, Luigi, I. 379, 385f.<br /> - -Rossi, Salvatore, I. 367.<br /> - -Rossini, Gioachino Antonio, II. 180ff, 503.<br /> - -Rotta, I. 211.<br /> - -Rousseau, Jean Jacques, I. 162;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 24, 28, 29, 32, 35.</span><br /> - -Roussel, Albert, III. <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <em><a href="#Page_363">363</a></em>.<br /> - -Royal Academy of Music (London), I. 432ff.<br /> - -Rozkosny, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> - -Rubens, Paul, III. <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> - -Rubenson, Albert, III. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>f.<br /> - -Rubini, Giovanni Battista, II. 185, 194.<br /> - -Rubinstein, Anton, II. 459;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Rubinstein, Nicolai, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> - -Ruckers family, I. 373f.<br /> - -Rucziszka, II. 225.<br /> - -Rudolph, Archduke of Austria, II. 133.<br /> - -Rue, Pierre de la, I. 248.<br /> - -Rungenhagen, Karl Friedrich, III. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> - -Rupff, Konrad, I. 290f.<br /> - -Ruskin, John (quoted), II. 267.<br /> - -Russian ballet, III. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br /> - -Russian church music, III. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>ff.<br /> - -Russian Imperial Musical Society, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> - -Russian music, I. 63;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(romanticists), III. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(neo-romanticists), III. <a href="#Page_47">47</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(nationalists), III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(contemporary), III. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(folk-song), III. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(church music), III. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern eclectics), III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>f.</span><br /> - -Ruzicska, III. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.<br /> - -Rydberg, III. <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">S</p> - -<p>Sabbata, Vittore de, III. <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <em><a href="#Page_391">391</a></em>.<br /> - -Sacchini, Antonio, II. 14.<br /> - -Sachs, Hans, I. 223ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 421;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</span><br /> - -Sackbut. See Trombone.<br /> - -Sacred drama. See Oratorio.<br /> - -Sacred music. See also Church music; Cantata; Oratorio, etc.<br /> - -Sacred representations (sacre rappresentazione), III. <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> - -St. Ambrose, hymns of, I. 135ff, 142f.<br /> - -St. Augustine, I. 135, 137, 141.<br /> - -St. Basil, I. 140.<br /> - -St. Foix, G. de (cited), II. 67 (footnote), 103.<br /> - -St. Gregory, I. 144ff, 151, 156.<br /> - -St. Hilarius, I. 142.<br /> - -St. Leo the Great, I. 143.<br /> - -St. Petersburg (18th cent. composers), II. 15;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(composers at court of Catherine II), II. 79.</span><br /> - -St. Petersburg Conservatory, II. 40; III. <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> - -St. Petersburg Free School of Music, III. <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> - -St. Petersburg Opera, III. <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> - -St. Petersburg pitch, II. 40.<br /> - -Saint-Saëns, II. 418, 438;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, -<a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>f, -<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <em><a href="#Page_31">31</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, -<a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted on Oriental music), I. 52f.</span><br /> - -Saint-Simonism, II. 246.<br /> - -Saldoni, Baltasar, III. <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> - -Salieri, Antonio, II. 37, 39f, 92, 225, 238.<br /> - -Salle Favart, II. 43.<br /> - -Salo, Gasparo da, I. 362.<br /> - -Salomon, Johann Peter, II. 89.<br /> - -Salon de la Rose-Croix, III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Salvai (Signora), I. 434.<br /> - -Salzburg, II. 73f, 101ff.<br /> - -Samazeuilh, Gustave, III. <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.<br /> - -Sammartini, Giovanni Battista, II. 19, 114.<br /> - -Samisen (Japanese instrument), I. 53.<br /> - -Sand, Georges, II. 257.<br /> - -Sanderson, Wilfred, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Sanko (African instrument), I. 30.<br /> - -Santoliquido, Francesco, III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> - -Sappho, I. 115.<br /> - -Sarabande, I. 371f, 423.<br /> - -Sarti, Giuseppe, II. 40.<br /> - -Sarto, Andrea del, I. 327.<br /> - -Satie, Erik, III. <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <em><a href="#Page_361">361</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Savages, music of. See Primitive Music.<br /> - -[La] Scala, II. 484.<br /> - -Scalero, Rosario, III. <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - -Scales (primitive), I. 6ff, 21ff, 27f, 31, 45;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Chinese), I. 46ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Oriental), I. 51, 63;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(pentatonic), I. 45ff, 69, 164;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek system), I. 99ff, 113, 110, 301;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(octatonic), I. 114, 165;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early Christian), I. 152, 164;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(hexachordal division), I. 169;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern tonality), I. 301;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(harmonic and melodic minor), I. 301 (footnote);</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(equal temperament), I. 483, 485ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Modes; Modulation.</span><br /> - -Scalp Dance, I. 34.<br /> - -Scandinavia, III. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden.</span><br /> - -Scarlatti, Alessandro, I. 347, 388, <em>392ff</em>, 397f, 401, 409;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 5.</span><br /> - -Scarlatti, Domenico, I. 397ff, 453;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 51, 55, 60.</span><br /> - -Scenic display (in 16th cent. pastoral), I. 328;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Venetian opera), I. 382;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 17th cent. opera), I. 376f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early French ballet), I. 402ff.</span><br /> - -Schaden, Dr. von, II. 135.<br /> - -Schantz, F. von, III. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Scharwenka, Philipp, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Scharwenka, Xaver, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Scheffer, Ary, II. 388.<br /> - -Schenck, Johann, II. 138.<br /> - -Schering, Arnold, cited, I. 443.<br /> - -Scherzo, II. 54, 167, 170, 311f, 318f.<br /> - -Schikaneder, Anton, II. 108, 109, 124.<br /> - -Schiller ('Ode to Joy'), II. 171.<br /> - -Schillings, Max, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>f.<br /> - -Schindler, Anton, II. 133, 143.<br /> - -Schjelderup, Gerhard, III. <a href="#Page_99">99</a>f.<br /> - -Schlesinger, Kathleen, III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.<br /> - -Schmitt, Florent, III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xviii">xviii</a>, -<a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <em><a href="#Page_364">364</a></em>.<br /> - -Schobert, Johann, II. 67ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence on Mozart, II. 67, 102.</span><br /> - -Schola Cantorum (mediæval), I. 141, 146, 147.<br /> - -Schola Cantorum (Paris), III. <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.<br /> - -Schönberg, Arnold, II. 369;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Schönbrunn, II. 22.<br /> - -Schoolcraft, quoted, I. 37.<br /> - -Schools of composition, I. xii-ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(conflict of, in classic period), II. 62;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rise of nationalistic), II. 216;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Berlin school, Leipzig school, Mannheim school, Netherland schools, Romantic Movement, Venetian school, Viennese classics, also Impressionism, Realism, also England, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Scandinavia, etc.</span><br /> - -Schopenhauer, II. 173, 415, 417.<br /> - -Schubert, Franz, I. xvi;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 115, <em>221ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(songs), II. 279ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(pianoforte works), II. 299ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(operas), II. 380;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(general), III. <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span><br /> - -Schumann, Clara, II. 264, 449, 452, 453, 455, 457;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> - -Schumann, Georg, III. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> - -Schumann, Robert, I. xvi, lvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 262ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(as song writer), II. 284ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(pianoforte works), II. 304ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(operas), II. 380;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(antagonism to Wagner and Liszt), II. 448f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(general), III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>ff, -<a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> - -Schumann-Mendelssohn tradition, III. <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> - -Schuppanzigh, Ignaz, II. 143, 152.<br /> - -Schuré, Édouard, II. 208.<br /> - -Schütz, Heinrich, I. 384f, 387, 424, 478, 480.<br /> - -Schweitzer, Albert, I. 476.<br /> - -Schytte, Ludwig, III. <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> - -Scotland (folk-song), I. xliii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</span><br /> - -Scott, Cyril, III. <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.<br /> - -Scott, [Sir] Walter, II. 194, 209, 223.<br /> - -Scotti, Antonio, III. <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.<br /> - -Scriabine, Alexander, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, -<a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <em><a href="#Page_156">156</a>ff</em>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.<br /> - -Scribe, Eugene, II. 187, 200, 203, 210.<br /> - -Scudo, Paul, quoted, II. 209.<br /> - -Sculpture (art of), I. xxix.<br /> - -Sebastiani, Johann, I. 481.<br /> - -Secular music, mediæval, I. 186ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in conflict with church music), I. 227;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early polyphonic), I. 230f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in the mass), I. 242, 313, 320;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Lutheran hymns), I. 290.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Folk-songs; Instrumental music; Madrigals, etc.</span><br /> - -Seghers, Antoine, III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Selinoff, III. <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> - -Selmer, Johann, III. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>f.<br /> - -Senesino, Francesco Bernardi, I. 434, 437;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 4, 185.</span><br /> - -Senfl, Ludwig, I. 288, 304f.<br /> - -Sequences, I. 149f.<br /> - -Serenade (Troubadours), I. 207;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(orchestral), II. 115.</span><br /> - -Sergius II, and early church music, I. 167.<br /> - -Sérieyx, Auguste, III. <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> - -Serpent (instrument), II. 341.<br /> - -Sévérac, Déodat de, III. <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.<br /> - -Serrao, Paolo, II. 11.<br /> - -Seven Years' War, II. 50.<br /> - -Sexual attraction, as the cause of music, I. 4f.<br /> - -Sgambati, Giovanni, III. <a href="#Page_386">386</a>f.<br /> - -Shakespeare, I. xiv;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 139, 380, 388, 488f, 500;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> - -Sharp (origin of), I. 156.<br /> - -Sharp, Cecil, III. <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.<br /> - -Shelley, I. xlv.<br /> - -Shophar (Hebraic instrument), I. 73.<br /> - -Shukovsky, III. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> - -Siam, I. 53, 57f.<br /> - -Sibelius, Jean, III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, -<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <em><a href="#Page_101">101</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -Siklós, III. <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> - -Silbermann, Gottfried, II. 163.<br /> - -Silcher, Friedrich, II. 276.<br /> - -Silvestre, Armand, III. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Simonides, I. 118.<br /> - -Simphonies d'Allemagne, II. 13, 67.<br /> - -Simrock (publisher), II. 132, 147.<br /> - -Sinding, Christian, III. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <em><a href="#Page_96">96</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Sinfonia, I. 368;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 54, 66 (footnote).</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Overture (Italian).</span><br /> - -Sinfonietta, III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> - -Singers (18th cent.), I. 423, 427;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 4, 6, 10, 21, 26, 33, 39;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(19th cent.), II. 185.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Opera Singers.</span><br /> - -'Singing allegro,' II. 8, 52.<br /> - -Singing masters (early famous), I. 250, 329ff, 333ff, 400, 436.<br /> - -Singspiel, II. 9, 106, 123, 236, 277, 374;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Danish), II. 40;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Opera, German.</span><br /> - -Sinigaglia, Leone, III. <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.<br /> - -Sjögren, Emil, III. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <em><a href="#Page_81">81</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Skroup, Frantisek, III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> - -Skuherský, Franz, III. <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> - -Slavs (folk-song of), I. xliii.<br /> - -Smareglia, Antonio, III. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.<br /> - -Smetana, Friedrich, III. <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, -<a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>ff, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</span><br /> - -Smithson, Henriette, II. 254, 354.<br /> - -Smolenski, Stepan Vassilievitch, III. <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> - -Smyth, Ethel Mary, III. <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.<br /> - -Snake Dances, I. 14, 34.<br /> - -Social conditions, influence of, I. xxxv.<br /> - -Socialism, III. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.<br /> - -Société des Jeunes Artistes du Conservatoire, III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Société de Sainte Cécile, III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> - -Société Nationale de Musique Française, III. <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> - -Society of Authors, Playwrights and Composers, III. <a href="#Page_435">435</a>f.<br /> - -Sociological music drama, III. <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<br /> - -Sokoloff, Nikolai Alexandrovich, III. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> - -Solfeggi, II. 4.<br /> - -Solo, vocal (in 14th cent. art music), I. 262;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in 16th cent.), I. 281f.</span><br /> - -Solo melody. See Monody.<br /> - -Soloman, Edward, III. <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.<br /> - -Somervell, Arthur, III. <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br /> - -Sommer, Hans. III. <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Sonata. See Pianoforte sonata; Violin sonata; Sonata da camera; Sonata da chiesa; Sonata form.<br /> - -Sonata da camera, I. 369ff, 395f.<br /> - -Sonata da chiesa, I. 357, 365ff, 395f.<br /> - -Sonata form, I. xiv-f, xxvi, l-f, lii, lvi, 8, <em>52ff</em>, 58, 72, 174f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</span><br /> - -Sonata period, I. xli.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Mannheim school; Viennese classics.</span><br /> - -Song. See Folk-song; Art-song; Part-song; Secular music, mediæval.<br /> - -Song cycles (Beethoven), II. 278, 282;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert), II. 282f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schumann), II. 287f.</span><br /> - -Song form. See Binary form.<br /> - -Song style, I. lix.<br /> - -Sonnenfels (quoted), II. 29.<br /> - -Sontag, Henriette, II. 185.<br /> - -Sophistication (rhythmic), I. xlv-ff.<br /> - -Soula (Troubadour form), I. 207.<br /> - -Sound-producing materials (Chinese classification), I. 48.<br /> - -South America (primitive instruments), I. 22.<br /> - -Spain, modern, III. <a href="#Page_403">403</a>ff.<br /> - -Spanish color. See Local color.<br /> - -Spanish influence, on music of American Indians, I. 38f.<br /> - -Späth, Friedrich, II. 163.<br /> - -Spencer, Herbert, I. 4f.<br /> - -Spendiaroff, A., III. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Spinelli, Niccola, III. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Spitta, Philipp, I. 455, 467.<br /> - -Spohr, Ludwig, II. 329ff, 331f, 346f, 377, 386, 397.<br /> - -Spontini, Gasparo, II. 197ff.<br /> - -Sports, in rel. to music, I. 6.<br /> - -Squire, William Barclay, III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Stage directions (Cavalieri's), I. 335.<br /> - -Stainer, [Sir] John, III. <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br /> - -Stainer and Bell (publishers), III. <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.<br /> - -Stamitz, Johann, I. xiv (footnote), 481;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 8, 12, 57, <em>63ff</em>, 67, 94.</span><br /> - -Stanford, [Sir] C. Villiers, III. <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <em><a href="#Page_419">419</a></em>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.<br /> - -Standfuss, II. 8.<br /> - -Stassoff, Vladimir, III. <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> - -Stcherbacheff, N. V., III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> - -Steffani, Agostino, I. 429.<br /> - -Stegliano, Prince, II. 8.<br /> - -Steibelt, Daniel, II. 161.<br /> - -Stein, Johann Andreas, II. 163, 231.<br /> - -Steinberg, Maximilian, III. <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Stendhal (Henri Beyle), quoted, II. 186.<br /> - -Stenhammer, Wilhelm, III. <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <em><a href="#Page_85">85</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Stepán, W., III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> - -Stephan I, King of Hungary, III. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.<br /> - -Stile rappresentativo, I. 330ff, 335.<br /> - -Stillfried, Ignaz von, II. 71.<br /> - -Stockholm, II. 79;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> - -Stolzer, Thomas, III. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.<br /> - -Stone Age, instruments of, I. 24f.<br /> - -Strabo, cited, I. 77, 85.<br /> - -Stradella, Alessandro, I. 441f.<br /> - -Strindberg, August, III. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> - -Stradivari, Antonio, I. 362.<br /> - -Strauss, Johann, II. 455, 460;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br /> - -Strauss, Richard, I. xvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 362, 411;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, -<a href="#Page_xx">xx,</a><a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>f, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <em><a href="#Page_213">213</a>ff</em>, -<a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <em><a href="#Page_249">249</a>ff</em>, <em><a href="#Page_265">265</a></em>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted on Verdi), II. 501.</span><br /> - -Stravinsky, Igor, III. <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>-f, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>f, <em><a href="#Page_161">161</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -Streicher, Nanette, II. 142.<br /> - -Streicher, Theodor, III. <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Strepponi, Giuseppina, II. 485.<br /> - -Striggio, Alessandro, I. 276f.<br /> - -String instruments (primitive), I. 28;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(exotic), I. 53f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 65f, 68f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 122ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval), I. 211;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 335, 338, 339, 340, 342.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Double bass; Harp; Lute; Organistrum; Rotta; Viol; Viola; Violin; Violoncello.</span><br /> - -String quartet, I. xii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 69ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn), II. 97;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 114;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 165, 167, 170;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert), II. 328f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Spohr), II. 329f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 467;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Verdi), II. 498.</span><br /> - -Stumpff, Karl, II. 132.<br /> - -Stuttgart, II. 12, 78.<br /> - -Styles (differentiation of), I. lviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(conflict of, in classic period), II. 51, 62.</span><br /> - -Subjectivity. See Personal expression.<br /> - -Subjects. See Themes.<br /> - -Suite (the), I. xiii-f, 369ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 52, 54;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 472, 474f, 489;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern orchestral), III. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), III. <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span><br /> - -Suk, Joseph, III. <a href="#Page_182">182</a>f.<br /> - -Suk, Vása, III. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> - -Sullivan, [Sir] Arthur, III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>f.<br /> - -Sully-Prudhomme, III. <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -'Sumer is icumen in,' I. 237.<br /> - -Suppé, Franz von, III. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br /> - -Suspension, I. xlvii.<br /> - -Süssmayr, François Xaver, II. 125.<br /> - -Svendsen, Johann, III. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -Sweden (political aspects), III. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(folk-music), III. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern composers), III. <a href="#Page_79">79</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Sweelinck, Peter, I. 358ff.<br /> - -Switzerland (Reformation), I. 294.<br /> - -Symbolism, III. <a href="#Page_229">229</a>ff, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Impressionism.</span><br /> - -Symbolist poets, influence of, on modern French music, III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -Symonds, John Addington, quoted, I. 64, 188, 258ff, 268.<br /> - -Symons, Arthur, quoted, II. 153, 159, 160, 169.<br /> - -Symphonic form (modern), III. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(applied to song), III. <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Symphony.</span><br /> - -Symphonic poem (the), II. 361ff, 390, 475;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</span><br /> - -Symphony (the), I. xv-ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 65ff, 126f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn), II. 93ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 115ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 165, 166, 170f, 173, 174;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Schubert), II. 344f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(romanticists), II. 345ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 456, 466, 468;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Franck), II. 472;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern evolution), III. <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>ff, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(choreographic), III. <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern Italian), III. <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Sinfonia; also Overture.</span><br /> - -Sympson, Christopher, I. 367.<br /> - -Syncopation, I. xlvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 462.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Ragtime.</span><br /> - -Swieten, Baron van, II. 91.<br /> - -Szendi, A., III. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">T</p> - -<p>Tablatures, I. 157, 261, 285.<br /> - -Tagelied, I. 218.<br /> - -Taine (quoted), II. 112.<br /> - -Talbot, Howard, III. <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> - -Tallis, Thomas, I. 305.<br /> - -Tambura (Hindoo instrument), I. 54.<br /> - -Tamburini, II. 185, 193.<br /> - -Taneieff, Sergei Ivanovich, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a>, -<a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <em><a href="#Page_148">148</a>ff</em>.<br /> - -Tannhäuser (minnesinger), I. 218.<br /> - -Tarenghi, III. <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.<br /> - -Tartini, Giuseppe, II. 50.<br /> - -Tasca, III. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.<br /> - -Tasso, I. 327;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 363.</span><br /> - -Taubert, Wilhelm, III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> - -Taubmann, Otto, III. <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> - -Tausig, Karl, II. 442.<br /> - -Tchaikovsky. See Tchaikovsky.<br /> - -Tcherepnine, III. <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - -Tchesnikoff, III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> - -Te Deums (Florentine festivals), I. 326;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Purcell and Händel), II. 432.</span><br /> - -Technique, in musical composition, III. <a href="#Page_110">110</a>f.<br /> - -Teile, Johann, I. 422.<br /> - -Telemann, Friedrich, I. 415, 422f, 452ff, 465;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 45.</span><br /> - -Temperament, equal. See Equal temperament.<br /> - -Temple, Hope, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Ternary form. See Sonata form.<br /> - -Terpander, I. 112ff.<br /> - -Tertis, Lionel, III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Tetrachords, I. 99, 101ff, 151, 169, 300.<br /> - -Thalberg, Sigismund, II. 313;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> - -Thaletas, I. 116.<br /> - -Thamyris, I. 111.<br /> - -Thayer, John Wheelock (quoted), II. 138, 143, 162.<br /> - -Théâtre des Italiens (Paris), II. 188, 193.<br /> - -Théâtre Feydeau, II. 42.<br /> - -Theatres (Greek), I. 120f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Renaissance), I. 325.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Opera houses.</span><br /> - -Theme and variations (in sonata), II. 54.<br /> - -Themes, I. lix;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(transformation of), II. 363.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Generative theme.</span><br /> - -Theory of music (ancient Greek), I. 91, 127.<br /> - -Theory vs. practice, I. xxxvii.<br /> - -Tonality (in musical form), I. xxxix, xlix, l.<br /> - -Thespis, I. 120.<br /> - -Thibaut, I. 320.<br /> - -Thirty Years' War, I. 293f, 417.<br /> - -Thomas, Arthur Goring, III. <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <em><a href="#Page_417">417</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Thomas, Charles-Louis-Ambroise, II. 388;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</span><br /> - -Thomasschule (Leipzig), II. 262.<br /> - -Thompson (author of 'The Seasons'), II. 91.<br /> - -Thoroughbass. See Counterpoint.<br /> - -Thrane, Waldemar, III. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br /> - -Thuille, Ludwig, III. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.<br /> - -Thun, Countess, II. 86.<br /> - -Tiersot, Julien (cited), I. 43, 190, 194, 199, 339;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 43, 472.</span><br /> - -Timbre. See Tone Color.<br /> - -Time (in measured music), I. 229f.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Rhythm.</span><br /> - -Tinctoris, cited, I. 239, 244.<br /> - -Tintoretto, I. 327f.<br /> - -Tinya (Peruvian instrument), I. 53.<br /> - -Toccata, I. 356, 358f, 450f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 307.</span><br /> - -Toëschi, Carlo Giuseppe, II. 67.<br /> - -Tolstoy, II. 418;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</span><br /> - -Tomášek, III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> - -Tonality, in Greek music, I. 100;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(confusion of, in modern music), III. <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Keys; Modulation; Scales.</span><br /> - -Tone, definition of, I. 1.<br /> - -Tone color, I. liii, lix.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See Instrumentation.</span><br /> - -Tonga Islands, I. 18.<br /> - -Tonic key (in sonata form), II. 55, 56.<br /> - -Torchi, Luigi, III. <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(quoted), III. <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</span><br /> - -Toscanini, Arturo, III. <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.<br /> - -Tosti, Paolo, III. <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.<br /> - -Tovey, Donald Francis, III. <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.<br /> - -Traetto, Tommaso, II. 14.<br /> - -Tragedy (Greek), I. 120, 329;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 9.</span><br /> - -Transcriptions, I. xix.<br /> - -Transformation of themes, II. 363.<br /> - -Transposition, I. 249.<br /> - -Transposition scales (Greek), I. 103ff.<br /> - -Tremolo (instrumental), I. 345, 368.<br /> - -Triads, I. 19, 269f, 320.<br /> - -Trigonon (Egyptian), I. 79.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p>Trio-sonata, II. 54, 59, 65.</p> -</div> - -<p>Triple time (in early church music), I. 229.<br /> - -Trombone (primitive), I. 24;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early Italian music), I. 344, 363;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early French ballet), I. 402;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 341.</span><br /> - -Tropes, I. 150.<br /> - -Troubadours, I. 203, 204ff, 216f, 228, 260, 267.<br /> - -Trovatori, I. 261.<br /> - -Trumpet (primitive), I. 21;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 66;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Egyptian), I. 81;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 125;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 265, 335, 337, 338, 340, 341, 342;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(valve), II. 340.</span><br /> - -Tschaikowsky, Peter Ilyitch, I. xvii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 108, 440;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_xvi">xvi</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, -<em><a href="#Page_52">52ff</a></em>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, -<a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(on Balakireff), III. <a href="#Page_111">111</a> (footnote).</span><br /> - -Tscherepnine. See Tcherepnine.<br /> - -Tschesnikoff. See Tchesnikoff.<br /> - -Tuba, II. 341.<br /> - -Tubri, Hindoo, I. 54.<br /> - -Turgenieff, II. 238;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> - -Turini, Francesco, I. 368.<br /> - -Tye, Christopher, I. 305.<br /> - -Tympani. See Kettledrums.<br /> - -Tyrtæus, I. 118.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">U</p> - -<p>Ugolino, Baccio, I. 326.<br /> - -Uhland, Ludwig, II. 223, 291.<br /> - -Ultra-modern schools. See France; Germany; Russia, etc.<br /> - -Umlauf, Ignaz, II. 106.<br /> - -Usandizaga, K., III. <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">V</p> - -<p>Vaccal, Niccolò, II. 196.<br /> - -Valve instruments, II. 340.<br /> - -Van den Eeden, Gilles, II. 131.<br /> - -Vanhall, Johann Baptist, II. 81, 114.<br /> - -Variation of musical phrases, I. xlii.<br /> - -Variations (in sonata), II. 54;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(French), II. 473;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern use), III. <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span><br /> - -Vasari, George, cited, I. 328.<br /> - -Vassilenko, Sergius, III. <a href="#Page_159">159</a>f.<br /> - -Vecchi, Orazio, I. 276ff, 280.<br /> - -'Venerable Bede,' I. 145, 147.<br /> - -Venetian school, I. 298, 301f, 306, 346.<br /> - -Venezia, Franco da, III. <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> - -Venice (17th cent.), I. 327, 356, 377ff, 387;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), II. 2, 11, 40, 181;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(opera houses in), II. 179;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Verdi), II. 487ff.</span><br /> - -Ventadour, Bernard de, I. 211.<br /> - -Verdelot, Philippe, I. 273f, 277.<br /> - -Verdi, Giuseppe, II. 207, <em>477ff</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(followers of), III. <a href="#Page_366">366</a>ff.</span><br /> - -Verismo, III. <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>ff.<br /> - -Verlaine, Paul, III. <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> - -Vernet, Horace, II. 191.<br /> - -Verona (Philharmonic Academy), II. 103.<br /> - -Verstovsky, Alexei Nikolajevitch, III. <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> - -Vers (Troubadour lyric), I. 206.<br /> - -Vestris (dancer), II. 33.<br /> - -Vidal, Peire, I. 211.<br /> - -Vienna (Gluck), II. 17, 19ff, 37;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(18th cent.), II. 31, 40, 44, 50, 71, 76, 77, <em>79ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Haydn), II. 84, 85, 92;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 102, 105, 107, 108, 114;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(first German opera), II. 106;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 132, 140ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Donizetti), II. 194;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Meyerbeer), II. 199;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(19th cent.), II. 222f, 312f.</span><br /> - -Viennese classics, II. 63, 75-178, 227.<br /> - -Viennese school, modern, III. <a href="#Page_271">271</a>ff.<br /> - -Vierling, Georg, III. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> - -Vieuxtemps, Henri, III. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> - -Villoteau, Guillaume André, quoted, I. 51.<br /> - -Vina (Hindoo instrument), I. 49, 53f.<br /> - -Vinci, Leonardo, I. 400f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 6.</span><br /> - -Vinci, Leonardo da (the painter), I. 325, 327f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</span><br /> - -Viol, I. 211.<br /> - -Viola (the), II. 96, 338, 343.<br /> - -Viola, Alphonso della, I. 327.<br /> - -Viola, Gian Pietro della, I. 326.<br /> - -Violin (in early Germany), I. 198;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(development in 17th cent.), I. 362;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in early French music), I. 402;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in modern orchestra), II. 338, 339, 341, 343.</span><br /> - -Violin concerto (Mozart), II. 115;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 165;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Spohr and Mendelssohn), II. 332f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 456;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Tschaikowsky), III. <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Strauss), III. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Saint-Saëns), III. <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</span><br /> - -Violin makers, Italian, I. 362.<br /> - -Violin music (early), I. 362;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Corelli), I. 394ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 474f, 483, 489;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Spohr, etc.), II. 331f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern Italian), III. <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Violin Sonata.</span><br /> - -Violin playing (Mozart's method), II. 73.<br /> - -Violin sonata (Corelli, etc.), I. 394;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 51;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Mozart), II. 114;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Beethoven), II. 166;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Brahms), II. 456;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Franck), II. 471, 472.</span><br /> - -Violoncello, II. 338, 341.<br /> - -Violoncello music (Bach), I. 483, 489.<br /> - -Viotti, Giovanni Battista, II. 90.<br /> - -Virginal music. See Harpsichord music.<br /> - -Virtuoso composers (piano), III. <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> - -Virtuosos, I. 216f, 351.<br /> - -Vitali, Giovanni Battista, I. 365f.<br /> - -Vitruvius (cited), I. 133.<br /> - -Vitry, Philippe de, I. 228.<br /> - -Vittoria, Tom. Ludovico de, I. 321.<br /> - -Vivaldi, Antonio, I. 396, 471.<br /> - -Vives, Amedeo, III. <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> - -Vocal element in symphonic music, III. <a href="#Page_228">228</a>f.<br /> - -Vocal music, I. xx, xlviii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(basis of music), I. 4;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(primitive), I. 17, 44;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 68;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 95f, 117ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(plain-song), I. 128-159;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early polyphony), I. 160-184;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(beginnings of harmony), I. 161f, 172f, 181f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(mediæval secular), I. 186-225;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Netherland schools), I. 226-257;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(14th cent. solo), I. 260ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(madrigals), I. 171ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Reformation), I. 288ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Lasso), I. 307ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Palestrina), I. 311;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(expressive style), I. 329ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(early 17th cent.), I. 348ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Bach), I. 452ff, 489f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(romantic period), II. 394ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Aria; Art-song; Choral music; Cantata; Mass; Oratorio; Passion Oratorio; Plain-song.</span><br /> - -Vocalizing without text, III. <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<br /> - -Vocalizzi, II. 4.<br /> - -Vogl, Johann Michael, II. 225.<br /> - -Vogler, Abbé, II. 199.<br /> - -Voice. See Singers, Singing masters;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(use of, in symphonic works);</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">see Vocal element.</span><br /> - -Volkmann, Robert, III. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> - -Volkslied. See Folk-song (German).<br /> - -Voltaire, II. 34, 47, 76.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">W</p> - -<p>Wagenseil, Georg Christoph, II. 63, 67, 71f, 82 (footnote).<br /> - -Wagner, Cosima, II. 422.<br /> - -Wagner, Richard, I. xviii, xxxvi, liii, 332, 336, 341;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 39, 40, 139, 153, 164, 171, 176, 191, 196, 204, 206, 211, 265, 359, 372, 381, 391, <em>401-442</em>, 448f;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_vii">vii</a>, <a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>f, -<a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, -<a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), II. 381, 436ff, 497;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, -<a href="#Page_201">201</a>f, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence in France), II. 391;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, -<a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence in Italy), II. 497;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(in Russia), III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rel. to Bruckner), III. <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(rel. to Sgambati), III. <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</span><br /> - -Wagner, Siegfried, III. <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Wagner-Liszt school, III. <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also New-German school.</span><br /> - -Waldstein, Count Ferdinand, II. 140, 141.<br /> - -Wales (folk-songs), III. <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.<br /> - -Walker, Ernest, III. <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.<br /> - -Wallace, William, III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xix">xix</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.<br /> - -Wallaschek, Richard, cited, I. 26ff.<br /> - -Walther, Johann, I. 290f.<br /> - -Walthew, Richard, III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -War dances, I. 13.<br /> - -Waserus, C. G., III. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> - -Waterloo, battle of, II. 234.<br /> - -Weber, Carl Maria, Freiherr von, II. 108, 178, 199, 222, 230, 231, <em>234ff</em>, 446, 448;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_x">x</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(operas), II. <em>238ff</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(pianoforte style), II. <em>302</em>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</span><br /> - -Weber, Constance, II. 106.<br /> - -Weber, Dionys, III. <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.<br /> - -Wegeler, Dr. Franz Gerhard, II. 148, 151.<br /> - -Wegelius, Martin, III. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br /> - -Weimar, I. 460;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 78, 250;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br /> - -Weiner, Leo, III. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.<br /> - -Weingartner, Felix, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, -<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> - -Weinlich, Theodor, II. 404.<br /> - -'Well-tempered Clavichord,' I. 472, 474ff, 485ff, 490;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">II. 56, 131.</span><br /> - -Welsh folk-songs, III. <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.<br /> - -Welsh scale, I. 164.<br /> - -Westphalia, peace of, II. 47.<br /> - -Whistles (primitive), I. 21f, 61f.<br /> - -Whistler, James McNeill, III. <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> - -White, Maude V., III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Whitman, Walt, III. <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> - -Whole-tone scale, III. <a href="#Page_xix">xix-f</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, -<a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, -<a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> - -Wieck, Clara. See Schumann, Clara.<br /> - -Widmann, J. V., II. 450f.<br /> - -Widor, Charles-Marie, III. <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> - -Wieland, II. 48.<br /> - -Wieniawsky, Henri, III. <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> - -Wihtol, Ossip Ivanovich, III. <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> - -Wilde, Oscar, III. <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> - -Wilkes, Capt., cit., I. 8.<br /> - -Willaert, Adrian, I. 272ff, 298ff;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span><br /> - -Wille, Dr., II. 419.<br /> - -William II, King of Prussia, II. 115.<br /> - -Williams, C. F. Abdy, III. <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.<br /> - -Williams, Vaughan, III. <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <em><a href="#Page_436">436</a>f</em>.<br /> - -Willmann, Magdalena, II. 145.<br /> - -Wind instruments, I. liii;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(primitive), I. 21ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(exotic), I. 54;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Assyrian), I. 66ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Greek), I. 121ff;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(modern), II. 95, 338ff.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">See also Bass clarinet, Bassoon, Clarinet, Cornet-à-pistons, Double bassoon, English Horn, Flute, Horn, Oboe, Ophicleide, Piccolo, Serpent, Trombone, Trumpet, Tuba.</span><br /> - -Winding, August, III. <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> - -Winter-Hjelm, Otto, III. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> - -Wizlaw von Rügen (minnesinger), I. 218, 219.<br /> - -Wolf, Hugo, III. <a href="#Page_201">201</a>f, <em><a href="#Page_257">257</a>ff</em>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(influence), III. <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</span><br /> - -Wolf-Ferrari, Ermanno, III. <a href="#Page_viii">viii</a>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xiv">xiv</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.<br /> - -Wolff, Erich W., III. <a href="#Page_266">266</a>f, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> - -Wolstenholme, W., III. <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.<br /> - -Wood, Charles, III. <a href="#Page_426">426</a>f.<br /> - -Wood, Haydn, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Wood, Henry J., III. <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> - -Woodforde-Finden, Amy, III. <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.<br /> - -Wood-wind. See Wind Instruments.<br /> - -Wooldridge, H. E., III. <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(cited), I. 183.</span><br /> - -Wordsworth, II. 99.<br /> - -Work, as incentive to song, I. 6f.<br /> - -Wüllner, Franz, III. <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> - -Wüerst, Richard Ferdinand, III. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.<br /> - -Wyzewa, T. de (cited), II. 67 (footnote), 103.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">X-Y</p> - -<p>Xylophone, I. 26f, 31.<br /> - -Yanowsky, III. <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> - -Yodle song, I. 198.<br /> - -Yon, Pietro Alessandro, III. <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> - -Young Hungarian school, III. <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> - -<p style="padding-left: 5em; margin-top: 2em; ">Z</p> - -<p>Zachau, Friedrich Wilhelm, I. 42f.<br /> - -Zamr (Arabian instrument), I. 54.<br /> - -Zandonai, Riccardo, III. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.<br /> - -Zarlino, Gioseffo, I. 269ff, 303.<br /> - -Zelter, Carl Friedrich, II. 277f;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> - -Zichy, Count Géza, III. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>f.<br /> - -Zingarelli, Nicolo Antonio, II. 182.<br /> - -Zmeskall, Baron von, II. 141, 143.<br /> - -Zola, Émile, II. 206;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</span><br /> - -Zöllner, Heinrich, III. <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> - -Zolotareff, B., III. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> - -Zumsteeg, Johann Rudolph, II. 278.<br /> - -Zwingli, I. 294.</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF MUSIC, VOLUME THREE (OF 14) ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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