diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/68578-0.txt | 4286 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/68578-0.zip | bin | 92109 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/68578-h.zip | bin | 768965 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/68578-h/68578-h.htm | 5731 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/68578-h/images/cover.jpg | bin | 666029 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/68578-h/images/curly.jpg | bin | 5522 -> 0 bytes |
9 files changed, 17 insertions, 10017 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..08ec4fb --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #68578 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/68578) diff --git a/old/68578-0.txt b/old/68578-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9aa691f..0000000 --- a/old/68578-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4286 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of John Sobieski, by Edward H. R. Tatham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: John Sobieski - Lothian prize essay for 1881 - -Author: Edward H. R. Tatham - -Release Date: July 21, 2022 [eBook #68578] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN SOBIESKI *** - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES: - - Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes - have been moved to the end of the essay. - - Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_. - - Sidenotes, also in italics in the original, are surrounded - by ♦diamonds♦. - - Text in small caps has been converted to ALL CAPS. - - Variations in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have - been standardized. Obvious typographical errors have been - corrected. Proper names, French language, and "reproch" in - the diary entry, have been retained as published in the - original publication. - - - - - JOHN SOBIESKI. - - LOTHIAN PRIZE ESSAY - - FOR - - 1881. - - BY - - EDWARD H. R. TATHAM, B.A. - - BRASENOSE COLLEGE. - - “Non perchè re sei tu, si grande sei, - Ma per te cresce e in maggior pregio sale - La maesta regale.” - - VINCENZIO DA FILICAIA, _Canzone_. - - OXFORD: - A. THOMAS SHRIMPTON & SON, BROAD STREET. - LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. - 1881. - - - - -JOHN SOBIESKI. - - -♦Strangeness of Polish history.♦ The Kingdom or Republic of -Poland has always seemed a strange phenomenon in European -history, partly from the aboriginal character of its population, -and partly from its exceptional constitution. The ancient -Sarmatians, who occupied the same territory, had no share in -the old Roman civilisation, but rather, by their constant -irruptions upon the empire, were mainly instrumental in its -downfall. Christianity was introduced in the tenth century; but, -until recent times, no other civilising force has ever effected -a permanent conquest of the country. ♦Aboriginal character of -the Poles,♦ During the eight following centuries the Poles, -surrounded by enemies--on the north and east by more barbarous -tribes, on the south and west by a superior civilisation--were -exclusively confined to the defensive and so missed those -humanising influences to which a conquering nation has so often -had to submit. As late as the eighteenth century they might truly -be called the lineal descendants in race, in character, and -almost in habits, of the hunters and shepherds of the ancient -North. ♦Seen in their social system.♦ Throughout their history -there were two great classes in the State; the so-called noble -class--the heirs of the savage in their desire for equality, and -of the nomad in their love of freedom--and the peasant class--the -descendants of captives taken in war--whose lives and properties -were at the absolute disposal of their masters. Only in the -western portion of the kingdom was there a burgher class, and -this was on the same[1] political footing with the serfs. The -union of two great evils arising from such a system--licence -and servitude--made the Polish constitution as disastrous as it -was unique. Poland thus differed so widely, both socially and -politically, from every other European state, that it would be -impossible to examine any important period of her history without -explaining alike her position in Europe and some of her internal -peculiarities. - -♦European position of Poland,♦ Although considerably[2] larger -than France, Poland took scarcely any part in the general -history of Europe before the end of the sixteenth century. Once -only, just before the taking of Constantinople, we find her -with Hungary striving to check the advance of the Turks, when -she lost in battle her king Wladislas VI. (1444). ♦At first -inconsiderable,♦ As she was the north-eastern outpost of the -Church, the Popes took care that she should always be remarkable -for her submission to the Holy See. But it was beyond their -power to check the turbulence of the nobles or to instil any -love for a higher civilisation. During the sixteenth century, -chiefly through the enterprise of foreigners, commerce made rapid -advances in the country. English and Italian merchants, favoured -by treaties between the king and queen Elizabeth, settled in -the prosperous town of Dantzic, and spread a moderate knowledge -of Poland in western countries. That this knowledge was only -moderate may be judged from a valuable geographical work[3] -published in London early in the seventeenth century, in which we -are told that the Lithuanians still worshipped idols, and that in -another province they had not learned the use of the plough. The -reformed doctrines were widely disseminated before the year 1600; -but their progress was checked by the activity of the Jesuits. -♦Owing to exclusiveness,♦ The Papal Nuncio of that time[4] -complains of the exclusiveness of the Poles and their distrust -of foreign nations. They used commonly to boast that alliances -were of no service to them, for, if the country were conquered, -they could, like their ancestors, recover in winter what they had -lost in summer. Yet very early in their history they had lost -the rich province of Prussia[5] by neglect and mis-government. -When, in 1573, they allied themselves with France by electing -as their king Henry of Valois, they bound him by such a crowd -of onerous restrictions that he fled the country in disgust at -their wild and barbarous freedom. ♦Anarchy,♦ During the next -three quarters of a century (1573-1648), under three princes of -conspicuous ability, Poland began to rank among the second-rate -powers of Europe; but her internal condition was all the while -frightful. Unceasing struggles between the greater and lesser -nobility, and the cruel oppression of the peasants by both alike, -distracted the kingdom. ♦And foreign wars,♦ Then followed thirty -years of desolating war, in which the country was several times -on the brink of final subjugation by a foreign invader. The Poles -themselves attributed their survival to God alone[6], who had -preserved them to form a barrier against the Turks. - -♦Then suddenly most prominent,♦ At the close of this period, -instead of finding Poland exhausted almost to death, we see -her occupying the proud position of the saviour of Europe. At -a most critical moment, when the last great wave of barbarian -invasion was rolling over Europe, and seemed likely to overwhelm -the ancient empire of the Hapsburgs, this little republic stood -firmly in the gap, and became the bulwark of Christendom against -the infidel. Nay more, by her own sacrifices no less than by her -opportune intervention, she was the main instrument in setting -the final limit to the Ottoman advance. ♦Owing to John Sobieski.♦ -This extraordinary result is to be ascribed almost solely to -the personal character and exploits of her patriot king, John -Sobieski. Rising to the throne by his personal merits alone in -spite of the most malignant envy, he was the first native king -unconnected with the old royal line. ♦His difficulties mainly -caused by the constitution.♦ It may be said that his life from -his early manhood is at no time the history of a private man; it -rather comprises the whole contemporary annals of his country. -Yet it forms the most destructive comment on her institutions, -both social and political, and on the character of the national -nobility. While we must admire a conservative constitution which -admits of the supremacy of the best man, we cannot but deplore -those faults in its working which had the effect of nullifying -his authority. In Poland there was neither a republic nor a -monarchy, but the sovereignty of one man under the control of an -unrestrained class, which mistook licence for freedom. In order -to understand the position of Sobieski and the difficulties -with which he had to contend, a short account of the Polish -constitution is indispensable. - -♦Monarchy generally becomes elective.♦ The authority of the king -was originally absolute, but in a nation of fierce warriors he -was easily controlled by armed assemblies of his subjects. His -consulting them, though at first only a mark of favour, was soon -looked upon as a right; and in course of time they even claimed -the disposal of his dignity. Two great dynasties successively -reigned in Poland. During the first, founded by Piast, a native -Pole (850-1386), the dignity was hereditary; during the second, -that of Jagellon (1386-1573), though in practice hereditary, -it was in theory elective. ♦Election of the king.♦ After the -latter period the whole nobility met in arms to elect a king, -and, though a relation of the old line was preferred, he was -considered to have no claim. This assembling of the Pospolite, -as it was called, was in an emergency the prerogative of the -king, and during an interregnum of the Primate, the Archbishop of -Guesna, who acted as interrex. The election was not legal unless -it was unanimous; and when this was accomplished, seldom without -violence, the republic imposed upon the new monarch a contract -styled “pacta conventa,” the conditions of which he swore -faithfully to observe. ♦His privileges.♦ His privileges were -few. He always presided in the national assembly, and he might -if he chose command[7] the army. But his most important function -was the appointment of officers of state. These are said to have -amounted in all branches to the astounding number of 20,000; ♦The -Senate.♦ but only the most important, about 140, composed the -Senate, which was the middle estate of the realm and the real -executive. - -♦How composed.♦ Besides the bishops there were three great orders -in the administration, of which only the first two had seats -in the Senate. These were the palatines, the castellans, and -starosts. Each palatine, like a Norman baron, was the military -commander and supreme judge in his province or palatinate; he -was also its recognised political head. The castellans were -his deputies, who discharged the same functions in a more -confined area. The starosts were inferior magistrates, with -military and judicial duties, whose chief privilege was the -high value of their benefices. ♦The officers of state.♦ There -were twelve great dignitaries who were entrusted with the -higher executive,--six for the kingdom of Poland, viz., the -Grand Marshal, the Grand General,[8] the Second General, the -Chancellor, the Vice-Chancellor, and the Grand Treasurer, and six -parallel officers for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The latter, -when incorporated with Poland in 1386, had insisted on a distinct -administration; but the arrangement proved most unfortunate, -for the Polish magnate had no authority over his Lithuanian -compeer. In the army, as in the administration, they might act -quite independently of each other, and the very equality made a -collision inevitable. Over the Senate as a whole the king had no -real power, but the Diet exercised a rigid supervision. - -This body--the third estate of the realm--had originally been -composed of the whole adult nobility. So jealous were the Poles -of their privileges that it was not till 1466--two hundred -years after the foundation of the House of Commons--that they -consented to form a representative system. ♦The Diet.♦ A Diet of -400 deputies met every two years, and was liable to be summoned -on extraordinary occasions. The members of this assembly were -absolutely without discretionary powers. They were elected in -the dietines or provincial assemblies, and received minute -instructions as to their course of action. After the dissolution -of the Diet they had to appear again before their constituents -and give an account of their stewardship. Those who had offended -found their lives in peril. ♦Its dependence upon the nobility.♦ -Thus the Diet took its stamp from the prevailing temper of -the nobility, and, as this was almost always quarrelsome, the -place of meeting often resounded with the clang of sabres. -♦Results of this dependence.♦ During the period which we shall -have to consider, this dependence will explain the constant -neglect of proper means for the national defence. The cavalry -of the nobles--the flower of the troops--displayed all the -disadvantages, and none of the merits, of a standing army. They -were always under arms, and ready to use them in any feud; but -they could not brook strict discipline, and as they grew more -luxurious their disinclination[9] to a long campaign was duly -reflected in the ranks of the Diet. The national haughtiness -found its vent in intestine strife. ♦The veto.♦ A most disastrous -provision made it necessary for every resolution of the Diet -to be unanimous. Any deputy might, without reason assigned, -pronounce his veto upon the subject under discussion; nay, more, -by a refinement of this privilege,[10] he might by withdrawing -declare the Diet dissolved, and until he was induced or compelled -to return public business was suspended. This power, though very -ancient, was not exercised till 1652, but was afterwards repeated -with increasing frequency. It would once have been dangerous -for an individual to defy the mass, but when the republic was -in a state of anarchy it was easy to find supporters, and the -gold of France or Austria often proved a powerful incentive. -♦Obstruction.♦ Another mode of obstruction was called drawing out -the Diet, which could not[11] sit for more than six weeks. This -consisted in the proposal and tedious discussion of irrelevant -matter, until the day of dissolution arrived. In this state of -things a resort to force was very common, and the public streets -were often the scenes of a sanguinary fray. - -♦Confederations.♦ When the Diet was not sitting, the Senate, -with the king as its president, was responsible for the -government. But if the nobles were dissatisfied with their -measures, or if the veto had hopelessly clogged the wheels of -state, recourse was had to an extraordinary assembly called a -“confederation.” ♦Convocations.♦ This was formed sometimes to -resist, sometimes to enforce the established law; and in the -latter case it often took the shape of a “convocation,” which -exactly resembled the Diet except that the veto was inadmissible. -The Poles were always more happy in organising anarchy than -in organising their institutions. Of course, the authority of -a confederation depended upon the number and weight of its -adherents; and it frequently happened that several of these -bodies were sitting at the same time. We sometimes find in -Polish history the Senate at variance with the Diet, the Diet -with the king, the king with the grandees, the greater with the -lesser nobles, and the whole nobility with their armed serfs. -♦Strife among the nobles--how caused.♦ Among the nobles religious -inequality was the principal cause of dissension. Although none -but Catholics could hold offices of state, a large number of -the poorer nobles were “Dissidents,” and belonged to the Greek -or Protestant persuasion. ♦Their three main classes.♦ They were -thus naturally jealous of the official families; for, though -all were theoretically equal, the differences of wealth and -prestige tended to divide them into three classes: first, a few -princely families who owned whole provinces and aspired to the -posts of the supreme executive; secondly, the average gentry, -who scrambled for the lesser offices, or were indignant at their -religious disabilities; and thirdly, the poorer freemen, who made -up for their lack of power by a spirit of captious disaffection. -In stormy times the confusion was increased by half the middle -gentry taking part with the grandees and half with the freemen. - -♦Ancestry of John Sobieski.♦ From the highest of these classes -was sprung John Sobieski. He belonged to that group of families, -whose ancestral device was the Buckler--the most illustrious of -the rude Polish coats of arms. Far back in the mist of ages are -placed the exploits of Janik--the Polish Hercules--the founder -of his house. His immediate ancestors had gained less doubtful -laurels. His grandfather, Mark Sobieski, palatine of Lublin, -had so great a military reputation that King Stephen Bathori -(1575-1586) was wont to say that he would not fear to entrust -to his single arm the defence of the fortunes of Poland. His -father, James Sobieski, was not only an able general, but a man -of cultivated mind, and of some diplomatic skill. To him belonged -the real credit of the famous victory of Kotzim in 1621 over a -vast host of Turks and Tartars, although the nominal commander -of the Poles was the young Prince Wladislas, son of Sigismund -III. His success in negotiating the treaty that followed was -so conspicuous that he was afterwards sent on several foreign -embassies to the Western Powers. Such eminence in peace as -in war doubtless procured for him the post of castellan of -Cracow[12]--the first secular senator of Poland, inferior only -to the archbishop of Guesna. He had also been four times elected -Marshal of the Diet--an office resembling that of Speaker of -the House of Commons. In or about 1620 he married Theophila -Danilowiczowna, grand-daughter[13] of the famous Zolkiewski. That -heroic general, after taking Moscow (1610), and carrying off to -Poland the Czar Basil VI., met his death (October 5th, 1620) at -Kobylta on the Dniester, with a band of 8,000 men, at the hands -of 70,000[14] Turks and Tartars. Thus on both sides the ancestors -of Sobieski were worthy of his subsequent fame. ♦Birth.♦ The -circumstances of his birth are romantic; but they rest on no less -an authority than a manuscript in his own hand. On the 17th of -June, 1624,[15] his father’s castle of Zloçkow in the palatinate -of Red Russia[16] was visited by a storm of unprecedented -violence. The old mansion, which stood exposed on the bare -summit of a vast “mohila” or Slavonic tumulus, was shaken to its -foundations, and some of the attendants were rendered deaf for -life. Amid the raging of the elements was born John Sobieski, in -the presence of the widow of the conqueror of Moscow; and the -respect for prodigies,[17] which distinguishes the Poles above -all other modern nations, must have marked him out in their -eyes for an exceptional career. Yet his youth was singularly -peaceful. Except for the war against Gustavus Adolphus, which -was terminated by the peace of Altmark (September 15th, 1629), -and an incursion of the Tartars (1636), successfully repelled -by Wladislas VII., Poland enjoyed from the time of his birth an -unexampled respite of more than twenty years. - -♦Education.♦ During this period John and his elder brother Mark -were enjoying all the benefits of a careful education. Their -father chiefly resided at his princely estate of Zolkiew, which -had come to him through his wife--a domain as large as some of -our English counties, and embracing a hundred and fifty villages. -He had engaged as their tutor the learned Stanislas Orchowski; -but he himself superintended their more important studies. The -treatise which he has left upon education is alone enough to show -how well the task must have been performed. Besides instructing -them in several languages he imparted to them his own skill in -music, painting, and the other fine arts; and they had the rare -advantage of a home in which to the barbaric splendour of a -Polish noble were added some of the refined tastes of an Italian -court. Ardent and robust by nature, John early distinguished -himself by his activity in hunting, and in the use of the small -sword; and the traditions of his family soon taught him against -whom his strength was to be employed. The inscription[18] on his -great grandfather’s tomb in the neighbouring Dominican chapel, -erected by his mother, aroused in his mind what may be called his -life-purpose--to curb at all hazards the advance of the Turkish -power. - -♦His travels.♦ At length in 1643 the castellan sent his two sons -to travel in the West. Their longest stay was made in France--at -that time closely united to Poland by the marriage of Wladislas -with a French princess[19]--but they also visited England[20] -and Italy. At Paris they frequented the salon of the Duchesse de -Longueville, sister of the great Condé; and it was here that an -intimacy sprang up between John Sobieski and the French general, -who, though only three years his senior, was already crowned with -the laurels of Rocroi. The prince procured for his friend the -honour of a commission in the king’s Grands Mousquetaires, and -continued in correspondence with him during the remainder of his -life. Quitting France before the disturbances of the Fronde, the -brothers took the measure of the Ottoman power at Constantinople, -and were preparing to pass into Asia, when news arrived which -called them home to defend not only their country but their -own fireside. It was to the effect that the Cossack serfs had -revolted, and were carrying all before them. - -♦Cossack revolt caused by the oppression of the serfs.♦ Of the -grinding oppression under which the serf class laboured we have -already spoken. Some efforts had been made by Casimir the Great -(1347) to give them a legal footing in the state; and he had -even succeeded so far as to provide that the murderer of a serf -should pay a fine of ten marks.[21] But his regulations were -soon broken, and the condition of the peasants in the outlying -districts became more hopeless than before. ♦The Cossacks.♦ The -situation of the Cossacks was peculiar. Inhabiting a wild though -fertile country on the borders of Poland and Muscovy called the -Ukraine (Slavonic for “borderland,” exactly the French “marche”), -they had long retained their independence, and had only been -incorporated in the kingdom by the wise measures of Stephen -Bathori (1582). ♦Under Stephen Bathori.♦ Originally deserters -from the armies of the republic, they had betaken themselves to -the almost inaccessible isles of the Borysthenes, where they -led a life of plunder in defiance of their neighbours. Their -piratical skiffs were an object of terror even to the dwellers -on the Golden Horn. Bathori did all that lay in his power to -conciliate a people who, in spite of their savage habits, were -noted for their fidelity. He gave them the city of Tretchimirow -in Kiowia, and formed them into regiments, for the defence of -Poland against the Tartars. They were granted the power of -electing their own hetman, or Grand General, who, on doing homage -to the king, received as the symbols of his office a flag, a -horsetail, a staff, and a looking-glass. James Sobieski in his -historical work[22] notices the value to a retreating Polish army -of their waggon-camps, which they called “Tabors,”[23] and which -they seem to have drawn up after the fashion of a Dutch “laager.” -Unfortunately their independence was confined to the period of -military service. The Ukraine, like other parts of the kingdom -of Poland, was divided into estates of crown land, which, like -fiefs,[24] were held by the nobles on condition of furnishing the -state with troops. But this condition was seldom fulfilled even -in Great Poland, and never in a distant province, such as the -Ukraine, where all the nobles were absentees. - -♦Their grievances.♦ There was thus no tie except that of -gratitude for their honourable position in war to bind the -Cossacks to Poland; and this was soon broken by the outrageous -rapacity of the Jewish stewards to whom the nobles entrusted -their lands. Complaints were lodged in the Diet by the Cossack -chiefs, who claimed to send thither their own representatives; -but the nobles, whose love of domination was as strong as their -love of liberty, turned a deaf ear; and Wladislas VII., seeing -the fatal tendency of this policy, had the hardihood to remind -the Cossacks that they still possessed their sabres.[25] ♦Success -of their revolt.♦ At length, in 1648, a dastardly outrage by -a steward on Bogdan Chmielniçki, one of their chiefs, forced -them to follow this hint; and electing the injured man as their -hetman, they poured into Poland with the Tartars as their allies. -Bogdan was an experienced soldier. He completely defeated -Potoçki, the Grand General of Poland, at Korsun (May 26th, 1648); -and numbers of disaffected Poles--Arian nobles, Calvinistic -burghers, outlawed serfs--at once flocked to his standard. ♦Death -of Wladislas VII.♦ Six days before this disaster Wladislas VII. -expired at Warsaw; and his death at this moment blighted the -hopes of the moderate party. James Sobieski, who had done all he -could to save Bogdan from oppression, had died in March (1648) -when the king was on the point of naming him the representative -of Poland at the congress in Westphalia. ♦Danger of Poland.♦ -The nobility in general were bent on revenge. Assembling their -forces in haste, they suffered an ignominious defeat at Pilawiecz -(September 23rd); and Poland was left exposed to the Cossacks. -Madame Sobieska, with her two daughters, and many others of -the nobility, took refuge within the walls of Zamosç, and was -soon joined by her sons, who had evaded without difficulty the -undisciplined besiegers. - -♦Election of John Casimir.♦ At this crisis the nobles assembled -at Warsaw to elect a king. They chose (November 20th) Cardinal -John Casimir, brother of the late king, who put off the purple -to assume the crown. The new prince saw the necessity of -conciliation, and had the courage, in spite of the opposition -of the nobles, to open a negotiation with the rebels. Bogdan, -who had been deserted by the Tartars, was not disinclined for -peace, and, in order to show his respect for the king, retired -thirty leagues from Zamosç. ♦His peace violated by the nobles.♦ -But the treachery of the nobles frustrated the intentions of -their sovereign. Jeremiah Wiesnowiesçki, the harsh oppressor -of the serfs, fell suddenly upon the unsuspecting Cossacks, -and routed them with great slaughter. After this the war broke -out afresh. Bogdan sought and obtained the alliance of Isla, -khan of the Crim Tartars, and in an engagement at Zbaraz, in -Volhynia (June 30th, 1649) he gained another great victory. -♦Sobieski joins the army,♦ At this news the king hastened to join -the remnants of the defeated army, and was accompanied by John -Sobieski in command of a select troop. The young noble had been -prevented taking part in the events of the past six months by a -wound which he had received in a duel with one of the family of -Paz, the most powerful clan in Lithuania; and he afterwards had -cause to regret the quarrel. His presence with the king at this -juncture was destined to be of some importance. No sooner had -Casimir assembled the discomfited Poles, than half his available -force, terrified at the enemy’s numbers, insisted on retreat, -and proceeded to put their threat into execution. ♦And quells a -mutiny.♦ Sobieski galloped into their midst, and, exerting that -native eloquence of which he possessed no common share, succeeded -in restoring them to their allegiance. His efforts were rewarded -by the starosty of Javarow--a military post which had been -previously held by his father and by the great Zolkiewski. ♦Peace -of Zborow.♦ One of the immediate results of the bold front now -presented by the Poles, was the conclusion of the peace of Zborow -(August 18th), in which the Cossack chief displayed remarkable -moderation. He consented to do homage to the king and to forego -his just demands for vengeance upon his oppressors, on condition -that all his adherents should receive a free pardon. - -♦Broken by the Poles. June 30th, 1651.♦ But the Polish nobility -were incapable of learning any lesson from their recent -reverses. War was again declared by the Diet in 1650; and the -next year Bogdan was defeated by Casimir at Berestezko, owing -principally to the desertion of the Tartars. In this battle, -John Sobieski received a wound in his head, from the effects -of which he suffered constantly until his death. A transitory -peace which followed this success was again broken by the Poles, -who attacked Bogdan’s son Timothy at Batowitz (June 2nd, 1652), -but were surrounded and annihilated. ♦Death of Mark Sobieski.♦ -The prisoners, among whom was Mark Sobieski,[26] were all -massacred after the battle by the Tartar khan. Another duel wound -fortunately prevented John from being among the victims. But he -had the pain of seeing that his folly had made his mother despair -of the name of Sobieski. Overwhelmed with grief at the loss of -her favourite son, and auguring ill from the headstrong passions -of John, she quitted Poland and took refuge in Italy. - -♦Lessons of the Cossack War.♦ The Cossack war, which had -now lasted with little intermission for four years, demands -considerable attention. It throws a lurid light on the vices -of the Polish constitution, and its bitter lessons cannot have -been lost upon a thoughtful mind like that of John Sobieski. By -oppression the Polish nobility had converted faithful subjects -into deadly foes; and their pride and treachery contrast most -unfavourably with the moderation of the Cossack chief. Although -we have little information about this period of Sobieski’s life, -his ardent temper makes it probable that he joined at first with -the most uncompromising of the nobles. But their independence -of the regal authority, their disregard for treaties with the -serf class, and, above all, their unprecedented employment of -the fatal veto (1652), must have soon convinced him that the -discipline of self-restraint was the only means left to save his -country. Hereafter we shall see him nobly practising this lesson -under the most fearful provocation. - -♦Anarchy.♦ At this period (1654) Poland was distracted by -anarchy at home, and in the next six years she suffered all the -usual consequences of civil strife. Henceforward the Cossack war -loses its character of a struggle between the republic and her -rebellious subjects. ♦The Cossacks call in Muscovy.♦ Its natural -result was to draw into the contest those neighbouring nations -who might hope to gain advantage from the distracted state of -Poland. Bogdan, despairing of concluding any definitive peace -without foreign aid, persuaded the Czar Alexis to declare war -against Poland, and, on the frivolous pretext that his titles had -not received due respect, that monarch invaded Lithuania and took -Smolensko (Sept. 10th, 1654). - -♦War with Sweden.♦ But a greater enemy was arising in the north; -Charles X. of Sweden, the “Pyrrhus of the North,” succeeding to -the throne on the abdication of Christina in June 1654, had set -his mind on the conquest of Poland. The Polish vice-chancellor, -Radzejowski, who had been expelled from the kingdom by Casimir -on some private quarrel, took care that Charles should be well -acquainted with the weakness to which his country had been -reduced. He gave the welcome advice that no apology which -Casimir might make as to his assumption of the title of king of -Sweden[27] should receive any attention. The king of Poland was -anxious to send Sobieski to Stockholm to avert the impending -storm; but he declined the hopeless mission. Charles eagerly -took advantage of the anarchy caused by the Russian war, and -invaded Pomerania and Great Poland in August, 1655. He gained -an easy victory over the divided forces of the republic, and -entered Warsaw at the end of the month. Cracow surrendered -early in October, and, as Casimir had fled into Silesia, the -whole country lay at his feet. ♦Charles X. conquers Poland,♦ -Surrounded by such a host of enemies, the nobles seemed to have -no choice but to offer the crown to Charles X.; and the standing -army, called Quartians,[28] among whom Sobieski commanded a -troop, took the oath to the king of Sweden. ♦But alienates -it.♦ But Charles was not inclined to keep faith with a people -whom he had conquered in three months. Contrary to his express -promises hereditary monarchy was proclaimed, heavy contributions -were levied, and the Catholics were openly persecuted by the -Swedes. The national spirit was deeply wounded by the haughty -demeanour of the conquerors. ♦Resumption of the war.♦ During the -absence of Charles in Prussia, a confederation was formed in the -palatinate of Beltz under the auspices of the absent Casimir, to -which Sobieski attached himself, and with him the able generals -Lubomirski and Czarnieçki. When Charles returned he found that -he had the greater part of Poland to re-conquer. ♦Successes of -Sobieski.♦ In conveying his army through the marshes of Little -Poland, he was blocked up between the Vistula and the San by -Sobieski’s cavalry, and was only extricated by the prompt arrival -of reinforcements. Soon after, while he was superintending the -siege of Dantzic, Casimir and the valiant Czarnieçki recaptured -Warsaw; but they lost it again on his return after a battle -of three days, in which Sobieski, who commanded a troop of -Tartars[29] trained by himself, performed prodigies of valour. -But other nations had looked on with jealousy at the brilliant -career of the king of Sweden. The Czar, resenting the manner -in which he had been baulked of his prey, declared war against -Sweden; and the emperor Ferdinand III., just before his death -(May 30th, 1657), concluded an offensive and defensive alliance -with the king of Poland. ♦Charles attempts a partition,♦ -Meanwhile Charles was using all his efforts to carry out a scheme -for the partition of Poland between himself, the Czar, the Great -Elector of Brandenburg,[30] and Ragoczy, prince of Transylvania. -But her time had not yet come. Almost at the same moment Denmark -declared war against Charles, the Elector deserted him, and -Austria prepared to send troops in support of her new ally (June, -1657). ♦But is obliged to retire.♦ In July Charles evacuated -Poland in all haste, and began his wonderful campaigns in -Denmark. Another stroke of good fortune was the death of Bogdan -Chmielniçki (August 27th), and the return of a large number of -Cossacks to their allegiance. ♦Gradual recovery of Poland,♦ -Though sorely shaken by the terrible ordeal through which she had -passed, Poland gradually recovered her independence. Treaties -were concluded with the Elector, and with Prince Ragoczy, with no -more serious loss than the suzerainty of ducal Prussia (1658); -and two years later, shortly after the death of Charles X., a -peace was signed with Sweden at Oliva (May 3rd, 1660). ♦Sobieski -rewarded.♦ Casimir re-established his authority throughout -the kingdom; and in distributing rewards to his most faithful -subjects, conferred upon Sobieski the post of Korongy, or -standard-bearer of the crown.[31] - -♦War with Muscovy.♦ There still remained, however, the war with -Muscovy. The ever-active Czar Alexis, now that he could take -his own measures with Poland, overran Lithuania, and captured -Wilna, its capital. But his general, Sheremetieff, suffered a -serious defeat, and shut himself up in his fortified camp at -Cudnow to await the arrival of a large reinforcement of Cossacks. -♦Victories of Sobieski at Slobodyszcza and Cudnow.♦ Sobieski -was detached with a small force from the investing army to -confront this new enemy. Finding them encamped on the heights -of Slobodyszcza, he carried the position by assault, and gained -a victory so complete that the Cossacks laid down their arms -(Sept. 17th, 1660). He then hastened back to Cudnow, and joined -in the attack on the Muscovite camp, which was so successful that -the whole army, with their ammunition and stores, fell into the -hands of the Poles. Such a brilliant campaign astonished Europe. -Sobieski, whose reputation was already high in his own country, -was justly credited with giving her breathing time to recover -from her misfortunes. - -♦Anarchy in Poland.♦ She employed it, according to her wont, in -internal dissensions. It is difficult to trace the true origin of -the deplorable state of Poland during the next six years; but it -may be attributed, in the first instance, to the foolish conduct -of the queen, Louise de Nevers. Though a woman of masculine -spirit, and exercising a great ascendancy over the uxorious -Casimir, she was herself entirely governed by the Jesuits. -♦1661.♦ They persuaded her, and through her the king, to violate -that article of the _pacta conventa_ by which he pledged -himself not to tamper with the succession to the crown. The -person for whom they designed it was her nephew, the young Duc -d’Enghien, son of the great Condé. ♦1662-3.♦ The power of French -gold soon converted the majority of the senate. But the lesser -nobles were not so easily cajoled, and they possessed a secret -though powerful supporter in Lubomirski, Grand Marshal and Second -General of the crown. To this main grievance was added another, -which pressed heavily on the poorer nobles. Large arrears of pay -were, as usual,[32] owing to the army, who accordingly formed -themselves into a confederation, and demanded the diminution -of the immense revenues of the clergy. This brought upon them -all the thunders of the Church; and the fearful spectacle was -presented of a country divided into hostile camps, in which the -senate was at enmity with the diet, the clergy with the army, the -larger with the lesser nobility. Sobieski and other patriotic -spirits tried to strike at the root of the evil, and furnished -funds from their private resources for the payment of arrears. As -this did not allay the complaints of the army, the senate opened -a negotiation with the malcontents from Sobieski’s “court”[33] at -Zolkiew, which was so far successful that the king was able to -lead them against Muscovy. ♦Campaign against Muscovy.♦ But the -campaign, though not disastrous, was not especially fortunate; -and the absence of Lubomirski, who had been kept at home by the -king’s suspicions, created general discontent. - -On his return the king summoned Lubomirski to trial on a -charge of high treason. He did not appear, and was condemned to -perpetual banishment and the loss of his honours and estates. -♦Sobieski, Grand Marshal and Second General.♦ His office of Grand -Marshal was bestowed on Sobieski, and that of Second General on -Czarnieçki; but the latter dying shortly after, this post was -also conferred on Sobieski. The appointments were most politic, -for Sobieski was a great favourite with the army. His duties -having kept him constantly on the Cossack frontier, he had not -compromised himself with either party. - -♦Marriage of Sobieski.♦ These signs of the royal favour were -followed by another which bound him still more to the interests -of the court. On his visit to Warsaw to assume the insignia -of his offices, he became enamoured of a French lady in the -retinue of the queen, Mary Casimira d’Arquien, who had lately -become a widow by the death of the rich Prince Zamoyski. ♦His -wife.♦ She was daughter to the Marquis d’Arquien; captain of -the guards to the Duke of Orleans, and had attended the queen -from France nineteen years before. Though over thirty years -of age, she still possessed in a remarkable degree all those -fascinations which usually belong to extreme youth. Dr. South, -who saw her seven years later, says that even then she did not -look more than twenty.[34] To these advantages she united a -piquant vivacity which had a peculiar charm for Sobieski. His -passion was so strong[35] that he besought the queen’s consent -to their immediate union. Scarcely four weeks had elapsed since -the death of Zamoyski, to whom she had borne several children; -but so necessary was it to conciliate the new officer that the -queen gave way, and the marriage was celebrated, according to -the Polish fashion, by a festival of three days. ♦July 5-7, -1665.♦ Sobieski was hereafter to receive severe punishment for -this indecent haste in the conduct of his wife. ♦Rebellion of -Lubomirski.♦ In the midst of the marriage _fêtes_ tidings arrived -that Lubomirski, who had entered Poland with a large army, was -ungenerously plundering his estate at Zolkiew, and carrying off -his stud of horses. The proscribed general, who was a prince of -the empire, had received secret support from Leopold of Austria, -and was now in open rebellion. - -The whole kingdom was divided against itself. The palatinates -of the west, gained over by Austria, resented the predominance -of France at court, and joined Lubomirski. ♦Sobieski tries -arbitration.♦ An effort was made by Sobieski to get the decision -of the Diet on Lubomirski’s claims, but the assembly was -dissolved by the fatal veto, and the two armies advanced to the -struggle. Contrary to the earnest advice of Sobieski, Casimir -made his attack in the marshes of Montwy (July 11th, 1666), -and his troops, entangled in the difficult ground, were easily -defeated. ♦Peace with Lubomirski.♦ But Lubomirski was anxious to -come to terms, and, having extracted a promise from Casimir that -he would not interfere in the succession, he waived his personal -claims, and retired to Silesia, where he died six months after. - -His faction, however, was not silenced. Bands of hungry soldiers, -clamouring for pay, levied black-mail upon the provinces; and the -central authority seemed powerless to restrain them. ♦Invasion of -the Tartars.♦ At this juncture news arrived that 80,000 Tartars -were plundering Volhynia, and that the Cossacks under Doroscensko -were preparing to join them. The utmost consternation prevailed -at Warsaw; a peace was hastily patched up with Muscovy, and -efforts were made to raise fresh troops. But the treasury was -empty; the republic had only 10,000 men under arms; and many of -these were most imperfectly equipped. Casimir applied vainly for -help at the principal European courts; Brandenburg alone sent a -few companies of infantry. At this crisis Potoçki, the aged Grand -General, died, and the king at once appointed the Grand Marshal -to the post. - -♦Sobieski Grand General,♦ Never before had any Polish subject -united in his own person these two offices. As Grand General -Sobieski had absolute control over military affairs, and could -quarter his army where he pleased; ♦As well as Grand Marshal.♦ -as Grand Marshal he was at the head of the administration, -received foreign ambassadors, and could inflict death without -appeal. In most points, as in the last, his power was really -greater than that of the king; for although the king could confer -these honours, he could not revoke them. No higher testimony -could have been paid to the prudence and ability of Sobieski -than the readiness with which these unusual powers were granted, -and the very transitory murmurs that they provoked amongst an -exceptionally jealous nobility. His rise, though fortunate at -its close, had not been so rapid as to be out of proportion to -his merits. The gravity of the crisis doubtless operated in -his favour; and he took pains at once to relieve all suspicion -by his temperate and vigorous action. His persuasive eloquence -silenced the clamours for pay, and he hesitated not to drain -his private coffers in raising new levies. ♦His bold plan of -the campaign.♦ By this means he doubled his original forces, -and then prepared to execute a grand plan for the destruction -of the Tartars. Throwing his army into the fortified camp of -Podhaic, a small town in Red Russia, he detached several large -bodies of cavalry to act in the vicinity. These had orders on a -given day, when the enemy had worn himself out by the assault, to -close round the vast host and help their general to assume the -offensive. To divide so small a force seemed hazardous in the -extreme,[36] and the soldiers murmured openly that their lives -were to be thrown away. The cool courage of Sobieski made them -blush for shame. “He gave all cowards liberty to depart; as for -himself, he was determined to remain with all those who loved -their country.” ♦Sept. 28th-Oct. 15th, 1667.♦ The enemy appeared; -and for seventeen days in succession this heroic band withstood -their most determined assaults. Finally Sobieski, whose troops -had suffered far less loss than they inflicted, gave the signal -to his outlying parties, and attacked the Tartars in front and -rear. ♦Great victory of Podhaic.♦ The battle was hotly contested; -but at length victory declared for the Poles. Galga, the Tartar -khan, found his troops so severely handled that he was forced -to sue for peace, and concluded an alliance with the republic. -Doroscensko, on the part of the Cossacks, agreed to restore to -the nobles their estates in the Ukraine. - -♦Gratitude of Poland.♦ Poland had been saved almost by a miracle; -and multitudes flocked to the churches to return thanks to God. -When the danger was at its height, so inert and feeble was -the body-politic that Casimir had found it impossible to arm -the Pospolite for the relief of their devoted general. Their -gratitude was now the greater that their sacrifices had been -few. When Sobieski on his return detailed in modest language the -success of the campaign, and ascribed his victory to the mercy of -God, the Diet rose with one accord and answered that the republic -knew who had saved her, and would remember to thank him. ♦Birth -of a son.♦ The tidings reached his wife, who was staying with -her relatives in France, just after she had borne him a son; and -such was the general admiration that Louis XIV. and Henrietta -Maria, the mother of Charles II., were willing to answer for the -child at the font. He was named James Louis, in honour of his -grandfather and his illustrious sponsor. - -No successes against the invader could allay the internal broils -of Poland. Although Casimir had lost his queen in the spring of -the year 1667, the outcry against the French influence continued -unabated. On one occasion the king so far forgot himself as to -exclaim, in full diet, “If you are weary of me, I am no less -weary of you.” ♦Abdication of John Casimir.♦ At length, bowed -down by domestic sorrow, tormented by scruples of conscience,[37] -and disgusted at the turbulence of the nobles, he came to the -resolution, which those words seemed to imply, of laying aside -the crown. He took farewell of the Diet in a dignified speech, -in which he asked only for six feet of earth, where his bones -might rest in peace. If he had offended any, he begged them to -forgive him as freely as he forgave those who had offended him. -The assembly was profoundly affected; but, although Sobieski -and others from motives of gratitude besought him to retain the -crown, it does not appear that this was the wish of the nation. -We are told that on the day after his abdication the people -hardly paid him the respect due to a gentleman;[38] and much -ill-feeling was shown in the Diet, when the question of his -pension came before it. After remaining in Poland too long for -his own credit[39] he retired to France, where Louis XIV. gave -him the Abbey of St. Germain. He was the last of the dynasty of -Jagellon,[40] which had reigned in Poland nearly three hundred -years. - -♦Candidates for the throne.♦ The number of aspirants to the vacant -throne was, as usual, considerable. The Czar Alexis massed 80,000 -troops on the frontier in support of the candidature of his son, -but the Poles took little notice either of him or his manœuvres. -The Prince of Condé was supported by Sobieski and many of the -Senate, but the prejudice against a Frenchman was universal among -the lesser nobles. The two candidates most in favour were Prince -Charles of Lorraine, secretly supported by Austria, and Philip, -Duke of Neuberg, who, though sixty years of age, was set up as -the real choice alike of the King of France and the Emperor. The -personal advantages of the former were far superior to those of -his rival; he was young, courageous, and affable; but he had -neither money nor lands, while the offers of the Duke of Neuberg -were most advantageous to the state. ♦Disorder on the field of -election.♦ The nobles, fully alive to the value of their votes, -postponed their decision till May, 1669; and meanwhile the field -of election was as usual a scene of wild confusion. A large party -clamoured for the exclusion of the Prince of Condé, and, although -Sobieski protested against such a measure as interfering with -the freedom of the proceedings, it was carried through by the -violence of its promoters. At length the tumult rose to such a -height that Sobieski, as Grand Marshal, threatened to fire upon -the rioters. Order was thus partly restored; and soon the cry -of a Piast! a Piast! was heard among the crowd. Sobieski might -well suppose that no Piast (or native Pole) would be thought so -worthy as himself to wear the crown, but perhaps he had made -himself too unpopular during the election. The cry was followed -by the proposal of Michael Wiesnowiesçki--a young noble barely -thirty years of age, who had neither virtues, nor abilities, nor -riches to recommend him to their suffrages. ♦Proclamation of King -Michael.♦ Yet such was the fickle excitability of the assembly -that he was chosen by acclamation; and, although he implored -to be spared the honour, and even attempted to escape, he was -dragged to the throne, and invested with the supreme authority. - -The reign of such a king could scarcely be prosperous. Ere long -the nobles had cause to regret that they had not chosen the -man who of all native Poles was worthiest to hold the sceptre. -Michael himself, when mounted upon the throne, could not but -see that he was far from being the first man in the republic. -The thought wounded his pride, which was soon to become as -conspicuous as his previous humility. ♦His hatred of Sobieski,♦ -He hated Sobieski with a hatred the more violent that he was -unable to abridge his powers. He refused the grand coach-and-six -which it was the established custom for the general to present to -the new sovereign.[41] He plotted with Christopher and Michael -Paz, respectively chancellor and grand general of Lithuania, -against the man with whom they had a long-standing family -feud.[42] ♦Who was popular with the army.♦ But Sobieski, besides -having the army at his back, was zealously supported by the -greater nobles, and although a struggle appeared imminent the -king’s party forbore for a time. Efforts were made to promote a -reconciliation by marrying Michael to the daughter of Sobieski’s -sister;[43] but the plan was overthrown by the arrival of an -ambassador from Leopold to offer him the hand of the Arch-Duchess -Eleanor. ♦Marriage of Michael.♦ The honour was too tempting for -the weak-minded king; he accepted from the emperor the order of -the Golden Fleece, and hastily concluded the marriage without the -sanction of the republic. Loud were the complaints against this -breach of the constitution,[44] even among his own supporters, -the lesser nobles. Austria had always been distrusted by the -Poles, but at this moment there was a special reason for her -unpopularity. - -♦Siege of Candia. Designs of Ahmed Köprili.♦ On the 2nd of -September, 1669, after a most memorable defence of more than -twenty years, the city and island of Candia surrendered to the -Turkish fleet, commanded by the Grand Vizier, Ahmed Köprili. The -vast designs of this able minister were the terror of Europe. -Five years earlier (1664) he had concluded with Austria a twenty -years’ peace, on terms most favourable to the Turks; and it was -well known that he only awaited the fall of Candia to resume -his schemes against Italy and the empire. That result was now -achieved, a peace was concluded with Venice, and he was free to -turn the Ottoman arms towards the west and north. ♦Terror in -Europe at♦ The Marquis de St. André,[45] who had commanded in -Candia, wrote into France that Köprili had opened the way to -Rome, and by what he knew of that general’s humour, he doubted -not but he had a design to turn St. Peter’s church into the Grand -Signor’s stables. ♦The rise of Turkey.♦ It is even said that Pope -Clement IX. died of grief at the Turkish successes. These fears -were doubtless in part well founded. During the Thirty Years’ -War, and the intestine struggles which succeeded it in many of -the Christian states, the Turkish power had steadily increased. -Two Grand Viziers of consummate ability, Mahommed Köprili and his -son Ahmed, had strengthened the empire by numerous fortresses, -had sternly quelled the frequent revolts, and had introduced -a spirit of order and activity hitherto seldom seen among the -Turks. If the jealousies of France and Austria were to continue, -a wise vizier might well hope ere long to make a tremendous -onslaught upon Christendom. It is not surprising therefore that, -after the fall of Candia, the Poles should resent the Emperor’s -crafty aim to secure their taking up arms in his defence. - -♦Revolt of the Cossacks.♦ But the danger was nearer than they -imagined. It threatened them as usual from the quarter of -the Cossacks, who had never since their first revolt in 1648 -preserved a real peace with Poland. They viewed with dismay the -accession to the throne of a son of their former oppressor, -Jeremiah Wiesnowiesçki, and imagining that his first object would -be to recover his lost estates, they rushed to arms. ♦Sobieski’s -campaign of 1670.♦ Immediately after the coronation of Michael -(October, 1669) Sobieski was called to the frontiers. Acting -with his usual vigour, he sowed discord in the enemy’s ranks, -and drove them beyond the Dniester. So unexpected were these -victories that the Vice-Chancellor, writing to him in the king’s -name, says: “Envy itself is compelled to confess that, after God, -you alone, though at the head of so small a force, have once -more saved Poland.” ♦Michael refuses a policy of concession.♦ -But the king and his general could not agree as to the measures -to be taken with the subdued Cossacks. Sobieski was most anxious -for a policy of concession. He had seen signs among them of a -disposition to call in the Turks, which they had attempted to -do in 1651, and he hoped to avert such a disaster. But Michael -was wholly deaf to argument. Finding that the Diet was likely to -declare against him, he easily procured its dissolution by the -veto (April 17th); and the event which Sobieski dreaded came to -pass. ♦The Cossacks apply to the Porte.♦ Doroscensko, the Cossack -chief, losing all hope of justice from Poland, and persuaded by -his metropolitan that he would find it at the patriarchate of the -East, went to Constantinople to throw himself at the feet of the -Sultan. - -♦Köprili prepares for war with Poland.♦ Fortune seemed to play -into the hands of Ahmed Köprili. The restless janissaries needed -employment, and he preferred a gradual advance upon Austria to -a premature declaration of war with her. Poland seemed to offer -a splendid field. Proclaiming the Sultan the champion of the -oppressed, he prepared a great armament against the oppressor, -and created Doroscensko hospodar of the Ukraine. But his plans -required time to be fully matured, and in the meanwhile he -encouraged the Tartars to burst into Poland (1671). - -♦Austrian influence in Poland.♦ The republic was at this moment -torn in pieces by the violence of the Austrian and French -factions. Leopold had followed up his success in the marriage -of his sister by surrounding the weak Michael with creatures -of his own, who used all their arts to persuade him that the -French monarch had been guilty of bringing in the Tartars against -him. Great efforts were made to include Sobieski in these -accusations. His second general, Demetrius Wiesnowiesçki, the -king’s cousin, who had long been jealous of him, actually put -Tartar captives to the torture to obtain evidence, but without -success. Sobieski, though deeply indignant, contented himself -with publishing a scornful manifesto, and then hastened to defend -the frontiers. At the meeting of the Diet (September 20th) the -deputies demanded the dismissal of the Austrian courtiers; and -the primate Prazmowski vehemently accused the king of treachery -to the nation, and of breaking his coronation oaths. ♦Michael -calls out the Pospolite.♦ Terrified at this attack, Michael -called out the Pospolite, which was devoted to his interests; but -he paid no attention to the entreaties of Sobieski that he would -use it against the invader. He could not bring himself to save -his kingdom at the expense of strengthening his rival. - -♦“Miraculous campaign” of Sobieski.♦ Sobieski determined to -act without him. Equipping the regular army at his own cost, -he appeared to be covering Kaminiec, the key of south-eastern -Poland, but when the Tartar hordes had passed into Volhynia, -he marched with surprising celerity through Podolia, and cut -them off from their allies, the Cossacks. Trembling for their -retreat the barbarians broke up their camp, and hurried out -of the country as fast as they could, while Sobieski made a -triumphant progress through the Ukraine, capturing several -towns which had not seen a Polish army for twenty years, and -re-establishing communications with the friendly Moldavians. -Europe justly termed this “the miraculous campaign;” yet it was -accomplished almost solely by the strenuous exertions of the -commander. His troops were in the worst possible condition, -the Lithuanian army had disbanded without joining him, and the -jealousies of the different palatinates had prevented their -sending him any succours. He now begged for reinforcements to -enable him to dictate peace to the Tartars, and to fortify Poland -against the Turks; but the infatuated malice of the king made -it difficult for him even to keep together the troops under -his orders. ♦December, 1671. He falls sick.♦ At this juncture -fatigue, and perhaps chagrin at the treatment which he received, -laid Sobieski on the bed of sickness at Zolkiew; and the king -redoubled his efforts to separate him from the army. The attempt -recoiled upon his own head. That body at once moved their winter -quarters to the Palatinate of Russia, and formed themselves into -a confederation to protect their beloved general. - -♦The Sultan declares war against Poland.♦ But the king’s -attention was soon most unpleasantly diverted elsewhere. In -the same month (December) an envoy from the Porte arrived at -Warsaw, and announcing that the Cossacks had been taken under -the protection of the Sublime Porte, demanded reparation for -the injuries which they had suffered. No resource was left to -the king’s party but to treat this as a mere blind intended to -conceal from Austria the Turkish advance on the side of Hungary. - -♦Confederation against the king.♦ The patience of the great -nobles was now completely exhausted. Under the leadership of -Prazmowski they entered into a confederation to dethrone the -king. The advice of the primate was that they should take the -emperor and the Polish queen into their counsels, and provide -some candidate who would be ready to accept the queen’s hand. -Eleanor was consulted, and professed herself devoted to the -plan, if they would choose Charles of Lorraine, to whom she -was deeply attached. ♦Joined by Sobieski.♦ Sobieski, now -convalescent, was at length made acquainted with these projects. -He strongly opposed any scheme which would place the country -under the espionage of Austria; but being firmly convinced of -the necessity of a revolution, he exhorted them to choose the -brave Duke of Longueville, nephew of Condé. Prazmowski, nothing -daunted, sent the queen the duke’s portrait, and was assured of -her acquiescence. Everything seemed favourable for the _coup -d’état_; the Diet went out in a body to meet Sobieski; and -the rejoicings at his recovery were universal, when suddenly -news arrived that the Duke of Longueville had been slain at the -passage of the Rhine (June 12th, 1672). The party of the king, -and the Lithuanians, who had trembled at the coming storm, took -fresh courage, while the confederates were proportionately -disconcerted. Michael began to negotiate for Austrian troops to -employ against the Grand General; ♦Invasion of the Sultan.♦ but -in the midst of the confusion it was announced that Mahomet IV. -in person, with the Grand Vizier and 200,000 men, was advancing -upon Kaminiec. The king’s party loudly averred that this was a -fabrication of their opponents; the Lithuanians swore to defend -him to the death; ♦Sobieski proscribed.♦ and Sobieski, with -others of the leading nobles, was proscribed. This violence -raised a similar storm in the Polish army in Russia, who -surrounded their general, and swore to follow him to the end of -the earth. “I accept your oaths,” was his answer, “and the first -thing I require of you is to save Poland.” - -Yet Poland seemed lost beyond all hope. Sobieski’s troops -scarcely amounted to 30,000 men, and there was now no chance of -uniting them to the Pospolite. ♦The Sultan takes Kaminiec,♦ The -Grand General flew to Kaminiec to reinforce and provision the -garrison; but he was obliged to leave it to its fate, for the -governor, who belonged to the king’s party, refused to admit any -of his force. Kaminiec was the only great fortress which Poland -possessed. Its natural position--defended on one side by the -river Smotrycz, and on the other by an inaccessible cliff--was -very strong; and the Poles constantly boasted that God, who built -it, would alone be able to take it. Yet so skilful were the -Turkish miners, after their long experience in Candia, that it -surrendered within a month. - -The consternation at Warsaw was fearful. The king assembled -the Pospolite at Golemba, near the capital; but his one aim -was to conclude peace on any terms. ♦And advances on Leopol.♦ -The Sultan, sending on an advanced guard to besiege Leopol, -the capital of Russia, encamped at Buczacz, where amongst the -Podolian mountains he enjoyed his favourite pastime of hunting. -Meanwhile Sobieski had not been idle. A large body of Tartars had -passed into Volhynia in support of the Turks, and, after loading -themselves with spoil and with a vast train of captives, prepared -to beat a retreat. Hovering always on their rear, Sobieski struck -a blow whenever it was practicable, and finally caught them in -a defile at Kalusz, in the Carpathian mountains. ♦Victory of -Sobieski over the Tartars.♦ After a great carnage he dispersed -them, recovered the spoil, and liberated nearly 30,000 Polish -captives. ♦His attack upon the Sultan’s camp.♦ He then formed -the daring plan of a night attack on Mahomet’s camp. By swift -and silent marches he approached unperceived, and burst with his -cavalry on the imperial tents. For a moment the quarters of the -Sultanas were in imminent danger; but the arrival of succours put -an end to the raid. - -♦Peace of Buczacz.♦ With his small force Sobieski could do no -more than harass the Turkish army, yet it was with indignation -that he heard that the king had concluded a peace at Buczacz -(October 18th). Michael concealed the terms as long as he could; -and this increased the suspicions of the Grand General that they -were dishonourable to the country. At length it was found that -Podolia, the Ukraine, and Kaminiec had been ceded to the Porte, -and that the king had consented to pay an annual tribute of -22,000 ducats. In return for this the Vizier withdrew his army -from Polish soil; but he established a vast military camp with -80,000 men at Kotzim, on the Dniester, to overawe the vanquished -nation. By this treaty, which he had no power to make without the -sanction of the republic, the king of Poland reduced himself to -the condition of a vassal of the Sultan. - -♦Hostility of the Pospolite to Sobieski.♦ Yet the leaders -of the Pospolite at Golemba, who dreaded nothing so much as -a long campaign, were loud in his defence. Suspecting that -Sobieski would not accept the peace, they renewed against him -the sentence of proscription, and confiscated his estates. On -receiving intelligence of these attacks, Louis XIV. offered him -a French dukedom and a marshal’s bâton; but Sobieski would not -forsake his country. Indeed his position did not justify it; -for his party grew stronger day by day, while the Pospolite, -ill-furnished with provisions, and rent in pieces by faction, -gradually melted away. At length the queen took on herself the -part of a mediator, and she was seconded by the Lithuanians, -who were weary of anarchy. It then appeared how strong a hold -Sobieski had upon the affections of the people. ♦Popularity of -Sobieski.♦ When his exploits during the war became generally -known there was an immense reaction in his favour. ♦Plot -against him.♦ His personal enemies, among whom may be reckoned -the king, viewed this with the utmost uneasiness, and a few of -them concocted an atrocious plot against him. They suborned -a poor noble, named Lodzinski, to come forward in the Diet -and declare that Sobieski had sold Kaminiec to the Turks for -1,200,000 florins, and that this money had been seen in waggons -on the way to its destination. This calumny raised the Diet to -the highest pitch of excitement, and they would have put the -slanderer in irons but for the intervention of the king. The -army declared that they would wash out the insult with blood; -but Sobieski calmed them, and proceeded to Warsaw to demand a -trial. He was welcomed with acclamations; the palace of Wiasdow, -decorated with all the trophies of Zolkiewski, was placed at his -disposal; and Michael sent the Grand Chamberlain to pay him his -compliments. ♦Discovered and punished.♦ Lodzinski, when brought -before a tribunal of senators and deputies, lost all courage, and -confessed that he had invented the story for the sum of 1,000 -francs--promised him by certain of the nobles. He was condemned -to death; but the sentence could not be carried out without the -consent of the Grand Marshal, and he was therefore suffered to -live. The nobles who had been his instigators had to ask pardon -on their knees. - -♦He persuades the Diet not to accept the peace.♦ The first -object of Sobieski in this sudden blaze of his popularity was -to procure the rupture of the peace of Buczacz. He at once -published a memorandum, setting forth necessary reforms in the -administration and the army, and promising that their adoption -would ensure a successful struggle against the Turks. The Diet -sent him a message in high-flown Polish rhetoric, in which they -begged for the presence of that hero “who, if the system of -Pythagoras be true, seems to unite in his own frame the souls -of all the great captains and good citizens of the past.” He -took his seat amid great enthusiasm (March 14th), and easily -persuaded the deputies to follow his advice. They did not now -dream of paying the tribute. They decreed an army of 60,000 men, -the establishment of a war-tax, and the despatch of embassies -for foreign aid, and finally placed in the hands of Sobieski -full powers both for peace and war. This was in effect to put -aside the king, and make the Grand Marshal Regent; but no voice -was raised against the proposal. ♦Their confidence in him.♦ -Since there was only a trifling sum remaining in the exchequer, -Sobieski persuaded the Diet to use the treasure stored up as a -reserve in the castle of Cracow. This, with an opportune subsidy -which arrived from the Pope, was deposited with him instead of -the Grand Treasurer, as the person most likely to use them to -advantage. - -♦His difficulties.♦ Such unbounded confidence carried with it a -responsibility which few men would have dared to face. Sobieski -accepted it cheerfully, yet at the outset of the campaign he -had to meet two difficulties, which he had not foreseen. His -old enemy, Michael Paz, caused much delay by arriving late with -his Lithuanians (Sept. 16th); and at the last moment the king -announced that he should put himself at the head of the force. -He came, and reviewed the troops; but during the ceremony he -was seized with illness; and the next morning the Poles raised -a hurra on seeing the “bonzuk,” or long lance, in front of the -Grand General’s tent in an upright position--a sure sign that -the king had quitted the army. The next day (October 11th), with -a force of nearly 40,000 men, and forty small field-pieces, -Sobieski began his march. - -♦His plan of the campaign.♦ His plan of the campaign, though -simple, was boldly conceived. Having heard that Caplan Pacha, -with 30,000 men, was advancing through Moldavia to reinforce -the camp at Kotzim, he proposed to cut him off upon his march, -and then to turn upon the camp itself. If he should succeed in -capturing it, he hoped to isolate Kaminiec, and so to take it by -blockade, and recover all that had been ceded to the Porte. He -was not dismayed at the lateness of the season; for he trusted -that on this account the Turks would be less willing to fight. - -♦March of the army.♦ The banks of the Dniester were reached after -three weeks’ march, and here a mutiny broke out among the troops, -which was industriously fomented by Michael Paz. They clamoured -for rest and provisions; Sobieski promised them both under the -tents of the barbarians. “My resolution,” said he, “is not to be -shaken. I intend to bury myself here or to conquer. You must do -the same, or nothing can save you.” His firmness had the desired -effect. They crossed the Dniester and penetrated into the forest -of Bucovina; but Sobieski was obliged to alter his original -plans. It would have been madness to wait for Caplan Pacha and -so give him time to join the camp; and yet his undisciplined -soldiery shrank from the inclement plains of Moldavia. He -therefore turned aside, and advanced at once on the entrenchments -at Kotzim. - -♦Castle and camp of Kotzim.♦ The castle of that name was -strongly situated on the right bank of the Dniester, about twelve -miles from Kaminiec. Between this and the advancing Poles, at -the height of twenty feet from the plain, was the vast fortified -camp, unassailable on the side of the river, where the rocks were -steep, and surrounded on the other sides by a broad ravine. The -ground immediately in front of the entrenchments was marshy, and -broken up by rapid streams, and the Turks could sweep it from -end to end with their admirable artillery. Within the lines were -ranged 80,000 men, the flower of the Turkish army, most of them -spahis and janissaries, under the command of the Seraskier[46] -Hussein. - -♦Insubordination of Paz.♦ The day after the Poles arrived -(November 10th) Paz declared an assault to be impracticable, -and announced his intention to retire. Sobieski replied with -truth that flight was not in their power except at the risk of -extermination. The enterprise indeed seemed superhuman; but the -Grand General ranged his troops in order of battle with full -confidence of success. During the day a large body of Moldavians -and Wallachians,[47] who occupied a spot on the left of the -Turkish camp, deserted to the Poles, and greatly raised their -drooping spirits. When night came on, the troops were still kept -under arms, although the weather was most severe. The snow fell -thickly, but Sobieski visited all the posts, and animated the men -by his cheerful manner. At length he reclined on the carriage of -a cannon and waited for the dawn. - -♦Crisis in Sobieski’s life.♦ It was the crisis of his great -career; yet he could not but regard the scene as one of happy -omen. On this spot, more than fifty years before, his father had -gained a splendid victory over the Turks, which was followed by -a long peace. Then indeed the Poles were the defenders instead -of the assailants of the entrenchments; but that only made the -victory in prospect seem a more glorious prize. - -♦He attacks the entrenchments.♦ At length the day broke, and -Sobieski observed the enemy’s lines much thinner than before. -Many of the Turks, exhausted by the unwonted cold, had sought -their tents, not dreaming for one moment that the Poles would -dare to attack them in daylight. “This is the moment that -I waited for,” cried Sobieski to his staff, and ordered at -once a general assault. After galloping down the lines with -a few encouraging words, he alighted from his horse, and led -the infantry and his own dismounted dragoons against the -entrenchments. The Turks, whose attention was distracted by a -false attack on another side, left a weak point in his front, -and Sobieski, though somewhat bulky, was the first to scale the -parapet. He was splendidly supported by his dragoons; and the -battle now raged in the midst of the tents. The infantry might -possibly have been surrounded, had not Jablonowski, Palatine of -Russia, dashed up a steep place with the best of the cavalry, and -rushed to the rescue. ♦Rout of the Turks,♦ Sobieski was supplied -with a horse, and the Turks now began to give way on all sides. -Soliman Pacha, at the head of the janissaries, tried to retreat -in good order to the plain; but he was charged by the Lithuanians -in front and by the Poles in the rear, and his fine troops were -cut to pieces. He is said to have himself fallen by the hand -of Sobieski, who despoiled him of his jewelled scimitar.[48] -The Turks fled in confused masses to the bridge leading to the -castle; but Sobieski had provided against this by sending his -brother-in-law, Radziwill, with a large detachment to seize -it. The only retreat now left them was the steep rock on the -river-side, from which thousands precipitated themselves into -the stream; ♦And complete victory of the Poles.♦ but the Polish -cavalry dashed in after them, and completed their destruction. -The carnage lasted more than three hours, during which half the -Turkish force was slain, and a large number taken prisoners. A -remnant of the original force succeeded in escaping to Kaminiec, -among whom was the Seraskier Hussein.[49] - -♦Question of the prisoners.♦ It is difficult to credit the -statement of some historians, none of whom are contemporaries, -that Sobieski put all the prisoners to the sword.[50] Such an act -would have been opposed alike to his natural disposition and to -his defensive policy. Plain facts are against it; for some days -later the commander at Kaminiec, delighted at the generous terms -which he granted to the garrison of the castle (November 13th,), -released fifty prisoners without ransom. Had such an enormity -been committed, it must certainly have reached his ears, and -would have met with a prompt revenge. - -♦Joy of the Poles.♦ Immediately after the victory, the Jesuit -confessor of Sobieski erected an altar in the pavilion of the -Seraskier, and the whole army, with tears of joy, attended -a thanksgiving service. The occasion was indeed affecting, -especially to their commander. Ere long Christendom was -resounding with the praises of one who had obtained the greatest -victory over the infidel since the battle of Ascalon. Sobieski -was most anxious to follow up his success. Honour forbade him -to desert the Moldavians and Wallachians, who had come over to -him at considerable risk; and he wished to cut off from the -Turks all chance of return. ♦Their advance upon the Danube.♦ He -put his cavalry in motion towards the Danube with the hope of -encountering Caplan Pacha. But that general, on hearing of the -disaster at Kotzim, retreated in all haste, and took with him the -Turkish garrisons on the left bank of the Danube. Such was the -panic in Turkey that the Sultan, who had advanced to Silistria, -hurried back to his capital. But the victorious advance of the -Poles was stopped, as they were entering Wallachia, by the news -of the death of their king. - -♦Death of Michael.♦ On the night before the battle of Kotzim -(November 10th), Michael breathed his last at Leopol. His death -was caused by disease of the kidneys, but he had hastened his -end by the gluttonous voracity of his appetite, which passed all -bounds. He is said to have devoured in a few hours a thousand -Chinese apples, presented to him by the municipality of Dantzic. -His last hours were embittered by the fruits of his pusillanimous -submission to the Turks. A few days before his death a Turkish -Aga[51] arrived, bearing the caphtan, or robe of vassalage, -which the Sultan sends to his tributaries. The king was too -ill to receive him, and he had to depart without executing his -commission. - -♦His character.♦ The incapacity of Michael deserves our pity, -because the crown was thrust upon him against his will. But he -was worse than incapable. Envy and fear alternately gained the -mastery over his despicable nature. His evil genius pursued -him to the end. Such was the general exultation at the victory -of Kotzim that there was no pretence of mourning for him; and -his body was conveyed to Warsaw, almost unnoticed, beneath the -triumphal arches erected in honour of his rival. - -♦Exultation in Poland.♦ Three weeks elapsed after Michael’s -death before the news of the Grand General’s victory arrived at -Warsaw (December 4th), and in the interval the Poles had given up -the army for lost. It is somewhat surprising that in a nation so -excitable the sudden revulsion of feeling did not result at once -in the proclamation of Sobieski. Madame de Sevigné,[52] writing -just after the news arrived in Paris (December 22nd), says that -there no one doubted that he would be elected. The official -journals of France speak of him as “worthy of the throne which he -had saved.” But the Grand General himself was aware what a stormy -opposition his candidature would raise among the Lithuanians. It -was thus with unfeigned sorrow that he received the orders of the -primate-interrex to bring back his victorious troops. Everything -remained to be done towards reaping the benefits of his glorious -success. The Turks were still in Kaminiec; Moldavia and Wallachia -were yet to be freed; and the Cossacks who had sent in their -submission had to be confirmed in their allegiance. ♦Return of -the Polish army.♦ He did all he could. Though his men deserted -him daily by hundreds for the more profitable field of election, -he left a garrison in Kotzim, and detached 8,000 men for the -defence of his two allies. Then, with a heavy heart, he retraced -his steps to Leopol. He was here met by deputies from the most -distant palatinates, who showered upon him their congratulations; -but he showed no disposition to proceed to Warsaw. He knew -too well the activity of his enemies in the Diet, and he was -quite content that it should appear that he had no personal -pretensions.[53] - -♦Projects of the queen.♦ While her late husband was still lying -in state the queen had resumed her favourite project of retaining -the crown by a marriage with Charles of Lorraine. That prince -left the army of the Rhine and appeared upon the frontiers; -and the emperor massed troops for his support on the borders -of Little Poland. ♦Candidates.♦ Sixteen[54] other candidates -appeared in the field, but many of these were Protestant -princes, whose chances were small; and the contest seemed to -lie between Lorraine and the young Duke of Neuberg, the son of -his old antagonist. The latter, though a German prince, was -supported by Louis XIV. as the heir of the Elector Palatine, and -therefore an important ally. ♦Preparations for the election.♦ No -artifice was spared by the queen’s party to prevent the proposal -of Sobieski. The Pazes brought forward a measure in the Diet -for the exclusion of a Piast on account of the misfortunes of -the late reign; and when this was unfavourably received, they -insisted that the new king must be unmarried.[55] The Diet -refused to sanction any measures of exclusion, and wrote to -press for Sobieski’s presence. But the hero was now at Zolkiew -attending his wife in a dangerous illness, upon the origin of -which various rumours were afloat. His enemies averred that he -had poisoned her himself to secure the queen’s hand; his friends -hinted that the queen had done so to be sure of the crown at all -hazards. These speculations were set at rest by the recovery -of Madame Sobieska; but her husband still delayed to appear in -public. He wrote, however, to the Diet, strongly urging that the -threatening attitude of the Turks rendered any delay dangerous; -and it was decided on this advice that the election should not be -made by the whole Pospolite, but by a representative Diet. But -the regulation was practically ineffective; for the Diet being -held in the open air, the nobles attended as usual to watch the -conduct of their deputies. - -♦The field of election.♦ The field of Wola, close to Warsaw, -was the scene of this unique spectacle. On the day when the Diet -of election met (April 20) all the orders of the state attended -a grand service at the cathedral, and then set out on horseback -for the field. In the midst of the plain was pitched the “szopa,” -or grand pavilion of the Senate, surrounded by a ditch to keep -off intruders, and carefully closed to the public. Not far off, -under the open sky, sat the “kolo” or circle of deputies from -the palatinates. Round it were ranged 100,000 of the nobility, -jealously watching each turn of their deliberations. Every -human passion found vent in this motley assemblage. Riots were -frequent, and seldom ended without effusion of blood. Each -noble was attended by as many valets as he could muster, who -were generally a worse element of disorder than their lords. To -these must be added a crowd of mercenaries from neighbouring -nations, all eagerly intriguing for their national candidate. -Long tables were set up as the head-quarters of each faction, -and at these was heard an unceasing babel of noisy tongues. In -the vacant spaces of the arena jousts were frequent, for which -each palatinate brought out a splendid cavalcade. This was the -occasion when all gratified the national craving for display. -Many a poor noble would readily sell his vote, perhaps to more -than one candidate, for the pleasure of donning a brilliant -attire. Costly furs adorned their persons, and were almost -hidden beneath a profusion of jewels. The same reckless display -of the precious metals was seen in their accoutrements. Nor -were the bishops outdone by the cavaliers. Green, broad-brimmed -hats, with yellow or red pantaloons, were the common ornaments -of the soldiers of the Church. Every kind of merchandise was -represented. The Jews, who were ordinarily interdicted from -appearing in Warsaw, made the most of the short period when -the restriction was removed. The plain around the “szopa” -was dotted with an immense multitude of tents, most of them -devoted to buying and selling, but all decorated in the most -gorgeous style. Several pavilions of superb workmanship and -oriental magnificence, containing a large suite of luxurious -chambers, attracted special attention. They were the quarters -of the Seraskier Hussein--transported entire from the camp at -Kotzim--and were now surmounted by the shield of Sobieski. - -♦Absence of Sobieski.♦ Nothing more was wanting to kindle the -liveliest enthusiasm for the absent general. His name was in -every mouth, and his non-appearance caused much surprise. The -“kolo” elected as their marshal the Lithuanian Sapieha, a -personal friend of the Grand General; and when Michael Paz pushed -his hatred so far as to revive his proposal for the exclusion of -a Piast (April 15), the attempt was so invidious that a party -began to form in Sobieski’s favour, though their designs were at -first studiously concealed. - -♦His arrival.♦ On the 2nd of May it was announced that Sobieski -was approaching Warsaw. His arrival on the plain created the most -unbounded enthusiasm; the Diet rose and went to meet him; and his -progress for miles resembled a triumph. Sixty-six banners--the -spoil of Kotzim--were carried before him, to be his present, -as he said, to his future king; and behind him marched a corps -of captive janissaries, who were enrolled as his body-guard. -Like his countrymen, he did not disdain ostentation; for on the -croup of his horse hung a shield of gold, embossed with scenes -from his great career. Nature had gifted him with handsome -features and a dignified mien.[56] Though stout, he was tall and -erect; and his full flashing eye marked him at once as a man of -frankness, bravery, and powers of observation. Yet along with his -military air his face wore a sweetness of expression, which was -indescribably attractive. Few of the Pules could have witnessed -his entry without feeling that he was the fittest person to be -their king. - -♦He proposes the Prince of Condé.♦ Two days after (May 4) the -Senate forsook the “szopa” and took their seat in the “kolo;” -and Sobieski, rising in his place, proposed the Prince of Condé, -whose military qualities, he said, made him the proper choice of -a nation which would have to struggle for its existence. This -unexpected event caused an immense commotion. The vast multitude -was split into the old factions of France and Austria, and for -days it seemed as if there was no solution but civil war. At -length (May 19) Sobieski consented to withdraw the name of Condé -if the queen would consent to marry the Duke of Neuberg. Hoping -against hope for the success of her party, Eleanor rejected this -offer with disdain; and the Lithuanians, who were encamped on the -other side of the Vistula, assumed a menacing attitude towards -the Polish Pospolite. At this crisis the Bishop of Cracow, who -was discharging the functions of interrex,[57] gave orders -for the singing of the canticles with which the debates were -accustomed to close. The familiar chant and its associations -produced a dead calm in the tempestuous assembly, and at -its conclusion the prelate ordered each palatinate to range -itself round the banner of its palatine. ♦Jablonowski proposes -Sobieski.♦ While his orders were being obeyed, Jablonowski, -palatine of Red Russia, the home of Sobieski, took advantage of -the silence to address all those within hearing. He represented -Lorraine as too devoted to the empire, Neuberg as too young, -Condé as too old, to command their armies with vigour. The times, -he said, required a prince who was well acquainted alike with -them and with their military system. He was here interrupted with -loud shouts of “A Piast!” a sound which soon collected round the -speaker all the surging masses of the Pospolite. The palatine -continued, “Among ourselves is a man whose sacrifices for his -country have caused him to be everywhere considered the first -of the sons of Poland. In placing him at our head we shall do -no more than consecrate his own glory; fortunate to be able to -honour by one title the more the remainder of a life, of which -every day has been dedicated to the republic. We know that such -a king will maintain our nation in the rank which it occupies in -the world. Such a man as he is will never make himself a vassal -of the infidel. Poles, if we are deliberating here in peace on -the election of a king, if the most illustrious dynasties are -courting our suffrages, if our liberty remains secure, if even -we have a country left to us, to whom do we owe it? Remember the -marvels of Slobodyszcza, of Podhaic, of Kalusz, above all, of -Kotzim, and take for your king John Sobieski!”[58] - -A tempest of applause followed this speech, and as it subsided -the voice of one of the castellans was heard calling upon the -Poles to elect that man whom the Turks would be most anxious to -exclude. Then from the midst of the host rose loud shouts of -“Long live King John Sobieski!” and thirteen palatinates at once -took up the cry. The regular soldiers pressed forward towards -the szopa, exclaiming, “We will all perish together, or have for -our king John Sobieski!” It was already late in the evening, but -the Polish nobility crowded round the interrex, and besought him -to take the votes. ♦He postpones the voting.♦ One voice alone -was raised against the proposition; it was that of Sobieski. He -firmly declared that he could not accept the crown if it was -offered at the fall of night, and in a manner so sudden that no -one could have time to recollect himself. “If,” said he, “there -is no other protest against the election being made this night, I -shall oppose my veto.” This disinterested advice was unwillingly -followed, and Sobieski left the plain to encounter the reproaches -of his wife. - -Several writers--principally the later Polish historians, who -treat him with marked disfavour--endeavour to detect in his -conduct throughout the proceedings the signs of crafty intrigue. -♦And shows his fair dealing.♦ Yet by this last step he allowed -his enemies time to combine against him, and gave the queen’s -party a fair opportunity of reviving their scattered energies. -But such generosity is often the best policy. The succeeding -night and day (May 20th) were spent in a general effort to secure -unanimity; and the riches and influence of his brother-in-law, -Radziwill, were of much service to Sobieski in the Lithuanian -camp. But his own popularity was still more effectual. It had -ever been the privilege of the Grand General of Poland to quarter -his army where he pleased, and pay nothing for their maintenance. -Bribes had formerly been freely taken from those districts that -desired exemption,[59] but Sobieski, unwilling to exercise such -tyranny, had always quartered his army on the frontiers. This -was now remembered with gratitude. ♦His offers to the republic.♦ -His promises to the republic also became the topic of admiring -conversation. He engaged to pay the pension to the queen dowager, -to redeem the crown jewels, to found a military school for the -young nobility, to build two fortresses wherever the Diet should -appoint, and to furnish the regular army with six months’ pay. -Early in the day two of the family of Paz came to register their -opposition with the interrex, but before night fell they had been -persuaded to forego it. ♦Proclamation of Sobieski.♦ The next -morning Sobieski was proclaimed king amid the acclamations of -both Principalities, and took the name of John III. The same day -a vast crowd attended him to the cathedral of St. John to return -thanks for his election. - -♦Opinion of Europe.♦ Europe in general was less astonished at -his elevation than Poland. At Constantinople and at Vienna alone -the news was received with disfavour. Köprili saw less chance of -recovering his conquests; and the emperor was bitterly mortified -to see upon the throne one who had always belonged to the faction -of France. Poland was daily becoming of greater importance in -the struggle between Louis and Leopold. When the republic was -bleeding from the shocks of her barbarous neighbours, and from -a succession of internal troubles, it mattered little to these -great potentates who filled the throne; but now that she had -proved herself strong enough to withstand the dreaded Turk, and -wise enough to offer the crown to her victorious general, she -was looked upon with a respect to which she had hitherto been a -stranger. This was fully appreciated at the Papal Court. Clement -X., besides his benediction, sent assurances of friendship to -the new king; and Oliva, the general of the Jesuits, wrote his -joyful congratulations to “the pillar of the republic and the -avenger of Christendom.” It is difficult to discover how far -the court of France had a hand in his election. Its ambassador, -Forbin-Janson, bishop of Marseilles, arrived somewhat late (May -8th), and certainly brought instructions to support the Duke -of Neuberg. But he probably discovered ere long which way the -tide was setting, and, adapting himself to circumstances with a -Frenchman’s ready wit, he caused it to be supposed that he had -used his influence in favour of Sobieski. Louis XIV. followed the -same course; and in an official note of the same summer claimed -this election as one more instance of the universal triumph of -his policy. - -♦Schemes of the king’s enemies.♦ The machinations of the enemies -of Sobieski did not cease with the withdrawal of their veto. -Their first move was to give notice of a law which should oblige -him to divorce his wife and marry the queen dowager. But on this -point the king was firm. “I have not yet finally promised,” said -he, “to accept the royal functions. If this is the price of your -sceptre, you need not offer it.” The proposal was soon dropped; -and Eleanor, after receiving a visit from the king, retired to -Thorn, whence she still exercised a baneful influence upon the -course of affairs. Four years later (1678) she gave her hand to -her old suitor, the Prince of Lorraine. - -Whilst the Diet was drawing up the _pacta conventa_, -Sobieski discovered from an examination of his revenues that -he could not fulfil his promise of paying the army for six -months. Without delay he frankly owned his inability; and his -opponents made this a pretext for inserting in the contract -new restrictions on the military authority of the king. They -also wished to bind him to an eternal alliance with the court -of Vienna. It was soon known that the king would not yield to -these terms; and several stormy scenes took place in the Diet. -At length the obnoxious articles were struck out; and on the 5th -June the king received the instrument of his election from the -hands of the interrex. - -There now remained only the ceremony of coronation--which was -a necessary prelude to the exercise of the royal functions. -♦Danger from the Turks.♦ But the steady advance of the Turks grew -daily more disquieting. Caplan Pacha had rallied the remnants -of the defeated force, and the Sultan was already marching with -a great army through Bulgaria. John saw that the delay would be -dangerous, and had the courage to disappoint the queen[60] and -the whole court by deferring the ceremony. He told the Senate -that at such a time a helmet became his forehead better than a -diadem. “I know well,” said he, “that I have been elected, not to -represent the republic, but to fight for her. I will first fulfil -my mission.” Touched by his magnanimity, the Diet resolved to -place in his hands at once all the powers of a king. - -♦They invade the Ukraine.♦ Meantime the Turks, accompanied by -the Tartars, had appeared in great force before the camp at -Kotzim. The Polish commander, terrified at their numbers, soon -surrendered, and the whole garrison was put to the sword. But -instead of advancing into the heart of Poland, Köprili turned to -the right into the Ukraine, where the Muscovites, who also laid -claim to that territory, now lined the Borysthenes with 100,000 -men. Hearing that he was occupied in besieging small places -in the Ukraine, John promised to render a good account of him -before the close of the campaign. He kept his word. ♦Campaign of -1674.♦ While the Turks drove the Muscovites beyond the river, -he suddenly appeared in Podolia and besieged Bar. The Sultan, -who was distracted by news of intrigues at his capital and the -advance of the Sophy upon Babylon, suddenly broke up his camp, -and made for Silistria. The Tartars disappeared at the sound of -“the Polish hurricane,” as they called Sobieski; and John was -left to deal with the hapless country which had but just suffered -from the Ottoman invasion. ♦John winters in the Ukraine.♦ He -could see no mode of protecting its peasants from the yoke of -the nobility but to place his army in winter quarters in the -neighbourhood, and to teach the cavalry by his own example what -clemency and what self-sacrifice they ought to show towards a -subject people. Resistance was only to be expected; for his -haughty hussars had never before passed a winter away from their -estates. But when they saw their king take up his abode in the -miserable town of Braclaw, where the scarcity of forage increased -the hardships of the season, the Polish cavalry submitted without -a murmur. - -♦The Lithuanians desert him.♦ Not so, however, did the -Lithuanians. The king had assigned to Paz the town of Bar, the -most comfortable post on the frontiers. Yet that general did -not approve of the innovation, and taking the law into his own -hands marched home with his army. This defection was a great blow -to the king. He had begun to invest Kaminiec, and had opened -negotiations for an alliance with Muscovy. He now saw himself -obliged to narrow his plans, and to confine himself to the -defensive. The desertion of Paz aroused the strongest indignation -in Poland, and he was forced to ask the king’s pardon; but he -could not now repair the mischief. His disbanded troops were -amusing themselves with pillaging their own country,[61] and -there was no chance at present of rallying them round their -standards. - -♦Campaign of 1675.♦ The winter passed without any important -success; and early in April another large Turkish army, commanded -by Ibrahim Pacha,[62] nicknamed “Schischman” from his enormous -bulk, advanced into Volhynia. John hastily quitted the Ukraine -and disposed his small forces for the defence of Russia in a -vast arc, of which Leopol was the centre. So completely was -he outnumbered that his only chance of success seemed to lie -in procuring allies. He continued to treat with the Czar, and -received at Leopol with ostentatious pomp an ambassador from the -Sophy of Persia; but he could hope little from the latter, except -the chance of terrifying the Sultan by a supposed coalition with -his Asiatic enemy. - -♦Lethargy of the Poles.♦ Meanwhile Ibrahim had copied the fault -of the preceding year by wasting time in small sieges, and it -was not till he received a threatening message from Köprili that -he began to advance upon the Polish force covering Leopol, which -hardly amounted to 15,000 men. No exertions on the part of the -king could awaken Poland to a sense of its danger. Servitude had -numbed the senses of the peasants, and the nobles were wearied -with the length of the war. Ibrahim seemed unwilling to trust his -fortune against that of Sobieski. Sitting down before Trembowla, -a strong fortress in Podolia, he sent on the Tartar Noureddin -with 40,000 men “to bring the king before him dead or alive.” - -♦Battle of Leopol.♦ It was late in August when this -detachment[63]--the flower of the Turkish army--arrived at -Leopol, and began to burn the suburbs. The Poles besought the -king to retire, and not risk his life in so deadly a combat. -“You would despise me,” said he, “if I were to follow your -advice.” The ground in the vicinity was undulating and covered -with vineyards, and John carefully made his dispositions in -order to conceal from the enemy the smallness of his force. He -planted several hills, which he could not occupy, with the spare -lances of his hussars, and concealed squadrons in the valleys -near the point of attack. Then, on the 24th of August, amidst -a storm of snow and hail which beat in the faces of the enemy, -he suddenly charged the infidels at the head of 5,000 cavalry, -repeating thrice the name of Jesus. The impetuous bravery of the -Poles spread terror in the Turkish ranks, and before nightfall -the whole force, though at least eight times the number of their -assailants, had fled in disorder. The storm was so unusual -for the time of year that contemporary memoirs speak of it as -miraculous; and it appears that this battle, more than any other, -contributed to cause the superstitious fear with which the -Turkish troops subsequently regarded John Sobieski. - -♦Siege of Trembowla.♦ Ibrahim was dismayed at the king’s success. -He had captured the position of Podhaic, but he could not reduce -the garrison of Trembowla, commanded by Chrasonowski, a man -of determined courage. He now redoubled his assault upon that -place, which must have fallen but for the arrival of John with -the Polish army. The king posted his troops to advantage and -prepared for the attack; but during the night (Oct. 6th) Ibrahim -intercepted a letter to the besieged, which informed him that -the king in person was at the head of the Poles. ♦Retreat of -the Turks.♦ He at once raised the siege, and without striking -a blow retreated precipitately to Kaminiec, and thence across -the Danube. John would have pursued him beyond the outskirts of -Podolia, but the Polish vanguard, dreading a winter’s campaign in -the enemy’s country, set fire to the bridges, and compelled their -king to suspend his march. - -♦Return of the king.♦ The whole country clamoured for his -return, and the Diet was impatient to return thanks to its -deliverer. The Vice-chancellor declared in the Senate that the -king moved like a tortoise towards the throne, but like an -eagle towards the enemies of the republic. He was now ready to -gratify the general wish, and returning to Zolkiew received a -number of foreign ambassadors sent to congratulate him upon his -election,--among them Lawrence Hyde, Earl of Rochester,[64] -whom Dr. South was attending as domestic chaplain. The French -ambassador solicited John’s alliance against Brandenburg and the -empire, and held out hopes of persuading the Turks to make peace. -But the king deferred all fresh engagements for the present; his -grand aim in life was to save Poland from the Ottoman grasp. - -Cracow was, as usual, the scene of the coronation, which was -fixed for the 2nd of February (1676). ♦Burial of the two last -kings.♦ Two days earlier, according to the Polish custom, John -followed to the grave the body of Michael, and the interest of -the ceremony was deepened on this occasion by the obsequies of -Casimir. The ex-king had died three years before, of grief, it -was said, at the fall of Kaminiec.[65] The reigns of the two -deceased kings, so fruitful in misfortunes to Poland, comprised -the whole of Sobieski’s wonderful career, and it was fitting -that their royal mourner should be he to whose prowess they were -chiefly indebted for retaining the crown. ♦Coronation.♦ The -coronation took place amid general rejoicings, broken only by a -few murmurs when the crown was set upon the queen’s head. It was -not long before she showed her unfitness to wear it. - -♦Diet of 1676.♦ Two days later (February 4th) the Diet met, and -was conspicuous for its loyal enthusiasm. The king was entreated -not to lay down the office of Grand General, but he wisely -refused a privilege so invidious, and conferred the post upon -his old enemy, Demetrius Wiesnowiesçki. He displayed the same -generous spirit in his other appointments, offering the primacy -to Olzowski, the favourite of Eleanor, and the Grand Marshalate -to Lubomirski, son of his old rival. The brave Jablonowski -was rewarded with the post of Second General. His elevation -caused some trouble. The Diet proposed to make these dignities -triennial, which, in the present reign at least, would have been -a salutary enhancement of the royal power; but the queen, out of -gratitude to Jablonowski, worked hard in secret to defeat the -proposal. The king, though he favoured it at heart, appeared -neutral; and the project fell through. - -John availed himself of the favourable temper of the Diet -to take exceptional measures for the national defence. He -proposed a capitation subsidy upon all alike, clergy as well as -laity, and strongly urged the necessity of forming a permanent -infantry. Hitherto this branch of the service had been fixed -at one-third of the regular army (16,000), but it had never -reached this standard, and being composed only of the peasants -and poorer nobles, commanded by foreign officers, its equipment -was disgracefully inefficient.[66] The Diet voted that the army -should be raised to 73,000 men, thus augmenting it by 25,000,[67] -and that of these 35,000 should be infantry. No king had ever -obtained such concessions from the nobility, but they were not -granted without a violent opposition. The old expedient was tried -of drawing out the Diet, but John defeated it by submitting to -a continuous sitting, and presiding upon the throne for forty -consecutive hours. He was able to announce that the Great Elector -had promised him succours, and that he hoped for an alliance with -Muscovy. The Diet did not rise before paying him the unusual -compliment of a decree that all the starosties which he had held -should remain hereditary in his family.[68] - -♦The king fails to levy troops.♦ Unfortunately their good -resolutions were not carried into effect. Although the Dietines -ratified their proceedings, it was beyond the king’s power -to overcome the inertness and lethargy of the nobility. The -patriotic spirit died out at once when the magic of his personal -influence was withdrawn. Seizing upon a rumour which was -industriously raised by Austria, that the king was treating -in secret with the Turks and would use the money for his own -purposes, they refused to pay the subsidy, and threw every -obstacle in his way. John hastily assembled at Leopol those -troops which had not been disbanded; but, although their number -is variously stated, some even placing it as low as 10,000, it -probably did not amount to one-half of the force that the Diet -had decreed. - -♦Armament of the Turks.♦ Meanwhile, Köprili had not been idle. -He assembled an army of 100,000 Turks, to be accompanied by a -vast host of Tartars. But his aim was more pacific than in the -former campaigns. He was beset by the proffered mediation of the -European powers, especially of Louis XIV., who wished to evade -his promise of sending armed assistance to Poland. Moreover, the -condition of Asiatic Turkey distracted his attention; his allies, -the Cossacks and the Tartars, inspired him with distrust; and he -felt that his fortune was outshone by the star of John Sobieski. -The name of the Polish hero was such a terror in the Ottoman -ranks that threats alone could induce many of the officers to -serve against him. Köprili looked out anxiously for a competent -general. He chose Ibrahim, Pacha of Damascus, called “Shaitan” -(Satan), from his combined bravery and cunning, and gave him -instructions to procure an honourable peace. - -♦Invasion of Galicia.♦ Ibrahim secretly hoped to do more than -this, for he was confident that he could drive the king to -extremities. He pushed on at once into Galicia and crossed the -Dniester, expecting that John would attack him; but finding -that the king lay inactive at Zurawno, a small town on the left -bank, he advanced against him without delay. John called in -his squadrons of horse, which had been harassing the Tartars, -and prepared to improve his position. It had been chosen with -admirable judgment. He lay with the Dniester and the mountains -behind it covering his rear, while his left rested on the town -of Zurawno, and his right was protected by woods and marshes. In -front of his lines ran a rapid torrent, called the Swiczza, which -was easily fordable, and offered facilities for the construction -of entrenchments. On this task John employed his whole army, and -collected all the provisions within reach. When the seraskier -appeared on the heights in his front, he left his lines and -offered him battle (September 25th); but this was declined, for -all the Turkish troops had not yet come up. ♦Siege of Zurawno.♦ -Ibrahim, when he had assembled them, formed them into a vast arc, -including the town of Zurawno, the Polish army, and the wood on -its right, with each of his wings resting on the river. He then -commenced a regular siege. His artillery was splendidly handled; -and his miners rapidly approached the Polish entrenchments. -John at once employed counter-mines, but the experience of the -Turks in Candia gave them a vast superiority. The king was -anxious to bring on a general action, and in a skirmish on the -29th of September the Poles had the advantage, but they lost -heavily. John’s situation was becoming desperate; the Tartars -who commanded the river prevented the arrival of provisions by -that route; and the Turkish artillery made frightful havoc in his -ranks. - -♦Proposals of peace.♦ The liveliest alarm prevailed in Poland. -The Senate called out the Pospolite and placed Prince Radziwill -at its head; but the assembling of such a body was necessarily -slow. Meantime another engagement took place at Zurawno (October -8th), in which 2,000 Turks were slain; but John failed to break -through the enemy’s lines, and was once nearly surrounded and -cut off from his men by a body of janissaries. When however the -siege had lasted nearly twenty days, the Tartan khan, whose -dominion was menaced by the Muscovites,[69] pressed Ibrahim to -conclude a peace. The Seraskier knew the straits to which the -Poles were reduced, and he therefore sent an envoy to propose the -ratification of the treaty of Buczacz and an offensive alliance -against Muscovy. ♦Refused by the king.♦ John replied shortly that -he would hang the next man who brought him such a message. The -bombardment recommenced, and the soldiers murmured against their -king’s obstinacy. Paz repaired to the royal tent and announced -his intention to desert. “Desert who will,” cried John, “the -Turks shall not reach the heart of the republic without passing -over my corpse.” He then rode down the ranks, and reminding the -soldiers that he had extricated them from many a worse plight, he -gaily asked them if his head were enfeebled by the weight of a -crown. Yet he passed the night in the gravest anxiety, and when -morning broke (October 14th) he quitted his lines and drew up his -whole force in order of battle. - -♦Ibrahim proposes fairer terms.♦ The Turks were astounded; and -the Tartars cried out that there was magic in his boldness. Brave -though he was, Ibrahim dared not face the chances of a defeat. He -knew that the Pospolite was approaching; he suspected that the -Tartars had been bought over; and he saw winter rapidly closing -in. Above all, he remembered that his instructions were pacific, -and that a serious reverse might cost him his head. ♦Peace of -Zurawno.♦ Before the armies engaged, he proposed a peace upon -honourable terms. No mention was now made of tribute. The Porte -was to retain only Kaminiec and a third of the Ukraine; the -question of Podolia was referred to a subsequent conference; -each army was to restore its prisoners of war. It is said that -Sobieski, with the sentiments of a Christian knight, inserted -an article to provide for the establishment of a Latin guard at -the Holy Sepulchre.[70] After witnessing the release of 15,000 -captives, and the departure of the Turks (October 16th), John -retraced his steps to Zolkiew. He soon encountered the Pospolite, -which was advancing to his relief, and the two armies celebrated -the conclusion of peace with a grand flourish of trumpets. - -♦Great services of the king.♦ Though satisfactory, the terms -were not glorious; but that they should have been obtained at all -by a handful of men in the direst extremities was cause enough -for rejoicing. A moral triumph like this, following so close upon -a crisis so dreadful, carries with it an air of romance. Yet, -making every allowance for good fortune and the earnest mediation -of his allies, we must regard it as due in the first instance -to the potency of the name of Sobieski. With an insignificant -force at his back he had conducted to a favourable issue five -successive campaigns against the Turks--four of them on Polish -ground--and had previously many times repulsed the hordes of -Tartars which they had poured into the country. By thus foiling -the aggression of the Turks when at the height of their power -John III. had rendered a signal service to Europe. - -♦Death of Köprili.♦ The minister whose vast designs he had -thwarted was now upon his death-bed. Seven days after the peace -of Zurawno (October 23rd), Köprili expired at Constantinople. Had -it not been for Sobieski this able vizier would have extended -the dependencies of Turkey from the Black Sea to the Baltic, and -would have found a golden opportunity for his attack upon the -empire. His successor Mustapha, called “Kara,” or “the Black,” -was a man of a different calibre. He owed his advancement to -the intrigues of the seraglio; he had married a daughter of the -Sultan and possessed great influence over his master; and he -inherited the ambitious dreams of Köprili without his ability to -realise them. - -♦Enthusiasm of Europe.♦ All Europe, with the exception perhaps -of Austria, rejoiced at the peace of Zurawno. Madame de Sevigné, -writing on the 18th of November, 1676, expresses the general -admiration for the hero of Poland;[71] and Condé sent a special -messenger to congratulate his friend. Louis XIV. eagerly sought -his alliance. He commissioned his ambassador in Poland, the -Marquis of Bethune, brother-in-law of the king, to invest him -with the order of the Holy Ghost. John imprudently accepted the -honour, and thus, in spite of the enthusiasm with which he had -been received, excited general murmurs. He was accused of wearing -the livery of France, and binding the republic to follow her -interests. In the Diet which assembled the next year (January, -1677,) his opponents were clamorous. They complained that, -besides part of the Ukraine, he had given up Kaminiec, the key -of the realm; and that instead of striving to recover them, he -was meditating war against Brandenburg and Austria. They also -accused him of aiming at absolute power by the secret help of -the French monarch. The majority of the Diet, however, did not -forget the dangers from which they had been rescued; and Gninski, -palatine of Kulm, was sent to Constantinople to ratify the peace -of Zurawno. - -♦He supports the designs of France.♦ No notice was taken of the -other charges; yet John was undoubtedly conniving at the designs -of France. Louis XIV. had promised assistance to the insurgents -in Hungary against the emperor, and was encouraging Sweden to -attack the Great Elector. It is said that he gained over Sobieski -by the promise of ducal Prussia and a larger frontier on the -Baltic. At any rate the Marquis of Bethune was allowed to raise -troops destined for Hungary in the starosties of the king, -while secret permission was given to the Swedes to pass through -Courland to attack the Elector.[72] Frederic William naturally -resented the attitude of Poland, and in revenge fomented some -disturbances which had arisen in Dantzic. - -This prosperous centre of commerce enjoyed, as a Hanse town, a -large share of independence. Though belonging to the republic of -Poland, it was governed by its own magistrates and its own laws. -♦Disturbances in Dantzic,♦ A religious struggle had broken out -between the magistrates, who were Calvinists, and the people, who -were headed by an eloquent Lutheran preacher. ♦Quieted by the -king.♦ John at once visited the city and mediated between the -contending parties (September, 1677), and the unusual spectacle -was presented of a Catholic acting as arbiter in a Protestant -dispute. His moderation won all hearts, and tranquillity was -soon restored. The astronomer Hevelius, who was one of the chief -citizens, entertained the king in his house, and entitled his -newly-found constellation, “Scutum Sobieski.”[73] - -♦Activity of the Turks.♦ John was recalled from Dantzic by the -serious intelligence that the new Grand Vizier was placing -every obstacle in the way of the conclusion of peace. He kept -the Polish envoy for months at the gates of Constantinople; and -when at length he gave him an audience, his tone was haughty -and unconciliatory. The Austrian court, fearing for itself, had -done its utmost to persuade the Porte that the peace of Zurawno -was disgraceful to Turkey, and Mustapha, who longed for military -glory, encouraged the idea. His first blow, however, was to fall -on Muscovy. The Czar Feodor hastened to conclude the treaty with -Poland, which had long been pending, but he could look for no -assistance from the republic. He was worsted in the campaign -which followed, but the vizier, disgusted at the rigour of the -climate, looked out for a more alluring prey. His first thought -was to reopen the war with Poland; and he announced that he -should keep her envoy as a hostage until Podolia was ceded to the -Porte (September, 1678). - -♦Coldness of John towards France.♦John now saw clearly that -the danger from Turkey was still pressing. He therefore at -once withdrew his support from the French designs in the west, -and prepared to confront his old enemy. ♦Reasons.♦ This change -in his policy is reasonable enough. He saw that the Hungarian -insurgents would probably call in the Porte, and in that case -his natural ally would be Austria, while from France he could -expect no material help. His judgment was most sagacious; but it -was not uninfluenced by personal reasons. He was offended at the -pride of the French king, who had refused him on his accession -the coveted title of “Majesty,” and had lately treated his queen -with some contempt. Immediately after her coronation, his queen -had set out for France to take the waters of Bourbon,[74] and to -display her dignity in her native country; but on her way she -encountered the French ambassador, who delicately hinted that his -master could not receive an elective queen with full honours. The -“Grand Monarque” could not stoop to receive on equal terms the -daughter of the captain of his brother’s Swiss Guards. The queen -retraced her steps in great indignation, which subsequent events -only tended to increase. Through her husband she begged a dukedom -for her father, the Marquis d’Arquien, but Louis, though his -language was fair, deferred compliance.[75] Moreover, John could -not but regard with disgust the scarcely concealed efforts of -France to set the Turks in motion against the house of Austria. -The king himself had throughout his life distrusted Austria and -counteracted her influence in Poland, but his chivalrous spirit -would have revolted from bringing the infidel against her. He now -perceived that it was his policy to make common cause with her. - -♦His designs upon Kaminiec.♦ He was anxious to strike the first -blow against the Turks by surprising Kaminiec, which was poorly -guarded; but for this the consent of the Diet was necessary. He -had to publish his universals[76] to the Dietines describing his -projects, and to debate the question in the Diet when assembled. -This year (1679) it was convened at Grodno, in Lithuania, and so -stormy was the session that it was four months before the king’s -proposal passed. The Turks were thus enabled to strengthen and -re-victual the town at their leisure; and nothing was left to the -king but to send ambassadors to the European courts to propose a -general league against the Sultan. - -♦Arming of the Turks.♦ A vast armament was in preparation at -Constantinople, and no one in Europe knew against whom it would -first be directed. Troops were daily arriving from the interior -of Asia, and Greece was made subject to a searching levy. It was -plainly time for the European powers to show themselves united -against the common enemy, but there was little prospect of such a -combination. Louis had lately concluded a peace with the Emperor -at Nimeguen (1679), but it was scarcely more than a suspension of -hostilities. - -♦Polish Embassies in Europe.♦ The Polish ambassador, Radziwill, -had no success at the court of Vienna. He could not persuade -Leopold that he was in greater danger than Poland. But his -proposals were not merely defensive. He urged the formation -of a league, “which should hurl back the monster into his -native deserts, and revive from its ruins the ancient empire of -Byzantium.”[77] But when he arrived at Rome (July, 1680) he found -the Pope very favourably disposed towards a crusade. The chair -was now filled by Innocent XI., an Austrian by birth, who feared -that Vienna was the object of attack, and saw at once that Italy -must stand or fall with it. He had been formerly Papal Nuncio in -Poland, and in that capacity had bestowed his blessing on the -marriage of Sobieski. He now promised his hearty aid to the king, -whom he styled, “The invincible lieutenant of the God of armies, -that brazen wall against which all the efforts of the barbarians -have been dashed in pieces.” He agreed forthwith to furnish a -large subsidy. - -♦Alliance with the Pope.♦ This close alliance with the Pope -widened the breach between Sobieski and the court of France. -There could be no peace between such haughty characters as -Innocent XI. and Louis XIV., and they were often at open enmity -about the Gallican clergy. Louis hated the Pope above all -things for his sympathy with the Austrian court. He now sought -to counteract his influence by sending as ambassador to Warsaw -Forbin-Janson, at this time bishop of Beauvais, who was to be -assisted by Vitry, a man of great resource. - -♦Diet of 1681.♦ When the king assembled the next Diet at Warsaw -(Jan. 1681) he found the French party for the first time arrayed -against him. He had to report that his embassies had met with -complete success only at Rome, but that Savoy and Portugal had -sent him their good wishes. The majority of the Diet supported -him in his schemes against the Porte; but French intrigue -protracted the session for months, and finally dissolved it by -the veto on a frivolous pretext. Indignant at these proceedings, -Innocent XI., during his lifetime, withheld from Forbin-Janson -the Cardinal’s hat, which had been promised him at the accession -of Sobieski. ♦Peace with Turkey.♦ Fortunately, however, the Grand -Vizier suddenly assumed a peaceful attitude towards Poland, and -sent an envoy with conditions which she could honourably accept. -Mustapha was evidently bent on some more vast design; but though -he studiously concealed its nature, John seems to have divined it -from the first. - -♦1681-2.♦ He spent the two succeeding years in strengthening and -disciplining his army, and in those peaceful employments to which -he was so much attached. At a wild spot, six miles from Warsaw, -he constructed his palace of Willanow, and introduced on his -estate the Dutch system of farming. For a time all the clamours -of faction were hushed; but it was only the calm which heralds -the approaching storm. - -♦Designs of Louis XIV.♦ Louis XIV. had never abandoned his -encroachments upon the empire. At the end of 1681 he availed -himself of a legal fiction, created by his own “Chambers of -Reunion,” to occupy Strasburg, Casale, and other important -towns on the imperial frontier. The Diet of Ratisbon vehemently -protested against this spoliation, but in vain. They did not dare -to provoke him to open war; for it was known that his envoys were -strongly urging the Turks to invade Austria. His plan seems to -have been to acquire the glory of saving the Empire after the -fall of its capital, and to exact in return for his services -large territorial concessions. His ambition was to have the -Dauphin proclaimed king of the Romans. - -♦The Turks protect Hungary.♦ At length his policy seemed on -the point of success. Kara Mustapha threw off the mask (1682), -and declaring Hungary tributary to the Sultan, announced his -intention of protecting the new province. Count Emeric Tekeli, -who had ably headed its revolt since 1678, was invested with -the caphtan as hospodar. ♦Schemes of Leopold.♦ Leopold vainly -endeavoured, by his minister Caprara, to obtain a renewal of the -peace made with the Turks in 1664; but the influence of France in -the divan was too strong for him. He then turned to the Diet at -Ratisbon;[78] but its counsels were divided, the western electors -being in favour of war with France. His only hope seemed to be an -alliance with Poland, yet his relations with the king were not -cordial, and he had lately refused his offer of a league. He made -the attempt, however, and succeeded beyond his hopes. John was -convinced that the peace which he had concluded with the Turks -was merely temporary. It therefore seemed his duty to strike at -once while he could be sure of an ally. Such a course was in -keeping with his life-long purpose to curb the Ottoman power. It -also agreed well with the hatred which his queen had conceived -against the court of France, and the promise of an archduchess -for his son was not to be despised. - -♦Offers of France to the king.♦ Louis left no stone unturned -to divert him from his resolution. He tempted him with the -provinces of Silesia and Hungary, to become the property not of -the republic but of the king and his heirs, if he would join him -against the Empire; ♦French conspiracy against him.♦ and finding -him proof against his offers he began a conspiracy to dethrone -him. On the assembling of the next Diet (January 27th, 1683) -the heat of parties was tremendous. When Leopold’s ambassador, -the Count of Walstein, and Palaviccini, the Papal Nuncio, had -stated their proposals of alliance, the deputies in the pay of -France put in their protest. Besides placing every obstacle in -the way of public business, they appealed to the outside public. -Pamphlets appeared daily in which the policy of the king was -warmly condemned. The selfish cabinet of Austria, which had -refused to save Poland, was declared her eternal enemy, and the -nobles were warned that the king could not ally himself with such -a court without imbibing its despotic views. - -♦Discovered by the king.♦ The opposition gathered strength, -and the consequences might have been serious had not the king -fortunately intercepted some letters of the French ambassador, -which disclosed the details of his plot (March). He read these -letters in full Diet, and their contents excited the utmost -indignation. The ambassador boasted that through Morstyn, the -Grand Treasurer, he knew all the secrets of the cabinet, that he -had bought over numbers of the principal nobles, whose names he -gave, and that the nation was so venal that he felt certain of -destroying the league. He added that the king had rejected all -his offers, but that he trusted to make him powerless. Among the -nobles mentioned were Jablonowski, now Grand General of Poland, -and Sapieha, who, since the death of Michael Paz, had been Grand -General of Lithuania. The latter belonged to a family upon which -the king had showered his favours. - -♦His tact.♦ John used this information with wonderful tact. He -at once declared that the ambassador, to show his zeal to his -master, had evidently slandered the grandees; Morstyn alone, -whose guilt was proved by a letter in his own hand, deserved -the punishment of treason. The king concluded by saying that he -trusted the Diet would help him to show the French king that the -Polish nation was not altogether venal. The speech was received -with shouts of applause, and the suspected nobles were now -foremost in supporting the king. A similar change took place -in the nation, and the French ambassador found it unsafe to go -abroad without an escort. The Grand Treasurer would have been -brought to trial if he had not escaped to France. - -♦Alliance with the empire.♦ The immediate result of this -discovery was the conclusion of an alliance, offensive and -defensive, with Austria (March 31st). Leopold bound himself to -bring 60,000 men into the field; the republic was to furnish -40,000. There was an express stipulation that neither party -should apply to the Pope for leave to break his oaths. The Papal -Nuncio procured the addition of a clause, by which John bound -himself to command his troops in person.[79] Leopold in return -conceded to him that title of “Majesty” which he had so long -withheld. - -♦Exertions of Sobieski.♦ This treaty was a serious blow to the -policy of Louis XIV. Forbin-Janson, who soon quitted Poland in -disgust, comforted his master by the assurance that John was -far too unwieldy to take the field. The same idea prevailed -throughout Europe, and especially in the Turkish camp. He was -now so stout that he required aid to mount his horse; but he -had not lost one spark of his youthful fire. His army needed -complete reorganisation, and he spent several hours each day in -the field. He did not neglect measures of policy. He proposed to -the Emperor the extension of the league, and confided to him his -favourite scheme of reviving a republic in Greece. By that means -alone, he thought, the Turkish empire could be confined within -bounds. He sent an embassy to the Sophy of Persia, but could not -persuade him to declare war against the Porte.[80] He then tried -to mediate between the Emperor and the insurgents in Hungary, and -succeeded so far as to obtain a promise from Tekeli that Moravia -should be left untouched.[81] Finally he tried to promote a good -understanding between France and Austria, but Louis sullenly -refused his mediation. - -♦The Vizier’s forces.♦ The preparations of the Grand Vizier were -now complete, and in the spring he advanced his vast host to -Essek, in Hungary. He had under his standards at least 300,000 -combatants[82] and 300 pieces of artillery. He was accompanied -by Selim Gieray, the terrible Tartar khan, and by a crowd of his -nomad horsemen. - -♦Rapid advance of the Turks upon Vienna.♦ The Emperor could -scarcely realize the peril in which he stood. He reckoned that -his frontier fortresses would detain the Turks for at least two -campaigns. Fortunately Sobieski, by means of a letter which -his Cossack spies intercepted[83] in Bulgaria, was enabled to -assure him that Vienna would be the first point of attack. This -intelligence was soon put beyond a doubt. The Duke of Lorraine, -general of the Imperial forces, who with scarcely 30,000 men -was covering Upper Hungary, was compelled to retreat. The whole -Turkish army continued to advance by forced marches, leaving the -fortresses in their rear; and Lorraine had barely time to throw -8,000 infantry into Vienna and retreat beyond the Danube, before -50,000 Tartars, the advanced guard of Mustapha, appeared at the -gates (July 9). Leopold had profited by Sobieski’s warning to -demolish the extensive suburbs where the nobility resided, but -the city was wholly unprepared for defence. - -♦Panic at Vienna.♦ The night before Lorraine’s arrival the -Emperor himself with his court fled precipitately to Linz, -and thence to Passau. The peasants of the southern plain were -flocking into the city by hundreds, while many of the citizens -followed the Emperor in his flight. ♦Measures for defence.♦ -It was left to Lorraine, with the governor, the intrepid -Count Stahremberg, to concert measures of resistance. The -fortifications were hastily repaired, and the counterscarp -protected by thick palisades, but it was doubtful whether they -could stand an assault, owing to the neglect of a long security. -A body of 5,000 citizens was formed to assist the garrison, which -did not amount to 14,000 men. A week later (July 14) the Grand -Vizier occupied the plain, and opened the trenches before the -city. - -♦Terror of Europe.♦ Meanwhile all Europe, and especially Italy, -was seized with consternation at the rapid march of the Turks. -The plans of the King of France, who had advanced his army to the -Rhine, were somewhat disconcerted. Finding himself pointed at as -the cause of the invasion of Christendom,[84] he made a show of -magnanimity, and suspended his threatened blow. It is even said -that he offered the Emperor a contingent of 80,000 men, which was -rejected with becoming scorn; but the statement seems improbable. - -♦Sobieski urged to hasten his march.♦ The Pope sent pressing -messages to Sobieski to bring his succours before it was too -late. The Emperor also, writing with unwonted deference, begged -him to place himself at the head of the Imperial troops. “However -inferior we are in number,” he says, “your name alone, so -terrible to the enemy, will ensure a victory.” He added that his -troops were waiting at Tuln, fifteen miles north-west of Vienna, -and that at that point a bridge had been constructed over the -Danube.[85] Lorraine, generously forgetting their old rivalry for -the crown of Poland, wrote that he should be proud to serve under -such an hero. His own skill had given some hope to a declining -cause. Assisted by some Polish cavalry, he had captured the -bridge of Presburg from Tekeli, but his force was too small to do -any damage to the besiegers. - -♦Siege of Vienna.♦ It is indeed a marvel that Vienna did -not fall almost at once. Within a week of the opening of -the trenches, the besiegers had reached the palisade of the -counterscarp, and, as cannon could not be used for its defence, -many of the garrison lost their lives in a hand-to-hand combat. -On the 7th of August the counterscarp was captured after an -engagement in which both sides suffered great loss. The besieged -especially lost many officers, and the brave governor was -seriously wounded. From this time forward the city must have -succumbed if the Vizier had ordered a general assault. Mustapha -knew this, but he imagined that the booty would be enormous, and -he did not wish it to fall into the hands of his soldiers. He had -pitched his vast pavilion in the gardens of the Emperor’s palace, -called the Favourite, and here he passed his days in the pursuit -of pleasure. His miners advanced steadily, but in other respects -he was inactive. - -♦Measures of Sobieski.♦ At the first news of the danger of Vienna -Sobieski hastened to Cracow, where his army was assembling. His -hussars answered his summons with alacrity, but the Lithuanians -were slow to take the field. He had no intention of waiting for -them, although the troops under his orders were scarcely half the -complement of 40,000. He sorely needed funds for their equipment; -but as the Papal subsidies had not arrived,[86] he gave lavishly -from his private treasury. He had not intended to take his -Turkish body-guard; but they begged leave to accompany him, and -offered to give hostages.[87] - -♦His rapid march to the Danube.♦ On the 15th of August he quitted -Cracow, accompanied by his son James, and having reviewed his -troops at Tarnowitz, in Silesia (August 18), pushed on for the -Danube. Leaving his main body at the head of 2,000 horse, he -traversed like a whirlwind the plains of Moravia, and arrived at -Tuln on the 2nd of September. The prince who was reported too -infirm to take the field, had covered on horseback 350 miles -in little more than ten days. Finding the bridge unfinished -and scarcely half the Imperial forces assembled, he could not -restrain his impatience. “Does the Emperor take me for an -adventurer?” he exclaimed angrily. “I have left my army to -command his. It is not for myself, but for him I fight.” Three -days later (September 5th) the Polish army under Jablonowski -appeared, and soon afterwards the succours from Bavaria and -Saxony. - -♦Forces of the allies.♦ Before the king’s arrival there had been -divisions of opinion among the imperial generals; now all men -cheerfully obeyed his orders. The whole force amounted to 70,000 -men, of whom 21,000 were from Austria, 18,000 from Poland, and -31,000 from Bavaria, Saxony, and the Circles. Of these at least -38,000 were cavalry. John had never commanded an army of nearly -this strength, and he was confident of success. He bade the -Imperialists consider not the vast numbers of the enemy but the -incapacity of their general. “Would any of you,” he asked, “have -suffered the construction of this bridge within five leagues of -your camp? The man cannot _fail_ to be beaten.” - -♦Exertions of the king.♦ In his letters to the queen, which have -most fortunately been preserved,[88] we can follow the inmost -thoughts of the great commander during these most anxious days. -He twice remarks with evident pleasure that the German troops -obey him better than his own. At the same time he is disgusted -with the trifling squabbles over etiquette which occupy so much -of his time. Even his necessary duties allow him no leisure. -“Continual harangues, my interviews with the Duke of Lorraine -and the other chiefs, innumerable orders to be given, prevent -me not only from writing, but from taking food and rest.”[89] -Yet his unreasonable consort, for whom his devoted fondness -appears in almost every line,[90] complains that he does not read -her letters. “I must complain of you, my dear, my incomparable -Mariette.... Can you say seriously that I do not read your -letters? The fact is that I read each of them three times at -least; first, when they arrive, secondly, as I go to bed, when -at last I am free, and, thirdly, when I set myself to answer -them.... If sometimes I fail to write at length, can you not -explain my haste without the help of injurious suppositions? The -armies of two continents are but a few miles from each other. I -must think of everything; I must provide for the smallest detail.” - -♦Passage of the Danube.♦ On the 6th of September the army -crossed the Danube. The splendid equipment of the king’s hussars -attracted universal admiration; and his ill-clad infantry looked -especially mean by contrast. His officers entreated him to allow -it to cross by night, but he would not consent. Whilst one of the -worst regiments was passing over, “Look at this well,” he cried -to the spectators; “it is an invincible body which has sworn -never to be clothed but with the spoils of the enemy.” At these -words the men, who had hung their heads in shame, marched on -erect with cheerful confidence. During the crossing of the bridge -a note arrived from Stahremberg with the simple words, “No more -time to lose.” The miners were already under the Emperor’s city -palace, and numbers of the garrison were dying of dysentery. - -♦Ascent of the Kahlemberg.♦ John called a council of war to -decide the route which should be taken. Between him and Vienna -rose the lofty ridge called the Kahlemberg; and it was necessary -either to go round it by the main road, which was flanked by the -Turkish cannon, or to climb direct to the summit. John chose the -latter route; but it proved more difficult than he had supposed. -Three days were consumed in the ascent. All the heavy baggage had -to be left behind, and of the artillery only the Polish light -guns could be dragged up. At length, on the evening of the 11th, -the Polish hussars lighted their fires among the woods which -crowned the heights, and were answered by joyful signals from -the cathedral of St. Stephen. ♦Apprehension of the Turks.♦ The -Turks were struck with consternation. The Grand Vizier, though he -had certain intelligence of the ascent,[91] neglected to oppose -it, partly because he despised the Christian army, and partly -because he wished to take Vienna before their eyes. But he could -not inspire his troops with his own braggart assurance. During -the night John’s prisoners, whom he had set free by design, came -into the camp and spread the news that the king of Poland was -commanding in person. Mustapha loudly expressed his disbelief; -but he could not prevent the spread of a panic. At break of day -he determined to lead the janissaries to a general assault, while -he detached the spahis and auxiliaries to confront the relieving -force. - -♦Confidence of Sobieski.♦ From the castle of Leopoldsberg about -sunset Sobieski surveyed the scene with mixed feelings. He saw -that he would have to make his advance over most precipitous and -difficult ground; but his experienced eye was not dismayed either -by the imposing array of the Turkish tents or by the multitude -of their occupants. Writing to the queen the same night he shows -his old confidence: “Humanly speaking, and while putting all our -hope in God, one must believe that a general, who has not thought -of concentrating or entrenching himself, but is encamped as if -we were a hundred miles off, is predestined to be beaten.” He -complains, however, that he had not been warned of the steepness -of the descent, and must change his order of battle. During the -night the noise of the Turkish cannon was such that “we could not -close an eye,” and the wind was so high that “it seemed as if the -Vizier, who is reputed a magician, had unchained against us the -powers of the air.” - -♦Advance of the allies.♦ When day dawned on Sunday, the memorable -12th of September, the wind fell, and the heat was most severe. -John attended mass with the Duke of Lorraine in the old church -of Leopoldsberg, and received the sacrament. ♦Their order of -battle.♦ He then mounted his horse, and ordered the advance. The -right wing was occupied by the Poles, under Jablonowski; the -centre by the Germans, under the Prince of Waldeck; the left wing -by the Imperial troops, under the Duke of Lorraine.[92] The king -directed the whole; but his post was in the right wing. - -♦Battle of Vienna.♦ The ground in their front was broken by -gullies and rough eminences, and here and there by rude parapets -of earth, which served as the boundaries of the vineyards. -The Turks in vain attempted to defend these positions; they -were driven from point to point by the impetuous hussars, and -the Polish artillery, dexterously handled by Konski, did such -execution that by midday the army had reached the plain. After -an interval of rest the advance was continued, and the villages -of Nussdorf and Heligenstadt were carried by the hussars at the -lance’s point, not without some loss. At five o’clock the order -was given for a halt, and John proposed to rest his wearied -troops before the final struggle. - -Meanwhile the Vizier, who had been gallantly repulsed by the -besieged, had hastened to check the retreat of the Turks. He saw -with uneasiness the horse-tails on the Polish lances, and feared -that after all the king might be present. At a conspicuous point -in the lines he caused the hoisting of a red pavilion, which was -surmounted by the standard of the Prophet, and tried to raise the -spirits of his troops by his own cool assurance. Seating himself -under its shade with his two sons and the Tartar khan he ordered -coffee to be served. - -The Polish cavalry had advanced so near that John could -detect these movements with his field-glass. Provoked at this -ostentatious contempt, he bade his artillerymen aim exclusively -at the red pavilion, and offered fifty crowns for each successful -volley. He also detached a body of hussars to seize a position -from which they could fire with more effect. The cavalry dashed -forward with the cry of “Sobieski for ever,” and drove the Turks -headlong from the spot. “By Allah,” exclaimed the Tartar khan, -as he heard their shouts, “the king is really among them.” The -Turks had also heard the dreaded name; and all at once a terrible -panic arose throughout the camp.[93] “They are defeated,” cried -Sobieski, as he saw them waver, and ordering a general advance, -he put himself at the head of the Poles with the words, “Non -nobis, non nobis, Domine exercituum, sed nomini tuo da gloriam!” -♦Rout of the Turks.♦ The shock of the charge was tremendous, and -none but the spahis resisted it. These brave horsemen, surrounded -by the rout, stood their ground, but were cut in pieces. The -Vizier, weeping like a child, besought the Khan to save him. “I -know the King of Poland,” answered Selim; “I told you that we -should have to make way before him.”[94] Joining in the flight -they effected their escape, although the Vizier was almost -captured. - -Night had now come on, and John was anxious to secure the camp -in case the enemy should return. He therefore discouraged the -pursuit, and forbade pillage on pain of death. ♦The Vizier’s -quarters.♦ He passed the night, like his soldiers, in the open -air, although he took possession of the Vizier’s quarters. In the -morning he inspected this vast bazaar of Eastern luxury, which he -describes as occupying a space “as large as Warsaw or Leopol.” -Mustapha had come, in fact, prepared for a triumph. He is said to -have contemplated creating an empire by making himself emperor -of the French. He had brought every requirement for making -Vienna a Turkish arsenal, and had not omitted the materials for -his mosques.[95] Writing to the queen on September 13th, the -king says: “The Vizier has taken nothing but his horse and the -clothes on his back. He has left me his heir.... His jewels alone -are worth some thousands of ducats.... You cannot say to me, my -heart, as the Tartar women often say to their husbands, ‘You are -not a man, for you have brought me no booty.’... The town could -not have held out more than five days. The imperial palace is -riddled with bullets; those immense bastions, split in pieces and -half falling, look terrible.” - -♦Losses of the two armies.♦ The losses of the two armies in -the action have been variously stated. Talenti, whom John sent -to the Pope with what was believed to be the standard of the -Prophet, informed his Holiness that at least 40,000 Turks had -perished.[96] Voltaire, with as little truth, states the number -at 600.[97] It is evident from the letters of the king, which -speak of the slain as making the neighbourhood unhealthy, that -nearly 10,000 must have been slain.[98] The loss of the Poles -alone was estimated at more than 1,000, and the allies probably -lost in proportion. - -♦Entry of Sobieski into Vienna.♦ About midday the king entered -Vienna through the breach. He was received with acclamations. -Multitudes thronged his horse, and in spite of the frowns of -their superiors openly compared him with their fugitive monarch. -He entered the church of the Augustine Friars, and, as there was -no priest at hand, he himself chanted the _Te Deum_. Passing -on to the cathedral of St. Stephen, he remained long prostrate -before the altar, while the same ceremony was performed with -greater pomp. Then a discourse was preached to the assembled -crowds from the text--“There was a man sent from God, whose -name was John.” On leaving the building, he could scarcely pass -through the masses of men who pressed upon him, and begged to -kiss his victorious hands. Afterwards he dined in public with -Count Stahremberg, and then returned to his quarters, declaring -with truth that this was the happiest day of his life. - -♦Joy of all Europe, excepting the French king.♦ He took an -almost malicious pleasure in writing at once to inform Louis -XIV. of his success. He told him that he felt it his particular -duty to report to the most Christian king “the victory which -had been gained, and the safety of Christianity.” So disgusted -was Louis at the collapse of his plans that he could not trust -himself to answer the letter. The French civil journals, in -noticing the raising of the siege, speak slightingly of the King -of Poland, and try to attribute all the credit to the Count of -Stahremberg.[99] But no one was deceived by these manœuvres. -All Europe resounded with the praises of Sobieski. From every -Catholic pulpit he was eulogised as the bravest defender of -the Church. Filicaia and other Italian poets sang of his glory -in rapturous strains. Innocent XI. received his envoys with -the highest honours, and ordered the standard of the Prophet -to be borne in triumph throughout Italy. Queen Christina, who -was then resident at Rome, after complimenting the Pope, wrote -Sobieski a remarkable letter, in which she declared that she -now felt for the first time the passion of envy; she calls him -emphatically the greatest king in the world, and displays by -other insinuations her hatred for Louis XIV.[100] ♦Ingratitude -of Leopold.♦ It is painful to relate the conduct of the Emperor. -He, who should have been the first to thank and congratulate his -deliverer, was in no hurry to meet him face to face. Entering the -city on the 14th, he contrasted with anger the coolness of his -reception with the enthusiasm shown to the King of Poland; and -it was only when he heard that John was about to continue the -pursuit that he was prevailed on to consent to the interview. -His punctilious scruples as to his demeanour towards an elective -sovereign disgusted his German allies, and the Duke of Lorraine -declared that he ought to receive the king with open arms. At -length it was agreed, on the proposition of Sobieski, that they -should meet on horseback a few paces in front of the Polish army. -♦His interview with Sobieski.♦ Let us hear the king’s own account -to the queen. “I will not draw you the portrait of the Emperor, -for he is well known. He was mounted on a bay horse of Spanish -breed; he had a close coat richly embroidered, a French hat with -a clasp and white and red feathers, a belt mounted with sapphires -and diamonds, and a sword to match. We saluted each other with -politeness; I made him my compliments in a few words of Latin; -he answered in the same tongue in choice terms. Being thus face -to face I presented my son, who approached and saluted him. The -Emperor merely raised his hand to his hat; I was astounded at -it. He did the same with the senators and generals, and even -with his connection, the Palatine of Beltz.[101] To avoid the -scandal and the carping of the public, I addressed a few more -words to the Emperor; after which I turned my horse, we saluted -each other, and I rode back to the camp.” John here evidently -conceals as far as possible the chagrin he felt at the awkward -silence of the Emperor, and his distance towards Prince James, -his prospective son-in-law. Another account says that he sternly -reproved a Palatine, who advanced to kiss the Emperor’s foot, -and that he said significantly as he turned away, “Brother, I am -glad to have done you this small service.”[102] After the Grand -General had shown him the Polish troops, the Emperor returned to -Vienna; and two days later sent a jewelled sword to Prince James, -and explained that his grateful emotions had deprived him of the -power of speech. - -♦Shameful treatment of the Poles.♦ But the Emperor’s ingratitude -did not stop here. A day or two after the battle, the Poles (like -the French after the battle of St. Gothard) found it difficult to -obtain forage or provisions, and they were not allowed to bury -even their most illustrious dead in the cemeteries of the city. -The king notices bitterly that, since the arrival of the Emperor, -everyone shunned them as if they had the plague.[103] The Poles -were furious at this studied neglect, and besought John to lead -them back at once to Poland. “Our subalterns regret that we have -succoured the Emperor; they wish now that the proud race had -perished beyond hope of resurrection.”[104] - -So seldom had the army served beyond the frontiers, that its -discipline, never strictly enforced, was now scarcely regarded; -and numbers left the ranks and took the nearest road to their -homes. John sympathised with his soldiers, but he had the ardour -of a crusading hero, and he felt himself bound by his oath to -pursue the infidel, and “strike a second decisive blow.”[105] -♦John’s anxiety to follow up the victory.♦ His letter of the 13th -of September to the Marquis of Grana, shows the high hopes with -which his glorious victory had inspired him. He expresses his -belief that the time had come for the collapse of the Sultan’s -power, and urges that further successes in Hungary might produce -revolts in the heart of his empire.[106] John has been most -unjustly accused of finding a Capua in the Vizier’s tents.[107] -The fact is, that during the whole of the campaign, the Poles -were in the van. The king was disgusted at the backwardness of -the imperial court, though his high and simple nature failed to -discern its motive. “It is enough to make one die a thousand -times a day,” he says, “to see so many opportunities slip -away.”[108] - -♦Suspicions of the Emperor.♦ The fact was that Leopold shrank -from sending his victorious neighbour into a rebellious province -of his empire. Yet he dared not stop him. His suspicions -were increased when John received overtures from Tekeli, the -Hungarian leader, and attempted to intercede for him. The -Emperor’s coldness had so far alienated his German allies, that -the Elector of Saxony withdrew his troops, and the Elector of -Bavaria threatened to do the same. He did nothing to recognise -the services of the Duke of Lorraine. He coveted the spoil, and -even had the assurance to suggest, through his head groom, that -John should present him with some of the Vizier’s horses. The -gift was made and received as a due. The king also made such -handsome presents to many of the German princes, that he gaily -tells the queen she will have to be content with the buffaloes -and camels.[109] His general distrust of the Austrians was such -that he deposited his part of the spoil with the Jesuits.[110] - -♦John advances into Hungary.♦ At length (September 17), weary -of waiting for the Imperial troops, he started for the Danube. -His design was to attack Lower Hungary, which had been a Turkish -province for a hundred and fifty years, and to invest Buda, its -capital. Thither the Vizier had retired to rally the remains -of his army, and was avenging his defeat by the execution of -a crowd of pachas. The Turks could hardly believe that the -Christians would retaliate at once by invading their territory, -and Sobieski’s advance created the utmost alarm. But he was -unhappily delayed at Presburg by a fever[111] which attacked his -troops and produced such distress as to shake his resolution -to proceed. ♦Intrigues of the queen.♦ Another cause of his -chagrin was the scarcely concealed intriguing of the queen among -the troops to force him to return. She tried to persuade him -that she was in constant fear of the troops of Tekeli. In two -admirable letters[112] he tells her the powerful motives which -induce him to continue the campaign. He shows her that the Poles -are crushing their national enemy without the cost of one sou -to the republic, and declares that, since the Christian armies -have elected him their generalissimo, he will remain even if his -countrymen desert him to finish the campaign. “I have devoted my -life,” he says, “to the glory of God and to this holy cause, and -to that I will adhere.” - -After a few days his troops were able to resume their march, -and they were joined by the Imperialists on the 2nd of October. -They crossed the second arm of the Danube, and followed its -course on the left bank. The first Turkish fortress in their way -was Strigonia, called by the Hungarians Gran, a place of great -strength on the right bank, communicating by a bridge with the -fortified suburb of Parkan on the opposite side. The vanguard of -the Polish cavalry, always a march in advance of the infantry and -the Imperialists, had descended the hills to reconnoitre this -fort, when suddenly a large Turkish force issued from the works -and appeared in their front (October 7th.) ♦He is defeated at -Parkan.♦ Before the Poles could form in line they had to sustain -a tremendous charge, and were put to flight. The king, who was -close behind with the main body, could not rally the fugitives, -and found himself obliged, with his 4,000 hussars, to charge the -enemy in his turn. His onset was unsuccessful. The Turks opened -their lines to enclose the Poles, and this caused a panic which -ended in a rout. The king and his personal escort strove in vain -to stem the rush of the Turks; they were swept along in the -_mêlée_. The pursuit was hot; and the king, who was one of -the last to turn his horse, was in great danger. A spahi raised -his scimitar to strike him, but was hewn down before his blow -fell. John was hurried along breathless, scarcely able to hold -the reins, and jostled by the mad haste of his flying troops. At -length the Imperialists appeared, and the Turks desisted from the -pursuit. The king lay down upon a bundle of hay, sorely bruised, -but more afflicted in mind than in body. It was the first -defeat he had sustained, and it was embittered at first by the -supposed loss of his son, who however escaped unwounded. When the -Austrians came up, with sorrow in their faces and joy at their -hearts, he raised himself with dignity, and said, “Gentlemen, I -have been well beaten, but I will take my revenge _with_ you -and _for_ you.” His Cossack infantry, who heard that he had -perished, bewailed him as a father; and he was deeply touched by -their devotion.[113] Several historians have asserted that he -brought on this engagement in order to crown himself with glory -before the arrival of his allies; but his letter to the queen -after the battle shows beyond a doubt that his cavalry had orders -not to fight, and that the vanguard were taken unawares.[114] - -The Poles hastily buried their dead in order to conceal their -losses, and were so dispirited that the king could scarcely -persuade them to wipe out the defeat. ♦Great victory of Sobieski -at Parkan.♦ Although three days after he says that his body -is “as black as a coal,”[115] his exertions were unremitting -to prepare his army for a grand attack. The Turks, as he had -expected, were elated at their victory. A report spread widely -among them, which even reached the European courts, that the -hero had been slain; and they took a fresh lease of courage. -The Vizier sent them reinforcements; and when, two days later -(October 9th), the Christian army defiled into the plain of -Parkan, they found a large force drawn up to receive them. The -same morning the Turks commenced the attack, and repeatedly -charged the left wing commanded by Jablonowski. They were beaten -back with splendid courage; the steady advance of the king with -the right wing upon the fort of Parkan threw them into confusion; -and when the Christians charged in their turn, the Turks gave -way on all sides. ♦Storming of the fort.♦ The fort was taken by -storm, and no quarter was given;[116] numbers of fugitives were -drowned in the Danube; several pachas were captured, and at least -40,000 Turks perished. - -Writing to the queen on the following day, John speaks of -the victory as “even greater than that of Vienna.” ♦Flight -of the Vizier.♦ The Vizier was seized with dismay, and fled -precipitately to Belgrade. His flight enabled the king to -exclaim with pride that now at last, after two hundred years -of slavery, Hungary was delivered from the infidel. He adds, -“This has surpassed my expectation, and I believe that of my -contemporaries.”[117] - -♦Capture of Strigonia.♦ John was anxious at once to lay siege to -Buda, which he regarded as the goal of the campaign, but the Duke -of Lorraine persuaded him to begin with Strigonia. This was one -of the strongest fortresses in Hungary, and had been occupied -by the Turks for a hundred and forty years. Yet the place -surrendered in a fortnight, although the garrison was composed of -5,000 janissaries. Well might the Turkish pachas exclaim to the -Poles that their king was raised up by God to be the scourge of -Islam.[118] - -John could now no longer resist the eagerness of his nobles to -return to Poland. ♦Return of the Poles.♦ Early in November the -armies separated, and the Poles retraced their steps through -Hungary. Before their departure the king had endeavoured to -mediate between Tekeli and the commissioners of the Emperor, but -the sole favour which he could obtain for the insurgents was the -promise of a general amnesty, and his disinterested efforts only -resulted in increasing Leopold’s suspicions of his motive. ♦His -efforts on behalf of the Hungarians.♦ Yet he could not give up -the attempt; he longed to establish the strong barrier of a free -people against the Turkish advance; and as a last resource he -begged for the help of the Holy See. In his instructions to his -minister at Rome,[119] he claims this favour from the Imperial -Court as his due, and indignantly disowns the unworthy motives -imputed to him. “The sole interest of his Sacred Majesty is to -rally the nations against the pagans. For that end he demands -that the nation which he has re-conquered for Christendom -should be treated after a Christian fashion.” But the Pope was -so closely bound to the policy of Leopold that he cared not to -interfere; and nothing was done to restore the ancient liberties -of Hungary. John was deeply indignant, but his conscience would -not permit him to insist on this concession as the price of his -sworn alliance. - -♦Their hostility to his army.♦ His friendly relations with Tekeli -were broken off by the rapine of the Lithuanians, who, on hearing -of the spoils of which their tardiness had deprived them, had -set off in haste towards the south, and were plundering Upper -Hungary. The inhabitants, regarding John as responsible for these -reckless freebooters, and knowing nothing of his efforts in -their behalf, shut themselves up in their towns and treated him -as an enemy. Though he could scarcely obtain provisions for his -troops, he was loth to relinquish his design of quartering them -in Hungary. But the queen had hit on a new method of preventing -him, which was more effective than the murmurs of his men. She -suddenly ceased to answer his letters. “For five weeks,” he -complains, “I really have not known whether there is a Poland in -the world.”[120] - -♦Triumphal entry into Cracow.♦ He closed the campaign gloriously -on the anniversary of Kotzim (November 11th), by capturing -Schetzin after a few hours’ siege, and then returned home through -the Carpathian Mountains. The ground was frozen so hard that -the tents could not be pitched, and it was Christmas-eve before -the victorious army, laden with the spoils of the East, entered -Cracow in triumph. A few days later the Grand Vizier received -with resignation his sentence of death from the Sultan, and ere -long the head which had dreamed of the conquest of Europe was -adorning the gates of the seraglio. - -♦General results of the campaign.♦ The result of this grand -campaign was to change the course of history. Hitherto, as at -Lepanto and at St. Gothard, the Ottoman arms had never received -more than a temporary check; from henceforward we find the empire -of the Sultan constantly losing ground in Europe. John Sobieski -had recovered in two months more than had been gained in a -hundred years. The chief explanation of this decline is doubtless -internal decay; but the glory of the Polish hero consists in the -singleness of aim which enabled him in a moment of supreme danger -to disregard old enmities, and to fly to the defence of Western -Christendom, then too disunited to defend itself. - -♦Advantages to Poland.♦ Poland gained more by this campaign -than she was ready to confess. The Turks had for ever lost the -offensive, and were so much engaged in their conflict with the -Empire, that they could not think of revenging themselves upon -the republic. But they still retained the fortress of Kaminiec; -and until this sore was closed, the danger seemed ever present. -The Cossacks however, from whom that danger had first arisen, now -acknowledged the king’s authority, and falling upon the Tartars -as they returned from Vienna, routed them with immense slaughter. -But the renown procured by the victories of the king was more -advantageous still. Venice and Muscovy besought the honour of -an alliance with Poland; and she never stood higher among the -nations than at this moment. - -♦Campaign of 1684.♦ Civil troubles prevented John taking the -field early the next year (1684).[121] In August, however, he -marched into Podolia, and after taking Jaslowicz, approached -the walls of Kaminiec. Since he could not hope to reduce it -by blockade, his only resource was to erect a fort in the -neighbourhood; and this he effected in the face of the enemy, who -dared not risk a battle. - -He returned to Zolkiew in November, dissatisfied with the -results of the campaign. ♦Jealousy of John’s generals.♦ At -its outset he had been attended by numbers of distinguished -foreigners, anxious to serve under so great a prince, but he -had found himself enfeebled by the lukewarm support of his two -Grand Generals, Jablonowski and Sapieha. Both were jealous of his -monopolising the glory by commanding in every campaign; but each -of them had ulterior reasons. Jablonowski was the chief of the -faction of Louis XIV., who was straining every nerve to gain over -Poland; Sapieha dreamed of separating Lithuania from Poland, and -becoming sovereign of the Grand Duchy. In the ensuing Diet the -faction of each had its complaints against the king. The former -blamed him for his ill-success against Kaminiec; the latter -accused him of depriving Lithuania of her rights by summoning -the Diet to meet at Warsaw instead of at Grodno. The Lithuanians -at first refused to attend it, but they yielded on the king’s -proposal that it should be called the Diet of Grodno. Their -opposition to his plans, however, was relentless, and one of the -family of Paz[122] carried his abuse so far as to threaten to -make him feel the weight of his arm. Such was the treatment that -was reserved for the saviour of Europe at the hands of his own -subjects! - -♦Unsuccessful campaign of 1685.♦ His health had now become so -feeble that in the next campaign (1685) he was able to gratify -Jablonowski by leaving him in command. His loss was at once -keenly felt. Skilful though he was, the Grand General allowed his -army to be caught in a defile in the forest of Bucovina, and it -required all his ability to rescue it from utter annihilation. -Ashamed at his own pride no less than at his reverse he shunned -the royal presence.[123] - -♦Perfidy of Leopold.♦ The zeal of the king for the cause of -the Emperor was cooled about this time by the marriage of the -archduchess, who had been promised to Prince James, to the -Elector of Bavaria. The queen[124] was impelled by her resentment -to join the French party, and Leopold had too much cause to fear -that she would induce John to make a separate peace. ♦Father -Vota.♦ He therefore sent a Jesuit named Vota as his secret -agent to the court of Warsaw. The mission of the holy father -was not openly political; his journey was supposed to have -been undertaken to convert the heretics of the Greek church; -but the Emperor trusted that his literary and social talents -would procure him an ascendancy over the king of Poland. He is -described as a man of wide knowledge and wonderful powers of -conversation; and his religious habits and unobtrusive demeanour -preserved him from suspicion. He devoted himself to the king’s -pleasure, and often slept on the floor of an ante-chamber in -order to be at hand to entertain his weary hours. He easily kept -him faithful to the league against the infidel, and hinted that -the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia might, if subdued by his -arms, become hereditary in his family. John knew well that they -would merely become provinces of Poland; but he was anxious to -extend her frontiers to the shores of the Black Sea. ♦The king -tries to revive commerce.♦ In spite of the opposition of the -nobles he wished to revive her commerce; and a mercantile treaty -which he contemplated with Holland would have been assisted by -the acquisition of a double sea-front. - -♦Treaty with Muscovy.♦ By a treaty with Muscovy in this year -(1686) he gave up Kiow and Smolensko, which had been long in -her possession, for a large indemnity, and obtained promises of -co-operation in his schemes of conquest. Posterity has blamed -him for these concessions; but in his time such was the national -contempt for the Muscovites that no danger was apprehended on -their side. - -♦Campaign of 1686.♦ His chances of success were excellent. The -Emperor promised his aid on the side of Hungary; and a great -army of Muscovites was to push forward to the Black Sea. After -arranging his plans with the Imperial generals, John assembled -his forces at the Dniester, but he found all alike, officers and -men, indisposed to a campaign beyond the borders of Poland. But -he could not now draw back. He advanced through the deserts of -Moldavia to the Pruth, passing on his way the fatal spot where -Zolkiewski met with a hero’s death. Descending the river he -entered Yassy, the capital, on the 15th of August, and found that -the hospodar had fled with his troops, but had left provisions -for the invading force, thinking by this means to secure his -immunity from punishment, whatever might be the result of the -campaign. After two days of rest John pushed on towards the -Black Sea. But the heat, the scarcity of water, and the terrible -solitude[125] broke the spirit of his army, and suddenly the -Tartars appeared in his front. News also arrived that the Turks -were within a march of him, and there was no sign either of -Muscovite or Austrian succours. Leopold had again deceived him, -and had profited by John’s demonstration to capture the city of -Buda. There was nothing left but to retreat, and this the king -successfully accomplished, through a most difficult country, -in the face of the enemy. The Tartars poisoned the rivers and -springs, and set fire to the vegetation, while searching clouds -of dust and ashes distressed the retiring Poles. At length they -reached the frontiers of Poland; and the only person who had -reaped any benefit from their sufferings was the Emperor Leopold. - -♦Deposition of the Sultan.♦ In the following year a revolution at -Constantinople, provoked by continued disasters, deprived Mahomet -IV. of his throne; and had there been a complete accord between -the members of the Christian league, the Ottoman empire might -have tottered to its fall. No soldier of the Church had laboured -more steadily towards this end than John Sobieski; and if it -was not realised, the fault lay not with him but with his more -powerful allies. - -♦Polish anarchy.♦ As his reign drew near its close, the internal -disorders of his kingdom increased. The Emperor never ceased to -intrigue with the Lithuanian grandees against his faithful ally, -and the French party opposed him for this fidelity to the league. -The lesser nobility was devoted to him; but the Senate was now -the hotbed of faction. All the grandees wished for the end of -his reign, the French party because they disliked his policy, -and the Lithuanians because they hated his person. Besides this, -every ambitious senator looked to an interregnum as a means of -realising his dreams of power. - -♦Diet of Grodno.♦ In the Diet of Grodno in 1688 the king was -assailed on all sides. The senators[126] in the pay of France -clamoured for peace with the Porte; the Lithuanians, at a hint -from the Emperor, accused him of personal aims in his attempt -upon Moldavia. Before any subsidy could be voted the Diet was -dissolved by the veto; and when the king assembled a convocation -he met with the same stormy opposition. Hastily dismissing the -assembly, he submitted to a period of inaction; but he had the -consolation of finding, on a visit to Wilna in the same year, -that even in the Grand Duchy he was regarded by the people with -admiration. - -♦John refuses peace with the Turks.♦ A fresh outburst from the -French party occurred in the same summer, when he refused to make -peace with the Sultan, although he was offered the restoration of -Kaminiec. He had bound himself by oath never to make a separate -peace without the consent of his allies; but to keep strictly to -this article was detrimental to the republic, so sorely in need -of reforms, and he had abundant excuse for breaking it in the -conduct of the Emperor. - -♦Tries to establish hereditary succession.♦ His scruples were not -suggested by a desire for further glory, or by a blindness to the -true interests of Poland. His days of warfare were past for ever. -He saw only too clearly the failure of the old constitution, and -he was anxious before his death to witness the establishment of -hereditary monarchy. In striving to have his son declared his -successor he was not actuated by merely selfish motives, for when -a subject he had held the same principles.[127] But the grandees -considered such a proposal as a direct infringement of their -privileges; and they were encouraged by Leopold, who found it his -interest to preserve Poland in a state of fermentation. - -♦Affecting scene in the senate.♦ The king intended to ask this -of the republic at the Diet of Grodno; but his intention becoming -known, he was assailed with the utmost virulence in the senate. -The Grand Treasurer termed him despot, tyrant, and destructor -of the public liberty; a palatine spoke of him as the enemy of -his country. At length the king rose and addressed the senate. -He recalled the patriotism and services of his ancestors, and -protested his devotion to the cause of liberty. But he begged his -hearers to pause, and reflect on the consequences of intestine -strife. “Oh, what will be one day the sad surprise of posterity -to see that at the summit of our glory, when the name of Poland -was filling the universe, we have allowed our country to fall -in ruins, to fall, alas! for ever! For myself I have now and -then gained you a few battles; but I confess myself deprived of -all power to save you. It only remains for me to resign, not -to destiny, for I am a Christian, but to the great and mighty -God, the future of my beloved country.... I seem to hear already -resounding over our heads the cry of the prophet: ‘Yet forty -days, and Nineveh shall be destroyed.’ Your most illustrious -Dominations know that I do not believe in auguries. I do not -search out oracles; I give no credence to dreams; it is not -an oracle, it is faith which teaches me that the decrees of -Providence cannot fail to be accomplished.” - -During this prophetic speech the voice of the old king trembled -with emotion, and the senate was deeply touched. The primate -knelt at the foot of the throne, and assured him of the loyalty -of Poland; and a cry of assent arose from all present. The -subsidies were voted by acclamation; but it was only a transient -gleam of concord. ♦Continued disturbances.♦ Next year there were -rumours of a conspiracy to dethrone the king; and amid the storms -of the Diet a bishop named Opalinski said to him haughtily, “Be -equitable, or cease to reign!” The insult was soon followed by -an apology; but the tumult continued in the assembly, and sabres -were freely used before the veto terminated the disgraceful -scene.[128] ♦Intended abdication of Sobieski.♦ The king felt -himself unable to cope with these terrible disorders, and he -instructed his chancellor to prepare an act of abdication (1689); -but the unfeigned sorrow of all classes persuaded him to withdraw -it. There was little improvement, however, in the temper of -future Diets; and the veto was employed as freely as before. - -♦Discord in his family.♦ John was not more happy in his domestic -than in his public life. His imperious queen was ever his evil -genius. Not content with diminishing his popularity by mixing -too freely in public affairs,[129] she sowed dissension round -his own fireside. The king evidently designed for his successor -his eldest son James; for, besides giving him a high command -in the army, he allowed him to sit by his side in the senate. -But the queen favoured Alexander, her second son, who was -more handsome and popular[130] than his brother, and her open -partiality produced a fierce hatred between the two brothers. -When the Emperor, reminded of the value of John’s friendship by -the victories of Mustapha Köprili, gave the Princess of Neuberg -in marriage to Prince James[131] (1690), the queen took a violent -dislike to her daughter-in-law; and the family breach was widened. - -♦His last campaign, in 1691.♦ Next year the king took the -field for the last time, nominally to chastise the Tartars for -an invasion in the winter, but really perhaps to escape the -miseries of his court. He took with him for the first time -his son Alexander, and this so exasperated Prince James that -he threatened to leave the country. The king told him that if -he went he would take with him a father’s curse, and he was -persuaded to repent and ask pardon for his violence. His father -said openly that in the ensuing campaign he should more easily -get the better of the enemy than of his own sons. He gained -a victory at Pererita (August 6), and took a few places in -Moldavia, and then returned to his kingdom never to leave it more. - -♦His love of retirement.♦ He spent his last years in retirement, -and seldom appeared in public except in the Diet. His palace of -Willanow was his favourite residence, and from thence in the -summer he would roam from castle to castle, sometimes pitching -his tent, like his nomad forefathers, wherever a picturesque -spot or a noble landscape attracted his fancy. The queen would -have preferred the gaieties of Warsaw; but she followed him into -his solitude, and took care that balls, operas, and the other -amusements of a court should be going on around him. - -♦His literary tastes.♦ His chief recreation now, as in his -most difficult campaigns, was the study of the sciences. He -complains to the queen, after the battle of Vienna, that with -all his love of reading he has not had a book in his hand for -more than three weeks.[132] When he read he always had a pencil -in his hand, and his marginal notes displayed uncommon powers -of mind. Dr. South--no mean judge--pronounces him to be “very -opulently stored with all polite and scholastical learning.” -He was fond of writing Polish poetry, and when his daughter -Theresa married the Elector of Bavaria he presented her with a -copy of verses on the event.[133] Like many others of the Slav -race, he was an accomplished linguist. He could converse with -ease in six languages, including Latin,[134] and learnt Spanish -when he was past fifty. His delight was to assemble around him -cultivated men like Father Vota, the French Ambassador Cardinal -Polignac, and his physicians, Connor and Jonas, and to “set them -very artfully by the ears”[135] on some question of philosophy -or natural science.[136] Nor was theology forgotten. He used to -give audiences to the schismatic bishops, and listen patiently to -their arguments for their respective creeds. - -♦Patron of learning.♦ Such a prince was of course an ardent -patron of learning. During his reign more books issued from the -Polish press than in the two centuries preceding; and his liberal -views led him to reprimand the Catholic clergy for not admitting -into their schools the philosophy of Descartes. ♦Spite of the -nobles.♦ The great nobles, many of them wholly unlettered, could -not sympathise with these literary tastes, and they showed their -spite towards the king in various ways. On one occasion, when -illness kept him away from the Diet, the Sapiehas demanded that -he should be summoned to attend; and when their motion was lost, -they broke up the assembly with the veto. A Jew named Bethsal, -who collected his revenues, was condemned to death by the Diet -on an unproved charge of sacrilege,[137] and John could hardly -prevail to save his life. ♦Charge of covetousness unproved.♦ Many -imputed his love of retirement to covetousness, and asserted that -he laid up £100,000 a year for the benefit of his sons.[138] The -accusation has been often repeated, although his life abounds in -instances of his draining his private[139] coffers to serve a -pressing public need. - -The disorders of the kingdom grew more frightful as John became -less able to restrain them. Street brawls between political -parties had always been of common occurrence, but the rioters now -began to use firearms,[140] and the king had to publish an edict -prohibiting the shedding of blood on pain of death. He often -sent for the chief nobles, and adjured them by the love of their -country to aid him in restoring order.[141] In 1695 the Tartars, -tempted by Polish anarchy and by a report of the king’s death, -invaded Russia, and besieged Leopol; but they disappeared as -quickly as they had come on the approach of Sobieski. - -♦His feeble health.♦ Reports of his death were common in Europe, -partly from his feeble health and partly from the interest -which many sovereigns felt in the event.[142] He had long been -afflicted with dropsy; and a wound in his head, which he had -received long before in the Cossack war, now caused serious alarm. - -♦Schemes of the queen.♦ The queen was most anxious that he should -make his will, and she deputed her Chancellor, Bishop Zaluski, -to make the proposal. The king received it with disfavour. “I -am surprised,” he said, “that a man of your sense and worth -should thus waste your time. Can you expect anything good of -the times in which we live? Look at the inundation of vice, the -contagion of folly; and should we believe in the execution of -our last wishes? In life we command and are not obeyed. Would -it be otherwise in death?” Soon after the queen entered, and -read in the face of the bishop the failure of her plan. Zaluski -tells us that the next day the king complained bitterly to him -of the bodily sufferings brought on by a dose of mercury which -she had given him. His frame was shaken by convulsive sobs, and -he exclaimed wildly, “Will there be no one to avenge my death?” -This was probably only the raving of a distempered brain; but the -queen has never been exempt from suspicion, and her conduct after -his death only served to confirm it. - -♦His illness,♦ On the 17th of June, 1696, his seventy-second -birthday,[143] he lay at Willanow in a state of dreadful -weakness. He asked the news from Warsaw, and was told that -multitudes were flocking to the churches to pray for his -recovery. The intelligence affected him deeply, and he passed -the day in cheerful conversation; but towards evening he was -seized with an attack of apoplexy.[144] The chief officers -hastened to his chamber, and when he awoke to a short interval of -consciousness he showed how eager he was to depart by pronouncing -the words “Stava bene.” ♦And death.♦ Soon afterwards, about -sunset, he breathed his last, and his death, like his birth, was -followed by a sudden and frightful storm. - -♦Sorrow of the nation.♦ Only a few of the nobles welcomed -his decease; the mass of the nation remembered his glory, and -sincerely mourned his loss. The Chancellor Zaluski thus expresses -the general sorrow: “With this Atlas has fallen, in my eyes at -least (may I prove a false prophet!), the republic itself. We -seem not so much to have lost him as to have descended with him -into the tomb. At least I have but too much cause to fear that it -is all over with our power. At this news the grief is universal. -In the streets men accost each other with tears, and those who do -not weep are yet terrified at the fate which is in store for us. -Terror apart, what grief was ever more natural? He is, perhaps, -the first king in whose reign not one drop of blood has been shed -in reparation of his own wrongs. He had but one single fault--he -was not immortal.” - -♦Quarrels of his family.♦ Amidst such heartfelt sorrow the -behaviour of his family alienated from them all public sympathy. -Prince James at first refused to admit the queen with the royal -corpse to the castle of Warsaw, and when at length he yielded, -he hurried away to Zolkiew to seize his father’s treasures. The -queen hastened after him to put in her claim, but he turned the -cannon of that fortress against her. Burning with indignation, -she exerted all her influence before she left the country[145] -to destroy his chances of the crown. Such was the magic of his -father’s name that at first there was a large party in his -favour; but the family quarrels weakened and dispersed it. The -Austrian party elected Augustus of Saxony; and the French party -thought it necessary to protest by seizing the remains of the -late king. The Elector, resolved not to be out-manœuvred, erected -a cenotaph to the memory of John III.; and it was not till the -next reign, thirty-six years later, that his body received -interment.[146] - -♦His sons.♦ The history of his three sons deserves a word of -remark. Charles XII., who as a boy was a devoted admirer of John -Sobieski,[147] invaded Poland in 1705, and would have offered -the crown to Prince James; but the prince, being then in Germany -with his brother Constantine, was seized by the Saxon troops, and -honourably confined at Leipsic; and, as his brother Alexander -nobly refused to profit by his misfortune, the opportunity passed -by. Alexander died at Rome as a capuchin, and his two brothers -resided in Poland on their estates. James Sobieski had two -daughters, of whom the younger, Maria Clementina, was married to -the Chevalier St. George, called the “Old Pretender,” and became -the mother of the unhappy Charles Edward. - -♦Character of John Sobieski,♦ The life and exploits of John -Sobieski have in modern times scarcely received their due meed -of attention. Born in a country half civilized, half barbarous, -whose independence has now been completely effaced, his glory -has not proved so enduring as that of less remarkable men who -have figured on a more conspicuous stage. As general, as patriot, -and as Christian hero, he will bear comparison with the greatest -names in any age. ♦As general.♦ No man ever won so many battles -in the most desperate situations; no man ever achieved such deeds -with forces often insignificant and always unruly. His fertility -of resource was amazing; yet it was only equal to the swiftness -of his execution. His chief glory is that, unlike any other great -conqueror, his grandest triumphs were obtained in defensive -warfare, and that all his efforts were directed either to the -salvation of his country or to the honour of his religion. ♦As -patriot.♦ His individual greatness appears most striking in the -ascendancy which he early acquired in his own country. His frank -and simple bearing, his noble mien, and his stirring eloquence, -enabled him, while he was still a subject, to sway the minds and -wills of his fellow-countrymen as if by an irresistible charm. -♦As Christian hero.♦ He laboured for the safety of Poland with -a perfect singleness of aim; and when that was fully secured, -he strove with a like fixity of purpose for the destruction of -the Ottoman power. To us his crusading ardour may seem to have -been out of date, but we must remember that in the seventeenth -century the Turks still inspired a lively alarm, and that if at -the present day we regard them with pity or contempt, the first -step towards this change was accomplished by the sword of John -Sobieski. - -♦As king.♦ As a king, he is not entitled to the same high praise. -In a land of peace and order he might have ranked as a benefactor -to his people, but in the home of licence and anarchy his temper -was too gentle and refined to employ the severity which was -needed. A king of Poland, if he was to heal the disorders of -his realm, must first have made himself feared; the natural -temperament of Sobieski made him prefer to be loved. Clemency and -generous forgiveness were parts of his disposition;[148] and the -necessary result upon his policy was that he resigned himself too -easily to bear the vexations which surrounded him. When he did -act, his method was most unwise; for in his principal attempt at -reform--when he aimed at establishing hereditary succession--he -exposed himself to the charge of a grasping self-interest. - -♦As head of his family.♦ But we cannot acquit him of deplorable -weakness in the management of his own family. A hasty passion -had thrown him into the power of an unscrupulous and despotic -woman, and his uxorious fondness left her only too much scope for -the activity of her caprice. We have seen more than once that he -could oppose her when his duty seemed clearly marked out for him; -but, for the sake of his own peace, he allowed her to intermeddle -without ceasing in the affairs of Poland. The only result of his -indulgence was that very misery in his domestic circle which he -had sought to avoid. Of the charge against him of avarice we -have already spoken. His chivalrous enthusiasm and cultivated -intelligence would have gone far to disprove it, even if the -treasure which he left behind him had not been found to be only -moderate. - -♦His great services,♦ His services to his country were -extraordinary, although he himself confessed that he could not -arrest her fall. He found her at the opening of his career -plunged in civil strife and beset with foreign enemies; he left -her at its close with peace fully assured to her, and with -her glory at its zenith. Within two years of his death the -peace of Carlowitz was signed with the Turks, by which they -renounced all claim to Kaminiec, Podolia, and the Ukraine. The -fruit of his victories was thus fully reaped; but his efforts -to revive commerce and to form an infantry among the serfs, -which would have been the first step to their emancipation, -were never afterwards renewed. ♦Could only retard the fall of -Poland.♦ A patriot life like his may be said to have tried the -institutions of his country, and to have found them wanting. -After seventy-five years of anarchy, that dreaded Partition, -which had been mooted in his day[149] but which he had postponed -for a hundred years, was at length carried into effect. Austria, -whom he had saved by his prowess, Prussia, whom he had hoped -to reunite to his country, Russia, whom his ancestor[150] had -laid at her feet--each took a share of the spoil. No other -patriot arose to save Poland from her rapid decline; and John -Sobieski may be called the last, as he was the greatest, of her -independent kings. - - - Oxford: A. Thomas Shrimpton and Son, 23 and 24, Broad Street. - - - - - FOOTNOTES: - - [1] The burghers, however, were under a separate civil -jurisdiction. A tribunal for administering this foreign or -Teutonic law was established in 1347 in six principal towns. - - [2] Poland in the seventeenth century measured 2600 miles in -circumference, while France measured only 2040. - - [3] _Cosmography_, by Peter Heylin, published in 1648, reprinted -from his _Microcosmus_, published in 1621. - - [4] _Relatione di Polonia_ (1598), quoted by Ranke (App. No. 66 -to his _History of the Popes_). The same Nuncio says the Poles -confessed to him that they preferred a weak monarch to an able -one. - - [5] The whole of the country called Prussia once belonged to -Poland. Part of it, after being lost in the eleventh century, -eventually came into the hands of the Elector of Brandenburg, -who acknowledged the nominal suzerainty of Poland; the other -part--Polish Prussia--was not lost till the eighteenth century. - - [6] See Dr. South’s letter to Dr. Edward Pococke, Hebrew lecturer -at Oxford, describing his travels in Poland. (p 71.) He mentions -that he had heard them make this remark: and it is curious that -his letter bears date Dec. 16th, 1677--six years before the -relief of Vienna. - - [7] This is denied by Salvandy, _Histoire du Roi Jean Sobieski_, -vol. ii. p. 52, ed. 1876, though he has elsewhere admitted it by -implication (vol. i. p. 402-3). - - [8] The generals had no seat in the Senate by virtue of their -office, but the king always made them palatines or castellans. -DALEYRAC, _Polish Manuscripts or Secret History of the reign of -John Sobieski_, ch. i. p. 9. - - [9] DALEYRAC, ch. i. p. 34. - - [10] The first was simply “veto,” the second “veto, sisto -activitatem.” - - [11] They were always prolonged, however, when public business -was pressing. - - [12] This castellan ranked even above all the palatines, and -headed the Pospolite. The story is that in an important battle -the palatine of Cracow ran away, while the castellan stood his -ground, and their rank was thus reversed. (COYER, _Histoire de -Sobieski_, p. 69, 8vo ed.) - - [13] The Abbé Coyer makes her his daughter; but he is wrong. The -daughter of Zolkiewski married into the family of Danilowicz, and -was the mother of Theophila. (SALVANDY, vol. i. 145-147.) - - [14] The disparity is said to have been much greater, but it is -necessary to bear in mind throughout the life of Sobieski that -the numbers of the combatants are uncertain, owing to the Polish -habit of exaggeration. - - [15] Most historians (and Salvandy in his first edition, 1827) -follow Coyer in giving the date 1629. Salvandy gives no reason -for the change in his later editions; but Sobieski must have -been older than fourteen when he travelled in France; and it -appears that his manuscript favours the earlier date. Coyer is -most inaccurate until the campaign of Podhaic, where his original -authorities begin, and is untrustworthy afterwards. - - [16] Russia, properly so called, was at this time a province of -Poland. The empire of the Czars was termed Muscovy. - - [17] Sobieski himself was not free from this feeling. See the -collection of his letters by M. le Comte Plater (Letter xvii.). - - [18] It was part of Dido’s dying speech: - - “Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor.” - -Theophila is said to have shown her sons the hero’s shield while -repeating the Spartan injunction “with it or upon it.” - - [19] Louise de Nevers. The Sobieskis were in France when the -embassy came to fetch her. She also married Casimir, the next -king. - - [20] We find only the bare statement that they visited England -(Salvandy; Palmer, _Memoirs of John Sobieski_). It is possible -the civil war may have deterred them. - - [21] Of these only five were paid to the family of the murdered -man, the other five going to his lord. - - [22] _Commentariorum Chotimensis belli libri tres._ CRACOW, 1646. - - [23] These were not broken during a march, differing in this from -the laager. See DALEYRAC, ch. i. p. 24. - - [24] It was not a feudal tenure, however, for the nobles did -not acknowledge any vassalage to the king. It was merely a -bargain.--DALEYRAC, ch. i. p. 23. - - [25] Dyer (_Modern Europe_, vol. iii. p. 42, ed. 1864) gives no -authority for his extraordinary statement that Wladislas entered -into an elaborate conspiracy with the Cossacks against his own -kingdom. Nothing could be more foreign to his character. - - [26] Coyer makes Mark Sobieski die four years earlier, but his -account of the Cossack war is so confused, that it is difficult -to tell to what events he refers. - - [27] He was descended from the elder branch of the house of -Vasa--that of his grandfather, John III. of Sweden. His father, -Sigismund III. of Poland, had by his Polish sympathies and -Catholic education, alienated the affections of the Swedes. - - [28] The Polish regular army was so called because a fourth of -the royal revenues was employed to maintain them. SALVANDY, i. p. -404. - - [29] Coyer, who is followed by other writers, says that Sobieski -was once a hostage with the khan of the Tartars at his own -request, and made him a steady friend of Poland. - - [30] Frederic William, the founder of the greatness of the house -of Hohenzollern. - - [31] He only carried the standard in the Pospolite; his office -was a high military command. Coyer makes this the reward of his -quelling the mutiny at Zborow, which seems most improbable. - - [32] Daleyrac (ch. i. p. 28) represents the army as being at the -mercy of the Grand Treasurer, who frequently pocketed the money. - - [33] The mansion of a Polish noble was called his “court.” - - [34] But he says she was then only thirty-three, and she was -certainly six years older. Louise de Nevers would not have taken -away to Poland a child of five years as part of her suite. - - [35] Connor (_Letters on Poland_, Letter iv.) actually represents -that he was unwilling to marry her until tempted by a large dowry. - - [36] A letter of Sobieski, describing this plan to his wife, who -was staying in France, was shown to Condé, who had no hope of its -success. - - [37] He was tormented with remorse for marrying his brother’s -widow. - - [38] Connor (Letter iii.) mentions having heard this from aged -Poles. - - [39] He stayed till the diet of election was opened. - - [40] The next king, though related to it, could hardly be said -to belong to it, as he was descended from Korybuth, uncle of -Jagellon. - - [41] Connor, Letter iv. - - [42] Begun by his duel with one of their clan in 1648. - - [43] Married to Radziwill, the Croesus of Lithuania. - - [44] The king bound himself by the _pacta conventa_ not to marry -without the consent of the republic. - - [45] See Daleyrac, chap. i. p. 39. - - [46] A “seraskier” was a commander-in-chief, who received his -commission direct from the Grand Vizier. - - [47] The chiefs of these principalities, now united under the -name of Roumania, had been offended at the insolence of the -seraskier, and their troops, being Christians, disliked serving -under the Turks. - - [48] _History of the Grand Viziers, Mahomet and Ashmet Cuprogli_, -by F. de Chassepol; Englished by John Evelyn, junior, published -1677. See bk. iv. - - [49] Salvandy (i. 419) says Hussein was cut down by Prince -Radziwill; but most accounts agree that he escaped and died of -his wounds at Kaminiec. - - [50] Coyer appears to have first made this statement. It would -be interesting to know his authority. His mainstay, _Familiar -Letters of the Chancellor Zaluski_, does not support him. - - [51] Coyer says that the Polish army, on their way to Kotzim, met -this envoy. - - [52] Letter 329. “La victoire du Grand Maréchal est si grand -qu’on ne doute point qu’il ne soit élu roi.” She does not however -know much about Sobieski, for a little later (Letter 333) she -represents him as of a different religion from the nation. - - [53] Connor, who is evidently repeating the gossip of the king’s -reign, says that he “worked underhand for himself.” - - [54] Salvandy enumerates them (i. 430), but it can hardly be -supposed that they all sent envoys. Among them were the Duke of -York and his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange. - - [55] Coyer says that Michael Paz, in the council of war after -the battle of Kotzim, burst out with this as a condition of his -supporting any candidate. - - [56] Dr. South describes him as follows: “He is a tall, corpulent -prince, large-faced, and full eyes, and goes always in the same -dress with his subjects, with his hair cut round about his ears -like a Monk, and wears a fur cap, extraordinarily rich with -diamonds and jewels, large whiskers, and no neck-cloth.”--_Letter -to Dr. Pococke_, p. 5. - - [57] Czartoryski, Archbishop of Guesna, had died suddenly at a -banquet given by Sobieski. - - [58] Three contemporary authorities give this eloquent speech _in -extenso_; and the language which is common to all of them, and -which is here quoted, enables us to understand its electrical -effect upon the audience. - - [59] This generally occurred on Church lands, for nobles could -make themselves heard against the general in the Diet. Daleyrac -(chap. i. p. 12) says that he had heard of these officers making -6,000 francs by bribes. - - [60] No queen of Poland was entitled to any allowance from the -republic (or pension in case of widowhood) without having been -crowned. - - [61] Daleyrac (ch. i. p. 11) says that the Lithuanians are a -worse scourge to the country than the Tartars. We shall find them -as barbarous to the friendly people of Hungary. - - [62] Coyer makes the astounding mistake of stating that Köprili -died in 1674, and was succeeded in the command in Poland by Kara -Mustapha. (pp. 210, 216, 8vo ed.) - - [63] The account followed by Salvandy (ii. 29) represents the -whole Turkish army, nearly 200,000 strong, as having been -present. Coyer, following Zaluski, gives the account in the text. - - [64] He had been previously received by John in the camp at -Leopol. The German name for that town is Lemberg. - - [65] He died of apoplexy on receiving the intelligence. - - [66] Daleyrac (ch. i. 22). The infantry formed the rear guard, -and when composed of Cossacks, were useful in a dangerous retreat. - - [67] The regular army, called “Komport,” or sometimes -“Quartians,” was supposed to consist of 48,000 men, of which -12,000 were Lithuanians; but it hardly ever reached this amount. -(Daleyrac, ch. i.) - - [68] This was a most valuable addition to his revenue. - - [69] Coyer says that the Muscovites were advancing into Poland to -the king’s relief, but this seems improbable. - - [70] Coyer implies that the condition was refused, Ibrahim -scornfully remarking that the Greeks, who then held the holy -places, were Christians as well as the Latins. - - [71] Letter 537. “La paix de Pologne est faite, mais -romanesquement. Ce héros, à la tête de quinze mille hommes, -entourés de deux cent mille, les a forcés, l’épée à la main, à -signer la traité. Il s’était campé si avantageusement que depuis -La Calprenède on n’avait rien vu de pareil.” - - [72] The expedition was made and failed ignominiously. - - [73] Palmer, _Memoirs of Sobieski_. See also _Biographie -Universelle_, art. “Hevelius.” - - [74] Bourbon l’Archambault, in the department of Allier. - - [75] He alleged as his reason the poverty of the marquis. -Some scandal was caused by the attempt of the French queen to -secure this honour for a certain Brisacier, her attendant, who -represented himself as the natural son of Sobieski during his -visit to France. John could not remember the circumstances, and -the French queen afterwards denied that she wrote to him upon the -subject. The affair was never explained. - - [76] In which he summoned the Diet and enumerated the agenda. - - [77] Oratio principis Radziwill ad Imperatorem. - - [78] The Diet afterwards sent succours to the relief of Vienna, -and the electors of Bavaria and Saxony each commanded a -contingent. - - [79] DALEYRAC, Preface to _Polish Manuscripts_. - - [80] DALEYRAC, ch. ii. p. 44. - - [81] Salvandy (ii. 161) says that in August Leopold offered to -cede him the kingdom of Hungary, and to guarantee the succession -to his family, and that John answered that he wished for no other -reward but the glory of deserving well of God and man. The offer, -if made, could not have been _bona fide_. - - [82] This is the estimate of Sobieski himself in his famous -letter to the queen after the battle. He bases it on the number -of tents, which he places at nearly 100,000. Daleyrac says that a -list was found in the Grand Vizier’s tent, which gave the number -of the Turks alone as 191,800. - - [83] Daleyrac tells an amusing story of the way in which these -Cossacks brought in their prisoners. The king offered a reward to -those who could catch him a “Tongue” whom he could cross-examine. -A Cossack brought a prisoner to the king’s tent, flung him on -the ground like a sack, and went away without a word. Shortly -afterwards he came back, and putting his head into the tent, -said, “John, they have paid me the money; God restore it thee! -Good-night!” - - [84] “The siege of Vienna had given terror to all Europe, and -the utmost reproch to the French, who ’tis believed brought in -the Turks for diversion that the French king might the more -easily swallow Flanders, and pursue his unjust conquests upon the -empire, while we sat unconcerned and under a deadly charm from -somebody.”--EVELYN’s _Diary_, September 23rd, 1683. - - [85] Letter of the Emperor to the King of Poland from Passau, -August 24th. - - [86] A grand subscription was being raised in Rome. Cardinal -Barberini alone gave 20,000 florins. - - [87] DALEYRAC, chap. i. p. 21, and SALVANDY. - - [88] Published by N. A. Salvandy; translated by M. le Comte -Plater. Paris, 1826. - - [89] SALVANDY, ii. pp. 173, 174, quoted in _Foreign Quarterly -Review_, No. xiv. vol. vii. - - [90] He begins every letter to her, “Seule joie de mon âme, -charmante et bien-aimée Mariette!” He calls himself her faithful -and devoted Celadon, and reminds her that it would soon be her -turn to become the wooer. Yet he was fifty-nine years old, and -she was probably forty-eight. - - [91] His army probably did not know of it; but Daleyrac says he -had the news from a spy. It is inconceivable that he should not -have employed a few scouts. - - [92] His order of battle given in Coyer (pp. 316-318), in which -the Duke of Lorraine commanded the centre, was written previous -to the ascent of the Kahlemberg. - - [93] SALVANDY (ii. 190) says that at this moment there was an -eclipse of the moon, which increased the panic; but Daleyrac, -whose account he follows in other respects, does not mention it. - - [94] Sobieski relates these particulars in Letter ix. - - [95] DALEYRAC (ii. 41). This information he had from some captive -Turks. - - [96] He added that he had travelled for four leagues over Turkish -corpses. Unfortunately for the credibility of his tale, his -journey to Rome lay in the direction opposite to the field of -battle. - - [97] _Annales de l’Empire._ He states the Polish loss at 200. - - [98] This is the number given by the French official gazette at -the time. - - [99] Yet, when shortly afterwards an official at court was -presented with a sword of Sobieski, the interest excited was -intense, and engravings were taken of it. SALVANDY (ii. 420) -says that the sword of Sobieski was the cherished possession of -Napoleon at St. Helena. A French prelate was author of the witty -distich: - - Dignior imperio numne Austrius? anne Polonus? - Odrysias acies hic fugat, ille fugit. - - [100] “Votre Majesté s’est montrée digne non seulement de la -couronne de Pologne, mais de celle de l’univers. L’empire -du monde vous serait dû, si le ciel l’eût reservé à un seul -potentat.” - - [101] Constantine Wiesnowiesçki, cousin of the late king Michael, -the Emperor’s brother-in-law. - - [102] Prince Eugène, who was present, says, “N’étant pas fait -encore aux manières allemandes je m’amusai beaucoup de la fiére -entrevue de l’empereur avec le roi de Pologne.” Sa vie écrite par -lui même. Paris, 1810. - - [103] Letter x. - - [104] Letter xii. - - [105] Letter xv. - - [106] “Si namque ad clangorem memoratae victoriae vel levis -armorum terra marique succedat ostentatio, procul dubio -gemens sub Tyrannide Grecia ac ipsa Constantinopolis perfido -recalcitraret domino, suasque respiceret origines.... Forte -Mahometanum Imperium ad sua devolvatur principia, et ubi satis in -altum surrexerit lapsu graviori ruat.”--Letter of Sobieski from -Vizier’s tent, September 13. - - [107] VOLTAIRE, _Annales de l’Empire_. Curiously enough, -Sobieski, in Letter x. (September 17), after mentioning -Hannibal’s inaction after his victory, says, “To-day we know well -how to profit by ours.” - - [108] Letter x. - - [109] Letter xi. - - [110] Chèvremont (_L’état actuel de Pologne_, 12mo, 1702) talks -of the “vile et mesquin empressement,” which he showed by this -act. He constantly speaks of him as “ce roi avare.” As Chèvremont -was secretary to the Duke of Lorraine, it is to be feared that -the latter was not satisfied with his share of the spoil. - - [111] A kind of dysentery, called the Hungarian fever. - - [112] Letters xx. xxi. - - [113] Letter xvii. - - [114] Letter xvi. Coyer, who had never seen this letter, takes up -his favourite theme of a king pursuing selfish glory; and Coxe -(_House of Austria_, ii. 449) countenances the idea. - - [115] Letter xvii. - - [116] This, as Coyer says, was most discreditable to the -Christians. But Sobieski explains that the Turks had “made no -prisoners” two days before, and that the sight of the bleeding -heads of Poles upon the rampart of the fort maddened his troops. - - [117] Letter xix. - - [118] Letter xxi. The king notices in the same place that the -Turks called him their executioner on account of the number of -men which his victories had cost them. - - [119] Quoted by SALVANDY, ii. 282-284. - - [120] Letter xxix. - - [121] This we learn from a letter of Sobieski to the Pope, dated -from Javarow, August 15th, 1684. Having 60,000 men (two-thirds -of them Cossacks), he started with large hopes. “Me ad Turcarum -regiam [illos] ducturum.... Liberator Orientis rediturus vel pro -Christi fide moriturus.” Sooner than give up the crusade, he -announced that he would resign the crown “tamquam ut humillimus -miles vitam in Hungaricis agminibus funderem.” - - [122] Said to have been the same Paz with whom he fought a duel -in his youth. - - [123] A letter of the king to Jablonowski after this defeat, in -which he gently complains of his coldness, shows his character in -a most amiable light. “Whether I have merited your indifference -or not, come promptly to dissipate the cloud which has covered -our intimate friendship, and believe that your presence will be -more efficacious towards my speedy recovery than all the art of -my physicians.” - - [124] Chèvremont (p. 116) says that both she and the king -received bribes from France, but as secretary to the Duke of -Lorraine he is an Austrian authority. He admits that even on the -morrow of the battle of Vienna the Emperor had no intention of -fulfilling this promise of the hand of the archduchess. - - [125] The dangers of this expedition did not deter John from -antiquarian researches. Passing an ancient mound he ascended it, -and after examination pronounced it to be the work of Decebalus, -king of Dacia. - - [126] All the orders of the realm sat together while the Diet -lasted. - - [127] He seems to have been in favour of John Casimir’s attempt -to name a successor. - - [128] Candles were not allowed in the Diet, and the session -having lasted a long time, a Lithuanian took advantage of the -dusk to smack a bishop in the face, and a tumult ensued. About -the same time Sapieha, the Lithuanian general, had a grave -quarrel with the Bishop of Wilna. One party used excommunication, -and the other violence, and no efforts of the king could -reconcile them. - - [129] She was always intriguing in the Diet, and did her utmost -to dissolve that of Grodno. She was accused of selling offices -of state, and binding the recipient to support one of her sons -at the next election (Connor). She certainly had a control over -the king’s appointments, and he so loved domestic peace that he -generally followed her advice. - - [130] Prince James (born in 1667) was called the son of the Grand -Marshal, and the other two the sons of the king. - - [131] This marriage made him brother-in-law of the sovereigns of -Spain, Portugal, and Austria. - - [132] Letter xi. from Presburg, September 19th. - - [133] CONNOR, _Letters on Poland_. - - [134] The others, besides the Slavonian, were French, Italian, -German, and Turkish. - - [135] SOUTH’s _Letter to Dr. Edward Pococke_, p. 5. - - [136] Connor describes a discussion as to what part of the body -the soul inhabits. - - [137] It is to be feared, however, that Bethsal had sometimes -abused his position. - - [138] CONNOR, Letter iv. - - [139] “The king opened his coffers to the designs of the League -so far that his own family could scarcely believe it.”--DALEYRAC, -Preface. - - [140] DALEYRAC, chap. i. p. 33. - - [141] Connor says that the grandees paid him outwardly the -highest respect, never eating with him at his table, and that -those who most abused him in Parliament showed him great -deference elsewhere. - - [142] BURNET (_History of his Own Time_, iii. 348) asserts that -“he died at last under a general contempt.” This is curious side -by side with the fact that shortly before his death the new Pope, -Innocent XII., proposed to him to mediate between France and -Austria. - - [143] Salvandy (ii. 395) says that it was also the day of his -accession. It certainly was not the day of his election, or of -his signing the “pacta conventa,” or of his coronation. - - [144] Connor says that he died of a dropsy turned into a scirrhus -or hard tumour. The blood being prevented circulating, the -humours were driven to the head, and apoplexy ensued. - - [145] It is said that she attempted to procure the election of -Jablonowski with the intention of marrying him. She soon left -Poland and resided in France, where she died in 1717, at the age -of eighty-two. - - [146] SALVANDY, ii. 409. The fact is almost incredible. - - [147] It is said that he refused to learn Latin until he heard -that the Polish hero was a proficient in that language. When he -was told of his death he exclaimed, “So great a king ought never -to have died.” - - [148] Zaluski relates several instances of his readiness to -own himself in the wrong, and of his unwillingness to avenge a -personal insult. - - [149] By Charles X. of Sweden. It is said that documents are in -existence which prove that Louis XIV. also entertained the idea. - - [150] Zolkiewski. - - - - -“THE OXFORD TRANSLATIONS OF THE CLASSICS.” - - - EURIPIDES: HECUBA, 1/6. } { - EURIPIDES: MEDEA, 1/6. } { With the most difficult - EURIPIDES: ALCESTIS, 1/6. } { words parsed and explained, - SOPHOCLES: ŒDIPUS TYRANNUS, 2/-. } { by a First - SOPHOCLES: AJAX, 2/-. } { Class-man, Balliol College, - SOPHOCLES: PHILOCTETES, 2/-. } { Oxford. - ÆSCHINES IN CTESIPHONTEM, 2/6. } { - - CICERO’S SECOND PHILIPPIC. With Short Notes. 1/6. - - CICERO’S SEX. ROSCIUS AMERINUS. With Short Notes. 1/6. - - PLATO’S APOLOGY OF SOCRATES. Literally translated from the - Text of Baiter and Orelli. Arranged for interleaving (if - desired) with the Fourth Edition, Zurich, 1861. 1/-; cloth, - 1/6. - - PLATO’S MENO. A Dialogue on the Nature and Origin of - Virtue, prepared from the Text of Baiter and Orelli. - Arranged for interleaving (if desired) with the Second - Edition of the Greek Text, Stutgard, 1878. 1/-; cloth, 1/6. - - TERENCE’S ANDRIA. Literally translated from Wagner’s Text. - Arranged for interleaving (if desired) with the Cambridge - Larger and Smaller Editions of Terence. 1/-; cloth, 1/6. - - TERENCE’S HAUTON-TIMORUMENOS; or, Self-Tormentor. Literally - translated from Wagner’s Text. Arranged for interleaving - (if desired) with the Cambridge Larger and Smaller Editions - of Terence. 1/-; cloth, 1/6. - - TERENCE’S PHORMIO. Literally translated from Wagner’s Text. - Arranged for interleaving (if desired) with the Cambridge - Larger and Smaller Editions of Terence. 1/-; cloth, 1/6. - - XENOPHON’S MEMORABILIA OF SOCRATES. A Literal Translation. - Book I., 1/-; II., 1/-; IV., 1/-. The three Books in one - vol., 3/6. Arranged for interleaving with the Oxford Text. - - - CHOPE’S ANALYSIS OF BLACKSTONE ON REAL PROPERTY. A Sheet. - 2/-. - - SYNOPSIS OF THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. By the late Rev. - E. T. GIBBONS, Senior Student of Ch. Ch. A Sheet. - 1/-. - - ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Edited by the Rev. - H. J. TURRELL, M.A., Hertford College. 2/6. - - ---- The same (Abridged). A Sheet. 1/-. - - TRENDELENBURG’S ELEMENTA LOGICES ARISTOTELEÆ. An English - translation. Crown 8vo, 1/-; cloth, 1/6. - - THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF LOGIC, Deductive and Inductive. - Specially adapted for the Use of Candidates for Moderations - at Oxford. 1/-; cloth, 1/6. - - THE OXFORD LOGIC CHART. Notes and Hints, prepared expressly - for “Moderations,” and purposely divided into 24 Sections - or Lessons. [_The Student is advised to prepare and write - out entirely from memory, one section each morning, and one - each night. By this means the main Points of Logic may be - mastered in a fortnight._] 1/-. - - AIDS TO THE “SCHOOLS.” QUESTIONS ON AND EXERCISES IN LIVY, - BOOKS XXI.-XXIV. Selected and Arranged by a Graduate. 1/6. - - AIDS TO THE “SCHOOLS.” QUESTIONS ON AND EXERCISES IN - ARISTOTLE’S ETHICS, BOOKS I.-IV. AND PART OF X. Selected - and Arranged by a Graduate. 2/-. - - AIDS TO THE “SCHOOLS.” QUESTIONS ON THE EXERCISES IN - TACITUS. ANNALS, BOOKS I.-IV. Selected and Arranged by a - Graduate. 1/-. - - KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH, LIVES OF THE PROPHETS. - BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY, &c. A Sheet. By a private Tutor. 1/-. - - - OXFORD: A. THOMAS SHRIMPTON AND SON, - LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN SOBIESKI *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where - you are located before using this eBook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that: - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without -widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/68578-0.zip b/old/68578-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index f68af7b..0000000 --- a/old/68578-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68578-h.zip b/old/68578-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 3224d3f..0000000 --- a/old/68578-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68578-h/68578-h.htm b/old/68578-h/68578-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index ca552f0..0000000 --- a/old/68578-h/68578-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5731 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> - <meta charset="UTF-8" /> - <title> - John Sobieski, by Edward H. R. Tatham—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover" /> - <style> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto; - font-weight: normal; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1em -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.p6 {margin-top: 6em;} -.noi {text-indent: 0;} -.hi {text-indent: -1em; width:90%; margin:auto;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -hr.r10 {width: 10em; margin: 1em auto;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; max-width: 34em;} -table.autotable td { padding: 4px; } -table.autotable th { padding: 4px; } - -.tdl {text-align: left; - width: 63%;} -.tdj {text-align: justify; - width: 31%;} -.tdm {min-width: 1.4em;} -.bt {border-top: 1px solid; - max-width: 31em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - color: #999; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: 0; -} /* page numbers */ - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -.sidenote { - width: 15%; - max-width: 10em; - min-width: 6em; - padding: .5em; - margin: 0.8em 0.8em 0em 0em; - float: left; - clear: left; - font-size: smaller; - color: black; - background: #eeeeee; - border: 1px dashed; - font-style: italic; - text-align: left; - text-indent: 0; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .sidenote {width: 15%; - float: left; - clear: right;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} -img.w100 {width: 100%;} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -/* Footnotes */ - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry-container {margin: 6em auto; max-width: 25em; text-align: center;} -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -/* .poetry {display: inline-block;} */ -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} -.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } -.transnote p {text-indent:0em;} - -/* extra code */ -.pfs180 {font-size: 180%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs150 {font-size: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.pfs100 {font-size: 100%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} -.bfs100 {font-size: 100%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em; font-weight:bold;} -.pfs90 {font-size: 90%; text-align: center; text-indent: 0em; word-spacing: 0.3em;} - -/* Poetry indents */ -.poetry .indent2q {text-indent: -2.45em;} -.poetry .indent2 {text-indent: -2em;} -.poetry .indent4 {text-indent: -1em;} - -</style> - -</head> - -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of John Sobieski, by Edward H. R. Tatham</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: John Sobieski</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Lothian prize essay for 1881</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Edward H. R. Tatham</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 21, 2022 [eBook #68578]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN SOBIESKI ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="max-width:30em;"> -<img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<h1>JOHN SOBIESKI.</h1> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p class="p2 pfs180">LOTHIAN PRIZE ESSAY</p> - -<p class="p2 pfs90">FOR</p> - -<p class="pfs180">1881.</p> - -<p class="p4 pfs90">BY</p> - -<p class="pfs150">EDWARD H. R. TATHAM, B.A.</p> - -<p class="pfs90">BRASENOSE COLLEGE.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent2q" xml:lang="it" lang="it">“Non perchè re sei tu, si grande sei,</div> - <div class="verse indent2" xml:lang="it" lang="it">Ma per te cresce e in maggior pregio sale</div> - <div class="verse indent4" xml:lang="it" lang="it">La maesta regale.”</div> - </div> -</div> -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Vincenzio da Filicaia</span>, <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">Canzone</i>.</p> - -</div> - - -<p class="center">OXFORD:<br /> -A. THOMAS SHRIMPTON & SON, BROAD STREET.<br /> -LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.<br /> -1881.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="JOHN_SOBIESKI">JOHN SOBIESKI.</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="noi"><span class="sidenote">Strangeness of Polish -history.</span><span class="smcap">The</span> Kingdom or Republic of Poland has always -seemed a strange phenomenon in European history, partly from -the aboriginal character of its population, and partly from its -exceptional constitution. The ancient Sarmatians, who occupied -the same territory, had no share in the old Roman civilisation, -but rather, by their constant irruptions upon the empire, -were mainly instrumental in its downfall. Christianity was -introduced in the tenth century; but, until recent times, no -other civilising force has ever effected a permanent conquest -of the country. <span class="sidenote">Aboriginal character of -the Poles,</span>During the eight following centuries the Poles, -surrounded by enemies—on the north and east by more barbarous -tribes, on the south and west by a superior civilisation—were -exclusively confined to the defensive and so missed those -humanising influences to which a conquering nation has so often -had to submit. As late as the eighteenth century they might -truly be called the lineal descendants in race, in character, -and almost in habits, of the hunters and shepherds of the -ancient North. <span class="sidenote">Seen in their social -system.</span>Throughout their history there were two great -classes in the State; the so-called noble class—the heirs of the -savage in their desire for equality, and of the nomad in their -love of freedom—and the peasant class—the descendants of captives -taken in war—whose lives and properties were at the absolute -disposal of their masters. Only in the western portion of the -kingdom was there a burgher class, and this was on the same<a -id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -political footing with the serfs. The union of two great evils -arising from such a system—licence and servitude—made the -Polish constitution as disastrous as it was unique. Poland thus -differed so widely, both socially and politically, from every -other European state, that it would be impossible to examine any -important period of her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4] -</span> history without explaining alike her position in -Europe and some of her internal peculiarities.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">European position of -Poland,</span>Although considerably<a id="FNanchor_2" -href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> larger than France, -Poland took scarcely any part in the general history of Europe -before the end of the sixteenth century. Once only, just before -the taking of Constantinople, we find her with Hungary striving -to check the advance of the Turks, when she lost in battle her -king Wladislas VI. (1444). <span class="sidenote">At first -inconsiderable,</span>As she was the north-eastern outpost of the -Church, the Popes took care that she should always be remarkable -for her submission to the Holy See. But it was beyond their -power to check the turbulence of the nobles or to instil any -love for a higher civilisation. During the sixteenth century, -chiefly through the enterprise of foreigners, commerce made rapid -advances in the country. English and Italian merchants, favoured -by treaties between the king and queen Elizabeth, settled in -the prosperous town of Dantzic, and spread a moderate knowledge -of Poland in western countries. That this knowledge was only -moderate may be judged from a valuable geographical work<a -id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> -published in London early in the seventeenth century, in which we -are told that the Lithuanians still worshipped idols, and that -in another province they had not learned the use of the plough. -The reformed doctrines were widely disseminated before the year -1600; but their progress was checked by the activity of the -Jesuits. <span class="sidenote">Owing to exclusiveness,</span>The -Papal Nuncio of that time<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" -class="fnanchor">[4]</a> complains of the exclusiveness of the -Poles and their distrust of foreign nations. They used commonly -to boast that alliances were of no service to them, for, if -the country were conquered, they could, like their ancestors, -recover in winter what they had lost in summer. Yet very early -in their history they had lost the rich province of Prussia<a -id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> by -neglect and mis-government. When, in 1573, they allied themselves -with France by electing as their king Henry of Valois, they bound -him by such a crowd of onerous restrictions that he fled the -country in disgust at their wild and barbarous freedom. <span -class="sidenote">Anarchy,</span>During the next three quarters -of a century (1573-1648), under three princes of conspicuous -ability, Poland began to rank among the second-rate powers of -Europe; but her internal condition was all the while frightful. -Unceasing struggles between the greater<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_5">[5]</span> and lesser nobility, and the cruel -oppression of the peasants by both alike, distracted the kingdom. -<span class="sidenote">And foreign wars,</span>Then followed -thirty years of desolating war, in which the country was several -times on the brink of final subjugation by a foreign invader. -The Poles themselves attributed their survival to God alone<a -id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, who -had preserved them to form a barrier against the Turks.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Then suddenly most prominent,</span>At -the close of this period, instead of finding Poland exhausted -almost to death, we see her occupying the proud position -of the saviour of Europe. At a most critical moment, when -the last great wave of barbarian invasion was rolling over -Europe, and seemed likely to overwhelm the ancient empire of -the Hapsburgs, this little republic stood firmly in the gap, -and became the bulwark of Christendom against the infidel. -Nay more, by her own sacrifices no less than by her opportune -intervention, she was the main instrument in setting the final -limit to the Ottoman advance. <span class="sidenote">Owing -to John Sobieski.</span>This extraordinary result is to be -ascribed almost solely to the personal character and exploits -of her patriot king, John Sobieski. Rising to the throne by -his personal merits alone in spite of the most malignant envy, -he was the first native king unconnected with the old royal -line. <span class="sidenote">His difficulties mainly caused by -the constitution.</span>It may be said that his life from his -early manhood is at no time the history of a private man; it -rather comprises the whole contemporary annals of his country. -Yet it forms the most destructive comment on her institutions, -both social and political, and on the character of the national -nobility. While we must admire a conservative constitution which -admits of the supremacy of the best man, we cannot but deplore -those faults in its working which had the effect of nullifying -his authority. In Poland there was neither a republic nor a -monarchy, but the sovereignty of one man under the control of an -unrestrained class, which mistook licence for freedom. In order -to understand the position of Sobieski and the difficulties -with which he had to contend, a short account of the Polish -constitution is indispensable.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Monarchy generally becomes -elective.</span>The authority of the king was originally -absolute, but in a nation of fierce warriors he was easily -controlled by armed assemblies of his subjects. His consulting -them, though at first only a mark of favour, was soon looked -upon as a right; and in course of time they even claimed the -disposal of his dignity. Two great dynasties successively -reigned in Poland. During the first, founded by Piast, a native -Pole (850-1386), the dignity was hereditary; during the second, -that of Jagellon (1386-1573), though in practice<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> hereditary, it -was in theory elective. <span class="sidenote">Election of the -king.</span>After the latter period the whole nobility met in -arms to elect a king, and, though a relation of the old line was -preferred, he was considered to have no claim. This assembling -of the Pospolite, as it was called, was in an emergency the -prerogative of the king, and during an interregnum of the -Primate, the Archbishop of Guesna, who acted as interrex. The -election was not legal unless it was unanimous; and when this -was accomplished, seldom without violence, the republic imposed -upon the new monarch a contract styled “pacta conventa,” the -conditions of which he swore faithfully to observe. <span -class="sidenote">His privileges.</span>His privileges were -few. He always presided in the national assembly, and he might -if he chose command<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" -class="fnanchor">[7]</a> the army. But his most important -function was the appointment of officers of state. These are -said to have amounted in all branches to the astounding number -of 20,000; <span class="sidenote">The Senate.</span>but only the -most important, about 140, composed the Senate, which was the -middle estate of the realm and the real executive.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">How composed.</span>Besides the bishops -there were three great orders in the administration, of which -only the first two had seats in the Senate. These were the -palatines, the castellans, and starosts. Each palatine, like -a Norman baron, was the military commander and supreme judge -in his province or palatinate; he was also its recognised -political head. The castellans were his deputies, who discharged -the same functions in a more confined area. The starosts were -inferior magistrates, with military and judicial duties, whose -chief privilege was the high value of their benefices. <span -class="sidenote">The officers of state.</span>There were -twelve great dignitaries who were entrusted with the higher -executive,—six for the kingdom of Poland, viz., the Grand -Marshal, the Grand General,<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" -class="fnanchor">[8]</a> the Second General, the Chancellor, -the Vice-Chancellor, and the Grand Treasurer, and six parallel -officers for the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The latter, when -incorporated with Poland in 1386, had insisted on a distinct -administration; but the arrangement proved most unfortunate, -for the Polish magnate had no authority over his Lithuanian -compeer. In the army, as in the administration, they might act -quite independently of each other, and the very equality made a -collision inevitable. Over the Senate as a whole the king had no -real power, but the Diet exercised a rigid supervision.</p> - -<p>This body—the third estate of the realm—had originally been -composed of the whole adult nobility. So jealous were the Poles -of their privileges that it was not till<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_7">[7]</span> 1466—two hundred years after the -foundation of the House of Commons—that they consented to form a -representative system. <span class="sidenote">The Diet.</span>A -Diet of 400 deputies met every two years, and was liable to -be summoned on extraordinary occasions. The members of this -assembly were absolutely without discretionary powers. They -were elected in the dietines or provincial assemblies, and -received minute instructions as to their course of action. After -the dissolution of the Diet they had to appear again before -their constituents and give an account of their stewardship. -Those who had offended found their lives in peril. <span -class="sidenote">Its dependence upon the nobility.</span>Thus -the Diet took its stamp from the prevailing temper of the -nobility, and, as this was almost always quarrelsome, the place -of meeting often resounded with the clang of sabres. <span -class="sidenote">Results of this dependence.</span>During -the period which we shall have to consider, this dependence -will explain the constant neglect of proper means for the -national defence. The cavalry of the nobles—the flower of the -troops—displayed all the disadvantages, and none of the merits, -of a standing army. They were always under arms, and ready to use -them in any feud; but they could not brook strict discipline, -and as they grew more luxurious their disinclination<a -id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> to a -long campaign was duly reflected in the ranks of the Diet. The -national haughtiness found its vent in intestine strife. <span -class="sidenote">The veto.</span>A most disastrous provision made -it necessary for every resolution of the Diet to be unanimous. -Any deputy might, without reason assigned, pronounce his veto -upon the subject under discussion; nay, more, by a refinement -of this privilege,<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" -class="fnanchor">[10]</a> he might by withdrawing declare the -Diet dissolved, and until he was induced or compelled to return -public business was suspended. This power, though very ancient, -was not exercised till 1652, but was afterwards repeated with -increasing frequency. It would once have been dangerous for -an individual to defy the mass, but when the republic was in -a state of anarchy it was easy to find supporters, and the -gold of France or Austria often proved a powerful incentive. -<span class="sidenote">Obstruction.</span>Another mode of -obstruction was called drawing out the Diet, which could not<a -id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> -sit for more than six weeks. This consisted in the proposal -and tedious discussion of irrelevant matter, until the day of -dissolution arrived. In this state of things a resort to force -was very common, and the public streets were often the scenes of -a sanguinary fray.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Confederations.</span>When the -Diet was not sitting, the Senate, with the king as its -president, was responsible for the government. But if the -nobles were dissatisfied with their measures, or if the veto -had hopelessly clogged the wheels of state, recourse was had -to an extraordinary assembly called a “confederation.” <span -class="sidenote">Convocations.</span>This<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_8">[8]</span> was formed sometimes to resist, -sometimes to enforce the established law; and in the latter -case it often took the shape of a “convocation,” which exactly -resembled the Diet except that the veto was inadmissible. -The Poles were always more happy in organising anarchy than -in organising their institutions. Of course, the authority of -a confederation depended upon the number and weight of its -adherents; and it frequently happened that several of these -bodies were sitting at the same time. We sometimes find in Polish -history the Senate at variance with the Diet, the Diet with the -king, the king with the grandees, the greater with the lesser -nobles, and the whole nobility with their armed serfs. <span -class="sidenote">Strife among the nobles—how caused.</span>Among -the nobles religious inequality was the principal cause of -dissension. Although none but Catholics could hold offices of -state, a large number of the poorer nobles were “Dissidents,” -and belonged to the Greek or Protestant persuasion. <span -class="sidenote">Their three main classes.</span>They were -thus naturally jealous of the official families; for, though -all were theoretically equal, the differences of wealth and -prestige tended to divide them into three classes: first, a few -princely families who owned whole provinces and aspired to the -posts of the supreme executive; secondly, the average gentry, -who scrambled for the lesser offices, or were indignant at -their religious disabilities; and thirdly, the poorer freemen, -who made up for their lack of power by a spirit of captious -disaffection. In stormy times the confusion was increased by half -the middle gentry taking part with the grandees and half with the -freemen.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Ancestry of John Sobieski.</span>From -the highest of these classes was sprung John Sobieski. He -belonged to that group of families, whose ancestral device was -the Buckler—the most illustrious of the rude Polish coats of -arms. Far back in the mist of ages are placed the exploits of -Janik—the Polish Hercules—the founder of his house. His immediate -ancestors had gained less doubtful laurels. His grandfather, -Mark Sobieski, palatine of Lublin, had so great a military -reputation that King Stephen Bathori (1575-1586) was wont to -say that he would not fear to entrust to his single arm the -defence of the fortunes of Poland. His father, James Sobieski, -was not only an able general, but a man of cultivated mind, and -of some diplomatic skill. To him belonged the real credit of the -famous victory of Kotzim in 1621 over a vast host of Turks and -Tartars, although the nominal commander of the Poles was the -young Prince Wladislas, son of Sigismund III. His success in -negotiating the treaty that followed was so conspicuous that he -was afterwards sent on several foreign embassies to the Western -Powers. Such eminence in peace as in war doubtless procured -for him the post of castellan of Cracow<a id="FNanchor_12" -href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>—the first -secular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> -senator of Poland, inferior only to the archbishop of Guesna. He -had also been four times elected Marshal of the Diet—an office -resembling that of Speaker of the House of Commons. In or about -1620 he married Theophila Danilowiczowna, grand-daughter<a -id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> of -the famous Zolkiewski. That heroic general, after taking Moscow -(1610), and carrying off to Poland the Czar Basil VI., met his -death (October 5th, 1620) at Kobylta on the Dniester, with a -band of 8,000 men, at the hands of 70,000<a id="FNanchor_14" -href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> Turks and Tartars. -Thus on both sides the ancestors of Sobieski were worthy of -his subsequent fame. <span class="sidenote">Birth.</span>The -circumstances of his birth are romantic; but they rest on no -less an authority than a manuscript in his own hand. On the -17th of June, 1624,<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" -class="fnanchor">[15]</a> his father’s castle of Zloçkow in the -palatinate of Red Russia<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" -class="fnanchor">[16]</a> was visited by a storm of unprecedented -violence. The old mansion, which stood exposed on the bare -summit of a vast “mohila” or Slavonic tumulus, was shaken to its -foundations, and some of the attendants were rendered deaf for -life. Amid the raging of the elements was born John Sobieski, in -the presence of the widow of the conqueror of Moscow; and the -respect for prodigies,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" -class="fnanchor">[17]</a> which distinguishes the Poles above -all other modern nations, must have marked him out in their -eyes for an exceptional career. Yet his youth was singularly -peaceful. Except for the war against Gustavus Adolphus, which -was terminated by the peace of Altmark (September 15th, 1629), -and an incursion of the Tartars (1636), successfully repelled -by Wladislas VII., Poland enjoyed from the time of his birth an -unexampled respite of more than twenty years.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Education.</span>During this period -John and his elder brother Mark were enjoying all the benefits of -a careful education. Their father chiefly resided at his princely -estate of Zolkiew, which had come to him through his wife—a -domain as large as some of our English counties, and embracing -a hundred and fifty villages. He had engaged as their tutor -the learned Stanislas Orchowski; but he himself superintended -their more important studies. The treatise which he has left -upon education is alone enough to show how well the task must -have been performed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10] -</span> Besides instructing them in several languages he -imparted to them his own skill in music, painting, and the other -fine arts; and they had the rare advantage of a home in which -to the barbaric splendour of a Polish noble were added some of -the refined tastes of an Italian court. Ardent and robust by -nature, John early distinguished himself by his activity in -hunting, and in the use of the small sword; and the traditions of -his family soon taught him against whom his strength was to be -employed. The inscription<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" -class="fnanchor">[18]</a> on his great grandfather’s tomb in the -neighbouring Dominican chapel, erected by his mother, aroused -in his mind what may be called his life-purpose—to curb at all -hazards the advance of the Turkish power.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His travels.</span>At length -in 1643 the castellan sent his two sons to travel in the -West. Their longest stay was made in France—at that time -closely united to Poland by the marriage of Wladislas with -a French princess<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" -class="fnanchor">[19]</a>—but they also visited England<a -id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> -and Italy. At Paris they frequented the salon of the Duchesse de -Longueville, sister of the great Condé; and it was here that an -intimacy sprang up between John Sobieski and the French general, -who, though only three years his senior, was already crowned with -the laurels of Rocroi. The prince procured for his friend the -honour of a commission in the king’s Grands Mousquetaires, and -continued in correspondence with him during the remainder of his -life. Quitting France before the disturbances of the Fronde, the -brothers took the measure of the Ottoman power at Constantinople, -and were preparing to pass into Asia, when news arrived which -called them home to defend not only their country but their -own fireside. It was to the effect that the Cossack serfs had -revolted, and were carrying all before them.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Cossack revolt caused by the oppression of -the serfs.</span>Of the grinding oppression under which the -serf class laboured we have already spoken. Some efforts had been -made by Casimir the Great (1347) to give them a legal footing -in the state; and he had even succeeded so far as to provide -that the murderer of a serf should pay a fine of ten marks.<a -id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> -But his regulations were soon broken, and the condition of the -peasants in the outlying districts became more hopeless than -before. <span class="sidenote">The Cossacks.</span>The situation -of the Cossacks was peculiar. Inhabiting a wild though fertile -country on the borders of Poland and Muscovy called the Ukraine -(Slavonic for “borderland,” exactly the French “marche”), -they had long<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> -retained their independence, and had only been incorporated in -the kingdom by the wise measures of Stephen Bathori (1582). -<span class="sidenote">Under Stephen Bathori.</span> Originally -deserters from the armies of the republic, they had betaken -themselves to the almost inaccessible isles of the Borysthenes, -where they led a life of plunder in defiance of their -neighbours. Their piratical skiffs were an object of terror - -even to the dwellers on the Golden Horn. Bathori did all that -lay in his power to conciliate a people who, in spite of their -savage habits, were noted for their fidelity. He gave them the -city of Tretchimirow in Kiowia, and formed them into regiments, -for the defence of Poland against the Tartars. They were granted -the power of electing their own hetman, or Grand General, who, on -doing homage to the king, received as the symbols of his office a -flag, a horsetail, a staff, and a looking-glass. James Sobieski -in his historical work<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" -class="fnanchor">[22]</a> notices the value to a retreating -Polish army of their waggon-camps, which they called “Tabors,”<a -id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> -and which they seem to have drawn up after the fashion of a -Dutch “laager.” Unfortunately their independence was confined to -the period of military service. The Ukraine, like other parts -of the kingdom of Poland, was divided into estates of crown -land, which, like fiefs,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" -class="fnanchor">[24]</a> were held by the nobles on condition of -furnishing the state with troops. But this condition was seldom -fulfilled even in Great Poland, and never in a distant province, -such as the Ukraine, where all the nobles were absentees.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Their grievances.</span>There was thus -no tie except that of gratitude for their honourable position -in war to bind the Cossacks to Poland; and this was soon broken -by the outrageous rapacity of the Jewish stewards to whom the -nobles entrusted their lands. Complaints were lodged in the Diet -by the Cossack chiefs, who claimed to send thither their own -representatives; but the nobles, whose love of domination was as -strong as their love of liberty, turned a deaf ear; and Wladislas -VII., seeing the fatal tendency of this policy, had the hardihood -to remind the Cossacks that they still possessed their sabres.<a -id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> -<span class="sidenote">Success of their revolt.</span>At length, -in 1648, a dastardly outrage by a steward on Bogdan Chmielniçki, -one of their chiefs, forced them to follow this hint; and -electing the injured man as their hetman, they poured into Poland -with the Tartars as their allies. Bogdan was an experienced -soldier. He completely defeated Potoçki, the Grand General of -Poland, at Korsun (May 26th, 1648); and numbers of disaffected -Poles—Arian nobles, Calvinistic burghers,<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_12">[12]</span> outlawed serfs—at once flocked -to his standard. <span class="sidenote">Death of Wladislas -VII.</span>Six days before this disaster Wladislas VII. expired -at Warsaw; and his death at this moment blighted the hopes of -the moderate party. James Sobieski, who had done all he could to -save Bogdan from oppression, had died in March (1648) when the -king was on the point of naming him the representative of Poland -at the congress in Westphalia. <span class="sidenote">Danger -of Poland.</span>The nobility in general were bent on revenge. -Assembling their forces in haste, they suffered an ignominious -defeat at Pilawiecz (September 23rd); and Poland was left exposed -to the Cossacks. Madame Sobieska, with her two daughters, and -many others of the nobility, took refuge within the walls of -Zamosç, and was soon joined by her sons, who had evaded without -difficulty the undisciplined besiegers.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Election of John Casimir.</span>At -this crisis the nobles assembled at Warsaw to elect a king. They -chose (November 20th) Cardinal John Casimir, brother of the -late king, who put off the purple to assume the crown. The new -prince saw the necessity of conciliation, and had the courage, -in spite of the opposition of the nobles, to open a negotiation -with the rebels. Bogdan, who had been deserted by the Tartars, -was not disinclined for peace, and, in order to show his -respect for the king, retired thirty leagues from Zamosç. <span -class="sidenote">His peace violated by the nobles.</span>But -the treachery of the nobles frustrated the intentions of their -sovereign. Jeremiah Wiesnowiesçki, the harsh oppressor of the -serfs, fell suddenly upon the unsuspecting Cossacks, and routed -them with great slaughter. After this the war broke out afresh. -Bogdan sought and obtained the alliance of Isla, khan of the -Crim Tartars, and in an engagement at Zbaraz, in Volhynia -(June 30th, 1649) he gained another great victory. <span -class="sidenote">Sobieski joins the army,</span>At this news the -king hastened to join the remnants of the defeated army, and -was accompanied by John Sobieski in command of a select troop. -The young noble had been prevented taking part in the events -of the past six months by a wound which he had received in a -duel with one of the family of Paz, the most powerful clan in -Lithuania; and he afterwards had cause to regret the quarrel. -His presence with the king at this juncture was destined to -be of some importance. No sooner had Casimir assembled the -discomfited Poles, than half his available force, terrified at -the enemy’s numbers, insisted on retreat, and proceeded to put -their threat into execution. <span class="sidenote">And quells a -mutiny.</span>Sobieski galloped into their midst, and, exerting -that native eloquence of which he possessed no common share, -succeeded in restoring them to their allegiance. His efforts were -rewarded by the starosty of Javarow—a military post which had -been previously held by his father and by the great Zolkiewski. -<span class="sidenote">Peace of Zborow.</span>One of the -immediate results of the bold front now presented by the Poles, -was the conclusion of the peace of Zborow (August 18th),<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> in which the -Cossack chief displayed remarkable moderation. He consented to do -homage to the king and to forego his just demands for vengeance -upon his oppressors, on condition that all his adherents should -receive a free pardon.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Broken by the Poles. June 30th, -1651.</span>But the Polish nobility were incapable of learning -any lesson from their recent reverses. War was again declared -by the Diet in 1650; and the next year Bogdan was defeated by -Casimir at Berestezko, owing principally to the desertion of the -Tartars. In this battle, John Sobieski received a wound in his -head, from the effects of which he suffered constantly until -his death. A transitory peace which followed this success was -again broken by the Poles, who attacked Bogdan’s son Timothy at -Batowitz (June 2nd, 1652), but were surrounded and annihilated. -<span class="sidenote">Death of Mark Sobieski.</span>The -prisoners, among whom was Mark Sobieski,<a id="FNanchor_26" -href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> were all massacred -after the battle by the Tartar khan. Another duel wound -fortunately prevented John from being among the victims. But he -had the pain of seeing that his folly had made his mother despair -of the name of Sobieski. Overwhelmed with grief at the loss of -her favourite son, and auguring ill from the headstrong passions -of John, she quitted Poland and took refuge in Italy.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Lessons of the Cossack War.</span>The -Cossack war, which had now lasted with little intermission for -four years, demands considerable attention. It throws a lurid -light on the vices of the Polish constitution, and its bitter -lessons cannot have been lost upon a thoughtful mind like that of -John Sobieski. By oppression the Polish nobility had converted -faithful subjects into deadly foes; and their pride and treachery -contrast most unfavourably with the moderation of the Cossack -chief. Although we have little information about this period of -Sobieski’s life, his ardent temper makes it probable that he -joined at first with the most uncompromising of the nobles. But -their independence of the regal authority, their disregard for -treaties with the serf class, and, above all, their unprecedented -employment of the fatal veto (1652), must have soon convinced him -that the discipline of self-restraint was the only means left to -save his country. Hereafter we shall see him nobly practising -this lesson under the most fearful provocation.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Anarchy.</span>At this period (1654) -Poland was distracted by anarchy at home, and in the next -six years she suffered all the usual consequences of civil -strife. Henceforward the Cossack war loses its character of a -struggle between the republic and her rebellious subjects. <span -class="sidenote">The Cossacks call in Muscovy.</span>Its natural -result was to draw into the contest those neighbouring nations -who might hope to gain advantage from<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_14">[14]</span> the distracted state of Poland. -Bogdan, despairing of concluding any definitive peace without -foreign aid, persuaded the Czar Alexis to declare war against -Poland, and, on the frivolous pretext that his titles had not -received due respect, that monarch invaded Lithuania and took -Smolensko (Sept. 10th, 1654).</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">War with Sweden.</span>But a greater -enemy was arising in the north; Charles X. of Sweden, the -“Pyrrhus of the North,” succeeding to the throne on the -abdication of Christina in June 1654, had set his mind on the -conquest of Poland. The Polish vice-chancellor, Radzejowski, who -had been expelled from the kingdom by Casimir on some private -quarrel, took care that Charles should be well acquainted with -the weakness to which his country had been reduced. He gave the -welcome advice that no apology which Casimir might make as to -his assumption of the title of king of Sweden<a id="FNanchor_27" -href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> should receive -any attention. The king of Poland was anxious to send Sobieski -to Stockholm to avert the impending storm; but he declined the -hopeless mission. Charles eagerly took advantage of the anarchy -caused by the Russian war, and invaded Pomerania and Great Poland -in August, 1655. He gained an easy victory over the divided -forces of the republic, and entered Warsaw at the end of the -month. Cracow surrendered early in October, and, as Casimir had -fled into Silesia, the whole country lay at his feet. <span -class="sidenote">Charles X. conquers Poland,</span>Surrounded -by such a host of enemies, the nobles seemed to have no choice -but to offer the crown to Charles X.; and the standing army, -called Quartians,<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" -class="fnanchor">[28]</a> among whom Sobieski commanded a troop, -took the oath to the king of Sweden. <span class="sidenote">But -alienates it.</span>But Charles was not inclined to keep -faith with a people whom he had conquered in three months. -Contrary to his express promises hereditary monarchy was -proclaimed, heavy contributions were levied, and the Catholics -were openly persecuted by the Swedes. The national spirit was -deeply wounded by the haughty demeanour of the conquerors. -<span class="sidenote">Resumption of the war.</span>During -the absence of Charles in Prussia, a confederation was formed -in the palatinate of Beltz under the auspices of the absent -Casimir, to which Sobieski attached himself, and with him the -able generals Lubomirski and Czarnieçki. When Charles returned -he found that he had the greater part of Poland to re-conquer. -<span class="sidenote">Successes of Sobieski.</span>In conveying -his army through the marshes of Little Poland, he was blocked up -between the Vistula and the San by Sobieski’s cavalry, and was -only extricated by the prompt arrival of reinforcements. Soon -after, while he was superintending the<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_15">[15]</span> siege of Dantzic, Casimir and -the valiant Czarnieçki recaptured Warsaw; but they lost it -again on his return after a battle of three days, in which -Sobieski, who commanded a troop of Tartars<a id="FNanchor_29" -href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> trained by himself, -performed prodigies of valour. But other nations had looked on -with jealousy at the brilliant career of the king of Sweden. The -Czar, resenting the manner in which he had been baulked of his -prey, declared war against Sweden; and the emperor Ferdinand -III., just before his death (May 30th, 1657), concluded an -offensive and defensive alliance with the king of Poland. <span -class="sidenote">Charles attempts a partition,</span>Meanwhile -Charles was using all his efforts to carry out a scheme for -the partition of Poland between himself, the Czar, the Great -Elector of Brandenburg,<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" -class="fnanchor">[30]</a> and Ragoczy, prince of Transylvania. -But her time had not yet come. Almost at the same moment -Denmark declared war against Charles, the Elector deserted -him, and Austria prepared to send troops in support of her new -ally (June, 1657). <span class="sidenote">But is obliged to -retire.</span>In July Charles evacuated Poland in all haste, and -began his wonderful campaigns in Denmark. Another stroke of good -fortune was the death of Bogdan Chmielniçki (August 27th), and -the return of a large number of Cossacks to their allegiance. -<span class="sidenote">Gradual recovery of Poland,</span>Though -sorely shaken by the terrible ordeal through which she had -passed, Poland gradually recovered her independence. Treaties -were concluded with the Elector, and with Prince Ragoczy, with no -more serious loss than the suzerainty of ducal Prussia (1658); -and two years later, shortly after the death of Charles X., a -peace was signed with Sweden at Oliva (May 3rd, 1660). <span -class="sidenote">Sobieski rewarded.</span>Casimir re-established -his authority throughout the kingdom; and in distributing rewards -to his most faithful subjects, conferred upon Sobieski the post -of Korongy, or standard-bearer of the crown.<a id="FNanchor_31" -href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">War with Muscovy.</span>There still -remained, however, the war with Muscovy. The ever-active -Czar Alexis, now that he could take his own measures with -Poland, overran Lithuania, and captured Wilna, its capital. -But his general, Sheremetieff, suffered a serious defeat, -and shut himself up in his fortified camp at Cudnow to await -the arrival of a large reinforcement of Cossacks. <span -class="sidenote">Victories of Sobieski at Slobodyszcza and -Cudnow.</span>Sobieski was detached with a small force from -the investing army to confront this new enemy. Finding them -encamped on the heights of Slobodyszcza, he carried the position -by assault, and gained a victory so complete that the Cossacks -laid down their arms (Sept. 17th, 1660). He then hastened -back to Cudnow, and joined in the<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_16">[16]</span> attack on the Muscovite camp, -which was so successful that the whole army, with their -ammunition and stores, fell into the hands of the Poles. Such a -brilliant campaign astonished Europe. Sobieski, whose reputation -was already high in his own country, was justly credited with -giving her breathing time to recover from her misfortunes.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Anarchy in Poland.</span>She -employed it, according to her wont, in internal dissensions. -It is difficult to trace the true origin of the deplorable -state of Poland during the next six years; but it may be -attributed, in the first instance, to the foolish conduct -of the queen, Louise de Nevers. Though a woman of masculine -spirit, and exercising a great ascendancy over the uxorious -Casimir, she was herself entirely governed by the Jesuits. -<span class="sidenote">1661.</span>They persuaded her, and -through her the king, to violate that article of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pacta -conventa</i> by which he pledged himself not to tamper with -the succession to the crown. The person for whom they designed -it was her nephew, the young Duc d’Enghien, son of the great -Condé. <span class="sidenote">1662-3.</span>The power of -French gold soon converted the majority of the senate. But the -lesser nobles were not so easily cajoled, and they possessed a -secret though powerful supporter in Lubomirski, Grand Marshal -and Second General of the crown. To this main grievance was -added another, which pressed heavily on the poorer nobles. -Large arrears of pay were, as usual,<a id="FNanchor_32" -href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> owing to the -army, who accordingly formed themselves into a confederation, -and demanded the diminution of the immense revenues of the -clergy. This brought upon them all the thunders of the Church; -and the fearful spectacle was presented of a country divided -into hostile camps, in which the senate was at enmity with the -diet, the clergy with the army, the larger with the lesser -nobility. Sobieski and other patriotic spirits tried to strike -at the root of the evil, and furnished funds from their private -resources for the payment of arrears. As this did not allay -the complaints of the army, the senate opened a negotiation -with the malcontents from Sobieski’s “court”<a id="FNanchor_33" -href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> at Zolkiew, which -was so far successful that the king was able to lead them against -Muscovy.<span class="sidenote">Campaign against Muscovy.</span> -But the campaign, though not disastrous, was not especially -fortunate; and the absence of Lubomirski, who had been kept at -home by the king’s suspicions, created general discontent.</p> - -<p>On his return the king summoned Lubomirski to trial on a -charge of high treason. He did not appear, and was condemned to -perpetual banishment and the loss of his honours and estates. -<span class="sidenote">Sobieski, Grand Marshal and Second -General.</span>His office of Grand Marshal was bestowed on -Sobieski, and that of Second General on Czarnieçki; but the -latter dying shortly after, this post<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_17">[17]</span> was also conferred on Sobieski. -The appointments were most politic, for Sobieski was a great -favourite with the army. His duties having kept him constantly on -the Cossack frontier, he had not compromised himself with either -party.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Marriage of Sobieski.</span>These signs -of the royal favour were followed by another which bound him -still more to the interests of the court. On his visit to Warsaw -to assume the insignia of his offices, he became enamoured of a -French lady in the retinue of the queen, Mary Casimira d’Arquien, -who had lately become a widow by the death of the rich Prince -Zamoyski. <span class="sidenote">His wife.</span>She was daughter -to the Marquis d’Arquien; captain of the guards to the Duke of -Orleans, and had attended the queen from France nineteen years -before. Though over thirty years of age, she still possessed -in a remarkable degree all those fascinations which usually -belong to extreme youth. Dr. South, who saw her seven years -later, says that even then she did not look more than twenty.<a -id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> -To these advantages she united a piquant vivacity which had -a peculiar charm for Sobieski. His passion was so strong<a -id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> -that he besought the queen’s consent to their immediate union. -Scarcely four weeks had elapsed since the death of Zamoyski, -to whom she had borne several children; but so necessary was -it to conciliate the new officer that the queen gave way, and -the marriage was celebrated, according to the Polish fashion, -by a festival of three days.<span class="sidenote">July 5-7, -1665.</span> Sobieski was hereafter to receive severe punishment -for this indecent haste in the conduct of his wife. <span -class="sidenote">Rebellion of Lubomirski.</span>In the midst of -the marriage <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">fêtes</i> tidings arrived -that Lubomirski, who had entered Poland with a large army, was -ungenerously plundering his estate at Zolkiew, and carrying off -his stud of horses. The proscribed general, who was a prince of -the empire, had received secret support from Leopold of Austria, -and was now in open rebellion.</p> - -<p>The whole kingdom was divided against itself. The -palatinates of the west, gained over by Austria, resented -the predominance of France at court, and joined Lubomirski. -<span class="sidenote">Sobieski tries arbitration.</span>An -effort was made by Sobieski to get the decision of the Diet on -Lubomirski’s claims, but the assembly was dissolved by the fatal -veto, and the two armies advanced to the struggle. Contrary -to the earnest advice of Sobieski, Casimir made his attack -in the marshes of Montwy (July 11th, 1666), and his troops, -entangled in the difficult ground, were easily defeated. <span -class="sidenote">Peace with Lubomirski.</span>But Lubomirski -was anxious to come to terms, and, having extracted a promise -from Casimir that he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18] -</span> would not interfere in the succession, he waived his -personal claims, and retired to Silesia, where he died six months -after.</p> - -<p>His faction, however, was not silenced. Bands of hungry -soldiers, clamouring for pay, levied black-mail upon the -provinces; and the central authority seemed powerless to restrain -them. <span class="sidenote">Invasion of the Tartars.</span>At -this juncture news arrived that 80,000 Tartars were plundering -Volhynia, and that the Cossacks under Doroscensko were preparing -to join them. The utmost consternation prevailed at Warsaw; a -peace was hastily patched up with Muscovy, and efforts were made -to raise fresh troops. But the treasury was empty; the republic -had only 10,000 men under arms; and many of these were most -imperfectly equipped. Casimir applied vainly for help at the -principal European courts; Brandenburg alone sent a few companies -of infantry. At this crisis Potoçki, the aged Grand General, -died, and the king at once appointed the Grand Marshal to the -post.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Sobieski Grand General,</span>Never -before had any Polish subject united in his own person these two -offices. As Grand General Sobieski had absolute control over -military affairs, and could quarter his army where he pleased; -<span class="sidenote">As well as Grand Marshal.</span>as Grand -Marshal he was at the head of the administration, received -foreign ambassadors, and could inflict death without appeal. -In most points, as in the last, his power was really greater -than that of the king; for although the king could confer these -honours, he could not revoke them. No higher testimony could -have been paid to the prudence and ability of Sobieski than -the readiness with which these unusual powers were granted, -and the very transitory murmurs that they provoked amongst an -exceptionally jealous nobility. His rise, though fortunate at -its close, had not been so rapid as to be out of proportion to -his merits. The gravity of the crisis doubtless operated in his -favour; and he took pains at once to relieve all suspicion by his -temperate and vigorous action. His persuasive eloquence silenced -the clamours for pay, and he hesitated not to drain his private -coffers in raising new levies. <span class="sidenote">His bold -plan of the campaign.</span>By this means he doubled his original -forces, and then prepared to execute a grand plan for the -destruction of the Tartars. Throwing his army into the fortified -camp of Podhaic, a small town in Red Russia, he detached several -large bodies of cavalry to act in the vicinity. These had orders -on a given day, when the enemy had worn himself out by the -assault, to close round the vast host and help their general -to assume the offensive. To divide so small a force seemed -hazardous in the extreme,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" -class="fnanchor">[36]</a> and the soldiers murmured openly -that their lives were to be thrown away. The cool courage of -Sobieski made them blush for shame. “He gave all cowards liberty -to depart; as for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19] -</span> himself, he was determined to remain with all -those who loved their country.” <span class="sidenote">Sept. -28th-Oct. 15th, 1667.</span>The enemy appeared; and for -seventeen days in succession this heroic band withstood their -most determined assaults. Finally Sobieski, whose troops had -suffered far less loss than they inflicted, gave the signal to -his outlying parties, and attacked the Tartars in front and -rear. <span class="sidenote">Great victory of Podhaic.</span>The -battle was hotly contested; but at length victory declared for -the Poles. Galga, the Tartar khan, found his troops so severely -handled that he was forced to sue for peace, and concluded an -alliance with the republic. Doroscensko, on the part of the -Cossacks, agreed to restore to the nobles their estates in the -Ukraine.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Gratitude of Poland.</span>Poland had -been saved almost by a miracle; and multitudes flocked to the -churches to return thanks to God. When the danger was at its -height, so inert and feeble was the body-politic that Casimir -had found it impossible to arm the Pospolite for the relief -of their devoted general. Their gratitude was now the greater -that their sacrifices had been few. When Sobieski on his return -detailed in modest language the success of the campaign, and -ascribed his victory to the mercy of God, the Diet rose with one -accord and answered that the republic knew who had saved her, -and would remember to thank him. <span class="sidenote">Birth of -a son.</span>The tidings reached his wife, who was staying with -her relatives in France, just after she had borne him a son; and -such was the general admiration that Louis XIV. and Henrietta -Maria, the mother of Charles II., were willing to answer for the -child at the font. He was named James Louis, in honour of his -grandfather and his illustrious sponsor.</p> - -<p>No successes against the invader could allay the internal -broils of Poland. Although Casimir had lost his queen in the -spring of the year 1667, the outcry against the French influence -continued unabated. On one occasion the king so far forgot -himself as to exclaim, in full diet, “If you are weary of me, -I am no less weary of you.” <span class="sidenote">Abdication -of John Casimir.</span>At length, bowed down by domestic -sorrow, tormented by scruples of conscience,<a id="FNanchor_37" -href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> and disgusted at -the turbulence of the nobles, he came to the resolution, which -those words seemed to imply, of laying aside the crown. He -took farewell of the Diet in a dignified speech, in which he -asked only for six feet of earth, where his bones might rest in -peace. If he had offended any, he begged them to forgive him as -freely as he forgave those who had offended him. The assembly -was profoundly affected; but, although Sobieski and others from -motives of gratitude besought him to retain the crown, it does -not appear that this was the wish of the nation. We are told -that on the day after his abdication the people hardly paid him -the respect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> -due to a gentleman;<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" -class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and much ill-feeling was shown -in the Diet, when the question of his pension came before -it. After remaining in Poland too long for his own credit<a -id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> -he retired to France, where Louis XIV. gave him the Abbey of -St. Germain. He was the last of the dynasty of Jagellon,<a -id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> -which had reigned in Poland nearly three hundred years.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Candidates for the throne.</span>The -number of aspirants to the vacant throne was, as usual, -considerable. The Czar Alexis massed 80,000 troops on the -frontier in support of the candidature of his son, but the Poles -took little notice either of him or his manœuvres. The Prince -of Condé was supported by Sobieski and many of the Senate, but -the prejudice against a Frenchman was universal among the lesser -nobles. The two candidates most in favour were Prince Charles -of Lorraine, secretly supported by Austria, and Philip, Duke of -Neuberg, who, though sixty years of age, was set up as the real -choice alike of the King of France and the Emperor. The personal -advantages of the former were far superior to those of his -rival; he was young, courageous, and affable; but he had neither -money nor lands, while the offers of the Duke of Neuberg were -most advantageous to the state. <span class="sidenote">Disorder -on the field of election.</span>The nobles, fully alive to the -value of their votes, postponed their decision till May, 1669; -and meanwhile the field of election was as usual a scene of wild -confusion. A large party clamoured for the exclusion of the -Prince of Condé, and, although Sobieski protested against such -a measure as interfering with the freedom of the proceedings, -it was carried through by the violence of its promoters. At -length the tumult rose to such a height that Sobieski, as -Grand Marshal, threatened to fire upon the rioters. Order was -thus partly restored; and soon the cry of a Piast! a Piast! -was heard among the crowd. Sobieski might well suppose that no -Piast (or native Pole) would be thought so worthy as himself to -wear the crown, but perhaps he had made himself too unpopular -during the election. The cry was followed by the proposal of -Michael Wiesnowiesçki—a young noble barely thirty years of age, -who had neither virtues, nor abilities, nor riches to recommend -him to their suffrages. <span class="sidenote">Proclamation of -King Michael.</span>Yet such was the fickle excitability of the -assembly that he was chosen by acclamation; and, although he -implored to be spared the honour, and even attempted to escape, -he was dragged to the throne, and invested with the supreme -authority.</p> - -<p>The reign of such a king could scarcely be prosperous. Ere -long the nobles had cause to regret that they had not chosen the -man who of all native Poles was worthiest to hold the sceptre. -Michael himself, when mounted upon the throne, could not but<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> see that he was far -from being the first man in the republic. The thought wounded his -pride, which was soon to become as conspicuous as his previous -humility. <span class="sidenote">His hatred of Sobieski,</span>He -hated Sobieski with a hatred the more violent that he was unable -to abridge his powers. He refused the grand coach-and-six -which it was the established custom for the general to present -to the new sovereign.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" -class="fnanchor">[41]</a> He plotted with Christopher and Michael -Paz, respectively chancellor and grand general of Lithuania, -against the man with whom they had a long-standing family feud.<a -id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> -<span class="sidenote">Who was popular with the army.</span>But -Sobieski, besides having the army at his back, was zealously -supported by the greater nobles, and although a struggle appeared -imminent the king’s party forbore for a time. Efforts were made -to promote a reconciliation by marrying Michael to the daughter -of Sobieski’s sister;<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" -class="fnanchor">[43]</a> but the plan was overthrown by the -arrival of an ambassador from Leopold to offer him the hand of -the Arch-Duchess Eleanor. <span class="sidenote">Marriage of -Michael.</span>The honour was too tempting for the weak-minded -king; he accepted from the emperor the order of the Golden -Fleece, and hastily concluded the marriage without the sanction -of the republic. Loud were the complaints against this breach -of the constitution,<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" -class="fnanchor">[44]</a> even among his own supporters, the -lesser nobles. Austria had always been distrusted by the -Poles, but at this moment there was a special reason for her -unpopularity.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Siege of Candia. Designs of Ahmed -Köprili.</span>On the 2nd of September, 1669, after a most -memorable defence of more than twenty years, the city and island -of Candia surrendered to the Turkish fleet, commanded by the -Grand Vizier, Ahmed Köprili. The vast designs of this able -minister were the terror of Europe. Five years earlier (1664) -he had concluded with Austria a twenty years’ peace, on terms -most favourable to the Turks; and it was well known that he -only awaited the fall of Candia to resume his schemes against -Italy and the empire. That result was now achieved, a peace was -concluded with Venice, and he was free to turn the Ottoman arms -towards the west and north.<span class="sidenote">Terror in -Europe at</span> The Marquis de St. André,<a id="FNanchor_45" -href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> who had commanded -in Candia, wrote into France that Köprili had opened the way to -Rome, and by what he knew of that general’s humour, he doubted -not but he had a design to turn St. Peter’s church into the -Grand Signor’s stables. <span class="sidenote">The rise of -Turkey.</span>It is even said that Pope Clement IX. died of -grief at the Turkish successes. These fears were doubtless in -part well founded. During the Thirty Years’ War, and the<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> intestine -struggles which succeeded it in many of the Christian states, -the Turkish power had steadily increased. Two Grand Viziers of -consummate ability, Mahommed Köprili and his son Ahmed, had -strengthened the empire by numerous fortresses, had sternly -quelled the frequent revolts, and had introduced a spirit of -order and activity hitherto seldom seen among the Turks. If the -jealousies of France and Austria were to continue, a wise vizier -might well hope ere long to make a tremendous onslaught upon -Christendom. It is not surprising therefore that, after the fall -of Candia, the Poles should resent the Emperor’s crafty aim to -secure their taking up arms in his defence.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Revolt of the Cossacks.</span>But the -danger was nearer than they imagined. It threatened them as -usual from the quarter of the Cossacks, who had never since -their first revolt in 1648 preserved a real peace with Poland. -They viewed with dismay the accession to the throne of a son of -their former oppressor, Jeremiah Wiesnowiesçki, and imagining -that his first object would be to recover his lost estates, they -rushed to arms. <span class="sidenote">Sobieski’s campaign of -1670.</span>Immediately after the coronation of Michael (October, -1669) Sobieski was called to the frontiers. Acting with his -usual vigour, he sowed discord in the enemy’s ranks, and drove -them beyond the Dniester. So unexpected were these victories -that the Vice-Chancellor, writing to him in the king’s name, -says: “Envy itself is compelled to confess that, after God, you -alone, though at the head of so small a force, have once more -saved Poland.” <span class="sidenote">Michael refuses a policy -of concession.</span>But the king and his general could not -agree as to the measures to be taken with the subdued Cossacks. -Sobieski was most anxious for a policy of concession. He had seen -signs among them of a disposition to call in the Turks, which -they had attempted to do in 1651, and he hoped to avert such a -disaster. But Michael was wholly deaf to argument. Finding that -the Diet was likely to declare against him, he easily procured -its dissolution by the veto (April 17th); and the event which -Sobieski dreaded came to pass. <span class="sidenote">The -Cossacks apply to the Porte.</span>Doroscensko, the Cossack -chief, losing all hope of justice from Poland, and persuaded by -his metropolitan that he would find it at the patriarchate of the -East, went to Constantinople to throw himself at the feet of the -Sultan.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Köprili prepares for war with -Poland.</span>Fortune seemed to play into the hands of -Ahmed Köprili. The restless janissaries needed employment, and -he preferred a gradual advance upon Austria to a premature -declaration of war with her. Poland seemed to offer a splendid -field. Proclaiming the Sultan the champion of the oppressed, he -prepared a great armament against the oppressor, and created -Doroscensko hospodar of the Ukraine. But his plans required time -to be fully matured, and in the meanwhile he encouraged the -Tartars to burst into Poland (1671).</p> - -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Austrian influence in Poland.</span>The -republic was at this moment torn in pieces by the violence of -the Austrian and French factions. Leopold had followed up his -success in the marriage of his sister by surrounding the weak -Michael with creatures of his own, who used all their arts to -persuade him that the French monarch had been guilty of bringing -in the Tartars against him. Great efforts were made to include -Sobieski in these accusations. His second general, Demetrius -Wiesnowiesçki, the king’s cousin, who had long been jealous -of him, actually put Tartar captives to the torture to obtain -evidence, but without success. Sobieski, though deeply indignant, -contented himself with publishing a scornful manifesto, and -then hastened to defend the frontiers. At the meeting of the -Diet (September 20th) the deputies demanded the dismissal of -the Austrian courtiers; and the primate Prazmowski vehemently -accused the king of treachery to the nation, and of breaking his -coronation oaths. <span class="sidenote">Michael calls out the -Pospolite.</span>Terrified at this attack, Michael called out -the Pospolite, which was devoted to his interests; but he paid -no attention to the entreaties of Sobieski that he would use -it against the invader. He could not bring himself to save his -kingdom at the expense of strengthening his rival.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">“Miraculous campaign” of -Sobieski.</span>Sobieski determined to act without him. -Equipping the regular army at his own cost, he appeared to be -covering Kaminiec, the key of south-eastern Poland, but when -the Tartar hordes had passed into Volhynia, he marched with -surprising celerity through Podolia, and cut them off from their -allies, the Cossacks. Trembling for their retreat the barbarians -broke up their camp, and hurried out of the country as fast as -they could, while Sobieski made a triumphant progress through the -Ukraine, capturing several towns which had not seen a Polish army -for twenty years, and re-establishing communications with the -friendly Moldavians. Europe justly termed this “the miraculous -campaign;” yet it was accomplished almost solely by the strenuous -exertions of the commander. His troops were in the worst possible -condition, the Lithuanian army had disbanded without joining him, -and the jealousies of the different palatinates had prevented -their sending him any succours. He now begged for reinforcements -to enable him to dictate peace to the Tartars, and to fortify -Poland against the Turks; but the infatuated malice of the king -made it difficult for him even to keep together the troops under -his orders. <span class="sidenote">December, 1671. He falls -sick.</span>At this juncture fatigue, and perhaps chagrin at the -treatment which he received, laid Sobieski on the bed of sickness -at Zolkiew; and the king redoubled his efforts to separate him -from the army. The attempt recoiled upon his own head. That body -at once moved their winter quarters to the Palatinate of Russia, -and formed themselves into a confederation to protect their -beloved general.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The Sultan declares war against -Poland.</span>But the king’s attention was soon most -unpleasantly diverted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24] -</span> elsewhere. In the same month (December) an envoy -from the Porte arrived at Warsaw, and announcing that the -Cossacks had been taken under the protection of the Sublime -Porte, demanded reparation for the injuries which they had -suffered. No resource was left to the king’s party but to treat -this as a mere blind intended to conceal from Austria the Turkish -advance on the side of Hungary.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Confederation against the -king.</span>The patience of the great nobles was now -completely exhausted. Under the leadership of Prazmowski they -entered into a confederation to dethrone the king. The advice of -the primate was that they should take the emperor and the Polish -queen into their counsels, and provide some candidate who would -be ready to accept the queen’s hand. Eleanor was consulted, and -professed herself devoted to the plan, if they would choose -Charles of Lorraine, to whom she was deeply attached. <span -class="sidenote">Joined by Sobieski.</span>Sobieski, now -convalescent, was at length made acquainted with these projects. -He strongly opposed any scheme which would place the country -under the espionage of Austria; but being firmly convinced of -the necessity of a revolution, he exhorted them to choose the -brave Duke of Longueville, nephew of Condé. Prazmowski, nothing -daunted, sent the queen the duke’s portrait, and was assured of -her acquiescence. Everything seemed favourable for the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">coup -d’état</i>; the Diet went out in a body to meet Sobieski; and -the rejoicings at his recovery were universal, when suddenly -news arrived that the Duke of Longueville had been slain at the -passage of the Rhine (June 12th, 1672). The party of the king, -and the Lithuanians, who had trembled at the coming storm, took -fresh courage, while the confederates were proportionately -disconcerted. Michael began to negotiate for Austrian troops to -employ against the Grand General; <span class="sidenote">Invasion -of the Sultan.</span>but in the midst of the confusion it was -announced that Mahomet IV. in person, with the Grand Vizier -and 200,000 men, was advancing upon Kaminiec. The king’s party -loudly averred that this was a fabrication of their opponents; -the Lithuanians swore to defend him to the death; <span -class="sidenote">Sobieski proscribed.</span>and Sobieski, with -others of the leading nobles, was proscribed. This violence -raised a similar storm in the Polish army in Russia, who -surrounded their general, and swore to follow him to the end of -the earth. “I accept your oaths,” was his answer, “and the first -thing I require of you is to save Poland.”</p> - -<p>Yet Poland seemed lost beyond all hope. Sobieski’s troops -scarcely amounted to 30,000 men, and there was now no chance -of uniting them to the Pospolite. <span class="sidenote">The -Sultan takes Kaminiec,</span>The Grand General flew to Kaminiec -to reinforce and provision the garrison; but he was obliged to -leave it to its fate, for the governor, who belonged to the -king’s party, refused to admit any of his force. Kaminiec was the -only great fortress which Poland possessed.<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_25">[25]</span> Its natural position—defended on one -side by the river Smotrycz, and on the other by an inaccessible -cliff—was very strong; and the Poles constantly boasted that God, -who built it, would alone be able to take it. Yet so skilful were -the Turkish miners, after their long experience in Candia, that -it surrendered within a month.</p> - -<p>The consternation at Warsaw was fearful. The king assembled -the Pospolite at Golemba, near the capital; but his one aim -was to conclude peace on any terms. <span class="sidenote">And -advances on Leopol.</span>The Sultan, sending on an advanced -guard to besiege Leopol, the capital of Russia, encamped at -Buczacz, where amongst the Podolian mountains he enjoyed his -favourite pastime of hunting. Meanwhile Sobieski had not been -idle. A large body of Tartars had passed into Volhynia in support -of the Turks, and, after loading themselves with spoil and with -a vast train of captives, prepared to beat a retreat. Hovering -always on their rear, Sobieski struck a blow whenever it was -practicable, and finally caught them in a defile at Kalusz, -in the Carpathian mountains. <span class="sidenote">Victory -of Sobieski over the Tartars.</span>After a great carnage he -dispersed them, recovered the spoil, and liberated nearly -30,000 Polish captives. <span class="sidenote">His attack upon -the Sultan’s camp.</span>He then formed the daring plan of a -night attack on Mahomet’s camp. By swift and silent marches -he approached unperceived, and burst with his cavalry on the -imperial tents. For a moment the quarters of the Sultanas were in -imminent danger; but the arrival of succours put an end to the -raid.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Peace of Buczacz.</span>With his small -force Sobieski could do no more than harass the Turkish army, yet -it was with indignation that he heard that the king had concluded -a peace at Buczacz (October 18th). Michael concealed the terms as -long as he could; and this increased the suspicions of the Grand -General that they were dishonourable to the country. At length it -was found that Podolia, the Ukraine, and Kaminiec had been ceded -to the Porte, and that the king had consented to pay an annual -tribute of 22,000 ducats. In return for this the Vizier withdrew -his army from Polish soil; but he established a vast military -camp with 80,000 men at Kotzim, on the Dniester, to overawe the -vanquished nation. By this treaty, which he had no power to make -without the sanction of the republic, the king of Poland reduced -himself to the condition of a vassal of the Sultan.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Hostility of the Pospolite to -Sobieski.</span>Yet the leaders of the Pospolite at Golemba, -who dreaded nothing so much as a long campaign, were loud in -his defence. Suspecting that Sobieski would not accept the -peace, they renewed against him the sentence of proscription, -and confiscated his estates. On receiving intelligence of these -attacks, Louis XIV. offered him a French dukedom and a marshal’s -bâton; but Sobieski would not forsake his country. Indeed his -position did not justify it; for his party grew stronger day by -day, while the Pospolite, ill-furnished with provisions, and rent -in pieces by faction, gradually melted away. At length the queen -took on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> -herself the part of a mediator, and she was seconded by the -Lithuanians, who were weary of anarchy. It then appeared how -strong a hold Sobieski had upon the affections of the people. -<span class="sidenote">Popularity of Sobieski.</span>When his -exploits during the war became generally known there was an -immense reaction in his favour. <span class="sidenote">Plot -against him.</span>His personal enemies, among whom may be -reckoned the king, viewed this with the utmost uneasiness, and -a few of them concocted an atrocious plot against him. They -suborned a poor noble, named Lodzinski, to come forward in the -Diet and declare that Sobieski had sold Kaminiec to the Turks -for 1,200,000 florins, and that this money had been seen in -waggons on the way to its destination. This calumny raised the -Diet to the highest pitch of excitement, and they would have put -the slanderer in irons but for the intervention of the king. -The army declared that they would wash out the insult with -blood; but Sobieski calmed them, and proceeded to Warsaw to -demand a trial. He was welcomed with acclamations; the palace -of Wiasdow, decorated with all the trophies of Zolkiewski, was -placed at his disposal; and Michael sent the Grand Chamberlain -to pay him his compliments. <span class="sidenote">Discovered -and punished.</span>Lodzinski, when brought before a tribunal -of senators and deputies, lost all courage, and confessed that -he had invented the story for the sum of 1,000 francs—promised -him by certain of the nobles. He was condemned to death; but the -sentence could not be carried out without the consent of the -Grand Marshal, and he was therefore suffered to live. The nobles -who had been his instigators had to ask pardon on their knees.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">He persuades the Diet not to accept the -peace.</span>The first object of Sobieski in this sudden -blaze of his popularity was to procure the rupture of the peace -of Buczacz. He at once published a memorandum, setting forth -necessary reforms in the administration and the army, and -promising that their adoption would ensure a successful struggle -against the Turks. The Diet sent him a message in high-flown -Polish rhetoric, in which they begged for the presence of that -hero “who, if the system of Pythagoras be true, seems to unite -in his own frame the souls of all the great captains and good -citizens of the past.” He took his seat amid great enthusiasm -(March 14th), and easily persuaded the deputies to follow his -advice. They did not now dream of paying the tribute. They -decreed an army of 60,000 men, the establishment of a war-tax, -and the despatch of embassies for foreign aid, and finally placed -in the hands of Sobieski full powers both for peace and war. -This was in effect to put aside the king, and make the Grand -Marshal Regent; but no voice was raised against the proposal. -<span class="sidenote">Their confidence in him.</span>Since there -was only a trifling sum remaining in the exchequer, Sobieski -persuaded the Diet to use the treasure stored up as a reserve -in the castle of Cracow. This, with an opportune subsidy which -arrived from the Pope, was deposited<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_27">[27]</span> with him instead of the Grand -Treasurer, as the person most likely to use them to advantage.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His difficulties.</span>Such unbounded -confidence carried with it a responsibility which few men would -have dared to face. Sobieski accepted it cheerfully, yet at the -outset of the campaign he had to meet two difficulties, which he -had not foreseen. His old enemy, Michael Paz, caused much delay -by arriving late with his Lithuanians (Sept. 16th); and at the -last moment the king announced that he should put himself at the -head of the force. He came, and reviewed the troops; but during -the ceremony he was seized with illness; and the next morning the -Poles raised a hurra on seeing the “bonzuk,” or long lance, in -front of the Grand General’s tent in an upright position—a sure -sign that the king had quitted the army. The next day (October -11th), with a force of nearly 40,000 men, and forty small -field-pieces, Sobieski began his march.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His plan of the campaign.</span>His -plan of the campaign, though simple, was boldly conceived. Having -heard that Caplan Pacha, with 30,000 men, was advancing through -Moldavia to reinforce the camp at Kotzim, he proposed to cut him -off upon his march, and then to turn upon the camp itself. If he -should succeed in capturing it, he hoped to isolate Kaminiec, and -so to take it by blockade, and recover all that had been ceded to -the Porte. He was not dismayed at the lateness of the season; for -he trusted that on this account the Turks would be less willing -to fight.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">March of the army.</span>The banks of -the Dniester were reached after three weeks’ march, and here -a mutiny broke out among the troops, which was industriously -fomented by Michael Paz. They clamoured for rest and provisions; -Sobieski promised them both under the tents of the barbarians. -“My resolution,” said he, “is not to be shaken. I intend to bury -myself here or to conquer. You must do the same, or nothing can -save you.” His firmness had the desired effect. They crossed -the Dniester and penetrated into the forest of Bucovina; but -Sobieski was obliged to alter his original plans. It would have -been madness to wait for Caplan Pacha and so give him time to -join the camp; and yet his undisciplined soldiery shrank from -the inclement plains of Moldavia. He therefore turned aside, and -advanced at once on the entrenchments at Kotzim.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Castle and camp of Kotzim.</span>The -castle of that name was strongly situated on the right bank of -the Dniester, about twelve miles from Kaminiec. Between this and -the advancing Poles, at the height of twenty feet from the plain, -was the vast fortified camp, unassailable on the side of the -river, where the rocks were steep, and surrounded on the other -sides by a broad ravine. The ground immediately in front of the -entrenchments was marshy, and broken up by rapid streams, and -the Turks could sweep it from end to end with their admirable -artillery. Within the lines were ranged<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_28">[28]</span> 80,000 men, the flower of the -Turkish army, most of them spahis and janissaries, under the -command of the Seraskier<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" -class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Hussein.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Insubordination of Paz.</span>The day -after the Poles arrived (November 10th) Paz declared an assault -to be impracticable, and announced his intention to retire. -Sobieski replied with truth that flight was not in their power -except at the risk of extermination. The enterprise indeed -seemed superhuman; but the Grand General ranged his troops in -order of battle with full confidence of success. During the day -a large body of Moldavians and Wallachians,<a id="FNanchor_47" -href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> who occupied a -spot on the left of the Turkish camp, deserted to the Poles, -and greatly raised their drooping spirits. When night came on, -the troops were still kept under arms, although the weather was -most severe. The snow fell thickly, but Sobieski visited all the -posts, and animated the men by his cheerful manner. At length he -reclined on the carriage of a cannon and waited for the dawn.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Crisis in Sobieski’s life.</span>It -was the crisis of his great career; yet he could not but regard -the scene as one of happy omen. On this spot, more than fifty -years before, his father had gained a splendid victory over -the Turks, which was followed by a long peace. Then indeed -the Poles were the defenders instead of the assailants of the -entrenchments; but that only made the victory in prospect seem a -more glorious prize.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">He attacks the entrenchments.</span>At -length the day broke, and Sobieski observed the enemy’s lines -much thinner than before. Many of the Turks, exhausted by the -unwonted cold, had sought their tents, not dreaming for one -moment that the Poles would dare to attack them in daylight. -“This is the moment that I waited for,” cried Sobieski to his -staff, and ordered at once a general assault. After galloping -down the lines with a few encouraging words, he alighted -from his horse, and led the infantry and his own dismounted -dragoons against the entrenchments. The Turks, whose attention -was distracted by a false attack on another side, left a weak -point in his front, and Sobieski, though somewhat bulky, was -the first to scale the parapet. He was splendidly supported -by his dragoons; and the battle now raged in the midst of the -tents. The infantry might possibly have been surrounded, had -not Jablonowski, Palatine of Russia, dashed up a steep place -with the best of the cavalry, and rushed to the rescue. <span -class="sidenote">Rout of the Turks,</span>Sobieski was supplied -with a horse, and the Turks now began to give way on all sides. -Soliman Pacha, at the head of the janissaries, tried to retreat -in good order to the plain; but he was charged by the Lithuanians -in front and by the Poles in the rear,<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_29">[29]</span> and his fine troops were cut -to pieces. He is said to have himself fallen by the hand -of Sobieski, who despoiled him of his jewelled scimitar.<a -id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> -The Turks fled in confused masses to the bridge leading to the -castle; but Sobieski had provided against this by sending his -brother-in-law, Radziwill, with a large detachment to seize -it. The only retreat now left them was the steep rock on the -river-side, from which thousands precipitated themselves into -the stream; <span class="sidenote">And complete victory of the -Poles.</span>but the Polish cavalry dashed in after them, and -completed their destruction. The carnage lasted more than three -hours, during which half the Turkish force was slain, and a large -number taken prisoners. A remnant of the original force succeeded -in escaping to Kaminiec, among whom was the Seraskier Hussein.<a -id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Question of the prisoners.</span>It -is difficult to credit the statement of some historians, -none of whom are contemporaries, that Sobieski put all the -prisoners to the sword.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" -class="fnanchor">[50]</a> Such an act would have been opposed -alike to his natural disposition and to his defensive policy. -Plain facts are against it; for some days later the commander at -Kaminiec, delighted at the generous terms which he granted to the -garrison of the castle (November 13th,), released fifty prisoners -without ransom. Had such an enormity been committed, it must -certainly have reached his ears, and would have met with a prompt -revenge.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Joy of the Poles.</span>Immediately -after the victory, the Jesuit confessor of Sobieski erected -an altar in the pavilion of the Seraskier, and the whole -army, with tears of joy, attended a thanksgiving service. The -occasion was indeed affecting, especially to their commander. -Ere long Christendom was resounding with the praises of one -who had obtained the greatest victory over the infidel since -the battle of Ascalon. Sobieski was most anxious to follow up -his success. Honour forbade him to desert the Moldavians and -Wallachians, who had come over to him at considerable risk; -and he wished to cut off from the Turks all chance of return. -<span class="sidenote">Their advance upon the Danube.</span>He -put his cavalry in motion towards the Danube with the hope of -encountering Caplan Pacha. But that general, on hearing of the -disaster at Kotzim, retreated in all haste, and took with him the -Turkish garrisons on the left bank of the Danube. Such was the -panic in Turkey that the Sultan, who had advanced to Silistria, -hurried back to his capital. But the victorious advance of the -Poles was stopped, as they were entering Wallachia, by the news -of the death of their king.</p> - -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Death of Michael.</span>On the night -before the battle of Kotzim (November 10th), Michael breathed his -last at Leopol. His death was caused by disease of the kidneys, -but he had hastened his end by the gluttonous voracity of his -appetite, which passed all bounds. He is said to have devoured -in a few hours a thousand Chinese apples, presented to him by -the municipality of Dantzic. His last hours were embittered -by the fruits of his pusillanimous submission to the Turks. -A few days before his death a Turkish Aga<a id="FNanchor_51" -href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> arrived, bearing -the caphtan, or robe of vassalage, which the Sultan sends to his -tributaries. The king was too ill to receive him, and he had to -depart without executing his commission.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His character.</span>The incapacity -of Michael deserves our pity, because the crown was thrust upon -him against his will. But he was worse than incapable. Envy and -fear alternately gained the mastery over his despicable nature. -His evil genius pursued him to the end. Such was the general -exultation at the victory of Kotzim that there was no pretence of -mourning for him; and his body was conveyed to Warsaw, almost -unnoticed, beneath the triumphal arches erected in honour of his -rival.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Exultation in Poland.</span>Three -weeks elapsed after Michael’s death before the news of the Grand -General’s victory arrived at Warsaw (December 4th), and in the -interval the Poles had given up the army for lost. It is somewhat -surprising that in a nation so excitable the sudden revulsion of -feeling did not result at once in the proclamation of Sobieski. -Madame de Sevigné,<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" -class="fnanchor">[52]</a> writing just after the news arrived in -Paris (December 22nd), says that there no one doubted that he -would be elected. The official journals of France speak of him as -“worthy of the throne which he had saved.” But the Grand General -himself was aware what a stormy opposition his candidature -would raise among the Lithuanians. It was thus with unfeigned -sorrow that he received the orders of the primate-interrex to -bring back his victorious troops. Everything remained to be done -towards reaping the benefits of his glorious success. The Turks -were still in Kaminiec; Moldavia and Wallachia were yet to be -freed; and the Cossacks who had sent in their submission had to -be confirmed in their allegiance. <span class="sidenote">Return -of the Polish army.</span>He did all he could. Though his men -deserted him daily by hundreds for the more profitable field of -election, he left a garrison in Kotzim, and detached 8,000 men -for the defence of his two allies. Then, with a heavy heart, -he retraced his steps to Leopol. He was here met by deputies -from the most distant palatinates, who showered upon him their -congratulations; but he showed no disposition to proceed -to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> -Warsaw. He knew too well the activity of his enemies in the Diet, -and he was quite content that it should appear that he had no -personal pretensions.<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" -class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Projects of the queen.</span>While -her late husband was still lying in state the queen had resumed -her favourite project of retaining the crown by a marriage -with Charles of Lorraine. That prince left the army of the -Rhine and appeared upon the frontiers; and the emperor massed -troops for his support on the borders of Little Poland. <span -class="sidenote">Candidates.</span>Sixteen<a id="FNanchor_54" -href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> other candidates -appeared in the field, but many of these were Protestant -princes, whose chances were small; and the contest seemed to -lie between Lorraine and the young Duke of Neuberg, the son of -his old antagonist. The latter, though a German prince, was -supported by Louis XIV. as the heir of the Elector Palatine, and -therefore an important ally. <span class="sidenote">Preparations -for the election.</span>No artifice was spared by the queen’s -party to prevent the proposal of Sobieski. The Pazes brought -forward a measure in the Diet for the exclusion of a Piast on -account of the misfortunes of the late reign; and when this -was unfavourably received, they insisted that the new king -must be unmarried.<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" -class="fnanchor">[55]</a> The Diet refused to sanction any -measures of exclusion, and wrote to press for Sobieski’s -presence. But the hero was now at Zolkiew attending his wife in -a dangerous illness, upon the origin of which various rumours -were afloat. His enemies averred that he had poisoned her -himself to secure the queen’s hand; his friends hinted that -the queen had done so to be sure of the crown at all hazards. -These speculations were set at rest by the recovery of Madame -Sobieska; but her husband still delayed to appear in public. He -wrote, however, to the Diet, strongly urging that the threatening -attitude of the Turks rendered any delay dangerous; and it was -decided on this advice that the election should not be made -by the whole Pospolite, but by a representative Diet. But the -regulation was practically ineffective; for the Diet being held -in the open air, the nobles attended as usual to watch the -conduct of their deputies.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The field of election.</span>The field -of Wola, close to Warsaw, was the scene of this unique spectacle. -On the day when the Diet of election met (April 20) all the -orders of the state attended a grand service at the cathedral, -and then set out on horseback for the field. In the midst of the -plain was pitched the “szopa,” or grand pavilion of the Senate, -surrounded by a ditch to keep off intruders, and carefully -closed to the public.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32] -</span> Not far off, under the open sky, sat the “kolo” -or circle of deputies from the palatinates. Round it were ranged -100,000 of the nobility, jealously watching each turn of their -deliberations. Every human passion found vent in this motley -assemblage. Riots were frequent, and seldom ended without -effusion of blood. Each noble was attended by as many valets as -he could muster, who were generally a worse element of disorder -than their lords. To these must be added a crowd of mercenaries -from neighbouring nations, all eagerly intriguing for their -national candidate. Long tables were set up as the head-quarters -of each faction, and at these was heard an unceasing babel of -noisy tongues. In the vacant spaces of the arena jousts were -frequent, for which each palatinate brought out a splendid -cavalcade. This was the occasion when all gratified the national -craving for display. Many a poor noble would readily sell his -vote, perhaps to more than one candidate, for the pleasure of -donning a brilliant attire. Costly furs adorned their persons, -and were almost hidden beneath a profusion of jewels. The same -reckless display of the precious metals was seen in their -accoutrements. Nor were the bishops outdone by the cavaliers. -Green, broad-brimmed hats, with yellow or red pantaloons, were -the common ornaments of the soldiers of the Church. Every kind -of merchandise was represented. The Jews, who were ordinarily -interdicted from appearing in Warsaw, made the most of the short -period when the restriction was removed. The plain around the -“szopa” was dotted with an immense multitude of tents, most of -them devoted to buying and selling, but all decorated in the -most gorgeous style. Several pavilions of superb workmanship and -oriental magnificence, containing a large suite of luxurious -chambers, attracted special attention. They were the quarters -of the Seraskier Hussein—transported entire from the camp at -Kotzim—and were now surmounted by the shield of Sobieski.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Absence of Sobieski.</span>Nothing more -was wanting to kindle the liveliest enthusiasm for the absent -general. His name was in every mouth, and his non-appearance -caused much surprise. The “kolo” elected as their marshal the -Lithuanian Sapieha, a personal friend of the Grand General; -and when Michael Paz pushed his hatred so far as to revive his -proposal for the exclusion of a Piast (April 15), the attempt was -so invidious that a party began to form in Sobieski’s favour, -though their designs were at first studiously concealed.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His arrival.</span>On the 2nd of May -it was announced that Sobieski was approaching Warsaw. His -arrival on the plain created the most unbounded enthusiasm; -the Diet rose and went to meet him; and his progress for miles -resembled a triumph. Sixty-six banners—the spoil of Kotzim—were -carried before him, to be his present, as he said, to his future -king; and behind him marched a corps of captive janissaries, -who were enrolled as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33] -</span> his body-guard. Like his countrymen, he did not -disdain ostentation; for on the croup of his horse hung a shield -of gold, embossed with scenes from his great career. Nature -had gifted him with handsome features and a dignified mien.<a -id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> -Though stout, he was tall and erect; and his full flashing eye -marked him at once as a man of frankness, bravery, and powers -of observation. Yet along with his military air his face wore a -sweetness of expression, which was indescribably attractive. Few -of the Pules could have witnessed his entry without feeling that -he was the fittest person to be their king.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">He proposes the Prince of -Condé.</span>Two days after (May 4) the Senate forsook the -“szopa” and took their seat in the “kolo;” and Sobieski, rising -in his place, proposed the Prince of Condé, whose military -qualities, he said, made him the proper choice of a nation which -would have to struggle for its existence. This unexpected event -caused an immense commotion. The vast multitude was split into -the old factions of France and Austria, and for days it seemed -as if there was no solution but civil war. At length (May 19) -Sobieski consented to withdraw the name of Condé if the queen -would consent to marry the Duke of Neuberg. Hoping against hope -for the success of her party, Eleanor rejected this offer with -disdain; and the Lithuanians, who were encamped on the other -side of the Vistula, assumed a menacing attitude towards the -Polish Pospolite. At this crisis the Bishop of Cracow, who -was discharging the functions of interrex,<a id="FNanchor_57" -href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> gave orders for the -singing of the canticles with which the debates were accustomed -to close. The familiar chant and its associations produced a -dead calm in the tempestuous assembly, and at its conclusion the -prelate ordered each palatinate to range itself round the banner -of its palatine. <span class="sidenote">Jablonowski proposes -Sobieski.</span>While his orders were being obeyed, Jablonowski, -palatine of Red Russia, the home of Sobieski, took advantage of -the silence to address all those within hearing. He represented -Lorraine as too devoted to the empire, Neuberg as too young, -Condé as too old, to command their armies with vigour. The times, -he said, required a prince who was well acquainted alike with -them and with their military system. He was here interrupted -with loud shouts of “A Piast!” a sound which soon collected -round the speaker all the surging masses of the Pospolite. The -palatine continued, “Among ourselves is a man whose sacrifices -for his country have caused him to be everywhere considered the -first of the sons of Poland. In placing him at our head we shall -do no more than consecrate his own glory; fortunate<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> to be able to -honour by one title the more the remainder of a life, of which -every day has been dedicated to the republic. We know that such -a king will maintain our nation in the rank which it occupies in -the world. Such a man as he is will never make himself a vassal -of the infidel. Poles, if we are deliberating here in peace on -the election of a king, if the most illustrious dynasties are -courting our suffrages, if our liberty remains secure, if even -we have a country left to us, to whom do we owe it? Remember the -marvels of Slobodyszcza, of Podhaic, of Kalusz, above all, of -Kotzim, and take for your king John Sobieski!”<a id="FNanchor_58" -href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> - -<p>A tempest of applause followed this speech, and as it subsided -the voice of one of the castellans was heard calling upon the -Poles to elect that man whom the Turks would be most anxious to -exclude. Then from the midst of the host rose loud shouts of -“Long live King John Sobieski!” and thirteen palatinates at once -took up the cry. The regular soldiers pressed forward towards -the szopa, exclaiming, “We will all perish together, or have for -our king John Sobieski!” It was already late in the evening, but -the Polish nobility crowded round the interrex, and besought -him to take the votes. <span class="sidenote">He postpones the -voting.</span>One voice alone was raised against the proposition; -it was that of Sobieski. He firmly declared that he could not -accept the crown if it was offered at the fall of night, and -in a manner so sudden that no one could have time to recollect -himself. “If,” said he, “there is no other protest against the -election being made this night, I shall oppose my veto.” This -disinterested advice was unwillingly followed, and Sobieski left -the plain to encounter the reproaches of his wife.</p> - -<p>Several writers—principally the later Polish historians, -who treat him with marked disfavour—endeavour to detect in his -conduct throughout the proceedings the signs of crafty intrigue. -<span class="sidenote">And shows his fair dealing.</span> Yet by -this last step he allowed his enemies time to combine against -him, and gave the queen’s party a fair opportunity of reviving -their scattered energies. But such generosity is often the best -policy. The succeeding night and day (May 20th) were spent -in a general effort to secure unanimity; and the riches and -influence of his brother-in-law, Radziwill, were of much service -to Sobieski in the Lithuanian camp. But his own popularity was -still more effectual. It had ever been the privilege of the -Grand General of Poland to quarter his army where he pleased, -and pay nothing for their maintenance. Bribes had formerly been -freely taken from those districts that desired exemption,<a -id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> -but Sobieski, unwilling to exercise such tyranny, had always<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> quartered his army -on the frontiers. This was now remembered with gratitude. <span -class="sidenote">His offers to the republic.</span>His promises -to the republic also became the topic of admiring conversation. -He engaged to pay the pension to the queen dowager, to redeem -the crown jewels, to found a military school for the young -nobility, to build two fortresses wherever the Diet should -appoint, and to furnish the regular army with six months’ pay. -Early in the day two of the family of Paz came to register their -opposition with the interrex, but before night fell they had -been persuaded to forego it. <span class="sidenote">Proclamation -of Sobieski.</span>The next morning Sobieski was proclaimed -king amid the acclamations of both Principalities, and took the -name of John III. The same day a vast crowd attended him to the -cathedral of St. John to return thanks for his election.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Opinion of Europe.</span>Europe in -general was less astonished at his elevation than Poland. At -Constantinople and at Vienna alone the news was received with -disfavour. Köprili saw less chance of recovering his conquests; -and the emperor was bitterly mortified to see upon the throne -one who had always belonged to the faction of France. Poland was -daily becoming of greater importance in the struggle between -Louis and Leopold. When the republic was bleeding from the -shocks of her barbarous neighbours, and from a succession of -internal troubles, it mattered little to these great potentates -who filled the throne; but now that she had proved herself -strong enough to withstand the dreaded Turk, and wise enough -to offer the crown to her victorious general, she was looked -upon with a respect to which she had hitherto been a stranger. -This was fully appreciated at the Papal Court. Clement X., -besides his benediction, sent assurances of friendship to the -new king; and Oliva, the general of the Jesuits, wrote his -joyful congratulations to “the pillar of the republic and the -avenger of Christendom.” It is difficult to discover how far -the court of France had a hand in his election. Its ambassador, -Forbin-Janson, bishop of Marseilles, arrived somewhat late (May -8th), and certainly brought instructions to support the Duke -of Neuberg. But he probably discovered ere long which way the -tide was setting, and, adapting himself to circumstances with a -Frenchman’s ready wit, he caused it to be supposed that he had -used his influence in favour of Sobieski. Louis XIV. followed the -same course; and in an official note of the same summer claimed -this election as one more instance of the universal triumph of -his policy.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Schemes of the king’s -enemies.</span>The machinations of the enemies of Sobieski did -not cease with the withdrawal of their veto. Their first move -was to give notice of a law which should oblige him to divorce -his wife and marry the queen dowager. But on this point the -king was firm. “I have not yet finally promised,” said he, “to -accept the royal functions. If this is the price of your<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> sceptre, you need -not offer it.” The proposal was soon dropped; and Eleanor, after -receiving a visit from the king, retired to Thorn, whence she -still exercised a baneful influence upon the course of affairs. -Four years later (1678) she gave her hand to her old suitor, the -Prince of Lorraine.</p> - -<p>Whilst the Diet was drawing up the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pacta conventa</i>, -Sobieski discovered from an examination of his revenues that -he could not fulfil his promise of paying the army for six -months. Without delay he frankly owned his inability; and his -opponents made this a pretext for inserting in the contract -new restrictions on the military authority of the king. They -also wished to bind him to an eternal alliance with the court -of Vienna. It was soon known that the king would not yield to -these terms; and several stormy scenes took place in the Diet. -At length the obnoxious articles were struck out; and on the 5th -June the king received the instrument of his election from the -hands of the interrex.</p> - -<p>There now remained only the ceremony of coronation—which was -a necessary prelude to the exercise of the royal functions. -<span class="sidenote">Danger from the Turks.</span>But the -steady advance of the Turks grew daily more disquieting. Caplan -Pacha had rallied the remnants of the defeated force, and the -Sultan was already marching with a great army through Bulgaria. -John saw that the delay would be dangerous, and had the courage -to disappoint the queen<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" -class="fnanchor">[60]</a> and the whole court by deferring -the ceremony. He told the Senate that at such a time a helmet -became his forehead better than a diadem. “I know well,” said he, -“that I have been elected, not to represent the republic, but to -fight for her. I will first fulfil my mission.” Touched by his -magnanimity, the Diet resolved to place in his hands at once all -the powers of a king.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">They invade the Ukraine.</span>Meantime -the Turks, accompanied by the Tartars, had appeared in great -force before the camp at Kotzim. The Polish commander, terrified -at their numbers, soon surrendered, and the whole garrison was -put to the sword. But instead of advancing into the heart of -Poland, Köprili turned to the right into the Ukraine, where the -Muscovites, who also laid claim to that territory, now lined the -Borysthenes with 100,000 men. Hearing that he was occupied in -besieging small places in the Ukraine, John promised to render a -good account of him before the close of the campaign. He kept his -word. <span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1674.</span>While the -Turks drove the Muscovites beyond the river, he suddenly appeared -in Podolia and besieged Bar. The Sultan, who was distracted by -news of intrigues at his capital and the advance of the Sophy -upon Babylon, suddenly broke up his camp, and made for Silistria. -The Tartars disappeared at the sound of “the Polish hurricane,” -as they called Sobieski; and John<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_37">[37]</span> was left to deal with the hapless -country which had but just suffered from the Ottoman invasion. -<span class="sidenote">John winters in the Ukraine.</span>He -could see no mode of protecting its peasants from the yoke of -the nobility but to place his army in winter quarters in the -neighbourhood, and to teach the cavalry by his own example what -clemency and what self-sacrifice they ought to show towards a -subject people. Resistance was only to be expected; for his -haughty hussars had never before passed a winter away from their -estates. But when they saw their king take up his abode in the -miserable town of Braclaw, where the scarcity of forage increased -the hardships of the season, the Polish cavalry submitted without -a murmur.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The Lithuanians desert him.</span>Not -so, however, did the Lithuanians. The king had assigned to Paz -the town of Bar, the most comfortable post on the frontiers. -Yet that general did not approve of the innovation, and taking -the law into his own hands marched home with his army. This -defection was a great blow to the king. He had begun to invest -Kaminiec, and had opened negotiations for an alliance with -Muscovy. He now saw himself obliged to narrow his plans, and to -confine himself to the defensive. The desertion of Paz aroused -the strongest indignation in Poland, and he was forced to ask -the king’s pardon; but he could not now repair the mischief. -His disbanded troops were amusing themselves with pillaging -their own country,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" -class="fnanchor">[61]</a> and there was no chance at present of -rallying them round their standards.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1675.</span>The winter -passed without any important success; and early in April -another large Turkish army, commanded by Ibrahim Pacha,<a -id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> -nicknamed “Schischman” from his enormous bulk, advanced into -Volhynia. John hastily quitted the Ukraine and disposed his small -forces for the defence of Russia in a vast arc, of which Leopol -was the centre. So completely was he outnumbered that his only -chance of success seemed to lie in procuring allies. He continued -to treat with the Czar, and received at Leopol with ostentatious -pomp an ambassador from the Sophy of Persia; but he could hope -little from the latter, except the chance of terrifying the -Sultan by a supposed coalition with his Asiatic enemy.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Lethargy of the Poles.</span>Meanwhile -Ibrahim had copied the fault of the preceding year by wasting -time in small sieges, and it was not till he received a -threatening message from Köprili that he began to advance upon -the Polish force covering Leopol, which hardly amounted to 15,000 -men. No exertions on the part of the king could awaken Poland to -a sense of its danger.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38] -</span> Servitude had numbed the senses of the peasants, -and the nobles were wearied with the length of the war. Ibrahim -seemed unwilling to trust his fortune against that of Sobieski. -Sitting down before Trembowla, a strong fortress in Podolia, he -sent on the Tartar Noureddin with 40,000 men “to bring the king -before him dead or alive.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Battle of Leopol.</span>It was -late in August when this detachment<a id="FNanchor_63" -href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a>—the flower of the -Turkish army—arrived at Leopol, and began to burn the suburbs. -The Poles besought the king to retire, and not risk his life in -so deadly a combat. “You would despise me,” said he, “if I were -to follow your advice.” The ground in the vicinity was undulating -and covered with vineyards, and John carefully made his -dispositions in order to conceal from the enemy the smallness of -his force. He planted several hills, which he could not occupy, -with the spare lances of his hussars, and concealed squadrons -in the valleys near the point of attack. Then, on the 24th of -August, amidst a storm of snow and hail which beat in the faces -of the enemy, he suddenly charged the infidels at the head of -5,000 cavalry, repeating thrice the name of Jesus. The impetuous -bravery of the Poles spread terror in the Turkish ranks, and -before nightfall the whole force, though at least eight times the -number of their assailants, had fled in disorder. The storm was -so unusual for the time of year that contemporary memoirs speak -of it as miraculous; and it appears that this battle, more than -any other, contributed to cause the superstitious fear with -which the Turkish troops subsequently regarded John Sobieski.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Siege of Trembowla.</span>Ibrahim was -dismayed at the king’s success. He had captured the position -of Podhaic, but he could not reduce the garrison of Trembowla, -commanded by Chrasonowski, a man of determined courage. He now -redoubled his assault upon that place, which must have fallen but -for the arrival of John with the Polish army. The king posted his -troops to advantage and prepared for the attack; but during the -night (Oct. 6th) Ibrahim intercepted a letter to the besieged, -which informed him that the king in person was at the head of -the Poles. <span class="sidenote">Retreat of the Turks.</span>He -at once raised the siege, and without striking a blow retreated -precipitately to Kaminiec, and thence across the Danube. John -would have pursued him beyond the outskirts of Podolia, but the -Polish vanguard, dreading a winter’s campaign in the enemy’s -country, set fire to the bridges, and compelled their king to -suspend his march.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Return of the king.</span>The whole -country clamoured for his return, and the Diet was impatient to -return thanks to its deliverer. The Vice-chancellor declared -in the Senate that the king moved like a tortoise towards the -throne, but like an eagle towards the enemies of the<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> republic. He was -now ready to gratify the general wish, and returning to Zolkiew -received a number of foreign ambassadors sent to congratulate him -upon his election,—among them Lawrence Hyde, Earl of Rochester,<a -id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> -whom Dr. South was attending as domestic chaplain. The French -ambassador solicited John’s alliance against Brandenburg and the -empire, and held out hopes of persuading the Turks to make peace. -But the king deferred all fresh engagements for the present; his -grand aim in life was to save Poland from the Ottoman grasp.</p> - -<p>Cracow was, as usual, the scene of the coronation, -which was fixed for the 2nd of February (1676). <span -class="sidenote">Burial of the two last kings.</span>Two -days earlier, according to the Polish custom, John followed -to the grave the body of Michael, and the interest of the -ceremony was deepened on this occasion by the obsequies of -Casimir. The ex-king had died three years before, of grief, -it was said, at the fall of Kaminiec.<a id="FNanchor_65" -href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> The reigns of -the two deceased kings, so fruitful in misfortunes to Poland, -comprised the whole of Sobieski’s wonderful career, and it was -fitting that their royal mourner should be he to whose prowess -they were chiefly indebted for retaining the crown. <span -class="sidenote">Coronation.</span>The coronation took place amid -general rejoicings, broken only by a few murmurs when the crown -was set upon the queen’s head. It was not long before she showed -her unfitness to wear it.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Diet of 1676.</span>Two days later -(February 4th) the Diet met, and was conspicuous for its -loyal enthusiasm. The king was entreated not to lay down the -office of Grand General, but he wisely refused a privilege so -invidious, and conferred the post upon his old enemy, Demetrius -Wiesnowiesçki. He displayed the same generous spirit in his other -appointments, offering the primacy to Olzowski, the favourite of -Eleanor, and the Grand Marshalate to Lubomirski, son of his old -rival. The brave Jablonowski was rewarded with the post of Second -General. His elevation caused some trouble. The Diet proposed to -make these dignities triennial, which, in the present reign at -least, would have been a salutary enhancement of the royal power; -but the queen, out of gratitude to Jablonowski, worked hard in -secret to defeat the proposal. The king, though he favoured it at -heart, appeared neutral; and the project fell through.</p> - -<p>John availed himself of the favourable temper of the Diet -to take exceptional measures for the national defence. He -proposed a capitation subsidy upon all alike, clergy as well as -laity, and strongly urged the necessity of forming a permanent -infantry. Hitherto this branch of the service had been fixed -at one-third of the regular army (16,000), but it had never -reached this standard,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40] -</span> and being composed only of the peasants and poorer -nobles, commanded by foreign officers, its equipment was -disgracefully inefficient.<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" -class="fnanchor">[66]</a> The Diet voted that the army should -be raised to 73,000 men, thus augmenting it by 25,000,<a -id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> -and that of these 35,000 should be infantry. No king had ever -obtained such concessions from the nobility, but they were not -granted without a violent opposition. The old expedient was tried -of drawing out the Diet, but John defeated it by submitting to -a continuous sitting, and presiding upon the throne for forty -consecutive hours. He was able to announce that the Great Elector -had promised him succours, and that he hoped for an alliance with -Muscovy. The Diet did not rise before paying him the unusual -compliment of a decree that all the starosties which he had -held should remain hereditary in his family.<a id="FNanchor_68" -href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The king fails to levy -troops.</span>Unfortunately their good resolutions were -not carried into effect. Although the Dietines ratified their -proceedings, it was beyond the king’s power to overcome the -inertness and lethargy of the nobility. The patriotic spirit -died out at once when the magic of his personal influence was -withdrawn. Seizing upon a rumour which was industriously raised -by Austria, that the king was treating in secret with the Turks -and would use the money for his own purposes, they refused to pay -the subsidy, and threw every obstacle in his way. John hastily -assembled at Leopol those troops which had not been disbanded; -but, although their number is variously stated, some even placing -it as low as 10,000, it probably did not amount to one-half of -the force that the Diet had decreed.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Armament of the Turks.</span>Meanwhile, -Köprili had not been idle. He assembled an army of 100,000 Turks, -to be accompanied by a vast host of Tartars. But his aim was -more pacific than in the former campaigns. He was beset by the -proffered mediation of the European powers, especially of Louis -XIV., who wished to evade his promise of sending armed assistance -to Poland. Moreover, the condition of Asiatic Turkey distracted -his attention; his allies, the Cossacks and the Tartars, inspired -him with distrust; and he felt that his fortune was outshone by -the star of John Sobieski. The name of the Polish hero was such -a terror in the Ottoman ranks that threats alone could induce -many of the officers to serve against him. Köprili looked out -anxiously for a competent general. He chose Ibrahim, Pacha of -Damascus, called “Shaitan” (Satan), from his combined bravery -and cunning, and gave him instructions to procure an honourable -peace.</p> - -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Invasion of Galicia.</span>Ibrahim -secretly hoped to do more than this, for he was confident that -he could drive the king to extremities. He pushed on at once -into Galicia and crossed the Dniester, expecting that John would -attack him; but finding that the king lay inactive at Zurawno, -a small town on the left bank, he advanced against him without -delay. John called in his squadrons of horse, which had been -harassing the Tartars, and prepared to improve his position. It -had been chosen with admirable judgment. He lay with the Dniester -and the mountains behind it covering his rear, while his left -rested on the town of Zurawno, and his right was protected by -woods and marshes. In front of his lines ran a rapid torrent, -called the Swiczza, which was easily fordable, and offered -facilities for the construction of entrenchments. On this task -John employed his whole army, and collected all the provisions -within reach. When the seraskier appeared on the heights in his -front, he left his lines and offered him battle (September 25th); -but this was declined, for all the Turkish troops had not yet -come up. <span class="sidenote">Siege of Zurawno.</span>Ibrahim, -when he had assembled them, formed them into a vast arc, -including the town of Zurawno, the Polish army, and the wood on -its right, with each of his wings resting on the river. He then -commenced a regular siege. His artillery was splendidly handled; -and his miners rapidly approached the Polish entrenchments. -John at once employed counter-mines, but the experience of the -Turks in Candia gave them a vast superiority. The king was -anxious to bring on a general action, and in a skirmish on the -29th of September the Poles had the advantage, but they lost -heavily. John’s situation was becoming desperate; the Tartars -who commanded the river prevented the arrival of provisions by -that route; and the Turkish artillery made frightful havoc in his -ranks.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Proposals of peace.</span>The liveliest -alarm prevailed in Poland. The Senate called out the Pospolite -and placed Prince Radziwill at its head; but the assembling of -such a body was necessarily slow. Meantime another engagement -took place at Zurawno (October 8th), in which 2,000 Turks were -slain; but John failed to break through the enemy’s lines, -and was once nearly surrounded and cut off from his men by a -body of janissaries. When however the siege had lasted nearly -twenty days, the Tartan khan, whose dominion was menaced -by the Muscovites,<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" -class="fnanchor">[69]</a> pressed Ibrahim to conclude a peace. -The Seraskier knew the straits to which the Poles were reduced, -and he therefore sent an envoy to propose the ratification of -the treaty of Buczacz and an offensive alliance against Muscovy. -<span class="sidenote">Refused by the king.</span>John replied -shortly that he would hang the next man who brought him such a -message.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> -The bombardment recommenced, and the soldiers murmured against -their king’s obstinacy. Paz repaired to the royal tent and -announced his intention to desert. “Desert who will,” cried -John, “the Turks shall not reach the heart of the republic -without passing over my corpse.” He then rode down the ranks, -and reminding the soldiers that he had extricated them from many -a worse plight, he gaily asked them if his head were enfeebled -by the weight of a crown. Yet he passed the night in the gravest -anxiety, and when morning broke (October 14th) he quitted his -lines and drew up his whole force in order of battle.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Ibrahim proposes fairer -terms.</span>The Turks were astounded; and the Tartars cried -out that there was magic in his boldness. Brave though he was, -Ibrahim dared not face the chances of a defeat. He knew that the -Pospolite was approaching; he suspected that the Tartars had been -bought over; and he saw winter rapidly closing in. Above all, he -remembered that his instructions were pacific, and that a serious -reverse might cost him his head. <span class="sidenote">Peace of -Zurawno.</span>Before the armies engaged, he proposed a peace -upon honourable terms. No mention was now made of tribute. The -Porte was to retain only Kaminiec and a third of the Ukraine; -the question of Podolia was referred to a subsequent conference; -each army was to restore its prisoners of war. It is said that -Sobieski, with the sentiments of a Christian knight, inserted -an article to provide for the establishment of a Latin guard -at the Holy Sepulchre.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" -class="fnanchor">[70]</a> After witnessing the release of -15,000 captives, and the departure of the Turks (October 16th), -John retraced his steps to Zolkiew. He soon encountered the -Pospolite, which was advancing to his relief, and the two armies -celebrated the conclusion of peace with a grand flourish of -trumpets.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Great services of the -king.</span>Though satisfactory, the terms were not glorious; -but that they should have been obtained at all by a handful of -men in the direst extremities was cause enough for rejoicing. -A moral triumph like this, following so close upon a crisis so -dreadful, carries with it an air of romance. Yet, making every -allowance for good fortune and the earnest mediation of his -allies, we must regard it as due in the first instance to the -potency of the name of Sobieski. With an insignificant force at -his back he had conducted to a favourable issue five successive -campaigns against the Turks—four of them on Polish ground—and -had previously many times repulsed the hordes of Tartars which -they had poured into the country. By thus foiling the aggression -of the Turks when at the height of their power John III. had -rendered a signal service to Europe.</p> - -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Death of Köprili.</span>The minister -whose vast designs he had thwarted was now upon his death-bed. -Seven days after the peace of Zurawno (October 23rd), Köprili -expired at Constantinople. Had it not been for Sobieski this -able vizier would have extended the dependencies of Turkey from -the Black Sea to the Baltic, and would have found a golden -opportunity for his attack upon the empire. His successor -Mustapha, called “Kara,” or “the Black,” was a man of a different -calibre. He owed his advancement to the intrigues of the -seraglio; he had married a daughter of the Sultan and possessed -great influence over his master; and he inherited the ambitious -dreams of Köprili without his ability to realise them.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Enthusiasm of Europe.</span>All Europe, -with the exception perhaps of Austria, rejoiced at the peace of -Zurawno. Madame de Sevigné, writing on the 18th of November, -1676, expresses the general admiration for the hero of Poland;<a -id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> -and Condé sent a special messenger to congratulate his friend. -Louis XIV. eagerly sought his alliance. He commissioned his -ambassador in Poland, the Marquis of Bethune, brother-in-law -of the king, to invest him with the order of the Holy Ghost. -John imprudently accepted the honour, and thus, in spite of the -enthusiasm with which he had been received, excited general -murmurs. He was accused of wearing the livery of France, and -binding the republic to follow her interests. In the Diet which -assembled the next year (January, 1677,) his opponents were -clamorous. They complained that, besides part of the Ukraine, he -had given up Kaminiec, the key of the realm; and that instead -of striving to recover them, he was meditating war against -Brandenburg and Austria. They also accused him of aiming at -absolute power by the secret help of the French monarch. The -majority of the Diet, however, did not forget the dangers from -which they had been rescued; and Gninski, palatine of Kulm, was -sent to Constantinople to ratify the peace of Zurawno.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">He supports the designs of -France.</span>No notice was taken of the other charges; -yet John was undoubtedly conniving at the designs of France. -Louis XIV. had promised assistance to the insurgents in Hungary -against the emperor, and was encouraging Sweden to attack the -Great Elector. It is said that he gained over Sobieski by the -promise of ducal Prussia and a larger frontier on the Baltic. -At any rate the Marquis of Bethune was allowed to raise troops -destined for Hungary in the starosties of the king, while secret -permission was given to the Swedes to pass through Courland -to attack the Elector.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" -class="fnanchor">[72]</a> Frederic William naturally<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span> resented the -attitude of Poland, and in revenge fomented some disturbances -which had arisen in Dantzic.</p> - -<p>This prosperous centre of commerce enjoyed, as a Hanse town, -a large share of independence. Though belonging to the republic -of Poland, it was governed by its own magistrates and its own -laws. <span class="sidenote">Disturbances in Dantzic,</span>A -religious struggle had broken out between the magistrates, -who were Calvinists, and the people, who were headed by an -eloquent Lutheran preacher. <span class="sidenote">Quieted by -the king.</span>John at once visited the city and mediated -between the contending parties (September, 1677), and the -unusual spectacle was presented of a Catholic acting as arbiter -in a Protestant dispute. His moderation won all hearts, and -tranquillity was soon restored. The astronomer Hevelius, who was -one of the chief citizens, entertained the king in his house, -and entitled his newly-found constellation, “Scutum Sobieski.”<a -id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Activity of the Turks.</span>John -was recalled from Dantzic by the serious intelligence that the -new Grand Vizier was placing every obstacle in the way of the -conclusion of peace. He kept the Polish envoy for months at -the gates of Constantinople; and when at length he gave him an -audience, his tone was haughty and unconciliatory. The Austrian -court, fearing for itself, had done its utmost to persuade the -Porte that the peace of Zurawno was disgraceful to Turkey, and -Mustapha, who longed for military glory, encouraged the idea. -His first blow, however, was to fall on Muscovy. The Czar -Feodor hastened to conclude the treaty with Poland, which had -long been pending, but he could look for no assistance from the -republic. He was worsted in the campaign which followed, but -the vizier, disgusted at the rigour of the climate, looked out -for a more alluring prey. His first thought was to reopen the -war with Poland; and he announced that he should keep her envoy -as a hostage until Podolia was ceded to the Porte (September, -1678).</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Coldness of John towards -France.</span>John now saw clearly that the danger from Turkey -was still pressing. He therefore at once withdrew his support -from the French designs in the west, and prepared to confront -his old enemy. <span class="sidenote">Reasons.</span>This change -in his policy is reasonable enough. He saw that the Hungarian -insurgents would probably call in the Porte, and in that case -his natural ally would be Austria, while from France he could -expect no material help. His judgment was most sagacious; but it -was not uninfluenced by personal reasons. He was offended at the -pride of the French king, who had refused him on his accession -the coveted title of “Majesty,” and had lately treated his -queen with some contempt. Immediately after her coronation, his -queen had set out for France to take the waters of Bourbon,<a -id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> -and to display<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45] -</span> her dignity in her native country; but on her way -she encountered the French ambassador, who delicately hinted -that his master could not receive an elective queen with full -honours. The “Grand Monarque” could not stoop to receive on -equal terms the daughter of the captain of his brother’s Swiss -Guards. The queen retraced her steps in great indignation, which -subsequent events only tended to increase. Through her husband -she begged a dukedom for her father, the Marquis d’Arquien, but -Louis, though his language was fair, deferred compliance.<a -id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> -Moreover, John could not but regard with disgust the scarcely -concealed efforts of France to set the Turks in motion against -the house of Austria. The king himself had throughout his life -distrusted Austria and counteracted her influence in Poland, -but his chivalrous spirit would have revolted from bringing the -infidel against her. He now perceived that it was his policy to -make common cause with her.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His designs upon Kaminiec.</span>He was -anxious to strike the first blow against the Turks by surprising -Kaminiec, which was poorly guarded; but for this the consent -of the Diet was necessary. He had to publish his universals<a -id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> to -the Dietines describing his projects, and to debate the question -in the Diet when assembled. This year (1679) it was convened at -Grodno, in Lithuania, and so stormy was the session that it was -four months before the king’s proposal passed. The Turks were -thus enabled to strengthen and re-victual the town at their -leisure; and nothing was left to the king but to send ambassadors -to the European courts to propose a general league against the -Sultan.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Arming of the Turks.</span>A vast -armament was in preparation at Constantinople, and no one in -Europe knew against whom it would first be directed. Troops were -daily arriving from the interior of Asia, and Greece was made -subject to a searching levy. It was plainly time for the European -powers to show themselves united against the common enemy, but -there was little prospect of such a combination. Louis had lately -concluded a peace with the Emperor at Nimeguen (1679), but it was -scarcely more than a suspension of hostilities.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Polish Embassies in Europe.</span>The -Polish ambassador, Radziwill, had no success at the court of -Vienna. He could not persuade Leopold that he was in greater -danger than Poland. But his proposals were not merely defensive. -He urged the formation of a league, “which should hurl back -the monster into his native deserts, and revive from its -ruins the ancient empire of Byzantium.”<a id="FNanchor_77" -href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> But when he -arrived at Rome (July, 1680) he found<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_46">[46]</span> the Pope very favourably disposed -towards a crusade. The chair was now filled by Innocent XI., -an Austrian by birth, who feared that Vienna was the object -of attack, and saw at once that Italy must stand or fall with -it. He had been formerly Papal Nuncio in Poland, and in that -capacity had bestowed his blessing on the marriage of Sobieski. -He now promised his hearty aid to the king, whom he styled, “The -invincible lieutenant of the God of armies, that brazen wall -against which all the efforts of the barbarians have been dashed -in pieces.” He agreed forthwith to furnish a large subsidy.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Alliance with the Pope.</span>This -close alliance with the Pope widened the breach between Sobieski -and the court of France. There could be no peace between such -haughty characters as Innocent XI. and Louis XIV., and they were -often at open enmity about the Gallican clergy. Louis hated -the Pope above all things for his sympathy with the Austrian -court. He now sought to counteract his influence by sending -as ambassador to Warsaw Forbin-Janson, at this time bishop -of Beauvais, who was to be assisted by Vitry, a man of great -resource.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Diet of 1681.</span>When the king -assembled the next Diet at Warsaw (Jan. 1681) he found the -French party for the first time arrayed against him. He had to -report that his embassies had met with complete success only -at Rome, but that Savoy and Portugal had sent him their good -wishes. The majority of the Diet supported him in his schemes -against the Porte; but French intrigue protracted the session -for months, and finally dissolved it by the veto on a frivolous -pretext. Indignant at these proceedings, Innocent XI., during -his lifetime, withheld from Forbin-Janson the Cardinal’s hat, -which had been promised him at the accession of Sobieski. <span -class="sidenote">Peace with Turkey.</span>Fortunately, however, -the Grand Vizier suddenly assumed a peaceful attitude towards -Poland, and sent an envoy with conditions which she could -honourably accept. Mustapha was evidently bent on some more vast -design; but though he studiously concealed its nature, John seems -to have divined it from the first.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">1681-2.</span>He spent the two -succeeding years in strengthening and disciplining his army, and -in those peaceful employments to which he was so much attached. -At a wild spot, six miles from Warsaw, he constructed his palace -of Willanow, and introduced on his estate the Dutch system of -farming. For a time all the clamours of faction were hushed; but -it was only the calm which heralds the approaching storm.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Designs of Louis XIV.</span>Louis -XIV. had never abandoned his encroachments upon the empire. At -the end of 1681 he availed himself of a legal fiction, created -by his own “Chambers of Reunion,” to occupy Strasburg, Casale, -and other important towns on the imperial frontier. The Diet of -Ratisbon vehemently protested against this spoliation, but in -vain. They did not dare<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47] -</span> to provoke him to open war; for it was known that -his envoys were strongly urging the Turks to invade Austria. His -plan seems to have been to acquire the glory of saving the Empire -after the fall of its capital, and to exact in return for his -services large territorial concessions. His ambition was to have -the Dauphin proclaimed king of the Romans.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The Turks protect Hungary.</span>At -length his policy seemed on the point of success. Kara Mustapha -threw off the mask (1682), and declaring Hungary tributary -to the Sultan, announced his intention of protecting the new -province. Count Emeric Tekeli, who had ably headed its revolt -since 1678, was invested with the caphtan as hospodar. <span -class="sidenote">Schemes of Leopold.</span>Leopold vainly -endeavoured, by his minister Caprara, to obtain a renewal of -the peace made with the Turks in 1664; but the influence of -France in the divan was too strong for him. He then turned to -the Diet at Ratisbon;<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" -class="fnanchor">[78]</a> but its counsels were divided, the -western electors being in favour of war with France. His only -hope seemed to be an alliance with Poland, yet his relations with -the king were not cordial, and he had lately refused his offer of -a league. He made the attempt, however, and succeeded beyond his -hopes. John was convinced that the peace which he had concluded -with the Turks was merely temporary. It therefore seemed his -duty to strike at once while he could be sure of an ally. Such -a course was in keeping with his life-long purpose to curb the -Ottoman power. It also agreed well with the hatred which his -queen had conceived against the court of France, and the promise -of an archduchess for his son was not to be despised.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Offers of France to the -king.</span>Louis left no stone unturned to divert him from -his resolution. He tempted him with the provinces of Silesia and -Hungary, to become the property not of the republic but of the -king and his heirs, if he would join him against the Empire; -<span class="sidenote">French conspiracy against him.</span> -and finding him proof against his offers he began a conspiracy -to dethrone him. On the assembling of the next Diet (January -27th, 1683) the heat of parties was tremendous. When Leopold’s -ambassador, the Count of Walstein, and Palaviccini, the Papal -Nuncio, had stated their proposals of alliance, the deputies in -the pay of France put in their protest. Besides placing every -obstacle in the way of public business, they appealed to the -outside public. Pamphlets appeared daily in which the policy of -the king was warmly condemned. The selfish cabinet of Austria, -which had refused to save Poland, was declared her eternal enemy, -and the nobles were warned that the king could not ally himself -with such a court without imbibing its despotic views.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Discovered by the king.</span>The -opposition gathered strength, and the consequences might<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> have been serious -had not the king fortunately intercepted some letters of the -French ambassador, which disclosed the details of his plot -(March). He read these letters in full Diet, and their contents -excited the utmost indignation. The ambassador boasted that -through Morstyn, the Grand Treasurer, he knew all the secrets of -the cabinet, that he had bought over numbers of the principal -nobles, whose names he gave, and that the nation was so venal -that he felt certain of destroying the league. He added that the -king had rejected all his offers, but that he trusted to make him -powerless. Among the nobles mentioned were Jablonowski, now Grand -General of Poland, and Sapieha, who, since the death of Michael -Paz, had been Grand General of Lithuania. The latter belonged to -a family upon which the king had showered his favours.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His tact.</span>John used this -information with wonderful tact. He at once declared that the -ambassador, to show his zeal to his master, had evidently -slandered the grandees; Morstyn alone, whose guilt was proved by -a letter in his own hand, deserved the punishment of treason. The -king concluded by saying that he trusted the Diet would help him -to show the French king that the Polish nation was not altogether -venal. The speech was received with shouts of applause, and -the suspected nobles were now foremost in supporting the king. -A similar change took place in the nation, and the French -ambassador found it unsafe to go abroad without an escort. The -Grand Treasurer would have been brought to trial if he had not -escaped to France.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Alliance with the empire.</span>The -immediate result of this discovery was the conclusion of an -alliance, offensive and defensive, with Austria (March 31st). -Leopold bound himself to bring 60,000 men into the field; the -republic was to furnish 40,000. There was an express stipulation -that neither party should apply to the Pope for leave to break -his oaths. The Papal Nuncio procured the addition of a clause, -by which John bound himself to command his troops in person.<a -id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> -Leopold in return conceded to him that title of “Majesty” which -he had so long withheld.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Exertions of Sobieski.</span>This -treaty was a serious blow to the policy of Louis XIV. -Forbin-Janson, who soon quitted Poland in disgust, comforted -his master by the assurance that John was far too unwieldy to -take the field. The same idea prevailed throughout Europe, and -especially in the Turkish camp. He was now so stout that he -required aid to mount his horse; but he had not lost one spark -of his youthful fire. His army needed complete reorganisation, -and he spent several hours each day in the field. He did not -neglect measures of policy. He proposed to the Emperor the -extension of the league, and confided to him his favourite -scheme of reviving a republic in Greece. By that means<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> alone, he -thought, the Turkish empire could be confined within bounds. He -sent an embassy to the Sophy of Persia, but could not persuade -him to declare war against the Porte.<a id="FNanchor_80" -href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a> He then tried to -mediate between the Emperor and the insurgents in Hungary, and -succeeded so far as to obtain a promise from Tekeli that Moravia -should be left untouched.<a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" -class="fnanchor">[81]</a> Finally he tried to promote a good -understanding between France and Austria, but Louis sullenly -refused his mediation.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">The Vizier’s forces.</span>The -preparations of the Grand Vizier were now complete, and in -the spring he advanced his vast host to Essek, in Hungary. -He had under his standards at least 300,000 combatants<a -id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> -and 300 pieces of artillery. He was accompanied by Selim -Gieray, the terrible Tartar khan, and by a crowd of his nomad -horsemen.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Rapid advance of the Turks upon -Vienna.</span>The Emperor could scarcely realize the -peril in which he stood. He reckoned that his frontier -fortresses would detain the Turks for at least two campaigns. -Fortunately Sobieski, by means of a letter which his Cossack -spies intercepted<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" -class="fnanchor">[83]</a> in Bulgaria, was enabled to assure him -that Vienna would be the first point of attack. This intelligence -was soon put beyond a doubt. The Duke of Lorraine, general of -the Imperial forces, who with scarcely 30,000 men was covering -Upper Hungary, was compelled to retreat. The whole Turkish army -continued to advance by forced marches, leaving the fortresses in -their rear; and Lorraine had barely time to throw 8,000 infantry -into Vienna and retreat beyond the Danube, before 50,000 Tartars, -the advanced guard of Mustapha, appeared at the gates (July -9). Leopold had profited by Sobieski’s warning to demolish the -extensive suburbs where the nobility resided, but the city was -wholly unprepared for defence.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Panic at Vienna.</span>The night -before Lorraine’s arrival the Emperor himself with his court -fled precipitately to Linz, and thence to Passau. The peasants -of the southern plain were flocking into the city by hundreds, -while many of the citizens followed the Emperor in his flight. -<span class="sidenote">Measures for defence.</span>It was left -to Lorraine, with the governor, the intrepid Count Stahremberg, -to concert measures<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50] -</span> of resistance. The fortifications were hastily -repaired, and the counterscarp protected by thick palisades, but -it was doubtful whether they could stand an assault, owing to the -neglect of a long security. A body of 5,000 citizens was formed -to assist the garrison, which did not amount to 14,000 men. A -week later (July 14) the Grand Vizier occupied the plain, and -opened the trenches before the city.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Terror of Europe.</span>Meanwhile all -Europe, and especially Italy, was seized with consternation -at the rapid march of the Turks. The plans of the King of -France, who had advanced his army to the Rhine, were somewhat -disconcerted. Finding himself pointed at as the cause of the -invasion of Christendom,<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" -class="fnanchor">[84]</a> he made a show of magnanimity, and -suspended his threatened blow. It is even said that he offered -the Emperor a contingent of 80,000 men, which was rejected with -becoming scorn; but the statement seems improbable.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Sobieski urged to hasten his -march.</span>The Pope sent pressing messages to Sobieski to -bring his succours before it was too late. The Emperor also, -writing with unwonted deference, begged him to place himself at -the head of the Imperial troops. “However inferior we are in -number,” he says, “your name alone, so terrible to the enemy, -will ensure a victory.” He added that his troops were waiting at -Tuln, fifteen miles north-west of Vienna, and that at that point -a bridge had been constructed over the Danube.<a id="FNanchor_85" -href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a> Lorraine, -generously forgetting their old rivalry for the crown of Poland, -wrote that he should be proud to serve under such an hero. His -own skill had given some hope to a declining cause. Assisted -by some Polish cavalry, he had captured the bridge of Presburg -from Tekeli, but his force was too small to do any damage to the -besiegers.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Siege of Vienna.</span>It is indeed a -marvel that Vienna did not fall almost at once. Within a week -of the opening of the trenches, the besiegers had reached the -palisade of the counterscarp, and, as cannon could not be used -for its defence, many of the garrison lost their lives in a -hand-to-hand combat. On the 7th of August the counterscarp was -captured after an engagement in which both sides suffered great -loss. The besieged especially lost many officers, and the brave -governor was seriously wounded. From this time forward the -city must have succumbed if the Vizier had ordered a general -assault. Mustapha knew this, but he imagined that the booty -would be enormous, and he did not wish it to fall into the hands -of his soldiers. He had pitched his<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_51">[51]</span> vast pavilion in the gardens -of the Emperor’s palace, called the Favourite, and here he -passed his days in the pursuit of pleasure. His miners advanced -steadily, but in other respects he was inactive.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Measures of Sobieski.</span>At -the first news of the danger of Vienna Sobieski hastened to -Cracow, where his army was assembling. His hussars answered his -summons with alacrity, but the Lithuanians were slow to take -the field. He had no intention of waiting for them, although -the troops under his orders were scarcely half the complement -of 40,000. He sorely needed funds for their equipment; but -as the Papal subsidies had not arrived,<a id="FNanchor_86" -href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> he gave lavishly -from his private treasury. He had not intended to take his -Turkish body-guard; but they begged leave to accompany him, and -offered to give hostages.<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" -class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His rapid march to the Danube.</span>On -the 15th of August he quitted Cracow, accompanied by his son -James, and having reviewed his troops at Tarnowitz, in Silesia -(August 18), pushed on for the Danube. Leaving his main body -at the head of 2,000 horse, he traversed like a whirlwind the -plains of Moravia, and arrived at Tuln on the 2nd of September. -The prince who was reported too infirm to take the field, had -covered on horseback 350 miles in little more than ten days. -Finding the bridge unfinished and scarcely half the Imperial -forces assembled, he could not restrain his impatience. “Does -the Emperor take me for an adventurer?” he exclaimed angrily. “I -have left my army to command his. It is not for myself, but for -him I fight.” Three days later (September 5th) the Polish army -under Jablonowski appeared, and soon afterwards the succours from -Bavaria and Saxony.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Forces of the allies.</span>Before the -king’s arrival there had been divisions of opinion among the -imperial generals; now all men cheerfully obeyed his orders. The -whole force amounted to 70,000 men, of whom 21,000 were from -Austria, 18,000 from Poland, and 31,000 from Bavaria, Saxony, -and the Circles. Of these at least 38,000 were cavalry. John -had never commanded an army of nearly this strength, and he was -confident of success. He bade the Imperialists consider not the -vast numbers of the enemy but the incapacity of their general. -“Would any of you,” he asked, “have suffered the construction -of this bridge within five leagues of your camp? The man cannot -<em>fail</em> to be beaten.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Exertions of the king.</span>In -his letters to the queen, which have most fortunately -been preserved,<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" -class="fnanchor">[88]</a> we can follow the inmost thoughts -of the great commander during these most anxious days. He -twice remarks with evident pleasure that the German troops -obey him better than his own. At the same time he is<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> disgusted with -the trifling squabbles over etiquette which occupy so much of his -time. Even his necessary duties allow him no leisure. “Continual -harangues, my interviews with the Duke of Lorraine and the other -chiefs, innumerable orders to be given, prevent me not only from -writing, but from taking food and rest.”<a id="FNanchor_89" -href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> Yet his -unreasonable consort, for whom his devoted fondness appears -in almost every line,<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" -class="fnanchor">[90]</a> complains that he does not read her -letters. “I must complain of you, my dear, my incomparable -Mariette.... Can you say seriously that I do not read your -letters? The fact is that I read each of them three times at -least; first, when they arrive, secondly, as I go to bed, when -at last I am free, and, thirdly, when I set myself to answer -them.... If sometimes I fail to write at length, can you not -explain my haste without the help of injurious suppositions? The -armies of two continents are but a few miles from each other. -I must think of everything; I must provide for the smallest -detail.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Passage of the Danube.</span>On the -6th of September the army crossed the Danube. The splendid -equipment of the king’s hussars attracted universal admiration; -and his ill-clad infantry looked especially mean by contrast. -His officers entreated him to allow it to cross by night, but he -would not consent. Whilst one of the worst regiments was passing -over, “Look at this well,” he cried to the spectators; “it is an -invincible body which has sworn never to be clothed but with the -spoils of the enemy.” At these words the men, who had hung their -heads in shame, marched on erect with cheerful confidence. During -the crossing of the bridge a note arrived from Stahremberg with -the simple words, “No more time to lose.” The miners were already -under the Emperor’s city palace, and numbers of the garrison were -dying of dysentery.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Ascent of the Kahlemberg.</span>John -called a council of war to decide the route which should be -taken. Between him and Vienna rose the lofty ridge called the -Kahlemberg; and it was necessary either to go round it by the -main road, which was flanked by the Turkish cannon, or to climb -direct to the summit. John chose the latter route; but it proved -more difficult than he had supposed. Three days were consumed in -the ascent. All the heavy baggage had to be left behind, and of -the artillery only the Polish light guns could be dragged up. At -length, on the evening of the 11th, the Polish hussars lighted -their fires among the woods which crowned the heights, and were -answered by joyful signals from the cathedral of St. Stephen. -<span class="sidenote">Apprehension of the Turks.</span>The -Turks were struck with consternation.<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_53">[53]</span> The Grand Vizier, though he -had certain intelligence of the ascent,<a id="FNanchor_91" -href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a> neglected to oppose -it, partly because he despised the Christian army, and partly -because he wished to take Vienna before their eyes. But he could -not inspire his troops with his own braggart assurance. During -the night John’s prisoners, whom he had set free by design, came -into the camp and spread the news that the king of Poland was -commanding in person. Mustapha loudly expressed his disbelief; -but he could not prevent the spread of a panic. At break of day -he determined to lead the janissaries to a general assault, while -he detached the spahis and auxiliaries to confront the relieving -force.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Confidence of Sobieski.</span>From -the castle of Leopoldsberg about sunset Sobieski surveyed the -scene with mixed feelings. He saw that he would have to make -his advance over most precipitous and difficult ground; but his -experienced eye was not dismayed either by the imposing array -of the Turkish tents or by the multitude of their occupants. -Writing to the queen the same night he shows his old confidence: -“Humanly speaking, and while putting all our hope in God, one -must believe that a general, who has not thought of concentrating -or entrenching himself, but is encamped as if we were a hundred -miles off, is predestined to be beaten.” He complains, however, -that he had not been warned of the steepness of the descent, and -must change his order of battle. During the night the noise of -the Turkish cannon was such that “we could not close an eye,” and -the wind was so high that “it seemed as if the Vizier, who is -reputed a magician, had unchained against us the powers of the -air.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Advance of the allies.</span>When day -dawned on Sunday, the memorable 12th of September, the wind fell, -and the heat was most severe. John attended mass with the Duke -of Lorraine in the old church of Leopoldsberg, and received the -sacrament. <span class="sidenote">Their order of battle.</span>He -then mounted his horse, and ordered the advance. The right wing -was occupied by the Poles, under Jablonowski; the centre by the -Germans, under the Prince of Waldeck; the left wing by the -Imperial troops, under the Duke of Lorraine.<a id="FNanchor_92" -href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> The king directed -the whole; but his post was in the right wing.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Battle of Vienna.</span>The ground -in their front was broken by gullies and rough eminences, and -here and there by rude parapets of earth, which served as -the boundaries of the vineyards. The Turks in vain attempted -to defend these positions; they were driven from point to -point by the impetuous hussars, and the Polish artillery, -dexterously handled by Konski, did such<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_54">[54]</span> execution that by midday the army -had reached the plain. After an interval of rest the advance was -continued, and the villages of Nussdorf and Heligenstadt were -carried by the hussars at the lance’s point, not without some -loss. At five o’clock the order was given for a halt, and John -proposed to rest his wearied troops before the final struggle.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile the Vizier, who had been gallantly repulsed by the -besieged, had hastened to check the retreat of the Turks. He saw -with uneasiness the horse-tails on the Polish lances, and feared -that after all the king might be present. At a conspicuous point -in the lines he caused the hoisting of a red pavilion, which was -surmounted by the standard of the Prophet, and tried to raise the -spirits of his troops by his own cool assurance. Seating himself -under its shade with his two sons and the Tartar khan he ordered -coffee to be served.</p> - -<p>The Polish cavalry had advanced so near that John could -detect these movements with his field-glass. Provoked at this -ostentatious contempt, he bade his artillerymen aim exclusively -at the red pavilion, and offered fifty crowns for each successful -volley. He also detached a body of hussars to seize a position -from which they could fire with more effect. The cavalry dashed -forward with the cry of “Sobieski for ever,” and drove the Turks -headlong from the spot. “By Allah,” exclaimed the Tartar khan, as -he heard their shouts, “the king is really among them.” The Turks -had also heard the dreaded name; and all at once a terrible panic -arose throughout the camp.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" -class="fnanchor">[93]</a> “They are defeated,” cried Sobieski, -as he saw them waver, and ordering a general advance, he put -himself at the head of the Poles with the words, “Non nobis, -non nobis, Domine exercituum, sed nomini tuo da gloriam!” <span -class="sidenote">Rout of the Turks.</span>The shock of the charge -was tremendous, and none but the spahis resisted it. These brave -horsemen, surrounded by the rout, stood their ground, but were -cut in pieces. The Vizier, weeping like a child, besought the -Khan to save him. “I know the King of Poland,” answered Selim; -“I told you that we should have to make way before him.”<a -id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> -Joining in the flight they effected their escape, although the -Vizier was almost captured.</p> - -<p>Night had now come on, and John was anxious to secure the -camp in case the enemy should return. He therefore discouraged -the pursuit, and forbade pillage on pain of death. <span -class="sidenote">The Vizier’s quarters.</span>He passed the -night, like his soldiers, in the open air, although he took -possession of the Vizier’s quarters. In the morning he inspected -this vast bazaar of Eastern luxury, which he describes as -occupying a space “as large as Warsaw or Leopol.” Mustapha -had come, in fact, prepared for a triumph. He is said<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> to have contemplated -creating an empire by making himself emperor of the French. -He had brought every requirement for making Vienna a Turkish -arsenal, and had not omitted the materials for his mosques.<a -id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> -Writing to the queen on September 13th, the king says: “The -Vizier has taken nothing but his horse and the clothes on his -back. He has left me his heir.... His jewels alone are worth some -thousands of ducats.... You cannot say to me, my heart, as the -Tartar women often say to their husbands, ‘You are not a man, -for you have brought me no booty.’... The town could not have -held out more than five days. The imperial palace is riddled -with bullets; those immense bastions, split in pieces and half -falling, look terrible.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Losses of the two armies.</span>The -losses of the two armies in the action have been variously -stated. Talenti, whom John sent to the Pope with what was -believed to be the standard of the Prophet, informed his Holiness -that at least 40,000 Turks had perished.<a id="FNanchor_96" -href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> Voltaire, with -as little truth, states the number at 600.<a id="FNanchor_97" -href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> It is evident -from the letters of the king, which speak of the slain as -making the neighbourhood unhealthy, that nearly 10,000 must -have been slain.<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" -class="fnanchor">[98]</a> The loss of the Poles alone was -estimated at more than 1,000, and the allies probably lost in -proportion.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Entry of Sobieski into -Vienna.</span>About midday the king entered Vienna through -the breach. He was received with acclamations. Multitudes -thronged his horse, and in spite of the frowns of their superiors -openly compared him with their fugitive monarch. He entered the -church of the Augustine Friars, and, as there was no priest at -hand, he himself chanted the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Te Deum</i>. Passing on to the -cathedral of St. Stephen, he remained long prostrate before the -altar, while the same ceremony was performed with greater pomp. -Then a discourse was preached to the assembled crowds from the -text—“There was a man sent from God, whose name was John.” On -leaving the building, he could scarcely pass through the masses -of men who pressed upon him, and begged to kiss his victorious -hands. Afterwards he dined in public with Count Stahremberg, and -then returned to his quarters, declaring with truth that this was -the happiest day of his life.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Joy of all Europe, excepting the French -king.</span>He took an almost malicious pleasure in writing -at once to inform Louis XIV. of his success. He told him that -he felt it his particular duty to report to the most Christian -king “the victory which had been gained, and the safety of -Christianity.” So disgusted was Louis at the collapse of his -plans that he could not trust himself to answer the letter. -The French civil journals, in noticing the raising<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> of the siege, -speak slightingly of the King of Poland, and try to attribute -all the credit to the Count of Stahremberg.<a id="FNanchor_99" -href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> But no one was -deceived by these manœuvres. All Europe resounded with the -praises of Sobieski. From every Catholic pulpit he was eulogised -as the bravest defender of the Church. Filicaia and other -Italian poets sang of his glory in rapturous strains. Innocent -XI. received his envoys with the highest honours, and ordered -the standard of the Prophet to be borne in triumph throughout -Italy. Queen Christina, who was then resident at Rome, after -complimenting the Pope, wrote Sobieski a remarkable letter, -in which she declared that she now felt for the first time -the passion of envy; she calls him emphatically the greatest -king in the world, and displays by other insinuations her -hatred for Louis XIV.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" -class="fnanchor">[100]</a> <span class="sidenote">Ingratitude -of Leopold.</span>It is painful to relate the conduct of the -Emperor. He, who should have been the first to thank and -congratulate his deliverer, was in no hurry to meet him face to -face. Entering the city on the 14th, he contrasted with anger -the coolness of his reception with the enthusiasm shown to the -King of Poland; and it was only when he heard that John was about -to continue the pursuit that he was prevailed on to consent to -the interview. His punctilious scruples as to his demeanour -towards an elective sovereign disgusted his German allies, and -the Duke of Lorraine declared that he ought to receive the king -with open arms. At length it was agreed, on the proposition of -Sobieski, that they should meet on horseback a few paces in -front of the Polish army. <span class="sidenote">His interview -with Sobieski.</span>Let us hear the king’s own account to the -queen. “I will not draw you the portrait of the Emperor, for he -is well known. He was mounted on a bay horse of Spanish breed; -he had a close coat richly embroidered, a French hat with a -clasp and white and red feathers, a belt mounted with sapphires -and diamonds, and a sword to match. We saluted each other with -politeness; I made him my compliments in a few words of Latin; -he answered in the same tongue in choice terms. Being thus face -to face I presented my son, who approached and saluted him. The -Emperor merely raised his hand to his hat; I was astounded at -it. He did the same with the senators and generals, and even -with his connection, the Palatine of Beltz.<a id="FNanchor_101" -href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> To avoid the -scandal and the carping of the public, I addressed a few<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span> more words to -the Emperor; after which I turned my horse, we saluted each -other, and I rode back to the camp.” John here evidently conceals -as far as possible the chagrin he felt at the awkward silence -of the Emperor, and his distance towards Prince James, his -prospective son-in-law. Another account says that he sternly -reproved a Palatine, who advanced to kiss the Emperor’s foot, -and that he said significantly as he turned away, “Brother, I am -glad to have done you this small service.”<a id="FNanchor_102" -href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> After the Grand -General had shown him the Polish troops, the Emperor returned to -Vienna; and two days later sent a jewelled sword to Prince James, -and explained that his grateful emotions had deprived him of the -power of speech.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Shameful treatment of the -Poles.</span>But the Emperor’s ingratitude did not stop here. -A day or two after the battle, the Poles (like the French after -the battle of St. Gothard) found it difficult to obtain forage -or provisions, and they were not allowed to bury even their -most illustrious dead in the cemeteries of the city. The king -notices bitterly that, since the arrival of the Emperor, everyone -shunned them as if they had the plague.<a id="FNanchor_103" -href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> The Poles were -furious at this studied neglect, and besought John to lead -them back at once to Poland. “Our subalterns regret that we -have succoured the Emperor; they wish now that the proud race -had perished beyond hope of resurrection.”<a id="FNanchor_104" -href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a></p> - -<p>So seldom had the army served beyond the frontiers, that its -discipline, never strictly enforced, was now scarcely regarded; -and numbers left the ranks and took the nearest road to their -homes. John sympathised with his soldiers, but he had the ardour -of a crusading hero, and he felt himself bound by his oath to -pursue the infidel, and “strike a second decisive blow.”<a -id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> -<span class="sidenote">John’s anxiety to follow up the -victory.</span>His letter of the 13th of September to the Marquis -of Grana, shows the high hopes with which his glorious victory -had inspired him. He expresses his belief that the time had -come for the collapse of the Sultan’s power, and urges that -further successes in Hungary might produce revolts in the -heart of his empire.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" -class="fnanchor">[106]</a> John has been most unjustly accused -of finding a Capua in the Vizier’s tents.<a id="FNanchor_107" -href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> The fact is, -that during<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> -the whole of the campaign, the Poles were in the van. The king -was disgusted at the backwardness of the imperial court, though -his high and simple nature failed to discern its motive. “It -is enough to make one die a thousand times a day,” he says, -“to see so many opportunities slip away.”<a id="FNanchor_108" -href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Suspicions of the Emperor.</span>The -fact was that Leopold shrank from sending his victorious -neighbour into a rebellious province of his empire. Yet he -dared not stop him. His suspicions were increased when John -received overtures from Tekeli, the Hungarian leader, and -attempted to intercede for him. The Emperor’s coldness had so -far alienated his German allies, that the Elector of Saxony -withdrew his troops, and the Elector of Bavaria threatened to do -the same. He did nothing to recognise the services of the Duke -of Lorraine. He coveted the spoil, and even had the assurance -to suggest, through his head groom, that John should present -him with some of the Vizier’s horses. The gift was made and -received as a due. The king also made such handsome presents -to many of the German princes, that he gaily tells the queen -she will have to be content with the buffaloes and camels.<a -id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> -His general distrust of the Austrians was such that he deposited -his part of the spoil with the Jesuits.<a id="FNanchor_110" -href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">John advances into Hungary.</span>At -length (September 17), weary of waiting for the Imperial -troops, he started for the Danube. His design was to attack -Lower Hungary, which had been a Turkish province for a hundred -and fifty years, and to invest Buda, its capital. Thither the -Vizier had retired to rally the remains of his army, and was -avenging his defeat by the execution of a crowd of pachas. The -Turks could hardly believe that the Christians would retaliate -at once by invading their territory, and Sobieski’s advance -created the utmost alarm. But he was unhappily delayed at -Presburg by a fever<a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" -class="fnanchor">[111]</a> which attacked his troops and produced -such distress as to shake his resolution to proceed. <span -class="sidenote">Intrigues of the queen.</span>Another cause of -his chagrin was the scarcely concealed intriguing of the queen -among the troops to force him to return. She tried to persuade -him that she was in constant fear of the troops of Tekeli. In -two admirable letters<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" -class="fnanchor">[112]</a> he tells her the powerful motives -which induce him to continue the campaign. He shows her that -the Poles are crushing their national enemy without the cost -of one sou to the republic, and declares that, since the -Christian armies have elected him their generalissimo, he will -remain even if his countrymen desert him to finish the<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> campaign. “I have -devoted my life,” he says, “to the glory of God and to this holy -cause, and to that I will adhere.”</p> - -<p>After a few days his troops were able to resume their march, -and they were joined by the Imperialists on the 2nd of October. -They crossed the second arm of the Danube, and followed its -course on the left bank. The first Turkish fortress in their -way was Strigonia, called by the Hungarians Gran, a place of -great strength on the right bank, communicating by a bridge -with the fortified suburb of Parkan on the opposite side. The -vanguard of the Polish cavalry, always a march in advance of -the infantry and the Imperialists, had descended the hills to -reconnoitre this fort, when suddenly a large Turkish force issued -from the works and appeared in their front (October 7th.) <span -class="sidenote">He is defeated at Parkan.</span>Before the Poles -could form in line they had to sustain a tremendous charge, and -were put to flight. The king, who was close behind with the main -body, could not rally the fugitives, and found himself obliged, -with his 4,000 hussars, to charge the enemy in his turn. His -onset was unsuccessful. The Turks opened their lines to enclose -the Poles, and this caused a panic which ended in a rout. The -king and his personal escort strove in vain to stem the rush -of the Turks; they were swept along in the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">mêlée</i>. The -pursuit was hot; and the king, who was one of the last to turn -his horse, was in great danger. A spahi raised his scimitar to -strike him, but was hewn down before his blow fell. John was -hurried along breathless, scarcely able to hold the reins, and -jostled by the mad haste of his flying troops. At length the -Imperialists appeared, and the Turks desisted from the pursuit. -The king lay down upon a bundle of hay, sorely bruised, but more -afflicted in mind than in body. It was the first defeat he had -sustained, and it was embittered at first by the supposed loss -of his son, who however escaped unwounded. When the Austrians -came up, with sorrow in their faces and joy at their hearts, he -raised himself with dignity, and said, “Gentlemen, I have been -well beaten, but I will take my revenge <em>with</em> you and -<em>for</em> you.” His Cossack infantry, who heard that he had -perished, bewailed him as a father; and he was deeply touched -by their devotion.<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" -class="fnanchor">[113]</a> Several historians have asserted -that he brought on this engagement in order to crown himself -with glory before the arrival of his allies; but his letter -to the queen after the battle shows beyond a doubt that his -cavalry had orders not to fight, and that the vanguard were -taken unawares.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" -class="fnanchor">[114]</a></p> - -<p>The Poles hastily buried their dead in order to -conceal their losses, and were so dispirited that the -king could scarcely persuade them to wipe out the defeat. -<span class="sidenote">Great victory of Sobieski at -Parkan.</span>Although three days after he says<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> that his body is -“as black as a coal,”<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" -class="fnanchor">[115]</a> his exertions were unremitting to -prepare his army for a grand attack. The Turks, as he had -expected, were elated at their victory. A report spread widely -among them, which even reached the European courts, that the -hero had been slain; and they took a fresh lease of courage. -The Vizier sent them reinforcements; and when, two days later -(October 9th), the Christian army defiled into the plain of -Parkan, they found a large force drawn up to receive them. The -same morning the Turks commenced the attack, and repeatedly -charged the left wing commanded by Jablonowski. They were beaten -back with splendid courage; the steady advance of the king -with the right wing upon the fort of Parkan threw them into -confusion; and when the Christians charged in their turn, the -Turks gave way on all sides. <span class="sidenote">Storming -of the fort.</span>The fort was taken by storm, and no -quarter was given;<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" -class="fnanchor">[116]</a> numbers of fugitives were drowned in -the Danube; several pachas were captured, and at least 40,000 -Turks perished.</p> - -<p>Writing to the queen on the following day, John speaks -of the victory as “even greater than that of Vienna.” <span -class="sidenote">Flight of the Vizier.</span>The Vizier was -seized with dismay, and fled precipitately to Belgrade. His -flight enabled the king to exclaim with pride that now at last, -after two hundred years of slavery, Hungary was delivered from -the infidel. He adds, “This has surpassed my expectation, and -I believe that of my contemporaries.”<a id="FNanchor_117" -href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Capture of Strigonia.</span>John was -anxious at once to lay siege to Buda, which he regarded as the -goal of the campaign, but the Duke of Lorraine persuaded him to -begin with Strigonia. This was one of the strongest fortresses -in Hungary, and had been occupied by the Turks for a hundred and -forty years. Yet the place surrendered in a fortnight, although -the garrison was composed of 5,000 janissaries. Well might the -Turkish pachas exclaim to the Poles that their king was raised -up by God to be the scourge of Islam.<a id="FNanchor_118" -href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p> - -<p>John could now no longer resist the eagerness of his nobles -to return to Poland. <span class="sidenote">Return of the -Poles.</span>Early in November the armies separated, and the -Poles retraced their steps through Hungary. Before their -departure the king had endeavoured to mediate between Tekeli -and the commissioners of the Emperor, but the sole favour which -he could obtain for the insurgents was<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_61">[61]</span> the promise of a general amnesty, and -his disinterested efforts only resulted in increasing Leopold’s -suspicions of his motive.<span class="sidenote">His efforts on -behalf of the Hungarians.</span> Yet he could not give up the -attempt; he longed to establish the strong barrier of a free -people against the Turkish advance; and as a last resource he -begged for the help of the Holy See. In his instructions to -his minister at Rome,<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" -class="fnanchor">[119]</a> he claims this favour from the -Imperial Court as his due, and indignantly disowns the unworthy -motives imputed to him. “The sole interest of his Sacred Majesty -is to rally the nations against the pagans. For that end he -demands that the nation which he has re-conquered for Christendom -should be treated after a Christian fashion.” But the Pope was -so closely bound to the policy of Leopold that he cared not to -interfere; and nothing was done to restore the ancient liberties -of Hungary. John was deeply indignant, but his conscience would -not permit him to insist on this concession as the price of his -sworn alliance.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Their hostility to his army.</span>His -friendly relations with Tekeli were broken off by the rapine of -the Lithuanians, who, on hearing of the spoils of which their -tardiness had deprived them, had set off in haste towards the -south, and were plundering Upper Hungary. The inhabitants, -regarding John as responsible for these reckless freebooters, -and knowing nothing of his efforts in their behalf, shut -themselves up in their towns and treated him as an enemy. -Though he could scarcely obtain provisions for his troops, -he was loth to relinquish his design of quartering them in -Hungary. But the queen had hit on a new method of preventing -him, which was more effective than the murmurs of his men. -She suddenly ceased to answer his letters. “For five weeks,” -he complains, “I really have not known whether there is a -Poland in the world.”<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" -class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Triumphal entry into Cracow.</span>He -closed the campaign gloriously on the anniversary of Kotzim -(November 11th), by capturing Schetzin after a few hours’ siege, -and then returned home through the Carpathian Mountains. The -ground was frozen so hard that the tents could not be pitched, -and it was Christmas-eve before the victorious army, laden with -the spoils of the East, entered Cracow in triumph. A few days -later the Grand Vizier received with resignation his sentence of -death from the Sultan, and ere long the head which had dreamed of -the conquest of Europe was adorning the gates of the seraglio.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">General results of the -campaign.</span>The result of this grand campaign was to -change the course of history. Hitherto, as at Lepanto and at -St. Gothard, the Ottoman arms had never received more than a -temporary check; from henceforward we find the empire of the -Sultan constantly losing ground in Europe. John Sobieski had -recovered in two months more than had been gained in a<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> hundred years. -The chief explanation of this decline is doubtless internal -decay; but the glory of the Polish hero consists in the -singleness of aim which enabled him in a moment of supreme danger -to disregard old enmities, and to fly to the defence of Western -Christendom, then too disunited to defend itself.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Advantages to Poland.</span>Poland -gained more by this campaign than she was ready to confess. The -Turks had for ever lost the offensive, and were so much engaged -in their conflict with the Empire, that they could not think of -revenging themselves upon the republic. But they still retained -the fortress of Kaminiec; and until this sore was closed, the -danger seemed ever present. The Cossacks however, from whom that -danger had first arisen, now acknowledged the king’s authority, -and falling upon the Tartars as they returned from Vienna, routed -them with immense slaughter. But the renown procured by the -victories of the king was more advantageous still. Venice and -Muscovy besought the honour of an alliance with Poland; and she -never stood higher among the nations than at this moment.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1684.</span>Civil troubles -prevented John taking the field early the next year (1684).<a -id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> -In August, however, he marched into Podolia, and after taking -Jaslowicz, approached the walls of Kaminiec. Since he could not -hope to reduce it by blockade, his only resource was to erect a -fort in the neighbourhood; and this he effected in the face of -the enemy, who dared not risk a battle.</p> - -<p>He returned to Zolkiew in November, dissatisfied with the -results of the campaign. <span class="sidenote">Jealousy of -John’s generals.</span>At its outset he had been attended by -numbers of distinguished foreigners, anxious to serve under -so great a prince, but he had found himself enfeebled by the -lukewarm support of his two Grand Generals, Jablonowski and -Sapieha. Both were jealous of his monopolising the glory by -commanding in every campaign; but each of them had ulterior -reasons. Jablonowski was the chief of the faction of Louis XIV., -who was straining every nerve to gain over Poland; Sapieha -dreamed of separating Lithuania from Poland, and becoming -sovereign of the Grand Duchy. In the ensuing Diet the faction of -each had its complaints against the king. The former blamed him -for his ill-success against Kaminiec; the latter accused him of -depriving Lithuania of her rights by summoning the Diet to meet -at Warsaw instead of at Grodno. The Lithuanians at first refused -to attend it, but they yielded on the king’s proposal that it -should be called the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63] -</span> Diet of Grodno. Their opposition to his plans, -however, was relentless, and one of the family of Paz<a -id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a> -carried his abuse so far as to threaten to make him feel the -weight of his arm. Such was the treatment that was reserved for -the saviour of Europe at the hands of his own subjects!</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Unsuccessful campaign of -1685.</span>His health had now become so feeble that in -the next campaign (1685) he was able to gratify Jablonowski -by leaving him in command. His loss was at once keenly felt. -Skilful though he was, the Grand General allowed his army -to be caught in a defile in the forest of Bucovina, and it -required all his ability to rescue it from utter annihilation. -Ashamed at his own pride no less than at his reverse he shunned -the royal presence.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" -class="fnanchor">[123]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Perfidy of Leopold.</span>The zeal -of the king for the cause of the Emperor was cooled about -this time by the marriage of the archduchess, who had been -promised to Prince James, to the Elector of Bavaria. The queen<a -id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> -was impelled by her resentment to join the French party, and -Leopold had too much cause to fear that she would induce -John to make a separate peace. <span class="sidenote">Father -Vota.</span>He therefore sent a Jesuit named Vota as his secret -agent to the court of Warsaw. The mission of the holy father -was not openly political; his journey was supposed to have -been undertaken to convert the heretics of the Greek church; -but the Emperor trusted that his literary and social talents -would procure him an ascendancy over the king of Poland. He is -described as a man of wide knowledge and wonderful powers of -conversation; and his religious habits and unobtrusive demeanour -preserved him from suspicion. He devoted himself to the king’s -pleasure, and often slept on the floor of an ante-chamber in -order to be at hand to entertain his weary hours. He easily kept -him faithful to the league against the infidel, and hinted that -the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia might, if subdued by -his arms, become hereditary in his family. John knew well that -they would merely become provinces of Poland; but he was anxious -to extend her frontiers to the shores of the Black Sea. <span -class="sidenote">The king tries to revive commerce.</span>In -spite of the opposition of the nobles he wished to revive her -commerce; and a mercantile treaty which he contemplated with -Holland would have been assisted by the acquisition of a double -sea-front.</p> - -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Treaty with Muscovy.</span>By a treaty -with Muscovy in this year (1686) he gave up Kiow and Smolensko, -which had been long in her possession, for a large indemnity, and -obtained promises of co-operation in his schemes of conquest. -Posterity has blamed him for these concessions; but in his time -such was the national contempt for the Muscovites that no danger -was apprehended on their side.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1686.</span>His chances of -success were excellent. The Emperor promised his aid on the side -of Hungary; and a great army of Muscovites was to push forward -to the Black Sea. After arranging his plans with the Imperial -generals, John assembled his forces at the Dniester, but he found -all alike, officers and men, indisposed to a campaign beyond the -borders of Poland. But he could not now draw back. He advanced -through the deserts of Moldavia to the Pruth, passing on his -way the fatal spot where Zolkiewski met with a hero’s death. -Descending the river he entered Yassy, the capital, on the 15th -of August, and found that the hospodar had fled with his troops, -but had left provisions for the invading force, thinking by this -means to secure his immunity from punishment, whatever might be -the result of the campaign. After two days of rest John pushed on -towards the Black Sea. But the heat, the scarcity of water, and -the terrible solitude<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" -class="fnanchor">[125]</a> broke the spirit of his army, and -suddenly the Tartars appeared in his front. News also arrived -that the Turks were within a march of him, and there was no -sign either of Muscovite or Austrian succours. Leopold had -again deceived him, and had profited by John’s demonstration to -capture the city of Buda. There was nothing left but to retreat, -and this the king successfully accomplished, through a most -difficult country, in the face of the enemy. The Tartars poisoned -the rivers and springs, and set fire to the vegetation, while -searching clouds of dust and ashes distressed the retiring Poles. -At length they reached the frontiers of Poland; and the only -person who had reaped any benefit from their sufferings was the -Emperor Leopold.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Deposition of the Sultan.</span>In -the following year a revolution at Constantinople, provoked by -continued disasters, deprived Mahomet IV. of his throne; and had -there been a complete accord between the members of the Christian -league, the Ottoman empire might have tottered to its fall. No -soldier of the Church had laboured more steadily towards this end -than John Sobieski; and if it was not realised, the fault lay not -with him but with his more powerful allies.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Polish anarchy.</span>As his -reign drew near its close, the internal disorders of his -kingdom increased. The Emperor never ceased to intrigue with -the Lithuanian grandees against his faithful ally, and the -French<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> -party opposed him for this fidelity to the league. The lesser -nobility was devoted to him; but the Senate was now the hotbed -of faction. All the grandees wished for the end of his reign, -the French party because they disliked his policy, and the -Lithuanians because they hated his person. Besides this, every -ambitious senator looked to an interregnum as a means of -realising his dreams of power.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Diet of Grodno.</span>In the Diet of -Grodno in 1688 the king was assailed on all sides. The senators<a -id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> -in the pay of France clamoured for peace with the Porte; the -Lithuanians, at a hint from the Emperor, accused him of personal -aims in his attempt upon Moldavia. Before any subsidy could be -voted the Diet was dissolved by the veto; and when the king -assembled a convocation he met with the same stormy opposition. -Hastily dismissing the assembly, he submitted to a period of -inaction; but he had the consolation of finding, on a visit to -Wilna in the same year, that even in the Grand Duchy he was -regarded by the people with admiration.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">John refuses peace with the -Turks.</span>A fresh outburst from the French party occurred -in the same summer, when he refused to make peace with the -Sultan, although he was offered the restoration of Kaminiec. He -had bound himself by oath never to make a separate peace without -the consent of his allies; but to keep strictly to this article -was detrimental to the republic, so sorely in need of reforms, -and he had abundant excuse for breaking it in the conduct of the -Emperor.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Tries to establish hereditary -succession.</span>His scruples were not suggested by a desire -for further glory, or by a blindness to the true interests of -Poland. His days of warfare were past for ever. He saw only too -clearly the failure of the old constitution, and he was anxious -before his death to witness the establishment of hereditary -monarchy. In striving to have his son declared his successor -he was not actuated by merely selfish motives, for when a -subject he had held the same principles.<a id="FNanchor_127" -href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> But the grandees -considered such a proposal as a direct infringement of their -privileges; and they were encouraged by Leopold, who found it his -interest to preserve Poland in a state of fermentation.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Affecting scene in the -senate.</span>The king intended to ask this of the republic -at the Diet of Grodno; but his intention becoming known, he was -assailed with the utmost virulence in the senate. The Grand -Treasurer termed him despot, tyrant, and destructor of the public -liberty; a palatine spoke of him as the enemy of his country. -At length the king rose and addressed the senate. He recalled -the patriotism and services of his ancestors, and protested his -devotion to the cause of liberty. But he begged his hearers -to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> pause, -and reflect on the consequences of intestine strife. “Oh, what -will be one day the sad surprise of posterity to see that at -the summit of our glory, when the name of Poland was filling -the universe, we have allowed our country to fall in ruins, to -fall, alas! for ever! For myself I have now and then gained you a -few battles; but I confess myself deprived of all power to save -you. It only remains for me to resign, not to destiny, for I am -a Christian, but to the great and mighty God, the future of my -beloved country.... I seem to hear already resounding over our -heads the cry of the prophet: ‘Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall -be destroyed.’ Your most illustrious Dominations know that I do -not believe in auguries. I do not search out oracles; I give -no credence to dreams; it is not an oracle, it is faith which -teaches me that the decrees of Providence cannot fail to be -accomplished.”</p> - -<p>During this prophetic speech the voice of the old king -trembled with emotion, and the senate was deeply touched. The -primate knelt at the foot of the throne, and assured him of the -loyalty of Poland; and a cry of assent arose from all present. -The subsidies were voted by acclamation; but it was only a -transient gleam of concord. <span class="sidenote">Continued -disturbances.</span>Next year there were rumours of a conspiracy -to dethrone the king; and amid the storms of the Diet a bishop -named Opalinski said to him haughtily, “Be equitable, or cease -to reign!” The insult was soon followed by an apology; but -the tumult continued in the assembly, and sabres were freely -used before the veto terminated the disgraceful scene.<a -id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> -<span class="sidenote">Intended abdication of Sobieski.</span>The -king felt himself unable to cope with these terrible disorders, -and he instructed his chancellor to prepare an act of abdication -(1689); but the unfeigned sorrow of all classes persuaded him -to withdraw it. There was little improvement, however, in the -temper of future Diets; and the veto was employed as freely as -before.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Discord in his family.</span>John -was not more happy in his domestic than in his public life. -His imperious queen was ever his evil genius. Not content -with diminishing his popularity by mixing too freely in -public affairs,<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" -class="fnanchor">[129]</a> she sowed dissension round his own -fireside. The king evidently designed for his successor his -eldest son James; for, besides giving him a high command in -the army, he allowed him to sit by his side in the senate. But -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> -queen favoured Alexander, her second son, who was more -handsome and popular<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" -class="fnanchor">[130]</a> than his brother, and her open -partiality produced a fierce hatred between the two brothers. -When the Emperor, reminded of the value of John’s friendship -by the victories of Mustapha Köprili, gave the Princess of -Neuberg in marriage to Prince James<a id="FNanchor_131" -href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a> (1690), the queen -took a violent dislike to her daughter-in-law; and the family -breach was widened.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His last campaign, in 1691.</span>Next -year the king took the field for the last time, nominally to -chastise the Tartars for an invasion in the winter, but really -perhaps to escape the miseries of his court. He took with him -for the first time his son Alexander, and this so exasperated -Prince James that he threatened to leave the country. The king -told him that if he went he would take with him a father’s curse, -and he was persuaded to repent and ask pardon for his violence. -His father said openly that in the ensuing campaign he should -more easily get the better of the enemy than of his own sons. He -gained a victory at Pererita (August 6), and took a few places -in Moldavia, and then returned to his kingdom never to leave it -more.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His love of retirement.</span>He spent -his last years in retirement, and seldom appeared in public -except in the Diet. His palace of Willanow was his favourite -residence, and from thence in the summer he would roam from -castle to castle, sometimes pitching his tent, like his nomad -forefathers, wherever a picturesque spot or a noble landscape -attracted his fancy. The queen would have preferred the gaieties -of Warsaw; but she followed him into his solitude, and took care -that balls, operas, and the other amusements of a court should be -going on around him.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His literary tastes.</span>His -chief recreation now, as in his most difficult campaigns, was -the study of the sciences. He complains to the queen, after -the battle of Vienna, that with all his love of reading he -has not had a book in his hand for more than three weeks.<a -id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> -When he read he always had a pencil in his hand, and his -marginal notes displayed uncommon powers of mind. Dr. South—no -mean judge—pronounces him to be “very opulently stored with all -polite and scholastical learning.” He was fond of writing Polish -poetry, and when his daughter Theresa married the Elector of -Bavaria he presented her with a copy of verses on the event.<a -id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> -Like many others of the Slav race, he was an accomplished -linguist. He could converse with ease in six languages, -including Latin,<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" -class="fnanchor">[134]</a> and learnt Spanish when he was -past<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> -fifty. His delight was to assemble around him cultivated men -like Father Vota, the French Ambassador Cardinal Polignac, -and his physicians, Connor and Jonas, and to “set them very -artfully by the ears”<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" -class="fnanchor">[135]</a> on some question of philosophy or -natural science.<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" -class="fnanchor">[136]</a> Nor was theology forgotten. He used to -give audiences to the schismatic bishops, and listen patiently to -their arguments for their respective creeds.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Patron of learning.</span>Such a -prince was of course an ardent patron of learning. During his -reign more books issued from the Polish press than in the two -centuries preceding; and his liberal views led him to reprimand -the Catholic clergy for not admitting into their schools the -philosophy of Descartes. <span class="sidenote">Spite of the -nobles.</span>The great nobles, many of them wholly unlettered, -could not sympathise with these literary tastes, and they showed -their spite towards the king in various ways. On one occasion, -when illness kept him away from the Diet, the Sapiehas demanded -that he should be summoned to attend; and when their motion was -lost, they broke up the assembly with the veto. A Jew named -Bethsal, who collected his revenues, was condemned to death by -the Diet on an unproved charge of sacrilege,<a id="FNanchor_137" -href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> and John could -hardly prevail to save his life. <span class="sidenote">Charge of -covetousness unproved.</span>Many imputed his love of retirement -to covetousness, and asserted that he laid up £100,000 a year for -the benefit of his sons.<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" -class="fnanchor">[138]</a> The accusation has been often -repeated, although his life abounds in instances of his -draining his private<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" -class="fnanchor">[139]</a> coffers to serve a pressing public -need.</p> - -<p>The disorders of the kingdom grew more frightful as John -became less able to restrain them. Street brawls between -political parties had always been of common occurrence, but -the rioters now began to use firearms,<a id="FNanchor_140" -href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> and the king had -to publish an edict prohibiting the shedding of blood on pain -of death. He often sent for the chief nobles, and adjured them -by the love of their country to aid him in restoring order.<a -id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> -In 1695 the Tartars, tempted by Polish anarchy and by a report -of the king’s death, invaded Russia, and besieged Leopol; but -they disappeared as quickly as they had come on the approach of -Sobieski.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His feeble health.</span>Reports of -his death were common in Europe, partly from his feeble health -and partly from the interest which many sovereigns<span -class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> felt -in the event.<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" -class="fnanchor">[142]</a> He had long been afflicted with -dropsy; and a wound in his head, which he had received long -before in the Cossack war, now caused serious alarm.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Schemes of the queen.</span>The queen -was most anxious that he should make his will, and she deputed -her Chancellor, Bishop Zaluski, to make the proposal. The king -received it with disfavour. “I am surprised,” he said, “that a -man of your sense and worth should thus waste your time. Can -you expect anything good of the times in which we live? Look -at the inundation of vice, the contagion of folly; and should -we believe in the execution of our last wishes? In life we -command and are not obeyed. Would it be otherwise in death?” -Soon after the queen entered, and read in the face of the bishop -the failure of her plan. Zaluski tells us that the next day the -king complained bitterly to him of the bodily sufferings brought -on by a dose of mercury which she had given him. His frame was -shaken by convulsive sobs, and he exclaimed wildly, “Will there -be no one to avenge my death?” This was probably only the raving -of a distempered brain; but the queen has never been exempt from -suspicion, and her conduct after his death only served to confirm -it.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His illness,</span>On the 17th of -June, 1696, his seventy-second birthday,<a id="FNanchor_143" -href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> he lay at -Willanow in a state of dreadful weakness. He asked the news -from Warsaw, and was told that multitudes were flocking to the -churches to pray for his recovery. The intelligence affected -him deeply, and he passed the day in cheerful conversation; but -towards evening he was seized with an attack of apoplexy.<a -id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a> -The chief officers hastened to his chamber, and when he awoke -to a short interval of consciousness he showed how eager he -was to depart by pronouncing the words “Stava bene.” <span -class="sidenote">And death.</span>Soon afterwards, about sunset, -he breathed his last, and his death, like his birth, was followed -by a sudden and frightful storm.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Sorrow of the nation.</span>Only a -few of the nobles welcomed his decease; the mass of the nation -remembered his glory, and sincerely mourned his loss. The -Chancellor Zaluski thus expresses the general sorrow: “With -this Atlas has fallen, in my eyes at least (may I prove a false -prophet!), the republic itself. We seem not so much to have lost -him as to have descended with him into<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_70">[70]</span> the tomb. At least I have but too -much cause to fear that it is all over with our power. At this -news the grief is universal. In the streets men accost each other -with tears, and those who do not weep are yet terrified at the -fate which is in store for us. Terror apart, what grief was ever -more natural? He is, perhaps, the first king in whose reign not -one drop of blood has been shed in reparation of his own wrongs. -He had but one single fault—he was not immortal.”</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Quarrels of his family.</span>Amidst -such heartfelt sorrow the behaviour of his family alienated from -them all public sympathy. Prince James at first refused to admit -the queen with the royal corpse to the castle of Warsaw, and when -at length he yielded, he hurried away to Zolkiew to seize his -father’s treasures. The queen hastened after him to put in her -claim, but he turned the cannon of that fortress against her. -Burning with indignation, she exerted all her influence before -she left the country<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" -class="fnanchor">[145]</a> to destroy his chances of the crown. -Such was the magic of his father’s name that at first there was -a large party in his favour; but the family quarrels weakened -and dispersed it. The Austrian party elected Augustus of Saxony; -and the French party thought it necessary to protest by seizing -the remains of the late king. The Elector, resolved not to be -out-manœuvred, erected a cenotaph to the memory of John III.; and -it was not till the next reign, thirty-six years later, that his -body received interment.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" -class="fnanchor">[146]</a></p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His sons.</span>The history of his -three sons deserves a word of remark. Charles XII., who as a -boy was a devoted admirer of John Sobieski,<a id="FNanchor_147" -href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a> invaded Poland in -1705, and would have offered the crown to Prince James; but the -prince, being then in Germany with his brother Constantine, was -seized by the Saxon troops, and honourably confined at Leipsic; -and, as his brother Alexander nobly refused to profit by his -misfortune, the opportunity passed by. Alexander died at Rome -as a capuchin, and his two brothers resided in Poland on their -estates. James Sobieski had two daughters, of whom the younger, -Maria Clementina, was married to the Chevalier St. George, called -the “Old Pretender,” and became the mother of the unhappy Charles -Edward.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">Character of John Sobieski,</span>The -life and exploits of John Sobieski have in modern times scarcely -received their due meed of attention. Born in a country half -civilized, half barbarous, whose independence has now been -completely effaced, his glory has not proved so enduring as -that of less remarkable men who have<span class="pagenum" -id="Page_71">[71]</span> figured on a more conspicuous stage. -As general, as patriot, and as Christian hero, he will -bear comparison with the greatest names in any age. <span -class="sidenote">As general.</span>No man ever won so many -battles in the most desperate situations; no man ever achieved -such deeds with forces often insignificant and always unruly. His -fertility of resource was amazing; yet it was only equal to the -swiftness of his execution. His chief glory is that, unlike any -other great conqueror, his grandest triumphs were obtained in -defensive warfare, and that all his efforts were directed either -to the salvation of his country or to the honour of his religion. -<span class="sidenote">As patriot.</span>His individual greatness -appears most striking in the ascendancy which he early acquired -in his own country. His frank and simple bearing, his noble mien, -and his stirring eloquence, enabled him, while he was still a -subject, to sway the minds and wills of his fellow-countrymen as -if by an irresistible charm.<span class="sidenote">As Christian -hero.</span> He laboured for the safety of Poland with a perfect -singleness of aim; and when that was fully secured, he strove -with a like fixity of purpose for the destruction of the Ottoman -power. To us his crusading ardour may seem to have been out of -date, but we must remember that in the seventeenth century the -Turks still inspired a lively alarm, and that if at the present -day we regard them with pity or contempt, the first step towards -this change was accomplished by the sword of John Sobieski.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">As king.</span>As a king, he is not -entitled to the same high praise. In a land of peace and order -he might have ranked as a benefactor to his people, but in the -home of licence and anarchy his temper was too gentle and refined -to employ the severity which was needed. A king of Poland, if -he was to heal the disorders of his realm, must first have made -himself feared; the natural temperament of Sobieski made him -prefer to be loved. Clemency and generous forgiveness were parts -of his disposition;<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" -class="fnanchor">[148]</a> and the necessary result upon his -policy was that he resigned himself too easily to bear the -vexations which surrounded him. When he did act, his method was -most unwise; for in his principal attempt at reform—when he aimed -at establishing hereditary succession—he exposed himself to the -charge of a grasping self-interest.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">As head of his family.</span>But we -cannot acquit him of deplorable weakness in the management of -his own family. A hasty passion had thrown him into the power of -an unscrupulous and despotic woman, and his uxorious fondness -left her only too much scope for the activity of her caprice. -We have seen more than once that he could oppose her when his -duty seemed clearly marked out for him; but, for the sake of his -own peace, he allowed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72] -</span> her to intermeddle without ceasing in the affairs -of Poland. The only result of his indulgence was that very -misery in his domestic circle which he had sought to avoid. Of -the charge against him of avarice we have already spoken. His -chivalrous enthusiasm and cultivated intelligence would have gone -far to disprove it, even if the treasure which he left behind him -had not been found to be only moderate.</p> - -<p><span class="sidenote">His great services,</span>His services -to his country were extraordinary, although he himself confessed -that he could not arrest her fall. He found her at the opening -of his career plunged in civil strife and beset with foreign -enemies; he left her at its close with peace fully assured to -her, and with her glory at its zenith. Within two years of his -death the peace of Carlowitz was signed with the Turks, by which -they renounced all claim to Kaminiec, Podolia, and the Ukraine. -The fruit of his victories was thus fully reaped; but his efforts -to revive commerce and to form an infantry among the serfs, which -would have been the first step to their emancipation, were never -afterwards renewed. <span class="sidenote">Could only retard the -fall of Poland.</span>A patriot life like his may be said to -have tried the institutions of his country, and to have found -them wanting. After seventy-five years of anarchy, that dreaded -Partition, which had been mooted in his day<a id="FNanchor_149" -href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a> but which he had -postponed for a hundred years, was at length carried into effect. -Austria, whom he had saved by his prowess, Prussia, whom he had -hoped to reunite to his country, Russia, whom his ancestor<a -id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> -had laid at her feet—each took a share of the spoil. No other -patriot arose to save Poland from her rapid decline; and John -Sobieski may be called the last, as he was the greatest, of her -independent kings.</p> - -<p class="p6 pfs100 bt">Oxford: -A. Thomas Shrimpton and Son, 23 and 24, Broad Street.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> <h2 class="nobreak" -id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES:</h2> </div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> -The burghers, however, were under a separate civil jurisdiction. -A tribunal for administering this foreign or Teutonic law was -established in 1347 in six principal towns.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> -Poland in the seventeenth century measured 2600 miles in -circumference, while France measured only 2040.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> -<cite>Cosmography</cite>, by Peter Heylin, published in 1648, reprinted -from his <cite>Microcosmus</cite>, published in 1621.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> -<cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">Relatione di Polonia</cite> (1598), quoted by Ranke (App. No. 66 -to his <cite>History of the Popes</cite>). The same Nuncio says the -Poles confessed to him that they preferred a weak monarch to an -able one.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> -The whole of the country called Prussia once belonged to -Poland. Part of it, after being lost in the eleventh century, -eventually came into the hands of the Elector of Brandenburg, -who acknowledged the nominal suzerainty of Poland; the other -part—Polish Prussia—was not lost till the eighteenth century.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> -See Dr. South’s letter to Dr. Edward Pococke, Hebrew lecturer at -Oxford, describing his travels in Poland. (p 71.) He mentions -that he had heard them make this remark: and it is curious that -his letter bears date Dec. 16th, 1677—six years before the relief -of Vienna.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> -This is denied by Salvandy, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire du Roi Jean Sobieski</cite>, -vol. ii. p. 52, ed. 1876, though he has elsewhere admitted it by -implication (vol. i. p. 402-3).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> -The generals had no seat in the Senate by virtue of their office, -but the king always made them palatines or castellans. <span -class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, <cite>Polish Manuscripts or Secret -History of the reign of John Sobieski</cite>, ch. i. p. 9.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> -<span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, ch. i. p. 34.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> -The first was simply “<span xml:lang="la" lang="la">veto</span>,” -the second “<span xml:lang="la" lang="la">veto, sisto -activitatem</span>.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> -They were always prolonged, however, when public business was -pressing.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> -This castellan ranked even above all the palatines, and -headed the Pospolite. The story is that in an important -battle the palatine of Cracow ran away, while the castellan -stood his ground, and their rank was thus reversed. (<span -class="smcap">Coyer</span>, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Histoire de Sobieski</cite>, p. 69, -8vo ed.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> -The Abbé Coyer makes her his daughter; but he is wrong. -The daughter of Zolkiewski married into the family of -Danilowicz, and was the mother of Theophila. (<span -class="smcap">Salvandy</span>, vol. i. 145-147.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> -The disparity is said to have been much greater, but it is -necessary to bear in mind throughout the life of Sobieski that -the numbers of the combatants are uncertain, owing to the Polish -habit of exaggeration.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> -Most historians (and Salvandy in his first edition, 1827) follow -Coyer in giving the date 1629. Salvandy gives no reason for the -change in his later editions; but Sobieski must have been older -than fourteen when he travelled in France; and it appears that -his manuscript favours the earlier date. Coyer is most inaccurate -until the campaign of Podhaic, where his original authorities -begin, and is untrustworthy afterwards.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> -Russia, properly so called, was at this time a province of -Poland. The empire of the Czars was termed Muscovy.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> -Sobieski himself was not free from this feeling. See the -collection of his letters by M. le Comte Plater (Letter -xvii.).</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> -It was part of Dido’s dying speech:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p xml:lang="la" lang="la">“Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor.”</p> </div> - -<p>Theophila is said to have shown her sons the hero’s shield -while repeating the Spartan injunction “with it or upon it.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> -Louise de Nevers. The Sobieskis were in France when the embassy -came to fetch her. She also married Casimir, the next king.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> -We find only the bare statement that they visited England -(Salvandy; Palmer, <cite>Memoirs of John Sobieski</cite>). It is -possible the civil war may have deterred them.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> -Of these only five were paid to the family of the murdered man, -the other five going to his lord.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> -<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Commentariorum Chotimensis belli libri tres.</cite> <span -class="smcap">Cracow</span>, 1646.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> -These were not broken during a march, differing in this from the -laager. See <span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, ch. i. p. 24.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> -It was not a feudal tenure, however, for the nobles did -not acknowledge any vassalage to the king. It was merely a -bargain.—<span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, ch. i. p. 23.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> -Dyer (<cite>Modern Europe</cite>, vol. iii. p. 42, ed. 1864) gives no -authority for his extraordinary statement that Wladislas entered -into an elaborate conspiracy with the Cossacks against his own -kingdom. Nothing could be more foreign to his character.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> -Coyer makes Mark Sobieski die four years earlier, but his account -of the Cossack war is so confused, that it is difficult to tell -to what events he refers.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> -He was descended from the elder branch of the house of Vasa—that -of his grandfather, John III. of Sweden. His father, Sigismund -III. of Poland, had by his Polish sympathies and Catholic -education, alienated the affections of the Swedes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> -The Polish regular army was so called because a fourth of -the royal revenues was employed to maintain them. <span -class="smcap">Salvandy</span>, i. p. 404.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> -Coyer, who is followed by other writers, says that Sobieski was -once a hostage with the khan of the Tartars at his own request, -and made him a steady friend of Poland.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> -Frederic William, the founder of the greatness of the house of -Hohenzollern.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> -He only carried the standard in the Pospolite; his office was -a high military command. Coyer makes this the reward of his -quelling the mutiny at Zborow, which seems most improbable.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> -Daleyrac (ch. i. p. 28) represents the army as being at the mercy -of the Grand Treasurer, who frequently pocketed the money.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> -The mansion of a Polish noble was called his “court.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> -But he says she was then only thirty-three, and she was certainly -six years older. Louise de Nevers would not have taken away to -Poland a child of five years as part of her suite.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> -Connor (<cite>Letters on Poland</cite>, Letter iv.) actually represents -that he was unwilling to marry her until tempted by a large -dowry.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> -A letter of Sobieski, describing this plan to his wife, who was -staying in France, was shown to Condé, who had no hope of its -success.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> -He was tormented with remorse for marrying his brother’s -widow.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> -Connor (Letter iii.) mentions having heard this from aged -Poles.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> -He stayed till the diet of election was opened.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> -The next king, though related to it, could hardly be said to -belong to it, as he was descended from Korybuth, uncle of -Jagellon.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> -Connor, Letter iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> -Begun by his duel with one of their clan in 1648.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> -Married to Radziwill, the Croesus of Lithuania.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> -The king bound himself by the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pacta conventa</i> not to marry -without the consent of the republic.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> -See Daleyrac, chap. i. p. 39.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> -A “seraskier” was a commander-in-chief, who received his -commission direct from the Grand Vizier.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> -The chiefs of these principalities, now united under the name of -Roumania, had been offended at the insolence of the seraskier, -and their troops, being Christians, disliked serving under the -Turks.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> -<cite>History of the Grand Viziers, Mahomet and Ashmet Cuprogli</cite>, -by F. de Chassepol; Englished by John Evelyn, junior, published -1677. See bk. iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> -Salvandy (i. 419) says Hussein was cut down by Prince Radziwill; -but most accounts agree that he escaped and died of his wounds at -Kaminiec.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> -Coyer appears to have first made this statement. It would be -interesting to know his authority. His mainstay, <cite>Familiar -Letters of the Chancellor Zaluski</cite>, does not support him.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> -Coyer says that the Polish army, on their way to Kotzim, met this -envoy.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> -Letter 329. “<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">La victoire du Grand Maréchal est si grand qu’on -ne doute point qu’il ne soit élu roi.</span>” She does not however -know much about Sobieski, for a little later (Letter 333) she -represents him as of a different religion from the nation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> -Connor, who is evidently repeating the gossip of the king’s -reign, says that he “worked underhand for himself.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> -Salvandy enumerates them (i. 430), but it can hardly be supposed -that they all sent envoys. Among them were the Duke of York and -his son-in-law, the Prince of Orange.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> -Coyer says that Michael Paz, in the council of war after the -battle of Kotzim, burst out with this as a condition of his -supporting any candidate.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> -Dr. South describes him as follows: “He is a tall, corpulent -prince, large-faced, and full eyes, and goes always in the -same dress with his subjects, with his hair cut round about -his ears like a Monk, and wears a fur cap, extraordinarily -rich with diamonds and jewels, large whiskers, and no -neck-cloth.”—<cite>Letter to Dr. Pococke</cite>, p. 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> -Czartoryski, Archbishop of Guesna, had died suddenly at a banquet -given by Sobieski.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> -Three contemporary authorities give this eloquent speech <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">in -extenso</i>; and the language which is common to all of them, and -which is here quoted, enables us to understand its electrical -effect upon the audience.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> -This generally occurred on Church lands, for nobles could make -themselves heard against the general in the Diet. Daleyrac (chap. -i. p. 12) says that he had heard of these officers making 6,000 -francs by bribes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> -No queen of Poland was entitled to any allowance from the -republic (or pension in case of widowhood) without having been -crowned.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> -Daleyrac (ch. i. p. 11) says that the Lithuanians are a worse -scourge to the country than the Tartars. We shall find them as -barbarous to the friendly people of Hungary.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="label">[62]</a> -Coyer makes the astounding mistake of stating that Köprili died -in 1674, and was succeeded in the command in Poland by Kara -Mustapha. (pp. 210, 216, 8vo ed.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="label">[63]</a> -The account followed by Salvandy (ii. 29) represents the whole -Turkish army, nearly 200,000 strong, as having been present. -Coyer, following Zaluski, gives the account in the text.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="label">[64]</a> -He had been previously received by John in the camp at Leopol. -The German name for that town is Lemberg.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="label">[65]</a> -He died of apoplexy on receiving the intelligence.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="label">[66]</a> -Daleyrac (ch. i. 22). The infantry formed the rear guard, and -when composed of Cossacks, were useful in a dangerous retreat.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="label">[67]</a> -The regular army, called “Komport,” or sometimes “Quartians,” -was supposed to consist of 48,000 men, of which 12,000 were -Lithuanians; but it hardly ever reached this amount. (Daleyrac, -ch. i.)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="label">[68]</a> -This was a most valuable addition to his revenue.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="label">[69]</a> -Coyer says that the Muscovites were advancing into Poland to the -king’s relief, but this seems improbable.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="label">[70]</a> -Coyer implies that the condition was refused, Ibrahim scornfully -remarking that the Greeks, who then held the holy places, were -Christians as well as the Latins.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="label">[71]</a> -Letter 537. “<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">La paix de Pologne est faite, mais romanesquement. -Ce héros, à la tête de quinze mille hommes, entourés de deux -cent mille, les a forcés, l’épée à la main, à signer la traité. -Il s’était campé si avantageusement que depuis La Calprenède on -n’avait rien vu de pareil.</span>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="label">[72]</a> -The expedition was made and failed ignominiously.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="label">[73]</a> -Palmer, <cite>Memoirs of Sobieski</cite>. See also <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Biographie -Universelle</cite>, art. “Hevelius.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="label">[74]</a> -Bourbon l’Archambault, in the department of Allier.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="label">[75]</a> -He alleged as his reason the poverty of the marquis. Some scandal -was caused by the attempt of the French queen to secure this -honour for a certain Brisacier, her attendant, who represented -himself as the natural son of Sobieski during his visit to -France. John could not remember the circumstances, and the French -queen afterwards denied that she wrote to him upon the subject. -The affair was never explained.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="label">[76]</a> -In which he summoned the Diet and enumerated the agenda.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="label">[77]</a> -<span xml:lang="la" lang="la">Oratio principis Radziwill ad Imperatorem.</span></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="label">[78]</a> -The Diet afterwards sent succours to the relief of Vienna, -and the electors of Bavaria and Saxony each commanded a -contingent.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="label">[79]</a> -<span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, Preface to <cite>Polish -Manuscripts</cite>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="label">[80]</a> -<span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, ch. ii. p. 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="label">[81]</a> -Salvandy (ii. 161) says that in August Leopold offered to cede -him the kingdom of Hungary, and to guarantee the succession to -his family, and that John answered that he wished for no other -reward but the glory of deserving well of God and man. The offer, -if made, could not have been <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">bona fide</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="label">[82]</a> -This is the estimate of Sobieski himself in his famous letter to -the queen after the battle. He bases it on the number of tents, -which he places at nearly 100,000. Daleyrac says that a list was -found in the Grand Vizier’s tent, which gave the number of the -Turks alone as 191,800.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="label">[83]</a> -Daleyrac tells an amusing story of the way in which these -Cossacks brought in their prisoners. The king offered a reward to -those who could catch him a “Tongue” whom he could cross-examine. -A Cossack brought a prisoner to the king’s tent, flung him on -the ground like a sack, and went away without a word. Shortly -afterwards he came back, and putting his head into the tent, -said, “John, they have paid me the money; God restore it thee! -Good-night!”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="label">[84]</a> -“The siege of Vienna had given terror to all Europe, and the -utmost reproch to the French, who ’tis believed brought in the -Turks for diversion that the French king might the more easily -swallow Flanders, and pursue his unjust conquests upon the -empire, while we sat unconcerned and under a deadly charm from -somebody.”—<span class="smcap">Evelyn’s</span> <cite>Diary</cite>, -September 23rd, 1683.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="label">[85]</a> -Letter of the Emperor to the King of Poland from Passau, August -24th.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="label">[86]</a> -A grand subscription was being raised in Rome. Cardinal Barberini -alone gave 20,000 florins.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="label">[87]</a> -<span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, chap. i. p. 21, and <span -class="smcap">Salvandy</span>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="label">[88]</a> -Published by N. A. Salvandy; translated by M. le Comte Plater. -Paris, 1826.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="label">[89]</a> -<span class="smcap">Salvandy</span>, ii. pp. 173, 174, quoted in -<cite>Foreign Quarterly Review</cite>, No. xiv. vol. vii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="label">[90]</a> -He begins every letter to her, “<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Seule joie de mon âme, charmante -et bien-aimée Mariette!</span>” He calls himself her faithful and -devoted Celadon, and reminds her that it would soon be her turn -to become the wooer. Yet he was fifty-nine years old, and she was -probably forty-eight.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="label">[91]</a> -His army probably did not know of it; but Daleyrac says he had -the news from a spy. It is inconceivable that he should not have -employed a few scouts.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="label">[92]</a> -His order of battle given in Coyer (pp. 316-318), in which the -Duke of Lorraine commanded the centre, was written previous to -the ascent of the Kahlemberg.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="label">[93]</a> -<span class="smcap">Salvandy</span> (ii. 190) says that at this -moment there was an eclipse of the moon, which increased the -panic; but Daleyrac, whose account he follows in other respects, -does not mention it.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="label">[94]</a> -Sobieski relates these particulars in Letter ix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="label">[95]</a> -<span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span> (ii. 41). This information he -had from some captive Turks.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="label">[96]</a> -He added that he had travelled for four leagues over Turkish -corpses. Unfortunately for the credibility of his tale, his -journey to Rome lay in the direction opposite to the field of -battle.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="label">[97]</a> -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Empire.</cite> He states the Polish loss at 200.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="label">[98]</a> -This is the number given by the French official gazette at the -time.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="label">[99]</a> -Yet, when shortly afterwards an official at court was presented -with a sword of Sobieski, the interest excited was intense, and -engravings were taken of it. <span class="smcap">Salvandy</span> -(ii. 420) says that the sword of Sobieski was the cherished -possession of Napoleon at St. Helena. A French prelate was author -of the witty distich:</p> - -<div class="poetry"> <div class="stanza"> <div class="verse -indent0" xml:lang="la" lang="la">Dignior imperio numne Austrius? anne Polonus?</div> <div -class="verse indent2" xml:lang="la" lang="la">Odrysias acies hic fugat, ille fugit.</div> -</div> </div> </div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" -class="label">[100]</a> “<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">Votre Majesté s’est montrée digne non -seulement de la couronne de Pologne, mais de celle de l’univers. -L’empire du monde vous serait dû, si le ciel l’eût reservé à un -seul potentat.</span>”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" -class="label">[101]</a> Constantine Wiesnowiesçki, cousin of the -late king Michael, the Emperor’s brother-in-law.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" -class="label">[102]</a> Prince Eugène, who was present, says, -<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">“N’étant pas fait encore aux manières allemandes je m’amusai -beaucoup de la fiére entrevue de l’empereur avec le roi de -Pologne.” Sa vie écrite par lui même.</span> Paris, 1810.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" -class="label">[103]</a> Letter x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" -class="label">[104]</a> Letter xii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" -class="label">[105]</a> Letter xv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" -class="label">[106]</a> “<span xml:lang="la" lang="la">Si namque ad clangorem memoratae -victoriae vel levis armorum terra marique succedat ostentatio, -procul dubio gemens sub Tyrannide Grecia ac ipsa Constantinopolis -perfido recalcitraret domino, suasque respiceret origines.... -Forte Mahometanum Imperium ad sua devolvatur principia, et -ubi satis in altum surrexerit lapsu graviori ruat.</span>”—Letter of -Sobieski from Vizier’s tent, September 13.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" -class="label">[107]</a> <span class="smcap">Voltaire</span>, -<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Annales de l’Empire</cite>. Curiously enough, Sobieski, in Letter -x. (September 17), after mentioning Hannibal’s inaction after his -victory, says, “To-day we know well how to profit by ours.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" -class="label">[108]</a> Letter x.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" -class="label">[109]</a> Letter xi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" -class="label">[110]</a> Chèvremont (<cite lang="fr" -xml:lang="fr">L’état actuel de Pologne</cite>, 12mo, 1702) -talks of the “<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">vile et mesquin -empressement</span>,” which he showed by this act. He -constantly speaks of him as “<span xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">ce -roi avare</span>.” As Chèvremont was secretary to the Duke of -Lorraine, it is to be feared that the latter was not satisfied -with his share of the spoil.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" -class="label">[111]</a> A kind of dysentery, called the Hungarian -fever.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" -class="label">[112]</a> Letters xx. xxi.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" -class="label">[113]</a> Letter xvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" -class="label">[114]</a> Letter xvi. Coyer, who had never seen -this letter, takes up his favourite theme of a king pursuing -selfish glory; and Coxe (<cite>House of Austria</cite>, ii. 449) -countenances the idea.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" -class="label">[115]</a> Letter xvii.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" -class="label">[116]</a> This, as Coyer says, was most -discreditable to the Christians. But Sobieski explains that the -Turks had “made no prisoners” two days before, and that the sight -of the bleeding heads of Poles upon the rampart of the fort -maddened his troops.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" -class="label">[117]</a> Letter xix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" -class="label">[118]</a> Letter xxi. The king notices in the same -place that the Turks called him their executioner on account of -the number of men which his victories had cost them.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" -class="label">[119]</a> Quoted by <span -class="smcap">Salvandy</span>, ii. 282-284.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" -class="label">[120]</a> Letter xxix.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" -class="label">[121]</a> This we learn from a letter of Sobieski -to the Pope, dated from Javarow, August 15th, 1684. Having -60,000 men (two-thirds of them Cossacks), he started with large -hopes. “<span xml:lang="la" lang="la">Me ad Turcarum regiam -[illos] ducturum.... Liberator Orientis rediturus vel pro Christi -fide moriturus.</span>” Sooner than give up the crusade, he -announced that he would resign the crown “<span xml:lang="la" -lang="la">tamquam ut humillimus miles vitam in Hungaricis -agminibus funderem</span>.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" -class="label">[122]</a> Said to have been the same Paz with whom -he fought a duel in his youth.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" -class="label">[123]</a> A letter of the king to Jablonowski after -this defeat, in which he gently complains of his coldness, shows -his character in a most amiable light. “Whether I have merited -your indifference or not, come promptly to dissipate the cloud -which has covered our intimate friendship, and believe that your -presence will be more efficacious towards my speedy recovery than -all the art of my physicians.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" -class="label">[124]</a> Chèvremont (p. 116) says that both she -and the king received bribes from France, but as secretary to -the Duke of Lorraine he is an Austrian authority. He admits -that even on the morrow of the battle of Vienna the Emperor -had no intention of fulfilling this promise of the hand of the -archduchess.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" -class="label">[125]</a> The dangers of this expedition did not -deter John from antiquarian researches. Passing an ancient mound -he ascended it, and after examination pronounced it to be the -work of Decebalus, king of Dacia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" -class="label">[126]</a> All the orders of the realm sat together -while the Diet lasted.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" -class="label">[127]</a> He seems to have been in favour of John -Casimir’s attempt to name a successor.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" -class="label">[128]</a> Candles were not allowed in the Diet, -and the session having lasted a long time, a Lithuanian took -advantage of the dusk to smack a bishop in the face, and a tumult -ensued. About the same time Sapieha, the Lithuanian general, -had a grave quarrel with the Bishop of Wilna. One party used -excommunication, and the other violence, and no efforts of the -king could reconcile them.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" -class="label">[129]</a> She was always intriguing in the Diet, -and did her utmost to dissolve that of Grodno. She was accused of -selling offices of state, and binding the recipient to support -one of her sons at the next election (Connor). She certainly had -a control over the king’s appointments, and he so loved domestic -peace that he generally followed her advice.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" -class="label">[130]</a> Prince James (born in 1667) was called -the son of the Grand Marshal, and the other two the sons of the -king.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" -class="label">[131]</a> This marriage made him brother-in-law of -the sovereigns of Spain, Portugal, and Austria.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" -class="label">[132]</a> Letter xi. from Presburg, September -19th.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" -class="label">[133]</a> <span class="smcap">Connor</span>, -<cite>Letters on Poland</cite>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" -class="label">[134]</a> The others, besides the Slavonian, were -French, Italian, German, and Turkish.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" -class="label">[135]</a> <span class="smcap">South’s</span> -<cite>Letter to Dr. Edward Pococke</cite>, p. 5.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" -class="label">[136]</a> Connor describes a discussion as to what -part of the body the soul inhabits.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" -class="label">[137]</a> It is to be feared, however, that Bethsal -had sometimes abused his position.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" -class="label">[138]</a> <span class="smcap">Connor</span>, Letter -iv.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" -class="label">[139]</a> “The king opened his coffers to the -designs of the League so far that his own family could scarcely -believe it.”—<span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, Preface.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" -class="label">[140]</a> <span class="smcap">Daleyrac</span>, -chap. i. p. 33.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" -class="label">[141]</a> Connor says that the grandees paid him -outwardly the highest respect, never eating with him at his -table, and that those who most abused him in Parliament showed -him great deference elsewhere.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" -class="label">[142]</a> <span class="smcap">Burnet</span> -(<cite>History of his Own Time</cite>, iii. 348) asserts that “he -died at last under a general contempt.” This is curious side by -side with the fact that shortly before his death the new Pope, -Innocent XII., proposed to him to mediate between France and -Austria.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" -class="label">[143]</a> Salvandy (ii. 395) says that it was -also the day of his accession. It certainly was not the day of -his election, or of his signing the “<span xml:lang="la" lang="la">pacta conventa,</span>” or of his -coronation.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" -class="label">[144]</a> Connor says that he died of a dropsy -turned into a scirrhus or hard tumour. The blood being prevented -circulating, the humours were driven to the head, and apoplexy -ensued.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" -class="label">[145]</a> It is said that she attempted to procure -the election of Jablonowski with the intention of marrying him. -She soon left Poland and resided in France, where she died in -1717, at the age of eighty-two.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" -class="label">[146]</a> <span class="smcap">Salvandy</span>, ii. -409. The fact is almost incredible.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" -class="label">[147]</a> It is said that he refused to learn Latin -until he heard that the Polish hero was a proficient in that -language. When he was told of his death he exclaimed, “So great a -king ought never to have died.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" -class="label">[148]</a> Zaluski relates several instances of his -readiness to own himself in the wrong, and of his unwillingness -to avenge a personal insult.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" -class="label">[149]</a> By Charles X. of Sweden. It is said that -documents are in existence which prove that Louis XIV. also -entertained the idea.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" -class="label">[150]</a> Zolkiewski.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p class="bfs100">“THE OXFORD -TRANSLATIONS OF THE CLASSICS.”</p> - - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl">EURIPIDES: HECUBA, 1/6.<br /> -EURIPIDES: MEDEA, 1/6.<br /> -EURIPIDES: ALCESTIS, 1/6.<br /> -SOPHOCLES: ŒDIPUS TYRANNUS, 2/-.<br /> -SOPHOCLES: AJAX, 2/-.<br /> -SOPHOCLES: PHILOCTETES, 2/-.<br /> -ÆSCHINES IN CTESIPHONTEM, 2/6.</td> - -<td class="tdm"><img src="images/curly.jpg" alt="}{" /></td> - -<td class="tdj">With the most difficult words parsed and explained, by a First Class-man, Balliol College, Oxford.</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p class="hi">CICERO’S SECOND PHILIPPIC. With Short Notes. 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">CICERO’S SEX. ROSCIUS AMERINUS. With Short Notes. 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">PLATO’S APOLOGY OF SOCRATES. Literally translated from the -Text of Baiter and Orelli. Arranged for interleaving (if desired) -with the Fourth Edition, Zurich, 1861. 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">PLATO’S MENO. A Dialogue on the Nature and Origin of Virtue, -prepared from the Text of Baiter and Orelli. Arranged for -interleaving (if desired) with the Second Edition of the Greek -Text, Stutgard, 1878. 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">TERENCE’S ANDRIA. Literally translated from Wagner’s Text. -Arranged for interleaving (if desired) with the Cambridge Larger -and Smaller Editions of Terence. 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">TERENCE’S HAUTON-TIMORUMENOS; or, Self-Tormentor. Literally -translated from Wagner’s Text. Arranged for interleaving (if -desired) with the Cambridge Larger and Smaller Editions of -Terence. 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">TERENCE’S PHORMIO. Literally translated from Wagner’s Text. -Arranged for interleaving (if desired) with the Cambridge Larger -and Smaller Editions of Terence. 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">XENOPHON’S MEMORABILIA OF SOCRATES. A Literal Translation. -Book I., 1/-; II., 1/-; IV., 1/-. The three Books in one vol., -3/6. Arranged for interleaving with the Oxford Text.</p> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p class="hi">CHOPE’S ANALYSIS OF BLACKSTONE ON REAL PROPERTY. A Sheet. -2/-.</p> - -<p class="hi">SYNOPSIS OF THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. By the late Rev. <span -class="smcap">E. T. Gibbons</span>, Senior Student of Ch. Ch. A -Sheet. 1/-.</p> - -<p class="hi">ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Edited by the Rev. <span -class="smcap">H. J. Turrell</span>, M.A., Hertford College. -2/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">—— The same (Abridged). A Sheet. 1/-.</p> - -<p class="hi">TRENDELENBURG’S ELEMENTA LOGICES ARISTOTELEÆ. An English -translation. Crown 8vo, 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF LOGIC, Deductive and Inductive. -Specially adapted for the Use of Candidates for Moderations at -Oxford. 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">THE OXFORD LOGIC CHART. Notes and Hints, prepared expressly -for “Moderations,” and purposely divided into 24 Sections or -Lessons. [<i>The Student is advised to prepare and write out -entirely from memory, one section each morning, and one each -night. By this means the main Points of Logic may be mastered in -a fortnight.</i>] 1/-.</p> - -<p class="hi">AIDS TO THE “SCHOOLS.” QUESTIONS ON AND EXERCISES IN LIVY, -BOOKS XXI.-XXIV. Selected and Arranged by a Graduate. 1/6.</p> - -<p class="hi">AIDS TO THE “SCHOOLS.” QUESTIONS ON AND EXERCISES IN -ARISTOTLE’S ETHICS, BOOKS I.-IV. AND PART OF X. Selected and -Arranged by a Graduate. 2/-.</p> - -<p class="hi">AIDS TO THE “SCHOOLS.” QUESTIONS ON THE EXERCISES IN TACITUS. -ANNALS, BOOKS I.-IV. Selected and Arranged by a Graduate. 1/-.</p> - -<p class="hi">KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH, LIVES OF THE PROPHETS. BABYLONISH -CAPTIVITY, &c. A Sheet. By a private Tutor. 1/-.</p> - -<hr class="r10" /> - -<p class="pfs100">OXFORD: A. THOMAS SHRIMPTON AND SON,<br /> LONDON: SIMPKIN, -MARSHALL, & CO.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<div class="transnote"> <p class="pfs150">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:</p> - - -<p>The book cover has been repaired to remove stickers and -blemishes and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -<p>Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes -have been moved to the end of the essay.</p> - -<p>Variations in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been -standardized. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. -Proper names, French language, and "reproch" in the diary entry, -have been retained as published in the original publication.</p> - -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN SOBIESKI ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin-top:1em; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/68578-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/68578-h/images/cover.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 5e8001d..0000000 --- a/old/68578-h/images/cover.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68578-h/images/curly.jpg b/old/68578-h/images/curly.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 7be6aef..0000000 --- a/old/68578-h/images/curly.jpg +++ /dev/null |
