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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5e65631 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #68575 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/68575) diff --git a/old/68575-0.txt b/old/68575-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ea32665..0000000 --- a/old/68575-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1437 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The violin and the art of its -construction, by August Riechers - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The violin and the art of its construction - a treatise on the Stradivarius violin - -Author: August Riechers - -Release Date: July 20, 2022 [eBook #68575] - -Language: English - -Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIOLIN AND THE ART OF ITS -CONSTRUCTION *** - - - - - - THE VIOLIN - - AND THE ART OF ITS CONSTRUCTION. - - A Treatise on the Stradivarius Violin - - by - - AUGUST RIECHERS, - - Bow and Violin Maker. - - [Copyright of the German and English Editions.] - - With four lithographed plates. - - - GOETTINGEN. - CARL SPIELMEYER’S NACHFOLGER. - FRANZ WUNDER. - 1895. - - Copyright entered at Stationers Hall, London. - - - - - To his highly revered Friend and Patron - - DR. JOSEPH JOACHIM - - this work is humbly dedicated - - by - - THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The highly esteemed author of this treatise, a renowned violin maker -and clever repairer, of old instruments, having been denied the -pleasure of publishing the same himself, death intervening on January -4th, 1893, his work on the violin and the art of its construction is -now published, in accordance with his last wishes. - -This treatise will, no doubt, be all the more welcome to professionals -and amateurs alike, as to my knowledge no such work has yet been -published treating the subject in such an able and thorough manner. - -May, therefore, the valuable labours of the deceased author meet with -that universal acknowledgment, which in a very high degree they deserve. - - _Göttingen_, April 1895. - - The Editor. - - - - -Index. - - - Introduction Page 7 - - I. Of the Wood ” 10 - - II. Of the Construction ” 11 - - III. The Ribs ” 12 - - IV. The Back and Edges ” 12 - - V. The Belly ” 13 - - VI. The Arching ” 13 - - VII. The Purfling ” 14 - - VIII. Working-out the Thicknesses of the Belly and Back ” 15 - - IX. The F-holes ” 16 - - X. The Bass-bar ” 16 - - XI. The Head or Neck ” 18 - - XII. The Dimensions, Length of Neck and Body ” 18 - - XIII. The Finger-board and Nut ” 21 - - XIV. The Position of the Neck ” 21 - - XV. The Tail-piece ” 22 - - XVI. The Pegs ” 24 - - XVII. The Bridge ” 24 - - XVIII. The Sound-post ” 25 - - XIX. The Strings ” 27 - - XX. The Varnish ” 28 - - XXI. The Cleaning and Care of the Violin ” 32 - - XXII. The Bow ” 32 - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -In giving publicity to this treatise on the construction of the violin, -I believe I am only meeting the wishes of many, both professionals and -amateurs, who are desirous of learning more particulars concerning the -construction of their instruments, but am also giving a few practical -hints to my younger comrades in the art of violin-making. I hope also -to induce some of my older colleagues to give forth other works of the -same kind, which may serve to ennoble and promote our art. - -Times without number I have been asked by friends of the violin, during -my 40 years’ work as a violin maker, to recommend books giving more -exact information on the construction of that instrument, but the only -answer that I have been able to give has been that German technical -literature on the subject is very meagre, and that information from -foreign works is mostly impoverished by feeble translations. - -Very few authors understand the general build of the violin thoroughly, -they pay most attention to individual points, those most calculated -to attract the attention of amateurs; for example, the proportions of -single parts, their size, etc. There is only one work I can recommend -which forms an exception to this rule and that is “The Memoirs of -Antonio Bagatella” (Padua 1786) which has been published in a German -translation by Franz Wunder at Göttingen. - -It contains not only rules for the construction of violins, violas, -violincellos and basses, as well as distinct instructions for the -restoration of the outline of the belly and back of these instruments, -but also enters into particulars concerning the adjustment and -renovation of the same. - -Just as the celebrated violin makers of the last century took the -work of Amati as their model, I have found my master, to whom I, in -common with all my colleagues, look up with admiration, recognising in -him not only the gifted artist, but also the industrious workman and -far-sighted observer--I mean Antonio Stradivarius. Even as a boy I was -very fond of listening to the tales told me by my father, who was a -musician in Hanover and as an autodidact occupied himself with violin -work, tales in which he described to me the wonderful productions -of the old Italian masters and more particularly those of Amati, -Stradivarius, and Guarnerius. He regarded it as a great distinction -shewn to him, and often referred to the fact, that he was allowed -to open and repair the Guarnerius violin of Paganini. After a time, -however, he altered his tone and cursed the Italian as well as his -violin, for the great artist, although he praised my father’s work and -expressed himself perfectly satisfied with it, objected to the payment -of three Thalers for the repairs, considering it an exorbitant charge, -and this, coupled with similar experiences at the hands of others, so -incensed my father that he would not give his consent to my earnest -wish to enter the violin factory; consequently I was apprenticed at the -age of 13 years to a pianoforte manufacturer with whom I remained for -two years, in spite of having shown aptitude in the other direction by -constructing a violin with my own hands at the age of 12 years. - -Being released from my apprenticeship at the beginning of my fifteenth -year, I wandered away to Markneukirchen, there to study violin-making -under Hans Ficker; later on I was occupied for a longer period as -assistant to Ludwig Bausch, senior, in Leipsic, to whom I owe a great -deal, for he strengthened me in my love of the art and settled my -belief in the unequalled excellence of Stradivarius. My admiration for -this great master increased even more and more, and in my fifteenth -year, when I began to work for myself in Hanover, I learned even -more of his works and had the happiness to find that my reverence -for him was shared by my friend and patron Dr. Joseph Joachim. Ten -years later, the latter exchanged Hanover for Berlin, and as I was -no longer contented in the former town after his departure in 1872, -I gladly responded to a call from him to prosecute my work in the -Prussian capital and to continue to study the works of Stradivarius, -in order to handle them more worthily and to infuse his ideas into my -own productions. I venture to hope that I have succeeded in the first -part of my undertaking, for, a great number of instruments have passed -through my hands in the course of years, including the incomparable -violins belonging to Dr. Joachim. The second part of my task I do -not consider accomplished. I am ever taking more and more trouble in -working, in the hope of bringing my attempt nearer and nearer to the -hitherto unattained excellence of Stradivarius. I therefore beg my -readers to regard the following chapters with a favourable eye and -to accept them in a friendly spirit as the result of long years of -experience, the confirmation or rectification of which I shall accept -with joy. - - - - -I. OF THE WOOD. - - -There can be no doubt whatever that a correct knowledge and choice of -the wood for the construction of violins is of the utmost importance. -Both these qualifications, however, can only be gained by experience, -since that alone can prove which kind of wood is the most suitable and -produces the best results. - -The back, the ribs, the neck, and the head should be of maple, and -neither too hard, nor too soft, nor yet too deeply grained. In every -case light wood should be selected, and I consider Hungarian maple the -best for the purpose. For the belly, the so-called white fir or pine -should be used, as both kinds of wood possess sufficient resonance, and -are easily manipulated. These woods too must be as light as possible, -and should have neither very narrow nor very broad, but regular and -well-formed concentric circles. The Tyrol and the neighbouring cantons -of Switzerland produce the best wood for this purpose. It is to be -observed that the pieces used must be split and not cut. - -In my opinion, the much praised American pine is too soft and -resinous, and neither do I consider the American maple qualified for -the construction of violins. The wood used by myself is obtained from -Schoenbach, near Eger, in Bohemia, where large supplies for the needs -of instrument makers are always on hand to be selected from. The age -of the wood I consider of only very small importance; if it has been -laying by for five years, ready cut or split, as the case may be, for -the construction of a violin, it will then be sufficiently dry and will -need no further preparation. I have exactly ascertained the weight -of wood which had been laid by for drying for five years, and then, -having weighed it again at the end of twenty years, have found it had -not become perceptibly lighter. All the violins made by me, some 1600 -instruments, have always weighed from 260 to 275 grammes, without the -pegs, finger-board, and tail-piece, a weight which I have generally -found to be that of the violins constructed by Stradivarius. - - - - -II. OF THE CONSTRUCTION. - - -For the space of thirty years I have worked upon the plan of -Stradivarius solely, for I consider that his instruments and their -proportions are the most perfect that can be found. Why, therefore, -should I have taken any other as my model? I have repaired at least -three hundred undoubtedly genuine violins constructed by this great -master, besides having seen and handled many others, and consequently -have had frequent opportunities of thoroughly studying his work, and of -gauging and copying his most beautiful instruments. As the creations -of this incomparable maker seem perfect in every detail, I have never -attempted to make any additions of my own, but have strictly adhered to -specimens produced by him in his prime (1700 to 1720) as my models, and -have found that they differ but very slightly from one another. In Fig. -1., I have given the outlines of a violin of this period (1713) with -the blocks. - - - - -III. THE RIBS (Fig. 1. a). - - -The ribs should be 1¹⁄₂ m/m. thick, and very neatly and evenly planed; -the height should be about 30 m/m. at first. The ribs are curved to -their correct form by means of a hot bending iron, or still better by -a copper clew, and then glued to the blocks. After this, the ribs next -to the back are to be made true to receive the linings. The latter must -be 8 m/m. high, 2¹⁄₂ m/m. thick, and must be made of lime-wood. The -middle linings are to be let into the blocks, so that they cannot break -loose. The blocks must also be made of lime-wood. The edges of the ribs -and the surface of the rim, before being glued on to the prepared back, -must again be very carefully adjusted, so that they appear like one -even surface. This being done, the superfluous wood of the blocks must -be cut away to the shape of the mould (_see_ Fig. 5). The ribs from the -bottom block to the side blocks are then regulated to a height of about -30 m/m., and from the side blocks to the top block (Fig. 3) they are -gradually decreased by 2¹⁄₂ m/m., that is, until 27¹⁄₂ m/m. is reached. -This diminution in the height is most practically thought out and -executed by Stradivarius, the belly obtaining thereby a tension which -offers the necessary resistance to the neck. The upper linings must be -adjusted to the ribs in the same way, and as a matter of course, they -must be curved to the shape of the ribs. The superfluous wood of the -blocks being cut away, the mould is removed. - - - - -IV. THE BACK AND EDGES. - - -It is not of importance whether the back be made in one or two pieces; -nevertheless, Stradivarius seems to have given the preference to a -divided back. I also consider it more advantageous, as, being joined, -it offers greater resistance, and is not so easily pressed outwards on -the sound-post side, as is the case with violins having the back cut in -one piece. The edges of the mid-rib and corners should be 4 m/m. thick, -whereas the upper and lower edges of the back (Fig. 1 ee/ee), gradually -decreasing from the corners, become 1 m/m. thinner. - - - - -V. THE BELLY. - - -The belly must be composed of two parts, and has to be joined together -so exactly that the narrow year-rings are in the middle of the same; -the outer ring which should not be more than 2 m/m. broad and very -equally disposed, may run towards the edges. The edges must be of the -same thickness as those of the back. - - - - -VI. THE ARCHING. - - -It does not seem to me probable that Stradivarius acted without -mature deliberation in making the arch of the back and belly, taken -together, of the same height as the ribs, viz.: 30 m/m.; of course, -I am speaking now of the violins made during his prime. If the back -and belly are placed one upon the other, the height will amount to 30 -m/m., the entire external diameter, therefore, must be 60 m/m., since -the ribs, as already stated, have a height of 30 m/m. I am certainly -of the opinion, that Stradivarius substantiated these proportions -by experiments. There are, however, exceptions; the greatest of the -deviations from this rule which has come under my notice, consisted in -the middle line measuring 70 m/m., reckoning from the upper edge of the -belly to the lower edge of the back. No doubt, this violin, made in -1710, was an experiment, the average measurement being considered to -be from 58 to 62 m/m. Now and again, Stradivarius made the arch lower, -whether intentionally or from want of wood, I am not in a position to -say. In this case he makes the ribs correspondingly higher, so that -the above-mentioned measurement may still be 60 m/m. Stradivarius has -also occasionally made the arch of the back less than 15 m/m., and by -way of compensation, in this case, has increased the arch of the belly. -I am of opinion, however, that these deviations are to be ascribed -more to experiment than to accident. He never trusted to chance in -his work, but in the most careful way reflected upon it and took into -consideration all circumstances in connection with it. The arch given -as an example in Fig. 6, is taken from a Stradivarius violin of the -year 1713, and as the belly and back are both of equal height, viz.: 15 -m/m., the entire height amounts to 60 m/m. - - - - -VII. THE PURFLING. - - -The purfling is always placed 4 m/m. from the edge and is 1¹⁄₂ m/m. -wide. It consists of three parts, the two outermost of which are -prepared from maple and stained black, while the middle part is made of -the same kind of wood, but unstained. It is of the utmost importance -that the purfling should only be inserted to the depth of one-third -of the thickness of the edges, otherwise the edge will very easily -break off. In the work of Stradivarius, one finds continually on the -back, both above and below, a peg of maple-wood, by means of which he -fastened the back to the block, and the half of this peg is inserted -in the purfling. In violins having a divided back, one finds another -purfling on the bottom block, along the joint of the ribs, but with -backs made in one piece it scarcely ever occurs, because then the under -ribs, as far as the middle rib, are prepared in one piece. The purfling -is not to be regarded as an embellishment, as many suppose it is. It -considerably strengthens the back and the belly towards the edges, and -at the same time offers a protection, especially for the belly, against -cracks, if the instrument, for example, should be opened for repairs -by an inexperienced workman. I will even go so far as to assert that -if the purfling were not employed, old violins could not exist without -numberless cracks, for any violent blow would cause cracks, without -the additional strength given by the purfling, and the greater number -of old and costly violins would come down to us spoilt, or at least -damaged. - -The purfling also has this advantage that if perchance the edges get -broken off, they can easily be replaced and the good appearance of the -instrument restored without much trouble. - - - - -VIII. WORKING-OUT THE THICKNESSES OF THE BELLY AND BACK. - - -The thickness of the breast in the back amounts to 4 m/m. at the spot -where the sound-post stands and remains the same to a distance of 50 -m/m. towards the bottom block, and 60 m/m. towards the upper block, -while it decreases to 3 m/m. towards the middle rib. The cheeks must -be 1 to 2 m/m. thick. I have assured myself by numberless measurements -that Stradivarius often changed the thickness of the back; and has even -gone so far as to make it 6 m/m., while the belly which he made from -the soundest and most perfect wood, with very evenly disposed grain, -measured always exactly 2¹⁄₂ m/m. - - - - -IX. THE F-HOLES. - - -A well-formed and proportioned F has a great deal to do with enhancing -the appearance of a violin. The F represented in Fig. 7 is a most -perfect specimen of what it should be. Anyone wishing to cut the -F-holes in the belly, should take Fig. 7 and place it in such a way -that the line a/a be exactly 195 m/m. from the outer and upper edge, -and _b b_ almost upon the point of the belly. This will give the right -position of the F-holes and at the same time the measurement of the -body. The greatest width of the opening of the F-holes must be 6 m/m. -The width of the breast between the two upper excisions must never be -narrower than the width of the bridge. In the accompanying illustration -these are very wide apart and might without disadvantage be placed 2 -m/m. nearer together. On violins where this distance of the F-holes -is less than 40 m/m., either a narrower bridge must be used or the -bass-bar must be cut out a little, so that the latter may lie close -on to the upper F-hole. The lower lobes of the F-holes are always -slanted outwards by Stradivarius, thus presenting a more symmetrical -appearance. Both incisions are small, but clearly cut. - - - - -X. THE BASS-BAR. - - -After the F-holes have been cut out, the bass-bar can be fixed. It is -made of pine and should be prepared in such a way that the year-rings -lie perpendicularly to the belly. The height of the bass-bar under the -bridge is 10 m/m. and at the two ends 4 m/m. The bass-bar must be 6 -m/m. thick in the middle, decreasing in thickness by 1 m/m. towards -the ends. The length should be 280 m/m. The bass-bar must be glued -on so that it lies 35 m/m. from the bottom edge and 40 m/m. from the -upper one. In order to determine exactly the position of the beam, -the width of the bridge should be precisely marked as 40 m/m. on the -inside of the belly and the bass-bar should then be placed to coincide -exactly with the G-foot of the bridge, giving it at the same time such -a slanting position as to bring its upper end within 4 or 6 m/m. of the -middle line of the belly, while its lower end should, on the contrary, -be purposely placed farther away from it. (_See_ illustration). - -In order that the bass-bar may obtain the right tension, the side of -it lying next the belly must be slightly curved, sufficiently so for -both ends, before they are glued, to stand away about 2 m/m. In the -process of glueing, the ends must be firmly pressed down. The height -of the bass-bar under the bridge should be 8 m/m., while at the ends -the measurement should amount to 4 m/m. It is scarcely necessary to -remark that the proportions of the bass-bar vary in different violins, -according as they are smaller or larger, high or flat, strong or weak. -A few examples are given here. In a violin of the ordinary type, no -matter whether it be large or small, the proportions will be found to -coincide with the above statement, while a highly arched violin has -a less slanting and less tightened beam than the latter. In the case -of wood of a thickness less than 1¹⁄₂ m/m., the beam should be 1 to 2 -m/m. more towards the interior, and also be placed from 3 to 5 m/m. -more slanting, and must in that case also be from 1 to 2 m/m. thicker. -A bass-bar under strong tension gives a sharp and clear tone, while -one of less tension gives a fuller and softer one. With bass-bars of -the height of 12 and even 15 m/m. (so-called acoustic bass-bars), it -is not possible to achieve any success. The fixing of the bass-bar -completes the interior construction of the violin, and consequently the -glueing-on of the belly can now be proceeded with. - - - - -XI. THE HEAD OR NECK. - - -In Fig. 8 we have a very beautiful model, representing as it does a -perfect specimen of Stradivarius. Its form can be obtained by exactly -copying the external outline and the measurements I-XV. The inner -curve of the head must be worked out as shewn in Fig. 8 _b_. The back -at the head (Fig. 8 _c_) should be 4 m/m. thick on the upper side and -gradually increase by 3 m/m. towards the under side, so that at this -point it reaches a thickness of 7 m/m. The peg-holes must be placed -exactly as shewn in the model. If they have short heads, they can be -placed a few millimetres nearer together from A to G without destroying -the appearance of the instrument. The wood for the head and neck must -always be so chosen that the grain and surface lie horizontally. - - - - -XII. THE DIMENSIONS, LENGTH OF NECK AND BODY. - - -None of the old violin makers have attached more importance to the -right position of the F-holes than Stradivarius; hence we gather that -he fully recognised the importance of the dimensions of the body, and -in his violins we always find that the same measurement is retained -between the interior incision of the F-holes and the upper edge. We -shall see later on the great advantages that would accrue to the -musician, if all violin makers would observe the same rules in the -adjustment of the dimensions. I repeatedly have cut off the necks -of hundreds of violins, and by correcting the proportions have made -the possessors of them entirely contented. How many a student has -drudged on through life with a badly proportioned instrument, and in -consequence has never succeeded in obtaining that certainty on his -instrument after which he has diligently striven. We must now, however, -enter rather more into particulars. - -I hope that what is to follow, may enable everyone to judge and prove -for himself, whether his violin has the correct dimensions or not. We -will adhere to the measurement accepted by Stradivarius (_see_ Fig. 1 -_a a a_), which is exactly 195 m/m. from the upper edge to the incision -of the F-hole, and call it the normal measurement. From this we learn -that the length of the neck, that is to say, the distance from the -lower edge of the nut (the point where the finger-board begins) to the -upper edge of the belly (_b b_) should be exactly 130 m/m., and the -whole length of the body should bear the same proportion to the length -of the neck, as 195 m/m. bears to 130 m/m., or to put it still more -plainly, if we take the total of the two lengths, namely 325 m/m., and -divide it by five, the length of the body should be equal to three -of these parts and that of the neck to two of them. Should a violin -have a longer or shorter body measure than that given above, the neck -must still be in proportion with it of two to three, that is to say, -if the whole measure be divided into five parts, two of such parts -will give the length of the neck. By these means, correct dimensions -will be obtained, and a performer will easily accustom himself to the -proportionate position of the neck, and forthwith obtain certainty of -execution. If only the proportion of the neck to the body be correct, -a performer will scarcely notice, whether the whole measure from the -bridge to the upper nut is 5 to 10 m/m. longer or shorter. Great care -must be taken in placing the upper end of the finger-board; it should -be placed exactly at right angles with the under curve of the head -(_a_), a point which is often paid very little attention to, and yet is -one which is of the utmost importance. For instance, if the upper nut -be placed too far beyond the angle (_a_), the hand must of necessity -be stretched backwards in an uncomfortable position, or the fingers -will fall too high upon the strings. On the other hand, if the nut be -placed too low, the hand has no certain position upon the curve of the -neck, and consequently will play flat in the first position and sharp -in the third. It has often been said to me by musicians, and especially -amateurs, that their violins played sharp in the first position and -flat in the higher ones, and the contrary also has often come under my -notice. The sole cause of these imperfections is the disproportionate -relation in the length of the body and the neck, for whatever may be -the distance between the bridge and the nut, whether long or short, the -position of the different tones themselves is exactly determined by -the laws of acoustics, and always remains in the same relation to the -vibrating string. - -I have given in Fig. 12 the exact position of the tones on the -A-string, according to the normal measurement of 325 m/m. given above. -The first tone played (B flat) is always exactly the eighteenth part of -the whole length of the string from the nut to the bridge; the second -tone is the eighteenth part from the first tone, and so on. If the -finger-board is 268 m/m. long, the high E on the A-string will coincide -with the lower end of the same. The above-mentioned imperfection is -also caused by the neck being either too long or too short; in the -first case a performer would play too sharp in the third position, and -too flat in the second; in the higher positions also, he would have -difficulty in finding the correct place for the fingers. - - - - -XIII. THE FINGER-BOARD AND NUT. - - -Both these portions of the instrument must be made of ebony (Fig. 12). -Before the finger-board is glued, the surfaces to be joined must be -made particularly smooth. The length is 268 m/m. in an instrument of -normal size, and in those which are longer and shorter, the necessary -proportion is easily determined. The width of the upper end, near the -nut, is 24 m/m., while at the lower end it measures 45 m/m. - -The curve at the nut should be the same as the curve of the bridge, the -thickness being from 4 to 5 m/m. Whilst the centre of the finger-board -should form a straight line lengthways, it must be hollowed out under -the E-string equally to the depth of 1 m/m., and under the G-string to -1¹⁄₂ m/m., in order to prevent the jarring and rattling of the strings. -The thickness of the nut must be 5 m/m. on the under side and 4 m/m. on -the upper. The distance between the two outer string-grooves must be -from 16 to 18 m/m. The strings lie at the nut (_a_) in the case of E, -A, and D-strings at a distance of ¹⁄₂ m/m. from the finger-board, the -G-string 1 m/m. The thickness of the neck, including the finger-board, -is 18 m/m. at the upper curve (Fig. 8_b_ I.) for a hand of ordinary -size, and 24 m/m. at the lower curve (Fig. 8_b_ II); but this thickness -can be altered according to the wish of the performer. - - - - -XIV. THE POSITION OF THE NECK. - - -The neck of the violin must be regulated according to the width of -the finger-board. It must be cut about 7 m/m. longer than the length -required, when in position, in order to allow for its insertion in the -block; the entire length of the neck from the nut to the end should -measure 135 m/m. When this has been duly arranged, the neck can be -fitted into the block. The small semi-circular elongation of the back -of the violin, in common with the upper block, serves principally to -support the neck and keep it in position, at the same time giving the -performer a correct hold. - -The finger-board having been glued to the neck, it is of the utmost -importance that the latter should be fitted in very carefully, so that -it protrude 5 m/m. from the belly (Fig. 8_e_). - -If the gauge be placed on the centre of the finger-board in the line -_a a_ (Fig. I and II), the end _a_ (Fig. 9, third plate) should fall -exactly on the line of connection between the innermost excisions of -the F-holes, having its centre under the place where the bridge stands, -so that the finger-board may exactly coincide with the measure. - -This arrangement gives us not only the correct position of the -finger-board, but also, as we shall see later on, the right height of -the bridge, 35 m/m., and also the suitable position of the strings -according to their height. The measurement marked upon the gauge (Fig. -9), viz.: from _a_ (beginning of the nut) as far as the upper edge -of the belly _b_ (end of the neck) and thence to _a_ (place of the -bridge) must be in such proportion to one another as to give the violin -practical dimensions and height of bridge. - - - - -XV. THE TAIL-PIECE (Fig. 11). - - -This part of the instrument exercises a great influence on the tone, -although the fact is doubted by a great many performers. I will -endeavour to briefly demonstrate my idea upon the subject. In the -first place, I would remark in reference to the shape and size of the -tail-piece that the upper curve must resemble the curve of the bridge. - -The semi-circular ridge at the upper end is called the saddle and -must project about 1 m/m. The upper and movable end of the tail-piece -is not arranged at right angles with the middle line of the same, -but inclines about 1¹⁄₂ m/m. towards the G-string. This is done in -order to balance, so to speak, the crooked position of the tail-piece -which has been occasioned by the greater tension of the E-string in -comparison with the G-string, and also to keep the upper edge of the -tail-piece parallel with the upper edge of the bridge, which is very -necessary to the elegant appearance of the lower portion of the violin. -The space between the incisions for G and E-strings should be 30 m/m. -The length of the strings below the bridge from the upper edge of the -same to the saddle on the tail-piece should be 55 m/m., and then the -A-string behind the bridge will give the high E. If the proportion of -the tail-piece to the bridge be changed, that is to say, lengthened or -shortened by the use of a larger or smaller tail-piece with the same -length of the tail-piece fastener, the tension of the strings also -becomes altered, and the tone and vibrations are thereby affected. - -If, for instance, the tail-piece is so constructed that the portion of -the A-string behind the bridge gives F, the other strings must also be -correspondingly slackened, for the tension of a string reaches not only -from the bridge to the nut as many suppose, but from the tail-piece -to the peg. In consequence of this, the pressure of the strings on -the instrument can be increased or lessened by means of a longer or -shorter tail-piece, whereby the tone is correspondingly modified. -The gut for the tail-piece should be from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 m/m. thick. -The before-mentioned variations of tone can also be obtained by the -lengthening or shortening of the gut of the tail-piece. - -The rest, over which the gut passes, must be made of ebony and be 40 -m/m. long by 5 m/m. wide, and must rise 3 m/m. from the belly. The -button, round which the gut passes, must also be made of ebony, and has -to be inserted into the centre of the lower block. - - - - -XVI. THE PEGS. - - -These are generally made of ebony, and care must be taken that they are -inserted exactly in the places marked in Fig. 8. The distance of the -pegs from the upper edge of the outer side of the violin head should -not be more than 10 m/m. The holes in the pegs, through which the -strings pass, should be 2 m/m. from the inside of the head. The outer -ends of the pegs should be level with the sides of the head and be -slightly rounded off. - - - - -XVII. THE BRIDGE (Fig. 10). - - -The bridge is made of maple and should be 40 m/m. wide and 35 m/m. -high, at the bottom it should be 4 m/m. thick, on the top 1¹⁄₂ m/m. The -width of the feet is not to exceed 9¹⁄₂ m/m. (Fig. 10 _a_). - -The feet must be fitted exactly to the belly and towards the back -should be sloped sufficiently, so that on the lower side of the bridge -they form an exact right-angle with the centre line of the belly. - -It is advisable to powder the feet a little with chalk to prevent the -bridge from being so easily displaced as would otherwise be the case. - -The feet of the bridge should stand exactly on the line of connection -between the notches of the F-holes (Fig. 7 _a a_) and at an equal -distance from them on either side. The notches on the bridge for the E -and G-strings are to be 34 m/m. apart. - -The lower end of the E-string should not be more than 4 m/m. from the -finger-board at the very most, that of the G-string about 6 m/m., but -never more. The height of the strings is, however, very often adjusted -to the wish of the performer. Herr Joachim, the great violinist, always -adopts the above measurements on his violins. - -A highly arched violin does not require so high a bridge as a flatter -one, whilst an instrument with a thin belly needs a thicker bridge -than one of stronger make. These proportions must be carried out very -precisely, as well as the measurements with regard to the hardness or -softness of the wood and the strength or weakness of the bridge. - -If the bridge be thick below and thin above, the tone will be clearer -than it would be if these conditions were reversed. If the heart in the -bridge be cut rather small and high up, the tone is rendered harder, -a large heart cut in the surface of the bridge will make the tone -fuller. The use of hard wood for the belly necessitates soft wood for -the bridge, and loosely grained and soft wood needs a hard wood for the -latter. - - - - -XVIII. THE SOUND-POST. - - -The sound-post must be made of pine; in a violin with a belly of normal -thickness its diameter should be 6 m/m. and show by its year-rings an -age from 10 to 12 years. With a thicker belly it should be made about -1 m/m. less in diameter. It must also be shaped so that both ends -exactly fit the arch of the violin. When the sound-post has been placed -in position, its year-rings should be at right angles with those of the -belly, and furthermore, it should be of such a height as to raise the -belly ¹⁄₂ m/m. - -The sound-post must be placed upon the belly under the outer edge of -the E-string foot of the bridge, but it should rest upon the back from -2 to 4 m/m. nearer the centre. In its normal position the sound-post -must be placed nearer to the tail-piece than the bridge by about 2¹⁄₂ -m/m., that is to say, by about the thickness of the belly. - -If one wishes to procure any other tone than that obtained by the -above-mentioned position, the latter should not be altered, at most, -by more than 1 to 2 m/m. A sound-post only ¹⁄₂ m/m. longer, renders -the tone sharper and thinner, while if it be approached nearer the -bridge, the tone becomes clearer and more acute. If the sound-post be -moved more towards the centre of the instrument, the G-string sounds -clearer and firmer, but the E-string on the other hand grows slacker -and softer; if the sound-post be moved from its normal position about 1 -m/m. further below the bridge, the tone will be softer, but at the same -time more muffled. - -I should like to warn very strongly all performers, whether -professionals or amateurs, against attempting to alter the position of -either the sound-post or the bridge themselves, for such attempts will -in most cases be endless, and very seldom lead to the desired end. I -could adduce proofs of this in many cases, but I will give only one -here by way of example. The celebrated violinist Ole Bull who, after -the loss of all his property in America in the year 1860, took up his -residence with me in Hanover, could not play for an hour together, -without experimenting with his violin, it having become a perfect -passion with him to be always altering the position of the bridge and -the sound-post. Indeed, these experiments often lasted until quite a -short time before the beginning of a concert, and usually ended with -a malediction on himself and his otherwise precious “Josephi” (Joseph -Guarnerius del Gesù). - -Still, I must confess that I learned a great deal from his many -researches by dint of observation. When Ole Bull was playing at the -Theatre in Hanover in cold weather, he always breathed a few times into -the F-holes of his violin before the curtain rose, in order to warm the -air in the interior of the instrument, as he was of opinion that in -consequence the violin spoke better. He may have been right. He also -carried E-strings in his waist-coat pocket during wet weather, because -he maintained, and perhaps justly, that they then lasted better. - - - - -XIX. THE STRINGS. - - -It is very difficult to decide on the quality of the strings; their -being light or dark-coloured has no influence on their durability. The -natural colour of the strings is dark, those of a lighter shade having -been sulphured to render them so. The Italian strings are at present -unrivalled, but care should be taken that they do not feel too hard. -The choice of strings according to their thickness really depends on -personal preference, but as a rule those only of medium size should be -chosen, which according to the French measurement of strings would be -14 degrees for the G-string, 23 for the D-string, 14 for the A-string -and 12 for the E-string. - -The larger the violin is, the weaker should be the strings. The notion -that a half-sized violin should be thin-stringed, is quite erroneous, -it should, on the contrary, have strings as strong as a full-sized -violin, for owing to the shorter length, the strings, if they be a -weak set, become too loose and do not give a true sound, and offer -insufficient resistance under the pressure of the bow. - - - - -XX. THE VARNISH. - - -There has been for many years a warm and to a certain extent undecided -discussion going on, as to whether the varnishes used by Italian -violin makers were oily and slow-drying ones or spirit varnishes. To -investigate this matter still further, and to arrive at a correct -decision, will have to be left to the future. - -I am, however, of the opinion that the old masters made use of spirit -or turpentine-oil until the middle of last century, but never of -linseed-oil or turpentine-oil varnish, as has been often asserted. - -My opinion is supported by the following fact. In the year 1860 I had -the good fortune to buy a real Nicolas Amati lute which, although very -much knocked about, still retained a thick varnish of a most beautiful -gold colour. For my information I took the varnish off, in order to -submit it to the analysis of a clever chemist who, being a talented -amateur violinist and also a pupil of Spohr, showed great interest in -the matter and communicated to me, as the result of his investigations, -this fact that among the quantity of varnish which I had placed at -his command, there was not a trace of evidence which could lead to -the conclusion that linseed-oil varnish had been employed. In my own -researches I found that the varnish was immediately dissolved in spirit -of only 90 per cent., while in oil of turpentine and linseed-oil it was -scarcely affected, and by boiling only a small portion was removed. -Again, it is not probable that Stradivarius, in whose workshops about -3000 violins were constructed, would have employed linseed-oil varnish, -seeing that it would have required, in each case, six months for the -violin to get thoroughly dry. - -There are many resins which can be dissolved in spirit or oil of -turpentine and used as a varnish, but the preference is generally -given to spirit-varnish, as it dries more quickly. If the spirit or -turpentine-oil has evaporated, only the resin remains. - -The greatest attention must be paid to the relative hardness of the -resin and the wood, for both should be of equal density. Hard resin -hinders the vibration of the wood, and consequently the quality of tone -suffers. - -In my opinion shellac is quite useless for varnishing, it being much -too hard, but nevertheless it has been employed from 1770 until the -present day, in spite of the fact that the best Italian instrument -might be completely ruined by being varnished with it. In all -Italian instruments the old varnish is always very porous and soft, -and can easily be dissolved by the application of spirit, while, -on the contrary, it requires great labour to effect the same with -turpentine-oil. - -Many people affirm that the art of mixing the old Italian varnish which -so charms us with its brilliancy and transparency, is no longer known, -in fact that it is for ever lost. I am, however, of a different opinion -and maintain that our modern varnishes are quite equal to the old, but -what we have until now been unable to produce scientifically, is the -golden-brown underground which the wood of older violins has acquired -through age and other influences. The proof of this I have practically -demonstrated by varnishing old instruments with new varnish, in -imitation, with such success as to arouse the wonder of connoisseurs, -the varnish being quite as transparent and brilliant-coloured as that -used for violins in the last century. - -To one other point I should like to call the attention of the reader. -In repairing old instruments of the time of Stradivarius, I have found -that an extraordinary cleanliness and lustre is obtained by rubbing -them with fine glass-paper, which is not the case with Tyrolean and -German violins of the same period. At a later period this peculiarity -was not met with so frequently and from the year 1750 not at all. -This fact I primarily attribute to the action of the resin on the -wood, being also of opinion that the fine dust of the same gets firmly -embedded in the pores of the wood, and in this way, in course of time, -a more or less thick coating is formed. - -For one of these practical experiments I took a violin which I had -made myself and the tone of which, through years of constant use, -was therefore quite familiar to me, and gave it a coating of melted -resin on the inside. After this was thoroughly dry and hardened, I -polished the interior and remarked the before-mentioned smoothness -and brilliancy, the obtaining of which firmly convinced me that I had -discovered the truth of the matter. Although, after the glueing-on of -the belly, all the former conditions of the violin remained unchanged, -yet I was astonished to find what a common-place squeaking tone the -instrument had acquired, thus proving to me that with the melted resin -I had obtained in the end exactly the opposite effect to that which -I had hoped for. I was obliged to rest contented with my failure for -a long time, when a lucky chance came to my help. It was this. I -received a real Caspar da Salo violoncello to repair, which had never -been opened and seemed to have been very little played upon, for on it -I found an old bridge which I kept as an ornament and curiosity, and -which, on closer examination, I found was varnished. - -When I opened the cello, it was proved without a doubt that the -interior had also received a coating, probably to protect it from dust, -etc. The celebrated old violin makers, in so doing, have pursued the -right course. This discovery also corroborated my own supposition, -that the old masters varnished both the interior and bridge of the -instruments they made. - -Now, in order to obtain a ground-priming, I paint the violin, when -the wood of which it is constructed is in its natural state, three -times with pyroligneous acid, with which a golden-brown underground -is obtained, then follows a single coating of spirit and balsam of -Peru in equal proportions, and after this one or two coats of a weak -solution of gamboge or anotta, and finally, over all this I lay on 20 -or 30 coats of varnish, according to the thickness required, and which -I prepare as follows:-- - -Dissolve three parts of sandarac and one of mastic in spirit, and in -order that it may be laid on more easily, add to each half a litre[1] -of varnish, ten drops of oil of turpentine. The colouring of the -varnish I obtain from turmeric and bright red sandal-wood by means -of spirit, using more or less of it, according as to the lighter or -darker tone required; if a brown varnish is required, some soot from -turpentine-oil must be added to the spirit. - -I have made innumerable experiments with other resins and colouring -matters, but in the end I always return to those mentioned above as the -best to be used. Dragon’s-blood must not be employed, the colour not -being fast. - -When the varnish is dry, it must be very carefully polished with finely -powdered pumice-stone and linseed-oil, applied with a piece of felt. - -[1] Half a litre is very little less than a pint. - - - - -XXI. THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE VIOLIN. - - -The instrument must always be kept thoroughly clean and after use -should be carefully wiped with a silken duster. If any dirt should -adhere to it in spite of this precaution, it can be easily removed by -gently rubbing it with a piece of linen, moistened with water, and -afterwards wiping it over with oil of turpentine. The resin which -accumulates on the finger-board and strings can in case of necessity be -removed by the application of a little spirit, or better still, by that -of Eau de Cologne, but great care must be taken in the application, so -that the spirit does not touch the varnish of the belly. Spirit will -also clean the strings and remove from them the effect of perspiration; -the bridge may also be cleaned with it from time to time, but as stated -before, it must be done cautiously, especially in the case of old and -valuable instruments of the time of Stradivarius. The more recently -constructed violins are mostly varnished with shellac, and consequently -are not at all or, at most, very little affected by the application of -spirit. - -The interior of a violin should also sometimes be cleaned; this can be -done by putting through the F-holes two or three handsfull of coarse -kitchen salt; these should then be covered with a cloth and the salt -well shaken about, as it will thus collect all the dust, resin and -other dirt which may be in the violin, and when shaken out will carry -all these impurities with it. The strings need not be taken off in -order to effect this. - - - - -XXII. THE BOW. - - -The rank of François Tourte among violin-bow makers is as prominent a -one as that of Stradivarius among violin makers. Each has supplemented -the other. Tourte died in Paris in the year 1835 at the age of 88, -after a life of usefulness almost as long as that of Stradivarius. He -brought the making of bows for stringed instruments to such perfection, -that those bow makers who have succeeded him, have never deviated very -far from the models he left. - -I shall here make a few observations on the characteristics of real -Tourte bows which have crossed my path. - -The quality, as well as money value, of a bow seems entirely to depend -upon its shape, whether the stick is round or angular. The whole length -of the bow from the point to the end of the nut should be 73 to 74 -centimetres. The length of the hair from the lower part of the head to -the nut should measure 63 to 64 centimetres; the height of the head, -including the stick and little plate, should be 23 m/m.; the height of -the nut with the stem to the outer ring where the hair begins 26 m/m.; -the breadth of the hair on the nut should be 11 m/m. and on the head 10 -m/m. Tourte used from 80 to 100 hairs for each bow, but now from 150 to -160 are taken. - -The stick is made of pernambuco-wood and the nut of ebony; tortoise -shell is however sometimes used for the latter. The decoration may -be in German silver, silver or gold, according to the taste of the -possessor. - -The stick must be cut straight and lengthwise with the year-rings, and -is manipulated in such a way that the side-view of the bow shows the -horizontal lines. In this condition the prepared stick must be held -over a charcoal fire, be gradually and equally heated, until it can be -scarcely retained in the hand, and then it must immediately be bent -across the knee to such a degree, as to allow the hair of the finished -bow to lie upon the stick. To accomplish this successfully, a certain -amount of practice and caution is required. The weight of a bow when -finished should not exceed 54 to 57 grammes. - -Tourte never polished nor varnished his bows, but only rubbed them -smooth with pumice-stone and linseed-oil. If varnish or polish of any -kind is ever found on one of his bows, it has been put there by other -hands than his. - -It has often been asserted that Tourte only left the bows unpolished -and unvarnished from indifference, and I must confess that I also was -once inclined to this opinion until experience taught me better. About -30 years ago I bought a beautiful Tourte bow which I handed to Herr -Joachim to test. - -It seemed to him a little too heavy and I, in my want of experience, -imagined that I could easily meet the wish for diminished weight by -a little work. I therefore commenced to work with a file upon this -master-piece, but I found the outer layer of the wood as hard as iron, -so that I had a great deal of trouble to lessen the circumference of -the stick. This circumstance surprised me at the outset of the work, -as in the making of new bows it never occurred to me before. I was in -great fear, however, at the conclusion of my troublesome work, for I -found that the bow had lost all elasticity and power. - -Later on, the opportunity presented itself to me of proving that -pernambuco-wood when exposed to the air hardens very rapidly, and I -am therefore convinced that this fact was known to Tourte and that -consequently he only rubbed his bows with linseed-oil, in order to -leave them open to the influence of the air, so that the sticks might -become hardened and strengthened. - -If an old bow has become slightly twisted, which may happen with bows -of the best make, this fault can be rectified by cautiously bending -it back to its original form over a charcoal fire, and the bow will -regain its former elasticity. - -If any of my readers desire to study more closely the history of -stringed instruments, I can recommend to them very highly the work upon -the subject from the pen of Julius Rühlmann. - - -Göttingen, Druck der Dieterich’schen Univ.-Buchdruckerei von W. Fr. -Kästner. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -The figures referenced throughout the text are not present in the -original English edition. You can find them in the original German Die -Geige und ihr Bau on Google Books. - -The numbering of the chapter on the back and edges was corrected to IV. -instead of VI. in the table of contents. - -Page 10: “intsrument makers” changed to “instrument makers” - -Page 28: “My opininon” changed to “My opinion” - -Page 34: “opon this master-piece” changed to “upon this master-piece” - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIOLIN AND THE ART OF ITS -CONSTRUCTION *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/old/68575-0.zip b/old/68575-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 0b4f779..0000000 --- a/old/68575-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68575-h.zip b/old/68575-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1f8d8c4..0000000 --- a/old/68575-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/68575-h/68575-h.htm b/old/68575-h/68575-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index d85f3a2..0000000 --- a/old/68575-h/68575-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1824 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<head> - <meta charset="UTF-8" /> - <title> - The Violin and the Art of its Construction, by August Riechers—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover" /> - <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -text-indent: 1em; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p4 {margin-top: 4em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; width: 60%;} -table.autotable td, -table.autotable th { padding: 4px; } - -.x-ebookmaker table {width: 95%;} -.page {width: 3em;} -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: 0; -} /* page numbers */ - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 5%; -} - -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} - -.right {text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -/* Footnotes */ - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.small {font-size: 0.8em;} -.big {font-size: 1.2em;} - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The violin and the art of its construction, by August Riechers</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The violin and the art of its construction</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>a treatise on the Stradivarius violin</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: August Riechers</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 20, 2022 [eBook #68575]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIOLIN AND THE ART OF ITS CONSTRUCTION ***</div> - -<h1>THE VIOLIN<br /> -<span class="small">AND THE ART OF ITS CONSTRUCTION.</span></h1> - -<p class="center p2 big">A Treatise on the Stradivarius Violin</p> - -<p class="center small">by</p> - -<p class="center big">AUGUST RIECHERS,</p> - -<p class="center small">Bow and Violin Maker.</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center">[Copyright of the German and English Editions.]</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center">With four lithographed plates.</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center p4"> -<span class="big">GOETTINGEN.</span><br /> -CARL SPIELMEYER’S NACHFOLGER.<br /> -FRANZ WUNDER.<br /> -1895.</p> - -<p class="center small">Copyright entered at Stationers Hall, London. -</p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center"> -To his highly revered Friend and Patron<br /> -<br /> -<span class="big"><span class="smcap">Dr.</span> JOSEPH JOACHIM</span><br /> -<br /> -this work is humbly dedicated<br /> -<br /> -by<br /> -<br /> -THE AUTHOR.<br /> -</p></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - - -<p>The highly esteemed author of this treatise, a renowned violin maker -and clever repairer, of old instruments, having been denied the -pleasure of publishing the same himself, death intervening on January -4th, 1893, his work on the violin and the art of its construction is -now published, in accordance with his last wishes.</p> - -<p>This treatise will, no doubt, be all the more welcome to professionals -and amateurs alike, as to my knowledge no such work has yet been -published treating the subject in such an able and thorough manner.</p> - -<p>May, therefore, the valuable labours of the deceased author meet with -that universal acknowledgment, which in a very high degree they deserve.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p><i>Göttingen</i>, April 1895.</p> -</div> - -<p class="right"> -The Editor.<br /> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Index">Index.</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_7">Page 7</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#I_OF_THE_WOOD">I.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_10">Of the Wood</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_10">” 10</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#II_OF_THE_CONSTRUCTION">II.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_11">Of the Construction</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_11">” 11</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#III_THE_RIBS_Fig_1_a">III.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_12">The Ribs</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_12">” 12</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#IV_THE_BACK_AND_EDGES">IV.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_12">The Back and Edges</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_12">” 12</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#V_THE_BELLY">V.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_13">The Belly</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_13">” 13</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#VI_THE_ARCHING">VI.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_13">The Arching</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_13">” 13</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#VII_THE_PURFLING">VII.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_14">The Purfling</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_14">” 14</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#VIII_WORKING-OUT_THE_THICKNESSES_OF_THE_BELLY_AND_BACK">VIII.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_15">Working-out the Thicknesses of the Belly and Back</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_15">” 15</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#IX_THE_F-HOLES">IX.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_16">The F-holes</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_16">” 16</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#X_THE_BASS-BAR">X.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_16">The Bass-bar</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_16">” 16</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XI_THE_HEAD_OR_NECK">XI.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_18">The Head or Neck</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_18">” 18</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XII_THE_DIMENSIONS_LENGTH_OF_NECK_AND_BODY">XII.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_18">The Dimensions, Length of Neck and Body</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_18">” 18</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XIII_THE_FINGER-BOARD_AND_NUT">XIII.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_21">The Finger-board and Nut</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_21">” 21</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XIV_THE_POSITION_OF_THE_NECK">XIV.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_21">The Position of the Neck</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_21">” 21</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XV_THE_TAIL-PIECE_Fig_11">XV.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_22">The Tail-piece</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_22">” 22</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XVI_THE_PEGS">XVI.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_24">The Pegs</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_24">” 24</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XVII_THE_BRIDGE_Fig_10">XVII.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_24">The Bridge</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_24">” 24</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XVIII_THE_SOUND-POST">XVIII.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_25">The Sound-post</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_25">” 25</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XIX_THE_STRINGS">XIX.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_27">The Strings</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_27">” 27</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XX_THE_VARNISH">XX.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_28">The Varnish</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_28">” 28</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XXI_THE_CLEANING_AND_CARE_OF_THE_VIOLIN">XXI.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_32">The Cleaning and Care of the Violin</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_32">” 32</a> -</td></tr><tr> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#XXII_THE_BOW">XXII.</a> -</td><td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_32">The Bow</a> -</td><td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_32">” 32</a> -</td></tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In giving publicity to this treatise on the construction of the violin, -I believe I am only meeting the wishes of many, both professionals and -amateurs, who are desirous of learning more particulars concerning the -construction of their instruments, but am also giving a few practical -hints to my younger comrades in the art of violin-making. I hope also -to induce some of my older colleagues to give forth other works of the -same kind, which may serve to ennoble and promote our art.</p> - -<p>Times without number I have been asked by friends of the violin, during -my 40 years’ work as a violin maker, to recommend books giving more -exact information on the construction of that instrument, but the only -answer that I have been able to give has been that German technical -literature on the subject is very meagre, and that information from -foreign works is mostly impoverished by feeble translations.</p> - -<p>Very few authors understand the general build of the violin thoroughly, -they pay most attention to individual points, those most calculated -to attract the attention of amateurs; for example, the proportions of -single parts, their size, etc. There is only one work I can recommend -which forms an exception to this rule and that is “The Memoirs of -Antonio<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> Bagatella” (Padua 1786) which has been published in a German -translation by Franz Wunder at Göttingen.</p> - -<p>It contains not only rules for the construction of violins, violas, -violincellos and basses, as well as distinct instructions for the -restoration of the outline of the belly and back of these instruments, -but also enters into particulars concerning the adjustment and -renovation of the same.</p> - -<p>Just as the celebrated violin makers of the last century took the -work of Amati as their model, I have found my master, to whom I, in -common with all my colleagues, look up with admiration, recognising in -him not only the gifted artist, but also the industrious workman and -far-sighted observer—I mean Antonio Stradivarius. Even as a boy I was -very fond of listening to the tales told me by my father, who was a -musician in Hanover and as an autodidact occupied himself with violin -work, tales in which he described to me the wonderful productions -of the old Italian masters and more particularly those of Amati, -Stradivarius, and Guarnerius. He regarded it as a great distinction -shewn to him, and often referred to the fact, that he was allowed -to open and repair the Guarnerius violin of Paganini. After a time, -however, he altered his tone and cursed the Italian as well as his -violin, for the great artist, although he praised my father’s work and -expressed himself perfectly satisfied with it, objected to the payment -of three Thalers for the repairs, considering it an exorbitant charge, -and this, coupled with similar experiences at the hands of others, so -incensed my father that he would not give his consent to my earnest -wish to enter the violin factory; consequently I was apprenticed at the -age of 13 years to a pianoforte manufacturer with whom I remained for -two years, in spite of having shown aptitude in the other direction by -constructing a violin with my own hands at the age of 12 years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -<p>Being released from my apprenticeship at the beginning of my fifteenth -year, I wandered away to Markneukirchen, there to study violin-making -under Hans Ficker; later on I was occupied for a longer period as -assistant to Ludwig Bausch, senior, in Leipsic, to whom I owe a great -deal, for he strengthened me in my love of the art and settled my -belief in the unequalled excellence of Stradivarius. My admiration for -this great master increased even more and more, and in my fifteenth -year, when I began to work for myself in Hanover, I learned even -more of his works and had the happiness to find that my reverence -for him was shared by my friend and patron Dr. Joseph Joachim. Ten -years later, the latter exchanged Hanover for Berlin, and as I was -no longer contented in the former town after his departure in 1872, -I gladly responded to a call from him to prosecute my work in the -Prussian capital and to continue to study the works of Stradivarius, -in order to handle them more worthily and to infuse his ideas into my -own productions. I venture to hope that I have succeeded in the first -part of my undertaking, for, a great number of instruments have passed -through my hands in the course of years, including the incomparable -violins belonging to Dr. Joachim. The second part of my task I do -not consider accomplished. I am ever taking more and more trouble in -working, in the hope of bringing my attempt nearer and nearer to the -hitherto unattained excellence of Stradivarius. I therefore beg my -readers to regard the following chapters with a favourable eye and -to accept them in a friendly spirit as the result of long years of -experience, the confirmation or rectification of which I shall accept -with joy.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="I_OF_THE_WOOD">I. OF THE WOOD.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>There can be no doubt whatever that a correct knowledge and choice of -the wood for the construction of violins is of the utmost importance. -Both these qualifications, however, can only be gained by experience, -since that alone can prove which kind of wood is the most suitable and -produces the best results.</p> - -<p>The back, the ribs, the neck, and the head should be of maple, and -neither too hard, nor too soft, nor yet too deeply grained. In every -case light wood should be selected, and I consider Hungarian maple the -best for the purpose. For the belly, the so-called white fir or pine -should be used, as both kinds of wood possess sufficient resonance, and -are easily manipulated. These woods too must be as light as possible, -and should have neither very narrow nor very broad, but regular and -well-formed concentric circles. The Tyrol and the neighbouring cantons -of Switzerland produce the best wood for this purpose. It is to be -observed that the pieces used must be split and not cut.</p> - -<p>In my opinion, the much praised American pine is too soft and -resinous, and neither do I consider the American maple qualified for -the construction of violins. The wood used by myself is obtained from -Schoenbach, near Eger, in Bohemia, where large supplies for the needs -of instrument<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> makers are always on hand to be selected from. The age -of the wood I consider of only very small importance; if it has been -laying by for five years, ready cut or split, as the case may be, for -the construction of a violin, it will then be sufficiently dry and will -need no further preparation. I have exactly ascertained the weight -of wood which had been laid by for drying for five years, and then, -having weighed it again at the end of twenty years, have found it had -not become perceptibly lighter. All the violins made by me, some 1600 -instruments, have always weighed from 260 to 275 grammes, without the -pegs, finger-board, and tail-piece, a weight which I have generally -found to be that of the violins constructed by Stradivarius.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="II_OF_THE_CONSTRUCTION">II. OF THE CONSTRUCTION.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>For the space of thirty years I have worked upon the plan of -Stradivarius solely, for I consider that his instruments and their -proportions are the most perfect that can be found. Why, therefore, -should I have taken any other as my model? I have repaired at least -three hundred undoubtedly genuine violins constructed by this great -master, besides having seen and handled many others, and consequently -have had frequent opportunities of thoroughly studying his work, and of -gauging and copying his most beautiful instruments. As the creations -of this incomparable maker seem perfect in every detail, I have never -attempted to make any additions of my own, but have strictly adhered to -specimens produced by him in his prime (1700 to 1720) as my models, and -have found that they differ but very slightly from one another. In Fig. -1., I have given the outlines of a violin of this period (1713) with -the blocks.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="III_THE_RIBS_Fig_1_a">III. THE RIBS (Fig. 1. a).</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The ribs should be 1¹⁄₂ m/m. thick, and very neatly and evenly planed; -the height should be about 30 m/m. at first. The ribs are curved to -their correct form by means of a hot bending iron, or still better by -a copper clew, and then glued to the blocks. After this, the ribs next -to the back are to be made true to receive the linings. The latter must -be 8 m/m. high, 2¹⁄₂ m/m. thick, and must be made of lime-wood. The -middle linings are to be let into the blocks, so that they cannot break -loose. The blocks must also be made of lime-wood. The edges of the ribs -and the surface of the rim, before being glued on to the prepared back, -must again be very carefully adjusted, so that they appear like one -even surface. This being done, the superfluous wood of the blocks must -be cut away to the shape of the mould (<i>see</i> Fig. 5). The ribs -from the bottom block to the side blocks are then regulated to a height -of about 30 m/m., and from the side blocks to the top block (Fig. 3) -they are gradually decreased by 2¹⁄₂ m/m., that is, until 27¹⁄₂ m/m. -is reached. This diminution in the height is most practically thought -out and executed by Stradivarius, the belly obtaining thereby a tension -which offers the necessary resistance to the neck. The upper linings -must be adjusted to the ribs in the same way, and as a matter of -course, they must be curved to the shape of the ribs. The superfluous -wood of the blocks being cut away, the mould is removed.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV_THE_BACK_AND_EDGES">IV. THE BACK AND EDGES.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>It is not of importance whether the back be made in one or two pieces; -nevertheless, Stradivarius seems to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> have given the preference to a -divided back. I also consider it more advantageous, as, being joined, -it offers greater resistance, and is not so easily pressed outwards on -the sound-post side, as is the case with violins having the back cut in -one piece. The edges of the mid-rib and corners should be 4 m/m. thick, -whereas the upper and lower edges of the back (Fig. 1 ee/ee), gradually -decreasing from the corners, become 1 m/m. thinner.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="V_THE_BELLY">V. THE BELLY.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The belly must be composed of two parts, and has to be joined together -so exactly that the narrow year-rings are in the middle of the same; -the outer ring which should not be more than 2 m/m. broad and very -equally disposed, may run towards the edges. The edges must be of the -same thickness as those of the back.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI_THE_ARCHING">VI. THE ARCHING.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>It does not seem to me probable that Stradivarius acted without -mature deliberation in making the arch of the back and belly, taken -together, of the same height as the ribs, viz.: 30 m/m.; of course, -I am speaking now of the violins made during his prime. If the back -and belly are placed one upon the other, the height will amount to 30 -m/m., the entire external diameter, therefore, must be 60 m/m., since -the ribs, as already stated, have a height of 30 m/m. I am certainly -of the opinion, that Stradivarius substantiated these proportions -by experiments. There are, however, exceptions; the greatest of the -deviations from this rule which has come under my notice, consisted in -the middle line measuring 70 m/m., reckoning from the upper edge of the -belly to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> lower edge of the back. No doubt, this violin, made in -1710, was an experiment, the average measurement being considered to -be from 58 to 62 m/m. Now and again, Stradivarius made the arch lower, -whether intentionally or from want of wood, I am not in a position to -say. In this case he makes the ribs correspondingly higher, so that -the above-mentioned measurement may still be 60 m/m. Stradivarius has -also occasionally made the arch of the back less than 15 m/m., and by -way of compensation, in this case, has increased the arch of the belly. -I am of opinion, however, that these deviations are to be ascribed -more to experiment than to accident. He never trusted to chance in -his work, but in the most careful way reflected upon it and took into -consideration all circumstances in connection with it. The arch given -as an example in Fig. 6, is taken from a Stradivarius violin of the -year 1713, and as the belly and back are both of equal height, viz.: 15 -m/m., the entire height amounts to 60 m/m.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII_THE_PURFLING">VII. THE PURFLING.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The purfling is always placed 4 m/m. from the edge and is 1¹⁄₂ m/m. -wide. It consists of three parts, the two outermost of which are -prepared from maple and stained black, while the middle part is made of -the same kind of wood, but unstained. It is of the utmost importance -that the purfling should only be inserted to the depth of one-third -of the thickness of the edges, otherwise the edge will very easily -break off. In the work of Stradivarius, one finds continually on the -back, both above and below, a peg of maple-wood, by means of which he -fastened the back to the block, and the half of this peg is inserted -in the purfling. In violins having a divided back, one finds another -purfling on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> the bottom block, along the joint of the ribs, but with -backs made in one piece it scarcely ever occurs, because then the under -ribs, as far as the middle rib, are prepared in one piece. The purfling -is not to be regarded as an embellishment, as many suppose it is. It -considerably strengthens the back and the belly towards the edges, and -at the same time offers a protection, especially for the belly, against -cracks, if the instrument, for example, should be opened for repairs -by an inexperienced workman. I will even go so far as to assert that -if the purfling were not employed, old violins could not exist without -numberless cracks, for any violent blow would cause cracks, without -the additional strength given by the purfling, and the greater number -of old and costly violins would come down to us spoilt, or at least -damaged.</p> - -<p>The purfling also has this advantage that if perchance the edges get -broken off, they can easily be replaced and the good appearance of the -instrument restored without much trouble.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VIII_WORKING-OUT_THE_THICKNESSES_OF_THE_BELLY_AND_BACK">VIII. WORKING-OUT THE THICKNESSES OF THE BELLY AND BACK.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The thickness of the breast in the back amounts to 4 m/m. at the spot -where the sound-post stands and remains the same to a distance of 50 -m/m. towards the bottom block, and 60 m/m. towards the upper block, -while it decreases to 3 m/m. towards the middle rib. The cheeks must -be 1 to 2 m/m. thick. I have assured myself by numberless measurements -that Stradivarius often changed the thickness of the back; and has even -gone so far as to make it 6 m/m., while the belly which he made from -the soundest and most perfect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> wood, with very evenly disposed grain, -measured always exactly 2¹⁄₂ m/m.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IX_THE_F-HOLES">IX. THE F-HOLES.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>A well-formed and proportioned F has a great deal to do with enhancing -the appearance of a violin. The F represented in Fig. 7 is a most -perfect specimen of what it should be. Anyone wishing to cut the -F-holes in the belly, should take Fig. 7 and place it in such a way -that the line a/a be exactly 195 m/m. from the outer and upper edge, -and <i>b b</i> almost upon the point of the belly. This will give the -right position of the F-holes and at the same time the measurement of -the body. The greatest width of the opening of the F-holes must be -6 m/m. The width of the breast between the two upper excisions must -never be narrower than the width of the bridge. In the accompanying -illustration these are very wide apart and might without disadvantage -be placed 2 m/m. nearer together. On violins where this distance of the -F-holes is less than 40 m/m., either a narrower bridge must be used -or the bass-bar must be cut out a little, so that the latter may lie -close on to the upper F-hole. The lower lobes of the F-holes are always -slanted outwards by Stradivarius, thus presenting a more symmetrical -appearance. Both incisions are small, but clearly cut.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="X_THE_BASS-BAR">X. THE BASS-BAR.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>After the F-holes have been cut out, the bass-bar can be fixed. It is -made of pine and should be prepared in such a way that the year-rings -lie perpendicularly to the belly. The height of the bass-bar under the -bridge is 10 m/m. and at the two ends 4 m/m. The bass-bar must be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> 6 -m/m. thick in the middle, decreasing in thickness by 1 m/m. towards -the ends. The length should be 280 m/m. The bass-bar must be glued -on so that it lies 35 m/m. from the bottom edge and 40 m/m. from the -upper one. In order to determine exactly the position of the beam, -the width of the bridge should be precisely marked as 40 m/m. on the -inside of the belly and the bass-bar should then be placed to coincide -exactly with the G-foot of the bridge, giving it at the same time such -a slanting position as to bring its upper end within 4 or 6 m/m. of the -middle line of the belly, while its lower end should, on the contrary, -be purposely placed farther away from it. (<i>See</i> illustration).</p> - -<p>In order that the bass-bar may obtain the right tension, the side of -it lying next the belly must be slightly curved, sufficiently so for -both ends, before they are glued, to stand away about 2 m/m. In the -process of glueing, the ends must be firmly pressed down. The height -of the bass-bar under the bridge should be 8 m/m., while at the ends -the measurement should amount to 4 m/m. It is scarcely necessary to -remark that the proportions of the bass-bar vary in different violins, -according as they are smaller or larger, high or flat, strong or weak. -A few examples are given here. In a violin of the ordinary type, no -matter whether it be large or small, the proportions will be found to -coincide with the above statement, while a highly arched violin has -a less slanting and less tightened beam than the latter. In the case -of wood of a thickness less than 1¹⁄₂ m/m., the beam should be 1 to 2 -m/m. more towards the interior, and also be placed from 3 to 5 m/m. -more slanting, and must in that case also be from 1 to 2 m/m. thicker. -A bass-bar under strong tension gives a sharp and clear tone, while -one of less tension gives a fuller and softer one. With bass-bars of -the height of 12 and even 15 m/m. (so-called acoustic bass-bars), it -is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> possible to achieve any success. The fixing of the bass-bar -completes the interior construction of the violin, and consequently the -glueing-on of the belly can now be proceeded with.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XI_THE_HEAD_OR_NECK">XI. THE HEAD OR NECK.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In Fig. 8 we have a very beautiful model, representing as it does a -perfect specimen of Stradivarius. Its form can be obtained by exactly -copying the external outline and the measurements I-XV. The inner curve -of the head must be worked out as shewn in Fig. 8 <i>b</i>. The back at -the head (Fig. 8 <i>c</i>) should be 4 m/m. thick on the upper side and -gradually increase by 3 m/m. towards the under side, so that at this -point it reaches a thickness of 7 m/m. The peg-holes must be placed -exactly as shewn in the model. If they have short heads, they can be -placed a few millimetres nearer together from A to G without destroying -the appearance of the instrument. The wood for the head and neck must -always be so chosen that the grain and surface lie horizontally.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XII_THE_DIMENSIONS_LENGTH_OF_NECK_AND_BODY">XII. THE DIMENSIONS, LENGTH OF NECK AND BODY.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>None of the old violin makers have attached more importance to the -right position of the F-holes than Stradivarius; hence we gather that -he fully recognised the importance of the dimensions of the body, and -in his violins we always find that the same measurement is retained -between the interior incision of the F-holes and the upper edge. We -shall see later on the great advantages that would accrue to the -musician, if all violin makers would observe the same rules in the -adjustment of the dimensions. I repeatedly have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> cut off the necks -of hundreds of violins, and by correcting the proportions have made -the possessors of them entirely contented. How many a student has -drudged on through life with a badly proportioned instrument, and in -consequence has never succeeded in obtaining that certainty on his -instrument after which he has diligently striven. We must now, however, -enter rather more into particulars.</p> - -<p>I hope that what is to follow, may enable everyone to judge and prove -for himself, whether his violin has the correct dimensions or not. We -will adhere to the measurement accepted by Stradivarius (<i>see</i> -Fig. 1 <i>a a a</i>), which is exactly 195 m/m. from the upper edge to -the incision of the F-hole, and call it the normal measurement. From -this we learn that the length of the neck, that is to say, the distance -from the lower edge of the nut (the point where the finger-board -begins) to the upper edge of the belly (<i>b b</i>) should be exactly -130 m/m., and the whole length of the body should bear the same -proportion to the length of the neck, as 195 m/m. bears to 130 m/m., or -to put it still more plainly, if we take the total of the two lengths, -namely 325 m/m., and divide it by five, the length of the body should -be equal to three of these parts and that of the neck to two of them. -Should a violin have a longer or shorter body measure than that given -above, the neck must still be in proportion with it of two to three, -that is to say, if the whole measure be divided into five parts, two of -such parts will give the length of the neck. By these means, correct -dimensions will be obtained, and a performer will easily accustom -himself to the proportionate position of the neck, and forthwith obtain -certainty of execution. If only the proportion of the neck to the body -be correct, a performer will scarcely notice, whether the whole measure -from the bridge to the upper nut is 5 to 10 m/m. longer or shorter.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> -Great care must be taken in placing the upper end of the finger-board; -it should be placed exactly at right angles with the under curve of -the head (<i>a</i>), a point which is often paid very little attention -to, and yet is one which is of the utmost importance. For instance, if -the upper nut be placed too far beyond the angle (<i>a</i>), the hand -must of necessity be stretched backwards in an uncomfortable position, -or the fingers will fall too high upon the strings. On the other hand, -if the nut be placed too low, the hand has no certain position upon -the curve of the neck, and consequently will play flat in the first -position and sharp in the third. It has often been said to me by -musicians, and especially amateurs, that their violins played sharp in -the first position and flat in the higher ones, and the contrary also -has often come under my notice. The sole cause of these imperfections -is the disproportionate relation in the length of the body and the -neck, for whatever may be the distance between the bridge and the nut, -whether long or short, the position of the different tones themselves -is exactly determined by the laws of acoustics, and always remains in -the same relation to the vibrating string.</p> - -<p>I have given in Fig. 12 the exact position of the tones on the -A-string, according to the normal measurement of 325 m/m. given above. -The first tone played (B flat) is always exactly the eighteenth part of -the whole length of the string from the nut to the bridge; the second -tone is the eighteenth part from the first tone, and so on. If the -finger-board is 268 m/m. long, the high E on the A-string will coincide -with the lower end of the same. The above-mentioned imperfection is -also caused by the neck being either too long or too short; in the -first case a performer would play too sharp in the third position, and -too flat in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> the second; in the higher positions also, he would have -difficulty in finding the correct place for the fingers.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIII_THE_FINGER-BOARD_AND_NUT">XIII. THE FINGER-BOARD AND NUT.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Both these portions of the instrument must be made of ebony (Fig. 12). -Before the finger-board is glued, the surfaces to be joined must be -made particularly smooth. The length is 268 m/m. in an instrument of -normal size, and in those which are longer and shorter, the necessary -proportion is easily determined. The width of the upper end, near the -nut, is 24 m/m., while at the lower end it measures 45 m/m.</p> - -<p>The curve at the nut should be the same as the curve of the bridge, the -thickness being from 4 to 5 m/m. Whilst the centre of the finger-board -should form a straight line lengthways, it must be hollowed out under -the E-string equally to the depth of 1 m/m., and under the G-string -to 1¹⁄₂ m/m., in order to prevent the jarring and rattling of the -strings. The thickness of the nut must be 5 m/m. on the under side and -4 m/m. on the upper. The distance between the two outer string-grooves -must be from 16 to 18 m/m. The strings lie at the nut (<i>a</i>) in -the case of E, A, and D-strings at a distance of ¹⁄₂ m/m. from the -finger-board, the G-string 1 m/m. The thickness of the neck, including -the finger-board, is 18 m/m. at the upper curve (Fig. 8<i>b</i> I.) for -a hand of ordinary size, and 24 m/m. at the lower curve (Fig. 8<i>b</i> -II); but this thickness can be altered according to the wish of the -performer.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIV_THE_POSITION_OF_THE_NECK">XIV. THE POSITION OF THE NECK.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The neck of the violin must be regulated according to the width of -the finger-board. It must be cut about 7 m/m.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> longer than the length -required, when in position, in order to allow for its insertion in the -block; the entire length of the neck from the nut to the end should -measure 135 m/m. When this has been duly arranged, the neck can be -fitted into the block. The small semi-circular elongation of the back -of the violin, in common with the upper block, serves principally to -support the neck and keep it in position, at the same time giving the -performer a correct hold.</p> - -<p>The finger-board having been glued to the neck, it is of the utmost -importance that the latter should be fitted in very carefully, so that -it protrude 5 m/m. from the belly (Fig. 8<i>e</i>).</p> - -<p>If the gauge be placed on the centre of the finger-board in the line -<i>a a</i> (Fig. I and II), the end <i>a</i> (Fig. 9, third plate) -should fall exactly on the line of connection between the innermost -excisions of the F-holes, having its centre under the place where the -bridge stands, so that the finger-board may exactly coincide with the -measure.</p> - -<p>This arrangement gives us not only the correct position of the -finger-board, but also, as we shall see later on, the right height of -the bridge, 35 m/m., and also the suitable position of the strings -according to their height. The measurement marked upon the gauge (Fig. -9), viz.: from <i>a</i> (beginning of the nut) as far as the upper edge -of the belly <i>b</i> (end of the neck) and thence to <i>a</i> (place -of the bridge) must be in such proportion to one another as to give the -violin practical dimensions and height of bridge.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XV_THE_TAIL-PIECE_Fig_11">XV. THE TAIL-PIECE (Fig. 11).</h2> -</div> - - -<p>This part of the instrument exercises a great influence on the tone, -although the fact is doubted by a great many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> performers. I will -endeavour to briefly demonstrate my idea upon the subject. In the -first place, I would remark in reference to the shape and size of the -tail-piece that the upper curve must resemble the curve of the bridge.</p> - -<p>The semi-circular ridge at the upper end is called the saddle and -must project about 1 m/m. The upper and movable end of the tail-piece -is not arranged at right angles with the middle line of the same, -but inclines about 1¹⁄₂ m/m. towards the G-string. This is done in -order to balance, so to speak, the crooked position of the tail-piece -which has been occasioned by the greater tension of the E-string in -comparison with the G-string, and also to keep the upper edge of the -tail-piece parallel with the upper edge of the bridge, which is very -necessary to the elegant appearance of the lower portion of the violin. -The space between the incisions for G and E-strings should be 30 m/m. -The length of the strings below the bridge from the upper edge of the -same to the saddle on the tail-piece should be 55 m/m., and then the -A-string behind the bridge will give the high E. If the proportion of -the tail-piece to the bridge be changed, that is to say, lengthened or -shortened by the use of a larger or smaller tail-piece with the same -length of the tail-piece fastener, the tension of the strings also -becomes altered, and the tone and vibrations are thereby affected.</p> - -<p>If, for instance, the tail-piece is so constructed that the portion of -the A-string behind the bridge gives F, the other strings must also be -correspondingly slackened, for the tension of a string reaches not only -from the bridge to the nut as many suppose, but from the tail-piece -to the peg. In consequence of this, the pressure of the strings on -the instrument can be increased or lessened by means of a longer or -shorter tail-piece, whereby the tone is correspondingly modified. -The gut for the tail-piece should be from 1¹⁄₂ to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> 2 m/m. thick. -The before-mentioned variations of tone can also be obtained by the -lengthening or shortening of the gut of the tail-piece.</p> - -<p>The rest, over which the gut passes, must be made of ebony and be 40 -m/m. long by 5 m/m. wide, and must rise 3 m/m. from the belly. The -button, round which the gut passes, must also be made of ebony, and has -to be inserted into the centre of the lower block.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVI_THE_PEGS">XVI. THE PEGS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>These are generally made of ebony, and care must be taken that they are -inserted exactly in the places marked in Fig. 8. The distance of the -pegs from the upper edge of the outer side of the violin head should -not be more than 10 m/m. The holes in the pegs, through which the -strings pass, should be 2 m/m. from the inside of the head. The outer -ends of the pegs should be level with the sides of the head and be -slightly rounded off.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVII_THE_BRIDGE_Fig_10">XVII. THE BRIDGE (Fig. 10).</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The bridge is made of maple and should be 40 m/m. wide and 35 m/m. -high, at the bottom it should be 4 m/m. thick, on the top 1¹⁄₂ m/m. The -width of the feet is not to exceed 9¹⁄₂ m/m. (Fig. 10 <i>a</i>).</p> - -<p>The feet must be fitted exactly to the belly and towards the back -should be sloped sufficiently, so that on the lower side of the bridge -they form an exact right-angle with the centre line of the belly.</p> - -<p>It is advisable to powder the feet a little with chalk to prevent the -bridge from being so easily displaced as would otherwise be the case.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p> - -<p>The feet of the bridge should stand exactly on the line of connection -between the notches of the F-holes (Fig. 7 <i>a a</i>) and at an equal -distance from them on either side. The notches on the bridge for the E -and G-strings are to be 34 m/m. apart.</p> - -<p>The lower end of the E-string should not be more than 4 m/m. from the -finger-board at the very most, that of the G-string about 6 m/m., but -never more. The height of the strings is, however, very often adjusted -to the wish of the performer. Herr Joachim, the great violinist, always -adopts the above measurements on his violins.</p> - -<p>A highly arched violin does not require so high a bridge as a flatter -one, whilst an instrument with a thin belly needs a thicker bridge -than one of stronger make. These proportions must be carried out very -precisely, as well as the measurements with regard to the hardness or -softness of the wood and the strength or weakness of the bridge.</p> - -<p>If the bridge be thick below and thin above, the tone will be clearer -than it would be if these conditions were reversed. If the heart in the -bridge be cut rather small and high up, the tone is rendered harder, -a large heart cut in the surface of the bridge will make the tone -fuller. The use of hard wood for the belly necessitates soft wood for -the bridge, and loosely grained and soft wood needs a hard wood for the -latter.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XVIII_THE_SOUND-POST">XVIII. THE SOUND-POST.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The sound-post must be made of pine; in a violin with a belly of normal -thickness its diameter should be 6 m/m. and show by its year-rings an -age from 10 to 12 years. With a thicker belly it should be made about -1 m/m.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> less in diameter. It must also be shaped so that both ends -exactly fit the arch of the violin. When the sound-post has been placed -in position, its year-rings should be at right angles with those of the -belly, and furthermore, it should be of such a height as to raise the -belly ¹⁄₂ m/m.</p> - -<p>The sound-post must be placed upon the belly under the outer edge of -the E-string foot of the bridge, but it should rest upon the back from -2 to 4 m/m. nearer the centre. In its normal position the sound-post -must be placed nearer to the tail-piece than the bridge by about 2¹⁄₂ -m/m., that is to say, by about the thickness of the belly.</p> - -<p>If one wishes to procure any other tone than that obtained by the -above-mentioned position, the latter should not be altered, at most, -by more than 1 to 2 m/m. A sound-post only ¹⁄₂ m/m. longer, renders -the tone sharper and thinner, while if it be approached nearer the -bridge, the tone becomes clearer and more acute. If the sound-post be -moved more towards the centre of the instrument, the G-string sounds -clearer and firmer, but the E-string on the other hand grows slacker -and softer; if the sound-post be moved from its normal position about 1 -m/m. further below the bridge, the tone will be softer, but at the same -time more muffled.</p> - -<p>I should like to warn very strongly all performers, whether -professionals or amateurs, against attempting to alter the position of -either the sound-post or the bridge themselves, for such attempts will -in most cases be endless, and very seldom lead to the desired end. I -could adduce proofs of this in many cases, but I will give only one -here by way of example. The celebrated violinist Ole Bull who, after -the loss of all his property in America in the year 1860, took up his -residence with me in Hanover, could not play for an hour together, -without experimenting with his violin,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> it having become a perfect -passion with him to be always altering the position of the bridge and -the sound-post. Indeed, these experiments often lasted until quite a -short time before the beginning of a concert, and usually ended with -a malediction on himself and his otherwise precious “Josephi” (Joseph -Guarnerius del Gesù).</p> - -<p>Still, I must confess that I learned a great deal from his many -researches by dint of observation. When Ole Bull was playing at the -Theatre in Hanover in cold weather, he always breathed a few times into -the F-holes of his violin before the curtain rose, in order to warm the -air in the interior of the instrument, as he was of opinion that in -consequence the violin spoke better. He may have been right. He also -carried E-strings in his waist-coat pocket during wet weather, because -he maintained, and perhaps justly, that they then lasted better.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XIX_THE_STRINGS">XIX. THE STRINGS.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>It is very difficult to decide on the quality of the strings; their -being light or dark-coloured has no influence on their durability. The -natural colour of the strings is dark, those of a lighter shade having -been sulphured to render them so. The Italian strings are at present -unrivalled, but care should be taken that they do not feel too hard. -The choice of strings according to their thickness really depends on -personal preference, but as a rule those only of medium size should be -chosen, which according to the French measurement of strings would be -14 degrees for the G-string, 23 for the D-string, 14 for the A-string -and 12 for the E-string.</p> - -<p>The larger the violin is, the weaker should be the strings. The notion -that a half-sized violin should be thin-stringed, is quite erroneous, -it should, on the contrary, have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> strings as strong as a full-sized -violin, for owing to the shorter length, the strings, if they be a -weak set, become too loose and do not give a true sound, and offer -insufficient resistance under the pressure of the bow.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XX_THE_VARNISH">XX. THE VARNISH.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>There has been for many years a warm and to a certain extent undecided -discussion going on, as to whether the varnishes used by Italian -violin makers were oily and slow-drying ones or spirit varnishes. To -investigate this matter still further, and to arrive at a correct -decision, will have to be left to the future.</p> - -<p>I am, however, of the opinion that the old masters made use of spirit -or turpentine-oil until the middle of last century, but never of -linseed-oil or turpentine-oil varnish, as has been often asserted.</p> - -<p>My opinion is supported by the following fact. In the year 1860 I had -the good fortune to buy a real Nicolas Amati lute which, although very -much knocked about, still retained a thick varnish of a most beautiful -gold colour. For my information I took the varnish off, in order to -submit it to the analysis of a clever chemist who, being a talented -amateur violinist and also a pupil of Spohr, showed great interest in -the matter and communicated to me, as the result of his investigations, -this fact that among the quantity of varnish which I had placed at -his command, there was not a trace of evidence which could lead to -the conclusion that linseed-oil varnish had been employed. In my own -researches I found that the varnish was immediately dissolved in spirit -of only 90 per cent., while in oil of turpentine and linseed-oil it was -scarcely affected, and by boiling only a small portion was removed. -Again, it is not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> probable that Stradivarius, in whose workshops about -3000 violins were constructed, would have employed linseed-oil varnish, -seeing that it would have required, in each case, six months for the -violin to get thoroughly dry.</p> - -<p>There are many resins which can be dissolved in spirit or oil of -turpentine and used as a varnish, but the preference is generally -given to spirit-varnish, as it dries more quickly. If the spirit or -turpentine-oil has evaporated, only the resin remains.</p> - -<p>The greatest attention must be paid to the relative hardness of the -resin and the wood, for both should be of equal density. Hard resin -hinders the vibration of the wood, and consequently the quality of tone -suffers.</p> - -<p>In my opinion shellac is quite useless for varnishing, it being much -too hard, but nevertheless it has been employed from 1770 until the -present day, in spite of the fact that the best Italian instrument -might be completely ruined by being varnished with it. In all -Italian instruments the old varnish is always very porous and soft, -and can easily be dissolved by the application of spirit, while, -on the contrary, it requires great labour to effect the same with -turpentine-oil.</p> - -<p>Many people affirm that the art of mixing the old Italian varnish which -so charms us with its brilliancy and transparency, is no longer known, -in fact that it is for ever lost. I am, however, of a different opinion -and maintain that our modern varnishes are quite equal to the old, but -what we have until now been unable to produce scientifically, is the -golden-brown underground which the wood of older violins has acquired -through age and other influences. The proof of this I have practically -demonstrated by varnishing old instruments with new varnish, in -imitation, with such success as to arouse the wonder of connoisseurs, -the varnish being quite as transparent and brilliant-coloured as that -used for violins in the last century.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<p>To one other point I should like to call the attention of the reader. -In repairing old instruments of the time of Stradivarius, I have found -that an extraordinary cleanliness and lustre is obtained by rubbing -them with fine glass-paper, which is not the case with Tyrolean and -German violins of the same period. At a later period this peculiarity -was not met with so frequently and from the year 1750 not at all. -This fact I primarily attribute to the action of the resin on the -wood, being also of opinion that the fine dust of the same gets firmly -embedded in the pores of the wood, and in this way, in course of time, -a more or less thick coating is formed.</p> - -<p>For one of these practical experiments I took a violin which I had -made myself and the tone of which, through years of constant use, -was therefore quite familiar to me, and gave it a coating of melted -resin on the inside. After this was thoroughly dry and hardened, I -polished the interior and remarked the before-mentioned smoothness -and brilliancy, the obtaining of which firmly convinced me that I had -discovered the truth of the matter. Although, after the glueing-on of -the belly, all the former conditions of the violin remained unchanged, -yet I was astonished to find what a common-place squeaking tone the -instrument had acquired, thus proving to me that with the melted resin -I had obtained in the end exactly the opposite effect to that which -I had hoped for. I was obliged to rest contented with my failure for -a long time, when a lucky chance came to my help. It was this. I -received a real Caspar da Salo violoncello to repair, which had never -been opened and seemed to have been very little played upon, for on it -I found an old bridge which I kept as an ornament and curiosity, and -which, on closer examination, I found was varnished.</p> - -<p>When I opened the cello, it was proved without a doubt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> that the -interior had also received a coating, probably to protect it from dust, -etc. The celebrated old violin makers, in so doing, have pursued the -right course. This discovery also corroborated my own supposition, -that the old masters varnished both the interior and bridge of the -instruments they made.</p> - -<p>Now, in order to obtain a ground-priming, I paint the violin, when -the wood of which it is constructed is in its natural state, three -times with pyroligneous acid, with which a golden-brown underground -is obtained, then follows a single coating of spirit and balsam of -Peru in equal proportions, and after this one or two coats of a weak -solution of gamboge or anotta, and finally, over all this I lay on 20 -or 30 coats of varnish, according to the thickness required, and which -I prepare as follows:—</p> - -<p>Dissolve three parts of sandarac and one of mastic in spirit, and in -order that it may be laid on more easily, add to each half a litre<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -of varnish, ten drops of oil of turpentine. The colouring of the -varnish I obtain from turmeric and bright red sandal-wood by means -of spirit, using more or less of it, according as to the lighter or -darker tone required; if a brown varnish is required, some soot from -turpentine-oil must be added to the spirit.</p> - -<p>I have made innumerable experiments with other resins and colouring -matters, but in the end I always return to those mentioned above as the -best to be used. Dragon’s-blood must not be employed, the colour not -being fast.</p> - -<p>When the varnish is dry, it must be very carefully polished with finely -powdered pumice-stone and linseed-oil, applied with a piece of felt.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Half a litre is very little less than a pint.</p> - -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXI_THE_CLEANING_AND_CARE_OF_THE_VIOLIN">XXI. THE CLEANING AND CARE OF THE VIOLIN.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The instrument must always be kept thoroughly clean and after use -should be carefully wiped with a silken duster. If any dirt should -adhere to it in spite of this precaution, it can be easily removed by -gently rubbing it with a piece of linen, moistened with water, and -afterwards wiping it over with oil of turpentine. The resin which -accumulates on the finger-board and strings can in case of necessity be -removed by the application of a little spirit, or better still, by that -of Eau de Cologne, but great care must be taken in the application, so -that the spirit does not touch the varnish of the belly. Spirit will -also clean the strings and remove from them the effect of perspiration; -the bridge may also be cleaned with it from time to time, but as stated -before, it must be done cautiously, especially in the case of old and -valuable instruments of the time of Stradivarius. The more recently -constructed violins are mostly varnished with shellac, and consequently -are not at all or, at most, very little affected by the application of -spirit.</p> - -<p>The interior of a violin should also sometimes be cleaned; this can be -done by putting through the F-holes two or three handsfull of coarse -kitchen salt; these should then be covered with a cloth and the salt -well shaken about, as it will thus collect all the dust, resin and -other dirt which may be in the violin, and when shaken out will carry -all these impurities with it. The strings need not be taken off in -order to effect this.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="XXII_THE_BOW">XXII. THE BOW.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The rank of François Tourte among violin-bow makers is as prominent a -one as that of Stradivarius among violin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> makers. Each has supplemented -the other. Tourte died in Paris in the year 1835 at the age of 88, -after a life of usefulness almost as long as that of Stradivarius. He -brought the making of bows for stringed instruments to such perfection, -that those bow makers who have succeeded him, have never deviated very -far from the models he left.</p> - -<p>I shall here make a few observations on the characteristics of real -Tourte bows which have crossed my path.</p> - -<p>The quality, as well as money value, of a bow seems entirely to depend -upon its shape, whether the stick is round or angular. The whole length -of the bow from the point to the end of the nut should be 73 to 74 -centimetres. The length of the hair from the lower part of the head to -the nut should measure 63 to 64 centimetres; the height of the head, -including the stick and little plate, should be 23 m/m.; the height of -the nut with the stem to the outer ring where the hair begins 26 m/m.; -the breadth of the hair on the nut should be 11 m/m. and on the head 10 -m/m. Tourte used from 80 to 100 hairs for each bow, but now from 150 to -160 are taken.</p> - -<p>The stick is made of pernambuco-wood and the nut of ebony; tortoise -shell is however sometimes used for the latter. The decoration may -be in German silver, silver or gold, according to the taste of the -possessor.</p> - -<p>The stick must be cut straight and lengthwise with the year-rings, and -is manipulated in such a way that the side-view of the bow shows the -horizontal lines. In this condition the prepared stick must be held -over a charcoal fire, be gradually and equally heated, until it can be -scarcely retained in the hand, and then it must immediately be bent -across the knee to such a degree, as to allow the hair of the finished -bow to lie upon the stick. To accomplish this successfully, a certain -amount of practice and caution is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> required. The weight of a bow when -finished should not exceed 54 to 57 grammes.</p> - -<p>Tourte never polished nor varnished his bows, but only rubbed them -smooth with pumice-stone and linseed-oil. If varnish or polish of any -kind is ever found on one of his bows, it has been put there by other -hands than his.</p> - -<p>It has often been asserted that Tourte only left the bows unpolished -and unvarnished from indifference, and I must confess that I also was -once inclined to this opinion until experience taught me better. About -30 years ago I bought a beautiful Tourte bow which I handed to Herr -Joachim to test.</p> - -<p>It seemed to him a little too heavy and I, in my want of experience, -imagined that I could easily meet the wish for diminished weight by -a little work. I therefore commenced to work with a file upon this -master-piece, but I found the outer layer of the wood as hard as iron, -so that I had a great deal of trouble to lessen the circumference of -the stick. This circumstance surprised me at the outset of the work, -as in the making of new bows it never occurred to me before. I was in -great fear, however, at the conclusion of my troublesome work, for I -found that the bow had lost all elasticity and power.</p> - -<p>Later on, the opportunity presented itself to me of proving that -pernambuco-wood when exposed to the air hardens very rapidly, and I -am therefore convinced that this fact was known to Tourte and that -consequently he only rubbed his bows with linseed-oil, in order to -leave them open to the influence of the air, so that the sticks might -become hardened and strengthened.</p> - -<p>If an old bow has become slightly twisted, which may happen with bows -of the best make, this fault can be rectified by cautiously bending -it back to its original form<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> over a charcoal fire, and the bow will -regain its former elasticity.</p> - -<p>If any of my readers desire to study more closely the history of -stringed instruments, I can recommend to them very highly the work upon -the subject from the pen of Julius Rühlmann.</p> - - -<p class="center p4">Göttingen, Druck der Dieterich’schen Univ.-Buchdruckerei von W. Fr. -Kästner.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>The figures referenced throughout the text are not present in the -original English edition. You can find them in the original German Die -Geige und ihr Bau on <a href="https://books.google.fr/books?id=N2hxyAEACAAJ">Google Books</a>.</p> - -<p>The numbering of the chapter on the back and edges was corrected to IV. instead of VI. in the <a href="#Index">table of contents</a>.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_10">Page 10</a>: “intsrument makers” changed to “instrument makers”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_28">Page 28</a>: “My opininon” changed to “My opinion”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_34">Page 34</a>: “opon this master-piece” changed to “upon this master-piece”</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIOLIN AND THE ART OF ITS CONSTRUCTION ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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