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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6036ded --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #68173 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/68173) diff --git a/old/68173-0.txt b/old/68173-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e2758c6..0000000 --- a/old/68173-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,7007 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Progressive Chile, by Robert E. -Mansfield - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Progressive Chile - -Author: Robert E. Mansfield - -Release Date: May 25, 2022 [eBook #68173] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PROGRESSIVE CHILE *** - - - - - -PROGRESSIVE CHILE - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: A PAIR OF SPURS - - _Frontispiece_] - - - - - PROGRESSIVE CHILE - - - BY - - ROBERT E. MANSFIELD - - [Illustration] - - - NEW YORK - THE NEALE PUBLISHING COMPANY - 1913 - - - - - Copyright, 1913, by - THE NEALE PUBLISHING COMPANY - - - - - TO - MY WIFE - - - - -PREFACE - - -In the following presentation of Progressive Chile, no effort has -been made to elaborate, to give undue coloring to the picture, or to -magnify its defects. It is a record of impressions gained from personal -observations, of the life and customs of the people in one of the most -enlightened, progressive and interesting countries in South America. - -To attempt to conceal from view, to obscure the unsightly spots and -blemishes that mar the social structure and disfigure the body politic, -or to unnecessarily expose the moral and social defects and infirmities -of a people who possess so many admirable qualities, commendable -characteristics and desirable accomplishments, would be unjust, unfair. - -The truth is not always pleasant reading, and it may seem unkind to -withhold the cup that patriotic pride demands. But let those who know -the real life of Chile pass judgment, and if from long association -they have not become so accustomed and inured to national, social and -political deficiencies as to regard them as established and correct -principles, they will agree with one who regards the situation from an -unprejudiced viewpoint. - - R. E. M. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - GEOGRAPHICAL 11 - - BRIEF HISTORY 25 - - INDIANS 73 - - CLASSIFIED HUSBANDMEN 93 - - HABITS AND CUSTOMS 147 - - RELIGION 154 - - SUPERSTITIONS 167 - - MARRIAGES 172 - - BIRTHS AND DEATHS 179 - - SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 184 - - LANGUAGE 189 - - COURTS AND LEGAL PROCEDURE 191 - - CRIME 201 - - RAILWAYS 211 - - INDUSTRIAL INTERESTS 221 - - POPULATION AND COLONIZATION 231 - - VILLAGES AND CITIES 235 - - THE NATIONAL HYMN 250 - - - - -PROGRESSIVE CHILE - - - - -GEOGRAPHICAL - - -The Republic of Chile, beginning at latitude seventeen degrees, and -extending to the farthest southern limits of South America, forms a -narrow longitudinal strip of territory twenty-four hundred miles long, -and not exceeding two hundred miles in width in the extreme. It has an -area of 462,000 square miles, and a population of 3,500,000. - -Nature has been prodigal in the bestowal of her varied gifts upon -Chile. Its geographical formation represents a huge serpent with its -sinewy form stretched along the west coast of the continent, its head -resting in the arid desert of Atacama, and its tail coiled about the -wood-crowned hills and ice-bound islands of Tierra del Fuego. Upon -one side loom the Andes Mountains, their snow-capped heads in the -clouds and their feet in the ocean; upon the other stretches the -vast expanse of the Pacific. Bordered as it is by the ocean on one -side, and including within its limits a range of mountains reaching -in some places an altitude of 24,000 feet, Chile presents a variety -of geological, geographical and climatic conditions possessed by few -countries in the world. Being isolated by great natural barriers it -faces away from all the centers of population and ancient homes of -civilization, and of all the countries of South America it occupies the -most unfavorable position geographically, and is the most inaccessible -from Europe, North America and the Ear East. But with all its -isolation, its long struggle to gain a place among civilized nations, -its history of cruel and uncivilized warfare, Chile possesses natural -resources and attractions which intervening years have made known, and -which in the short period of her national life have won for this long -neglected daughter of the Spanish colonial family, a reputation for -wealth and beauty that has given to it a fame as wide as the world. - - -NAME. - -The name of Chile is of doubtful origin. During the Inca epoch it was -called Tilli, that being the name of a powerful and popular Araucanian -chief. It was pronounced “tele,” which translated means enemy. From -changes in the pronunciation, the word was finally converted into -Chile. Some authorities say that the name is derived from the Indian -word “Tchile,” or “Techile,” which signifies cold, having direct -reference to the snows of the Cordilleras, or the glaciers of the far -south. - - -DIVISION OF TERRITORY. - -Chile is divided into four zones,--“Mineral,” “Mineral and -Agricultural,” “Agricultural” and “Wooded and Fishing.” - -In the region of the “Mineral” or north zone, extending from the -province of Coquimbo on the south to the extreme north of the Republic, -rain is unknown; there is very little moisture and scarcely any -water in the streams. As a result of the arid condition of this -territory there is little spontaneous or cultivated vegetation, and -no agricultural interests worthy of mention. But the five provinces -comprising the zone abound in minerals, and form conjointly with the -agricultural resources of other sections the productive wealth of -Chile. Among the products of this section are nitrate of soda and -guano in quantities sufficient to enrich the lands of the world; there -are also deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, quicksilver, zinc, -bismuth, iron, manganese and borax. - -The provinces of Tarapaca and Antofagasta comprise the great nitrate or -saltpeter fields of South America, the richest and most extensive in -the world. The province of Tarapaca was acquired from Peru, in the war -with that country in 1879-81, and Antofagasta was Bolivian territory -previous to the same war. Until recent years this arid region, -designated as the pampa or “desierto de Atacama,” was considered -nonproductive and practically worthless. Now the products of nitrate -of soda alone amount to over 100,000,000 Chilean pesos annually, -and comprise two-thirds of the export business of the Republic. -This mineral zone covers an area of 235,000 square miles and has a -population of 355,000. The great mineral wealth of the country is not -limited to this particular section, however, as gold and other minerals -are found in a majority of the provinces in Chile, and mines are worked -from Tarapaca to Tierra del Fuego. - -It is within the limit of this zone that the once famous mines of -Chanarcillo and Copiapo are located, from which has been taken -millions of dollars worth of ore. But these and other silver mines, -once productive, have practically ceased to yield, from the lack of -application of modern mining methods, and the silver mining industry -has greatly depreciated in Chile in the last decade. Gold mining is -also less extensive than in former years, except in Tierra del Fuego, -and the product has greatly decreased in the northern zone. - -With the decrease in gold and silver mining in the Mineral zone has -come increased interest in the production of copper, which now forms -eighty per cent. of the metal exports from Chile. - -The Mineral and Agricultural zone may be defined as a section of -semi-mountainous, sparsely watered country, extending north from -Santiago, to the mineral zone. There are within the territory a -number of small streams extending from the mountains to the sea, in -the valleys of which are small farms, called “fundos.” There are few -towns of any consequence in that part of the country, no railways, -few improved roads, and communication between the coast and interior -is slow and difficult. Mule and burro trains are the common method of -transportation, while more rapid communication is made on horseback. - -The Agricultural, or central zone is the garden of Chile. It includes -twelve provinces, extending from Aconcagua on the north to the river -Bio Bio on the south, with an area of 75,000 square miles, and a -population of 1,800,000. About eighty per cent. of the people living -in this zone are engaged either directly or indirectly in agricultural -pursuits. In the northern part of this geographical division is -Valparaiso, the most important commercial center in the Republic; in -the center is Santiago, the beautiful capital city, and in the south, -situated on the Bio Bio is Concepcion, the third city in population and -importance in the country. In this section there is a copious rainfall -between the months of May and September, and consequently a prolific -growth of vegetation. Between the mountain ranges and hills that crowd -close down to the sea, are beautiful valleys, where wheat, maize, -barley, flax, oats, rye, all kinds of fruits, vegetables, and a variety -of grasses grow and mature well. From Santiago, extending several -hundred miles south are wide fertile valleys, high and low table-lands, -wonderfully productive and in a splendid state of cultivation. This -central valley of Chile, lying between the Andes and the coast range, -is a continuous garden of luxuriant beauty. The cultivated loveliness -of the private estates, which surround the capital, offer a pleasing -contrast to the sterner grandeur of mountain forms and color with -which it is enclosed. There are to be found the ideal South American -haciendas, where thousands of acres are included in one domain, where -the primitive system of cultivating the land, introduced by the -Spaniards when they came to the western world, with few exceptions, -still prevails. There is the one storied castle-like residence of the -proprietor, with its wide verandas, roomy corridors, rambling rooms and -beautiful patio. The house is often surrounded by a magnificent garden -and park, where graceful palms, beautiful trees and brilliant flowers -in great variety grow and bloom the year round. There too, are vast -herds of horses, cattle and other domestic animals, all fat and sleek -from feeding upon the rich pasturage of irrigated “potreros” (fields). -Farther south in this zone, the semi-tropical appearance of the -northern regions give place to wood-crowned hills and streams fringed -with forest trees. Rains are more frequent and the growth of vegetation -more general and prolific. Vast farms extend in every direction. Stolid -oxen, drawing primitive plows or carts, plod through fallow fields, and -the mountains, which are always in sight, give up their solitude in -scenes of domesticity and peaceful industry. - -The wooded or southern zone, includes all the territory from the river -Bio Bio, south to Cape Horn, and forms the least developed portion -of Chile. In the southern provinces are vast virgin forests, rich in -varied resources, awaiting commercial development. In some sections -of the country the forests, overrun with creepers, are so dense that -they form an almost impenetrable jungle, where the sunlight never -penetrates, and where twilight lingers throughout the entire day. In -these forests are various woods of excellent quality, including oak, -cypress, lingue (the bark of which makes excellent tanning material), -rauli, redwood, laurel, resin pine, poplar, and quillai, the bark of -which is exported in large quantities, and is used as a mordant for -dyeing. - -Sawmills have been established in recent years, and are now in -operation in the timber districts of southern Chile, but the lumber -industry, which promises to become one of the important commercial -interests of the country, is only in its infancy. In fact the -mills have so far made practically no impression upon the forests, -their cuttings being limited to choice timber along the streams and -water-ways where transportation facilities are good. - -In addition to the valuable timber interests and great agricultural -resources of southern Chile, it possesses large deposits of coal, gold, -iron ores, Portland cement, roofing slate and other minerals, awaiting -development. On the plains and in the valleys luxuriant vegetation -develops annually and remains to enrich the soil for the use of future -generations. Unexplored hills and mountains, hoarding a wealth of -minerals, await the ambitious prospector and industrious miner. In the -sands of Tierra del Fuego is gold to gladden the hearts of men, and the -forests contain material for lumber sufficient to supply the demands of -the continent. In this subdivision there are also extensive fisheries -and oyster beds. Along the coast, rugged hills that reach down to the -sea are covered with forest trees, and on the Cordilleras near the -southern limits of the continent, vegetation extends up to an altitude -where virgin snows and verdant green meet and mingle in strange -contrast. In the mountain and forest solitudes of this undeveloped -region, are many lakes, resting like emerald settings in the landscape. -Viewed from the sea the scenery along the coast of southern Chile -presents a picturesque appearance. The Andes Mountains, grand and -imposing, form a splendid background for the verdant forests forming -the shore line. This range of mountains constitutes a conspicuous -physical feature of the continent. To the south it crowds close upon -the Pacific, and throughout the length of Chile the Cordilleras cover -a double series of highly elevated summits enclosing longitudinal -valleys within the region of perpetual snow. On the western range there -are three smaller mid-land mountain chains called the “Cordillera -Maritima,” running parallel with the Andean, between which are numerous -well-watered valleys possessing a delightfully equable climate. From -any of these valleys the giant peaks of the Andes, royally crowned and -ermine robed are plainly visible. And as the day-god rides over them, -touching their white crests with fingers of gold, the scenes presented -are wonderful in variety and spectacular effect. - - -RIVERS AND WATERWAYS. - -The rivers in Chile all have their source in the Andes and empty -into the Pacific. Unvexed by fretting wheels of commerce, they flow -peacefully on from mountains to the sea. The distance being short and -the declivity great, the current of the streams is swift, affording -excellent power for manufacturing purposes. Sometimes in the rainy -season, when the rivers are flushed from excessive rains, or in summer -when their waters are augmented by melting snows, they become raging -torrents, sweeping everything before them, frequently causing much loss -of life and great damage to property. Among the more important rivers -in Chile are the Aconcagua, Mapocho, Maipo, Cachapoal, Tinguiririca, -Teno, Lontue, Mataquito, Rapel, Claro, Maule, Nuble, and Bio Bio. -Some of these rivers are navigable for light-draft vessels for a -short distance from the sea, but the winding course of the streams, -irregular depth of water and the swift current make traffic unsafe, -impracticable and unprofitable. The most peculiar and complicated river -system on the continent is formed by the converging of the numerous -streams that empty into the bay of Corral, near Valdivia. In some -places as many as four rivers converge at one point. The scenery along -these rivers presents a panorama of constantly changing views. Wooded -hills rise abruptly along the banks, and in many places trees lean out -over the streams, in the crystal waters of which are reflected their -inverted images. Islands, overrun with creepers and brilliant with -the scarlet bloom of coiphues and fuchsias, and the yellow hues of -goldenrod, are some of the features of the picturesque scenery along -this peculiar river system. - -The fact that the rivers of Chile afford practically no transportation -facilities is a matter of little commercial importance, because of the -narrow territorial limits of the country from east to west, the general -course of all the streams. As a compensation for this lack of natural -transportation routes to the interior, the coast of southern Chile is a -succession of bays, sounds, gulfs and channels, including the historic -Straits of Magellan, which separate Tierra del Fuego from the mainland, -and Smyth’s Channel, dangerous to navigate because of the swift -currents flowing through the narrow, tortuous ways. In many places -along the coast the descent of the shore is so abrupt that heavy-draft -vessels are enabled to pass within a few yards of the embankments, and -directly under overhanging trees. This southern archipelago, with -its hundreds of islands, presents a panorama of scenes peculiarly -picturesque and interesting. Among the more important islands of the -coast are Chiloe, the original habitat of the potato, Wellington, -Hanover, Queen Adelaide, St. Ines, and Desolation, so-called because of -the lack of vegetation and desolate aspect of this long narrow strip of -land lying at the western entrance to the Straits of Magellan. In some -of the narrow channels separating the islands from the mainland and -from each other, the currents are so swift, the waters so disturbed and -the storms so fierce in certain seasons, that the sea seems a boiling, -seething caldron, terrifying to passengers and mariners on passing -ships. But those dangerous passages add a fascinating feature to the -scenic effects of the most picturesque portion of the coast country. - -The Straits of Magellan are a wise and beneficent provision of nature, -forming a great canal or natural transportation route across the -southern portion of the continent, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific -oceans. Ships pass through the Straits instead of around Cape Horn, -one of the most dangerous seas in the world to navigate. The Andean -range of mountains, extending from the Arctic Ocean, and stretching its -vast, rugged length across the two Americas, ends at the Straits, Mount -Victoria, a massive pile of gleaming ice and snow, being the last link -in the jagged chain. South of the Straits is Tierra del Fuego, “Land of -Fire,” the hills and mountains of which, including the great pyramidal -cone of Mount Sarmiento, perpetually covered with a mantle of snow, -stretch away hundreds of miles to Cape Horn, the most southern point -of the Continent. - -The scenery as well as the topographical and geographical conditions -of Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia, in fact all the southern -archipelago, are different from those in the arctic regions. There is -more vegetation and a greater variety of scenery than in the coast -countries of a corresponding latitude north. There are the beauties -of the Thousand Islands, and Darwin, in describing a voyage through -the Straits, compared the glaciers of Tierra del Fuego to a thousand -frozen Niagaras. All the beautiful tints and combinations of coloring -to be found in lakes Como and Lucerne, of the Mediterranean and the -bay of Naples, are equaled, if not surpassed by, the hues reflected in -the deep waters of those channels. Huge glaciers crowding down into -the sea; giant rocks, rising like sheer walls of masonry for thousands -of feet above the water, sometimes ending in shapes resembling church -pinnacles and cathedral domes; mountains, whose forest-fringed bases -are washed by the sea, their snow-mantled heads in the clouds; islands, -frosted with snow and bejeweled with ice, in which is mingled the hues -of gray-green moss and verdant vegetation; numerous winding, tortuous -water-ways, dividing the islands from each other and separating them -from the mainland, are some of the features of the panoramic view of -coast-line, mountains and islands, presented in a landscape that is -wonderfully picturesque and prepossessing. When storms sweep through -these narrow channels, driving seas mountain-high against rocky -shores, increasing the force of natural currents, obscuring the view -with a shroud of snow and sleet and mist, a wild aspect is added to the -scene. Mountains and islands rise ghostlike out of the water, their -forms dimly outlined against the angry sky; and the din of booming seas -and swiftly rushing waters adds terrifying confusion to the dangers of -navigation. - -In Patagonia the Andes differ in many of the essential features -of their geographical conformation from that magnificent mountain -system which further north is the pride and despair of the western -countries of South America. The grand simplicity of structure in the -northern system, the magnificent continuity and lofty grandeur of -its main ranges, the altitude of its dominating peaks, its terrible -and forbidding wastes of desolate and highly elevated table-land are -wanting in the mountain masses of the far south. The topographical -condition of the Patagonian country represents an immense system of -ancient lake beds, and sea inlets separated and divided by groups of -mountain peaks, sometimes piled upon a massive pedestal of crystalline -rock, sometimes strung out in jagged lines of sierra or ridge, fringed -with moraines or terraces, shaped and reshaped by the ice-agency of -more than one glacial period; mountains which have been split again and -again by stupendous volcanic action, and enormous masses of volcanic -deposits. - - -TIERRA DEL FUEGO. - -Tierra del Fuego, instead of being a “Land of Desolation,” as it is -generally designated, is a land of picturesque scenes, and possesses -natural resources to make it a country of prospective wealth, with a -promising future. The archipelago includes hundreds of islands, some -of which are rocky, mountainous, and barren, but most of them are -covered with woods, and on some of the larger islands, especially that -of Tierra del Fuego, are wide stretches of valley and plain, covered -with rich grasses, affording splendid pasturage for sheep, cattle and -horses. There is some valuable timber on the islands, and placer gold -mining is carried on to some extent at various places. The commercial -importance of the archipelago depends, however, upon sheep raising, -an industry that is rapidly developing, and one that is proving -profitable. There have been established in recent years a number of -large sheep ranches, called “estancias,” on the island of Tierra del -Fuego, and in Patagonia. Millions of sheep are pastured on the rich -grasses that grow luxuriantly there, and the annual output of wool, -mutton, and fat is an important commercial product of the country. - -There are few more interesting and picturesque sights than those far -southern farm lands in the Magellanes territory, the Scotland of -South America. Long, sweeping, undulating downs climb upward to the -forest-clad hills, or down to the edges of the blue glacial lakes; -and through the mazes of black thorn, the bloom of which fills the -air with fragrance in the flowering time, wander vast herds of sheep, -often accompanied by large flocks of ostriches, which find safety in -associating with the wool coated animals. Northward across the horizon, -the castellated and unbroken outlines of innumerable mountains -stretch their length across the landscape; while all around are -sandstone hills, cliff-bored, and forest covered, and along the banks -of turbulent streams, wild flowers bloom, giving a touch of brilliant -coloring to the pastoral scene. It is beautiful in outline, detail and -coloring, and in its infinite variety. - - - - -BRIEF HISTORY - - -For more than five hundred years previous to the discovery of America, -the territory which now constitutes the Republic of Chile was inhabited -by bands of nomadic, barbarous Indians. The indigenous races of Chile -possessed none of the arts of civilization. They had no knowledge of -cultivating the soil, and the rich mineral resources of the country -remained undisturbed and undeveloped during all the centuries in -which they were left in undisputed possession. They had no system -of government, no recognized social or moral laws, no commerce, no -medium of exchange, no occupations. The nearest approach they had to -houses were rude huts “rucas,” made from the branches of trees, which -afforded little protection against rain or cold; neither had they -clothing with which to cover their bodies or protect them from the -elements. They were nomadic, cannibalistic savages, living like the -beasts of the forests, subsisting upon wild fruits, berries, nuts, and -such animals as they could capture or kill with crude weapons, made -from wood and bamboo. There being few animals and birds indigenous to -the country, the Indians were often driven to the extremity of eating -insects, mollusks, lizards and reptiles, as a means of sustaining life. -The absolute lack of civilization, the low level of the intellectual -standard, depraved moral condition, vicious habits and disgusting -customs that prevailed among the indigenous races of Chile previous -to the peaceful conquest of portions of the territory by the Incas, -finds few parallels in the history of the world. Might was right; there -was no law, no restraint, no incentive or encouragement to progress or -improvement; no punishment provided for those who committed murder and -outrage. When one person killed another, he feasted upon the flesh of -his vanquished adversary, eating it raw, the formality of cooking being -dispensed with. - -When the character of the aborigines of Chile is taken into -consideration; the conditions out of which the Republic was evolved, -a century ago--1810; the elements amalgamated into the present -homogeneous population, inherited peculiarities, traditional customs -and superstitions taken into account, the wonder is that progress has -been so rapid along the road of national advancement, commercial and -intellectual development. - -More than one hundred years before Columbus discovered America; before -the flood-tide, which carried in its current a curious collection of -ambitious adventurers and the poor and oppressed of all the European -nations, set in towards the western world, making the Atlantic Ocean -the “Path of Empire;” before the advance guard of Spanish adventurers -and despoilers drifted from the Antilles to tropical America, and -crossing the Isthmus of Panama started in quest of gold--a mission of -robbery and butchery of the defenseless inhabitants of the west coast -countries; before Francisco Pizarro despoiled Peru and destroyed the -Inca Empire, where existed the only material evidences of an advanced -civilization in South America, created and maintained by a native -race; long before Diego Almagro, friend and ally of Pizarro, who was -refused a share of the spoils secured in the conquest of Peru, went to -Chile, the Incas had invaded the territory and made peaceful conquest -of portions of the country which now constitutes the northern part of -the Republic. - -In the early part of the fifteenth century the Inca of Peru sent -a small army to explore the country to the south, with a view to -increasing the territorial limits of his Empire. The expedition went -as far south as the valley of the Aconcagua, a rich, fertile country, -where later was established the city of Quillota, the first capital of -Chile. An attempt was made to explore the country further south, but -the advance was resented by the Araucanians, and the Incas returned -to Peru to report the success of the undertaking. A few years later -another army was sent by the Inca into Chile, which explored the -country as far south as the River Bio Bio, which is now the northern -boundary of the Araucanian territory. - -The Incas being much more advanced in civilization than the Indian -tribes of Chile, introduced ideas and customs that furnished the -foundation upon which was later erected the superstructure of the -Republic. They taught the Indians how to irrigate and to cultivate the -soil, the value of precious metals, how to weave fabrics from the fur -of the vicuña and guanaco, and the art of manufacturing pottery. They -also introduced maize, beans and vegetables of various kinds, in the -cultivation and uses of which they instructed the natives. In fact, the -first advance made by the Chilean Indians from a state of absolute -barbarism towards a condition of semi-civilization was due to the -teachings and example of the Incas, the most intelligent, progressive -and highly civilized of the numerous indigenous races in America, -North or South. With a view to making Chile a part of the Peruvian -Empire, the Incas built a magnificent military road across the desert -of Atacama, which was later partially destroyed by the Spaniards, but -portions of which still remain as evidence of the genius and creative -skill of that wonderful people. - -In 1535, one hundred years after the peaceful conquest of Northern -Chile by the Incas, Diego de Almagro, one of the Spanish freebooters -and Pacific pirates, started from Peru with five hundred adventurous -soldiers on an expedition of conquest of Chile, hoping to repeat -there Pizarro’s experience in the spoliation of the Inca Empire. The -expedition of Almagro, to whom history generally accords the honor -of the discovery of Chile, was attended with many hardships and much -suffering. After leaving the road constructed by the Incas across the -desert, they had to cross the Cordillera of the Andes, the higher -ranges of which were covered with snow and over which there was no road -and where the cold was intense. After a voyage lasting six months, in -which innumerable difficulties were encountered, Almagro arrived at a -point where Copiapo is now situated, with less than one half of his -followers, the others having died from cold and starvation in crossing -the mountains. It was on this expedition that Almagro manifested -characteristics which later gave him the reputation of being one of -the most cruel and inhuman of the many adventurers who invaded Chile. -When animals used in transporting provisions and equipment for the -expedition died, Indians encountered on the way were impressed into -service as beasts of burden. They were compelled to live with the pack -animals, with which they served in common, and when unable to longer -support the burdens under which they struggled across deserts and over -mountains, they were brutally murdered, or maimed and left to suffer -the tortures of a slow death by the wayside. - -When Almagro reached the valley of the Aconcagua, where he had been -preceded more than a century by the Incas, who established friendly -relations with the Araucanians, he was kindly received by the Indians. -But the natives who had been enslaved and cruelly treated by the -Spaniards enroute, related their experiences to the friendly Indians, -who became suspicious and fled into the forests for protection. This -angered Almagro who ordered his soldiers to go in search of them and -to kill all who refused to return to their places of habitation. -The Spaniards who were provided with horses and arms pursued the -defenseless natives and slaughtered hundreds of them. - -Having gone to Chile in search of gold, with no other motive than to -sack and rob, and finding only poor, ignorant, miserable Indians in -possession of the country, Almagro soon returned to Peru, disappointed -and disgusted with what he described as the poverty of the territory -he had explored. Because of this disappointment, previous to his -departure, he committed outrages and atrocities upon the helpless -natives, by whom he had been received as a friend, which have few -parallels in the record of cruel deeds, with which the early history -of South America is so replete. The acts of treachery and outrage -committed by Almagro and his followers created a feeling in the minds -of the Araucanians that ultimately led to hostilities which lasted -for over three hundred years; hostile feelings that have never been -removed, and prejudices that will remain so long as a representative of -that brave, obstinate race survives. - -Almagro’s unfavorable report and the miserable appearance of his -soldiers on their return to Peru, together with the stories of -suffering, created in the minds of the Spaniards the impression that -Chile was the poorest of all the South American countries. But in -1540, Pedro de Valdivia, a young Spanish captain, apparently more -ambitious for fame than riches, organized an expedition for the purpose -of exploring Chile and taking possession of the territory in the name -of the King. Writing to his sovereign concerning the undertaking he -said: “I have no desire but to discover and add territory to your -Majesty’s Kingdom, and fame to my memory.” With one hundred and fifty -men the intrepid young officer, who had gained distinction for valor -in European wars, started on a journey from Peru over deserts and -mountains to Chile, where he was to lay the foundations for a future -Republic. On reaching the beautiful valley of the Mapocho, surrounded -by a wall of mountains, and from the center of which rises the Santa -Lucia, one of the most remarkable natural formations in the world, -Valdivia laid out and established the first city in Chile, which is -now the splendid capital of the Republic, Santiago, on February 12, -1541. - -On the arrival of Valdivia and his soldiers, the Indians remembering -the deception and cruelty practiced by Almagro, abandoned the country -near where the Spaniards located. But on being informed by Valdivia -that he desired to live on terms of peace with them, they returned to -their “rucas” and resumed the cultivation of their “sitios.” - -The beautiful city of Santiago of to-day, with its palatial residences, -magnificent Alameda, grand cathedral, splendid public buildings and -miles of fine business blocks, bears little resemblance to the pioneer -village of 1541. The first houses were built of the trunks of trees, -plastered with mud and thatched with maize stocks. One of the first -buildings erected was a little temple at the corner of the Plaza de -Armas, on the site of which now stands the cathedral of Santiago, -the corner-stone of the Catholic church in Chile, which is to-day a -potent political factor, and exercises a far-reaching influence in the -Republic, through its representation in Congress and in the press of -the country. - -The friendly relation first established with the Indians by Valdivia, -and by which means he hoped to take peaceful possession of the country, -did not long continue. The necessity of means and greater resources for -carrying out his schemes of conquest encouraged Valdivia to prospect -for gold, and some mines were opened near the port of Valparaiso. In -these mines Indians were placed by force and worked as slaves. In -return for the gold secured the Spaniards incurred the enmity of the -Indians, who determined to kill all their persecutors as a means of -ending the tyranny to which they were subjected. With that cunning and -strategy which has always characterized the Araucanians in war, they -waited to make the attack until Valdivia was absent on an exploring -expedition in the south with some of his followers, leaving only -thirty mounted and twenty foot soldiers to guard the little garrison -at Santiago. For fifteen hours the fifty men held the fort which was -besieged and assaulted by a force of Indians numbering six thousand. -Finally Captain Alonso de Monroy, who was in charge of the Spanish -forces changed his tactics from defensive to the offensive, and leading -his little band of soldiers attacked the Indians with such courage and -ferocity that, notwithstanding their great numbers they were driven -off. A great number of Indians and several of the soldiers were killed, -but the greatest loss suffered by the Spaniards was the destruction by -fire of the entire village, except the fort. When Valdivia returned he -found himself and his men without houses in which to live, and without -provisions or supplies, everything except the clothing they wore having -been burned or destroyed during the battle. - -After several years of indecisive warfare, in which the Spaniards made -no progress in the way of conquering the Indians, or the undisputed -occupation of the territory, Valdivia decided to return to Peru for -the purpose of enlisting a more formidable force of men and arms with -which to prosecute the war against the Araucanians. He started on -this mission in 1547, leaving the depleted forces in Chile in charge -of Francisco Villagran, returning two years later with two hundred -infantry and a troop of one hundred cavalry, all well armed and -equipped. Feeling secure with this army, Valdivia began an aggressive -warfare against the Araucanians immediately after his arrival. Soon -after the beginning of this war several important battles took place, -chief among which was that of Concepcion, in which over two thousand -Indians were killed and two hundred taken prisoners. The Spaniards also -lost a number of men in the engagement. Following his cruel instincts, -and with a view to terrorizing the Indians, Valdivia cut off the right -hand and the nose of each of the prisoners captured in the battle, and -then released them to return to their people, maimed and disfigured. -This act of cruelty, instead of having the desired effect, incensed -the Araucanians to greater hostilities. So persistent became their -pursuit and attack that the Spaniards were given no time to sleep or -rest from the strife. Day and night they were harassed by the Indians -who finally collected their forces for a decisive battle at Tucapel. -In this encounter Valdivia employed the same tactics used in other -engagements, charging the enemy with his cavalry. But on this occasion -the Indians seemed to be innumerable and invincible, and after being -almost annihilated, the heroic little band of soldiers were forced to -submit to superior numbers, and those who were not killed in battle -were taken prisoner, Pedro de Valdivia being among the latter. When -brought into the presence of the Araucanian chief, Valdivia said: “If -you will give me my liberty I will promise to retire with my soldiers -from the country.” Painful experience had taught the Indians to place -no value upon the promises of the Spaniards, and desiring to avenge -the cruelties inflicted upon their people, they refused to release the -prisoners. Valdivia was tortured with all the horrible cruelties he -had practiced upon the Indians, and all the soldiers taken at Tucapel -were put to a tortuous death. - -Soon after the death of Valdivia, the colonial government in Chile -was organized by the worst class of Spanish Bohemians,--men who had -not even a cheap or spectacular glory to their credit, and who lacked -the capacity or disposition to engage in work of any character, or -to develop the resources of the country. It was a sad and calamitous -existence the people led under the despotic and ruinous misrule of -Spain. Nothing flourished or savored of goodness. The only landmarks -of civilization left from that period are various towns, some of which -from geographical positions have grown into important cities. - -All traces of progress lay buried beneath bigotry and tyranny. The -sovereign and his representatives retarded development and advancement, -evincing only selfish and unpatriotic ambition for personal gain, -treacherous deception and cruel oppression. Chilean officials under -Castilian rule had to be Spanish born, and with impunity they plundered -the colony of all that was worth possessing. For nearly three centuries -Chile lived with modest labor in honest poverty. Those conditions -served as antecedents to the special characteristics of economy, -industry, independence and love of liberty so manifest in the Chileans -of to-day. - -Then there was little communication with the outside world. Colonists -suffered and endured without encouragement, hope of relief, or promise -of better things. But during those turbulent times, those years of -oppression and Spanish misrule, when the Republican idea was growing, -there was one powerful force in operation, resenting and resisting the -authority of those who were plundering and robbing the country in the -name of law and civilization. That force was the courageous, valiant, -unconquered Araucanians who maintained their independence for over -three hundred years, preferring annihilation to subjugation. - -A great majority of the colonists in Chile lived in poverty and -ignorance, apparently resigned to their unfortunate condition. For two -hundred and fifty years there had been transmitted from parents to -children the idea of obedience to the king, believing that person to be -of divine origin, and that his power was omnipotent. They also believed -that the Spanish-American colonies would always remain subject to the -authority of Spain. Fortunately, however, there was a small minority -that entertained a hope of relief from the rule of oppression. This -hope was encouraged, and the idea of independence implanted in the -minds of the people, by the revolution of the English colonists, the -declaration of independence of the United States, and the establishment -of the first American Republic. The success of the North American -patriots encouraged the revolutionary idea in Chile to such an extent -that in 1810, when Spain was involved in the turmoil of a general -European war, the opportunity was seized by the colonists to secure -their independence, which was declared September 18, 1810. - -The new Republic, born of patriotism and christened in war, was -destined to struggle through its first years of existence in poverty, -and afflicted with that most fatal of national maladies, internal -strife. The people, long subject to despotic rule, filled with -doubt and distrust of those who promised better things, had little -experience, training or knowledge to fit them for the political liberty -they had been so anxious to secure, and in possession of which they -found themselves. Inexperienced in self-government, depressed with -poverty, disturbed with internal dissensions and burdened with exploded -theories, Chile began to set her national house in order without -example or precedent to guide her in the experiment. - -The government of Chile, organized in Santiago, September 18, 1810, -was provisional and experimental, consisting of a “junta” (committee) -of sixty persons, with Mateo de Toro y Zambrano as president of the -junta, and in fact the first president of independent Chile. On July -4 of the following year an election was held at which congressional -deputies were selected. A month later the national congress appointed -a government junta, composed of three persons. The first laws of the -new government were promulgated in August, 1811, among which was one -prohibiting the importation of slaves, and declaring freedom to the -children of all slaves then in the country. Thus did the young Republic -place her seal of disapproval upon slavery, thereby setting an example -for other nations, including the United States, after which the Chilean -Republic was modeled. - -For more than twenty years after the organization of the government -the country was rent by jealousy, dissension, revolution and general -disorder. The patriots who were struggling for national life and -independence, and who were confident that out of chaos would come -order, peace and prosperity, had to contend not only with an -aggressive foreign foe, but to encounter intrigue and disloyalty at -home. During the first decade of national life, numerous able and -courageous men endeavored to direct the Ship of State through the -turbulent sea of strife and discord to a safe and secure harbor. None -succeeded, but many contributed materially to the final solution of the -problem of government by the people. Among those who were conspicuous -in the service of the country during its formative period may be -mentioned Juan Martinez de Rozas, Camilo Henriquez, Manuel Salas, -Admiral Blanco Encalada and Lord Cochrane. But the two characters that -stand out most conspicuously, the names that are inscribed first upon -the roll of honor of Chilean patriots, the men who contributed most -to the establishment of order and law in the government, are Bernardo -O’Higgins, the first capable, courageous Governor of Chile, and the -brave, patriotic San Martin, who united the forces of the Argentine -with those of Chile, Bolivia and Peru, for the purpose of putting an -end to Spanish rule, and establishing independent government in the -several colonies. - -O’Higgins was Governor from 1817 to 1823, during which time he used -his splendid executive ability in an honest effort to establish law -and order, and to introduce some kind of system into the government. -After six years of vain endeavor, and believing that the people were -unprepared for self-government, he resigned, asked permission to leave -the country, and went to Peru. General O’Higgins was succeeded as -Governor by Ramon Freire, who held the position for three years, 1826. -Then followed a period of several years during which the country was -in a state of political anarchy. Changes of government were so frequent -that it was impossible to maintain anything like law and order. -Revolutions, conspiracies and intrigue were organized and practiced by -political combinations and individuals. Independent government was a -theory only, and many sincere patriots doubted the wisdom of further -effort to establish and maintain a Republic, believing that existing -conditions were even worse than Spanish rule. - -The theory that if the seed of independence is once planted in the soil -of public opinion, it will ultimately bring forth a harvest of good -national results, holds true in the case of Chile. For notwithstanding -the political disorder, frequent changes of government and the -sanguinary revolutions that prevailed from the first, the declaration -of independence produced beneficent results. The greatest of these -benefits was the liberty of trade and freedom of commerce. People were -permitted to buy and sell merchandise when, where and to whom they -pleased, while under the colonial system all commercial privileges were -controlled by the crown; and while Chile was under the authority of -Spain, foreigners were not permitted to engage in trade in the colony. - -Under the influence of approaching peace, the gradual amalgamation of -political factions into united parties, the expansion of trade and the -development of the country’s natural resources, the young Republic -developed national life to such an extent that a political constitution -was promulgated on May 25, 1833. The independence of the Republic was -not recognized by Spain, however, until 1846. The constitution gave to -the president authority as ample as that possessed by the king, over -the colonies, authorizing him to use in certain cases and emergencies -extraordinary powers even to the suspension of the constitutional -authority. These provisions were embodied in the constitution for the -purpose of suppressing political anarchy and revolution, which had so -often interrupted the progress and threatened the life of the Republic -from the time of its organization, without waiting for congressional -approval. The constitution as adopted in 1833 remained unchanged until -1868. Since that date various amendments have been adopted, limiting -the powers of the executive, and adjusting constitutional authority and -law to meet the changed conditions of the times and the country. - - -FORM OF GOVERNMENT. - -The form of government under the constitution adopted in 1833 is -republican with legislative, executive and judicial branches. The -legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting of -a Senate and House of Deputies, the former, under the latest census, -being composed of 37, and the latter of 108 members. Senators are -elected for a term of six years, one-half the number being elected -every three years. Members of the lower branch of Congress are elected -for three years by direct vote, the apportionment being one for every -30,000 inhabitants or fraction of not less than 15,000. Congress is in -session from June 1 to September 1 of each year. During the recess of -that body a permanent committee consisting of seven senators and seven -deputies acts for Congress, and is consulted by the executive upon all -questions of importance. - -The president is elected for a term of five years by electors who are -chosen by direct vote. He is ineligible to election for two consecutive -terms. The salary of the chief executive is 60,000 pesos, equal to -about $20,000 in U. S. currency. He is assisted by a Council of State -consisting of 11 members, six of whom are appointed by Congress and -five by the president; and also by six cabinet ministers who are named -by the executive, but are responsible to the Congress. - -The constitution having become an established law, Chile made rapid -progress along the road of national life, leading to order, authority -and prosperity. But it was not until Manuel Montt, who was president -from 1851 to 1861, had put down two revolutions that order and -executive authority were firmly established, and the force of organized -national defense demonstrated. In 1861 Montt was succeeded as president -by Jose Joaquin Perez, who continued as chief executive for ten years. -The condition of law and order that was established and maintained -by the government previous to his election continued throughout his -two administrations, and national authority was extended and enlarged -until liberty of action and speech was insured to every citizen of -the Republic. By his political moderation and conciliation, President -Perez established a feeling of internal peace and security that had not -been previously felt in the country. Unfortunately Chile was soon to -be disturbed again by a war-cloud upon the peaceful horizon. Having -secured their own freedom, and established an independent government, -the patriotic people were not content to remain indifferent to the -arbitrary actions of Spain in taking forceful possession of the Chincha -Islands in 1865. By force of public opinion and popular sentiment, -President Perez was compelled to make an alliance with Peru, Bolivia -and Ecuador, to defend the interests of South American Republics -against the domination of Spain. - -Spain sent a fleet to blockade the ports of Chile, which was not a -difficult undertaking, as the Chilean navy then consisted of one -gunboat, the _Esmeralda_. On November 26, the _Esmeralda_, under -command of Captain William Rebolledo, made a brilliant coup by -attacking and capturing the Spanish corvette, _Covadonga_, which daring -deed was accomplished within view of the Spanish squadron blockading -the harbor of Valparaiso. The admiral commanding the fleet was so -humiliated by the fact that one of his ships had been taken by the -Chileans that he committed suicide on board his flagship, a few hours -afterwards. - -To avenge the loss, and apparently as an act of spite inspired by the -humiliating incident of the _Covadonga_, Spain sent a more powerful -fleet to Valparaiso, and on March 31, 1866, bombarded the city, causing -considerable loss of life, and destruction of property to the value of -fifteen million dollars. - -At that time Valparaiso had no land fortifications nor means of -resisting an attack from a hostile fleet, and Spain’s action in -bombarding the port has been generally condemned. This apparent -unjustifiable destruction of a defenseless city was the last armed -demonstration of Spain in South America. For three centuries she -attempted to govern Chile as a colony, and for the first fifty years -of national life of the Republic the threatening attitude of the -parent government continued as a menace and an obstacle to progress -and industrial development. Peace was not established between the two -countries until 1884, but after the bombardment of Valparaiso, there -was no further hostile demonstration, and Chile was permitted to direct -the force of her energies towards building up neglected national -institutions and developing the natural resources of the country. - -The bombardment of Valparaiso forced upon Chile a realization of her -defenseless position against attack from a naval force. Without a navy -to defend her extensive coast country, or fortifications with which to -protect her ports, she was at the mercy of any maritime power. To meet -this requirement and to strengthen her national position, she acquired -a formidable navy, the most powerful in South America, and constructed -modern fortifications in all the principal ports. Since that time Chile -has been regarded as one of the most formidable and aggressive naval -and military powers among the Latin-American Republics. - -During the administration of President Perez the liberal element -in the Republic began to assert itself, and to demand political -reforms. This was the first demonstration and show of resistance -against the conservative church party, which had been in control of -the government since its formation. The program of the liberals was: -“The absolute guarantee of personal liberty; that local governments -shall be invested with that complete independence necessary for the -thorough exercise of their prerogatives; that the different branches -of government shall be independent of each other, that all persons -shall be equal before the law and that all special privileges shall -be abolished.” This was a move from the oligarchy towards democracy. -The liberals scored their first victory in 1868, when Congress passed -an amendment to the constitution, making the president ineligible to -reëlection. The laws providing for civil responsibility, for political -treason, and imprisonment for debt were also abolished by the same -Congress. - -Don Federico Errazuriz, who was elected to the presidency in 1871, -was a man of scholarly attainments, and had had a long and varied -experience in public life. He had been minister of foreign affairs, of -the interior, of justice, and of war, and had served in both branches -of the legislative body. - -During the administration of President Errazuriz, the liberal party -succeeded in passing a number of reformatory measures, among which -was one providing that the clergy should be amenable to the civil -authorities, and further that all sects might worship in churches -erected by private enterprise. The president also decreed that space -should be reserved in catholic or public cemeteries for the interment -of dissenters, who could be given the right of burial according to the -form of their respective denominations. Against these acts the clerical -party filed a remonstrance which was signed by the Archbishop of -Santiago; and members of Congress who voted for the measures, as well -as magistrates who should attempt to enforce the laws, were threatened -with excommunication from the church. But those progressive measures -still remain upon the statute books of Chile. - -Don Anibal Pinto succeeded Don Federico Errazuriz as president in 1876. -His administration was early confronted with a financial crisis, and in -1878 the government authorized the banks to suspend specie payment, and -guaranteed their emission of paper money to the amount of $15,500,000, -which was made redeemable in coin on August 31, 1879. A year later the -government found it necessary to resort to a second issue of paper -currency to the amount of $6,000,000. - -The church question, which had been made the paramount political -issue in previous campaigns continued with unabated zeal and acrimony -throughout President Pinto’s administration. In 1878 the Archbishop of -Santiago died, and the government recommended the appointment of Don -Francisco de Paula Taforo as his successor. The clergy of the country -opposed the appointment, but the government maintained that inasmuch as -the State supported the ecclesiastical officials, the civil authorities -should name the church dignitaries. After a bitter contest lasting for -several years an apostolic delegate was sent from Rome to make report -on the affair. He was expelled by President Santa Maria, who succeeded -President Pinto, and the victory was won by the government. - -Throughout the administrations of Presidents Perez, Errazuriz, and -Pinto the country made rapid advancement along the road of national -progress and civilization. Previous to that time all reforms and -advanced measures were initiated and directed by the executive, whose -political power made him practically the government. - -Neither the House of Deputies nor the Senate made any pretense to -parliamentary rule or order. In both national and private life the poor -but honest element predominated. People earned a legitimate livelihood -by honest industry, and wanton extravagance was little known. - - -THE WAR OF 1879. - -There are various versions of the causes leading up to the war between -Chile, Peru and Bolivia, but the immediate cause of hostilities, which -placed Chile in possession of the greatest nitrate fields in the world, -was the cession by the Bolivian government to the Anglo-Peruvian firm -of Gibbs & Company, of the right to work the nitrate deposits north -of twenty-four degrees south, to construct a mole at Antofagasta and -build a railway to some mines in the interior. Later this firm disposed -of a portion of its concessions to a Chilean company, the “Compañia -Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta.” When the Bolivian government -discovered that Chilean capital and industry were developing the desert -into a source of wealth, it laid an export bounty of ten cents per -hundred weight upon manufactured nitrate of soda. The Compañia Salitres -y Ferrocarril objected to paying export duties upon the products of -its properties, and appealed to Chile for protection. Bolivia then -threatened to seize all nitrate in the hands of exporters. The Chilean -government protested against this arbitrary action and sent a fleet to -blockade the ports of Antofagasta, Cobija and Tocopilla. On February -14, 1879, Chile took possession of Antofagasta and sent troops to the -interior to protect the property interests of its citizens. General -Hilarion Daza, President of Bolivia, then declared war, expelled some -Chilenos from the country and confiscated their properties. Thus the -fraternity and harmony of interests of the neighboring Republics were -destroyed, the trumpets of war sounded, and the result was a change in -the map of South America. - -Peru tendered her services as mediator and sent special envoys to -Santiago and La Paz. But Chile,--having knowledge of a secret treaty -celebrated between Bolivia and Peru in 1873, the purpose of which was -declared to be the mutual guarantee of the independence, sovereignty -and territorial integrity of the two republics, and mutual defense -against aggression,--the proposition was looked upon by Chile -with distrust. Peru proposed that Chilean troops should evacuate -Antofagasta; that the three republics should guarantee a neutral -administration of affairs. Chile demanded the annulment of the secret -treaty of 1873, and that preparations for war on the part of Peru -should cease. These propositions were rejected, and Chile declared war -against the allies on April 5, 1879. - -Hostilities began at once and in earnest, both upon land and sea, -continuing until Chile gained her final victories in the battles of -Miraflores and Chorrillos, January 13, 1881, and four days later the -victorious troops marched into Lima and occupied the Peruvian capital. -The campaign was a succession of brilliant victories and achievements -for the Chilean arms. - -Peru believed her navy superior to that of Chile, but she had not -reckoned the valor, skill and zeal of the patriotic Chilean officers, -whose feats won for them not only victory, but the admiration of the -world, and established for Chile an international reputation as a -fighting nation. Equally brilliant and successful was the campaign of -the land forces. In the battles of Pisagua, Tacna, Arica, and finally -at Miraflores the Chilean troops were invincible. - -Among those who distinguished themselves in the navy during the war -with Peru and Bolivia was Captain Arturo Prat, who gave up his life -in the battle of Iquique, where, after his ship, the _Esmeralda_, had -been disabled and was being rammed by the Peruvian cruiser _Huascar_, -leaped from the deck of his own vessel to that of the enemy, and with -his sword attacked single-handed the forces that confronted him in -overwhelming numbers. There is in the Plaza Intendencia, Valparaiso, a -handsome bronze monument erected to the memory of Arturo Prat, whose -heroic deeds and valiant service form some of the most brilliant -chapters in the history of his country. Admiral Patricio Lynch was -another naval officer with a foreign name who distinguished himself -in the war with Peru, and later received the title of general for -meritorious service in the Chilean army. During the occupation of -Lima, by the Chilean forces, Admiral Lynch was placed in command of -the troops in the Peruvian capital, where he remained in charge until -April, 1884, when the treaty of peace was ratified and Chile withdrew -her army from the conquered country. - -By the treaty of peace celebrated with Bolivia on December 11, 1882, -Chile obtained all the latter’s seacoast, including the port of Cobija, -privileges for constructing railways into the interior and twenty per -cent. of Bolivian port customs. - -The treaty between Chile and Peru, which was signed at Ancon, on -October 20, 1883, contained provisions that led to complications which -still leave the question of final settlement in dispute; complications -that resulted in a discontinuance of diplomatic relations, which -at times became so strained that another conflict at arms seemed -imminent. Peru ceded to Chile the province of Tarapaca, forever and -unconditionally. In lieu of $10,000,000 cash indemnity, and as security -for payment of same, the territory constituting the provinces of Tacna -and Arica passed into the possession of Chile for a period of ten -years, at the end of which time the ownership of the territory was to -be determined by a vote of the legal residents of those provinces. -Whatever the result of the election, the country to which the -provinces should be annexed, engaged to pay the other $10,000,000 in -cash. The time limit for this provision of the treaty expired in 1894, -and Peru not being prepared to comply with its requirements, Chile -continued in possession of the territory, and the question of Tacna and -Arica remained a disputed one. - - -THE TACNA AND ARICA QUESTION. - -A few years later Peru became more prosperous through the development -of her rich mineral resources and began pressing for a settlement of -the question. To the arbitration proposition presented by Peru Chile -maintained that there was nothing to arbitrate. In 1905 Peru presented -her side of the question in the form of a written protest against -certain proposed industrial improvements in the disputed territory. The -reply of the Chilean government to the arguments offered in the protest -was an able statement of the case, which left little doubt in the minds -of those familiar with the subject that it was Chile’s intention to -retain possession of the territory in question. - -In June 1905 diplomatic relations between the two republics were -resumed, and Peru sent Don Manuel Alvarez Calderon as Envoy -Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Santiago, where he was -warmly received by President Riesco and his Cabinet Ministers. In -his address in presenting his credentials to the President of Chile, -on November 4, 1905, Señor Calderon stated that he was charged with -the task of settling outstanding questions in conformity with treaty -stipulations, meaning, it was understood, the Tacna and Arica question. -In February 1906 the Chilean government named Don Rafael Balmaceda as -Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Peru. - -The more amicable relations resulting from the appointment of -diplomatic representatives continued until 1909 when Chile proposed the -taking of the plebiscite on certain bases which were then considered -unacceptable by Peru, and diplomatic relations were again broken off by -the latter country. The main points at issue in this instance involved -the questions of who were to constitute the voters, who should preside -at the proceedings of the plebiscite, and at what date the election to -secure an expression of the residents of the disputed territory should -take place. - -During the year 1912 an effort was made on the part of the respective -governments to agree upon terms acceptable to both countries for the -celebration of the plebiscite provided for in the treaty of Ancon, to -determine the nationality of the provinces of Tacna and Arica, and the -following general agreement was reached: - -Peru agrees that all inhabitants, whether Chilean or Peruvian, shall -have the right to vote, provided that they enjoy electoral rights -under the constitutions of their respective governments. This is the -proposition made by Chile in 1909, except that she was willing to -include foreigners amongst the voters, while Peru insisted on their -exclusion. Chile assuming that the plebiscite would then take place -at once, proposed six months’ residence as a necessary condition for -voters, and Peru demanded that the time be extended to three years. -The plebiscite under the latest arrangement is to be postponed for -twenty-one years, during which interval it is hoped and believed that -the prejudices engendered by the war, and the ill-feeling existing -on the part of the citizens of both republics living in the disputed -territory will greatly change for the better, and lessen the chances -of a conflict in the final settlement of a difficult question of long -standing. - -Peru is willing to accede the claim to preside at the taking of the -plebiscite, and the president of the Supreme Court of Chile will -preside. The rest of the board will be composed of two Chileans and two -Peruvians, and final decision will be reached by the majority. - -The most important feature of the arrangements, however, is the -contemplated treaty of commerce and navigation, by which both countries -hope to create such a powerful influence for peace that the question -which for so many years has proven an insuperable difficulty to the -best efforts of the statesmen of both countries will play a secondary -and unimportant part in the relations between the two republics. - -Chile is no longer disposed to treat with Peru in a conciliatory -manner, or submit to arbitration a question in which she has the -right of possession. Having settled peacefully the long standing -boundary dispute with the Argentine Republic, which for a quarter -of a century hung like a war cloud over the Cordilleras, and got -possession of Bolivia “tregua” (tentatively), by means of a treaty of -peace and amity, Chile is no longer afraid of a triple alliance with -the Argentine, Bolivia and Peru, which once menaced her security and -national life. - -When the Spanish-American colonies united to secure their independence -from Spain it was mutually agreed that there should be no “no man’s -land.” To attain this end it was covenanted that the boundaries of the -new Republics should be those assigned to each as a colony. In many -instances those boundaries were ill defined, and in others conjectural -or imaginary. As explorations proceeded these errors were discovered -and naturally gave rise to territorial questions between neighboring -nations. - -Chile had but two neighbors and she had boundary disputes with both. -The dispute with the Argentine led to the erection of a fort and the -founding of a settlement in the Strait of Magellan by Chile in 1843. -From that time until the boundary award by King Edward in 1903, the -two republics were in a continual controversy over territorial limits, -which on more than one occasion led them to the brink of war. With her -other neighbor, Bolivia, Chile had a boundary dispute which has had -far-reaching consequences. A _modus vivendi_ which seemed to promise -lasting peace was agreed upon. Contrary to expectation, however, the -agreement produced war, procuring for Chile another neighbor and still -another territorial dispute. Previous to the war of the Pacific, the -province of Antofagasta, which was Bolivian territory, separated Chile -and Peru, but as a result of that war Chile came into possession of -the province of Antofagasta and consequently became a neighbor to -Peru. Surrounded as she was then with three Republics individually -and collectively maintaining a hostile attitude to her independent -and aggressive policy, Chile was placed in a peculiarly delicate and -dangerous political position. If one of her three neighbors made a move -in its boundary question the other two pressed for a settlement of -similar claims. - -During the civil conflict in Chile her three neighbors took advantage -of the internal disturbance to urge settlement of their boundary -questions. And when the relations between Argentina and Chile became -so strained as to make war imminent, Bolivia and Peru assumed a most -aggressive attitude in demanding a settlement of the questions growing -out of the war of ’79. Chile has not forgotten these acts of her -neighbors, but her attitude is not one of resentment. Her desire is for -peace, as has been demonstrated by her generous and amicable adjustment -of differences with Bolivia and Argentina; peace at home and abroad, -but peace with honor. She governs her sword in accordance with the -motto of the Castilian Hidalgo: “No me desenvainas sin causa; no me -envainas sin honor.” (I do not unsheath my sword without cause; I do -not sheath it without honor.) - -The territorial questions of Chile with Argentina and Bolivia have been -definitely settled, and the three countries have been greatly benefited -thereby. Chile and the Argentine have been relieved of the enormous -drain upon their resources in the purchase of ships and preparations -for war, and under treaty arrangements capital is seeking investment -in Bolivia in the development of its natural resources. The only -outstanding territorial question that Chile now has to deal with is -that relating to Tacna and Arica. - -Bolivia’s loss in the war with Chile was irreparable, depriving it -of all coast territory and an outlet to the sea. It now occupies the -unique position of being one of two inland countries in the sisterhood -of South American Republics. After the war Chile took possession of -the long strip of desert bordering on the Pacific, which furnished -Bolivia access to the ocean and direct communication with the outside -world. The territory is a rainless region, devoid of vegetation, but -beneath its surface are nitrate deposits sufficient to supply the -world, and its acquisition made Chile the richest country on the globe, -in proportion to its population. It derives from that source about -90,000,000 pesos, equal to $30,000,000 United States currency, or $8.50 -per capita, annually. The source of this enormous revenue has become -the permanent possession of Chile. Bolivia has apparently abandoned -the idea of pressing further claims for readjustment of questions -growing out of the war, and is endeavoring to make the best of a bad -situation by developing the resources of her remaining territory and -promoting her industrial interests. In 1905 she celebrated a treaty of -commerce and amity with Chile, which provides among other things for -the building of a system of railroads through the provinces of Tacna -and Arica, thereby giving to Bolivia access to Pacific ports, providing -means of communication and facilities for transporting her products to -the coast, as well as to ports of entry. - -Bolivia also has a large scheme of railway-building of her own, some -of the more important branches of which will connect with the lines -built by Chile, extending from the coast across the pampa. It was the -announcement of this treaty agreement that caused the last vigorous -protest by Peru against Chile’s course in the Tacna and Arica question. - -During the administration of the phlegmatic but conscientious Domingo -Santa Maria, who was president from 1881 to 1886, Chile passed through -an important epoch, the pivotal point in her national history. -It includes the war with Peru and Bolivia, and an international -complication with the Argentine Republic in which war was averted only -by a diplomatic handling of the question. - -Argentina had an unsigned alliance with Peru and Bolivia, and advantage -was taken of Chile’s war engagement to press the question of boundary -limits, and also that of the possession of Patagonia and the Straits -of Magellan. To meet this emergency and to avoid if possible another -war, the government commissioned Jose Manuel Balmaceda, who was then -serving as Minister of Foreign Affairs, to go to the Argentine capital -and save Chile from impending difficulties. Although coldly received -in Buenos Aires, Señor Balmaceda entered upon the task with zeal and -determination, unraveled the tangle of international questions, and -tied the hands of Argentina by withdrawing Chile’s claim to that -portion of Patagonia lying east of the Cordilleras. Previous to that -time all of Patagonia was Chilean territory. It was included in the -Spanish Vice-royalty inherited by the Republic. This concession -precipitated other boundary disputes which were the cause of many years -of international contention, almost resulting in war between the two -nations on several occasions. It was finally settled by arbitration in -May, 1903, when a boundary line, established by a commission appointed -by King Edward VII, was accepted and approved by a treaty agreement -between the two countries. - -On his return from the Argentine, Balmaceda was made Prime Minister -and became a most potent political factor and powerful incentive -to material progress and development. From armed conflicts and -international complications Chile emerged triumphant and successful. -Her territorial limits had been extended to include some of the richest -mineral deposits on the continent, her national prestige greatly -increased, her credit unimpaired and her wealth producing resources -multiplied. - -From that time Chile made rapid advancement along lines of industrial -development and intellectual progress. For the first time in her -national existence the exports exceeded her imports; the balance of -trade was favorable to her commerce, and the surplus in the national -treasury reached 100,000,000 pesos. A remarkable thing about this -surplus is that it was accumulated while the government was engaged in -building railroads, bridges, public schools and colleges, penal and -correctional institutions, constructing highways and providing better -means of communication throughout the country. The Congress of that -period, 1882-5, was notable in the history of the Republic for its -progressive policies, unity of purpose and patriotic support of the -government. - -The administration party, led by Balmaceda, with the encouragement -of President Santa Maria, was marshaling its forces for some radical -departures from former governmental policies. The president issued a -message in which it was declared the intention of the administration -to enact a law providing for the civil registry of births, deaths and -marriages. In the National Congress, September 26, 1885, Balmaceda, -representing the administration, declared the following to be the -government program: - - “Reciprocate and counterpoise every arm of public power; sacredly - maintain the independence of constitutional and judicial powers; - protect from abuse the electoral power and liberty of suffrage; - formally reorganize municipalities for honest, harmonious legislation; - separate the church from the state and protect the liberty of thought; - foment progressive public instruction, examine proofs of character - and competency in the exercise of public functions; realize national - administration in the most correct, upright and economical manner.” - -Little attention was given to these patriotic sentiments at the -time, but later when Balmaceda became minister of the interior, he -declared in congress that “the Catholic religion marches contrary to -the current of the century, restrains the liberty of State, refuses -modern progress, denies freedom of thought and destroys liberal ideas; -the church condemns culture and fosters ignorance. With the creed of -Catholicism it is difficult to unite the politics of modern State, as -the Catholic religion is an exclusive compulsory factor and beneficiary -in Chilean administrations.” - - * * * * * - -After a bitter congressional campaign, in which the measure was opposed -by the church element, the civil registry act became a law. History -credits President Santa Maria with giving his country this beneficent -law, but it was the aggressive Balmaceda who led the fight against -all the fortified conservative forces, religious and traditional -prejudices of Chile, inculcating into the minds of the people new and -advanced ideas, and making the passage of the law possible. Inspired by -patriotic motives, and with excessive confidence in others, including -his enemies, Balmaceda committed the common mistake of politicians in -believing the cause he advocated would prevail because it was right. -The war with Peru and Bolivia had left multiform internal and external -questions for settlement. While these international problems were -pressing for solution, requiring the attention of the administration, -the opposition party made a fierce fight in the elections of 1886, -securing a majority in the Congress. Then followed the greatest -political struggle in the history of Chile. The elements opposing the -civil registry law, and other political measures advanced by the -administration, employed every means within their power to arrest the -liberal advance, which had made such rapid progress in the few years -immediately preceding, to embarrass the administration of Santa Maria -and destroy the influence of Balmaceda, who had become a political -power in the Republic. - - -ELECTION OF BALMACEDA. - -The contending forces and warring political elements of that critical -period in Chile’s history reached a climax in the struggle for -supremacy in the campaign of 1886, which resulted in the election of -Balmaceda as president. During the years intervening between the war -with Peru and Bolivia, and the inauguration of Balmaceda, Chile had -prospered wonderfully. The rich nitrate properties, acquired as the -fruits of war, were being developed and worked with foreign capital, -and were producing an enormous annual revenue. The Republic was then -in the period of its greatest prosperity, having accumulated a large -surplus in the national treasury, notwithstanding the fact that public -works, including highways, school houses, bridges, harbor improvements, -etc., were being constructed. Order and system prevailed in the -management of government affairs, and the country was in the bloom of -industrial progress and national prosperity. - -Under these favorable conditions, Don Jose Manuel Balmaceda became -president. To the creation of these conditions he had contributed -much in the way of honest industry, but the full fruition of his -hopes to make of Chile an independent Republic, where every citizen, -irrespective of condition, creed or religion, might exercise his -rights without prejudice to his individual interests was never to be -realized. Not only was he destined to disappointment and ultimate -defeat, but this strong, brilliant man, the greatest in many respects -that Chile has produced, proved the rock upon which the Ship of State -foundered. His administration ended in a revolution, the tragic end -of which was the death of the president by suicide in the Argentine -Legation, in Santiago, where he sought asylum after the final success -of the revolutionists and the overthrow of the government. - -It was on a constitutional question that Balmaceda clashed with -Congress, which resulted in his downfall. Under the constitution the -president must convoke Congress in regular session from June 1 to -September 1, each year; he has power to prorogue it at any time for a -term of fifty days, and he can summon it in special session whenever -he chooses. He appoints his cabinet ministers, governors of provinces, -diplomatic representatives, and five out of eleven members of the -Council of State, “Consejo de Estado.” He also appoints the judges of -the several courts, upon recommendation of the Council of State. He -approves, promulgates and takes part in the making of laws, issues -decrees, regulations, etc., which he may consider desirable for the -execution of laws. The authority thus vested in the president gives him -a power which, if abused, might become a menace to the Republic. It was -perhaps for this reason that the framers of the constitution of Chile, -apparently desiring to avoid the possibility of the concentration of -political power in the Republic, made the ministry responsible to -the legislative branch of the government instead of the executive. -Following the plan of the French Republic, legislation affecting the -general policy of the government originates with the ministry. When -Congress convenes the president outlines the administration policy in a -message calling attention to such measures as he thinks should receive -attention and consideration from the legislative bodies. Bills are -prepared by the cabinet ministers and presented to Congress. A failure -to approve by their votes any measure coming from the executive branch -is taken as a vote of lack of confidence in the administration, and -the only course left for the president is to dissolve his ministry. -The power bestowed upon Congress to overthrow ministries, and defy -the president by refusing to coöperate with the executive branch -of government, was never indulged in to any considerable extent -until Balmaceda’s time. Then the political elements opposed to the -administration policy allied their interests and exercised their power -to defeat the progressive measures presented, thereby repeatedly -rejecting the ministry. Since that time the custom of obstruction has -grown into such a gigantic abuse that it is now almost impossible for -the president of Chile to maintain a ministry for a sufficient length -of time to carry out any general plan or policy of government. In fact -it has become one of the crying evils of the country which the press -denounces vigorously and persistently. During the administration of -President German Riesco, 1901-6, ministerial changes became so frequent -that a cabinet crisis was not regarded as a matter of any interest or -consequence by the public. - -During the first years of Balmaceda’s administration, Chile enjoyed an -era of golden prosperity and national progress. Numerous reforms were -proposed, which had for their purpose the improvement of the government -service. One project was to prohibit senators and deputies from having -an interest in any public contract; another that neither the president -nor any cabinet minister should appoint a near relative to office -unless the person possessed the necessary qualifications for the -position. Believing himself secure in the performance of his duties and -the administration of government affairs, President Balmaceda prepared -to utilize a portion of the large income from the nitrate fields in the -construction of public works. He contracted for the building of new -lines of railway in the central and southern provinces at a cost of -$30,000,000; built schools and colleges in every city in the Republic, -amounting to $10,000,000 in value; ordered the construction of three -modern warships and two torpedo boats in Europe. He also continued and -completed the work of constructing a government dry dock at Talcahuano; -armed and equipped the army with modern rifles and munitions of war, -and improved the coast defenses, to which were added new modern -batteries at Talcahuano and Iquique. - -The questions affecting the prerogatives of the members of Congress -and cabinet ministers, together with the extravagant policy of the -administration caused much political agitation and exciting debate -in the Senate and House of Deputies. The constant attack of the -clerical party, the bitter denunciations of the press, added to the -conservative opposition finally created dissension among the liberals, -who had elected and until then supported the president. Charges of -usurpation of power and dictatorship were made against Balmaceda, -and the political situation became such that a revolt was imminent. -Various ministries had been rejected by Congress because of the policy -pursued in erecting costly public works instead of employing the -government revenues in reducing the foreign debt and redeeming the -paper currency, and the president found himself in the embarrassing -situation of having entered upon a policy of extensive government -improvement and industrial development without the support of Congress. -An extraordinary session was called for the purpose of providing -government revenues. Other measures were taken up by Congress and the -appropriation bill deferred until the president should recede from his -arbitrary position. Balmaceda refused to compromise, and the ministry -again resigned. He then appointed a new cabinet in harmony with his -views and declared the session closed, maintaining that Congress when -called in extraordinary session for the express purpose of passing -an appropriation bill had no constitutional authority to go into the -consideration of other measures. In explaining his action he said: -“Congress by the express terms of the constitution has no more right to -dictate to me what ministers I shall appoint than it has to advise what -food I shall eat or clothes I shall wear.” - -The Constitutional Advisory Committee was convened and as a result -of its deliberations the president was advised to again convene -Congress in extraordinary session. Balmaceda hesitated, fearing that -Congress if again convened might declare the office of president -vacant. While he and his ministers deliberated, the Constitutional -Committee arrogated to itself the authority to call an extra session. -The opposition was rapidly securing support from various political -elements throughout the country and by popular sympathy among the -people. The dictatorial attitude of the administration aroused intense -feeling and there was a clamor for the deposition of the alleged -dictator. Realizing that summary action was necessary to maintain -his power and aggressive policy, the president issued a manifesto on -January 1, 1891, declaring his intention to exercise his constitutional -powers and functions,--to stand by the strict letter of the law. He -declared that he had nothing to do with the effete provisions of the -constitution, nor with new theories of parliamentary government until -they were enacted into law. He maintained that under the constitution -the appropriation bill passed by the previous Congress held good -until another was passed. The supreme court declared the acts of the -president unconstitutional. He ignored the court. This assumption of -authority on the part of the executive was contrary to precedent and to -republican ideas, even if constitutional, and the cry of “dictator” was -raised. Thus the machinery of government was disabled, and while the -Ship of State lay stranded upon the rock of party politics, Congress -declared the country in revolution, and the tempest of war struck the -Republic on January 7, 1891, when the navy, under command of Señor -Don Jorge Montt went over to the revolutionists. The squadron sailed -for the north with the presiding officers of the Senate and House of -Deputies on board, and a floating Congress was established. - -The Congress which declared Balmaceda deposed, empowered Don Jorge -Montt to assume provisional command, and a junta was organized on -board the warship _Blanco Encalada_, composed of Señor Montt, Don -Waldo Silva, vice-president of the Senate and Don Ramon Barros Luco, -president of the Chamber of Deputies. - -The revolution started by Balmaceda’s manifesto of January 1, 1891, was -apparently poorly prepared to cope with the government. The insurgents -had no military organization, no arms or munitions of war. The junta -proceeded north and took possession of the provinces of Tarapaca, -Atacama and Antofagasta, which include the rich nitrate fields and -wealth producing mineral territory of Chile, the revenues from which -were employed in purchasing arms, provisions and equipment for an army. -They also had possession of the majority of the naval squadron. By the -middle of the year 1891 the government had 45,000 troops in the field, -four thousand of which were cavalry. The revolutionists had only about -twelve thousand soldiers, which encouraged the sanguine Balmaceda to -believe that he could easily suppress the uprising. - -Congressional elections were held in May, and a majority of the members -elected were in sympathy with the administration. In June presidential -electors were chosen, and they selected as the candidate for president -Don Claudio Vicuña, who was Balmaceda’s choice for his successor. Señor -Vicuña, who was of an old and distinguished family, was declared -duly elected president on July 25, 1891, but the final success of the -insurgents prevented him from ever taking his seat. - -As the struggle continued the revolutionary cause gained strength and -reinforcements from various sources. The superior skill of the military -officer directing the opposition forces made itself manifest, and the -position of Balmaceda and his government became daily more and more -menaced with dissolution and overthrow. On August 20, ten thousand -revolutionary troops were disembarked at Quintero, a few miles from -Valparaiso, and on the following day a decisive battle was fought, at -Concon, situated at the mouth of the Aconcagua River, resulting in the -defeat of the government forces. This crushing defeat, in which about -2,500 of the government troops were killed, practically caused the fall -of Balmaceda. He made a strenuous and brave effort to recover from the -disaster, but the railway communication having been destroyed, it was -impossible to send reserve troops from the south, where they had been -stationed, in time to save the situation. - -After the battle of Concon the opposition forces advanced upon -Valparaiso, and two days later endeavored to capture Fort Callao, at -Viña del Mar, a beautiful suburban place six miles from Valparaiso. -The fortress, which commands the bay of Valparaiso, the valley and -surrounding heights, being equipped with modern guns, and well-nigh -impregnable, resisted the attack of both warships and artillery, and a -repulse prevented a direct advance upon Valparaiso, the objective point -of the Congressional army. Retiring from Viña del Mar, Generals Canto -and Korner, commanding the revolutionary forces, fell back to Salto, a -few miles distant, where they destroyed a railway bridge spanning the -river, thus cutting off communication with Santiago, and preventing -the possibility of Balmaceda forwarding troops from the capital. -Making a detour of some thirty miles, the revolutionists endeavored -to approach Valparaiso from the south, but encountered the government -forces, under command of Generals Barbosa and Alzerreca, occupying a -formidable position upon the hills near Placilla, a few miles from the -city of Valparaiso. This was on August 27th. On the 30th the election -of Señor Claudio Vicuña would be formally ratified by the Senate, and -he would become president. It was important to the revolutionists to -force a decisive engagement and overthrow Balmaceda before the newly -elected president should take his seat. Before daylight on the morning -of the 28th, under cover of the darkness and protection of the hills, -the revolutionists got into position to give battle without being seen -by the government forces. Early in the morning as the advancing army -was crossing an open plain Balmaceda’s troops opened an artillery fire -upon it, and the battle of Placilla, the final and decisive engagement -in the revolution, was begun. The opposition forces numbered about -twelve thousand and the government, nine thousand. The former, flushed -with success and inspired with the hope of final victory, fought -like demons, while the latter, discouraged and disheartened with -failure, menaced with disaster and annihilation, showed lack of order, -discipline, and courage manifested and displayed on previous occasions. -Some companies even deserted and joined the enemy during the battle. -After a few hours’ terrific fighting, in which more than a thousand men -were killed and a greater number wounded, on the government side, the -Balmaceda army was put to rout. The victorious forces which had lost -five hundred killed and over a thousand wounded, pursued the fleeing -remnants of the routed army, driving many of them into the quebrades -(ravines), where they were unmercifully slaughtered. Generals Barbosa -and Alzerreca were both killed in the engagement. On the evening of -the 28th, Valparaiso was in possession of the revolutionists and the -Balmaceda government was overthrown. - -Leading government supporters, including Don Claudio Vicuña, president -elect, and who only lacked a few days of being formally declared -the chief executive of the Republic, sought refuge on board foreign -warships in the harbor. - -That night Valparaiso was the scene of a Bacchanalian rabble that would -have shamed Rome in the reign of Nero. The city was in possession of a -mob, intoxicated with success, drunk upon wine and athirst for blood, -that murdered with impunity and sacked the town without restraint. -Drunken men and women reeled through the streets, shooting at each -other as a matter of sport, and on the following morning four hundred -victims of the mob’s violence were found dead in the streets. - -The scenes enacted in Santiago were equally as wild and tragic as -those witnessed in Valparaiso. The houses of Balmaceda, Claudio Vicuña -and other Balmacedistas were attacked, looted and everything they -contained destroyed or carried away. A statue of the deposed president -was dismembered and kicked through the streets. From balconies ladies -cheered the performance, while opprobrium was heaped upon the inanimate -form by the drunken mob. Beggars and thieves appropriated with -impunity works of art and beautiful articles of furniture found in the -residences of those who had remained loyal to the administration. - -That night President Balmaceda left the Moneda (Government Palace), and -sought asylum in the Argentine Legation, where he remained until his -legal term as president expired, September 18. On September 19 he took -his own life by firing a revolver-shot into his brain, thus avoiding -the chronicle in history that he committed suicide while president of -the Republic. - -Thus the tragic and untimely death of this strong, brave man, who was -called a tyrant and dictator by his enemies, but was loved and revered -by his friends. Through the vista of years that intervene between the -present and the close of the revolution, the official acts of Balmaceda -and the monuments he left to his memory in the form of government works -and public enterprises, loom large and conspicuous when compared with -the works of those who have succeeded him. Public opinion and sentiment -in Chile have undergone wonderful changes since the day a shot from a -revolver in his own hand crashed into and stilled forever the fertile, -creative brain of Jose Manuel Balmaceda, and an ungrateful Republic is -now beginning to set its seal of approbation upon his official life -and private character. History will yet write the name of Balmaceda -large upon the roll of honor reserved for Chile’s patriots, statesmen, -diplomats and scholars. - -At the close of the revolution the “Junta de Gobierno,” with Captain -Jorge Montt at its head, took charge of the government. On October -18, a general election was held, and on November 18 the electors -met and named Don Jorge Montt president. President Montt, while a -man of mediocre ability, possessed a high sense of honor, and was -conscientious in the strict performance of his official duties. While -he did nothing to distinguish himself as a man of great intellectual -attainments, his administration marked a period of national -tranquillity and general prosperity, securing for him the good will and -political support of a majority of the citizens of the Republic. After -serving one term as president he was placed at the head of the navy, -where he served as a most efficient and popular officer. He held the -position as ranking admiral of the navy until 1905, when he was sent on -a special government mission to the United States, Japan, Europe and -England. - -President Montt was succeeded by Don Federico Errazuriz in 1896. There -was little in President Errazuriz’ administration worthy of special -mention. He was a man of brilliant intellect, cultivated tastes, -charming manner and attractive personality, but lacked in the moral -qualities that characterized the private and official life of his -predecessor. - -President Errazuriz died in July, 1901, and was succeeded by Don German -Riesco, who had been formally elected a month previous. President -Riesco had not been conspicuous in national politics previous to -his nomination, and had few political enemies when inaugurated in -September, 1901. He was known as a good lawyer, had occupied the -position of judge of one of the courts of appeal, and was universally -respected for his honesty, industry and high moral character. Being -a man of mediocre ability, lacking in precision and firmness, his -administration was early embarrassed by politicians who employed -obstructive measures to prevent the passage of laws recommended by the -executive branch of the government. - -The president found it difficult to maintain a ministry for a -sufficient length of time to accomplish anything in the way of needed -legislation, or to carry out important government policies. He was -constantly forced into compromising with various political factions -and coalitions. In an effort to secure political influence he lost -the support of a majority of the members of the legislative bodies, -and also the confidence of the people. The result was a condition -of political chaos in the Republic. Ministries were overthrown with -frequency, Congress was hopelessly divided into contending factions and -there was a general lack of united and concerted effort in the various -branches of government. - -Chile made substantial commercial progress during the Riesco -administration, however, and there prevailed throughout the country -a condition of general prosperity. New and important industries were -established, many new companies with large capital were organized, and -money was plentiful during most of the period. The only disturbing -feature of the commercial and financial situation was the constantly -fluctuating value of the paper currency. - -Another feature of President Riesco’s administration is the fact that -it closed with a national calamity, caused by the great earthquake -that occurred in August, 1906, causing serious loss of life and great -destruction of property in the cities and towns throughout the country. - -In the general election of 1906, Don Pedro Montt, son of Manuel Montt, -President of Chile from 1851 to 1861, was elected president by a larger -majority than that received by any candidate in the history of the -Republic. - -Señor Montt was for many years previous to his election regarded as the -most able and conservative statesman in the country. He was born in -Santiago in 1846, and was graduated from the University in his native -city in 1870. In 1874 he was elected a member of the House of Deputies, -where he remained for several years. He also served as Speaker of -the House, Minister in different cabinets and Envoy Extraordinary -and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States. With a long and -successful political career to his credit he was inaugurated under more -favorable and auspicious circumstances than any president since his -father, to whom history gives the credit of being one of the ablest -executives ever elected to the office. - -It was President Montt’s ambition to improve the industrial and -financial conditions of the country by establishing the gold -standard, and thereby do away with the ruinous fluctuations in the -currency values. But in this commendable undertaking he was doomed to -disappointment, being defeated in his plans for accomplishing that most -desirable reform by the factions that dominated the politics of the -Republic, and in 1908-9, the exchange rate reached its lowest level, -the Chilean peso being worth at one time only 20 cents U. S. currency, -whereas upon a gold standard basis it represents a value of 34 cents. - -In May 1910 President Montt attended the inauguration of the centennial -exposition of the Argentine Republic in Buenos Aires, making the trip -by rail over the Transandine Railway, which was opened to traffic about -that time. In July he started on a trip to Europe, going by way of the -United States, arriving in New York, August 3. On August 9 he sailed -for Europe, arriving in Hamburg on the 16th, where he died soon after -his arrival. - -After the death of President Montt, Vice-President Elias Fernandez -Albano became president. On September 6, of the same year President -Albano died and Senator MacIver Como, vice-president of the Council of -State became the acting president. - -At the regular election in 1910, Don Raymon Barros Luco was elected to -the presidency. - - - - -INDIANS - - -The indigenous races of Chile consist of the following tribes: -Araucanians, Chilotes, Chonos, Onas, Fueginos, Yahgans, Alacalupes and -Patagonians. - -The Araucanians, the most powerful, brave, and warlike tribe of South -American Indians, formerly occupied all the territory now constituting -the northern half of Chile. In the Araucanians the Spaniards met a -strong resistance to their invasion of the territory. The tribe then -numbered one million, and for three hundred and fifty years they -maintained a warfare against the occupation of their country by white -men. The Spaniards were unable to subdue them, and even after the war -of independence and the establishment of the Republic, they maintained -a hostile attitude. Although being gradually and peacefully subjugated -they still maintain a sort of independence, living under a form of -government agreeable to their common tribal laws and customs. They are -now generally engaged in the peaceful pursuits of agriculture. - -The Araucanian government consists of a confederation constituted by -the union of three independent tribes, each of which is governed by -a hereditary chief, called Toqui, or Cacique. A few years ago the -territory was divided into sub-districts, for each of which there is -a subordinate chief. The Caciques are elected by their respective -tribes. They hold armed diets, like the ancient Poles and Germans. In -the formation of laws governing their actions, and determining upon -military operations, every member of the confederation has a vote. - -In more recent years these erstwhile savages have manifested a friendly -disposition towards foreigners, some of whom have been admitted to -membership in their tribes. These “white Indians,” who usually possess -superior intelligence, education and knowledge of the world, sometimes -rise to eminence among the tribes. A French lawyer named De Tonneins, -once humbugged the Indians into believing in his alleged magical and -spiritual attainments to such an extent that the Araucanian tribes -proclaimed him king, which distinction he assumed under the title of -King Orelie Antonio I, and reigned for several years. The small court -by which he was surrounded paid him great deference. His Fraudulent -Highness made war against the Chilean government, was captured and -deported to his native country, where after several uneventful years, -he died in an asylum in Bordeaux. - -The Araucanians are a sturdy race, with fine physiques. They are tall, -muscular, agile and possess wonderful power of endurance. They are -brave to foolhardiness, but lack intelligence, ambition and creative -genius. Their stupidity combined with their passions, cruel natures and -natural characteristics have prevented them from rising little above -the low level of animals in their domestic life. A study of their past -history and present conditions has a tendency to disillusionize one -who has formed ideas of the Araucanians from descriptions written -by historians and tales related by travelers who have never visited -the habitations of that peculiar people. In general appearance the -Araucanians resemble the other indigenous tribes of North and South -America. They are copper colored, have black, straight, coarse hair -and deep set, piercing black eyes. There is a trace of foreign blood -apparent in many of them, due to their association with the Spaniards -who first invaded the country, and shipwrecked sailors, many of whom -cast their lots with the Indians, and lived peacefully among them, -frequently marrying Indian women. - -When America was discovered, the indigenous tribes wore little -clothing, but contact with white men has wrought some changes in their -customs and habits, and taught them the propriety of wearing at least a -semi-civilized garb. The costume of the Araucanian consists of a shirt, -a loin cloth, a manta or poncho of dark blue or black fabric, and a -scarlet turban, all woven by hand and from natural wool, and colored -from dyes extracted from the roots of plants and bark of trees. The -women wear long, scarlet petticoats, and over the head a blue manta, -which drapes over the body down to and below the waist. Their costumes -are also made of hand-woven wool cloth, which is soft and warm, and -very durable. A unique feature of the cloth made by the Indians is the -variety and peculiarity of colors woven into the fabric. The designs -are odd and quaint, and not infrequently weird figures representing -animals, serpents and imaginary gods and devils are worked into the -patterns. A peculiar feature of the fabric is that the designs are -never duplicated, no two pieces of cloth being made of the same -pattern. Hence, if one buys an Indian poncho, he has the satisfaction -of knowing that no one else will have one like it in design. The mantas -worn by the men and women are in plain colors, as a rule, but they are -unique garments, the feature of which is a long nap on the outer side -of the fabric, which makes it almost impervious to water. These mantas -are usually fastened with a huge silver pin, ornamented with a round, -flat disk. Both men and women wear silver earrings of huge proportions, -very heavy and of varied and odd design. The women wear various other -silver ornaments in the form of necklaces, bangles, crosses and -pendants. These articles are all made of hammered silver and have an -intrinsic as well as a decorative value. The usual aversion of Indians -in general to familiarity, or to become communicative, the traditional -stolidity of the race, holds good with the Araucanians. They are averse -to selling any of their personal apparel or adornments, and all efforts -to purchase such articles are resented. - -These people, constituting the remnant of a once powerful and proud -race, live in miserable huts, the roofs of which provide little -protection against rain, and the walls of which are sometimes -conspicuous by their absence. In a climate where it rains one half the -year, and where the temperature frequently drops to zero, these places -of habitation afford little comfort. In these miserable “rucas” live -the family, not infrequently consisting of a large number of children, -together with donkeys, pigs, dogs and fowls, in sanitary conditions -that are shockingly disgusting. - -In the Araucanian country, which extends from the River Bio Bio on -the north to Valdivia on the south, and from the Cordillera to the -sea, some strange sights may be witnessed. Almost the entire country -is covered with forests, and there are hundreds of miles of solitude -and unbroken wilderness, save the little cultivated patches, where -the Indians engage in farming. Their farms and ranchos are usually -back from, rather than along the trails where travelers pass. There is -little bird or animal life in the forests, and one may ride for days -through those solitudes, with little or nothing to attract attention -or relieve the oppressive silence and monotony, save the sight of an -occasional Indian. The strange, mysterious manner of the Indians only -adds to the uncanny aspect of the wilderness. They are mysterious, -and undesirable as companions, ignorant, superstitious, and by nature -vicious, but like animals, they are dangerous only when disturbed in -the pursuit of life. - -The deeds of heroism, acts of valor and bravery, which caused the -Araucanians to be immortalized in verse and recorded in the more sober -lines of prose and history, were enacted during the days of the Spanish -conquest. - -In 1535, Don Diego de Almagro, the ally and rival of Pizarro, the -despoiler of Peru, set out on a mission of conquest of the territory -which now constitutes the Republic of Chile. He came not as a peaceful -conqueror, as did the Incas long before, but as a tyrant and butcher, -endeavoring to strike terror to the hearts of the Indians by acts of -cruelty and inhuman treatment. They were treated as so many beasts -to be enslaved or slaughtered at the pleasure of those who invaded -the country in quest of gold, only. The attitude of Almagro and his -followers aroused all the latent fierce combative spirit and resentful -feelings that had been smoldering in the hearts of the aborigines -during centuries of peaceful occupation of the country, and they -resisted the invasion with a heroism and determination that finds few -parallels in primitive warfare in the history of the world. - -There were then no horses in the country, save those brought by the -Spaniards, and the Indians had to fight on foot. The only weapons they -possessed were bows and arrows, and lances made of long, flexible -bamboo poles, the latter being the weapons of war. They had no military -training or leaders and were ignorant of the arts of war, not even -appreciating or understanding the advantages of combined or orderly -attack. They depended entirely upon impetuous charges, ambush and -secret night attacks. They had no fear of death, and not infrequently -in battle they continued the conflict until every man engaged was -killed. After years of warfare against the Spaniards, they learned the -advantages to be gained by the use of horses in battle, which they -adopted to some extent, but they did not follow the example of their -enemies in the use of saddles, always riding bareback. After many -generations of resistance to the invaders, they became more clever -and systematic in attack and defense, having learned the importance -of better preparation, councils of war and leadership. The Araucanian -war extended intermittently over three centuries, and as the case -in all wars, whether among barbarians or civilized nations, brought -conspicuously to the front individuals who by superior intelligence -and bravery were recognized as natural leaders. Chief among those who -achieved fame as warriors, and whose deeds of daring form thrilling -chapters in Chilean history, were Lautaro, a young brave who at the age -of twenty was recognized as the leader of the Indian forces. It was -Lautaro who first attempted to organize the various tribes and bands -into something like a military force. After many successful battles he -was surprised in a night attack by the Spaniards, near Talca, where -almost the entire army under his command was annihilated, he being -among the killed. He was decapitated, and his head taken to Santiago, -where it was placed upon a pole and paraded through the streets as a -victorious trophy. - -Later Caupolican, one of the bravest of his race, assumed the -leadership of the Araucanians. He was finally captured, and his enemies -wishing to make an example of the chief cut off both his arms at the -elbows, after which he was released. Caupolican pointing the stumps of -his amputated arms at his persecutors said: “Be careful, be careful, -murderers and persecutors, I will return to avenge these wrongs.” And -notwithstanding his maimed condition he later returned to the attack -with renewed courage and fierceness, and in many battles, Caupolican -was first in the fray, and when beaten, was the last to retire from the -field. - -Since the days of the conquest of Chile, the Araucanian Indians -have been hedged about and encroached upon with modern civilizing -influences. Under these conditions they have degenerated until their -greatness is only a memory. They now have fixed places of residence, -and live upon the proceeds of their labor or lands. - -Some of these Indians own large tracts of land, portions of which -they cultivate, and upon which they raise large numbers of cattle and -horses. The methods employed in farming are crude and primitive. The -rich landowners are personages of note in the section of country where -they live. And when one of them starts on a trip from his ranch, always -on horseback, he is adorned with much silver in the way of ornaments. -He is usually accompanied by five or six “mocetones” (servants), and -travels in grand style. - -Having few wants these Indians work only when it is necessary to supply -their needs. Missionaries have tried in recent years to improve their -moral condition, but have made little progress. The Araucanian ideas -of a serious life are not deep-rooted; there is more stubbornness -than intellect in their composition. The Incas who were the first -foreign nation to invade Chile, taught them to worship the sun, but -in their present degenerate condition they seem to worship only the -God Bacchus. Strong drink and its attendant abuses, the curse of all -barbarous races, when once introduced by civilized nations, is causing -degeneration and a decrease in numbers. It will no doubt continue to -aid materially in the consummation of their final extinction. - -In 1890, during the administration of President Balmaceda, rail and -wagon roads were built through the Araucanian country, and many towns, -populated by Chilenos and foreigners sprung up along these routes -of communication. Special European immigration was solicited and -encouraged by government aid, for the settlement of portions of the -territory. Foreign association and influence, changed conditions and -environments affected radical changes in the character, customs, habits -and beliefs of the Indians. They were brought face to face with the -on-marching hosts of civilization, and confronted with the problem -of accepting and adapting themselves to the new order of things, or -extinction. The ultimate result will be the latter. - -With the indigenous races of Chile, and the same is true of other -countries, vices tread fast upon the heels of civilization. With the -influx of peaceful neighbors, the martial valor of these warlike -Indians seems to have disappeared. They have acquired a passion for the -cheap brands of liquor introduced by foreigners, and in the indulgence -of their appetites for strong drink they have become indolent, and are -neglecting their farms and ranches. Many of them have turned their -lands over to the colonists, to work on shares, and are thus enabled -to lead lives of indolence and excessive indulgence. The raw liquor -which they drink is called “Blanco Toro” (white bull); the vile tobacco -they smoke is “peclen,” and their pipes are called “guitas.” They still -consume large quantities of the ancient Indian drink, “chicha mascada,” -which is made from corn that is first chewed by old women, and then put -through a process of fermentation. A drink is made from flaxseed by -the same process. They are determined and inveterate gamblers, their -favorite game being cards, “cayo.” The game they play is peculiar to -the tribe, and is called “achaco.” Among the traditional customs to -which they cling tenaciously are their Indian dances, “loncomeos,” -which are indulged in to the music of an instrument called “cuntum.” -This instrument is odd in design and peculiar in tone, being a sort of -combination banjo and tambourine. - -The Araucanians are as improvident as they are dishonest, and as proud -as they are lazy. Yet there is little extreme poverty and there are no -beggars among them. Until recent years they were strict vegetarians, -and still abstain from eating the flesh of cattle, but they have become -so far civilized as to develop a fondness for horse meat. An Indian -will willingly exchange a cow or bullock, regardless of value, for -a horse, if the equine is sufficiently fat to make it desirable for -food. Although many of them are skilled in the use of firearms, which -have been generally introduced in recent years, they still manifest a -fondness and preference for their bamboo lances, the weapon of war used -by their ancestors. They frequently indulge in personal encounters, -but always without weapons. These fights are questions of force and -endurance, science being left out of the contest, and the belligerent -methods employed are not sufficiently violent to result in death. The -combatants clutch each other by the hair of the head and indulge in a -game of pull-and-haul, the performance being accompanied usually with -a volley of wrathful words uttered in a high shrill voice. Unlike the -North American Indians they seldom resort to the use of a knife as a -weapon of offense or defense. - -The system of counting is strictly decimal--from one to ten. Twenty is -two tens, fifty, five tens, and one hundred is ten tens; two hundred -is two tens of ten, etc. - -In case of sickness the “machi” (doctor) is called. That functionary -passes his mouth over the entire body of the patient, pinching the -flesh with his lips to ascertain the location of the affliction. When -that portion is reached where the disease is supposed to be located, -an incision is made, from which the “machi” sucks the blood with his -mouth. Very few medicines are employed, the chief medicinal remedy used -being the leaf of the canelo (wild cinnamon) tree, which is considered -a cure for almost every ill. - -The treatment of the body after death, previous to burial, is one of -the queer and barbarous customs prevalent among the Araucanians. The -body is hung up in a building, usually the house in which the person -dies, and a slow wood fire built under the corpse. This process of -smoking is kept up for several weeks. When the antiseptic principle of -the creosote has completely cured the flesh, the body is taken down, -and is considered ready for burial. A rope is then attached to the -corpse, and a yoke of oxen employed to drag the body to the place of -burial. This grewsome procession is preceded by a number of men armed -with lances, who march in advance in order to drive away any enemies -or evil spirits, that they may not be buried with the dead to disturb -their future. - - -CHILOTES AND CHONOS. - -The Chilote Indians inhabit the Island of Chiloe, and a portion of the -coast country in the province of Llanquihue, in which territory they -constitute the working population. They are a light copper color, and -differ materially in physical appearance from the Araucanians. They -are short in stature, heavy-set, broad, square shoulders, thick necks, -large heads, hands and feet. They have no chiefs or tribal government, -being peculiarly unrestrained in their personal lives by traditional -laws or government. They are peaceful and industrious. Each person -pursues such occupation as he may find or desire, that will afford a -living, without regard to the wishes or requirements of others. The -chief occupation of this small tribe in recent years is the manufacture -of a rough grade of lumber and timbers from a species of red pine, -called alerce. This wood has a beautiful straight grain, and the boards -are made by riving, instead of sawing. This rough lumber is transported -long distances upon the heads of the Indians, to the coast and interior -towns, where the product is exchanged for articles of food and clothing. - -The Chono Indians, inhabiting the archipelagoes of Guitecas and -Chonos, are few in numbers and live in a barbarous state. They live -in caves and small brush huts, and subsist entirely upon fish, which -they procure along the island coast. The Chonos are small in stature, -repulsive in appearance, and in intelligence, and their manner of -living ranks little above animals. - - -FUEGUINOS OR CANOE INDIANS. - -The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego, which consists of the large island -of the same name, and numerous smaller islands, many of which are -rocky, ice-bound and forbidding in aspect, constitutes the extreme -southern territorial limits of the continent, and is separated from the -mainland by the Strait of Magellan. The aborigines of this far southern -territory are divided into three tribes,--the Onas, Yahgans and the -Alacalupes. It is among these tribes, inhabiting a wild and forbidding -country, undisturbed by the march of progress and civilization, that -one may find the indigenous races living under the same conditions and -maintaining the traditions and customs that prevailed before the coming -of the white man to the western world. - - -ONAS. - -The Onas are physically a fine race of people, the average height of -the men being a little over six feet; the women are also tall and -muscular. They have no system of tribal government, and are nomadic. -Their only occupation is hunting the guanaco, a fur-coated herbivorous -animal found in great numbers in the lower ranges of the Andes -Mountains in the south. The meat of the guanaco constitutes the chief -food supply of the Onas, and many of them subsist upon it entirely. The -skins of the animals are made into a sort of manta, which constitutes -the only costume worn by the men. They discard this costume when at -war, or in pursuit of the guanaco. The women wear only a small piece -of guanaco skin about their loins. The Onas live in families, one man -usually possessing several women. There is little regard for marriage -rites or usage, the more powerful and valiant of the men selecting -such women from the tribe as they may desire, and are able to maintain -against their rivals. - -Their only weapons are bows and arrows, slings and harpoons, the -latter being pointed with barbed bone spikes. The number of Onas is now -estimated at three thousand five hundred, but like the other tribes in -Chile they are decreasing. - - -YAHGANS. - -The coast of the Beagle Channel and all the archipelago south of -Tierra del Fuego to Cape Horn is inhabited by the Yahgan Indians. They -have no chiefs nor tribal laws and are perhaps the lowest grade of -human beings, in point of intelligence, and in the manner and customs -of living, existing on the American continent. They are dwarfed in -stature, have very dark skins and are repulsive in appearance. A -peculiar feature of the Yahgans is the extraordinary projection of -their front teeth, which are used for opening the shells of oysters and -mollusks. These bivalves and crustacea, their sole article of food, are -eaten raw. - -The Yahgans, like their neighbors, the Alacalupes of the western -channels of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, live almost constantly in -their canoes, their only means of transportation. For their fishing -expeditions they rarely pass the night on shore, traveling long -distances in their frail barques. Considering the turbulent waters in -the channels of the archipelago, and the fact that their canoes are -made of trunks of trees, propelled with paddles, and that a single -frail craft is sometimes laden with a family consisting of several -persons, their feats are little less than marvels of navigation. - -About fifty years ago English missions were established at Usuhaia, -on the Wallston Islands, and later at Takanika, where some favorable -results were obtained in distracting the natives somewhat from the -pursuits of their nomadic life. A few of them utilize the knowledge -acquired from the missionaries in the cultivation of the soil. But -the missionaries having practically ceased their efforts in that -inhospitable country, most of the Indians have lapsed into their -traditional nomadic life, and their condition is perhaps worse to-day -than ever before. To add to the misfortunes of these miserable nomads, -who have sterility of soil and a rigorous climate to contend with, -many of them have been placed in actual slavery in recent years by -foreigners, who have acquired interests in the far south, and taking -advantage of the helplessness of the Indians have impressed them into -service without justification in moral or statutory law. - -The Chilean government, apparently indifferent to their fate, has -failed to interest itself in the cause of those unfortunate pariahs of -human society, whose ranks are being rapidly decimated and whose utter -extinction, under present conditions, is only a question of a few years. - -In 1882, Mr. Bridge, the missionary, calculated the Yahgan population -of the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego at three thousand, but in 1883, -the scientific expedition of the “Romanche” estimated the diminishing -population at one thousand three hundred. This estimate was based -upon the number of canoes counted in the channels, approximately two -hundred, each of which was manned by a family of six persons on the -average. From later data, which has been furnished by people living -in the archipelago, who have endeavored to make a census of the -population, the number of this tribe is calculated at seven hundred. - -On several occasions the Yahgans have requested foreigners who have -visited the islands to present their case to the Chilean government and -ask for relief from existing conditions. But so far nothing has been -done in the way of providing for or improving the condition of these -unfortunate people. - - -ALACALUPES. - -The Alacalupes occupy the coast of the Patagonian Cordilleras to the -northwest of the Straits of Magellan. They are also nomads, practically -living in their canoes. Like the Yahgans they are small and are very -dark, their color being that of mahogany. Notwithstanding the severity -of the climate they wear no clothing, and their appearance is one of -misery and total depravity. Their only food is fish, which they are -most dexterous in catching, and which is eaten raw. This tribe has no -chiefs, nor has it any laws governing or restricting individual action. -They have no religion and observe no religious rites. All property, -such as they have, is individual. Agriculture is unknown among them. -When not in their canoes they remain along the shore, never going far -inland. They sometimes cut branches from trees and arrange them as a -protection against the fierce winds that sweep the coast in winter, but -they never use fire, either as a protection against cold or for cooking. - -Notwithstanding the fact that these poor, depraved human beings wear -no clothing, they are not dead to a sense of modesty, as is sometimes -evidenced when in the presence of foreigners. Marriage is a question -of reciprocal sentiment, without ceremony or demonstration. Each -of these tribes speaks a different language, which like all Indian -languages is euphonious, and attractive in its simplicity. - - -PATAGONIANS. - -The most intelligent and progressive race of aborigines in southern -South America, a tribe that raises to considerable extent the general -low level of life that exists in that section, is the Patagonians. -They live in well-constructed, portable tents, called “toldos,” made -from guanaco skins, fastened to wooden supports by rawhide thongs, and -staked to the ground with pieces of bone. These toldos are so arranged -that they can be easily taken apart and removed as necessity may -require. Their food consists of the meat of the ostrich, guanaco and -deer, all of which abound in the territory inhabited by them. - -Physically the Patagonians are a superior race, the average height of -the men being considerably over six feet, and many of them are fully -seven feet tall. They are well proportioned, deep chested and muscular. -They have intelligent faces, regular features, aquiline nose, high -forehead and square chin. Their facial expression is one of amiability -and good nature. The complexion of the men, when their faces are clean -of paint, is a reddish brown; that of the women a healthy, ruddy hue. -The young women are often good-looking, but the severe climate and -their manner of living make them prematurely old and ugly. The men’s -costume consists of a woolen cloth worn next to the body, and a heavy -cloak made of guanaco skins, fastened at the neck and extending to -the ankles. Their high boots, “buskins,” are made from the skin of -the lower part of the hind legs of horses, and worn in the natural -form. These buskins are procured from the wild horses, thousands of -which roam over the pampas of Patagonia. The costume of the women is -practically the same as that worn by the men, except that the clothing -beneath the guanaco cloak is a little more elaborate. - -They possess the Indian characteristic fondness for jewelry and -personal adornment. They wear huge silver earrings, the pendants of -which are sometimes eight inches square; they also adorn themselves -with silver necklaces and quantities of beads. A Patagonian Indian six -and a half feet tall, robed in a beautiful guanaco cloak with flowing -folds, and adorned with huge silver ornaments, presents a picturesque -and striking appearance. - -The Patagonians differ from most Indian races in their observance of -certain hygienic laws. They sleep upon beds made of guanaco skins, in -tents that are kept fairly clean. Men, women and children indulge in -a cold bath every morning in the year. This practice, in addition to -aiding materially in building up and maintaining the splendid physical -constitutions for which they are noted, enables them to withstand -more easily the rigors of the severe climate. Their occupation is -that of hunting the ostrich, guanaco and other animals indigenous to -the territory. The flesh of the game is used for food, and the skins -converted into robes and rugs, which they market at Punta Arenas, and -for which they receive good prices. They are skillful hunters and the -method they employ in hunting ostriches and guanacos is unique. They -possess firearms, both rifles and revolvers, and are not unskilled in -their use; they also carry swords, daggers and lances, which are used -only when dismounted, and none of which are employed in the chase. -Ostriches and animals are pursued on horseback, the hunter carrying a -“bola,” which on near approach to the object of his pursuit he hurls -with unerring aim, seldom failing to stun and entangle the bird or -beast until it becomes an easy victim to his knife or lance. The bola, -which is peculiar to Patagonia, consists of three round stones, or -metal balls, the size of an orange, covered with rawhide. To each of -these is fastened a plaited rawhide rope six feet in length. The ends -of these ropes are united and fastened to a lasso. The hunter before -casting the bola takes it in one hand and by swinging it rapidly over -his head sends the balls rotating in the air with great velocity. He -then casts it as the vaquero does his lasso. When it strikes, the -revolving balls wrap the thongs tightly about the object of the chase, -entangling it and putting a stop to its flight. The hunter then rides -along by the side of the entrammeled prey and dispatches it. It is an -exciting scene to see a Patagonian mounted upon a fleet pony racing -across the pampa in pursuit of an ostrich. It possesses elements of -sport that are peculiarly attractive to one who is fond of hunting. - -These people have no religious creed and do not believe in a personal -God. There is a tradition among them that there is a great good spirit -who created them, but they have no well-defined creed, and religious -feasts are unknown among them. They believe in the sanctity of animals, -but do not worship any of them. They have a superstitious dread of -demons, whom they try to propitiate through the mediation of medicine -men, to whom only the demons are supposed to be visible. Charms and -talismans are worn as a means of warding off evil spirits. They are -ignorant of culture and conventionalities, yet they are not ungrateful -or inhospitable. They never give presents, nor will they receive favors -from others. - -One of the queer customs of this peculiar people is that of celebrating -marriages. The bridegroom secures the consent of both his own parents -and those of the bride. The fathers of the young couple then move their -tents near each other. An unsaddled horse is placed in front of each -of the tents, and at a prearranged signal the bride and groom rush -from their respective tents, mount the horses and gallop away on their -wedding trip. - - - - -CLASSIFIED HUSBANDMEN - - -To describe the life of the country people of Chile it is necessary to -classify the disintegrate parts which enter into combination with all -those who till the soil, and in which each has a personal and common -interest. The first grade in the classification is the peon, the lowest -class, who owns no land, and is illiterate, hard working, destitute, -and docile. - -The second, Land Owner No. 1, lives upon a small plot of non-productive -ground. The possession is small, but nevertheless his own, acquired by -industry, economy, or inheritance. If he works for others as a peon, it -is a matter of choice. If he has sons they work where they choose. His -land being insufficient to maintain himself and family, is used as a -residence only. - -The third husbandman in the classification is different only in -distinction as to the amount of his worldly effects; his habits, -customs and life are the same as Land Owner No. 1, except upon a little -more extensive scale. He is perhaps more selfish and self-contained. -His ambition is not to improve himself or his family, but to add to his -money and possessions. He is facilitated somewhat in his avaricious -aims by his small means. - -The fourth grade in the agricultural classification is the outgrowth, -the evolution of the classes below him. He calls himself a gentleman, -but lacks the breeding, manners and education to justify the title. -He is of the “roto” type, only richer, and better dressed, on parade -occasions. He owns lands sufficient to support himself and family -without manual labor. This independence is usually acquired by years of -selfish economy and penuriousness, or by inheritance or marriage. His -one aim in life seems to be the acquisition of money, no matter by what -means. - -Fifth and last in the grading of the agriculturists comes the -hacendado, or landlord, the owner of large, valuable and productive -haciendas. He usually regards himself as the prince of earth, -all-powerful and influential. His hacienda is his dukedom, his -fortress. No one can enter or leave without his permission and all -within its limits do his bidding unquestioned. He is lord and monarch -of all he surveys, and takes little heed of those below his social -station. The hacendados run politics and make presidents, name -congressmen, senators, judges and governors. - - -PEONS. - -It is difficult to describe the peon, or Roto Chileno. He is -contradictory by nature, compound and complex in character. He is -industrious and lazy, simple and cunning, honest and dishonest, brave -and cowardly, true and false. He is homeless, roving, restless, -dirty, slovenly, cares nothing for his past life and is without hope -or ambition for the future. With limitless improvidence he lives in -the present and is a happy-go-lucky, generous, careless, good-natured -individual who never wastes time gazing upon the sorry side of life. -He roams from place to place in search of a job, earning barely enough -to keep soul and body together, and not always sufficient to clothe -himself. Russian serfdom is not worse than the life some live in Chile, -especially the “inquilinos” (farm laborers), living upon their master’s -property. Do not pity the peon; he does not ask for, need nor want it. -He possesses the faithful humility of a dog and the cunning qualities -of the fox. Do not try to reform, civilize, reconstruct, or otherwise -change or reclaim him; he will successfully defy all efforts. The -blood of the Incas is in his veins, the old-fashioned way is best for -him, and he is content. He wants no changes or innovations, and will -admit of none. All he wants is to be left alone. Although he has never -known the pleasure of prosperity, he is apparently contented and never -unhappy. Born in poverty and humility, so he lives and dies. - -The Roto Chilenos not only constitute the laboring class in Chile, but -the army, navy and police force are largely recruited from their ranks. -As soldiers they possess a reckless bravery that will stop at nothing. -With a cry of “viva Chile” they will charge an enemy, never to return, -unless victory makes it possible. They are fearless to foolhardiness. -They will rush fortifications under fire, scale walls or steep bluffs, -swim rivers, and if all are killed the loss is not considered. One -single handed will not fight against odds, but in numbers and in hand -to hand conflicts the bravery of the Chileno is not excelled by any -nationality. They do not fight intelligently, but desperately. Their -favorite weapon is a knife, and every Roto Chileno goes armed with a -“corvo,” a knife with a long, curved blade, tapering to a sharp point, -and usually ornamented with a heavy metal handle. It is encased in a -leather sheath, and is carried in the belt or boot of the possessor. -It is an article of common utility, as well as a weapon of offense and -defense. When angered, or threatened with danger, the Chilean produces -a corvo as naturally as the American negro does a razor, and he is -exceedingly skillful in its use. It is not an uncommon thing for one -peon to disembowel another with one sweep of the corvo, usually leaving -a triangular shaped wound, a mark of this weapon that is peculiar to -the people. As an evidence of their partiality for the knife as a -fighting weapon, it is related that in many instances during the war -between Peru and Chile, in time of battle, the Chilean soldiers threw -away their rifles and rushed upon the enemy with corvos, fighting in -hand-to-hand conflict. - -These same men are afraid of a small dog, and will exhibit fear in many -ways under most ordinary circumstances. Contradictory elements enter -into their composite characters. They are patient, long suffering, and -have wonderful endurance. They think nothing of a serious flesh wound, -but if one of them has a toothache or headache he will wrap up his head -like an old woman with the mumps. Often they wear such a woe-begone, -lost look that one would almost believe in their manifest troubles if -their cunning ways of shirking a duty were not so well known. - -With five centavos in his pocket the roto is a capitalist, and will -not work until prompted by necessity. He speaks Spanish badly, and in -a mumbling, drawling manner, often using the most vile and profane -language in the presence of both men and women of his own class. In -stature the Roto Chileno is, as a rule, short, massive and muscular; -his skin is an amber brown. He has small, black, beady eyes, slight -beard, stiff black hair that grows low upon his forehead. The shape of -his head is generally that of a pumpkin, the back of the head being -quite flat. He has a short, thick neck, large flat feet, and small -tapering hands. The ears, mouth and nose are not out of proportion to -his size. He walks with a rapid, ambling gait, body bent forward, legs -wide apart and his long arms swinging at his sides. His few, scanty, -ragged garments are usually covered with a homemade wool “poncho.” The -bottoms of his feet are covered with rawhide sandals, “ojotas,” and he -invariably wears a straw hat, “chupalla.” The general appearance of -the roto, as one sees him on the road, with dirty face, dingy straw -hat drawn well down over his eyes, trousers rolled up at the ankle, -shirt open at the chest, a corvo in his belt and a poncho thrown over -his shoulders, is that of approaching ruin. His face is more repulsive -than ugly, and he is more nearly naked than ragged. Some of the more -provident among them, however, wear clean clothes on Sundays and other -feast days. They occasionally wash their hands and faces, but never -their bodies. They are by nature a pacific people. The fighting spirit -is generally aroused in them by the consumption of bad liquor. They -help each other in their personal work or difficulties, and are great -jokers, one with another. - -The “patron” (employer) always furnishes food to his laborers. The -universal food of the country for the poor people is “porotos” (beans), -and the ration for each man or boy, per day, is all the beans he can -hold in his two hands placed together. The rations are cooked together, -as many being placed in the pot as there are persons to be provisioned. -At meal-time the pot is delivered to the peons who sit on the ground in -a circle around the vessel. Each is supposed to have his own spoon, but -if not, a flat stick or piece of bark serves the purpose. After all are -seated each dips into the pot and eats until the allowance is finished. -One meal is all they eat in a day after eight o’clock in the morning, -at which hour they eat a loaf of black bread, in exchange for which -they may receive a double handful of toasted wheat, “harina tostado.” -This diet is never changed, never varied, after they leave the mother’s -breast. When the supply of beans is short, “mote” (wheat boiled in lye -until the hull is loosened, after which it is removed by rubbing the -grains between two stones), is sometimes mixed with the beans. - -In the extreme southern part of Chile, the ration is somewhat -different. There, “chuchoca” (green corn boiled and dried on the cob) -is mixed with the beans. The peons never depart from the established -ration. When not working they eat a little parched wheat flour in the -morning, or such other food as they may be lucky enough to obtain. If -one has no food he goes to some rancho where there is a supply, and -where he is invariably served, as they are always generous with each -other. - -Peons will sleep anywhere, in places wet or dry, clean or unclean. -With a stick of wood or a stone for a pillow, and with a poncho spread -over him he will sleep the sleep of innocence, without care for the -present or thought of the future. An old “mozo” (man servant), known -to be honest, through many years of faithful service, went one day to -the home of his former employer, where he was given food, and a bed -was provided for him in the house. During the night the gentleman was -disturbed by sounds of apparent distress in the corridor. Thinking the -mozo was ill, he went to inquire the cause of the trouble. The peon -informed him that he could not sleep upon that “soft thing,” meaning -the mattress, and asked permission to make his bed out-of-doors. He was -informed that he could sleep where he pleased. Taking his saddle for a -pillow, and a sheepskin for his bed, and spreading a poncho over him he -lay down upon the pavement of the patio. In the morning he was found -sleeping soundly, his face turned toward heaven, his unkempt beard -covered with frost. - -Peons in the cities do not receive a daily ration of beans, as is the -custom in the country, but are given money, “diario,” with which to buy -food. The Chilean peon cannot stand prosperity. As a general rule the -worse he is treated and fed, the better service he will render. This -applies more directly to the “inquilinos,” than to independent peons. - -The rotos are polite to each other and salute when they meet by -touching their hats, saying “Buenos dias, Caballeros” (good day, -gentlemen). When asking for and receiving a light for a cigarette, they -say, “Mil gracias, Dios guarde Ud.,” (a thousand thanks, God guard -you). When a peon meets a superior who says, “como le va” (how do you -do), the peon answers, “muy bien, para servirle a Ud.,” (very good, I -offer you my services). They are rarely insolent to their superiors and -when sober, never. They are illiterate to the extreme, having no desire -to learn, but they are naturally clever and are capable of rendering -good service, where mechanical skill is not required. You cannot -out-figure one of them, and he will quickly remind you of any mistake -in a transaction, if it counts against him. - -Among the roto class, grandfather, father and son all work together, -and have always been, as they are now, upon an equality in destitution. -Their only apparent ambition seems to be to work enough during the -week to secure a few pesos on Saturday night, with which to buy -“aguardiente” (raw brandy), “vino” or “chicha” (wine or cider) at the -“Cancha de Bola.” When a crowd of peons congregate at any one of the -many places where drinks are sold, in the country, first one buys a -litro (quart), and after taking a drink, he passes the cup, called -“potrillo,” to the friend next to him, and so it is passed until -empty. Then another buys a litro and passes it, and they continue -to treat each other until all are fighting drunk. This is continued -from Saturday night until Monday morning, and not infrequently until -Monday night or Tuesday. Employers of labor have learned by experience -not to expect anything from or depend upon their workmen for regular -service on Monday, as the majority of them are incapacitated from the -effects of drink--on Sunday. In the drinking places where the roto -spends his Sundays and feast days, in drinking and gambling, there are -always a number of women, “cantoras,” who join in the drinking, and -between drinks entertain the crowd with dancing and singing, playing -accompaniments on guitars. - -The Saturday night and Sunday debauch of the peons generally commences -after a hard week’s work, and frequently lasts thirty-six hours without -sleep, and sixty hours without food. After having slept off the effects -of drink, they are ready for business Tuesday or Wednesday morning. -When they return to work they give a legal day’s labor, without -persuasion to stimulate their activity. All differences are forgotten -and no questions asked, knowing that it is only a few days until they -will have another spree, and the weekly experience be repeated. They -are inveterate gamblers. Men may be seen naked in the road, having -lost all their clothing on a game of chance. The game may be cards, -dice, topeadura, a cock fight or any contest in which the result is in -doubt. The peon is a born gambler, and a cheerful loser. If beaten in -a game he accepts the results with the indifference of a stoic or the -sang-froid of a professional. He never complains, but bides his time -for another chance to recover his losses. - -The “Cancha de Bola,” the peon’s clubhouse, is a cemented or smooth -floor space, covered with a thatched roof, but not enclosed. The game -at the cancha is a sort of Indian billiards, played by rolling large -wooden balls over the floor. There men and women meet on Sundays and -feast days, to play games, drink and discuss the events of the week. -And every cent is coaxed from every pocket to fill the coffers of the -owner of the cancha. - -Drunkenness is one of the chief curses of Chile, especially among the -common people. The moral standard is not of a character that sets a ban -upon drunkenness, and the custom of excessive drinking is indulged in -by men, women, and not infrequently children. All classes are engaged -more or less in the manufacture, sale and consumption of wine, chicha, -aguardiente and pisco, the latter being alcohol made from the white -grape. Every village store or shop dispenses liquors, and many of the -huts along the country roads retail drinks. On Sundays and feast days -these road houses are common resorts for peons, huasos and inquilinos. -And there viciousness and crime are encouraged by excessive indulgence -in cheap, and often adulterated and poisonous wines and liquors. - -A new liquor law went into effect in 1902, which had for its purpose -a sweeping reform in the manufacture and sale of intoxicants. It -takes control of the production, limits the number and location of -saloons; prohibits the sale within a reasonable distance of a church -or schoolhouse, imposes a fine upon drunkenness and provides a severe -penalty for the adulteration, falsifying or placing upon the market a -product of the country not up to the standard fixed by law. But reforms -and radical changes in customs in Chile are much easier in theory than -in practice, and the promoters of the liquor law find it difficult to -enforce its provisions. It is, however, a move in the right direction, -and much good has resulted from the effort to carry it into effect. - -The scene at a country despacho on Sunday or feast days is as -picturesque as it is characteristic. There one will see a great number -of men and women on horseback, frequently indulging in their cups, -while seated on their horses in front of the despacho. The men are -dressed in the peculiar costume of the country, wide-brimmed straw -hats, ornamented with silk cord or braid, ponchos of brilliant colors, -leggings reaching to the thighs, huge spurs and high heeled, pointed -toed boots. Their saddles and bridles are richly ornamented, curiously -fashioned, and form an interesting feature of the peculiar outfit. To -the side of the saddle is usually attached a lasso, made of braided -rawhide, strong, supple and ready for instant use. With this article -the huaso is an artist. He practices the trick of casting the lasso in -his infancy, keeps it up in youth, and becomes a master in the use of -it as a man. One end is attached to his saddle, and the pony on which -he is mounted is schooled in all the tricks of pursuing the animal or -object to be captured, and to stop suddenly and brace itself for the -shock when the lasso has been thrown. So accurate is the aim that it -is difficult for man or beast to escape the noose of the huaso’s lasso -when he sends it circling through the air. He is even more clever than -the cowboy of the western plains, for the reason that his education -begins earlier in life. His use of the lasso is not always limited to -the business of capturing animals. He frequently resorts to it as a -means of sport. - -Two or more will take sides, and, riding at each other full speed, -attempt to drag their opponents from their horses. There is little -regard for consequences, and when the noose encircles the arm, neck, -or body of one, and he receives the shock that comes from being -suddenly dragged from his horse at the end of a rawhide rope, the -sensation is not pleasant to say the least. - -Unless fired by bad liquor there prevails among the Chilean huasos a -general good fellowship and friendly familiarity. They are clannish, -with a strong prejudice against all “gringos” (foreigners). When a -crowd of huasos congregate in the country or village, they invariably -indulge in some exciting games or contests requiring rare skill on the -part of the participants, and strength and endurance of the stocky, -intelligent ponies on which they are mounted. One of the most common -of their sports is “topeadura,” on which large sums of money are -frequently wagered--a game which the people for miles around will -assemble to see. On feast days it is the common attraction at all -the despachos and road houses, and every hacienda of any consequence -has its own contest at such times. The game is played at a long pole -called “vara,” generally cut from the blue gum, and fixed in Y-shaped -supports, the object of the opposing teams being to push each other -back to the end of the pole. The captains, or leaders, toss for -position, which is important, as the winner places his horse’s head -under that of his opponent’s, giving him the advantage of driving -his mount like a wedge between the other and the pole. Other members -of the two teams range themselves behind the captains, and a perfect -pandemonium of clamor arises from the players and spectators as soon -as the struggle begins. The horses enter into the spirit of the game, -and strive with every nerve and sinew to force themselves forward, and -it is a rare thing to see the players use their spurs. The game is -far more interesting when it is reduced to a match or wager between -two players of note, because they are then splendidly mounted, large -sums often being paid for well-trained horses. The terrific straining -of two animals to force each other back provides a marvelous study -of anatomy with muscle at its highest tension. The horse which has -the disadvantage in position will, before the signal to begin has -been given, press down upon its adversary’s neck so as to nullify the -advantage. A feature of the game is the excitement of spectators, -one or more of whom are frequently impelled by zeal or drink, to -drive their horses into the struggle and spoil it. Such interruptions -usually result in the indiscreet meddler getting roughly handled by the -indignant players, whence the Chilean saying that “topeadura is a good -game to watch from a distance.” - -All the horses of Chile cannot, however, be judged by the standard of -these high priced sporting animals. The typical horse of the country -is one peculiar to the Republic and when mounted by a huaso in his -picturesque costume, the pony presents the appearance of supporting a -pair of spurs with rider attached. He is a product of the old Spanish -stock, docile, intelligent, and hardy, and though he has not the fine -quarters of the improved breeds, he is strong, has wonderful endurance -and can climb like a goat. They furnish all the mounts for the Chilean -cavalry, and in recent years Great Britain and some of the European -nations are adopting Chilean horses for cavalry purposes. They are -gentle, obedient, seldom ever vicious, and are easily trained for -any kind of service. From this description it would seem that the -remarkable spurs invariably worn by the huaso and “vaqueros” might be -dispensed with, but they are as much a part of their riding kit as -their ponchos and lassos. - -The Chilean saddle, “silla,” is peculiar to the country, and is the -most expensive part of the huaso’s outfit. Many of them are works of -art, covered with patent leather, beautifully and elaborately stitched -with silk thread and ornamented with silver. In shape they are not -unlike the Mexican saddle, except that they are shorter in the seat, -and the front, instead of forming a high pommel with a neck-like -projection, to which the lasso is fastened, is oval-shaped like the -high back, forming a deep cushioned seat into which the rider fits -closely. On either side in front is a leather roll, which prevents the -rider from slipping forward. The stirrups, “estribos,” huge affairs -made from solid blocks of wood, artistically designed, hand-carved and -beautifully ornamented, are supported by single straps, attached to -the saddle so far back that they cause the rider to lean well forward. -These stirrups, which are perhaps the most unique article of their -kind in the world, are usually adorned with silver or inlaid steel -mountings. The wooden stirrups prevent the feet of the rider from -getting wet and protect them from the “espino,” a bush with harsh, -stiff branches and fierce thorns; they also serve as a means of warming -the feet on cold days, as the person in the saddle can by striking his -feet against the stirrups dispel the numbness resulting from cold. The -saddle is always fastened with a rawhide cinch and never with a buckle -girth. Many of the saddles have two cinches and are bound so securely -that there is little possibility of accident from slipping or turning. - -The “montura,” a peculiar kind of saddle much used in Chile in pioneer -days, is now seldom seen. It is composed of six sheepskins, a rather -excessive foundation, upon which is placed an “enjalma,” a skeleton -saddle made of wood and bound together with rawhide. Over this are -spread six more skins with the wool on, the whole being covered with -a beautifully dressed kid skin. The montura is fastened with a cinch, -into the fabric of which is woven the national colors of the Republic. -It constitutes a rather elevated seat, which gives to the rider a -peculiarly awkward position. But the montura was designed for and -serves more purposes than one. In the early days when roads were few -and long trips were made across country on horseback the numerous skins -composing the odd saddle were used by the rider for a bed and covering -at night. - -The “espuelas” (spurs), worn by the Chilenos are the largest in -the world, the rowels on some of them being six or eight inches in -diameter. In order to prevent the rowels from dragging on the ground, -they are worn with high heeled boots on which there is a leather -projection back of and above the heel, upon which the spurs rest, and -which keeps them at an elevation that prevents their coming in contact -with the ground. The rowels are not sharp, however, and are less severe -than the smaller spurs with sharp cutting points. They are also used -by the wearer as a means of maintaining his equilibrium when a horse -attempts to unseat him. This is accomplished by catching the spurs in -the saddle cinch. - -The bridle, “freno,” made of plaited rawhide, is strong, durable, and -artistic. It is frequently ornamented with silver or inlaid steel -attachments. Buckles are seldom used in the Chilean bridle. The reins -are joined at the ends with a heavy ring to which is attached a single -strand of braided rawhide, ending with a flat piece of the same -material, called “chicote,” or as is often the case, loaded with lead, -when it is called “penca.” The Chilean bit is unlike anything else of -its kind. It is an instrument of torture, unique in design and terrible -in its effect. It is very heavy, and is so formed that the rider can -almost break the jaw of a horse with a hard, quick pull on the reins. -They are used unsparingly upon the poor ponies, who serve their masters -so faithfully. It is a custom of the huaso to practice bringing his -horse from a run to an instant stop. He teaches the animal to rush full -speed at any object. In order to accomplish these maneuvers they apply -the full force of the terrible bit. It is one of the many cruelties -practiced upon the horses. Originally the best of the beautiful and -artistic bits used in Chile were designed by a Chilean mechanic whose -shop or factory was at Pana Flor, a small village near Santiago. The -Pana Flor bits are known throughout the Republic, and the huaso who -possesses one is a proud man, especially if it is silver mounted, as -many of them are. The owner of one of these much prized articles might -be induced to part with his wife, but not with his bridle. This is -particularly true now because in recent years the market has been -flooded with cheap imitations of the genuine article, and the Pana Flor -genius who created the unique bit, so characteristic of the country, -has passed from the stage of action, and the product is now regarded as -a “recuerdo” of rare value. - -With all the ill-treatment imposed upon them, the Chilean horses seem -fond of their masters. If left alone unfastened they will wait for -hours for the return of their owners. They will gallop long distances -over sand roads, up-hill and down, over stones, without shoes, and -after a night’s foraging upon scant grass they are fit for another -day’s work that may mean many leagues over bad roads. - -It is interesting to witness the performance of a drunken huaso trying -to reach home on his pony. The animal, perhaps from much experience -with drunken riders, seems to understand the condition of his master, -and his intelligence and patience in trying to help the man who is -helplessly drunk, is both amusing and pathetic. He will stand firmly -and patiently until the man is in the saddle, then start gently along, -swaying from side to side as the rider loses his equilibrium, and -when the man can sit erect no longer, will stop and wait for him to -straighten up. Sometimes hours are spent in going a short distance. -Cruel spurs rake him, and the terrible bit lacerates his mouth, but he -seldom becomes excited, and if the man falls off, the patient beast -invariably stops and waits for him to remount. - -For general thieving the Roto Chileno has an international reputation, -and it is conceded that he is capable of more clever lying and stealing -than any known individual. They are not bold thieves, but rather of -the sneak-thief order. If useful articles are left unguarded they seem -to take wings and fly away. Yet no one has been seen or heard, and the -rotos are the meekest of the innocent. - -With all his faults the roto has, however, in many things a sense -of responsibility. You may place one of them to guard any property -(liquors excepted), and he will not steal nor permit others to do so. -You may dispatch him with ladened carts, troops of cargo mules, money -or other valuables, and under most circumstances your orders will be -executed with the utmost fidelity. The responsibility attached to the -service, when upon special missions, seems to convey the idea that he -is under your eye. His faults may be attributed to ignorance and the -custom of bad example rather than an evil heart. If treated kindly -and fairly he will show some gratitude and appreciation by rendering -faithful service. All work done by the peons is under the supervision -of mayordomos. They are not supposed to think, but simply to do as -they are ordered. They work with their hands and not with their heads, -yet no one can give a better day’s work than the roto when he exerts -himself. Their hours are from sunrise to sunset, stopping an hour for -the midday meal. The peons formerly received from twenty to thirty -cents per day, Chilean currency, the latter sum being paid to those in -the country adjacent to the cities, but in more recent years they are -a little better paid. They must be paid on Saturday night or they will -not work willingly. If not working, they are left without food, but -this makes little difference as those who are employed divide with -their friends. - -The peons are nearly all born out of wedlock; illegitimacy is nothing -to them. Many are married, but even then they admit no obligations to -support their families. In every district they are nearly all related. -Fathers, mothers, if they can be identified, aunts, uncles, nephews, -cousins, address each other as “comdares” or “compadres” (comrades). -If increased pay tempts the peon away from his district, he will save -his money until a few dollars have accumulated, then he will return -and spend it with his old friends. In the winter months, when the rain -prevents outdoor work, they have many ways to get money. They sell -their labor in advance at greatly reduced rates. This is called “en -verde,” signifying in green, or while growing. They sell a number of -“tareas” of wheat, a certain term used in measuring the cutting of -wheat. Animals are often sold before they are born, fowls before they -are hatched, and wheat before it is sown. - - -LAND OWNER NO. 1. - -The possessions of Land Owner No. 1 being too small to maintain himself -and family, he rents land to till on the shares. The custom is for -the landlord to provide the land, the seed and the animals with which -to do the cultivating and threshing. The tenant performs the labor -and prepares for market the grain, which is divided equally. When not -engaged in the necessary work of cultivating and harvesting the crops -upon his own or rented land, he works in a “chacra” (vegetable garden), -or finds employment in making adobes, bricks, tiles, or wooden -stirrups, cutting lumber, curing skins, etc. Sometimes he is sent by -neighboring hacendados on errands to the city for cargoes of goods, to -mill with wheat, or to the railway with mule trains carrying charcoal. -His possessions consist of a horse, a yoke of oxen, and possibly a -mule. All the tools that he has or requires are an ax, a shovel, a hoe -and a crowbar. His animals are usually pastured in the hacienda, and -the “talaje” (pasturage), paid for in work during plowing, sowing, -or harvest time. His “rancho” (house), which he refers to as “mi -vivienda,” is a creation not defined in the annals of architecture. -It is constructed by placing a number of poles in the ground; to the -tops of these upright posts other timbers of a similar character are -fastened by tying them with rope or pieces of bark. Between the posts, -sticks and branches of trees are woven, forming a sort of basket -work. Over this a coating of mud mixed with straw forms the walls. -The frame for the roof is also made of the trunks of small trees -fastened together with bark; over the crude skeleton is woven a straw -thatch, which is seldom rain proof. The door is made by tying together -sticks or planks, for which pieces of bark or rawhide serve as hinges. -The floors are dirt, and there are no windows or chimneys, and when -necessary to build a fire in the house the smoke filters out through -crevices in the walls and the thatch roof. These miserable huts, which -form the places of habitation of the poor, are never perpendicular -nor stand at proper angles, for the reason that they are shaped by -the crooked timbers forming their framework. The interior presents an -appearance quite as barren and devoid of comfort as the exterior. The -furniture consists of a crude bedstead, a rickety table, and a few -benches or stools. There are no articles of comfort or luxury in the -homes of the poor. The men sleep upon the ground, inside or out of the -house, as they choose, or as the weather permits. The crude furniture -and the burnt clay dishes upon which their food is served are made by -the women. The food is usually cooked in an iron kettle over an open -fire, or in an oven of brick and mud built outside of the house. A -peculiar feature of these squalid ranchos, especially in the interior -of the country, is the barrenness of their surroundings. Usually there -is not a tree, shrub, plant or flower, or any living, growing, green -thing to relieve the dreariness of the desolate surroundings. This is -all the more surprising when it is remembered that Chile possesses a -prodigious soil, and that all kinds of vegetation grows quickly and -prolifically when water is applied to the ground. Along the railways -and near the cities a majority of the ranchos are distinguished by the -cultivation of a variety of fruit trees, vegetables and flowers. The -site selected for a country house is usually with reference to a supply -of water. - -Viewed from the roadside these rickety ranchos present a picturesque -appearance. It is the frayed edge of home life that is always to be -found behind the sub-tropical finery of semi-tropical countries. It is -not well, however, to examine too closely or inquire carefully into the -details of this home life. It is better to be gracious, for squalid -as is the peon’s cottage, and unkempt as the family may appear, the -extraordinary variety of dirt and the fantastic untidiness of the huts -baffle description and escape reproduction. Similar spots may be seen -in any land, for every population has its wastrels, but in the far -east there is not to be found a lower level of life and greater lack -of comfort generally, than that which suffices for the lowest classes -in Chile. In a country blessed with a paucity of noxious reptiles -and insects, where no beast more formidable than the cowardly puma -dwells, and where birds and flowers of rare beauty abound, it seems -inappropriate that man should dwell in such domestic squalor. - -The male occupants of these houses do not, as a rule, contribute -anything to the maintenance of the family. That feature of domestic -life is left exclusively to the women, who are a hard working, -self-sacrificing, humble and long suffering class. While they are -neither honest nor virtuous, their vices are due more to ignorance and -circumstances than natural tendencies, and their rewards do not match -their merits. They do not feel the necessity of acting with scrupulous -honesty at all times, as they are possessed of the belief that the -priests will remit all their sins upon the payment of a given sum of -money. Their education is narrow and limited, and they have never been -well instructed in the virtues of the ten commandments. They spin, -weave and dye ponchos for their men folk, and for sale; make blankets, -fabrics for clothing, and clay dishes for their own use and for the -market. They raise poultry, not for home consumption, but that they may -sell the fowls and eggs, which are usually sold in advance. - -These people are always in debt to the well-to-do landowners in the -community where they live, and from whom they buy cloth, wool, dyes, -food, etc. When eggs are laid or fowls are grown they are given in -payment for these articles. One not familiar with the customs and -conditions would be surprised in traveling through the country to find -that it is difficult to buy an egg or a chicken at any of the ranchos, -notwithstanding the fact that there seems to be a plentiful supply at -every house. - -When in need, peons buy on credit, and will obligate anything they -possess, present or prospective, in payment. They live from hand to -mouth, and seldom have more than one day’s supply of food on hand. -Their wants are few, they are easily satisfied and generally contented. -In the production of articles requiring intelligence and skill, the -women excel the men. In different localities they produce different -kinds of articles. For example, in Linares they make a great variety -of beautiful baskets and curios from colored horse hair and fine -straw; in Talcahuano, Concepcion, Chillan and Quillota the country -women devote their time to the production of pretty and durable lace -called “minaque,” which is made by hand and in a variety of patterns; -along the coast country they make excellent hats from the dwarf palm, -called “olma”; in other localities they make baskets, large and small, -useful and ornamental; they also make beautiful as well as useful -articles from the horns of animals, and of wood, stone and paper. -They are clever and adaptive in all of their occupations, but lack in -those qualities which lead to independence. Their favorite position is -sitting on the ground, and while engaged in their various occupations -they carry on a chatty gossip about their personal affairs, or those of -their neighbors, which is usually more racy than edifying. - -There is a rustic beauty about the Chilean women in their youth, but -their manner of living causes their beauty to fade at an early age, -and at twenty-five the majority of them begin to look old and grow -stout and homely. They acquire an erect carriage and grace of movement -from the custom of carrying articles of various kinds upon the head. -They have broad hips, well-developed busts, medium-sized feet and -small, tapering hands. A bright, smiling, and attractive face, with -sparkling eyes, small mouth, cherry lips and beautiful teeth, are some -of the features of these peasant women. On Sundays and other feast -days, when dressed in their quaint and fantastic costumes, in which -brilliant colors form a conspicuous feature, they present an attractive -appearance. They are polite, seldom bold and never intrusive. They are -devotees of the Catholic church, but their religion is of a flexible -character. They often go from the church to the “cancha de bola” to -dance, drink and gossip, but are rarely drunk or disorderly. They -are superstitious and believe in witchcraft. In their homes they -are undemonstrative, but show their affection for their families -and friends by their services and sacrifices, and their considerate -attendance upon the aged rather than in expressions of sentiment and -caresses. - -Their love for their offspring is a question that is difficult to -solve. If a male child is born they are pleased, because it means that -the work of another peon will be added to the family resources. If a -girl baby arrives, “it is too bad, but will serve.” In this and other -ways they indicate that maternal love corresponds to the prospective -benefits to be derived. If a child leaves its home, or dies, the -parents show little grief or sorrow. Perhaps their sorrow is concealed -from view,--at least it is to be hoped that such is the case. - -The common drink among the people is “mate,” made from the leaves of -the “yerba mate,” a plant that grows in Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil. -Over five million pounds of mate, valued at more than 1,000,000 pesos, -is imported into Chile annually. The beverage is made by steeping -the leaves in hot water. It is drunk from a mate cup, an article -peculiar to the country. They are usually the most expensive part of -the household equipment. Many of those used by the better class of -people are made of hammered silver, oddly shaped, curiously fashioned -and artistically finished. They are frequently ornamented with quaint -figures, representing birds, animals or reptiles. Others are made of -gourds, artistically carved and ornamented with silver mountings, -while common gourd cups serve the poor people. The method of drinking -the mate is through a silver tube called “bombilla,” one end of which -is enlarged, forming a kind of perforated ball, which serves as a -strainer, preventing the dregs of the plant being drawn into the mouth. -One of the curious and interesting sights in the country is the women -sitting about the little ranchos indulging in their cups of mate. - -The men comprising farmers No. 1 are more serious and more honest than -the peons. Their food consists of wheat and beans. The wheat, which is -roasted and ground into flour with a stone, is called “harina tostado.” -It is eaten instead of bread, which they seldom have. When mixed -with water or wine it makes a very nourishing drink, called “ulpo.” -Sometimes when these poor farmer folk have a desire for bread, they buy -a bag of flour, make a quantity of bread and sell it. When they have -disposed of enough to pay for the flour, they convert the remainder of -the supply into bread for home consumption. - -From the families of this class of agriculturists the servants for the -cities are obtained. The women act as house servants, in which capacity -they have no responsibilities, simply performing such duties as they -are given by their masters. They have no initiative, but make good -servants, when properly trained. It is the custom to keep everything of -value under lock and key, but the house servants, especially the women, -are no more dishonest than those of other countries. The boys from -the families in this class also go to the cities, where they become -carpenters, blacksmiths, tailors, harness-makers, or laborers. They -seldom rise to ownership, or positions of greater responsibility than -performing a certain kind of labor for specific wages. As they become -more proficient in their work or trade, enabling them to command better -remuneration for their services, they invariably imitate the better -classes, spending more money than they earn, and are always “atrasado” -(behind in their accounts). - -Few of the poor or middle classes know their ages. No certificate is -given of baptism. If a priest is asked why this is not done, he will -say that it is useless, as they cannot read. If it becomes necessary to -establish the right to an inheritance, the church record is examined, -provided that the person whose age is to be ascertained knows where he -was baptized, and that the church register is in existence. - - -LAND OWNER NO. 2. - -Land Owner No. 2 possesses more land than No. 1, but his holdings are -very small. He owns a cart, a few yoke of oxen, some cows, sheep, hogs -and poultry. He freights grain, flour, and charcoal for others from -haciendas to the mills or railway stations, thereby adding to his -income. The surplus from his earnings he prudently invests in property. -These farmers are, as a rule, provident, having always food supplies -in their houses, yet they seldom lift their families out of the rut of -poverty. Most members of the family, including the head of the house, -either go barefooted or wear only rawhide sandals upon their feet the -year round, except Sundays, feast days and special occasions. It is -only the women who are permitted to indulge frequently in the luxury of -shoes and clean gowns. The sons work with the father and not as peons -for others. These people associate with Farmers No. 1, and even with -the peons as equals. Not, however, without prideful reflection, for -they consider themselves above their poorer neighbors, although they -do not say so. They are not admitted to the society of Land Owner No. -3, or the hacendados, although they have many interests in common and -commercial relations with those classes. If you are his guest he will -serve you wine or water in a glass tumbler, but he never uses such an -article himself, and perhaps you will be given a knife and fork with -which to eat your food. These middle class farmers constitute the best -element in Chile. They work honestly to gain a livelihood, and ask no -favors from others. They are too poor to engage in politics. - -A peculiar feature of the life of this class of people is the methods -they resort to to save money and increase their possessions. They -live solely upon the products of their little farms, and seldom eat -what they can sell. They make bread, but eat very little of it, the -family consumption being limited to the equivalent of the profits on -that which is sold. They keep liquors in the house, but to sell. If an -animal is slaughtered, some kind of a function is arranged, to which -the neighbors are invited and the meat disposed of in a feast, their -guests being served as long as they have money with which to buy. If -a woman desires some article of dress or adornment, and has not the -money with which to purchase it, she gives a feast. She will go to a -neighbor who has a hog and negotiate for the animal on credit: she -also purchases an “arroba” (ten gallons) of “chicha,” for which she -gives her promise to pay, the credit extending until the respective -articles are disposed of. The hog, “chancha,” is slaughtered, and the -feast is announced. There is music and a number of women who dance and -sing are there as a special attraction. These feasts always attract a -crowd and by the time the chancha and the chicha are disposed of, the -woman conducting the affair has made sufficient profit to pay her -indebtedness and to purchase the desired article. - - -LAND OWNER NO. 3. - -The transition of Land Owners No. 3, from what is recognized as the -inferior classes, to respectable citizens is generally due to the -accumulation of property. Wealth constitutes recognized citizenship, -and when obtained, they think that the right of sovereignty is theirs -in the fullest degree. This transition often carries with it the idea -that all law and government should be administered by them. Fortunately -their inexperience and lack of education seldom permits them to -rule higher than municipal legislation, or perhaps sub-delegate of -a district. The phlegmatic temperament of this class of Chilenos is -universal. If emotions ever stir the depths of their souls they manage -to conceal the fact by an apparent calm composure. - -Most of them are illiterate, but to their credit they have in recent -years been endeavoring to secure for their children better education -than that afforded them. The educational facilities of the country -are not good, but the majority of the children of this class of -farmers secure sufficient technical training in the schools to suffice -for their simple lives. They are orderly, hard working people, and -generally honest, as they interpret the meaning of the term. The -Chilean characteristic of sticking tenaciously to custom and tradition -is exemplified in the home life of these people. Their condition is -little better or above that of Land Owners No. 1 and 2. From choice, -rather than necessity, they follow the custom of their Indian ancestors -by sitting upon the ground, a stone or a billet of wood; the food -for the family is served from one dish, there being as many spoons as -persons to be served. The materials which enter into the composition of -the food of these farmer folk consisting of wheat, corn, beans, fruit, -pepper, etc., are ground between stones. In fact the grinding stones -are the most useful utensils in the equipment of the kitchen. They -consist of one large flat stone with a smooth surface, and a smaller -one, oval shaped. The material is placed upon the large stone, and the -other in the hand of the operator is used to crush and grind the grain -or dried vegetables to the proper consistency. This work is always done -by the women. In the kitchen may be found a few pots, clay dishes, tin -cups, wooden spoons and quantities of dirt. Occupying the kitchen, and -apparently upon the most intimate terms with members of the family are -pigs, goats, dogs, and chickens. If there are guests in the house, food -is served in the dining room with some show of formality, but when the -family is alone, the food is served in one dish from which the members -help themselves with spoons until the supply is exhausted. It is then -refilled with some other kind of food and the meal continues until -all are satisfied. With a change of food the same dish and spoons are -used without being washed. Tea and coffee are sometimes served when -strangers are present, but when the family is alone, mate only is -served as a drink, with their meals. The mate cup is filled and passed -to the head of the house who drinks the contents through a “bombilla.” -The cup is filled again and again, each member of the family drinking -out of the same vessel and through the same bombilla. When there are -no guests in the house the servants sometimes form part of the family -group, eating out of the same pot, and having their turn at the mate -through the family bombilla. - -The tile-roofed adobe houses inhabited by this class of farmers are -very plain. They are devoid of ornamentation within or without, and -there is seldom a tree or shrub to relieve the dreary monotony of the -surroundings. There are no windows in these places of abode, and the -floor is either dirt or common brick. The furniture consists of beds, -one or two home-made tables, and a few chairs of the commonest kind. - -If a person of the better class visits the home of one of these Chilean -farmers, he must do most of the talking, and it will be necessary to -limit the conversation to subjects pertaining to the church, crops, -animals, gossip, or questions relating to their districts. They know -little of the great world lying beyond the narrow horizon of their -local environments. The methods employed by this class of farmers in -cultivating the soil are crude and primitive. The wooden plow used by -the Spaniards and Greeks a thousand years ago, furnishes the model for -the implement used by these people in this twentieth century. It is -made by mortising one piece of a small tree trunk into another, at an -angle of about forty-five degrees. A piece of iron is usually fastened -over the point of the portion that is intended to stir the ground. -Oxen, attached by a wooden yoke fastened to their horns with rawhide -thongs, are employed in drawing the plows. A stick serves as a handle, -and holding on to the crude implement with one hand, the other used in -directing the oxen, the plowman manages to scratch the ground, but is -never able to stir the soil to any depth. When the plowing is done and -the grain planted or sown, some branches of trees serve as a drag for -covering it. Forks for handling grain and hay are made from branches of -trees. - -The grain is harvested with reap hooks, and the threshing is done -with animals. The wheat or barley is placed upon the ground within a -circular enclosure. A number of animals, usually young mares from the -farm, are turned into the enclosure, and one or more men mounted upon -strong horses, follow them around, shouting, whipping and pursuing -them over the grain until the tramping of hoofs has crushed the grain -from the straw. Then comes the process of separating the chaff from -the grain. This, as are all other methods employed in cultivating and -preparing products of the farm for market, is curious and primitive. -The wheat and chaff are placed in baskets, which men hold in their -hands above their heads allowing the contents to empty slowly. As it -falls the chaff and refuse are carried to one side by the wind, leaving -the grain, which is heavier and which falls directly to the ground, -clean and ready for the market. - -Nearly all the land occupied and cultivated by this class of farmers -is what is known as “campo de rulo” (dry hill land), which constitutes -the greater part of agricultural Chile. The only moisture it has is -from the three or four months’ rainfall from June to October. For about -half the year these hill lands are brown, sear and desolate looking, -but in the autumn, winter and spring, they are covered with a mantle -of rich verdure, presenting a landscape scene that is attractive and -prepossessing. During the rainy season the mud is deep, roads are -often impassable, bridges are carried away by the swift current of the -streams and there is little communication between different communities -or between country and city. - -The theory of these hill farmers is to get as much out of the soil as -possible, without expense. The land is never fertilized, and crops -are grown alternate years. The plowing is done after the rains set in -in the autumn, and the soil being clay, remains very hard and lumpy. -This plowed land, called “barbecho,” is left over the winter, the -rains having the effect of pulverizing and putting it in condition -for the sowing or planting for the next season. Oxen are used for -plowing, and it is a novel sight to see a large number of those slow, -plodding beasts winding about the hills dragging the crude plows. -Fifty yoke of oxen are often engaged in plowing on one hacienda. This -method of cultivating is employed until the soil becomes so worn that -it will not produce a satisfactory crop. It is then let stand for -several years until nature rejuvenates it, and it is again put into -service. The grain is harvested by hand, and brought from the hills -in primitive wooden carts, or upon the heads of peons. The general -appearance of the soil would indicate that this hill land is valueless -for agricultural purposes, but it produces annually a large per cent. -of the agricultural products of the country, besides maintaining many -horses, cattle and sheep. - -The farmers of this class live in a narrow world. The majority of them -have never been out of the province in which they were born and many -of them never saw a railway train; they know the villages in their -vicinity, and perhaps the provincial capital, but one who has seen -Santiago, the national capital, is the rare exception. The customs -prevailing in other countries, or what is going on in the great world, -are of little consequence to them; they are interested only in what -they are doing. Even if one can read, he seldom subscribes for a -newspaper, as that is considered a useless expenditure. - -The men engage only in the larger affairs of the business of the -family, such as marketing the animals and the grain raised on the farm. -The small trade in chicha, liquors, poultry, etc., is attended to by -the women. In nearly every house is kept a supply of such articles as -may be required by the peons. In the sale of these, the money that is -paid out by the farmer, in wages, comes back in small amounts, and -with interest. The profit made on this small mercantile business, in -the sale of sugar, mate, chicha, etc., pays for the articles of the -same class consumed by the farmer’s family. In these transactions they -never refuse credit to anyone, but politely say they have not the -article called for, notwithstanding the fact that it may be in plain -view of the would-be purchaser, or sold to another before his eyes. -They understand each other and their method of dealing with delinquent -customers furnishes an example that might be emulated with profit by -more progressive and up-to-date tradesmen. - -These farmers are received at the haciendas, not exactly as equals, but -because of a money consideration. They have land, stock, and usually -money in the bank. Notwithstanding the fact that many of them have -a competency, they resort to a method of economy that is absolute -penuriousness,--stinginess personified. They never visit their friends, -or entertain their neighbors. They never keep a coach, for two reasons, -one being that where they reside, and places to where they journey, -there are no coach roads, and for the more general reason that they -never spend money for such an unnecessary luxury. The men always ride -horseback, and when the women go away from home, which is seldom, they -also travel on horseback. Few of them possess sidesaddles, and the -common custom is for them to go “en anca,” sitting upon a cloth spread -upon the back of the horse, behind the saddle occupied by the man. -There is still another class of dry land, hill farmers, who own large -tracts of land, and farm upon a large scale. In sandy or loam soil -they employ modern machinery and implements. This class often becomes -rich, in which case they invariably move to the provincial cities and -work their estates through an “administrador.” These hill farmers are -autocrats in their respective communities; not in the same despotic -manner as the owners of the large irrigated estates, for the inquilinos -and peons of the hills are more independent, are treated with greater -consideration, and are more nearly on an equality than is the case on -the great hacienda. - - -HACIENDAS AND HACENDADOS. - -In the fertile valleys, through which flow the rivers of Chile, are -many magnificent estates, some of them including thousands of acres -of productive land. Upon an eminence in the midst of broad acres, -of golden grain, waving corn and verdant pastures, all framed with -avenues of stately alamos, stands the splendid residence of the owner, -overlooking the picturesque and pastoral scene. The majority of these -country mansions are built upon the same general plan, varying only in -size and ornamental elaboration. They represent a letter H in form, -with a front entrance in the middle of the bar connecting the main -lines of the letter, the drawing-room upon one side and the dining-room -on the other. A wide, roomy corridor leads from the main entrance in -front to the beautiful patio, upon either side of which is arranged -the sleeping apartments. These residences are almost invariably well -furnished and finished with artistic interior decorations. Some of them -include rare old paintings and splendid specimens of wood carving. The -drawing-room and dining-room usually contain the best of the furniture -and decorations, as those are the portions of the house most occupied -by guests. There is an absence of fireplaces and stoves, due to the -mild climate. The house is surrounded by well-kept parks and gardens -containing rare trees, shrubs and flowers. There is a peaceful harmony -in the beauty of the surroundings and everything in the environment is -suggestive of comfort and luxury. - -The hacienda constitutes a small empire, with various executive and -administrative branches. The territorial limits are usually defined -by walls made of loose piled stones or adobes. The irrigated portions -are divided into potreros (fields), of from one hundred to two hundred -acres each, the dividing lines being indicated by rows of growing -trees, usually poplar, or alamos, that grow straight and tall, and -which not only add to the beauty of the landscape, but also furnish -shade for the animals in the pastures. The hill lands are divided into -larger sections, frequently as much as one thousand acres constituting -one pasture field or range. These potreros are enclosed with thorned -hedges, from the espino which grows abundantly in the low lands. -Irrigating canals carry water from the hill streams to the cultivated -fields and the pasture land, where clover, alfalfa, and other grasses -grow prodigiously in the rich loam soil. - -Roads flanked with graceful trees lead out from the residence and from -the corrals to various parts of the property. A photographic view of -one of these country homes needs only a few touches of the artist’s -brush to make it an idyl. A home glimpse in Chile, even on an hacienda, -is no exception. Sunlight through a camera glorifies vistas and -ennobles foliage; it promotes stucco and plaster to marble and gives -grace and beauty to commonplace things. The lumbering teams of oxen -and the huge two-wheeled carts add to the picturesque placidity of the -scene which presents an appearance of perpetual summer and glorious -afternoon. But the photograph says nothing, and it is well for the -chronicler to omit any mention of the dust through which the carts -creak and groan at harvest time, in a country where rain falls only -between May and September. - -The servants on a large hacienda consist of an administrador, a capataz -(sub-manager), various mayordomos, vaqueros (cowboys), shepherds and -a troop of peons. The administrador, or manager, is the responsible -executive head, and has entire charge of the farm. He receives orders -only from the proprietor. He suggests to the owner the work and -improvements necessary, and when his suggestions are approved he gives -orders to his subordinates to execute the plan; he receives from the -mayordomos accounts of the work done and wages earned, pays employés, -etc. It is also the business of the manager to dispose of the animals -raised on the farm, when ready for market. These sales are usually made -at auction at the most convenient railway station or shipping point. -Sometimes the sales amount to as much as fifty thousand pesos in one -day. The owner or his representatives are always present, and animals -are never sold for less than they are actually worth. - -The service of an hacienda manager consists in whatever the owner -may order; he passes most of his days on horseback, as do the other -servants, except the peons. The pay of this important personage is -three hundred pesos, equal to one hundred dollars United States -currency, a year. In addition to this meager money compensation he has -the use of ten acres of dry land, suitable for growing wheat, six or -eight acres of chacra, or vegetable producing land, and pasture for -fifteen to twenty animals. Ten horses of the hacienda are usually set -apart for his exclusive use. - -The capataz occupies a position next in importance to the manager; -his business is to ride over the farm daily, and make reports and -suggestions to the manager. It is also the duty of this functionary to -impound all animals not belonging to the estate found in the potreros. -A fine of so much per head is assessed against all such animals, and -the owner is required to pay the amount before they are released. - -Vaqueros, who are under the direction of a manager, have certain fields -and animals under their charge. Each is held responsible for the -animals under his care. A daily count is made, and if any are missing -the vaquero is sent in search of them. The vaquero is the cowboy of -South America, and represents a type peculiar to the country. - -His leggins usually consist of untanned goat skin, worn in the natural -form and without attempt to make them conform to the shape of the legs. -They not infrequently differ in color and marking, causing the wearer -to present a grotesque appearance. He also wears immense spurs and -other articles correspondingly fantastic, not the least conspicuous of -which is his hat, an enormous cone-shaped sombrero made of felt and -embroidered in fancy colors. His lasso of plaited rawhide, loosely -coiled in two-foot circles, rests upon the back of his horse. These -servants on the hacienda receive as compensation fifty pesos in cash -annually, the use of two acres of chacra, four acres of wheat-growing -land, and pasture for six or eight animals. - -For each department of labor on these properties, including canals, -corrals, repairs, storehouse, direction of peons, etc., there is a -mayordomo, or foreman. Their pay is the same as that of the vaqueros. -The proprietor furnishes horses but not saddles for all of his -employés, except the peons. - -“Ovejeros” (shepherds), connected with these estates live in the hills -and work on contract. They receive twenty-five centavos for each lamb -born, or one-third of the lambs. In case one receives a per cent. of -the lambs as compensation for his labor, he is compelled to sell them -to his master for one peso each. Each shepherd has in his care from -five hundred to one thousand sheep. - -“Inquilinos,” or farm tenants, comprise the servants living on the -farm. They must work when ordered or furnish someone to labor in their -stead. The head of each of the families is given an allowance of four -acres of wheat-growing land, and pasture for six animals; they receive -no cash compensation. The peons on the hacienda are not given land and -pasturage for animals, but are furnished with a daily ration of food. -The owners of estates furnish houses for their servants, free of rent. - -The owners of the large, irrigated and well-equipped haciendas -constitute the wealthiest, most cultured and aristocratic class in -Chile. Presidents, senators and congressmen are elected from this -class, and ministers, judges, admirals and generals are selected from -the landed gentry. Prominent and influential professional and business -men rely upon their estates for both pleasure and profit. The owners -live upon their haciendas a portion of the year, but their homes are -in the cities, most of them in Santiago, where they live in mansions -and spend with lavish hand the income from their estates. The majority -of them spend more than their income and as a result the heavily -capitalized mortgage bank of Santiago has its octopus-like hand upon -ninety per cent. of the beautiful and valuable country estates in -Chile. The extravagance of the wealthy class in the Republic is cause -for comment, and a surprise to most foreigners. Their prodigality -furnishes a ruinous example to the middle classes, who try to emulate -them, producing thereby a cheap, imitative kind of aristocracy. Most -of them belong to old and influential families who inherited their -fortunes and names from pioneer colonists. Some, however, are parvenu -aristocrats who have gained access to the exclusive social circles by -means of money, a position which from lack of education and breeding -they are not qualified to maintain. - -Large landowners give little time to the cultivation of their estates, -and as a result the haciendas never produce to their full capacity. The -chief occupation of the owners is a calculation of the probable income, -with the application of as little capital and labor as possible on the -property. - -Notwithstanding the fact that Chile owns the richest and most extensive -nitrate fields and guano deposits in the world, and that thousands of -tons of fertilizing material are exported annually to other countries, -to enrich depleted soil, little or none of this valuable re-creative -agency is utilized to rejuvenate the sterile soil of the worn hill -farms of the Republic. They refuse to return to the soil by artificial -means that which is annually drawn from it in the production of crops, -and as a result much valuable land has lapsed into disuse, being -considered sterile and valueless because its producing quality has been -exhausted. Under existing circumstances the farmer’s expenses are heavy -and certain and his income decreasing and uncertain. The result is that -the handsome estates are fast falling under the bane of mortgages, -the payment of the interest on which is sapping the life of the soil. -Economy is not one of the ruling characteristics of the Chileno; social -and political prestige must be maintained, even if the inevitable -result is financial ruin. - -Mortgages will not permit of a disunion of the estates they cover, -or selling of a portion of the land with which to pay interest, and -when the owner is unable to longer meet his obligations the hacienda -is sold at auction. The family then retires to a life of seclusion, -and thereafter live upon a very meager income. There is no moral; -remembering their former achievements and the splendor of past life, -they indulge in no regret over present conditions. These families -do not as a rule, however, belong to the best blood of Chile. They -generally consist of those who go from country to the city and whose -vanity leads them into unwonted extravagance. - -The artificial and realistic phases of social life among the above -mentioned classes furnish some sharp and well-defined contrasts. The -phase most commonly known, and the one invariably presented to the -world, is the artificial, with stage effects and deceptive lights; -the other is the real,--the everyday home life, where the natural -characteristics of the actors are presented. In the home, all show, -pomp and exhibition can be safely discarded; no stage effects are -necessary. A “peep” into the home life of some of these families will -reveal the female members sitting in groups upon low stools, or on -the floor, around a “bracero,” charcoal fire, the servants squatting -in close proximity, discussing in a familiar way the latest social -triumphs or the day’s hidden economies. - -Another striking contrast in the home life is the different -characteristics possessed by the men and women. The women are domestic -by nature, patient to a degree, long suffering, good mothers and -loyal wives. They are content with little, and either by inheritance -or through generations of experience and training they do not -expect much from their lords and masters. Their education, which is -generally secured in the parochial schools, is influenced by religious -prejudice. They manifest little interest in politics or world affairs, -and a professional career is not to be thought of by a Chilena. ’Tis -considered more respectable for a woman to live proudly in abject -poverty than to earn a livelihood in a profession or commercial -occupation. Many of the Chilean señoritas possess great beauty, are -graceful and vivacious. They know the force and effect of flattery, -and are artists in the use of that dangerous weapon of society. They -have natural talent for languages, usually speak French and have some -knowledge of English, and their own language they use with consummate -skill. - -The sons in the families of the better class are often educated in -the belief that labor is degrading, and encouraged to lead lives of -indolence. Instead of being taught that labor is honorable, that the -gods sell everything to those who work; that the most useless and -uninteresting members of society in this busy world are the drones; -that intelligent industry is the chief factor in modern civilization; -that honest effort is the advance guard of commercial and industrial -progress, the youth of Chile is encouraged in the belief that it is -honorable and manly to rely upon paternal dependence. Their education -and youthful training too often lead them into the erroneous idea -that business is drudgery, and that discipline of mind and will are -hardships to be endured only by the servants and poor classes. - -The men who constitute the wealthy class in Chile contrast sharply in -characteristics with the women in the same social cast. They have -an agreeable, dignified manner and polite address. Intellectually -keen, they are quick to grasp a theory and clever in presenting it. -Super-sensitive, they are quick to take offense, but will keep a -smiling countenance, a polite, unruffled exterior, and even manifest a -liking for people whom they inwardly detest. They are drawn together by -business and political interests and whenever their interests conflict, -enmity and even hatred are the result. This is carried to such extent -that in the cities the families of the managers or heads of competing -commercial houses or business firms will not associate with each other, -and friendship between two Chilean gentlemen engaged in opposition -business is the rare exception. Political opponents are enemies so long -as their interests clash. - -It is generally among the hacendados that political schemes, resulting -in combinations of far-reaching consequence, have their origin. When -a candidate aspires to an elective office, he makes his wants known -to the managers of the party to which he belongs, and assures them of -his willingness to pay the required sum to carry the election. After -securing the nomination the candidate puts himself in communication -with the influential men of his party in the province in which he -stands for election. Among these men he distributes the amount he is -willing to pay for the office. These confidants distribute the fund -among their friends, who in turn re-distribute it, each retaining -as it passes through his hands what he believes is the value of his -services. There is never any accounting, and no questions are asked. On -election day, which is a general feast and field day for the peons, -each candidate has friends and money representing him at the various -voting places. The peons have no political faith or party, probably -do not know, much less care, for what the election is being held. -Their votes are for sale, either publicly or privately, to the highest -bidder. Those from the same farm, district or village, usually band -together, one of the number acting as spokesman. When the polls are -declared open the inspectors of registration take their places behind -the ballot box, and the bidding for the purchase of votes begins. The -agent of one candidate approaches a group of peons and asks for their -votes, the spokesman for the crowd asking in turn what is bid for -their suffrages. After some bargaining an offer is made. Taking that -as a basis, negotiations are then opened by a representative of the -peons with the agent for another candidate. When convinced that they -cannot secure more the peons close with the highest bidder, and march -in single file to the voting place. One by one their names are called, -and as their right to vote is admitted, the agent of the candidate -making the purchase deposits the vote. After the voting is completed -according to agreement, the peons receive the money in the presence -of the inspectors, politicians and other voters. There is no attempt -at secrecy. There is a law upon the statute books making the purchase -or the sale of a vote a crime, with severe penalties attached, but it -is disregarded and has become almost a dead letter. The laws of Chile -also provide for a secret ballot, but it is neither secret nor sacred. -The election of a president in Chile is by the electoral system, the -electors being selected by popular vote, and apportioned on a basis of -population. - -The constitution gives to the poor of Chile the birthright of freedom, -and all men are supposed to be equal under the laws of the Republic. -Many of those living upon the large haciendas, however, have little -freedom of action or individuality and some of them are little more -than a part of the general farm equipment. They are dependent and -apparently defenseless. Inquilinos almost invariably sell their labor -in advance to the owners of the property on which they live. They never -leave the hacienda, for conditions are everywhere the same. The rich -landowners are powerful enough to force into subjugation all within -their domains, and they assert their authority with the arrogance of -autocrats. The inquilinos have nothing beyond a meager living; they -always remain poor. They are not permitted to sow, reap or do any -work for themselves until all the work of a similar character on the -hacienda is finished. - -The majority of these poor people are honest with their patrons. When -crimes are committed it is against others and not their master. As a -rule the only offense of which they are guilty is that of harboring -friendly thieves in their houses on the haciendas, thereby indirectly -aiding in theft committed. If an hacienda changes hands, it makes not -the slightest difference with the servants, who remain, many of them -spending their entire lives upon the estate where they are born. The -average wage of these farm laborers is about forty centavos per day. -This low compensation is not due to a surplus of farm labor, for in -fact there is a scarcity. - -The condition of the poor people in the farming communities has -resulted in recent years in an exodus of labor to the nitrate fields -and mineral districts of Atacama, Tarapaca, Copiapo and Coquimbo, where -they receive good wages and are paid regularly. This inviting field for -labor, within the territorial limits of the Republic, is encouraging -a more independent spirit among the working classes. That, together -with the resentment against oppression so long imposed upon them by the -hacendados, has already produced a marked effect and is rapidly growing -into a condition of open hostility between employer and employés. The -laborers are already organizing themselves into unions which opens a -fruitful field for the agitator and the political demagogue. This has -been evidenced by organized demands for shorter hours and higher wages -among the employés in many of the seaport towns within the past few -years. It had its most striking and tragic illustration in the riots in -Valparaiso in May, 1903, when the city was sacked and property burned -by a mob of striking stevedores. - -This independent movement, this breaking away from former conditions -had its origin in the revolution of 1891, which inaugurated new and -worse relations between capital and labor. The uprising gave the -Roto Chileno an opportunity to unmask and to manifest his natural -characteristics. Not at first upon a strike plan, but in secret -combination against those who employ labor; to shield each other in -infractions of the law; to organize a class into a union of criminals -that includes in its depredations every act in the category of crime. -An undeclared war is waged, unexpressed antagonism, and unspoken -enmity have been inducted into being. The policy of weak submission, -in which they so long acquiesced, is gradually but surely changing to -one of open defiance. Generations of smoldering hatred burst forth in -the flame of strife and revolution, and the growth and menacing hostile -attitude of labor and capital to-day is the outgrowth of that movement. - -These labor troubles, felt first in the populous centers, are gradually -finding their way to the farms and haciendas, and it is easy to predict -the changed condition that will result within a few years; conditions -that will reach the other extreme. There is no class of people so -tyrannical, so unreasonable and dictatorial, as the ignorant, the poor -and oppressed, when once they hold the balance of power. The Roto -Chilenos, as an organized force, would be a desperate, dangerous class, -a menace to society and good government. Let us hope that the distance -between these extremes will be narrowed, that capital will be given -the protection and encouragement to which it is entitled, and upon -which its existence depends, and at the same time labor will be given -the best remuneration, the broadest field and the amplest opportunity -possible. This is a problem that should concern the politicians and -statesmen of Chile. The time has passed when the working class will -submit to intolerance and oppression, and the fact that conditions are -changing, even in a country where the common people cling tenaciously -to tradition and usage, must be recognized. The sons and daughters of -farmers go to the cities and take service with foreigners. When they -return to their country homes they take with them manners and ideas -acquired from a different people--transplanted customs from another -world. And so, slowly, backward and forward among the people passes -the shuttle of changing methods, weaving into the fabric of life -new and strange conditions. These influences are making themselves -felt in many ways. In the typical Chilean village one sometimes sees -among the thatched roof adobe huts, a house with some pretensions to -ornamentation. Instead of an earthen floor, and the patio occupied by -fowls and animals, there is a brick or tile floor, and the walls are -ornamented with pictures. The poncho, which was formerly universally -worn by the men, has been almost entirely discarded in the cities, and -generally so in the villages. The mantilla, that most unsanitary of -articles, with which all the women of Chile formerly draped their heads -and faces, and which had also the objectionable feature of giving them -a common and unattractive appearance, is fast growing into disuse, and -is being supplanted by more modern feminine headdress. The country -people are beginning to discard sandals for shoes, and in many ways -manifest a more progressive spirit. - -A Chileno may appear upon the streets of a city in personal attire -the same as that prescribed for gentlemen in any country, but custom -in the country prescribes a different standard. A gentleman huaso, -well mounted and properly equipped, will have several hundred dollars -represented in his personal adornment and caparison, for he must appear -“a la moda del campo” (in the costume of the country). The cost of -the outfit of the average well-mounted Chilean gentleman farmer may -be calculated as follows: Horse, three hundred pesos; silver mounted -bridle and reins, seventy-five; silver mounted saddle, two hundred; -inlaid silver belt and knife, fifty; silver spurs, seventy-five; -poncho, fifty; hat, twenty; special riding suit, one hundred; -embroidered leggins, seventy-five; boots, twenty-five; watch and other -extras, two hundred; total, one thousand one hundred and seventy pesos, -equal to four hundred dollars United States currency. - - -RODEO. - -One of the most exciting of the many peculiar practices indulged in by -the country people, and one which requires great skill and courage, is -the “rodeo” (method of managing wild bullocks in a corral, by men on -horseback). It is the Chilean Corrida, taking the place of the Spanish -bull fight, and is an inoffensive sport. A rodeo is an event of much -general interest, and is usually attended by large crowds of people, -friends and invited guests of the owner of the hacienda where it takes -place. Special and elaborate preparations are made, and the rodeo is -looked forward to with much interest, not only by those who take part -in the dangerous proceedings, but also by everyone favored with an -invitation or an opportunity to attend. The company first assembles -at the residence of the gentleman giving the function, where all the -specially invited guests and personal friends are entertained. - -The vaqueros have been instructed to collect in a large corral, -representing a half circle, all the cattle from the hill potreros. The -animals are usually unaccustomed to the sight of anyone except the -vaquero who attends them, and are wild and easily excited. When the -time arrives for opening the rodeo, the horses of the men who are -to participate, are brought out, each attended by a mozo (personal -servant), who carefully adjusts the huge spurs always used on such -occasions, to the boots of their respective masters. The men then -mount and ride to the corrals, each followed by his mozo with several -reserve horses to be used in case of necessity. About the corrals, -which are decorated with flags and bunting, is a large crowd, including -the mounted servants of the hacienda, as well as the inquilinos and -servants from other farms, on horseback and in carts. Later the ladies -of the household and their friends and guests arrive and occupy -seats especially prepared for them, which command a good view of the -corral. An order is given for the function to begin and employés of -the hacienda enter the corral and drive the animals close together, -encircling them to prevent their escape. The men who are to participate -in this sport take their positions and a bullock is permitted to pass -through the line encircling the herd. It is immediately charged by two -of the waiting party, one following and urging it on, the other riding -by its side, forcing the beast as closely as possible to the corral -fence. When they have traversed the distance of the corral enclosure -the person riding by the animal’s side rushes to its head, and by -a clever move turns it suddenly around. The positions of pursuing -parties are reversed, first one riding at the side of and turning the -infuriated beast, and then the other, until it is completely subdued. -Until it is conquered the riders must at no time leave the animal. If -it bolt through the herd, or amongst the bunch of mounted servants on -guard, they must follow, each keeping his respective position. Their -horses are well trained and enter into the sport with as keen a zest -as the riders. When one animal has been conquered it is driven from -the corral and another turned loose, different persons taking part -in each separate contest. If a horse is gored, as is often the case, -or the rider dismounted and trampled upon, others quickly take their -places and the sport continues. During the rodeo the spectators applaud -or groan at the acts of the participants, according to their merit -or demerit. Rodeos sometimes last for several days. An intermission -is given in the middle of the day during which lunch is served, and -at night there is always entertainment and much merrymaking at the -hacienda residence. This sport is full of surprises, both comic and -tragic, as there is always an element of uncertainty in the actions -of a wild and infuriated young bull, when pursued and harassed until -he becomes desperate. The day’s entertainment often closes with some -daring vaquero lassoing, saddling and mounting a big, untamed bull. - -One of the purposes of a rodeo is that the owners of cattle in -neighboring haciendas may have all of the cattle brought in from the -hills, identified and separated. The cattle belonging to each estate -bear the registered mark of the owner by which they are identified. -Frequently animals stray from their ranges and potreros and join the -herds in neighboring haciendas. In these annual rodeos, or round-ups, -they are divided and each lot according to mark or brand is returned to -the owner. All the vaqueros of the different estates in the locality -attend and participate. In this way the hacendados get all the wild -young animals from the hills brought in, separated and branded at -practically no expense. What is considered sport, and a festival by -the vaqueros and employés on the big farms, is in reality the annual -collection of cattle, as a matter of business to the owner. - -The crowd constituting the spectators at a rodeo is made up of peons, -inquilinos and vaqueros from neighboring haciendas. They dance the -cuaca, and there is music of primitive harps and guitars. There is much -drinking of chicha and exchange of badinage, all mixed with talk of, -and comment on the rodeo, and the personal skill and bravery, or the -lack of those qualities, displayed by those engaged in the sport. In -the evening, after the conclusion of the rodeo, along the dusty country -roads leading to the homes of these people one may witness strenuous -and exciting contests in topeadura, in which sturdy Chilean ponies and -tipsy riders form the component part. - - -CHACRA. - -Chacra (vegetable farm), is usually land rented in small sections by -the poor people from the rich landowners. After the servants have been -allotted their portion of land in the poorest soil of the hacienda, -other portions are rented, usually for a stipulated rental of two -thousand kilos of beans for each quadra (four acres). At the harvest -time the landowner must be paid his rent, either in the proportion -of the products stipulated, or the cash market value of same. This -settlement must be made before the “chacrero” is permitted to remove -any of the crops. The lessee’s family live in the chacra in huts made -of the branches of trees. The hacendado knows the productive capacity -of his land, and gauges the rental value accordingly. If the renter -manages to save a few sacks of beans, after living and paying his rent, -he is fortunate. As a rule this class of tillers of the soil receive -nothing more than a meager living for their labor. - - - - -HABITS AND CUSTOMS - - -A careful study of the history of Chile from the time that Pedro de -Valdivia attempted to subjugate the Indians, through the colonial -period to the revolution of 1810, when Spanish rule was overthrown and -Chile took her place in the sisterhood of South American Republics; -through the varying vicissitudes of its first half century of national -existence, down to the present time, will reveal the fact that certain -customs and traditions characteristic of the race have been maintained. -In some instances they reflect the influences of changed conditions -and environments; foreign ideas have been engrafted upon the social -structure and the body politic, but in character, and in general -characteristics, the Chileno retains his inheritance from Spanish and -Indian ancestors. This is particularly true of their economic use of -water. It can be safely said that the majority of the working classes -or country people apply water sparingly to their hands and faces only, -and never to their bodies, and many of them are utter strangers to its -personal application. - -This does not apply, of course, to the wealthy, educated and traveled -Chilenos, who go annually to the seashore, or other pleasure and health -resorts, such as Panca, Cauquenes, or Viña del Mar, the latter being -the summer playground of the rich. A visit to any of the pleasure -resorts by a Chilean family, be they residents of the country or -city, is an event attended with much pomp and ceremony. They take with -them their horses and carriages, a retinue of servants and an extra -supply of clothes for display for the purpose of impressing other -visitors with their financial standing and social importance. The -vacation season in Chile is usually from the first of January to the -fifteenth of March. For two months government service is transferred -from Santiago to Valparaiso, the president and his cabinet taking up -their temporary residence in Viña del Mar, a suburb of Valparaiso. -The courts are closed and practically all business suspended in the -capital. Members of the diplomatic corps follow the Santiaginas to -the seashore, and the suburbs of Valparaiso, with their hotels and -bathing beaches, are gay with fashionably dressed visitors and social -functions. Many people who indulge in this annual seaside frolic are -compelled to resort to strenuous domestic economy for the remainder of -the year, in order to recuperate from the financial sacrifice made in -the effort to compete in the social exhibit with those who can well -afford the expense. Others whose financial condition will not admit of -their joining the procession of those who appear for a few brief weeks -in the year upon the social stage at Viña del Mar, close the front of -their city residences, and do not appear in public during the vacation -season. - -The poor classes who cannot afford a vacation, live in filth and -unsanitary conditions the year round, and during their natural lives. -The dwellings of the poor are built without regard to architecture, -comfort or hygiene, and the domestic condition of the occupants is a -menace to health. The floor of a majority of the huts is the ground, -which during the rainy season becomes damp, and not infrequently muddy. -The refuse water from the houses is thrown any place outside to get rid -of it, and there being no drains to carry it away, it becomes stagnant -and creates disease. Donkeys, dogs, pigs and poultry maintain intimate -social relations with the members of the household, not infrequently -being housed with the family at night. - -Chile has several dishes peculiar to and characteristic of the country. -Cazuela is, strictly speaking, a national dish. It is a sort of soup, -served as a first course at any meal, but more particularly for -breakfast. It is made of mutton, “cordero,” or fowl, with various kinds -of vegetables, all cooked together and served hot. It possesses the -merit of including both meat and vegetable, solid and liquid food. In -addition to being inexpensive, it is easily made and is very palatable. -It is extremely popular with all classes of Chilenos and is a dish that -foreigners invariably become fond of after once having tested its good -qualities. A breakfast in Chile without cazuela would be considered a -poor meal. “Puchero,” is another dish of which the Chilenos are fond, -and which is usually served at dinner. It consists of meat boiled with -a variety of vegetables, all being cooked dry, and served without -liquid. “Empanadas,” a sort of meat pie, is also popular and peculiar -to the country. - -The zama cuaca is the national dance of Chile. It is danced by all -classes, and is made clownish or genteel, coarse or refined, according -to the different social grades of the participants. In no case can it -be considered vulgar, and when properly danced it is graceful and -attractive. It is danced in couples. The lady and gentleman each carry -a handkerchief in the right hand, which they wave in front of their -partner as they move about the room, keeping time to the lively and -inspiring music of harps and guitars. The music of the instruments is -usually accompanied with the hum of voices and the clapping of the -hands of spectators. The dancers always face each other, except at -certain intervals, when they turn suddenly around and then proceed as -before. Whether in the parlor, in a despacho, a cancha de bola, or in -the open, the zama cuaca is a national favorite, and the music will -always arouse the interest and enthusiasm of everyone present. It is -indulged in on all occasions where people congregate, day or night, and -crowds frequently stop along the country roads to dance the cuaca. - -At places where the country and village people congregate on feast -days, “fondas,” enclosures prepared especially for dancing, are -provided. The fonda is enclosed on three sides and is covered with -branches of the arrayan, a flowering bush, which emits a strong, but -pleasant odor. In front of the entrance is a “vara” for topear. Most -of the people attending feast day demonstrations go on horseback, and -there is always a mixed and miscellaneous mounted crowd in front of the -fonda. Inside, seated upon benches, are men and women who divide their -time between dancing and drinking. Those not engaged in the dance keep -up a constant hand-clapping, timing their movements with the music. -Sometimes during the dance, when a woman performs a special evolution -that is thought to be very clever or unusually graceful, some man -in the crowd, perceptibly affected with alcohol, calls out in a loud -voice, “aro, aro.” At the sound of this magic word, which means drinks -for all, the music and the hand-clapping cease and the dancers stop. -Then the woman in charge of the fonda appears and passes to the man who -called “aro,” a “potrillo” (a large glass tumbler) filled with chicha, -or a mixture of aguardiente and milk. The man takes the brimming -potrillo, approaches the dancers, and bowing profoundly, offers it to -the lady. She appears shy, makes several courtesies, accepts the cup, -takes a sip and returns it to the man. After the women dancers have -been served, the cup is passed to the men engaged in the dance, and -later to the spectators, all drinking from the same potrillo until it -is finished. The man calling aro does the honors in passing the drink, -and for anyone present to refuse would be considered an insult that -would probably be resented. - -A peculiar feature of the cuaca is the solemnity with which it is -conducted. There is never a laugh or a joke, and seldom a smile. Levity -on such occasions would be considered an indiscretion. The Chilenos -take every phase of life lightly and indifferently, except their -amusements, which are sacredly serious. - -A peculiar custom in Chile is that of offering to a friend any -article that he may desire. It is not proper, however, to accept the -proffered gift. The would-be donor is given an opportunity to show -his generosity, and at the same time made happy by having his offer -declined. - -There prevails in Chile a pretty custom in salutations, conversation -and in summoning persons, in which the christian name is always used. -It is practiced between members of families, friends, acquaintances, -servants and masters. To strangers it conveys the idea of familiarity, -but on the contrary it is the most polite formality. The christian name -is always used in social, domestic and commercial intercourse where -the parties are known to each other. When strangers are addressing -each other it is always Señor, Señora or Señorita. Friends and even -acquaintances are profuse in the use of personal and endearing terms. -Another method of expressing pleasure when friends or relatives, either -male or female, meet, is to embrace, each passing the right hand around -and patting the other affectionately upon the back. - -Politeness is one of the characteristics inherited by the Chilenos from -their Spanish ancestors. Members of the same family, especially among -the better classes, are kind and always considerate of each other’s -feelings and wishes. Family quarrels and disputes are seldom indulged -in, and never in the presence of strangers. Among the middle and poor -classes, there are occasional rows, and sometimes encounters between -members of the same family, but it is usually due to the influence of -drink rather than their natural inclinations. It is a national custom -for the right of correction and punishment to rest with parents, so -long as they and their children live. A son never becomes too old to be -chastised by his father or mother. He may have reached middle age, be -the father of a large family, and even venerably gray, but if either of -his parents sees fit to box his ears, or even to apply more vigorous -methods of punishment for any dereliction of duty or for any offense, -the chastisement is administered with impunity and is accepted without -resentment. - -It is the custom among uneducated country people in calculating their -ages, to reckon time from some important event that has taken place -in the country, such as the revolution, severe earthquake, or other -notable occurrences. The great earthquake of 1851, is often used as a -basis for calculating the ages of old people. - -An aire is a muscular affliction of the face or neck, which may result -from sitting or remaining in a draught when one is warm or perspiring. -It is a common affliction in Chile, and to avoid the danger, not only -the country people, but those living in cities and towns, are disposed -to keep their rooms closed to the exclusion of fresh air, and to the -great discomfort of the occupants. - -Sometimes foreigners on arriving in Chile find the customs of the -country unsatisfactory, according to their theories, and at once -constitute themselves missionaries to “convert the natives,” as they -put it. They proceeded to introduce ideas and methods that conform to -their own standard of ideals. The result usually is the acquisition -of an unsatisfactory lot of experience, without having affected any -changes in the prevailing customs, or even made any impression upon -those for whom the education was intended. The Chilenos are slow to -accept innovations, and quick to resent the presumption of foreigners -who attempt to engraft new ideas and customs upon the ways and -traditions of their country. - - - - -RELIGION - - -The sanctity of the church is considered forbidden ground to all -those who attempt to portray the life and customs of the people of -any country. To criticise religious forms or customs is to incur the -displeasure, arouse the combative spirit and the resentful nature of -the communicants of the church under discussion. It means to bring down -upon the head of the offending scribe the wrath of those who have found -consolation in the church. Religious views and ideas, with prejudices -deep rooted and strong, are generally inherited. - -Believing that there is good in all churches, that the Christian -religion is the foundation upon which the superstructure of good -society and modern civilization is based, the writer wishes to preface -his comments on the Church in Chile, with the statement that it is not -the purpose to criticise the Christian religion, but to point out some -of the peculiar, and what would seem to the disinterested observer, -objectionable practices in the dominating church. - -The Catholic religion has been so closely interwoven in the fabric -of Chilean history that it forms a feature of every chapter in the -Republic’s record. It is impossible to accurately describe the life -and customs of the country, and at the same time omit so important an -influence as that exercised by the church on the political and social -life of Chile. - -Article 4 of the constitution (1833), says: “La Religion de la -República de Chile és la Católica Apostólica Romana, con exclusión del -ejercicio publico de cualquiera otra.” (The religion of the Republic of -Chile is the Roman Catholic Apostolic with the exclusion of the public -exercise of whatever other.) - -Under constitutional authority the public exercise of all religious -worship, except the Catholic, was excluded from Chile until 1865, when -the right was conceded to establish non-Catholic schools within private -property, and to be supervised by a Catholic board. Later came another -innovation in the civil register law. - -In Chile the State sanctions, helps to support and maintain the -Catholic church, and the church participates in politics and the -affairs of state. Reaching out through its various ramifications the -church extends its influence to the farthest limits of the country, -both socially and politically. The union of Church and State is -strong, and the day seems far distant when they will be divorced. Able -and courageous men, individually and in party groups, have tried to -loosen the hold Catholicism has on Chile, and have in some instances -weakened its influence upon the body politic, but it is still powerful. -President Balmaceda endeavored to separate Church and State, not by -destroying the church, but by directing each in its legitimate channel. -The result was defeat, revolution, disaster and death. - -One of the Popes said concerning the Catholic church: “Its catholicity -is its credentials to Divine origin and authority.” It is not the -intention of the writer to challenge this statement, but the broad, -liberal Catholic idea would seem to suggest that the influence of the -church should be directed along lines laid down in the Divine Law, and -not exerted in an effort to control political policies. - -It is not the purpose to discuss here the individual merits of the -clergy, but to consider it as a body politic, its influence for weal -or woe with the people and upon the nation. It is a significant fact -that every law on the statute books tending to secure greater liberty -of action, freedom of thought and speech, has been opposed by the -political element of the church. Such progressive measures as the civil -register law, providing for a public record of births, deaths and -marriages, and requiring civil marriage ceremonies; the establishment -and maintenance of public and private schools, and the designation of -non-Catholic cemeteries, where Protestants might receive burial, have -received the opposition of the clergy. - -To try to lift the veil and look into the private lives of the clergy -would seem little less than sacrilege. It would reveal acts pure -and noble, lives worthy of example and emulation, and it would also -show startling and shocking scenes enacted in the name of religion. -There are those who are sacrificing their lives in the cause of the -Master, others living vicious and licentious lives under the cloak -of Christianity. The illiteracy and superstition of the people give -to the unworthy and insincere opportunities to practice deception -and imposition. Upon the other hand, these same conditions afford an -ample field and unlimited opportunities for good, with those who are -conscientious and possess the true Christian spirit. - -There are more than ten thousand monks of different orders in Chile. -During the summer months they go about the country in pairs or in -trios, holding mission services, which they conduct without price or -reference to money. The expenses of these itinerant clergymen are paid -from the funds of the order they represent. They do much good in the -way of instructing the poor country and village people in the rudiments -of civilized life, cleanliness, and how to rear their children. These -mission services usually continue for a week or ten days in one place, -during which time many of the women and children of the community -remain about the church, sleeping upon the ground at night. These -mission fathers in no way clash with the regular priests, everything -being understood and prearranged. Medallions and colored prints of -their patron saints are freely distributed, and never fail to create a -pleasing effect upon the women and children. The children are gathered -into classes and turned over to the more intelligent of the women of -the church, who teach them the catechism, and to sing the chants. If -the children appear indifferent, or especially stupid in these first -instructions and church discipline, their minds are brightened and -their memories sharpened by whacks with a stick in the hands of the -monks. But alas, these poor children only memorize the printed prayers, -no explanations of their true meaning being made, and so through life -they go on repeating prayers without knowing the significance of the -words. Not infrequently this smattering of an education, gained through -the mission teachings of the traveling monks, is all that many of -them receive. It is through these methods of early instruction that -the prolific growth of superstition prevalent in Chile is cultivated -and kept alive. Children are taught that the several saints on the -calendar, the anniversary of each of which is celebrated with a -religious feast, are all powerful, and that the good offices of the -saints can be secured through the intermediary of the priests. - - -FEAST DAYS. - -The chief national feast in Chile is September 18th, the anniversary -of the independence of the Republic, known as “El Diez y ocho.” There -are, however, numerous other anniversary celebrations, commemorating -victorious battles and historic events, which are observed with much -demonstration in the cities and thickly populated districts. All other -holidays, of which there are something like seventy in the year, are -called religious festivals. Every saint has his or her feast day, known -as church feasts, except the patron saint of the local church, in which -event the festival lasts for a week or more. - -Ordinary feasts are held at private houses. The adobe walls of the room -selected for the service are covered with paper, and an improvised -altar arranged by placing lighted candles upon a table. Upon the wall -above the table is hung a colored print of the particular saint whose -anniversary is being celebrated. Those taking part in the services -are usually seated around the room upon stones or blocks of wood, and -if such seats are not available they squat upon the dirt floor, the -crowd frequently extending into the open in front of the house. There -are harpists, guitar players and singers. The feast, which is held -after the service, consists of boiled beans mixed with hulled corn, -and as extra, boiled dried peaches mixed with flour or toasted wheat. -After the food has been served someone in the crowd gives a “chaucha” -(twenty cents), to one of the players and music is rendered in praise -of the donor. Someone then buys wine or chicha and the health of the -saint is drunk. When the singers have rendered what they consider the -value of the donation, another person contributes, and by this means -the music is kept up. Liquor is passed and repassed until the supply is -exhausted, and the festival continues until the candles are burned out -and the crowd lapses into a state of innocuous desuetude, to sleep off -the effects of the debauch. - -Religious ceremonies and feast day demonstrations are events of much -general interest to the country people. Easter on a farm brings about -the annual festival of “Correr á Cristo” (running to Christ). A mounted -procession with waving flags and banners, and weird shouting, makes a -tour of the farm, and the day is given over to a saturnalia of noise. -Sometimes the procession will stop by the roadside, or in the garden -in front of the farmhouse to hear mass, or long enough for those in -attendance to receive the blessings of the priests. The procession is -usually headed by a cart draped with palms and decorated with flowers. - - -PROCESSION OF THE PELICAN. - -One of the peculiar religious festivals of the country is “La Procesión -del Pelicano” (procession of the pelican), a passion play held -annually at Quillota, one of the first communities established by the -Spaniards in Chile. To the old city in the valley of the Aconcagua, -there is an annual pilgrimage of thousands of devout Catholics, and -others attracted by curiosity, to witness the strange procession. - -The Procession of the Pelican has no mythological origin or -significance, as is generally supposed, but derives its name from the -colossal bird, which has figured in the demonstration for more than a -century. The Cathedral of Quillota was built by the Bishop of Romero, -in the beginning of the eighteenth century. By the influence of the -Bishop the ladies of the community formed the society of the “Santo -Sepulcro” (Holy Sepulchre), and by collecting alms raised the funds for -this traditional procession. The annual arrangement was always placed -in charge of one of the ladies of the society, and as only those from -the first families were selected it was considered a great honor. - -About the year 1776, Doña Amilia Alverez de Araya, whose family -founded the original town of Quillota, was selected to direct the -demonstration. Previous to that time the Santo Sepulcro, on which -the figure representing the body of Christ was placed, on being -lowered from the cross, was a common wooden box. With the help of a -San Franciscan monk, who was a good joiner, Doña Amilia planned the -receptacle since used, which represents a swan with wings extended. -The huge image, constructed of wood, represents the bird with arched -neck, picking at its breast upon which there is a bright red spot, in -imitation of a blood stain. - -On Good Friday a cross is erected in the Plaza, on a miniature mount, -covered with green. During the day it is guarded by huasos, dressed -to represent the Jews. Previous to the procession a man is placed -upon the cross in imitation of the Crucifixion. In the evening the -Cura, standing upon the steps of the cathedral, preaches a sermon on -the “Passion of Our Lord,” after which the procession is formed. The -“andas” (floats), carried upon the shoulders of men, represent scenes -in the life of the Savior, such as “Christ Before Pilate,” “Christ -Carrying the Cross,” “The Virgin Surrounded by Angels,” etc. The -feature of the procession is the Pelican, which is borne by twelve men. -The procession marches from the cathedral to the mount, and the body -of the man representing Christ is lowered from the cross and placed in -the Holy Sepulchre, the Pelican. During the procession the wings of the -Pelican, which are covered with mirrors, open and shut mechanically, -adding a spectacular feature to the scene. After marching around the -Plaza, and through the principal streets the procession returns to the -cathedral, and the Pelican is placed back of the altar where it remains -until the recurrence of Good Friday, when it is again brought into -service in “La Procesión del Pelicano.” - -The hotels in the provincial town are inadequate to accommodate the -people who journey annually to Quillota to witness the strange scenes -presented in the procession of the Pelican, and when the ceremony is -concluded there is an undignified rush for trains. The crowd, that -stands quietly with bared heads during the passion play, resolves -itself into a mob, each individual scrambling and fighting for the -most advantageous position at the railway station. Those who cannot -secure accommodation in the trains must spend the night in the streets, -and following “La Procesión del Pelicano” the usual quiet of Quillota -is turned into a drunken rabble. The police are unable to control the -crowd, and the scene of religious fervor and devout Christian spirit -shown by the multitude during the procession representing Christ -crucified, is changed to a bacchanalian carousal. The event brings -out the peculiarities of the Chilean character. One hour they are -intoxicated with religious excitement and the next on aguardiente, -entering as enthusiastically into the spirit of one condition as the -other, with never a thought, apparently, of the inconsistency of their -actions. - - -FEAST OF THE PATRON SAINT. - -The celebration of the anniversary of the patron saint of the parish -church is an important event. The little vice-parroquia (district -church), where the annual feast is held, is generally whitewashed, -and has a tile roof, blue doors, and yellow painted windows, and is -topped by a square belfry tower. It is usually situated upon a slight -elevation from which the ground slopes down to a nearby country road. -The only relief to the monotony of the dreary surroundings is a few -flowering shade trees. About the time the “novena” is concluded, carts -begin to arrive and form in line along the roadside. As the crowd -augments the scene resolves itself into one of animation and activity. -People are constructing out of tree boughs, places of temporary -residence, in which they sleep and where they conduct a small business -during the festival. Women are engaged in bringing in firewood and -jugs of water, which they carry on their heads. Oxen are unhitched -from carts and driven home, as the feast lasts many days. Often as -many as fifty carts, covered with canvas, branches of trees or skins -are arranged side by side in close proximity. They serve as places of -shelter for the owners, who remain throughout the feast. Each cart is -supplied with a barrel of chicha, wine and aguardiente, and also with -fowls and vegetables, from which is made cazuela, to supply the hungry -crowd. - -During all the day before, and up to the hour of the feast, which -begins at midnight, active preparations for the event continue. People -are arriving from every direction, those from a distance on horseback, -and those from the neighborhood on foot, each carrying a quantity of -supplies to eat or drink, and each expecting to do a little business -on the morrow, and succeeding days, in the way of catering to the -appetite or thirst of the mixed multitude. Some are ladened with skin -bags filled with wine or chicha, others carry earthen pots or baskets -containing such articles as they may have to dispose of. Fires are -blazing, pots are boiling, and the scene along the roadside resembles -a miniature military camp, with active preparations for the customary -meal of soup and beans going forward. - -Later the crowd is divided into groups, squatting upon the ground -and eating from black earthen dishes. There is a tapping of barrels, -uncorking of skin bags and earthen jugs, in which the supplies of -liquor are stored. Small groups of gentlemen, or families, possessing -a little more money than the average persons present, are seated at -home-made tables, which are covered with coarse sacking. All are merry, -and apparently happy to renew acquaintances, many of which have been -neglected since the last feast of our lady of mercy, Santa Mercedes, -the patroness saint of the little church where the feast is being held. - -The parish priest has not yet arrived from his parochial residence, -hence the feast has not formally begun. A murmur along the line of -feasters announces the approach of the cura, the church bells peal -joyously, and the crowd files into the little church, where lighted -tapers and gilt images add a spectacular effect to the scene. The -priest preaches a pleasing sermon, for the purpose of conciliating his -congregation, which has not yet made its offering to the virgin. At -the conclusion of the service the people give to the priest such money -as they think they can afford to contribute, or that which has been -entrusted to them by others who could not attend. They have come from -every section of the surrounding country, some from great distances, -who wish to show their gratitude to this particular saint, for favors -they may have received, or may desire to receive in the future. The -priest is not made aware of the object of the donations. The donors -place their faith implicitly in the saints, believing that they will -execute the bequests. These poor contributors for the most part have -nothing to do with the particular church where the offering is made. -As an example, in case of serious illness or threatened calamity in a -family, the friends or relatives, as the case may be, make a vow that -if spared the impending trouble, they will give a certain amount to a -certain saint for a given number of years. These promises are usually -redeemed, and the obligation is discharged at the particular church -patronized by the saint to whom the promise is made. Many individual -instances might be cited to illustrate the fidelity with which these -people make offerings to the saints. - -The day following the midnight services is “La Mercedes,” and the -early morning shows hundreds of additional votaries en route to the -church. After the morning mass the image of the virgin Mercedes, -bedecked with flowers, is removed from the church altar, and carried -at the head of a procession that marches about the church. The priest, -leading the procession, and reciting prayers, is showered with flowers. -After this parade the image is again placed upon the altar, there to -remain until the following year, September 8th, which is the date of -the anniversary of Mercedes. The priest then goes his way and the -real fiesta, for which a majority of those present have come, that of -eating, drinking, dancing and carousing uninterruptedly for several -days, begins. The scene about the church presents some features -peculiarly novel and picturesque. The hundreds of people dressed in the -costumes of the country, in which bright colors predominate, dozens of -clumsy bullock carts, and hundreds of horses huddled together in the -church grounds, where they remain for days without being unsaddled, -and in many instances without food or water, are some of the features -of this feast day picture. There are improvised dance halls, bowling -alleys, and every cart and temporary hut is turned into a shop where -is dispensed such articles as those in possession may have to offer. -At each place where liquors are dispensed there is singing, dancing -and music of guitars. Everyone seems to have something to sell, and -money with which to buy. Having made their contributions to our lady -of mercy, they pursue the god Bacchus with enthusiasm and reckless -indulgence. Good fellowship prevails, drinks encourage generosity and -the feast goes merrily on. - -This festival falls upon a date that marks the approach of spring in -Chile. The espino is in bloom, and the odor of the yellow blossoms of -that repellant, thorny bush, which grows abundantly throughout the -country, fills the air with sweet perfume; birds in the mating season -are revelling in the first green of the trees and the bloom of wild -flowers. Under clumps of blossoming trees women are cooking cakes and -vending sweets, while señoritas send winning glances at young men who, -too often under the influence of liquor, are easy preys to the arrows -of cupid. The feast continues to increase in interest and enthusiasm -for three or four days, continuing night and day, when it reaches the -climax, after which from loss of sleep and deficiency of drink, the -tide begins to recede, and the crowd to decrease. At the end of the -sixth or eighth day, at the farthest, the last of the crowd disperses, -leaving only the trodden grass and the blackened remains of camp fires -as evidences of the greatest and merriest local frolic of the year. - - - - -SUPERSTITIONS - - -In Chile there are large tracts of sparsely populated territory where -there are neither doctors nor drug stores, and in such communities -it is necessary in case of illness for the people to resort to home -remedies. In these rural communities there are many old women who -assume the rôle of doctresses, calling themselves “Medicas.” They are -absolutely ignorant of medicine or its effect upon the human system, -yet with their odd preparations of herbs they sometimes effect cures -within a very short time. However, it is said that they more frequently -kill than cure the persons they treat. Should the patient live for -several days under the treatment of the Medica, and then die, nothing -is said by the friends of the deceased, but should the victim succumb -with the first dose the doctress is asked to change her residence at -once. - -“Brujeria,” or witchcraft, is common among the women in the lower -classes in Chile, many of whom claim to be “brujas,” or sorceresses. -The women profess to be able to inflict strange and wonderful -punishment upon their enemies, or persons who refuse to accede to -their demands. The most common delusion of these superstitious people, -especially the women, is the power of the “brujas” to place reptiles -or insects in their stomachs. Frequently when one becomes ill or -distressed with a pain, she is possessed with the idea that she has -been bewitched, declaring that she has a frog, a toad, a snake, spider, -or other object in her stomach, placed there by a sorceress. These poor -women believe that they cannot recover from an illness of this sort -until they have made peace with the person having bewitched them, which -means the giving of money or its equivalent in presents. It is a sort -of faith cure, and any other treatment seems useless, as it will not -dispel the delusion. The man or woman with dropsy or other affliction -will almost invariably attribute the malady to an evil sorceress. These -superstitions even extend to matters of business and chance with the -country people. The methods employed by these witches are curious and -ridiculous. Many claim, and the claims are accepted as true, to be able -by slipping into the presence of an enemy and burning a certain kind of -herb or vegetable, to place the person in their power. In some cases -persons so bewitched assume a form of madness, which unfits them for -service, and sometimes makes them dangerous. Many of these people claim -to cure disease by prayer. - -There are few diseases among the ignorant country people attributed -to legitimate causes. They are believed to be due to the influence of -witches; to be ill from any cause is to be bewitched. It is one of the -many superstitions inherited from Indian ancestors, and is deep rooted -in the minds of the people. - -To predict the elimination or uprooting of these primitive customs -would be hazardous, as they are countenanced, fostered in the minds of -the people and encouraged by the priests. They preach and teach the -supernatural, and in the rural districts the clergy sell “santitos” -(small images representing saints), and medallions that are alleged -to have been consecrated by them, as cures and preventatives for all -kinds of diseases and maladies. Sometimes when a liberal donation has -been made to the church, the donor is given one of these consecrated -objects, which is highly prized, and the curative powers of which are -never doubted by the possessor. Although the laws of the Catholic -church prohibit its members from eating meat on Fridays, the priests -sell privileges, called “bulas,” which permit purchasers to eat -whatever kind of food they like on that day. A very poor person can -secure a bula for fifty centavos, while a well-to-do member will pay -according to his ability, and very rich people in Valparaiso and -Santiago have paid as much as one thousand pesos for the privilege of -violating a fundamental law of the church. With the encouragement of -such beliefs and practices by those who are accepted as teachers and -who should stand as exemplars of moral and intellectual progress, it -is little wonder that the masses among the poor and ignorant cling -tenaciously to customs that seem obsolete in this age of enlightened -progress. - -Superstitions are generally prevalent among the better classes also, -particularly those engaged in agricultural pursuits. It is believed -that sowing, reaping, planting, wood cutting, grafting or pruning -trees, storing of crops, etc., should be done during the last quarter -of the moon. Seed planted during the new moon will not grow, crops -harvested will be damaged, trees pruned will die, etc. The weather for -the following month is always judged by the Indian sign indicated in -the position of the new moon on its first appearance. - -A curious superstitious custom in Chile is the manner of marking the -place where a person has been killed by accident or murdered. Along -the country roads one frequently comes upon a crude sort of altar by -the roadside, which marks the last resting place of some victim of -violence. It may consist of a little enclosure made of rough boards -and covered with the same material, in which lighted tapers are kept -burning practically all the time. In each of these places there is a -small box for the reception of coins, and many passers-by add small -contributions to the collection, and when the candles have burned out, -the money in the receptacle is used to purchase more. A strange feature -of this practice is that no sneak thief, of which there are many in -every community, will ever rob one of these houses of the dead. He has -a superstitious belief that the money is sacred, and that the one who -steals it will be cursed. - -The cry of the “chuncho,” a sort of night owl, is regarded as an evil -omen by all classes. People who are otherwise apparently sane on -hearing the cry of this bird in the night indulge in actions indicative -of a peculiar form of madness. If in bed they leap out, get down upon -their knees, cross themselves, pray, beat their chests and appeal to -God to save them from impending calamity. The origin or significance of -this particular superstition has never been satisfactorily explained. - -One of the superstitious customs that still prevails, and which is -practiced on religious feast days, especially that of San Juan, is -fortune telling. Matrimonial fortunes are told with three potatoes, -one of which is peeled, from one, half the peeling is removed, and one -is left in its natural state. These potatoes are placed in a dark room, -and the woman seeking her fortune is directed to go into the room, -and to take the first potato with which her hand comes in contact. If -it is the peeled potato, she is to marry a poor man; should it be the -half-peeled tuber, she will marry a man who can clothe and support -her, and should she be lucky enough to secure the unpeeled potato, she -is destined to marry a man who can keep her in comfort and plenty. So -firm is the faith of many of the people in the fulfillment of these -superstitious prophecies that they invariably preserve the potatoes -thus drawn, to be eaten on their wedding day. Another superstition -among the country women is that of washing their hair at daylight on -the morning of the feast of San Juan. They believe that the practice -will cause the hair to grow luxuriantly during the year. - - - - -MARRIAGES - - -In Chile marriage is simply a contract, entered into between two -persons of opposite sex, regarding exclusive possession, society and -service, and who by a civil, legal ceremony are pronounced husband and -wife. The contract does not by implication, or actually, necessarily -include protection or affection. This does not refer to marriages among -the better classes, where money, social position or advantage are taken -into consideration, but the poor, or middle classes, with whom marriage -is a matter of convenience. With these people fidelity is not expected -or demanded. The women have little to claim their attention, beyond -domestic duties and personal adornment. Inherited characteristics and -the influence of environments make them an easy prey to flattery, -in the dispensing of which the Chilenos are artful and crafty. Evil -motives, wrapped in delusive words, suggesting no interpretation of -their true meaning, are the common weapons used by the men to ensnare -trusting hearts guided by uneducated minds. Manly protection to woman -is so rare in the sub-stratum of Chilean society as to be almost -unknown. - -Twenty-five years of age constitutes a legal majority for both -sexes, after which marriage may be contracted at the pleasure of the -interested parties. A boy of twelve or a girl of fourteen years may -legally marry with the consent of parents or guardian. Once married -the law declares them of legal age. - -Previous to the year 1885, marriage ceremonies were celebrated only -in the Catholic churches, which was recognized by the government as -legal. After a prolonged and bitter discussion, a law was passed on -January 10, 1884, requiring a civil registry of all births, deaths -and marriages, and which deprived the church of the right to legalize -marriages. This act, which went into effect January 1, 1885, recognizes -as legal only marriages solemnized by the “Oficial del Registro -Civil,” residing in the same municipality or sub-delegation as the -contracting parties. The ceremony must be witnessed by two or more -persons. Although a marriage ceremony performed by the priests has no -legal import or effect, women of the Catholic faith always demand it, -and most legal weddings are celebrated by two ceremonies. Even yet in -some instances the civil, or legal service is disregarded, and only the -church ceremony performed. Such marriages are not recognized in the -courts, however, and in case of inheritance by the children born of -such a union, they are barred from sharing in property rights. - -There was much conflict and contention between Church and State during -the first few years of the civil registry law. The priests preached -violently against it, directing their efforts principally to the female -members, who are the loyal supporters of all church organizations, and -with whom they made the law offensive and objectionable, by refusing -in many instances confession and absolution to all those who were -married according to the civil law only. They were given the ultimatum -of defying the law of the land and accepting a church marriage -ceremony as binding, or excommunication. The result of these church -teachings was, that for several years after the law went into effect -most Catholics, and especially those representing the aristocracy, -were married by the church only, not realizing, apparently, the -complications that would result from such defiance of law, until their -children were declared illegitimate by the courts. This created a -dilemma, and a serious effort was made to legalize their marriages and -legitimatize their children by a repeal or modification of the law, but -without success. In the meantime the more radical members of the clergy -declared that it were better to live together as husband and wife under -sanction of the divine order, than to resort to civil marriage. As a -compromise members of the Catholic church are now married before the -“Registro Civil,” and afterwards in the Catholic church. But even now, -in the rural districts of Chile, many people are married by the church -only. - -The party constituting the Liberal-Alliance, which was in power, and -organized the ministry at the sitting of the Ordinary Session of the -National Congress in June, 1904, in outlining a programme for the -party, declared itself in favor of a law that would prohibit the church -from celebrating marriages, without the presentation of a certificate -attesting the fact that the marriage had been previously celebrated -before a Civil Registrar. The Conservative party in Congress announced -through its leaders its intention to vigorously oppose the measure, -showing that there is still a political element in Chile in favor of -empowering the church with authority to legalize marriages. - -In discussing this phase of social life, reference is made to the -common people of the country, and not to the rich and educated few, -where wealth, family connections, or social position may enter into and -influence the question of matrimonial alliances, and among whom wedding -ceremonies are conducted much as they are in other civilized countries. - -Courtship is short; there are no long years of waiting. Once the -question is decided the matter is consummated and all doubts as to -congeniality or advisability are left for future consideration. -The custom of courtship is the same as that prevailing in other -Spanish-American countries. It consists more in impassioned glances, -smiles and actions on the part of the participants to attract each -other than in conversation or a discussion of mutual interests. -Sometimes the proposition is made and accepted after the first -meeting, and not infrequently it is arranged by the families of the -interested parties. Whether the majority of marriages in Chile are -contracted from motives of affection, passion, or material interests -is difficult to determine. There would seem to be little love in the -motive that inspires, for among the poorer classes the object appears -to be mutual care, service and protection. During religious festivals, -where men and women are brought into close relationship and intimate -association, under the influence of liquor, marriages are generally -arranged, proposals accepted, and bans simultaneously published by the -contracting parties and the priests. Their past lives have been more or -less the same and there are no sacrifices on the part of either. There -is no demonstration to make the event conspicuous; what to expect and -how to meet it are conditions well known to both. There is no foolish -sentiment exhibited. The wedding is consummated and celebrated because -it is mutually convenient. Their standards of honor, honesty, fidelity -and veracity are about equal. Should either of the contracting parties -hesitate or refuse to comply with the agreement, he or she, as the case -may be, is accused before the priest of the parish church, who commands -the delinquent to respond, and the marriage is celebrated at once. -Protests are in vain, the marriage contract once having been announced, -like the sentence in court, must be carried out, under ecclesiastical -authority. Illegitimacy among the poor of Chile is no disgrace, and -is not a bar, or even a disadvantage when it comes to the question of -marriage. Children born to women previous to marriage are treated by -the husband upon terms of equality with those of the legal union. An -examination of the baptismal record of the churches in the country -districts will reveal the fact that a large per cent. of the children -are inscribed as “El padre desconocido” (the father is unknown). - -Be it said to the credit of the women in the sub-stratum, as well as -in the upper-crust of Chilean society, that, as a rule, they respect -their marriage vows. With the men it is the rare exception instead -of the rule. After marriage, people of the common class resume their -accustomed life and habits, living as a rule under the paternal -or maternal roof of one or the other. The man is not necessarily -expected to contribute to the support of his wife, the custom being -for that member of the family to provide maintenance for the pair, and -invariably to support herself. They seem to enjoy a careless, bohemian -sort of contentment that meets the requirements of their simple lives. -Little is expected, each seems entirely satisfied with the acts of -the other and the stream of domestic harmony runs on uninterruptedly. -Such is life among these simple folk, who mate as do the birds, and -with whom mutual interests, simplicity and natural instincts are the -controlling influences in matrimonial alliances. - -An inventory of all property possessed by each of the contracting -parties at the date of the wedding is carefully taken. It may be a -horse, a cow, pig, fowls, a bed, or other articles. This property -does not enter into the marriage contract and become a part of the -common fund. On the wedding day the bride and groom are accompanied -to the church by friends and neighbors, usually on horseback. There -is singing and music of guitars, firing of shooting crackers and guns -and other demonstrations. There is frequent drinking to the health of -the couple, with “viva los novios.” Anyone who desires may participate -in the wedding feast, as all refreshments are disposed of at a price. -The profits on the feast are given to the bride as a wedding gift. -These celebrations sometimes last three or four days and nights, -with drinking, singing and dancing. Among the middle classes wedding -ceremonies are the same, except that invitations are not quite so -general. And among the more prosperous of the middle classes, the -refreshments served at the wedding feasts are free. - -A married woman never goes by the name of her husband. If Señorita -Carmen Valenzuela is married to Don Jacinto Nuñez, she is afterwards -Señora Carmen Valenzuela de N; if she becomes a widow she retains the -foregoing name with the addition of the letter V before the de N, -meaning widow of Nuñez. - - - - -BIRTHS AND DEATHS - - -Births and deaths do not constitute an attractive subject, but a -description of country life in Chile would be incomplete without some -mention of the entrance into the world and the exit of the people whose -customs and characteristics are under discussion. - - -BIRTHS. - -The advent of an atom of humanity into the world in Chile, is not -considered an event of sufficient importance to cause any disturbance -of the current of affairs that flows on with customary indifference. -The fact is accepted and recorded, but there is neither expression -of regret nor rejoicing. The parents seem to regard the circumstance -from a purely economic point of view, and not one to be invested with -sentiment or feeling. It means another member of the family to feed -and clothe, and another pair of hands that in time may serve, and -contribute something to the scanty household supplies. The poor country -women have no medical attention in childbirth, and in most instances -they lack the attention and necessary provisions to protect the life of -mother and child. They rarely go to bed, but wrapped in a heavy manta, -sit on the floor or ground, as the case may be, for a few days, near -a fire kept burning in a “bracero.” The only medicine they take is a -little burnt sugar in hot water, seasoned with aromatic leaves. In a -few days they resume their domestic duties, and life flows on in the -even current of its way, the addition to the family being regarded as -inconsequential. - -The children of the poor are inured to hardship from the time of birth. -In infancy they are wrapped up like little mummies, receiving little -maternal attention, usually being committed to the care of older -children, when there are such in the family. When old enough to walk, -they are permitted to run where they please, characterized chiefly by -the scanty clothing they wear, and inattention they receive. These -neglected infants rarely cry or complain, learning early in life that -such demonstrations of dissatisfaction with their lot avails nothing. -The mothers of these children are not cruel or inhuman in the treatment -of their offspring, except from neglect and lack of care through -ignorance. - - -DEATHS. - -Away from the cities, where pride or custom holds sway, a death is -little more than a signal for a crowd to assemble at the home of -the deceased for a drunken spree. In case of death the interest and -sympathy manifested by friends and neighbors depends upon the amount -of money forthcoming for the purchase of chicha. Should there be -liberal provisions for this important feature of the funeral service -a large attendance is assured. Should the death be that of a baby it -is generally understood that there is to be a grand feast. The dead -infant, robed in white and bedecked with flowers, is placed in a -sitting position upon an improvised altar, where, surrounded with -burning candles it remains for twenty-four hours. During this time -there is much drinking and singing by those who assemble to mourn the -death of the child. Usually on the day following the death, the body is -wrapped in a cloth and placed in a candle or soap box, which serves as -a coffin, and carried to the cemetery. The procession is accompanied by -women who sing, and add to their vocal efforts the music of guitars. -The crowd often stops en route to the cemetery to drink and indulge -in demonstrations. Women never accompany the funeral procession of an -adult. - -There are never any preparations in advance for a burial, and the -interment is made in the crudest possible manner. The pall-bearers -carry with them a crowbar and shovel, and the corpse waits while the -grave is being prepared after arrival at the cemetery. Graves are dug -anywhere those preparing them may choose, not infrequently in the -same place where other burials have been made, and if human bones are -encountered in the excavation they are thrown aside as so many stones. -After the corpse is laid to rest, perhaps to the great disturbance of -another previously buried in the same spot, the crowd departs to some -place where more liquor can be secured, and where the final celebration -of the event takes place. - -Should a poor man die, leaving no money with which to provide the -customary drinks at his funeral, and having no friends who will perform -that very necessary service for him, the manner of his burial is -something like that accorded to animals. The method of conveying the -bodies of these unfortunates to their last resting place, in many -instances is not unlike that of taking a sack of potatoes to market. -The corpse is tied upon the back of a mule, and with head nodding, -hands and feet waving in the air, as if in mute protest against the -custom of administering the last rites of the poor, they are conveyed -to the cemetery by someone to whom the disagreeable duty is delegated. -A hole large enough to receive the body is dug in some obscure corner -of the cemetery, and without a coffin, without ceremony or service of -any kind, the unfortunate is committed to earth, which receives him -back to its bosom, as it does all those who inhabit it for a brief -period. - -Without plan, ornament, or official keepers, the cemeteries of -rural Chile present an unattractive prospect, and a scene of dreary -desolation. Usually they are nothing more than enclosed plots of -ground, neglected and overrun with weeds and brambles, without markings -to indicate the location of individual graves. There is little -reverence for those who journey to those dreary spots for the last time. - -In the many sharp contrasts presented in the lives of the different -classes in Chile, none are more striking than that shown in the -disposition of the dead, and in the ceremonies attendant upon -funerals. In the cities, where the rich and cultured bury their dead, -the cemeteries are beautifully kept, and adorned with flowers and -shrubbery, and magnificent tombs and monuments mark the last resting -places of wealth and respectability. Elaborate, solemn and impressive -services are held at the home of the deceased, or in church, the body -is borne to the grave in a funeral car, while extra coaches and -hearses are employed in carrying the floral offerings and decorations -provided by the family and friends. - -The civil register law conferred great benefits upon the poor, in the -matter of births and deaths. Previous to that there was no record of -births, except in the church records, made by the priests when they -found it agreeable and convenient. Then, as now, a large per cent. -of the children born were illegitimate, and if the parents did not -want the birth inscribed in the record, it was conveniently omitted. -Then there was no law to compel those in charge of the cemeteries to -issue burial permits, and usually the priests demanded a fee before -permission was given to bury the Catholic dead in the consecrated -grounds, while non-Catholics were denied the right of burial in the -cemeteries on any terms. - -Fortunately the civil law makes the registration of births, deaths and -burials free and compulsory. In every municipal district there is a -civil registrar, whose business it is to keep these records, and to -issue burial permits. Private burials are prohibited by law. - - - - -SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES - - -There is no compulsory educational law in Chile. Several attempts have -been made to secure the passage of such a measure, but without success. -The failure to secure such an enactment may be attributed to the -indifference of the majority of the citizens of the Republic, who take -little or no interest in the question of providing better facilities -for educating the youth of the country. - -Primary instruction is provided by the government, which maintains -two kinds of schools in this class, elementary and superior. In the -elementary, the alphabet, reading, writing, gymnastics, singing, and -the first rules of arithmetic, geography and grammar are taught. -In the superior, in addition to the branches taught in the primary -grades, instructions are given in manual training, physical and -natural science, and other general studies, which prepare the pupils -for entrance into the secondary colleges, “liceos,” and other higher -educational institutions. The number of pupils in attendance at these -schools is about one hundred thousand. - -Teachers in the primary grades, masculine and feminine, are prepared in -five normal schools, located in different parts of the country. When -they have finished their studies and passed their examinations, they -receive the title of “Professor” from the State as evidence of their -qualification for teaching. Primary teachers receive a salary of 1,200 -pesos per year. After ten years’ service they are entitled to a pension -from the government, and after thirty years they can retire on full pay. - - -UNIVERSITY OF CHILE. - -Previous to the formation of the Republic, the only institutions in -Chile possessing facilities for instruction in the sciences and higher -branches of education were the monasteries, the school at San Filipe -being recognized as a national university. But the monastic education -was not in harmony with the modern republican ideas of the progressive -Chilenos, and the San Filipe institution was abolished by official -decree in 1839, and in its place there was established a group of -schools under the name of the University of Chile. The new institution -which was formally opened in 1842, marked an era in the educational -system of the country. The original building, in Santiago, fronting on -the broad Alameda, with its rows of trees and wide park-way, adorned -with statues of national heroes, is a fine architectural creation of -the Spanish style, with interior patios and galleries. The University, -which has an annual attendance of from 1,500 to 2,000 students has -special and well equipped departments of Philosophy and Letters, Law -and Political Science, Medicine, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Engineering, -Architecture, Pedagogy and a Normal school. - -The State also maintains schools of secondary and superior instruction, -the latter being under the direction of the University, which maintains -thirty-six different colleges in the Republic, and gives courses in -practical and special branches, and also industrial training. In -the first six years of the course in these colleges the pupils are -instructed in branches designated in the program prepared by the -Council of Instruction, a corporation whose members are appointed by -the government, and which is required to hold weekly sessions. - -The course of instruction in the secondary institutions consists of -the following, worked out according to the German concentric system: -Physical and natural science, mathematics, Spanish, French, German and -English languages, drawing, geography, history, gymnastics and singing. -The pupils who pass the general and final examinations satisfactorily, -receive the degree of Bachelor of Arts, which admits them to the -superior courses of Law, Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture, etc., in -the University. - -All this instruction is provided by the State, free of expense, except -250 pesos per year which the pupil is required to pay for board. The -government has secured a competent corps of teachers and instructors -for the secondary colleges and the University, the majority of them -coming from Germany and Belgium under contract. Their pay is about -6,000 pesos, equal to $2,000 United States currency, annually. - -Chile also maintains a number of Industrial and Commercial schools. -Among these special institutions are four Commercial and Industrial, -three Agricultural, three Mining, and two professional schools for -women, an Art Institute and a school of Fishery. The pupils attending -these institutions are trained in the various professions and -industries taught in the respective schools. This part of the system -of public instruction, especially in the establishments in which the -poorer classes receive their education, is very deficient. But this -particular branch is now receiving the attention of the government -authorities, and there is a prospect of decided improvement in the -standard of these schools. One of the defects of these liceos is -the fact that the number of pupils in each is so great that it is -impossible for the masters to hear all the recitations of each pupil, -or to give them individual attention in their studies. - -In addition to the public schools and higher educational institutions -maintained by the State, there are many private schools and colleges, -which offer fairly good facilities for general and special educational -training. The Catholic church provides many schools that are well -equipped for primary education. - -A weak feature of the educational system of Chile, which possesses many -excellent and commendable qualities, is the fact that the State schools -are crowded with pupils from the wealthy families, to the neglect and -exclusion of the children of the poor. The result is the education of a -class in which the majority are ambitious to engage in the professions, -rather than in the trades, agricultural and commercial life. - -What Chile needs for the development of her varied and rich resources -is engineers, mechanics, and men trained in agricultural and commercial -pursuits, instead of musicians, artists, professors and politicians, -for whom the government is expected to provide employment. - -The fact that over sixty per cent. of the population is illiterate is -due to various causes. The Chilean Roto is without ambition for himself -or his family, and until education is made compulsory he will not -attempt to lift his children above the low intellectual level in which -he and his ancestors for generations have been content to live. He has -yet to learn the importance to himself, to the State and society, of -education, and mental training. Another drawback to primary education -in the rural districts is the geographical and climatic conditions -of the country. In many places the territory is sparsely settled and -schoolhouses far apart. The country is mountainous, and in the winter -season streams become raging torrents from the excessive rains, making -journeys across country impossible for children of school age. - - - - -LANGUAGE - - -Spanish is the language of Chile, as it is of all South American -countries, except Brazil, but in Chile it has taken on idioms until it -differs in many particulars from the pure Castilian. Like all Latin -languages it lends itself to elaborate speech, pleasing compliment, -plentiful platitude, vague and uncertain meaning and is a charming -means for the exchange of polite pleasantries. It possesses qualities -that commend it especially for diplomatic usage, as the ordinary -sentence, written or verbally expressed, can be construed to mean one -thing or another to suit the desire or convenience of the person giving -it utterance. These qualities, however, render it unsatisfactory as a -commercial language, which should be direct and definite in meaning. - -Perhaps no other language is so easily acquired by foreigners, and none -is more beautiful and attractive when correctly spoken and properly -enunciated than Spanish. There are no silent letters, and each word -is pronounced as it is spelled. The verbs are irregular, but once the -rules of grammar are learned, it is a matter of comparative ease to -acquire facility of speech. - -The Chilenos, like all Spanish speaking people, emphasize all verbal -expressions with elaborate gestures. Their gesticulations are graceful, -and instead of being objectionable, are attractive. They are born -orators, and the average Chileno can deliver a most effective speech -on any and all occasions, on short notice or with small provocation. -Even small boys will harangue a crowd with well-chosen words formed -into beautiful sentences, and delivered with splendid oratorical -effect. This is true in the larger sense also, and the speeches -delivered on public occasions, and in the legislative halls are as a -rule excellent examples of the art of oratory. The meaning is often -vague, and the language ambiguous, but the diction good. A speech -delivered in Spanish in a well modulated voice, emphasized with -sweeping and graceful gestures, is both pleasing and dramatic in effect. - -In Valparaiso, the principal port and commercial city in the Republic, -English is more generally used in the transaction of business than any -other language, Spanish not excepted. - - - - -COURTS AND LEGAL PROCEDURE - - -In the formation of the Republic of Chile, the system of law courts -and legal procedure was patterned after that prevailing in Spain, -and included all of its antique, slow and cumbersome processes. The -Spanish law was modeled after the Roman code, and the custom of the -race to cling tenaciously to precedent, seldom accepting innovation or -change in any practice once established, even to meet the exigencies -of changed conditions, manifested itself in the administration of law -in Spain. So, Chile inherited and adopted the system with all its -crudities, slow processes and impracticable features. The Roman law was -improved and amplified to meet new conditions and requirements, and -Spain made changes in her laws, but Chile continues under the old and -obsolete system copied from the mother country. - -The courts, with their respective jurisdiction, are as follows: - - -FIRST. - -Juzgado del Distrito (District Judges). This court, first in the order, -has jurisdiction in civil cases up to an amount equal to fifty pesos. -The procedure is verbal, but the result, which is delivered orally -must be put in writing, as a record. All judgments must be in writing. -No criminal cases are tried before these courts. There is no appeal -in cases where the amount involved does not exceed twenty pesos. The -judges receive no salary. - - -SECOND. - -Jueces de Subdelegacion (Substitute Judges). The procedure in this -court is practically the same as in the first mentioned, except that -the amounts involved in cases tried therein, range from fifty to two -hundred pesos, and all can be appealed. In rural districts, these -courts have jurisdiction in petty criminal or police cases. - -In certain cities, notably Valparaiso and Santiago, there are “Jueces -de Apelacion” (Judges of Courts of Appeal), to whom go appeals from -the first mentioned courts. They have jurisdiction in commercial -cases involving an amount equal to two hundred pesos, and also in -cases relating to pawn shops, governing which there is a special law, -allowing only a certain per cent. to the holder, on articles pawned. -If pawns are not redeemed within the time specified, they are sold at -auction. With the proceeds the pawnholder is paid, and the residue, -if any, is paid to the person pawning the article. If the money thus -obtained is not claimed within a reasonable time it is turned into -the general government fund. Where there are no Jueces de Apelacion, -their functions are performed by Jueces de Letras. Jueces de Apelacion -receive salary. - -Jueces de Letras (Judges of Letters): These courts have jurisdiction -in probate cases where there is no litigation; civil cases where the -amount involved exceeds two hundred pesos, common mining and fiscal -cases involving any sum, and criminal cases. In the more important -cities and populous districts there are special Jueces de Letras for -criminal cases. - -The following named persons are not subject to jurisdiction in courts -presided over by Jueces de Letras: Commanders of Military and Naval -Forces; General Officers, whether of the Army or Navy; Inspector -General of Military and Inspector General of National Guard; Members -of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal; Public Prosecutor, Jueces -de Letras, heads of church districts and their secretaries or vices; -Consuls General, Consuls and Vice-Consuls; also municipal corporations -and charitable institutions. - -These judges also have jurisdiction in cases appealed from Jueces -de Subdelegacion, and without appeal settle cases annulled in lower -courts. Where there are no Jueces de Apelacion they perform these last -named functions. Where there are two or more judges of the same class -in one district, they hold court by weekly turns, except in Valparaiso, -where the court of appeals sends each new case to a certain judge. - -Courts of Appeal are located at Santiago, Valparaiso, Concepcion, La -Serena and Tacna. In Santiago, the capital, these courts have twelve -judges, and in Concepcion they have eight; the others five judges each. -These courts have jurisdiction as follows: - - -FIRST. - -In the second instance (that is to say on appeal), of the civil and -criminal cases tried in the first instance by Judges of Letters within -their district. - - -SECOND. - -In single instance (no appeal allowed), of petitions for the nullifying -of sentences rendered by Judges of Letters. - - -THIRD. - -In the first instance, of the civil and criminal cases, in which may -have an interest or be a direct party, the President of the Republic, -the ministers of State, the governors of the provinces and governors -of departments, the Chilean diplomatic agents, foreign diplomatic -agents credited before the Chilean government or in transit through the -territory; the archbishops, bishops, vicars general; and of accusations -or civil claims against Judges of Letters to make effective the -criminal and civil responsibility resulting from their official acts. - -The Supreme Court, which is located in Santiago, has jurisdiction as -follows: - - -FIRST. - -In single instance (no appeal), of the petition for the nullification -of judgments pronounced by the Courts of Appeal. - - -SECOND. - -In the second instance, of the cases corresponding in the first -instance to the Courts of Appeal, or to one member of the Supreme -Court. One member of the court, according to the turn established by -the court itself, judges in the first, including accusations and civil -claims against one or more members of the Court of Appeals, to make -effective their criminal or civil responsibility, and of the capture -of prizes, extradition, and other cases to be judged according to -international law. - -Ministers of the Supreme Court, Ministers of the Courts of Appeal and -Judges of Letters are appointed for an indefinite period, subject to -good behavior. Judges of Subdelegations and of Districts are named for -a term of two years. - -The Supreme Court is composed of ten ministers. Judges of the Supreme -Court and of the Courts of Appeal are named by the President. The -high court prepares a list of persons possessing the necessary -qualifications, which is presented to the Consejo de Estado (Council -of State). From this list the Council selects three names, which are -submitted to the President, and from which he may choose whoever he -pleases. In the appointment of a Judge of Letters, the Judges of the -Courts of Appeal, in whose jurisdiction the vacancy exists, prepare a -list of fifteen persons who have the necessary qualifications and send -it to the Consejo de Estado, which prepares therefrom a list of three, -from which the President names the judge. - -Judges of Subdelegations and Districts are named by the governors of -the respective provinces, from lists of competent persons prepared by -the Judges of Letters within their jurisdiction. - - -NECESSARY QUALIFICATIONS FOR JUDGES OF LETTERS. - -Natural or acquired citizenship in the Republic; twenty-five years of -age; the title of “abogado” (lawyer); judge in a department wherein is -not the capital of the province; to have practiced law for two years -in a department in which is located the provincial capital; to have -practiced law six years, or served for two as department judge, or -judge of a department wherein is a Court of Appeal; to have practiced -law nine years, or served as judge for five years in a department, or -for two years in the capital of a province. - - -MEMBERS OF COURTS OF APPEAL. - -Natural or acquired citizenship; thirty-two years of age; the title of -lawyer; to have practiced law for twelve years, or served for six as -judge in a department, for four years in the capital of a province, or -for two years in a city wherein there is a Court of Appeal. - - -TO BE A MEMBER OF THE SUPREME COURT. - -Natural or acquired citizenship; thirty-six years of age; the title of -lawyer; to have practiced for fifteen years, or served for eight years -as judge in a department, for six years where there is the capital of a -province, for four years where there is a Court of Appeal, or for two -years as a member of one of these courts. - - -DISTRICT JUDGE OR JUDGE OF SUBDELEGATION. - -Twenty years of age; reside within the district, and know how to read -and write. A person who has obtained a title in one of the liberal -professions may be District Judge, even if conditions one and three are -lacking. - -Each member of the Court of Appeal and of the Supreme Court becomes -president by turns for the period of one year. - -Judges of the Supreme Court receive salaries of 15,000 pesos annually, -with an honorarium of 1,000 extra to the president of the court. The -secretary gets 7,500 pesos a year. Ministers of Courts of Appeal, -9,000 pesos, with 500 gratuity to the president of same; secretary, -3,000. Judges of Letters, where there is a Court of Appeal, 7,500. -Judges of Letters in the capital of a province, 6,000. Judges of other -departments, 4,500. - - -QUALIFICATIONS FOR LAWYERS. - -The necessary qualifications for engaging in the practice of law are: -Twenty years of age; the title of “licentiate” in the faculty of laws -and political sciences in the University of Chile; to have never been -condemned in the courts, nor actually to have a case pending for a -crime which demands corporal punishment. A five years’ course of study -in one of the Liceos (colleges) is required. After an examination -in one of the subjects included in the course, according to subject -drawn by lottery, the student receives the degree of Bachelor in the -University. After five years’ study in a University as Bachelor of Laws -and Political Science, another year’s study is required before the -degree of lawyer can be obtained. Only lawyers are permitted to plead -in the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal, unless the principal himself -wishes to plead his own case. - -Unfortunately there is a class of individuals other than lawyers -who can appear for defendants in all the courts. They are known as -“tinterillos,” and are the plague of the courts and a curse to the -country. As a class they are without equal or comparison in any -country. They are, as a rule, ignorant of the law, unscrupulous and -dishonest. Their special prey is the poorer classes who have not the -means to employ lawyers. Once a victim in the hands of a tinterillo, -the unfortunate individual finds himself enmeshed in a maze of -unscrupulous proceedings that are neither regular nor legal, and are -calculated to draw him deeper into the intricacies of Chilean law. -Their knowledge of practice is gained from observation, and not from -the study of law or proceedings. They usually get cases mixed in an -inextricable tangle, lengthen the proceedings, carrying them through -wrongly, employ unlawful means in the way of false witnesses, etc. -They are permitted to engage in their despicable practices in the -courts under the democratic theory that in a Republic, liberty should -be denied to none, though generally the evil effects of such liberty -are painfully apparent. Because of this theory the evil continues, and -nothing is done to eliminate the objectionable practice from the courts. - - -PRACTICE. - -In ordinary civil actions the complaint is made in writing, with the -petitions clearly specified. A demurrer to the complaint may be made by -the defendant on certain legal grounds, but only once. Then comes the -answer to the complaint, with possibly a counterclaim. After the answer -comes the reply, with answer to counterclaim, if there be any. Then -reply to the reply. Next comes the verification of pleadings. The judge -decides the points to be presented. Within five days the parties to the -suit present their list of witnesses, the judge orders thirty days for -them to declare in, fixing within that time certain days wherein they -are to be examined and cross-examined through the judge. - -When the time expires, the plaintiff is given the papers for ten days -for him to sum up the case in writing, and then ten days are given -to the defendant for the same purpose. The judge then makes it known -to the parties that he is going to pronounce sentence, which he is -supposed to do within sixty days according to law. This is not always -carried out according to the intent, however. - -On appeal, in the upper court, the plaintiff presents a complaint -and the defendant an answer, and a day is set for the case to be -heard. Then the lawyers plead, after which comes the final sentence, -from which there is no appeal, although possibly a petition for -nullification, to be heard before the Supreme Court, may be presented. - -In criminal cases there comes first the secret proceedings, or -“sumario,” of which the accused has no cognizance till the judge has -exhausted his means of investigation. So the evidence does not prove -the existence of a crime and does not tend to fix it upon the accused. -The case is either marked “sobresimiento” or else, when there are not -enough proofs against the accused, he is “absuelto de la instancia” -(absolved in this instance). Should there be proofs against the -accused, the public prosecutor accuses (unless it is a private case, -when of course the interested party does so). The accused answers, -and proofs are received for a given number of days at the judge’s -discretion (not above thirty). The hearing of the procedure is secret. -Witnesses declare before the judge and alone, according to questions -formulated in writing by the accused (if they are his witnesses). -Proofs are likewise received at the same time in regard to the ability -of the witnesses to act as such. When sentence is pronounced, whether -an appeal is made or not, the case goes to the Court of Appeals for -final decision,--final unless nullification of the decision is asked -for, when it goes to the Supreme Court. - - - - -CRIME - - -Drink is the primary cause of much of the crime committed in Chile. -It is in the despachos and roadhouses that secrets are divulged, -confidences exchanged and robberies planned. There peons and inquilinos -employed on farms and large haciendas reveal to the thieves, with -whom they are often on friendly terms, the plans of their master’s -properties, private roads, where animals are pastured, means of gaining -entrance into houses, when sales of stock were made, the amount of -money received and where it is kept. A robbery is proposed to the -intoxicated servants, who readily acquiesce, more out of drunken -gratitude for the liquor furnished by the thieves, than any motive of -crime or gain. They are often induced to act as guides in directing -the bandits to the home of their master. In this manner the cunning -thieves protect themselves by making a shield of the servants, claiming -in the event of detection before an assault is made, that they were -only accompanying their friends home. When the house is reached one of -the robbers goes to the door and raps. When the summons is answered he -invents some plausible story of friendship, to induce those within to -admit him. If refused he pleads that it be opened far enough to enable -the persons addressed to recognize him. If the door is opened the -robbers rush in, usually firing several shots in the house to terrify -the inmates. Once inside no resistance is made to their helping -themselves and pillaging the place, as the people know too well the -cruel and heartless nature of the roto bandit. In the meantime the -servants who piloted the marauders to the house have gone to their -respective huts, as nothing could induce them to commit an assault upon -their master’s house; neither do they share in the benefits of the -robbery. - -When satisfied that they have secured all the money in the house, and -helped themselves to such food, drink, clothing or riding equipment as -they may find and fancy, the robbers leave, threatening to return and -murder the entire family, if an attempt is made to identify and punish -them. - -Bandits have private roads, usually on the higher ranges of hills, and -as far as possible from the main thoroughfares. These bridle paths are -much used at night, and if closed by a fence, are at once reopened. -The men who infest these secret by-ways leading out from main traveled -highways, and from one community to another, cannot be considered -brave. They usually depend upon superior numbers, or the non-resident -character of their victims, aided by cunning and diplomatic deceit. In -self-defense, to avoid arrest or to secure their freedom, they will -fight desperately, and without regard for life. - -Many well-to-do people find it convenient to recognize this lawless -class, for the reason that life and property are much more secure to -friends of the bandits than is the case with those who seek to rid the -country of their presence. - -Land Owners Nos. 2 and 3 are usually the victims of these robbers. They -seldom attack the residences on the large haciendas, confining their -depredations in such places to the stealing of animals, or robbing -their victims from big estates, on the roads. Another reason is that -the houses on the haciendas are more strongly built and better arranged -for resisting attacks. Then there are numerous servants about the -house, some of whom are always on guard, and savage dogs roam about -the gardens and grounds at night. The hacendado and his employés are -usually well armed and know how to use their weapons. The windows -of the fine country residences are protected with heavy iron bars. -The doors of these houses are never opened after the family retires -at night until the following morning, and the buildings are so well -constructed that it is not an easy matter to gain admittance by force. -Another reason why thieves seldom molest the hacendados in their homes -is the fact that it would take too large a party to surround the house -and guard it. - -These freebooters are a part of every rural district in Chile. They -generally own houses and small tracts of land which serve as a blind -to their real occupation. Those who do not own property are protected -and sheltered by those who do. As cattle thieves they have no rivals. -They will go into the “potreros” of a farm at night, drive the animals -into a “quebrada” (wooded ravine), where they kill and skin them and -pack the meat into sacks prepared for the purpose. With a sack of meat -behind each saddle and the skin of an animal in front, the robbers -mount their horses and ride away. When day dawns they are leagues away -from the scene of their depredations, and have disposed of their -spoils for cash. They then seek some secluded spot where they spend the -day sleeping, and resting their horses. There is no lack of “fences” -and “underground systems,” where the bandits can readily dispose of -their plunder. When seen at their humble homes these night marauders -present the appearance of hard working, law abiding citizens, and -any one of them can promptly prove that he has not been absent from -home for many weeks. There is no means of procuring evidence against -them, as they can secure as many witnesses as they desire in their -defense. And it is impossible to get any damaging information from -their families, even from the smallest children. No one can confess -them; they are trained from infancy to observe discreet silence or give -misleading information. Threats or punishment are of no avail. - -The boldest, most fearless and notorious of the bandits have no fixed -places of residence. Large private and government rewards are placed -upon the heads of some of these desperadoes. Some of the more clever -ones do not participate personally in the robberies and attendant -crimes, but employ their talents in planning and directing the deeds. -These clever managers often live what appears to be a most respectable -life, having no fear of detection or interruption in the management -of their reprehensible business. They are clever, cunning, subtle, -penetrating, and always cautious. They have their trusted agents, -through whom their plans are executed, and through whom they receive -their profits in the business. These men levy tribute upon farmers, -merchants and professional men. - -Savage dogs are the best protection to country property. Many bandits -who have no fear of armed resistance will not venture into an enclosure -guarded by fierce dogs. It is the purpose of the robbers to always -surprise their victims in an assault, or to gain admission to a house -by stealth, and the barking of dogs frustrates their plans. - -A curious custom among Chilean bandits, who operate in bands, is the -taking with them on their thieving raids what is known as a “loro” -(parrot). This individual is usually selected for his cowardly or -cautious traits, rather than because of his bravery. When a robbery is -planned the loro is placed on guard to keep watch and give the alarm, -in the event of danger or discovery. Fearful of being caught, he is -keenly alert and quick to sound a warning if anything suspicious is -observed. - -Bandits are seldom known by their real names, and some of the cognomens -applied to them are as characteristic of the individual as they are -curious. One who is a clever talker is called a “Pico de Oro” (golden -beak); “cojo” (lame); “Tenorio” (ladies’ man); “El Tuerto” (squint -eye), etc. - -As previously stated there are few great commercial robberies, -embezzlements or forgeries in Chile. This may be due to the fact that -escape is difficult. The Cordilleras forming a natural barrier on one -side and the ocean upon the other, it is only necessary to guard the -mountain passes and watch the departure of ships to prevent persons -from leaving the country. Men connected with commercial interests, -which give them the opportunity to steal or embezzle large sums of -money are, as a rule, unfamiliar with the mountainous country or the -ways of bandits, and are therefore unable to escape by going to the -interior. - -There is another class of bandits or brigands who are more clever, -daring and desperate than those already described. They follow the more -well-defined roads of travel, are well dressed, mounted on good horses, -intelligent and generally present a very genteel appearance. They -usually hunt in bands, covering a wide range of territory, know all the -people living within the country covered by their depredations, and are -familiar with every road and by-way. They always have knowledge through -their accomplices of strangers traveling through the country, or of -servants sent upon important missions. They roam about the mountainous -regions, or in close proximity to the Cordillera ranges, where escape -is easy, in case of pursuit. Some of these highwaymen are notorious for -the desperate deeds committed. - -The common weapon of the Chilean bandit, like his methods, is peculiar -to the country. During the revolution in 1891, nearly every Chileno -was engaged in the war, upon one side or the other. After peace was -restored, the arms were retained by the individuals, and practically -every man in the country possessed a rifle. These weapons were too -large and cumbersome for the bandits, so they cut off a portion of -the barrel, to render them more convenient, and so they could be more -easily concealed under their ponchos. These guns are called “rifles -recortado” (re-cut rifles). - -The fact that crime is common leads naturally to the question of law -and its enforcement. Why are there not laws for the punishment of -crime? There are. And why are they not enforced? That is another -question, and one involving various phases of life in the Republic. A -large per cent. of the people are honest, observing and obeying the -law, and would be glad to see it universally enforced. The lawless -element aid and protect each other, and even the more honest of the -poor people look upon a notorious criminal as a hero, rather than a -disgraced member of society, whose companionship is to be avoided. -These people if called upon to testify in court against a man whom they -know to be guilty of numerous crimes, will give evidence as to his good -character. Another thing that operates in favor of the criminal is the -fact that the law requires two disinterested eye-witnesses to establish -the guilt of any person accused of crime. - -If a person catches a man in the act of robbing his house or his -property and takes the thief into custody, his evidence will not be -sufficient to convict the robber. He must have two witnesses who -saw the thief in the act. The evidence of members of his family, -or of servants employed by him will not be admitted. The burden of -proof rests with the prosecutor, and not with the accused. The slow -operation of the law is also responsible for a lack of the enforcement -of statutory provisions. There are so many delays and difficulties -incident to securing the conviction of a criminal, that honest people -frequently refuse to follow to a conclusion cases in which they are -personally interested. - -When convicted and sent to prison, the fact has no detrimental effect -upon the social standing of the convict in the community in which -he lives. Like a horse that has made a record upon the turf, his -performances furnish a fruitful topic of conversation to his friends, -the details of which are discussed with animated interest. When -released from prison, and he returns home, which is invariably the -case, the convict becomes the hero of the community. There is no shame -or disgrace connected with his imprisonment. The question of treatment, -the quality and quantity of beans served in the prison fare, are -discussed as if they were common phases of everyday life. - -If a thief is killed and his friends and accomplices secure possession -of the body, which they invariably try to do, the skin is cut from -the face of the corpse, and all clothing removed from the body. These -precautions are taken for the purpose of preventing identification. - -It was once a common custom, and still prevails to some extent in the -rural provinces, to liquidate the crime of a wound or even murder -by cash payment. It is claimed that the law is slow of execution, -expensive and unsatisfactory, giving nothing to the victim or his -family. If a poor man is killed, the assassin or his representatives -will settle the affair for a few dollars, sometimes not more than five -or ten dollars. If a man of means and social standing in the community -meets a violent death, the price is from twenty-five to fifty pesos. -These liquidations in former times were not private. Public interest -was often aroused and the neighbors entered into the negotiations to -see that a fair price was paid. If a person was stabbed a few times it -was not considered of sufficient importance to require a money payment; -a few drinks canceled the account for damages. - -So notorious has become the commission of crime, in recent years, -that _El Mercurio_, the most widely circulated and influential paper -in the country devoted much space to the subject a few years ago. The -following is an extract and translation from an article appearing in -that journal in February, 1903: - - “The alarm produced in all classes of society due to the extraordinary - development which is taking place in the criminality in Chile, - especially in the capital, has induced us to open an investigation - as to the causes of such a deplorable social condition. A study - of the causes which have tended to foster such a great increase - in the number of criminal acts is undoubtedly due to the complete - disorganization of public affairs in this country, and should serve - to call seriously the attention of the government to the imperious - necessity of attempting some course of action which would tend to - remedy in part, at least, the disastrous condition of the nation at - large. The enormous development of criminality in this country is not - only the manifestation of a very grave social condition, nor is it - only the symptom of a social dissolution in its worst form, but it - is the visible cause of the discredit which our country is suffering - among foreign nations. - - “The European press avails itself of all data relative to the number - of terrible crimes committed in Chile, and also of their sanguinary - and atrocious character, and denounces them to their fellow citizens - as proof of the insecurity of life and property in this country.” - -_El Mercurio_, in its endeavor to ascertain the reason for the -extraordinary criminal condition of the country, interviewed Mr. Luis -Urzua Gana, public prosecutor for the department of Santiago, who made -the following statement: - - “I believe that the first and foremost cause of the existing criminal - condition is due to the fact that a large proportion of the crimes - remain unpunished. I believe that eighty per cent. of the offenses - committed are not punished, and that a large proportion of them are - not even denounced. As the greater the probability that a crime will - not be punished, so law and justice lose their deterrent effect. - - “Another cause of criminality is the large number of vagrant children, - either in complete idleness or in some kind of work which enables them - to gain in a few hours enough money for their food and vices. Boys - of twelve years of age and even under, exhibit in this country, the - same moral monstrosities as do men old in sin and crime. Among them, - gambling has reached a surprising development, and there seems to be - no form of immorality which has not its adepts among them. And worse - still there are people who foster their vicious practices and make a - business out of their degradation.” - -Soon after his election in 1901 President Riesco secured the passage -of a bill in the national congress providing for the establishment -and maintenance of a specially selected and well equipped cavalry -regiment, to be used in suppressing lawlessness. This troop is subject -to service in any part of the Republic where the protection of life and -property is required. The usefulness and effectiveness of this kind -of service is due to the fact that a better class of men is selected, -than is found in the municipal and provincial police. It is too small -in numbers, however, to properly guard and protect any considerable -portion of the mountainous country constituting the territory of Chile. - - - - -RAILWAYS - - -The primordial need of every country is good roads and ample -transportation facilities. This is more especially true of Chile, -than of most countries, because the long strip of territory between -the Andean range of mountains and the Pacific is characterized by -narrowness and length, a configuration which is peculiarly lacking in -continuity between productive centers. The nitrate fields and other -rich mineral producing sections of the north are, by nature, completely -isolated from the agricultural districts of the central valley, where -the principal cities and towns are situated, and also from the timber -zone and grazing lands of the far south. - -During the first half century of the Republic’s existence little -progress was made along the line of industrial development because -of a lack of railway communication. The first link in the chain of -Chile’s present, extensive railway systems, a line extending from the -port of Caldera to Copiapo, a distance of fifty miles, was built in -1851. Later other roads were constructed, chief among which was the -line extending from Valparaiso to Santiago, and from the capital south -through the central valley, the great agricultural district of the -country, into the coal producing and timber regions, connecting them -with the seaports and commercial centers. This section of the State -railways, which for many years had its terminus at Concepcion, was -in recent years extended to Valdivia, an important industrial and -commercial center, and in 1912 was completed as far as Port Montt. -Since the building of the first line, little more than half a century -ago, the railway system of Chile has grown until it now comprises over -four thousand miles of fairly well equipped roads, the ramifications of -which reach into every part of the country, with the exception of the -territory constituting the southern limits of the Republic, including -Patagonia. A little more than one-half of the railway mileage is -government ownership, the other portion being owned by individuals and -corporations. - - -TRANSANDINE RAILWAY. - -The first step in the progressive policy of railway building in which -Chile has been engaged in recent years, was the construction of the -Transandine Railway via Uspillata Pass. This important line, connecting -the Atlantic with the Pacific, and giving to the Republic rail -connections with countries to the east of the Andean range, brought the -importance of better interior transportation facilities more closely to -the minds of the people, and the result has been a period of railway -building surpassing the expectation of the most radical advocates of an -aggressive industrial policy. - -The history of the Transandine Railway will probably never be written, -unless it be given to the world by the Clark Brothers, who conceived -the idea, and labored for more than a quarter of a century to enlist -the assistance of the Chilean government in a plan to build the road. -Every succeeding administration, during the period in which the -Clarks were working on the scheme, was apparently favorable to the -plan. The rejection of proposals and the failure always to vote aid or -subsidy, however, was evidence of the fact that there was always secret -opposition. - -During much of the time while the Transandine scheme was under -consideration, a war cloud, arising from a disputed boundary question -between Chile and the Argentine, loomed large and ominous over the -Cordillera, creating a feeling in the minds of the Chilenos that -Argentina was quite near enough, without an additional connecting link -in the way of a railroad across the Andes. - -In 1901 the Transandine Railway, including the portion already in -operation, from Los Andes to Salto del Soldado, passed into the -hands of W. R. Grace & Company. Then John Eyre, manager for Grace & -Company in Chile, took up the work of promoting the undertaking. With -indomitable courage, tireless energy, and full confidence in ultimate -success, he started in to enlist government aid in building the road. - -In February, 1903, Congress passed a law authorizing the President to -advertise for a term of one year, from the first of May, 1903, for -sealed proposals for the construction of the Transandine Railway. The -law also provided for a government guarantee of five per cent. annually -on a capital not to exceed $7,250,000. Grace & Company were the only -bidders. The proposal was for $6,500,000, being $750,000 below the -maximum sum on which the government guaranteed five per cent. interest. -A special commission was appointed to examine the proposal, and on June -7, 1904, the tender was accepted by the government, thus insuring to -Chile railway communication with countries beyond the mountain barrier -that had so long restricted commerce and the development of her natural -resources. - -On November 27, 1909, five and a half years after the contract was -approved by the Chilean Government, the last section of rock in the -tunnel, separating the two gangs of workmen operating from different -sides, was removed, and a line of communication which had been the -dream of years was established; a line that has had a marked effect, -not only upon the two republics which it directly connects, but upon -the world. On May 25, 1910, the first train was run through the tunnel -and an all-rail route opened between Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, a -distance of 888 miles,--the first railroad across the South American -continent. Thus after thirty-seven years of work and planning, -vicissitudes and discouragements, the hopes of the promoters of -this great enterprise were realized and the Transandine Railway an -accomplished fact. The date will remain a memorable one in the history -of Chile, as it occurred in the year of the one hundredth anniversary -of the Independence of the Republic. - -The Chilean terminus of the tunnel, which is 10,385 feet long, is at -El Portillo, at an altitude of 10,450 feet above sea level, and on the -Argentine side at Las Cuevas. On the Chilean side the road ascends the -mountains 7,615 feet within a distance of 46 miles, between Los Andes -and the summit, an average of 166 feet to the mile. Directly over the -tunnel, on the Uspillata pass, at an altitude of 13,000 feet stands -the “Christ of the Andes,” a statue erected in 1904, as a symbol of -perpetual peace between the two republics. It was cast in bronze from -cannons contributed by both nations. It stands upon the international -boundary line established by a commission appointed by King Edward, -after war between Chile and the Argentine had been imminent for years. -The figure representing Christ is twenty-six feet high, and placed upon -a colossal column it makes an imposing and impressive monument. In one -hand is held a cross, while the other is extended in a blessing of -peace. The inscription on one of the tablets is: “Sooner shall these -mountains crumble into dust than the people of Argentina and Chile -break the peace to which they have pledged themselves at the feet of -Christ the Redeemer.” - -The Transandine line in Chile is made up of two systems with different -gauges of track. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the route is over the -State railways, which is of standard gauge; from Los Andes to the -Argentine frontier, including the tunnel, a distance of 50 miles, the -road is narrow gauge, 39 inches, a portion of it rack and pinion system. - -This route shortens the distance to Buenos Aires, and consequently -between Europe and Chile, by about twelve days, as formerly, during a -considerable portion of the year traffic from the Atlantic and the east -coast was by way of the Straits of Magellan. - - -ARICA, LA PAZ RAILWAY. - -Another important division of the State railways is the line extending -from Arica to La Paz. This road, constructed in accordance with -stipulations in the treaty celebrated between Chile and Bolivia, -October 1904, was built at the expense of the Chilean government at a -cost of $11,900,000 U. S. currency. The treaty agreement providing for -this road caused a vigorous protest from the Peruvian government, as -the route lies through the province of Arica which, previous to the war -of 1879, was Peruvian territory, and which is still involved in the -Tacna and Arica question. The contract for the construction was awarded -on March 4, 1906, and the road was completed in 1912. - -The engineering difficulties encountered were numerous and complicated, -the gradient in some places being exceedingly steep. At one point the -line rises 3,610 feet, within a distance of 25 miles. The total length -of the line is 267 miles of which 28 miles is of the Abt rack system on -a six per cent. maximum grade, which constitutes the longest continuous -stretch of rack system railway in the world. The highest altitude -reached is 13,986 feet, at a distance of 112 miles from Arica and 155 -from La Paz. - -The road passes through an undeveloped country that is rich in mineral -resources, and furnishes direct communication between Chilean ports -on the Pacific and the capital of Bolivia. This line, connecting the -two republics, and supplemented as it is with numerous branch roads -leading into the various mining districts, forms a railway system that -has contributed materially to the development of the territory through -which it passes. - -Under treaty agreement it is to be operated by Chile for a period of -fifteen years, after which time the section in Bolivia becomes the -property of the Bolivian government. - - -LONGITUDINAL RAILWAY. - -The most important division of the government railway system in Chile, -however, because of its relation to the industrial and commercial -interests of the country, is the longitudinal line extending from Tacna -to Port Montt, a distance of over two thousand miles, and constituting -the great central artery of communication, uniting the mineral zones -of the north with the agricultural regions of the central valley -and the timber sections of the south. This road has as feeders over -thirty transverse lines of varying length connecting the productive -centers of the Republic with all the principal seaports of the coast. -Notwithstanding the fact that transport is maintained by sea along -the entire length of the territory constituting the Republic, a -north and south railway was felt to be a necessity. In addition to -commercial needs there are strategic reasons for a longitudinal line: -to facilitate the transportation of troops and armament from one end of -the Republic to the other in case of war. - -As far back as Balmaceda’s time the building of this road figured among -the government’s projects, and in succeeding administrations plans -were made for the execution of the work. It was President Don Pedro -Montt, however, who took up the task of carrying out the idea and, with -characteristic perseverance, succeeded in getting the National Congress -to pass a law in 1908, authorizing him to call for public tenders for -contracts for the construction of the Longitudinal Railway. In 1909 -contracts were let for the building of over eight hundred miles of the -road at a total cost of $35,000,000. - -The completion of this longitudinal line leaves only the territory -lying south of latitude 42 degrees, and forming the greater part of -what is known as Chilean Patagonia without a railway. - -The service on the railways in Chile is, as a rule, unsatisfactory, -and on some of the lines it may be designated as bad. This is due to -the fact that the management of the government roads is influenced by -politics. The compensation of government railway employés is very low, -and payment of salaries not infrequently long delayed and somewhat -uncertain. The tenure of service depends upon political influence, -and there is little in the system to encourage honest industry. -Employés feel no personal responsibility and to cheat the government, -particularly in the failure to render good service, is a common -practice that is not considered a crime. - -First class fares correspond to those prevailing in the United States, -but second and third-class fares and freight rates are very low. The -express trains from Valparaiso to Santiago, and from the capital south -to Concepcion carry American chair cars in the day, and on the southern -section, Pullman cars on the night trains. - -The lack of facilities for carrying freight, the unsatisfactory service -in cargo trains, and the slow method of unloading and loading cars, is -a serious handicap to business depending upon the prompt delivery of -merchandise and material. The freight service on the government roads -is generally bad. The yard and track facilities in all the important -commercial centers are wholly inadequate to the requirements. It is -frequently impossible to secure cars, and when once the freight is -loaded and accepted by the railway, there is much uncertainty as to -when it will be forwarded to its destination. If the freight consists -of perishable goods the chances are that it will be seriously damaged -or entirely destroyed before delivery. In either event there is no -recourse in law for damages. - -In 1904 there was a great shortage of freight cars in Valparaiso. -Merchants and manufacturers were demanding cars in which to ship cargo -long overdue in delivery. When the manager of the State railways was -appealed to for relief, he stated that all freight cars on that section -of the road had been ordered to Santiago where a census of the rolling -stock was being taken. Complaint against abuses in the service is -useless. - -One redeeming feature of the railway service in Chile, is the cheap -passenger fares for the poor people, who are ill able to pay high -rates, and who do not expect much in return for their money. Time is no -object to them, and if trains run slowly and not up to schedule, there -is no complaint. - - -ELECTRIC ROADS. - -The use of electricity as a motive power in Chile, is in its -incipiency. Electric car systems now in operation are, the street -railways in Santiago, Valparaiso, Concepcion and Talca, and their -respective suburbs, a few lines in mountainous districts, used for -carrying ores from the mines to the reducing stations, an interurban -line connecting Concepcion with the ports of Talcahuano and Coronel, -and one extending from Valparaiso to Viña del Mar. A government -concession has been granted for the building of an electric railway -from Santiago to Valparaiso, and plans are being made for the -electrification of some of the government roads. - -Connecting with the railways of the country are cart roads, the -best of which may be classed as bad, and the branches connecting -with the principal highways are nothing more than trails over a -rough mountainous country. Few new roads are being built, and little -attention is given to the improvement or maintenance of those already -constructed. - - -TRAVEL. - -The only means of travel in many localities is on horseback. Long or -short distance, singly or in numbers, the country people traveling on -horseback, will often follow poorly defined trails over the mountains -for great distances, seldom losing their way or deviating from the -shortest route. They seldom carry any baggage, except such articles of -clothing as they require for the trip, which is transported in bags or -baskets. - -The country people are generally hospitable, usually offering to -passing strangers such food and accommodations as they may have, and -without expectation of remuneration. - - - - -INDUSTRIAL INTERESTS - - -From the earliest history of the Republic, the energies of the Chilenos -have been devoted largely to agricultural and horticultural pursuits, -stock raising and mining. The conditions of soil and climate, and the -natural resources of the country have encouraged the people to interest -themselves in those lines rather than in industrial occupations. The -result is that there are few large manufacturing interests in the -country. The majority of the more important manufactured articles are -imported. There are, however, various small industrial institutions, -most of which are closely related to the agricultural and mining -interests. The methods employed are more or less primitive, as is -frequently the case where a low value is placed upon labor. - -Practically all of the manufacturing interests in Chile are operated by -foreigners and controlled by foreign capital. This may be attributed -to the fact that the Chilenos do not possess the taste for industrial -pursuits. Another cause is the irresponsibility of laborers and -mechanics. The average Chilean workman has no sense of responsibility. -If given a task to perform, he cannot be made to understand that -any importance attaches to the time when it is to be completed. -Individually and collectively, the workmen are afflicted with the -“mañana” disease. This condition has existed from the time of the -earliest history of the country and continues to be one of the serious -drags upon industrial and commercial progress. If remonstrated with -for indifference to his employer’s interests or his procrastination of -time, the workman will declare his willingness to leave his position. -To discharge him does not improve the situation, as the man employed -in his stead will entertain similar ideas as to his rights and duties. -He cannot be encouraged by kindness, or even an increase of wages -to change his habits. He is without ambition, and does not expect -to improve his condition. It is useless to manifest any sympathy -for him, he does not want it. He is satisfied, and will not accept -innovations. That which was good enough for his father and grandfather, -is satisfactory to him. He believes that he was born to his station -in life, and he sticks to it stupidly and stolidly. Another drawback -to the manufacturing business is the fact that the Chilean workman -or mechanic seldom learns his trade properly, and takes no pains to -improve himself or his condition. - -In Chile a lad is put to work in a shop, and in a few weeks or months -he tires of the job, and tries something else. After a time he tires -again and tries another trade. And so he goes on changing until the -time arrives when he should be a competent journeyman tradesman, and -he goes forth a jack of all trades and master of none. The Chilean -workman has his good qualities, however, as well as his faults. If -properly encouraged he will render excellent service as a laborer. -He does not work intelligently, and where skill is required he is -unsatisfactory. Inured to a life of toil, hardship and deprivation, -he does not hesitate to engage in any kind of labor, no matter how -menial or trying. He has wonderful endurance, and can subsist upon -the plainest food, in limited quantities, while performing tasks -requiring the greatest exertion. In handling heavy freight or cargo -he has few equals. He has great strength in his arms, back and legs, -and the enormous weights he can carry is cause for comment among those -who witness his feats of strength. A roto will trot along the street -carrying a box or bale of merchandise upon his back that weighs three -or four hundred pounds, and is apparently not distressed with the -burden. It is at labor where strength and endurance count that he is -valuable as a workman. - -Organization among the working classes in Chile is in the formative -stage; yet even in its incipiency, unionism has proved itself to -be a dangerous political element and a serious menace to society. -The working classes are not sufficiently educated to appreciate the -responsibilities, or to enable them to direct with intelligence -and judgment, an organized force. The roto has little idea, and no -appreciation of obligation to his employer, to society, or to the -State; no regard for his word and little for the law. He is illiterate, -intemperate and superstitious. He is not lazy, but improvident, and -works because necessity prompts it, rather than for the purpose of -bettering his condition. He can neither be persuaded nor forced to -understand the importance of reporting for duty at a fixed hour for a -given number of days in the week. He is independent and clannish, and -has an exaggerated idea of his republican citizenship. His hatred of -foreign workmen is intense, and he will not stop short of murder, if -that be necessary, to prevent the “gringo” from coming into competition -with him. He is an apt pupil in the ethics of trades unions, in so -far as it applies to his side of the question. He believes that -the province of the union is to force shorter hours and more pay, -without giving in turn good and steady service. He has yet to learn -the commercial value of truth; the beneficial effects to himself of -personal industry, of rendering an honest day’s labor for his wage. He -must learn the good result of applying new methods to his work, and -also lessons of economy and providence. In short, he must join the -onmarching procession of industrial and commercial development before -he is qualified and competent to assert his authority and make demands -as an organized force. A dangerous phase of the labor union problem -is the fact that when encouraged by clever leaders and enforced by -numbers, the Roto Chileno is not slow to resort to violence. - -The most serious charge made against labor organizations in Chile, -and one that is well founded is, that they do not seek to elevate -the standard of excellence among their members, or to better their -individual condition. Neither do they encourage temperance, and -obedience to law, or protection to society. - - -VINEYARDS. - -Grape culture and the manufacture of its products constitutes one of -the principal industrial interests of Chile. In this, as in other -industries, there are no statistics available on which to base -satisfactory calculations concerning the acreage, production of wine, -“aguardiente” and “chicha,” manufactured annually. It is estimated -that there are now about 20,000 acres of producing vineyards, and the -acreage is being annually augmented. The soil is especially adapted to -grape culture. Vines thrive and produce well both on the dry hill lands -and in the irrigated sections. The grape vine was introduced in Chile -by the Spaniards during colonial times, but the cultivation of it has -become a national and profitable industry only in recent years. There -is already a large export trade in wine, which is annually increasing. -On the large estates the French method is employed in the manufacture -of wine, and most of the distilleries are in charge of expert wine-men -from France. - -There are few more interesting sights than that of a large estate -devoted to vineyards. The vines, planted in even rows, are carefully -wired and trimmed and gracefully festooned. On the terraces of the -hill farms the vari-tinted foliage presents an artistic appearance, -particularly so when from the vines are suspended millions of amber and -purple clusters ready for the vintage. - -The grapes are picked from the vines by women and children, and placed -in baskets. Two-wheeled ox carts, equipped with large tanks made of -animal skins, are used for conveying the grapes to the winery. The -first process consists of passing the fruit through a machine that -mangles the grapes but does not crush the seeds. From these machines -the pulp and juice fall into fermenting vats. If red wine is to be -made the liquid and stems are left to ferment together; if white wine -or chicha, the liquid is drawn off through a strainer. The method of -fermenting, bottling, seasoning, etc., is the same as that employed in -large wineries in other countries. - -In the smaller vineyards, different methods are used; there, the -primitive process of making wine by hand is still employed. The vats -for holding the wine, instead of being made of cement or wood, are the -skins of bullocks, removed from the animals with as little opening -as possible. While green these hides are placed upon poles, hammock -fashion, and filled with stones, which stretch them into the desired -form, and in which position they are left to dry. When seasoned these -skins form natural tubs or vats, to which the portion originally -covering the tail forms a faucet, or outlet. In some instances these -primitive wine producers employ the original method of crushing the -grapes, by throwing them into vats, where naked men trample them, often -walking neck deep in the pulpous mass. The wine is fermented in casks, -and when ready for use is stored in large earthen jars, made by hand -and baked in crude kilns. - - -VEHICLES. - -There are no large manufactories for the production of vehicles. -Most of the vehicles used in Chile are primitive in design, crude -in construction and finish. Two-wheeled carts, which are almost -universally used as transports for freight, are manufactured in all the -towns and villages. Most of them are clumsy, with high wheels, heavy, -rough spokes, broad, thick fellies, and wide tires. The box or frame -is fastened to the axle, without springs or other means of relieving -the jolting sensation produced by the wheels passing over the rough -country roads or uneven streets. - -In the country, oxen are used almost exclusively for drawing carts. The -pole of the cart is a piece of timber fastened firmly in the center -of the axle, and extending forward a sufficient distance for the -animals to be harnessed to the vehicle. The yoke by which the oxen are -attached, instead of resting upon the neck of the beast, as is common -in most countries, is placed upon the head just back of the horns, and -fastened with strips of rawhide passed around the horns and over the -forehead. This method of harnessing gives to the animal no freedom of -action of the head. The frame of the cart being firmly fastened to the -tongue, all the jarring sensation produced by the motion of the vehicle -comes upon the head, causing great torture. - -Vehicles used for transporting goods in the cities and towns are the -same as those employed for similar purposes in the country, except that -they are not so heavy. They are provided with shafts and are drawn by -horses. One horse works between the shafts, and another is attached by -a single trace, upon the left, or near side. A saddle constitutes a -part of the harness of the animal on the left, on which the driver is -mounted. - -One of the common methods of transporting cargo in the towns and -cities, is upon the backs of horses. Groceries, meat, milk, in fact all -classes of freight from barrels of oil and cement to huge timbers and -piles of lumber, are carried upon horses. In the country, mules are -employed for the same purpose, as they are more sure footed upon the -hills, and will carry heavy loads for greater distances. - - -COAL. - -Outcroppings of coal were discovered in Talcahuano, Coronel and -Lota, all of which are situated upon the Gulf of Arauco, Province of -Concepcion, department of Lautaro, as nearly as 1840. The first attempt -to work the mines was made by Don Antonio Memparte, in the vicinity of -Lota, in 1850. Two years later the property passed into the possession -of Don Matais Cousino, who finally succeeded in establishing the -reputation of the Lota coal for smelting, steam and domestic purposes. -Later other mines were opened, and the district known as the Lota -and Coronel country now produces coal in large quantities, supplying -nearly all the steamships passing that way, as well as the government -and corporation railways of the country. The development of the coal -industry at Lota encouraged the establishment of various manufacturing -industries in that locality. Among the more important industrial -concerns are brick and pottery works, which were established in 1855, -and a large copper smelting plant that has been in operation since -1860. Later a glass factory, the only works of the kind in Chile, was -added to the industries of the place. These concerns are all operated -by the Lota Company in connection with the coal mines. - -The first practical teachers and pioneer miners at Lota were Scotchmen, -very few of whom now survive. They were about thirty in number. Their -original destination was the island of Vancouver, but owing to some -difficulties that occurred on the voyage, the ship on which they were -traveling put into Valparaiso, where they remained for some time, -and from where they were later engaged for the mines at Lota. There -they founded what is still designated the British colony. It is now, -however, British in name only, there being but few of the original -colonists or their families left. The remaining few abandoned their -national customs and language for the customs of the country in which -they lived. To such an extent have they adapted themselves to local -conditions and influences that very few of the residents at Lota -bearing English names can speak the English language. - -The coal from the Lota district is of a low grade, producing an unusual -amount of cinders and refuse. The Arauco Company which operates mines -in the same district, and which has a railroad running from Coronel -to Colico, a distance of some twenty miles, is also producing coal in -large quantities. - - -MINING AND MANUFACTURING. - -Owing to the extensive working of the great nitrate of soda deposits, -mining takes first place among Chilean industries. Although producing -nearly a million tons annually, coal mining has not developed -sufficiently to supply the needs of the country, the importations -amounting to about one and a half million tons a year. Copper is the -most important of the metals mined, although gold and silver are mined -in considerable quantities. - -In recent years more attention has been paid to manufacturing. In 1909 -there were 5,000 manufacturing establishments, large and small, with a -capital of $45,000,000, and an aggregate output valued at $64,000,000. -There are 960 establishments in the shoe and leather industry, 870 in -food supplies, 670 in metal industries, 555 in the manufacture of -garments, 440 wood working industries, 210 in paper and printing and -200 in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. - -The value of imports into Chile in 1909 was approximately $95,000,000 -and the export values for the same year $110,000,000. Of the total -imports Great Britain supplied 32 per cent., Germany 22 per cent., -and the United States 10 per cent. Of the total exports, amounting to -$110,000,000, Great Britain purchased 45 per cent., Germany 24 per -cent., and the United States 20 per cent. Europe and the United States -bought over 90 per cent. of the exports, and furnished 80 per cent. of -the imports. - -Nitrate of soda constitutes about 75 per cent. of the total exports -from Chile, and copper, 5 per cent. The four articles of import showing -the largest values are, steel and manufactures of, coal, cotton goods -and industrial machinery. Eighty-five per cent. of the imports consist -of manufactured articles. - - - - -POPULATION AND COLONIZATION - - -Pedro Valdivia, in a letter to Carlos V. of Spain, dated at La Sarena, -September 5, 1545, described the beautiful climate of Chile as one -where man could work under the summer sun without inconvenience, and -expressed the belief that there could be developed and maintained a -strong, virile, superior race of people that would be an honor to, and -the pride of the mother country. He also expressed the belief that -in the conquest of Chile he would secure territory where he and his -companions might leave a lineage that would honor their memories. - -In some respects this seems to have been a prophetic view of the -situation. The mixing of the blood of those bold, intelligent, but -cruel and unscrupulous “conquistadores,” with the strong, courageous -qualities of the Araucanian Indians, has left in Chile a distinct -type, a characteristic race of people. They possess the romantic -tendencies and diplomatic qualities of the Spaniards, combined with the -independent natures of the Araucanians. - -They are a hospitable people, but are clannish, and have a strong -prejudice against all foreigners. This prejudice, apparently -inherent, and deep rooted in the minds of the people, while it has -contributed materially to the maintenance of racial characteristics, -has also discouraged and restricted immigration. As a result of this -antagonistic feeling against foreigners coming to the country, the -increase in population has been small, and the progress of commercial -and industrial development correspondingly slow. - -At the time of the Spanish invasion, in the sixteenth century, the -Indian population was estimated at 1,000,000. The aggregate number of -inhabitants is now calculated at 3,500,000, an increase of 2,500,000 in -two hundred and seventy years. This very slow increase in population in -a country possessing an equable and healthful climate may be attributed -to several causes. - -During the period of the conquest the ranks of the indigenous races -were greatly decimated by war. Later, the utter disregard for hygienic -conditions, the proverbial uncleanliness of the common people and the -unsanitary manner in which the majority of them live, have increased -the death rate to abnormal proportions. This is especially true among -the children, many of whom die from inattention, cold or lack of proper -food. Tuberculosis is a common malady, and annually claims thousands -of victims. The prevalence of this disease is also due largely to the -manner of living. In the homes of the majority of the poor people there -are no floors, except the ground upon which the houses are built. In -the winter, or rainy seasons, the cold and dampness of the dirt floors -cause pneumonia, and colds that prove fatal to delicate children -and adults of weak constitution, or those suffering from hereditary -pulmonary diseases. The number of births in Chile in recent years has -been little in excess of the number of deaths. - -As a means of increasing the population, and hoping thereby to promote -the development of natural resources and industrial interests of the -country, the government of Chile adopted a colonization law for the -purpose of inducing emigrants from Europe to settle in the agricultural -and timber regions of the south. The law contains some liberal -provisions, and attractive features, including free transportation -for colonists from European ports to their destination, one hundred -and sixty acres of land for the head of each family, and a government -subsidy of five hundred pesos, with which to buy farm implements, -build a house, etc. To promote this scheme of colonization, the -Chilean government maintains agencies in Europe, through which the -advantages to be gained, and the attractive features of colonial life -in the Republic are liberally advertised. Through this plan a number -of important foreign colonies, especially German communities, have -been established throughout southern Chile. Valdivia, which has grown -into an important manufacturing city, as well as the highly developed -and cultivated country surrounding it, are settled almost exclusively -by Germans. In more recent years the Italians have established large -communities in the southern provinces, but they have been less -successful than the Germans, and much dissatisfaction is the result. -Among the early settlers in Chile, under the colonization law, were -communities of Scotch, the majority of whom were disappointed with the -conditions and with what they claim was a lack of protection of their -personal interests, and their property rights. - -A book published by an anonymous writer, entitled “La Raza Chilena” -(The Chilean Race), and signed “Chileno,” bearing date 1905, -is devoted to a discussion of the race question, population and -colonization. The writer criticises severely the colonization plan, and -the evils that have crept into the system, citing many instances of -dissatisfaction among colonists, and cases of corruption and jobbery on -the part of immigration agents, in support of his demands for reforms -in the law, and a change in the plan for encouraging colonists to -settle in the country. - - - - -VILLAGES AND CITIES - - -All the villages in Chile are similar in appearance and general aspect. -There is little variety and few attractive features to distinguish -any of them, or one from another. The one story houses are almost -invariably built of adobe, and roofed with tile or thatch. The -architecture, if the style of the village buildings can be dignified -with the term, is Spanish. The houses front directly upon and are flush -with the sidewalk, most of them being built round a patio. - -There is an unattractive sameness about Chilean villages, even to -the disagreeable smells. There is usually one long, straight street -upon which are located the shops and better class of dwellings. This -main thoroughfare is backed by a few other streets, flanked with low, -rambling huts, the habitations of the poorer classes. In the center -of the town is the plaza, the chief feature of every Spanish-American -municipality, large or small,--the common meeting place of the village -people and playground for the children. Ornamented with trees and -flowers, it forms a pleasing contrast to the dull gray of dusty streets -and adobe walls. In the more pretentious of the municipalities, -the plaza is frequently enlivened in the evenings with music by a -band, which never fails to attract a crowd. On such occasions the -plaza presents a scene of lively interest and animation. There the -people congregate to visit, gossip and enjoy the music. Black-eyed -señoritas and stout matrons, with faces framed in mantillas, join in -the promenade, passing and repassing the caballeros with whom they -exchange knowing looks and significant glances, the method employed in -love-making and conducting flirtations in Chile. Upon the green sward, -beneath the friendly trees, happy children engage in juvenile sports -and youthful pleasures. It is in these public meeting places that the -village people are seen at their best; there they abandon themselves to -the simple pleasures and enjoyments to which their environments limit -them. - -A curious feature of every Chilean village is the varied and violent -colors used in painting the houses. Shades of blue, red, yellow, pink -and green frequently appear in strange contrast in the same row of -buildings. Intermingling with these peculiarly contrasting hues are red -tile roofs, the lighter shades of thatch, and the gray of undecorated -adobe walls, relieved by occasional stretches of whitewashed houses and -garden enclosures. - -The little “despachos,” with their inartistically decorated windows -and curious assortment of bottles of “chicha,” wine, “aguardiente,” -dry goods, provisions, firewood and charcoal, are a feature of every -town in the country. In the front of these shops where articles of -various kinds are dispensed, is a sort of hitch-rack which may be used -as a place for customers to leave their horses when on business, or as -a means of engaging in the common sport of the country, “topiadura.” -It is in the village drinking places that the country people meet -to exchange news and gossip of the neighborhood, and to indulge -in a social cup. On feast days and Sundays crowds congregate in -these places where drinking is indulged in to excess. There are few -places of amusement, and perhaps no place where the opportunities -for entertainment of an intellectual or elevating character are more -limited and restricted than in a Chilean village. The despachos with -their gambling, drinking and accompanying vices, afford the only relief -from the monotonous home life of the poor people, which has little in -it to encourage mental or moral improvement. - -The population of the villages varies from three to five thousand in -the departmental centers, and from one to two thousand each in the -others. They have no industries except a few shoe shops, blacksmith -and carpenter shops. Some of the general stores have well assorted -stocks, and in some of the small towns there is a drug store with a -billiard room and cafe. These together with the drinking places fill -the commercial list. The business of the villages depends entirely upon -the people living in the adjacent farming country. When in the towns -they spend their time in eating, drinking, talking politics, singing, -dancing and playing cards. - -The crops of the adjoining farms do not enter into the business of -the towns and villages, but are shipped to the nearest mill, railway -center or seaport. In all the towns there is wealth, not extensive, but -considerable, when the necessities and modes of life are taken into -account. In Chile, as in other countries, there is a predisposition -on the part of the country people to congregate in the towns and -villages, be they great or small; in close proximity to any of the -municipalities, any day in the week, one will meet all classes and -conditions of rural residents on horseback, in ox carts and on foot, -wending their way to town. It is another evidence of the universal -desire of mankind to seek companionship and association with his fellow -man, even though the contact furnishes no novelty or new sensation. - -Every village has a Catholic church, and the female portion of the -population finds relief in the “iglesia,” from the monotony of domestic -life. They attend every service, and on Sundays and feast days the -scene about the village church suggests a convent, as the women all -wear mantillas draped over their heads, giving them the general -appearance of nuns. - - -SANTIAGO. - -There are few municipalities of sufficient size and commercial -importance to entitle them to be classified as cities. Santiago, the -capital, is a beautiful city of over 300,000 inhabitants, charmingly -situated in the verdant valley of the Mapocho, and surrounded by -rugged, snow-crowned mountains. Few cities possess so many natural -advantages in situation and environments. All around loom giant peaks -of the Andes, their white crests among the clouds. In the smiling -valley, clothed in the green of perennial summer, is Santiago. Long, -quiet streets, badly paved, are lined with handsome houses, French and -Spanish in architectural design; many of them palatial in proportions. -The lack of industrial life and commercial activity, and the peaceful -repose of this daughter of Latin America, give to the capital of Chile -more the appearance of an indolent Oriental city than the metropolis -of an ambitious young Republic. - -Situated in the center of a great natural amphitheater, in a -beautiful fertile plain, through which flow several streams, supplied -with crystal waters from melting snow in the higher ranges of the -Cordilleras, Santiago, viewed from any of the many points of advantage, -presents an attractive, picturesque and prepossessing appearance. In -the center of the city, rising abruptly from the level plain upon which -it rests, is “El Cerro Santa Lucia,” a precipitous, rocky hill, four -hundred feet high, and covering at its base an area of eight acres. -This wonderful natural formation, often described as a freak of nature, -is one of the most remarkable of its kind in the world. The entrance to -the “cerro” is through a gateway of artistic design, with approaches -of fine stone columns and buttresses. The summit is reached by winding -carriage roads of easy grade, which are flanked with stone walls, -towers and battlements. There are also shaded walks, lined with many -hued flowers, by which the hill may be ascended. From the summit one -looks down upon tile roofs, flower bedecked patios, adobe walls green -with moss and overrun with rose-vines, streets and avenues fringed -with poplars and alamos. The Alameda, one of the finest avenues in the -world, with its wide roadways, fine old trees and shaded promenades, -starting at the foot of the Santa Lucia, extends for a distance of -three miles, cleaving the city in halves, marking the center and focus -of traffic in the metropolis. The Cathedral with its double towers -and central dome, fronting upon the Plaza de Armas, in the heart of -the city is a good viewpoint from which to trace and locate other -objects of interest. In the near distance are the parks and the “Quinta -Normal,” the government agricultural and horticultural propagating -station, all robed in the gorgeous green of semi-tropical verdure and -adorned with a variety of beautiful flowers that grow luxuriantly and -bloom most generously in the soft, sweet air and golden sunshine of -temperate Chile. This lovely picture, this charming ensemble of city -and plain, hill and river, parks and gardens, this municipal mosaic -with emerald green settings, crowned with a dome of turquoise blue, is -framed in a wall of wonderful mountains composing a part of the Andean -range. - -In detail Santiago is not unlike other cities, resembling in many -features some European municipalities. Being the capital it has -attracted to and includes in its population the rich landowners, -the aristocratic classes, political elements, literary and cultured -people and the exclusive society of the country. The homes of these -well-to-do, traveled and cultured people are equal in appearance, -appointment, furnishing, decoration and equipment to those occupied -by similar classes in older countries. The social life of the rich -and seclusive classes in Santiago is composed of a pleasure loving -people, with an inherent love of display. They are musical by nature, -with a keen appreciation of, and an aptness for acquiring quickly a -little knowledge of music, and other accomplishments, conveying the -impression that they are clever, if not brilliant. They lack, however, -the industry and application that lead to thoroughness, and few of them -develop great talent for any art or profession. Their knowledge is -more general than genuine, more superficial than special. - -The life of the poor people in Santiago, the manner in which they live, -their customs and habits, the misery and vice, the depravity, the -disregard for law, and the low level of intelligence that prevails, -form a sharp contrast to the picture presented in the homes of the rich. - - -VALPARAISO. - -Valparaiso, the principal commercial port in Chile, and the second city -in population in the Republic, is picturesquely situated upon a poorly -protected harbor on the Pacific. It is crescent in shape, describing -a semi-circle around the bay. The business section occupies a margin -of low lying ground along the water front, the residence portions -extending back over a series of high, rugged hills. Viewed from the -harbor it presents an attractive appearance. Along the “malecon” are -the business houses, uniform in height, and presenting a straight stiff -sky line, back of and beyond which rise rugged, terraced hills. Adobe -houses, painted in various colors, red tile roofs, and patios green -with verdure and brilliant with the bloom of flowers, are some of the -features of the scene presented in a view of the hills forming the -residence districts of Valparaiso. Conspicuous objects in the view are -the church of El Espiritu Santo, a large, inartistic building topped -with a huge, single, square tower, and situated in the center of the -city, and the “Escuela Naval” (naval school), a fine architectural -creation crowning one of the numerous hills that surround the bay. - -Valparaiso is as cosmopolitan in architecture as it is in population. -It possesses no architectural features that can be considered national -in character; it has few public buildings worthy of the name, no -system of parks or boulevards,--nothing to distinguish it, except a -consistent mismanagement of municipal affairs. Being a great seaport, -into which sail annually thousands of ships, representing nearly all -the nations of earth, it has caught in the net of travel a cosmopolitan -conglomeration, and includes in its population all kinds and conditions -of people. - -It is more European than Spanish in appearance, and the languages -spoken are as varied and numerous as the nationalities of which its -population is composed. The majority of the business is done by -foreigners, the British, Germans, Americans, French and Italians taking -the wholesale, importing and exporting trade, in the order named, while -the small retail business is largely in the hands of Italians and -Spaniards. - -There are few places of amusement, especially for the poor people, -and desirable, or intellectual public entertainments are infrequent. -The municipal theater is a fine building with a capacity sufficient -to accommodate several thousand people, but with the exception of two -weeks of Italian opera during the winter it is little used. - -The municipal government has done nothing in recent years to improve or -beautify the city. There is practically no drainage, except for streets -receiving the water from ravines coming down from the hills, and they -are usually in a state of disorder that renders them useless. The -streets are miserably paved and proverbially filthy, and during the -rainy season they are filled with sludge washed down from the hills. - -Notwithstanding the great shipping interests represented, and the fact -that Valparaiso is the chief commercial port in the country, the bay -upon which it is built affords one of the most insecure harbors on -the west coast of South America. There is absolutely no protection to -ships and shipping interests against the strong winds and severe storms -that prevail during the months of June, July and August. There is no -breakwater in the bay, which faces to the north, the direction from -which the storms and heavy seas come during the winter, and as a result -great damage is done to vessels in port, and to cargo along the water -front. - - -VIÑA DEL MAR. - -The majority of foreigners and many Chilenos engaged in business in -Valparaiso find relief from the disagreeable features of life in the -port by living in Viña del Mar, a beautiful residence suburb situated -on the opposite side of the bay, six miles distant, and connected with -the city by steam and electric railways. - -Viña del Mar, which includes the stations of Mira Mar and Chorrillos, -is the popular pleasure and seaside resort of Chile. It is attractively -situated in a verdant valley, surrounded by rugged hills, has a fine -bathing beach, a number of large hotels, many beautiful residences -and cottages, and during the summer season, December to March, it is -thronged with visitors from Santiago and other interior cities, who -go annually to that favorite resort for the baths and the social -pleasures incident to a season at Viña. Among the attractive features -of the resort are a fine race course, where are held two race meetings -a year, polo, cricket, football, tennis, golf, etc. - - -CONCEPCION. - -Concepcion, the third city in size and commercial importance in -the Republic, has a population of 60,000. It is a characteristic -Spanish-American municipality, with some European features, Oriental -and indolent in appearance, with long stretches of unattractive -streets, flanked with houses painted in many colors. - -Situated in the verdant valley of the Bio Bio, near its confluence with -the bay of Arauco, it is surrounded by orchards ladened with fruits, -and gardens brilliant with the bloom of beautiful flowers. Well tilled, -irrigated haciendas, with stone walls and lines of graceful alamos -defining their limits, cover the lovely plain, back of which rise -tree-crowned hills, adding a picturesque feature to the scene. It is -the commercial metropolis of a large section of productive country, -and enjoys a business prosperity and trade activity surpassed only -by Valparaiso. The ports of entry for Concepcion are Talcahuano and -Coronel, a few miles distant and situated on the bay of Arauco. - - -MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. - -Under the constitution of Chile, municipalities constituted a part -of the general government, and until recent years were controlled by -national authority. Article 127 of the Constitution, 1833, says: - -“The governor is the chief of all the municipalities in his department, -and president of that one in which his capital is established. The -sub-delegate is president of the municipality in his sub-delegation.” - -The Intendentes, or governors of provinces, with jurisdiction over -the cities and towns in their respective territories, are appointed -by the president, and they in turn appoint the sub-delegates. All -public improvements and municipal works were formerly authorized by the -government and paid for out of the general fund. The purpose of the -framers of the constitution was apparently to keep the municipalities -out of politics. The authority of the legislative branches of the -municipal government, whose members are elected for three years, was -limited and their duties perfunctory. - -The politicians of Chile were not satisfied, however, with leaving -the management of municipalities with the national government. City -offices were attractive political plums, and the control of public -works and improvements could be used to advantage in influencing -election results, and a means was found for placing them in the hands -of officials elected by popular vote. - -The scheme for changing the plan of municipal government originated -with Senator Irrazaval, who having traveled in Switzerland, thought to -engraft the system employed there upon the laws of Chile. After his -return from Europe he secured the passage of a measure by Congress -which provided for the election of municipal officers by accumulative -vote. Under this system one man can cast as many ballots for a single -candidate as there are names on the ticket. If there are ten offices -to fill, the voter may cast ten ballots for one candidate instead -of voting once for each of the ten different aspirants to office. -This gave politicians an opportunity to deal with the lower classes, -to encourage unscrupulous men to engage in questionable political -practices, and the working classes now dominate municipal politics. -Having become a political factor in the cities and towns, they aspired -to higher positions, and in recent years a number of representatives of -organized labor have been elected to Congress. There is an encouraging -sign, however, in the fact that a better class of people is beginning -to manifest greater interest in political affairs. There is also a -strong public sentiment in favor of abolishing the law providing for -the accumulative vote in municipalities. - -As a result of the present political system the management of -municipalities in Chile is proverbially bad. As an illustration of -this fact, there could be no better example offered than Valparaiso. -The business portion occupying a narrow strip of land along the water -front, the residence districts extending over and occupying the hills -that rise abruptly all around, Valparaiso affords natural facilities -for drainage which should render it an easy matter to establish and -maintain an excellent sewerage system. Yet it is proverbially and -notoriously filthy, and it is only the influence of a salubrious and -healthful climate that prevents the population from being annually -decimated by contagion and epidemics. - -A most tragic example of municipal mismanagement was witnessed in -Valparaiso in 1905, when the smallpox plague visited the port. Finding -there in the filth of the streets, in the general lack of sanitary -observance, in the crowded, foul, disease-breeding condition of the -“conventillos” (apartment houses) and in homes of the poor, a prolific -atmosphere for contagion, the plague spread so rapidly that the number -of cases reached into the thousands, and the death rate was two hundred -daily. When the municipal authorities found the city in the throes of -a disastrous epidemic, and the public was demanding ways and means -for combating and checking the plague, and caring for those stricken -with the malady, the municipal government proved utterly impotent, -absolutely incompetent to handle the situation. The result was a -national tragedy in which thousands of lives were sacrificed. The -municipal treasury which from various sources is annually augmented -by two millions of pesos, was found empty, and to make a showing at -combating the epidemic the national government was requested to provide -means for establishing a vaccination service, hospitals, ambulance -and medical corps. Speaking of the first appropriation by the central -government for this purpose, amounting to ninety-two thousand pesos, -_La Union_, one of the leading dailies of Valparaiso, under date of -July 12, 1905, discussed the question in an article from which the -following is an abstract and translation: - - “Ninety-two thousand pesos in sand, mud and mire. This fact is in - reality worthy of mention in history, because one who reads in foreign - lands of the project of law passed by the President to Congress, to - solicit the above sum to clean drains and carry away sand, mud and - mire from the streets of the first port of Chile, cannot but feel the - horror and dread for the country whose principal port on the Pacific - lies in a pestilential pool. Years go by, cruel and compassionless - plagues and calamities afflict us, the government money is squandered - upon frivolous matters which are far from curing the evils, and - Valparaiso lies in her muddy bed, inhaling the breath of death - evaporated from the infested and unhealthy drains and streets.” - -The following is an extract from and translation of an editorial that -appeared in _El Mercurio_ of Valparaiso, July 8, 1905: - - “The foreign press is beginning to occupy itself with the situation - of Valparaiso, and take note of the sad state in which the first - port of the Republic finds itself, and in which reigns a deplorable - and filthy abandon that helps the devastating work of smallpox that - is decimating its population. Valparaiso with its infested streets, - sidewalks destroyed, pavements removed and full of holes, with the - enormous piles of dirt and mud accumulated in residence districts; - Valparaiso, where there is no municipal street sweeping nor watering, - or even carrying away of dirt; with infested public buildings (like - the prisons), without organization to resist an epidemic, must create - the impression in the minds of people in foreign countries, who read - of its deplorable condition, that it is not the city of 200,000 - inhabitants, described in geography as possessing an advanced and - cultivated population and situated in an agreeable climate; as not - being the port of so much commercial and maritime movement, which, as - a bitter irony has sometimes been called the ‘Jewel of the Pacific.’” - -Translation from _La Union_, Valparaiso: - - “Valparaiso is again unfortunately under the weight and opprobrium - of the great calamity of every winter. Mud covers all the streets, - traffic is interrupted, social life is suspended, and one touches - on every side mud and filth. To this is added the calamity of - administrative corruption, and life is little more than a fight of a - few civilized elements against barbarism, which destroys everything, - morally and maternally.” - -(The foregoing refers to Valparaiso before the earthquake in August, -1906, which destroyed the greater part of the business portion of -the city, which has since been practically rebuilt, and the sanitary -conditions somewhat improved.) - -These and similar arraignments by the press of Chile of the management -of municipalities, give a better idea of the existing conditions than -any criticism that might be offered by a foreigner. - - - - -THE NATIONAL HYMN - - -The first National Hymn of Chile was written in 1819, by Bernardo Vera, -y Pintado. It was well received by the public from the first, and -enthusiastically so when sung on September 18th, the anniversary of -Republican Independence. - -The hymn was first sung to the music of the Argentine National Anthem, -but in 1820 Manuel Robles, a Chilean composer wrote appropriate music -for the patriotic words. His composition was used until 1828, when -Ramon Carnicer composed the music since used. - -The verses as first written expressed the bitter feelings of the -Chileans towards the Spaniards, but later when public sentiment became -less hostile, the wording of the hymn was modified. In 1847 it was -again rewritten. The following is a copy in Spanish, and a translation: - - - THE NATIONAL HYMN - - (La Cancion Nacional) - - DULCE PATRIA, RECIBE LOS VOTOS - CON QUE CHILE EN TUS ARAS JURO; - QUE O LA TUMBA SERA DE LOS LIBRES, - O EL ASILO CONTRA LA OPRESION. - - - 1 - - Ha cesado la lucha sangrienta. - Ya es hermano el que ayer invasor; - De tres siglos lavamos la afrenta, - Combatiendo en el campo de honor. - El que ayer doblegabase esclavo - Libre al fin y triunfante se ve: - Libertad es la herencia del bravo, - La victoria se humilla á sus pies. - - - 2 - - Alza Chile, sin mancha la frente, - Conquistaste tu nombre en la lid: - Siempre noble, constante y valiente - Te encontraron los hijos del Cid! - Que tus libres, tranquilos coronen - A las artes, la industria y la paz, - Y de triunfo cantares entonen, - Que amedrenten al despota audaz. - - - 3 - - Vuestros nombres valientes soldados - Que habeis sido de Chile el sosten. - Nuestros pechos los llevan grabados, - Los sabran nuestros hijos tambien: - Sean ellos el grito de muerte - Que lancemos, marchando á lidiar; - Y sonando en la boca del fuerte, - Ilagan siempre al tirano temblar. - - - 4 - - Si pretende el canon estranjero - Nuestros pueblos osado invadir, - Desnudemos al punto el acera - Y sepamos vencer ó morir. - Con su sangre el altivo araucano - Nos lego por herencia el valor. - Y no tiembla la espada en la mano - Defendiendo de Chile el honor. - - - 5 - - Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado, - Puras brisas te cruzan tambien, - Y tu campo de flores sembrado - Es la copia feliz del Eden. - Majestuosa es la blanca montana - Que te dio por baluarte el Señor, - Y ese mar que tranquilo te banas - Te promete futuro esplendor. - - - 6 - - Esas galas oh Patria! esas flores, - Que tapizan tu suelo feraz - No las pisen jamas invasores, - Con su sombra las cubra la paz. - Nuestros pechos seran tu baluarte - Con tu nombre sabremos vencer, - O tu noble y glorioso estandarte - Nos vera combatiendo caer. - - - TRANSLATION - - (Chorus) - - SWEET COUNTRY, RECEIVE THE VOWS - TO WHICH THOU DIDST ON THY ALTAR MAKE OATH, - THAT CHILE SHALL BE THE TOMB OF THE FREE, - OR AN ASYLUM AGAINST OPPRESSION. - - - 1 - - The bloody fight has ceased and - Yesterday’s invader is now a brother. - Of three centuries we wash the affront, - Fighting on the field of honor. - He that was yesterday called slave - Is seen at last free and triumphant,-- - Liberty is the inheritance of the brave, - Victory humbles herself at his feet. - - - 2 - - Lift, O Chile, thy stainless brow, - For thou didst win thy name in battle; - The sons of the Cid did ever find thee - Noble, constant, true and brave. - Let thy children tranquilly crown - Industry, peace and the arts, - And sing hymns of victory - To terrify the audacious despot. - - - 3 - - Your names, valiant soldiers, - Who have been Chile’s support, - Shall be engraved on our hearts - And on those of our children as well. - Let them be the war cry of death - On our march to the battle, - And out of the mouth of the strong, - May they ever make the tyrant tremble. - - - 4 - - Should the foreigners’ cannon - Dare to invade our lands, - Let us draw the sword at once, - And know how to conquer or die. - With the blood of the Araucanian - We have inherited our valor; - The sword shall not tremble in the hand - That defends the honor of Chile. - - - 5 - - Pure, O Chile, is thy azure sky, - Purest breezes do cross thee as well, - And thy flower-embroidered fields - Are the happy copy of Eden. - Majestic are the snow-covered mountains, - Given by God for thy bulwark, - And the ocean that washes thy shores - Is a promise of thy future splendor. - - - 6 - - Those graces, O Chile, those flowers - Which carpet thy fruitful soil, - Let them never be trod by invaders, - But sheltered by the shadow of peace. - Our hearts shall be thy walls,-- - With thy name we shall know how to win, - Or thy noble and glorious standard - Shall see us fall fighting. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -A few minor errors in punctuation were fixed. - -Page 65: “Vina del Mar” changed to “Viña del Mar” - -Page 69: “Don Fedrico” changed to “Don Federico” - -Page 117: “in Uraguay” changed to “in Uruguay” - -Page 127 & 128: “alemos” changed to “alamos” - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PROGRESSIVE CHILE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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Mansfield—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover" /> - <style> /* <![CDATA[ */ - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -abbr[title] { - text-decoration: none; -} - -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; width: 70%;} -table.autotable td, -table.autotable th { padding: 4px; } -.x-ebookmaker table {width: 95%;} - -.tdl {text-align: left;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.page {width: 3em;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} /* page numbers */ - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 5%; -} - -.center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} - -.right {text-align: right; text-indent: 0em;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} -img.w10 {width: 10%;} -.w75 {width: 75%;} -.x-ebookmaker .w10 {width: 15%;} -.x-ebookmaker .w75 {width: 95%;} - - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 35%; text-indent: 0em;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -/* .poetry {display: inline-block;} */ -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block; margin-left: 10%;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - -.xbig {font-size: 1.8em;} -.big {font-size: 1.2em;} -.small {font-size: 0.8em;} - - /* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Progressive Chile, by Robert E. Mansfield</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Progressive Chile</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Robert E. Mansfield</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: May 25, 2022 [eBook #68173]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Sonya Schermann and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PROGRESSIVE CHILE ***</div> - - - - - -<h1>PROGRESSIVE CHILE</h1> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img001"> - <img src="images/001.jpg" class="w10" alt="Colophon" /> -</span></p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img002"> - <img src="images/002.jpg" class="w75" alt="A PAIR OF SPURS" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption">A PAIR OF SPURS<br /><i>Frontispiece</i></p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center xbig"> PROGRESSIVE CHILE</p> - - -<p class="center p2 small"> BY</p> - -<p class="center"> ROBERT E. MANSFIELD</p> - -<p class="center p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img003"> - <img src="images/003.jpg" class="w10" alt="Publisher mark" /> -</span></p> - - -<p class="center"> NEW YORK<br /> - THE NEALE PUBLISHING COMPANY<br /> - 1913 -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<p class="center p2 big"> Copyright, 1913, by<br /> - <span class="smcap">The Neale Publishing Company</span> -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center"> TO<br /> - MY WIFE -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the following presentation of Progressive Chile, no effort has -been made to elaborate, to give undue coloring to the picture, or to -magnify its defects. It is a record of impressions gained from personal -observations, of the life and customs of the people in one of the most -enlightened, progressive and interesting countries in South America.</p> - -<p>To attempt to conceal from view, to obscure the unsightly spots and -blemishes that mar the social structure and disfigure the body politic, -or to unnecessarily expose the moral and social defects and infirmities -of a people who possess so many admirable qualities, commendable -characteristics and desirable accomplishments, would be unjust, unfair.</p> - -<p>The truth is not always pleasant reading, and it may seem unkind to -withhold the cup that patriotic pride demands. But let those who know -the real life of Chile pass judgment, and if from long association -they have not become so accustomed and inured to national, social and -political deficiencies as to regard them as established and correct -principles, they will agree with one who regards the situation from an -unprejudiced viewpoint.</p> - -<p class="right"> -R. E. M.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<th class="tdr page" colspan="2"> -PAGE -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#GEOGRAPHICAL"><span class="smcap">Geographical</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_11">11</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#BRIEF_HISTORY"><span class="smcap">Brief History</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_25">25</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#INDIANS"><span class="smcap">Indians</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_73">73</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#CLASSIFIED_HUSBANDMEN"><span class="smcap">Classified Husbandmen</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_93">93</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#HABITS_AND_CUSTOMS"><span class="smcap">Habits and Customs</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_147">147</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#RELIGION"><span class="smcap">Religion</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_154">154</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#SUPERSTITIONS"><span class="smcap">Superstitions</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_167">167</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#MARRIAGES"><span class="smcap">Marriages</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_172">172</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#BIRTHS_AND_DEATHS"><span class="smcap">Births and Deaths</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_179">179</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#SCHOOLS_AND_COLLEGES"><span class="smcap">Schools and Colleges</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_184">184</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#LANGUAGE"><span class="smcap">Language</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_189">189</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#COURTS_AND_LEGAL_PROCEDURE"><span class="smcap">Courts and Legal Procedure</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_191">191</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#CRIME"><span class="smcap">Crime</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_201">201</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#RAILWAYS"><span class="smcap">Railways</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_211">211</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#INDUSTRIAL_INTERESTS"><span class="smcap">Industrial Interests</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_221">221</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#POPULATION_AND_COLONIZATION"><span class="smcap">Population and Colonization</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_231">231</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#VILLAGES_AND_CITIES"><span class="smcap">Villages and Cities</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_235">235</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#THE_NATIONAL_HYMN"><span class="smcap">The National Hymn</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_250">250</a> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center xbig">PROGRESSIVE CHILE</p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="GEOGRAPHICAL">GEOGRAPHICAL</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The Republic of Chile, beginning at latitude seventeen degrees, and -extending to the farthest southern limits of South America, forms a -narrow longitudinal strip of territory twenty-four hundred miles long, -and not exceeding two hundred miles in width in the extreme. It has an -area of 462,000 square miles, and a population of 3,500,000.</p> - -<p>Nature has been prodigal in the bestowal of her varied gifts upon -Chile. Its geographical formation represents a huge serpent with its -sinewy form stretched along the west coast of the continent, its head -resting in the arid desert of Atacama, and its tail coiled about the -wood-crowned hills and ice-bound islands of Tierra del Fuego. Upon -one side loom the Andes Mountains, their snow-capped heads in the -clouds and their feet in the ocean; upon the other stretches the -vast expanse of the Pacific. Bordered as it is by the ocean on one -side, and including within its limits a range of mountains reaching -in some places an altitude of 24,000 feet, Chile presents a variety -of geological, geographical and climatic conditions possessed by few -countries in the world. Being isolated by great natural barriers it -faces away from all the centers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> of population and ancient homes of -civilization, and of all the countries of South America it occupies the -most unfavorable position geographically, and is the most inaccessible -from Europe, North America and the Ear East. But with all its -isolation, its long struggle to gain a place among civilized nations, -its history of cruel and uncivilized warfare, Chile possesses natural -resources and attractions which intervening years have made known, and -which in the short period of her national life have won for this long -neglected daughter of the Spanish colonial family, a reputation for -wealth and beauty that has given to it a fame as wide as the world.</p> - - -<h3>NAME.</h3> - -<p>The name of Chile is of doubtful origin. During the Inca epoch it was -called Tilli, that being the name of a powerful and popular Araucanian -chief. It was pronounced “tele,” which translated means enemy. From -changes in the pronunciation, the word was finally converted into -Chile. Some authorities say that the name is derived from the Indian -word “Tchile,” or “Techile,” which signifies cold, having direct -reference to the snows of the Cordilleras, or the glaciers of the far -south.</p> - - -<h3>DIVISION OF TERRITORY.</h3> - -<p>Chile is divided into four zones,—“Mineral,” “Mineral and -Agricultural,” “Agricultural” and “Wooded and Fishing.”</p> - -<p>In the region of the “Mineral” or north zone, extending from the -province of Coquimbo on the south to the extreme north of the Republic, -rain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> is unknown; there is very little moisture and scarcely any -water in the streams. As a result of the arid condition of this -territory there is little spontaneous or cultivated vegetation, and -no agricultural interests worthy of mention. But the five provinces -comprising the zone abound in minerals, and form conjointly with the -agricultural resources of other sections the productive wealth of -Chile. Among the products of this section are nitrate of soda and -guano in quantities sufficient to enrich the lands of the world; there -are also deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, quicksilver, zinc, -bismuth, iron, manganese and borax.</p> - -<p>The provinces of Tarapaca and Antofagasta comprise the great nitrate or -saltpeter fields of South America, the richest and most extensive in -the world. The province of Tarapaca was acquired from Peru, in the war -with that country in 1879-81, and Antofagasta was Bolivian territory -previous to the same war. Until recent years this arid region, -designated as the pampa or “desierto de Atacama,” was considered -nonproductive and practically worthless. Now the products of nitrate -of soda alone amount to over 100,000,000 Chilean pesos annually, -and comprise two-thirds of the export business of the Republic. -This mineral zone covers an area of 235,000 square miles and has a -population of 355,000. The great mineral wealth of the country is not -limited to this particular section, however, as gold and other minerals -are found in a majority of the provinces in Chile, and mines are worked -from Tarapaca to Tierra del Fuego.</p> - -<p>It is within the limit of this zone that the once famous mines of -Chanarcillo and Copiapo are located,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> from which has been taken -millions of dollars worth of ore. But these and other silver mines, -once productive, have practically ceased to yield, from the lack of -application of modern mining methods, and the silver mining industry -has greatly depreciated in Chile in the last decade. Gold mining is -also less extensive than in former years, except in Tierra del Fuego, -and the product has greatly decreased in the northern zone.</p> - -<p>With the decrease in gold and silver mining in the Mineral zone has -come increased interest in the production of copper, which now forms -eighty per cent. of the metal exports from Chile.</p> - -<p>The Mineral and Agricultural zone may be defined as a section of -semi-mountainous, sparsely watered country, extending north from -Santiago, to the mineral zone. There are within the territory a -number of small streams extending from the mountains to the sea, in -the valleys of which are small farms, called “fundos.” There are few -towns of any consequence in that part of the country, no railways, -few improved roads, and communication between the coast and interior -is slow and difficult. Mule and burro trains are the common method of -transportation, while more rapid communication is made on horseback.</p> - -<p>The Agricultural, or central zone is the garden of Chile. It includes -twelve provinces, extending from Aconcagua on the north to the river -Bio Bio on the south, with an area of 75,000 square miles, and a -population of 1,800,000. About eighty per cent. of the people living -in this zone are engaged either directly or indirectly in agricultural -pursuits. In the northern part of this geographical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> division is -Valparaiso, the most important commercial center in the Republic; in -the center is Santiago, the beautiful capital city, and in the south, -situated on the Bio Bio is Concepcion, the third city in population and -importance in the country. In this section there is a copious rainfall -between the months of May and September, and consequently a prolific -growth of vegetation. Between the mountain ranges and hills that crowd -close down to the sea, are beautiful valleys, where wheat, maize, -barley, flax, oats, rye, all kinds of fruits, vegetables, and a variety -of grasses grow and mature well. From Santiago, extending several -hundred miles south are wide fertile valleys, high and low table-lands, -wonderfully productive and in a splendid state of cultivation. This -central valley of Chile, lying between the Andes and the coast range, -is a continuous garden of luxuriant beauty. The cultivated loveliness -of the private estates, which surround the capital, offer a pleasing -contrast to the sterner grandeur of mountain forms and color with -which it is enclosed. There are to be found the ideal South American -haciendas, where thousands of acres are included in one domain, where -the primitive system of cultivating the land, introduced by the -Spaniards when they came to the western world, with few exceptions, -still prevails. There is the one storied castle-like residence of the -proprietor, with its wide verandas, roomy corridors, rambling rooms and -beautiful patio. The house is often surrounded by a magnificent garden -and park, where graceful palms, beautiful trees and brilliant flowers -in great variety grow and bloom the year round. There too, are vast -herds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> of horses, cattle and other domestic animals, all fat and sleek -from feeding upon the rich pasturage of irrigated “potreros” (fields). -Farther south in this zone, the semi-tropical appearance of the -northern regions give place to wood-crowned hills and streams fringed -with forest trees. Rains are more frequent and the growth of vegetation -more general and prolific. Vast farms extend in every direction. Stolid -oxen, drawing primitive plows or carts, plod through fallow fields, and -the mountains, which are always in sight, give up their solitude in -scenes of domesticity and peaceful industry.</p> - -<p>The wooded or southern zone, includes all the territory from the river -Bio Bio, south to Cape Horn, and forms the least developed portion -of Chile. In the southern provinces are vast virgin forests, rich in -varied resources, awaiting commercial development. In some sections -of the country the forests, overrun with creepers, are so dense that -they form an almost impenetrable jungle, where the sunlight never -penetrates, and where twilight lingers throughout the entire day. In -these forests are various woods of excellent quality, including oak, -cypress, lingue (the bark of which makes excellent tanning material), -rauli, redwood, laurel, resin pine, poplar, and quillai, the bark of -which is exported in large quantities, and is used as a mordant for -dyeing.</p> - -<p>Sawmills have been established in recent years, and are now in -operation in the timber districts of southern Chile, but the lumber -industry, which promises to become one of the important commercial -interests of the country, is only in its infancy.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> In fact the -mills have so far made practically no impression upon the forests, -their cuttings being limited to choice timber along the streams and -water-ways where transportation facilities are good.</p> - -<p>In addition to the valuable timber interests and great agricultural -resources of southern Chile, it possesses large deposits of coal, gold, -iron ores, Portland cement, roofing slate and other minerals, awaiting -development. On the plains and in the valleys luxuriant vegetation -develops annually and remains to enrich the soil for the use of future -generations. Unexplored hills and mountains, hoarding a wealth of -minerals, await the ambitious prospector and industrious miner. In the -sands of Tierra del Fuego is gold to gladden the hearts of men, and the -forests contain material for lumber sufficient to supply the demands of -the continent. In this subdivision there are also extensive fisheries -and oyster beds. Along the coast, rugged hills that reach down to the -sea are covered with forest trees, and on the Cordilleras near the -southern limits of the continent, vegetation extends up to an altitude -where virgin snows and verdant green meet and mingle in strange -contrast. In the mountain and forest solitudes of this undeveloped -region, are many lakes, resting like emerald settings in the landscape. -Viewed from the sea the scenery along the coast of southern Chile -presents a picturesque appearance. The Andes Mountains, grand and -imposing, form a splendid background for the verdant forests forming -the shore line. This range of mountains constitutes a conspicuous -physical feature of the continent. To the south it crowds close upon -the Pacific, and throughout the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> length of Chile the Cordilleras cover -a double series of highly elevated summits enclosing longitudinal -valleys within the region of perpetual snow. On the western range there -are three smaller mid-land mountain chains called the “Cordillera -Maritima,” running parallel with the Andean, between which are numerous -well-watered valleys possessing a delightfully equable climate. From -any of these valleys the giant peaks of the Andes, royally crowned and -ermine robed are plainly visible. And as the day-god rides over them, -touching their white crests with fingers of gold, the scenes presented -are wonderful in variety and spectacular effect.</p> - - -<h3>RIVERS AND WATERWAYS.</h3> - -<p>The rivers in Chile all have their source in the Andes and empty -into the Pacific. Unvexed by fretting wheels of commerce, they flow -peacefully on from mountains to the sea. The distance being short and -the declivity great, the current of the streams is swift, affording -excellent power for manufacturing purposes. Sometimes in the rainy -season, when the rivers are flushed from excessive rains, or in summer -when their waters are augmented by melting snows, they become raging -torrents, sweeping everything before them, frequently causing much loss -of life and great damage to property. Among the more important rivers -in Chile are the Aconcagua, Mapocho, Maipo, Cachapoal, Tinguiririca, -Teno, Lontue, Mataquito, Rapel, Claro, Maule, Nuble, and Bio Bio. -Some of these rivers are navigable for light-draft vessels for a -short distance from the sea, but the winding course<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> of the streams, -irregular depth of water and the swift current make traffic unsafe, -impracticable and unprofitable. The most peculiar and complicated river -system on the continent is formed by the converging of the numerous -streams that empty into the bay of Corral, near Valdivia. In some -places as many as four rivers converge at one point. The scenery along -these rivers presents a panorama of constantly changing views. Wooded -hills rise abruptly along the banks, and in many places trees lean out -over the streams, in the crystal waters of which are reflected their -inverted images. Islands, overrun with creepers and brilliant with -the scarlet bloom of coiphues and fuchsias, and the yellow hues of -goldenrod, are some of the features of the picturesque scenery along -this peculiar river system.</p> - -<p>The fact that the rivers of Chile afford practically no transportation -facilities is a matter of little commercial importance, because of the -narrow territorial limits of the country from east to west, the general -course of all the streams. As a compensation for this lack of natural -transportation routes to the interior, the coast of southern Chile is a -succession of bays, sounds, gulfs and channels, including the historic -Straits of Magellan, which separate Tierra del Fuego from the mainland, -and Smyth’s Channel, dangerous to navigate because of the swift -currents flowing through the narrow, tortuous ways. In many places -along the coast the descent of the shore is so abrupt that heavy-draft -vessels are enabled to pass within a few yards of the embankments, and -directly under overhanging trees. This southern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> archipelago, with -its hundreds of islands, presents a panorama of scenes peculiarly -picturesque and interesting. Among the more important islands of the -coast are Chiloe, the original habitat of the potato, Wellington, -Hanover, Queen Adelaide, St. Ines, and Desolation, so-called because of -the lack of vegetation and desolate aspect of this long narrow strip of -land lying at the western entrance to the Straits of Magellan. In some -of the narrow channels separating the islands from the mainland and -from each other, the currents are so swift, the waters so disturbed and -the storms so fierce in certain seasons, that the sea seems a boiling, -seething caldron, terrifying to passengers and mariners on passing -ships. But those dangerous passages add a fascinating feature to the -scenic effects of the most picturesque portion of the coast country.</p> - -<p>The Straits of Magellan are a wise and beneficent provision of nature, -forming a great canal or natural transportation route across the -southern portion of the continent, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific -oceans. Ships pass through the Straits instead of around Cape Horn, -one of the most dangerous seas in the world to navigate. The Andean -range of mountains, extending from the Arctic Ocean, and stretching its -vast, rugged length across the two Americas, ends at the Straits, Mount -Victoria, a massive pile of gleaming ice and snow, being the last link -in the jagged chain. South of the Straits is Tierra del Fuego, “Land of -Fire,” the hills and mountains of which, including the great pyramidal -cone of Mount Sarmiento, perpetually covered with a mantle of snow, -stretch away hundreds<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> of miles to Cape Horn, the most southern point -of the Continent.</p> - -<p>The scenery as well as the topographical and geographical conditions -of Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia, in fact all the southern -archipelago, are different from those in the arctic regions. There is -more vegetation and a greater variety of scenery than in the coast -countries of a corresponding latitude north. There are the beauties -of the Thousand Islands, and Darwin, in describing a voyage through -the Straits, compared the glaciers of Tierra del Fuego to a thousand -frozen Niagaras. All the beautiful tints and combinations of coloring -to be found in lakes Como and Lucerne, of the Mediterranean and the -bay of Naples, are equaled, if not surpassed by, the hues reflected in -the deep waters of those channels. Huge glaciers crowding down into -the sea; giant rocks, rising like sheer walls of masonry for thousands -of feet above the water, sometimes ending in shapes resembling church -pinnacles and cathedral domes; mountains, whose forest-fringed bases -are washed by the sea, their snow-mantled heads in the clouds; islands, -frosted with snow and bejeweled with ice, in which is mingled the hues -of gray-green moss and verdant vegetation; numerous winding, tortuous -water-ways, dividing the islands from each other and separating them -from the mainland, are some of the features of the panoramic view of -coast-line, mountains and islands, presented in a landscape that is -wonderfully picturesque and prepossessing. When storms sweep through -these narrow channels, driving seas mountain-high against rocky<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -shores, increasing the force of natural currents, obscuring the view -with a shroud of snow and sleet and mist, a wild aspect is added to the -scene. Mountains and islands rise ghostlike out of the water, their -forms dimly outlined against the angry sky; and the din of booming seas -and swiftly rushing waters adds terrifying confusion to the dangers of -navigation.</p> - -<p>In Patagonia the Andes differ in many of the essential features -of their geographical conformation from that magnificent mountain -system which further north is the pride and despair of the western -countries of South America. The grand simplicity of structure in the -northern system, the magnificent continuity and lofty grandeur of -its main ranges, the altitude of its dominating peaks, its terrible -and forbidding wastes of desolate and highly elevated table-land are -wanting in the mountain masses of the far south. The topographical -condition of the Patagonian country represents an immense system of -ancient lake beds, and sea inlets separated and divided by groups of -mountain peaks, sometimes piled upon a massive pedestal of crystalline -rock, sometimes strung out in jagged lines of sierra or ridge, fringed -with moraines or terraces, shaped and reshaped by the ice-agency of -more than one glacial period; mountains which have been split again and -again by stupendous volcanic action, and enormous masses of volcanic -deposits.</p> - - -<h3>TIERRA DEL FUEGO.</h3> - -<p>Tierra del Fuego, instead of being a “Land of Desolation,” as it is -generally designated, is a land<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> of picturesque scenes, and possesses -natural resources to make it a country of prospective wealth, with a -promising future. The archipelago includes hundreds of islands, some -of which are rocky, mountainous, and barren, but most of them are -covered with woods, and on some of the larger islands, especially that -of Tierra del Fuego, are wide stretches of valley and plain, covered -with rich grasses, affording splendid pasturage for sheep, cattle and -horses. There is some valuable timber on the islands, and placer gold -mining is carried on to some extent at various places. The commercial -importance of the archipelago depends, however, upon sheep raising, -an industry that is rapidly developing, and one that is proving -profitable. There have been established in recent years a number of -large sheep ranches, called “estancias,” on the island of Tierra del -Fuego, and in Patagonia. Millions of sheep are pastured on the rich -grasses that grow luxuriantly there, and the annual output of wool, -mutton, and fat is an important commercial product of the country.</p> - -<p>There are few more interesting and picturesque sights than those far -southern farm lands in the Magellanes territory, the Scotland of -South America. Long, sweeping, undulating downs climb upward to the -forest-clad hills, or down to the edges of the blue glacial lakes; -and through the mazes of black thorn, the bloom of which fills the -air with fragrance in the flowering time, wander vast herds of sheep, -often accompanied by large flocks of ostriches, which find safety in -associating with the wool coated animals. Northward across the horizon, -the castellated and unbroken outlines of innumerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> mountains -stretch their length across the landscape; while all around are -sandstone hills, cliff-bored, and forest covered, and along the banks -of turbulent streams, wild flowers bloom, giving a touch of brilliant -coloring to the pastoral scene. It is beautiful in outline, detail and -coloring, and in its infinite variety.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BRIEF_HISTORY">BRIEF HISTORY</h2> -</div> - - -<p>For more than five hundred years previous to the discovery of America, -the territory which now constitutes the Republic of Chile was inhabited -by bands of nomadic, barbarous Indians. The indigenous races of Chile -possessed none of the arts of civilization. They had no knowledge of -cultivating the soil, and the rich mineral resources of the country -remained undisturbed and undeveloped during all the centuries in -which they were left in undisputed possession. They had no system -of government, no recognized social or moral laws, no commerce, no -medium of exchange, no occupations. The nearest approach they had to -houses were rude huts “rucas,” made from the branches of trees, which -afforded little protection against rain or cold; neither had they -clothing with which to cover their bodies or protect them from the -elements. They were nomadic, cannibalistic savages, living like the -beasts of the forests, subsisting upon wild fruits, berries, nuts, and -such animals as they could capture or kill with crude weapons, made -from wood and bamboo. There being few animals and birds indigenous to -the country, the Indians were often driven to the extremity of eating -insects, mollusks, lizards and reptiles, as a means of sustaining life. -The absolute lack of civilization, the low level of the intellectual -standard, depraved moral condition, vicious habits and disgusting -customs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> that prevailed among the indigenous races of Chile previous -to the peaceful conquest of portions of the territory by the Incas, -finds few parallels in the history of the world. Might was right; there -was no law, no restraint, no incentive or encouragement to progress or -improvement; no punishment provided for those who committed murder and -outrage. When one person killed another, he feasted upon the flesh of -his vanquished adversary, eating it raw, the formality of cooking being -dispensed with.</p> - -<p>When the character of the aborigines of Chile is taken into -consideration; the conditions out of which the Republic was evolved, -a century ago—1810; the elements amalgamated into the present -homogeneous population, inherited peculiarities, traditional customs -and superstitions taken into account, the wonder is that progress has -been so rapid along the road of national advancement, commercial and -intellectual development.</p> - -<p>More than one hundred years before Columbus discovered America; before -the flood-tide, which carried in its current a curious collection of -ambitious adventurers and the poor and oppressed of all the European -nations, set in towards the western world, making the Atlantic Ocean -the “Path of Empire;” before the advance guard of Spanish adventurers -and despoilers drifted from the Antilles to tropical America, and -crossing the Isthmus of Panama started in quest of gold—a mission of -robbery and butchery of the defenseless inhabitants of the west coast -countries; before Francisco Pizarro despoiled Peru and destroyed the -Inca Empire, where existed the only material evidences of an advanced -civilization<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> in South America, created and maintained by a native -race; long before Diego Almagro, friend and ally of Pizarro, who was -refused a share of the spoils secured in the conquest of Peru, went to -Chile, the Incas had invaded the territory and made peaceful conquest -of portions of the country which now constitutes the northern part of -the Republic.</p> - -<p>In the early part of the fifteenth century the Inca of Peru sent -a small army to explore the country to the south, with a view to -increasing the territorial limits of his Empire. The expedition went -as far south as the valley of the Aconcagua, a rich, fertile country, -where later was established the city of Quillota, the first capital of -Chile. An attempt was made to explore the country further south, but -the advance was resented by the Araucanians, and the Incas returned -to Peru to report the success of the undertaking. A few years later -another army was sent by the Inca into Chile, which explored the -country as far south as the River Bio Bio, which is now the northern -boundary of the Araucanian territory.</p> - -<p>The Incas being much more advanced in civilization than the Indian -tribes of Chile, introduced ideas and customs that furnished the -foundation upon which was later erected the superstructure of the -Republic. They taught the Indians how to irrigate and to cultivate the -soil, the value of precious metals, how to weave fabrics from the fur -of the vicuña and guanaco, and the art of manufacturing pottery. They -also introduced maize, beans and vegetables of various kinds, in the -cultivation and uses of which they instructed the natives. In fact, the -first advance made by the Chilean Indians from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> a state of absolute -barbarism towards a condition of semi-civilization was due to the -teachings and example of the Incas, the most intelligent, progressive -and highly civilized of the numerous indigenous races in America, -North or South. With a view to making Chile a part of the Peruvian -Empire, the Incas built a magnificent military road across the desert -of Atacama, which was later partially destroyed by the Spaniards, but -portions of which still remain as evidence of the genius and creative -skill of that wonderful people.</p> - -<p>In 1535, one hundred years after the peaceful conquest of Northern -Chile by the Incas, Diego de Almagro, one of the Spanish freebooters -and Pacific pirates, started from Peru with five hundred adventurous -soldiers on an expedition of conquest of Chile, hoping to repeat -there Pizarro’s experience in the spoliation of the Inca Empire. The -expedition of Almagro, to whom history generally accords the honor -of the discovery of Chile, was attended with many hardships and much -suffering. After leaving the road constructed by the Incas across the -desert, they had to cross the Cordillera of the Andes, the higher -ranges of which were covered with snow and over which there was no road -and where the cold was intense. After a voyage lasting six months, in -which innumerable difficulties were encountered, Almagro arrived at a -point where Copiapo is now situated, with less than one half of his -followers, the others having died from cold and starvation in crossing -the mountains. It was on this expedition that Almagro manifested -characteristics which later gave him the reputation of being one of -the most cruel and inhuman of the many adventurers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> who invaded Chile. -When animals used in transporting provisions and equipment for the -expedition died, Indians encountered on the way were impressed into -service as beasts of burden. They were compelled to live with the pack -animals, with which they served in common, and when unable to longer -support the burdens under which they struggled across deserts and over -mountains, they were brutally murdered, or maimed and left to suffer -the tortures of a slow death by the wayside.</p> - -<p>When Almagro reached the valley of the Aconcagua, where he had been -preceded more than a century by the Incas, who established friendly -relations with the Araucanians, he was kindly received by the Indians. -But the natives who had been enslaved and cruelly treated by the -Spaniards enroute, related their experiences to the friendly Indians, -who became suspicious and fled into the forests for protection. This -angered Almagro who ordered his soldiers to go in search of them and -to kill all who refused to return to their places of habitation. -The Spaniards who were provided with horses and arms pursued the -defenseless natives and slaughtered hundreds of them.</p> - -<p>Having gone to Chile in search of gold, with no other motive than to -sack and rob, and finding only poor, ignorant, miserable Indians in -possession of the country, Almagro soon returned to Peru, disappointed -and disgusted with what he described as the poverty of the territory -he had explored. Because of this disappointment, previous to his -departure, he committed outrages and atrocities upon the helpless -natives, by whom he had been received as a friend, which have few -parallels in the record<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> of cruel deeds, with which the early history -of South America is so replete. The acts of treachery and outrage -committed by Almagro and his followers created a feeling in the minds -of the Araucanians that ultimately led to hostilities which lasted -for over three hundred years; hostile feelings that have never been -removed, and prejudices that will remain so long as a representative of -that brave, obstinate race survives.</p> - -<p>Almagro’s unfavorable report and the miserable appearance of his -soldiers on their return to Peru, together with the stories of -suffering, created in the minds of the Spaniards the impression that -Chile was the poorest of all the South American countries. But in -1540, Pedro de Valdivia, a young Spanish captain, apparently more -ambitious for fame than riches, organized an expedition for the purpose -of exploring Chile and taking possession of the territory in the name -of the King. Writing to his sovereign concerning the undertaking he -said: “I have no desire but to discover and add territory to your -Majesty’s Kingdom, and fame to my memory.” With one hundred and fifty -men the intrepid young officer, who had gained distinction for valor -in European wars, started on a journey from Peru over deserts and -mountains to Chile, where he was to lay the foundations for a future -Republic. On reaching the beautiful valley of the Mapocho, surrounded -by a wall of mountains, and from the center of which rises the Santa -Lucia, one of the most remarkable natural formations in the world, -Valdivia laid out and established the first city in Chile, which is -now the splendid capital of the Republic, Santiago, on February 12, -1541.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span></p> - -<p>On the arrival of Valdivia and his soldiers, the Indians remembering -the deception and cruelty practiced by Almagro, abandoned the country -near where the Spaniards located. But on being informed by Valdivia -that he desired to live on terms of peace with them, they returned to -their “rucas” and resumed the cultivation of their “sitios.”</p> - -<p>The beautiful city of Santiago of to-day, with its palatial residences, -magnificent Alameda, grand cathedral, splendid public buildings and -miles of fine business blocks, bears little resemblance to the pioneer -village of 1541. The first houses were built of the trunks of trees, -plastered with mud and thatched with maize stocks. One of the first -buildings erected was a little temple at the corner of the Plaza de -Armas, on the site of which now stands the cathedral of Santiago, -the corner-stone of the Catholic church in Chile, which is to-day a -potent political factor, and exercises a far-reaching influence in the -Republic, through its representation in Congress and in the press of -the country.</p> - -<p>The friendly relation first established with the Indians by Valdivia, -and by which means he hoped to take peaceful possession of the country, -did not long continue. The necessity of means and greater resources for -carrying out his schemes of conquest encouraged Valdivia to prospect -for gold, and some mines were opened near the port of Valparaiso. In -these mines Indians were placed by force and worked as slaves. In -return for the gold secured the Spaniards incurred the enmity of the -Indians, who determined to kill all their persecutors as a means of -ending the tyranny to which they were subjected. With that cunning and -strategy which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> has always characterized the Araucanians in war, they -waited to make the attack until Valdivia was absent on an exploring -expedition in the south with some of his followers, leaving only -thirty mounted and twenty foot soldiers to guard the little garrison -at Santiago. For fifteen hours the fifty men held the fort which was -besieged and assaulted by a force of Indians numbering six thousand. -Finally Captain Alonso de Monroy, who was in charge of the Spanish -forces changed his tactics from defensive to the offensive, and leading -his little band of soldiers attacked the Indians with such courage and -ferocity that, notwithstanding their great numbers they were driven -off. A great number of Indians and several of the soldiers were killed, -but the greatest loss suffered by the Spaniards was the destruction by -fire of the entire village, except the fort. When Valdivia returned he -found himself and his men without houses in which to live, and without -provisions or supplies, everything except the clothing they wore having -been burned or destroyed during the battle.</p> - -<p>After several years of indecisive warfare, in which the Spaniards made -no progress in the way of conquering the Indians, or the undisputed -occupation of the territory, Valdivia decided to return to Peru for -the purpose of enlisting a more formidable force of men and arms with -which to prosecute the war against the Araucanians. He started on -this mission in 1547, leaving the depleted forces in Chile in charge -of Francisco Villagran, returning two years later with two hundred -infantry and a troop of one hundred cavalry, all well armed and -equipped. Feeling secure with this army, Valdivia began an aggressive -warfare against the Araucanians<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> immediately after his arrival. Soon -after the beginning of this war several important battles took place, -chief among which was that of Concepcion, in which over two thousand -Indians were killed and two hundred taken prisoners. The Spaniards also -lost a number of men in the engagement. Following his cruel instincts, -and with a view to terrorizing the Indians, Valdivia cut off the right -hand and the nose of each of the prisoners captured in the battle, and -then released them to return to their people, maimed and disfigured. -This act of cruelty, instead of having the desired effect, incensed -the Araucanians to greater hostilities. So persistent became their -pursuit and attack that the Spaniards were given no time to sleep or -rest from the strife. Day and night they were harassed by the Indians -who finally collected their forces for a decisive battle at Tucapel. -In this encounter Valdivia employed the same tactics used in other -engagements, charging the enemy with his cavalry. But on this occasion -the Indians seemed to be innumerable and invincible, and after being -almost annihilated, the heroic little band of soldiers were forced to -submit to superior numbers, and those who were not killed in battle -were taken prisoner, Pedro de Valdivia being among the latter. When -brought into the presence of the Araucanian chief, Valdivia said: “If -you will give me my liberty I will promise to retire with my soldiers -from the country.” Painful experience had taught the Indians to place -no value upon the promises of the Spaniards, and desiring to avenge -the cruelties inflicted upon their people, they refused to release the -prisoners. Valdivia was tortured with all the horrible cruelties he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -had practiced upon the Indians, and all the soldiers taken at Tucapel -were put to a tortuous death.</p> - -<p>Soon after the death of Valdivia, the colonial government in Chile -was organized by the worst class of Spanish Bohemians,—men who had -not even a cheap or spectacular glory to their credit, and who lacked -the capacity or disposition to engage in work of any character, or -to develop the resources of the country. It was a sad and calamitous -existence the people led under the despotic and ruinous misrule of -Spain. Nothing flourished or savored of goodness. The only landmarks -of civilization left from that period are various towns, some of which -from geographical positions have grown into important cities.</p> - -<p>All traces of progress lay buried beneath bigotry and tyranny. The -sovereign and his representatives retarded development and advancement, -evincing only selfish and unpatriotic ambition for personal gain, -treacherous deception and cruel oppression. Chilean officials under -Castilian rule had to be Spanish born, and with impunity they plundered -the colony of all that was worth possessing. For nearly three centuries -Chile lived with modest labor in honest poverty. Those conditions -served as antecedents to the special characteristics of economy, -industry, independence and love of liberty so manifest in the Chileans -of to-day.</p> - -<p>Then there was little communication with the outside world. Colonists -suffered and endured without encouragement, hope of relief, or promise -of better things. But during those turbulent times, those years of -oppression and Spanish misrule, when the Republican idea was growing, -there was one powerful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> force in operation, resenting and resisting the -authority of those who were plundering and robbing the country in the -name of law and civilization. That force was the courageous, valiant, -unconquered Araucanians who maintained their independence for over -three hundred years, preferring annihilation to subjugation.</p> - -<p>A great majority of the colonists in Chile lived in poverty and -ignorance, apparently resigned to their unfortunate condition. For two -hundred and fifty years there had been transmitted from parents to -children the idea of obedience to the king, believing that person to be -of divine origin, and that his power was omnipotent. They also believed -that the Spanish-American colonies would always remain subject to the -authority of Spain. Fortunately, however, there was a small minority -that entertained a hope of relief from the rule of oppression. This -hope was encouraged, and the idea of independence implanted in the -minds of the people, by the revolution of the English colonists, the -declaration of independence of the United States, and the establishment -of the first American Republic. The success of the North American -patriots encouraged the revolutionary idea in Chile to such an extent -that in 1810, when Spain was involved in the turmoil of a general -European war, the opportunity was seized by the colonists to secure -their independence, which was declared September 18, 1810.</p> - -<p>The new Republic, born of patriotism and christened in war, was -destined to struggle through its first years of existence in poverty, -and afflicted with that most fatal of national maladies, internal -strife. The people, long subject to despotic rule, filled with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -doubt and distrust of those who promised better things, had little -experience, training or knowledge to fit them for the political liberty -they had been so anxious to secure, and in possession of which they -found themselves. Inexperienced in self-government, depressed with -poverty, disturbed with internal dissensions and burdened with exploded -theories, Chile began to set her national house in order without -example or precedent to guide her in the experiment.</p> - -<p>The government of Chile, organized in Santiago, September 18, 1810, -was provisional and experimental, consisting of a “junta” (committee) -of sixty persons, with Mateo de Toro y Zambrano as president of the -junta, and in fact the first president of independent Chile. On July -4 of the following year an election was held at which congressional -deputies were selected. A month later the national congress appointed -a government junta, composed of three persons. The first laws of the -new government were promulgated in August, 1811, among which was one -prohibiting the importation of slaves, and declaring freedom to the -children of all slaves then in the country. Thus did the young Republic -place her seal of disapproval upon slavery, thereby setting an example -for other nations, including the United States, after which the Chilean -Republic was modeled.</p> - -<p>For more than twenty years after the organization of the government -the country was rent by jealousy, dissension, revolution and general -disorder. The patriots who were struggling for national life and -independence, and who were confident that out of chaos would come -order, peace and prosperity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> had to contend not only with an -aggressive foreign foe, but to encounter intrigue and disloyalty at -home. During the first decade of national life, numerous able and -courageous men endeavored to direct the Ship of State through the -turbulent sea of strife and discord to a safe and secure harbor. None -succeeded, but many contributed materially to the final solution of the -problem of government by the people. Among those who were conspicuous -in the service of the country during its formative period may be -mentioned Juan Martinez de Rozas, Camilo Henriquez, Manuel Salas, -Admiral Blanco Encalada and Lord Cochrane. But the two characters that -stand out most conspicuously, the names that are inscribed first upon -the roll of honor of Chilean patriots, the men who contributed most -to the establishment of order and law in the government, are Bernardo -O’Higgins, the first capable, courageous Governor of Chile, and the -brave, patriotic San Martin, who united the forces of the Argentine -with those of Chile, Bolivia and Peru, for the purpose of putting an -end to Spanish rule, and establishing independent government in the -several colonies.</p> - -<p>O’Higgins was Governor from 1817 to 1823, during which time he used -his splendid executive ability in an honest effort to establish law -and order, and to introduce some kind of system into the government. -After six years of vain endeavor, and believing that the people were -unprepared for self-government, he resigned, asked permission to leave -the country, and went to Peru. General O’Higgins was succeeded as -Governor by Ramon Freire, who held the position for three years, 1826. -Then followed a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> period of several years during which the country was -in a state of political anarchy. Changes of government were so frequent -that it was impossible to maintain anything like law and order. -Revolutions, conspiracies and intrigue were organized and practiced by -political combinations and individuals. Independent government was a -theory only, and many sincere patriots doubted the wisdom of further -effort to establish and maintain a Republic, believing that existing -conditions were even worse than Spanish rule.</p> - -<p>The theory that if the seed of independence is once planted in the soil -of public opinion, it will ultimately bring forth a harvest of good -national results, holds true in the case of Chile. For notwithstanding -the political disorder, frequent changes of government and the -sanguinary revolutions that prevailed from the first, the declaration -of independence produced beneficent results. The greatest of these -benefits was the liberty of trade and freedom of commerce. People were -permitted to buy and sell merchandise when, where and to whom they -pleased, while under the colonial system all commercial privileges were -controlled by the crown; and while Chile was under the authority of -Spain, foreigners were not permitted to engage in trade in the colony.</p> - -<p>Under the influence of approaching peace, the gradual amalgamation of -political factions into united parties, the expansion of trade and the -development of the country’s natural resources, the young Republic -developed national life to such an extent that a political constitution -was promulgated on May 25, 1833. The independence of the Republic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> was -not recognized by Spain, however, until 1846. The constitution gave to -the president authority as ample as that possessed by the king, over -the colonies, authorizing him to use in certain cases and emergencies -extraordinary powers even to the suspension of the constitutional -authority. These provisions were embodied in the constitution for the -purpose of suppressing political anarchy and revolution, which had so -often interrupted the progress and threatened the life of the Republic -from the time of its organization, without waiting for congressional -approval. The constitution as adopted in 1833 remained unchanged until -1868. Since that date various amendments have been adopted, limiting -the powers of the executive, and adjusting constitutional authority and -law to meet the changed conditions of the times and the country.</p> - - -<h3>FORM OF GOVERNMENT.</h3> - -<p>The form of government under the constitution adopted in 1833 is -republican with legislative, executive and judicial branches. The -legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting of -a Senate and House of Deputies, the former, under the latest census, -being composed of 37, and the latter of 108 members. Senators are -elected for a term of six years, one-half the number being elected -every three years. Members of the lower branch of Congress are elected -for three years by direct vote, the apportionment being one for every -30,000 inhabitants or fraction of not less than 15,000. Congress is in -session from June 1 to September 1 of each year. During the recess of -that body a permanent committee consisting of seven<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> senators and seven -deputies acts for Congress, and is consulted by the executive upon all -questions of importance.</p> - -<p>The president is elected for a term of five years by electors who are -chosen by direct vote. He is ineligible to election for two consecutive -terms. The salary of the chief executive is 60,000 pesos, equal to -about $20,000 in U. S. currency. He is assisted by a Council of State -consisting of 11 members, six of whom are appointed by Congress and -five by the president; and also by six cabinet ministers who are named -by the executive, but are responsible to the Congress.</p> - -<p>The constitution having become an established law, Chile made rapid -progress along the road of national life, leading to order, authority -and prosperity. But it was not until Manuel Montt, who was president -from 1851 to 1861, had put down two revolutions that order and -executive authority were firmly established, and the force of organized -national defense demonstrated. In 1861 Montt was succeeded as president -by Jose Joaquin Perez, who continued as chief executive for ten years. -The condition of law and order that was established and maintained -by the government previous to his election continued throughout his -two administrations, and national authority was extended and enlarged -until liberty of action and speech was insured to every citizen of -the Republic. By his political moderation and conciliation, President -Perez established a feeling of internal peace and security that had not -been previously felt in the country. Unfortunately Chile was soon to -be disturbed again by a war-cloud upon the peaceful horizon. Having<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -secured their own freedom, and established an independent government, -the patriotic people were not content to remain indifferent to the -arbitrary actions of Spain in taking forceful possession of the Chincha -Islands in 1865. By force of public opinion and popular sentiment, -President Perez was compelled to make an alliance with Peru, Bolivia -and Ecuador, to defend the interests of South American Republics -against the domination of Spain.</p> - -<p>Spain sent a fleet to blockade the ports of Chile, which was not a -difficult undertaking, as the Chilean navy then consisted of one -gunboat, the <i>Esmeralda</i>. On November 26, the <i>Esmeralda</i>, -under command of Captain William Rebolledo, made a brilliant coup by -attacking and capturing the Spanish corvette, <i>Covadonga</i>, which -daring deed was accomplished within view of the Spanish squadron -blockading the harbor of Valparaiso. The admiral commanding the fleet -was so humiliated by the fact that one of his ships had been taken by -the Chileans that he committed suicide on board his flagship, a few -hours afterwards.</p> - -<p>To avenge the loss, and apparently as an act of spite inspired by -the humiliating incident of the <i>Covadonga</i>, Spain sent a more -powerful fleet to Valparaiso, and on March 31, 1866, bombarded the -city, causing considerable loss of life, and destruction of property to -the value of fifteen million dollars.</p> - -<p>At that time Valparaiso had no land fortifications nor means of -resisting an attack from a hostile fleet, and Spain’s action in -bombarding the port has been generally condemned. This apparent -unjustifiable destruction of a defenseless city was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> last armed -demonstration of Spain in South America. For three centuries she -attempted to govern Chile as a colony, and for the first fifty years -of national life of the Republic the threatening attitude of the -parent government continued as a menace and an obstacle to progress -and industrial development. Peace was not established between the two -countries until 1884, but after the bombardment of Valparaiso, there -was no further hostile demonstration, and Chile was permitted to direct -the force of her energies towards building up neglected national -institutions and developing the natural resources of the country.</p> - -<p>The bombardment of Valparaiso forced upon Chile a realization of her -defenseless position against attack from a naval force. Without a navy -to defend her extensive coast country, or fortifications with which to -protect her ports, she was at the mercy of any maritime power. To meet -this requirement and to strengthen her national position, she acquired -a formidable navy, the most powerful in South America, and constructed -modern fortifications in all the principal ports. Since that time Chile -has been regarded as one of the most formidable and aggressive naval -and military powers among the Latin-American Republics.</p> - -<p>During the administration of President Perez the liberal element -in the Republic began to assert itself, and to demand political -reforms. This was the first demonstration and show of resistance -against the conservative church party, which had been in control of -the government since its formation. The program of the liberals was: -“The absolute guarantee of personal liberty; that local governments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> -shall be invested with that complete independence necessary for the -thorough exercise of their prerogatives; that the different branches -of government shall be independent of each other, that all persons -shall be equal before the law and that all special privileges shall -be abolished.” This was a move from the oligarchy towards democracy. -The liberals scored their first victory in 1868, when Congress passed -an amendment to the constitution, making the president ineligible to -reëlection. The laws providing for civil responsibility, for political -treason, and imprisonment for debt were also abolished by the same -Congress.</p> - -<p>Don Federico Errazuriz, who was elected to the presidency in 1871, -was a man of scholarly attainments, and had had a long and varied -experience in public life. He had been minister of foreign affairs, of -the interior, of justice, and of war, and had served in both branches -of the legislative body.</p> - -<p>During the administration of President Errazuriz, the liberal party -succeeded in passing a number of reformatory measures, among which -was one providing that the clergy should be amenable to the civil -authorities, and further that all sects might worship in churches -erected by private enterprise. The president also decreed that space -should be reserved in catholic or public cemeteries for the interment -of dissenters, who could be given the right of burial according to the -form of their respective denominations. Against these acts the clerical -party filed a remonstrance which was signed by the Archbishop of -Santiago; and members of Congress who voted for the measures, as well -as magistrates who should attempt to enforce the laws, were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> threatened -with excommunication from the church. But those progressive measures -still remain upon the statute books of Chile.</p> - -<p>Don Anibal Pinto succeeded Don Federico Errazuriz as president in 1876. -His administration was early confronted with a financial crisis, and in -1878 the government authorized the banks to suspend specie payment, and -guaranteed their emission of paper money to the amount of $15,500,000, -which was made redeemable in coin on August 31, 1879. A year later the -government found it necessary to resort to a second issue of paper -currency to the amount of $6,000,000.</p> - -<p>The church question, which had been made the paramount political -issue in previous campaigns continued with unabated zeal and acrimony -throughout President Pinto’s administration. In 1878 the Archbishop of -Santiago died, and the government recommended the appointment of Don -Francisco de Paula Taforo as his successor. The clergy of the country -opposed the appointment, but the government maintained that inasmuch as -the State supported the ecclesiastical officials, the civil authorities -should name the church dignitaries. After a bitter contest lasting for -several years an apostolic delegate was sent from Rome to make report -on the affair. He was expelled by President Santa Maria, who succeeded -President Pinto, and the victory was won by the government.</p> - -<p>Throughout the administrations of Presidents Perez, Errazuriz, and -Pinto the country made rapid advancement along the road of national -progress and civilization. Previous to that time all reforms and -advanced measures were initiated and directed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> by the executive, whose -political power made him practically the government.</p> - -<p>Neither the House of Deputies nor the Senate made any pretense to -parliamentary rule or order. In both national and private life the poor -but honest element predominated. People earned a legitimate livelihood -by honest industry, and wanton extravagance was little known.</p> - -<div> -<h3>THE WAR OF 1879.</h3> - -<p>There are various versions of the causes leading up to the war between -Chile, Peru and Bolivia, but the immediate cause of hostilities, which -placed Chile in possession of the greatest nitrate fields in the world, -was the cession by the Bolivian government to the Anglo-Peruvian firm -of Gibbs & Company, of the right to work the nitrate deposits north -of twenty-four degrees south, to construct a mole at Antofagasta and -build a railway to some mines in the interior. Later this firm disposed -of a portion of its concessions to a Chilean company, the “Compañia -Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta.” When the Bolivian government -discovered that Chilean capital and industry were developing the desert -into a source of wealth, it laid an export bounty of ten cents per -hundred weight upon manufactured nitrate of soda. The Compañia Salitres -y Ferrocarril objected to paying export duties upon the products of -its properties, and appealed to Chile for protection. Bolivia then -threatened to seize all nitrate in the hands of exporters. The Chilean -government protested against this arbitrary action and sent a fleet to -blockade the ports of Antofagasta, Cobija and Tocopilla. On February -14, 1879, Chile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> took possession of Antofagasta and sent troops to the -interior to protect the property interests of its citizens. General -Hilarion Daza, President of Bolivia, then declared war, expelled some -Chilenos from the country and confiscated their properties. Thus the -fraternity and harmony of interests of the neighboring Republics were -destroyed, the trumpets of war sounded, and the result was a change in -the map of South America.</p> - -<p>Peru tendered her services as mediator and sent special envoys to -Santiago and La Paz. But Chile,—having knowledge of a secret treaty -celebrated between Bolivia and Peru in 1873, the purpose of which was -declared to be the mutual guarantee of the independence, sovereignty -and territorial integrity of the two republics, and mutual defense -against aggression,—the proposition was looked upon by Chile -with distrust. Peru proposed that Chilean troops should evacuate -Antofagasta; that the three republics should guarantee a neutral -administration of affairs. Chile demanded the annulment of the secret -treaty of 1873, and that preparations for war on the part of Peru -should cease. These propositions were rejected, and Chile declared war -against the allies on April 5, 1879.</p> - -<p>Hostilities began at once and in earnest, both upon land and sea, -continuing until Chile gained her final victories in the battles of -Miraflores and Chorrillos, January 13, 1881, and four days later the -victorious troops marched into Lima and occupied the Peruvian capital. -The campaign was a succession of brilliant victories and achievements -for the Chilean arms.</p> - -<p>Peru believed her navy superior to that of Chile,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> but she had not -reckoned the valor, skill and zeal of the patriotic Chilean officers, -whose feats won for them not only victory, but the admiration of the -world, and established for Chile an international reputation as a -fighting nation. Equally brilliant and successful was the campaign of -the land forces. In the battles of Pisagua, Tacna, Arica, and finally -at Miraflores the Chilean troops were invincible.</p> - -<p>Among those who distinguished themselves in the navy during the war -with Peru and Bolivia was Captain Arturo Prat, who gave up his life in -the battle of Iquique, where, after his ship, the <i>Esmeralda</i>, -had been disabled and was being rammed by the Peruvian cruiser -<i>Huascar</i>, leaped from the deck of his own vessel to that of -the enemy, and with his sword attacked single-handed the forces -that confronted him in overwhelming numbers. There is in the Plaza -Intendencia, Valparaiso, a handsome bronze monument erected to the -memory of Arturo Prat, whose heroic deeds and valiant service form -some of the most brilliant chapters in the history of his country. -Admiral Patricio Lynch was another naval officer with a foreign name -who distinguished himself in the war with Peru, and later received the -title of general for meritorious service in the Chilean army. During -the occupation of Lima, by the Chilean forces, Admiral Lynch was placed -in command of the troops in the Peruvian capital, where he remained in -charge until April, 1884, when the treaty of peace was ratified and -Chile withdrew her army from the conquered country.</p> - -<p>By the treaty of peace celebrated with Bolivia on December 11, 1882, -Chile obtained all the latter’s seacoast, including the port of Cobija, -privileges for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> constructing railways into the interior and twenty per -cent. of Bolivian port customs.</p> - -<p>The treaty between Chile and Peru, which was signed at Ancon, on -October 20, 1883, contained provisions that led to complications which -still leave the question of final settlement in dispute; complications -that resulted in a discontinuance of diplomatic relations, which -at times became so strained that another conflict at arms seemed -imminent. Peru ceded to Chile the province of Tarapaca, forever and -unconditionally. In lieu of $10,000,000 cash indemnity, and as security -for payment of same, the territory constituting the provinces of Tacna -and Arica passed into the possession of Chile for a period of ten -years, at the end of which time the ownership of the territory was to -be determined by a vote of the legal residents of those provinces. -Whatever the result of the election, the country to which the -provinces should be annexed, engaged to pay the other $10,000,000 in -cash. The time limit for this provision of the treaty expired in 1894, -and Peru not being prepared to comply with its requirements, Chile -continued in possession of the territory, and the question of Tacna and -Arica remained a disputed one.</p> - -</div><div> -<h3>THE TACNA AND ARICA QUESTION.</h3> - -<p>A few years later Peru became more prosperous through the development -of her rich mineral resources and began pressing for a settlement of -the question. To the arbitration proposition presented by Peru Chile -maintained that there was nothing to arbitrate. In 1905 Peru presented -her side of the question in the form of a written protest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> against -certain proposed industrial improvements in the disputed territory. The -reply of the Chilean government to the arguments offered in the protest -was an able statement of the case, which left little doubt in the minds -of those familiar with the subject that it was Chile’s intention to -retain possession of the territory in question.</p> - -<p>In June 1905 diplomatic relations between the two republics were -resumed, and Peru sent Don Manuel Alvarez Calderon as Envoy -Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Santiago, where he was -warmly received by President Riesco and his Cabinet Ministers. In -his address in presenting his credentials to the President of Chile, -on November 4, 1905, Señor Calderon stated that he was charged with -the task of settling outstanding questions in conformity with treaty -stipulations, meaning, it was understood, the Tacna and Arica question. -In February 1906 the Chilean government named Don Rafael Balmaceda as -Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Peru.</p> - -<p>The more amicable relations resulting from the appointment of -diplomatic representatives continued until 1909 when Chile proposed the -taking of the plebiscite on certain bases which were then considered -unacceptable by Peru, and diplomatic relations were again broken off by -the latter country. The main points at issue in this instance involved -the questions of who were to constitute the voters, who should preside -at the proceedings of the plebiscite, and at what date the election to -secure an expression of the residents of the disputed territory should -take place.</p> - -<p>During the year 1912 an effort was made on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> part of the respective -governments to agree upon terms acceptable to both countries for the -celebration of the plebiscite provided for in the treaty of Ancon, to -determine the nationality of the provinces of Tacna and Arica, and the -following general agreement was reached:</p> - -<p>Peru agrees that all inhabitants, whether Chilean or Peruvian, shall -have the right to vote, provided that they enjoy electoral rights -under the constitutions of their respective governments. This is the -proposition made by Chile in 1909, except that she was willing to -include foreigners amongst the voters, while Peru insisted on their -exclusion. Chile assuming that the plebiscite would then take place -at once, proposed six months’ residence as a necessary condition for -voters, and Peru demanded that the time be extended to three years. -The plebiscite under the latest arrangement is to be postponed for -twenty-one years, during which interval it is hoped and believed that -the prejudices engendered by the war, and the ill-feeling existing -on the part of the citizens of both republics living in the disputed -territory will greatly change for the better, and lessen the chances -of a conflict in the final settlement of a difficult question of long -standing.</p> - -<p>Peru is willing to accede the claim to preside at the taking of the -plebiscite, and the president of the Supreme Court of Chile will -preside. The rest of the board will be composed of two Chileans and two -Peruvians, and final decision will be reached by the majority.</p> - -<p>The most important feature of the arrangements, however, is the -contemplated treaty of commerce and navigation, by which both countries -hope to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> create such a powerful influence for peace that the question -which for so many years has proven an insuperable difficulty to the -best efforts of the statesmen of both countries will play a secondary -and unimportant part in the relations between the two republics.</p> - -<p>Chile is no longer disposed to treat with Peru in a conciliatory -manner, or submit to arbitration a question in which she has the -right of possession. Having settled peacefully the long standing -boundary dispute with the Argentine Republic, which for a quarter -of a century hung like a war cloud over the Cordilleras, and got -possession of Bolivia “tregua” (tentatively), by means of a treaty of -peace and amity, Chile is no longer afraid of a triple alliance with -the Argentine, Bolivia and Peru, which once menaced her security and -national life.</p> - -<p>When the Spanish-American colonies united to secure their independence -from Spain it was mutually agreed that there should be no “no man’s -land.” To attain this end it was covenanted that the boundaries of the -new Republics should be those assigned to each as a colony. In many -instances those boundaries were ill defined, and in others conjectural -or imaginary. As explorations proceeded these errors were discovered -and naturally gave rise to territorial questions between neighboring -nations.</p> - -<p>Chile had but two neighbors and she had boundary disputes with both. -The dispute with the Argentine led to the erection of a fort and the -founding of a settlement in the Strait of Magellan by Chile in 1843. -From that time until the boundary award by King Edward in 1903, the -two republics were in a continual controversy over territorial limits, -which on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> more than one occasion led them to the brink of war. With -her other neighbor, Bolivia, Chile had a boundary dispute which has -had far-reaching consequences. A <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">modus vivendi</i> which seemed -to promise lasting peace was agreed upon. Contrary to expectation, -however, the agreement produced war, procuring for Chile another -neighbor and still another territorial dispute. Previous to the war of -the Pacific, the province of Antofagasta, which was Bolivian territory, -separated Chile and Peru, but as a result of that war Chile came into -possession of the province of Antofagasta and consequently became a -neighbor to Peru. Surrounded as she was then with three Republics -individually and collectively maintaining a hostile attitude to her -independent and aggressive policy, Chile was placed in a peculiarly -delicate and dangerous political position. If one of her three -neighbors made a move in its boundary question the other two pressed -for a settlement of similar claims.</p> - -<p>During the civil conflict in Chile her three neighbors took advantage -of the internal disturbance to urge settlement of their boundary -questions. And when the relations between Argentina and Chile became -so strained as to make war imminent, Bolivia and Peru assumed a most -aggressive attitude in demanding a settlement of the questions growing -out of the war of ’79. Chile has not forgotten these acts of her -neighbors, but her attitude is not one of resentment. Her desire is for -peace, as has been demonstrated by her generous and amicable adjustment -of differences with Bolivia and Argentina; peace at home and abroad, -but peace with honor. She governs her sword in accordance with the -motto<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> of the Castilian Hidalgo: “No me desenvainas sin causa; no me -envainas sin honor.” (I do not unsheath my sword without cause; I do -not sheath it without honor.)</p> - -<p>The territorial questions of Chile with Argentina and Bolivia have been -definitely settled, and the three countries have been greatly benefited -thereby. Chile and the Argentine have been relieved of the enormous -drain upon their resources in the purchase of ships and preparations -for war, and under treaty arrangements capital is seeking investment -in Bolivia in the development of its natural resources. The only -outstanding territorial question that Chile now has to deal with is -that relating to Tacna and Arica.</p> - -<p>Bolivia’s loss in the war with Chile was irreparable, depriving it -of all coast territory and an outlet to the sea. It now occupies the -unique position of being one of two inland countries in the sisterhood -of South American Republics. After the war Chile took possession of -the long strip of desert bordering on the Pacific, which furnished -Bolivia access to the ocean and direct communication with the outside -world. The territory is a rainless region, devoid of vegetation, but -beneath its surface are nitrate deposits sufficient to supply the -world, and its acquisition made Chile the richest country on the globe, -in proportion to its population. It derives from that source about -90,000,000 pesos, equal to $30,000,000 United States currency, or $8.50 -per capita, annually. The source of this enormous revenue has become -the permanent possession of Chile. Bolivia has apparently abandoned -the idea of pressing further claims for readjustment of questions -growing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> out of the war, and is endeavoring to make the best of a bad -situation by developing the resources of her remaining territory and -promoting her industrial interests. In 1905 she celebrated a treaty of -commerce and amity with Chile, which provides among other things for -the building of a system of railroads through the provinces of Tacna -and Arica, thereby giving to Bolivia access to Pacific ports, providing -means of communication and facilities for transporting her products to -the coast, as well as to ports of entry.</p> - -<p>Bolivia also has a large scheme of railway-building of her own, some -of the more important branches of which will connect with the lines -built by Chile, extending from the coast across the pampa. It was the -announcement of this treaty agreement that caused the last vigorous -protest by Peru against Chile’s course in the Tacna and Arica question.</p> - -<p>During the administration of the phlegmatic but conscientious Domingo -Santa Maria, who was president from 1881 to 1886, Chile passed through -an important epoch, the pivotal point in her national history. -It includes the war with Peru and Bolivia, and an international -complication with the Argentine Republic in which war was averted only -by a diplomatic handling of the question.</p> - -<p>Argentina had an unsigned alliance with Peru and Bolivia, and advantage -was taken of Chile’s war engagement to press the question of boundary -limits, and also that of the possession of Patagonia and the Straits -of Magellan. To meet this emergency and to avoid if possible another -war, the government commissioned Jose Manuel Balmaceda, who was then -serving as Minister of Foreign Affairs, to go to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> Argentine capital -and save Chile from impending difficulties. Although coldly received -in Buenos Aires, Señor Balmaceda entered upon the task with zeal and -determination, unraveled the tangle of international questions, and -tied the hands of Argentina by withdrawing Chile’s claim to that -portion of Patagonia lying east of the Cordilleras. Previous to that -time all of Patagonia was Chilean territory. It was included in the -Spanish Vice-royalty inherited by the Republic. This concession -precipitated other boundary disputes which were the cause of many years -of international contention, almost resulting in war between the two -nations on several occasions. It was finally settled by arbitration in -May, 1903, when a boundary line, established by a commission appointed -by King Edward VII, was accepted and approved by a treaty agreement -between the two countries.</p> - -<p>On his return from the Argentine, Balmaceda was made Prime Minister -and became a most potent political factor and powerful incentive -to material progress and development. From armed conflicts and -international complications Chile emerged triumphant and successful. -Her territorial limits had been extended to include some of the richest -mineral deposits on the continent, her national prestige greatly -increased, her credit unimpaired and her wealth producing resources -multiplied.</p> - -<p>From that time Chile made rapid advancement along lines of industrial -development and intellectual progress. For the first time in her -national existence the exports exceeded her imports; the balance of -trade was favorable to her commerce, and the surplus in the national -treasury reached<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> 100,000,000 pesos. A remarkable thing about this -surplus is that it was accumulated while the government was engaged in -building railroads, bridges, public schools and colleges, penal and -correctional institutions, constructing highways and providing better -means of communication throughout the country. The Congress of that -period, 1882-5, was notable in the history of the Republic for its -progressive policies, unity of purpose and patriotic support of the -government.</p> - -<p>The administration party, led by Balmaceda, with the encouragement -of President Santa Maria, was marshaling its forces for some radical -departures from former governmental policies. The president issued a -message in which it was declared the intention of the administration -to enact a law providing for the civil registry of births, deaths and -marriages. In the National Congress, September 26, 1885, Balmaceda, -representing the administration, declared the following to be the -government program:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Reciprocate and counterpoise every arm of public power; sacredly -maintain the independence of constitutional and judicial powers; -protect from abuse the electoral power and liberty of suffrage; -formally reorganize municipalities for honest, harmonious legislation; -separate the church from the state and protect the liberty of thought; -foment progressive public instruction, examine proofs of character -and competency in the exercise of public functions; realize national -administration in the most correct, upright and economical manner.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Little attention was given to these patriotic sentiments at the -time, but later when Balmaceda became<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> minister of the interior, he -declared in congress that “the Catholic religion marches contrary to -the current of the century, restrains the liberty of State, refuses -modern progress, denies freedom of thought and destroys liberal ideas; -the church condemns culture and fosters ignorance. With the creed of -Catholicism it is difficult to unite the politics of modern State, as -the Catholic religion is an exclusive compulsory factor and beneficiary -in Chilean administrations.”</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>After a bitter congressional campaign, in which the measure was opposed -by the church element, the civil registry act became a law. History -credits President Santa Maria with giving his country this beneficent -law, but it was the aggressive Balmaceda who led the fight against -all the fortified conservative forces, religious and traditional -prejudices of Chile, inculcating into the minds of the people new and -advanced ideas, and making the passage of the law possible. Inspired by -patriotic motives, and with excessive confidence in others, including -his enemies, Balmaceda committed the common mistake of politicians in -believing the cause he advocated would prevail because it was right. -The war with Peru and Bolivia had left multiform internal and external -questions for settlement. While these international problems were -pressing for solution, requiring the attention of the administration, -the opposition party made a fierce fight in the elections of 1886, -securing a majority in the Congress. Then followed the greatest -political struggle in the history of Chile. The elements opposing the -civil registry law, and other political measures advanced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> by the -administration, employed every means within their power to arrest the -liberal advance, which had made such rapid progress in the few years -immediately preceding, to embarrass the administration of Santa Maria -and destroy the influence of Balmaceda, who had become a political -power in the Republic.</p> - -</div><div> -<h3>ELECTION OF BALMACEDA.</h3> - -<p>The contending forces and warring political elements of that critical -period in Chile’s history reached a climax in the struggle for -supremacy in the campaign of 1886, which resulted in the election of -Balmaceda as president. During the years intervening between the war -with Peru and Bolivia, and the inauguration of Balmaceda, Chile had -prospered wonderfully. The rich nitrate properties, acquired as the -fruits of war, were being developed and worked with foreign capital, -and were producing an enormous annual revenue. The Republic was then -in the period of its greatest prosperity, having accumulated a large -surplus in the national treasury, notwithstanding the fact that public -works, including highways, school houses, bridges, harbor improvements, -etc., were being constructed. Order and system prevailed in the -management of government affairs, and the country was in the bloom of -industrial progress and national prosperity.</p> - -<p>Under these favorable conditions, Don Jose Manuel Balmaceda became -president. To the creation of these conditions he had contributed -much in the way of honest industry, but the full fruition of his -hopes to make of Chile an independent Republic, where every citizen, -irrespective of condition, creed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> or religion, might exercise his -rights without prejudice to his individual interests was never to be -realized. Not only was he destined to disappointment and ultimate -defeat, but this strong, brilliant man, the greatest in many respects -that Chile has produced, proved the rock upon which the Ship of State -foundered. His administration ended in a revolution, the tragic end -of which was the death of the president by suicide in the Argentine -Legation, in Santiago, where he sought asylum after the final success -of the revolutionists and the overthrow of the government.</p> - -<p>It was on a constitutional question that Balmaceda clashed with -Congress, which resulted in his downfall. Under the constitution the -president must convoke Congress in regular session from June 1 to -September 1, each year; he has power to prorogue it at any time for a -term of fifty days, and he can summon it in special session whenever -he chooses. He appoints his cabinet ministers, governors of provinces, -diplomatic representatives, and five out of eleven members of the -Council of State, “Consejo de Estado.” He also appoints the judges of -the several courts, upon recommendation of the Council of State. He -approves, promulgates and takes part in the making of laws, issues -decrees, regulations, etc., which he may consider desirable for the -execution of laws. The authority thus vested in the president gives him -a power which, if abused, might become a menace to the Republic. It was -perhaps for this reason that the framers of the constitution of Chile, -apparently desiring to avoid the possibility of the concentration of -political power in the Republic, made the ministry responsible to -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> legislative branch of the government instead of the executive. -Following the plan of the French Republic, legislation affecting the -general policy of the government originates with the ministry. When -Congress convenes the president outlines the administration policy in a -message calling attention to such measures as he thinks should receive -attention and consideration from the legislative bodies. Bills are -prepared by the cabinet ministers and presented to Congress. A failure -to approve by their votes any measure coming from the executive branch -is taken as a vote of lack of confidence in the administration, and -the only course left for the president is to dissolve his ministry. -The power bestowed upon Congress to overthrow ministries, and defy -the president by refusing to coöperate with the executive branch -of government, was never indulged in to any considerable extent -until Balmaceda’s time. Then the political elements opposed to the -administration policy allied their interests and exercised their power -to defeat the progressive measures presented, thereby repeatedly -rejecting the ministry. Since that time the custom of obstruction has -grown into such a gigantic abuse that it is now almost impossible for -the president of Chile to maintain a ministry for a sufficient length -of time to carry out any general plan or policy of government. In fact -it has become one of the crying evils of the country which the press -denounces vigorously and persistently. During the administration of -President German Riesco, 1901-6, ministerial changes became so frequent -that a cabinet crisis was not regarded as a matter of any interest or -consequence by the public.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span></p> - -<p>During the first years of Balmaceda’s administration, Chile enjoyed an -era of golden prosperity and national progress. Numerous reforms were -proposed, which had for their purpose the improvement of the government -service. One project was to prohibit senators and deputies from having -an interest in any public contract; another that neither the president -nor any cabinet minister should appoint a near relative to office -unless the person possessed the necessary qualifications for the -position. Believing himself secure in the performance of his duties and -the administration of government affairs, President Balmaceda prepared -to utilize a portion of the large income from the nitrate fields in the -construction of public works. He contracted for the building of new -lines of railway in the central and southern provinces at a cost of -$30,000,000; built schools and colleges in every city in the Republic, -amounting to $10,000,000 in value; ordered the construction of three -modern warships and two torpedo boats in Europe. He also continued and -completed the work of constructing a government dry dock at Talcahuano; -armed and equipped the army with modern rifles and munitions of war, -and improved the coast defenses, to which were added new modern -batteries at Talcahuano and Iquique.</p> - -<p>The questions affecting the prerogatives of the members of Congress -and cabinet ministers, together with the extravagant policy of the -administration caused much political agitation and exciting debate -in the Senate and House of Deputies. The constant attack of the -clerical party, the bitter denunciations of the press, added to the -conservative opposition finally created dissension among the liberals,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -who had elected and until then supported the president. Charges of -usurpation of power and dictatorship were made against Balmaceda, -and the political situation became such that a revolt was imminent. -Various ministries had been rejected by Congress because of the policy -pursued in erecting costly public works instead of employing the -government revenues in reducing the foreign debt and redeeming the -paper currency, and the president found himself in the embarrassing -situation of having entered upon a policy of extensive government -improvement and industrial development without the support of Congress. -An extraordinary session was called for the purpose of providing -government revenues. Other measures were taken up by Congress and the -appropriation bill deferred until the president should recede from his -arbitrary position. Balmaceda refused to compromise, and the ministry -again resigned. He then appointed a new cabinet in harmony with his -views and declared the session closed, maintaining that Congress when -called in extraordinary session for the express purpose of passing -an appropriation bill had no constitutional authority to go into the -consideration of other measures. In explaining his action he said: -“Congress by the express terms of the constitution has no more right to -dictate to me what ministers I shall appoint than it has to advise what -food I shall eat or clothes I shall wear.”</p> - -<p>The Constitutional Advisory Committee was convened and as a result -of its deliberations the president was advised to again convene -Congress in extraordinary session. Balmaceda hesitated, fearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> that -Congress if again convened might declare the office of president -vacant. While he and his ministers deliberated, the Constitutional -Committee arrogated to itself the authority to call an extra session. -The opposition was rapidly securing support from various political -elements throughout the country and by popular sympathy among the -people. The dictatorial attitude of the administration aroused intense -feeling and there was a clamor for the deposition of the alleged -dictator. Realizing that summary action was necessary to maintain -his power and aggressive policy, the president issued a manifesto on -January 1, 1891, declaring his intention to exercise his constitutional -powers and functions,—to stand by the strict letter of the law. He -declared that he had nothing to do with the effete provisions of the -constitution, nor with new theories of parliamentary government until -they were enacted into law. He maintained that under the constitution -the appropriation bill passed by the previous Congress held good -until another was passed. The supreme court declared the acts of the -president unconstitutional. He ignored the court. This assumption of -authority on the part of the executive was contrary to precedent and to -republican ideas, even if constitutional, and the cry of “dictator” was -raised. Thus the machinery of government was disabled, and while the -Ship of State lay stranded upon the rock of party politics, Congress -declared the country in revolution, and the tempest of war struck the -Republic on January 7, 1891, when the navy, under command of Señor -Don Jorge Montt went over to the revolutionists. The squadron<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> sailed -for the north with the presiding officers of the Senate and House of -Deputies on board, and a floating Congress was established.</p> - -<p>The Congress which declared Balmaceda deposed, empowered Don Jorge -Montt to assume provisional command, and a junta was organized on -board the warship <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">Blanco Encalada</i>, composed of Señor Montt, Don -Waldo Silva, vice-president of the Senate and Don Ramon Barros Luco, -president of the Chamber of Deputies.</p> - -<p>The revolution started by Balmaceda’s manifesto of January 1, 1891, was -apparently poorly prepared to cope with the government. The insurgents -had no military organization, no arms or munitions of war. The junta -proceeded north and took possession of the provinces of Tarapaca, -Atacama and Antofagasta, which include the rich nitrate fields and -wealth producing mineral territory of Chile, the revenues from which -were employed in purchasing arms, provisions and equipment for an army. -They also had possession of the majority of the naval squadron. By the -middle of the year 1891 the government had 45,000 troops in the field, -four thousand of which were cavalry. The revolutionists had only about -twelve thousand soldiers, which encouraged the sanguine Balmaceda to -believe that he could easily suppress the uprising.</p> - -<p>Congressional elections were held in May, and a majority of the members -elected were in sympathy with the administration. In June presidential -electors were chosen, and they selected as the candidate for president -Don Claudio Vicuña, who was Balmaceda’s choice for his successor. Señor -Vicuña, who was of an old and distinguished family, was declared<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -duly elected president on July 25, 1891, but the final success of the -insurgents prevented him from ever taking his seat.</p> - -<p>As the struggle continued the revolutionary cause gained strength and -reinforcements from various sources. The superior skill of the military -officer directing the opposition forces made itself manifest, and the -position of Balmaceda and his government became daily more and more -menaced with dissolution and overthrow. On August 20, ten thousand -revolutionary troops were disembarked at Quintero, a few miles from -Valparaiso, and on the following day a decisive battle was fought, at -Concon, situated at the mouth of the Aconcagua River, resulting in the -defeat of the government forces. This crushing defeat, in which about -2,500 of the government troops were killed, practically caused the fall -of Balmaceda. He made a strenuous and brave effort to recover from the -disaster, but the railway communication having been destroyed, it was -impossible to send reserve troops from the south, where they had been -stationed, in time to save the situation.</p> - -<p>After the battle of Concon the opposition forces advanced upon -Valparaiso, and two days later endeavored to capture Fort Callao, at -Viña del Mar, a beautiful suburban place six miles from Valparaiso. -The fortress, which commands the bay of Valparaiso, the valley and -surrounding heights, being equipped with modern guns, and well-nigh -impregnable, resisted the attack of both warships and artillery, and a -repulse prevented a direct advance upon Valparaiso, the objective point -of the Congressional army. Retiring from Viña del Mar, Generals Canto -and Korner, commanding the revolutionary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> forces, fell back to Salto, a -few miles distant, where they destroyed a railway bridge spanning the -river, thus cutting off communication with Santiago, and preventing -the possibility of Balmaceda forwarding troops from the capital. -Making a detour of some thirty miles, the revolutionists endeavored -to approach Valparaiso from the south, but encountered the government -forces, under command of Generals Barbosa and Alzerreca, occupying a -formidable position upon the hills near Placilla, a few miles from the -city of Valparaiso. This was on August 27th. On the 30th the election -of Señor Claudio Vicuña would be formally ratified by the Senate, and -he would become president. It was important to the revolutionists to -force a decisive engagement and overthrow Balmaceda before the newly -elected president should take his seat. Before daylight on the morning -of the 28th, under cover of the darkness and protection of the hills, -the revolutionists got into position to give battle without being seen -by the government forces. Early in the morning as the advancing army -was crossing an open plain Balmaceda’s troops opened an artillery fire -upon it, and the battle of Placilla, the final and decisive engagement -in the revolution, was begun. The opposition forces numbered about -twelve thousand and the government, nine thousand. The former, flushed -with success and inspired with the hope of final victory, fought -like demons, while the latter, discouraged and disheartened with -failure, menaced with disaster and annihilation, showed lack of order, -discipline, and courage manifested and displayed on previous occasions. -Some companies even deserted and joined the enemy during the battle.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> -After a few hours’ terrific fighting, in which more than a thousand men -were killed and a greater number wounded, on the government side, the -Balmaceda army was put to rout. The victorious forces which had lost -five hundred killed and over a thousand wounded, pursued the fleeing -remnants of the routed army, driving many of them into the quebrades -(ravines), where they were unmercifully slaughtered. Generals Barbosa -and Alzerreca were both killed in the engagement. On the evening of -the 28th, Valparaiso was in possession of the revolutionists and the -Balmaceda government was overthrown.</p> - -<p>Leading government supporters, including Don Claudio Vicuña, president -elect, and who only lacked a few days of being formally declared -the chief executive of the Republic, sought refuge on board foreign -warships in the harbor.</p> - -<p>That night Valparaiso was the scene of a Bacchanalian rabble that would -have shamed Rome in the reign of Nero. The city was in possession of a -mob, intoxicated with success, drunk upon wine and athirst for blood, -that murdered with impunity and sacked the town without restraint. -Drunken men and women reeled through the streets, shooting at each -other as a matter of sport, and on the following morning four hundred -victims of the mob’s violence were found dead in the streets.</p> - -<p>The scenes enacted in Santiago were equally as wild and tragic as -those witnessed in Valparaiso. The houses of Balmaceda, Claudio Vicuña -and other Balmacedistas were attacked, looted and everything they -contained destroyed or carried<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> away. A statue of the deposed president -was dismembered and kicked through the streets. From balconies ladies -cheered the performance, while opprobrium was heaped upon the inanimate -form by the drunken mob. Beggars and thieves appropriated with -impunity works of art and beautiful articles of furniture found in the -residences of those who had remained loyal to the administration.</p> - -<p>That night President Balmaceda left the Moneda (Government Palace), and -sought asylum in the Argentine Legation, where he remained until his -legal term as president expired, September 18. On September 19 he took -his own life by firing a revolver-shot into his brain, thus avoiding -the chronicle in history that he committed suicide while president of -the Republic.</p> - -<p>Thus the tragic and untimely death of this strong, brave man, who was -called a tyrant and dictator by his enemies, but was loved and revered -by his friends. Through the vista of years that intervene between the -present and the close of the revolution, the official acts of Balmaceda -and the monuments he left to his memory in the form of government works -and public enterprises, loom large and conspicuous when compared with -the works of those who have succeeded him. Public opinion and sentiment -in Chile have undergone wonderful changes since the day a shot from a -revolver in his own hand crashed into and stilled forever the fertile, -creative brain of Jose Manuel Balmaceda, and an ungrateful Republic is -now beginning to set its seal of approbation upon his official life -and private character. History will yet write the name of Balmaceda -large upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> roll of honor reserved for Chile’s patriots, statesmen, -diplomats and scholars.</p> - -<p>At the close of the revolution the “Junta de Gobierno,” with Captain -Jorge Montt at its head, took charge of the government. On October -18, a general election was held, and on November 18 the electors -met and named Don Jorge Montt president. President Montt, while a -man of mediocre ability, possessed a high sense of honor, and was -conscientious in the strict performance of his official duties. While -he did nothing to distinguish himself as a man of great intellectual -attainments, his administration marked a period of national -tranquillity and general prosperity, securing for him the good will and -political support of a majority of the citizens of the Republic. After -serving one term as president he was placed at the head of the navy, -where he served as a most efficient and popular officer. He held the -position as ranking admiral of the navy until 1905, when he was sent on -a special government mission to the United States, Japan, Europe and -England.</p> - -<p>President Montt was succeeded by Don Federico Errazuriz in 1896. There -was little in President Errazuriz’ administration worthy of special -mention. He was a man of brilliant intellect, cultivated tastes, -charming manner and attractive personality, but lacked in the moral -qualities that characterized the private and official life of his -predecessor.</p> - -<p>President Errazuriz died in July, 1901, and was succeeded by Don German -Riesco, who had been formally elected a month previous. President -Riesco had not been conspicuous in national politics previous to -his nomination, and had few political enemies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> when inaugurated in -September, 1901. He was known as a good lawyer, had occupied the -position of judge of one of the courts of appeal, and was universally -respected for his honesty, industry and high moral character. Being -a man of mediocre ability, lacking in precision and firmness, his -administration was early embarrassed by politicians who employed -obstructive measures to prevent the passage of laws recommended by the -executive branch of the government.</p> - -<p>The president found it difficult to maintain a ministry for a -sufficient length of time to accomplish anything in the way of needed -legislation, or to carry out important government policies. He was -constantly forced into compromising with various political factions -and coalitions. In an effort to secure political influence he lost -the support of a majority of the members of the legislative bodies, -and also the confidence of the people. The result was a condition -of political chaos in the Republic. Ministries were overthrown with -frequency, Congress was hopelessly divided into contending factions and -there was a general lack of united and concerted effort in the various -branches of government.</p> - -<p>Chile made substantial commercial progress during the Riesco -administration, however, and there prevailed throughout the country -a condition of general prosperity. New and important industries were -established, many new companies with large capital were organized, and -money was plentiful during most of the period. The only disturbing -feature of the commercial and financial situation was the constantly -fluctuating value of the paper currency.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span></p> - -<p>Another feature of President Riesco’s administration is the fact that -it closed with a national calamity, caused by the great earthquake -that occurred in August, 1906, causing serious loss of life and great -destruction of property in the cities and towns throughout the country.</p> - -<p>In the general election of 1906, Don Pedro Montt, son of Manuel Montt, -President of Chile from 1851 to 1861, was elected president by a larger -majority than that received by any candidate in the history of the -Republic.</p> - -<p>Señor Montt was for many years previous to his election regarded as the -most able and conservative statesman in the country. He was born in -Santiago in 1846, and was graduated from the University in his native -city in 1870. In 1874 he was elected a member of the House of Deputies, -where he remained for several years. He also served as Speaker of -the House, Minister in different cabinets and Envoy Extraordinary -and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States. With a long and -successful political career to his credit he was inaugurated under more -favorable and auspicious circumstances than any president since his -father, to whom history gives the credit of being one of the ablest -executives ever elected to the office.</p> - -<p>It was President Montt’s ambition to improve the industrial and -financial conditions of the country by establishing the gold -standard, and thereby do away with the ruinous fluctuations in the -currency values. But in this commendable undertaking he was doomed to -disappointment, being defeated in his plans for accomplishing that most -desirable reform by the factions that dominated the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> politics of the -Republic, and in 1908-9, the exchange rate reached its lowest level, -the Chilean peso being worth at one time only 20 cents U. S. currency, -whereas upon a gold standard basis it represents a value of 34 cents.</p> - -<p>In May 1910 President Montt attended the inauguration of the centennial -exposition of the Argentine Republic in Buenos Aires, making the trip -by rail over the Transandine Railway, which was opened to traffic about -that time. In July he started on a trip to Europe, going by way of the -United States, arriving in New York, August 3. On August 9 he sailed -for Europe, arriving in Hamburg on the 16th, where he died soon after -his arrival.</p> - -<p>After the death of President Montt, Vice-President Elias Fernandez -Albano became president. On September 6, of the same year President -Albano died and Senator MacIver Como, vice-president of the Council of -State became the acting president.</p> - -<p>At the regular election in 1910, Don Raymon Barros Luco was elected to -the presidency.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDIANS">INDIANS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The indigenous races of Chile consist of the following tribes: -Araucanians, Chilotes, Chonos, Onas, Fueginos, Yahgans, Alacalupes and -Patagonians.</p> - -<p>The Araucanians, the most powerful, brave, and warlike tribe of South -American Indians, formerly occupied all the territory now constituting -the northern half of Chile. In the Araucanians the Spaniards met a -strong resistance to their invasion of the territory. The tribe then -numbered one million, and for three hundred and fifty years they -maintained a warfare against the occupation of their country by white -men. The Spaniards were unable to subdue them, and even after the war -of independence and the establishment of the Republic, they maintained -a hostile attitude. Although being gradually and peacefully subjugated -they still maintain a sort of independence, living under a form of -government agreeable to their common tribal laws and customs. They are -now generally engaged in the peaceful pursuits of agriculture.</p> - -<p>The Araucanian government consists of a confederation constituted by -the union of three independent tribes, each of which is governed by -a hereditary chief, called Toqui, or Cacique. A few years ago the -territory was divided into sub-districts, for each of which there is -a subordinate chief. The Caciques are elected by their respective<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -tribes. They hold armed diets, like the ancient Poles and Germans. In -the formation of laws governing their actions, and determining upon -military operations, every member of the confederation has a vote.</p> - -<p>In more recent years these erstwhile savages have manifested a friendly -disposition towards foreigners, some of whom have been admitted to -membership in their tribes. These “white Indians,” who usually possess -superior intelligence, education and knowledge of the world, sometimes -rise to eminence among the tribes. A French lawyer named De Tonneins, -once humbugged the Indians into believing in his alleged magical and -spiritual attainments to such an extent that the Araucanian tribes -proclaimed him king, which distinction he assumed under the title of -King Orelie Antonio I, and reigned for several years. The small court -by which he was surrounded paid him great deference. His Fraudulent -Highness made war against the Chilean government, was captured and -deported to his native country, where after several uneventful years, -he died in an asylum in Bordeaux.</p> - -<p>The Araucanians are a sturdy race, with fine physiques. They are tall, -muscular, agile and possess wonderful power of endurance. They are -brave to foolhardiness, but lack intelligence, ambition and creative -genius. Their stupidity combined with their passions, cruel natures and -natural characteristics have prevented them from rising little above -the low level of animals in their domestic life. A study of their past -history and present conditions has a tendency to disillusionize one -who has formed ideas of the Araucanians from descriptions written<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -by historians and tales related by travelers who have never visited -the habitations of that peculiar people. In general appearance the -Araucanians resemble the other indigenous tribes of North and South -America. They are copper colored, have black, straight, coarse hair -and deep set, piercing black eyes. There is a trace of foreign blood -apparent in many of them, due to their association with the Spaniards -who first invaded the country, and shipwrecked sailors, many of whom -cast their lots with the Indians, and lived peacefully among them, -frequently marrying Indian women.</p> - -<p>When America was discovered, the indigenous tribes wore little -clothing, but contact with white men has wrought some changes in their -customs and habits, and taught them the propriety of wearing at least a -semi-civilized garb. The costume of the Araucanian consists of a shirt, -a loin cloth, a manta or poncho of dark blue or black fabric, and a -scarlet turban, all woven by hand and from natural wool, and colored -from dyes extracted from the roots of plants and bark of trees. The -women wear long, scarlet petticoats, and over the head a blue manta, -which drapes over the body down to and below the waist. Their costumes -are also made of hand-woven wool cloth, which is soft and warm, and -very durable. A unique feature of the cloth made by the Indians is the -variety and peculiarity of colors woven into the fabric. The designs -are odd and quaint, and not infrequently weird figures representing -animals, serpents and imaginary gods and devils are worked into the -patterns. A peculiar feature of the fabric is that the designs are -never duplicated, no two pieces of cloth being made of the same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -pattern. Hence, if one buys an Indian poncho, he has the satisfaction -of knowing that no one else will have one like it in design. The mantas -worn by the men and women are in plain colors, as a rule, but they are -unique garments, the feature of which is a long nap on the outer side -of the fabric, which makes it almost impervious to water. These mantas -are usually fastened with a huge silver pin, ornamented with a round, -flat disk. Both men and women wear silver earrings of huge proportions, -very heavy and of varied and odd design. The women wear various other -silver ornaments in the form of necklaces, bangles, crosses and -pendants. These articles are all made of hammered silver and have an -intrinsic as well as a decorative value. The usual aversion of Indians -in general to familiarity, or to become communicative, the traditional -stolidity of the race, holds good with the Araucanians. They are averse -to selling any of their personal apparel or adornments, and all efforts -to purchase such articles are resented.</p> - -<p>These people, constituting the remnant of a once powerful and proud -race, live in miserable huts, the roofs of which provide little -protection against rain, and the walls of which are sometimes -conspicuous by their absence. In a climate where it rains one half the -year, and where the temperature frequently drops to zero, these places -of habitation afford little comfort. In these miserable “rucas” live -the family, not infrequently consisting of a large number of children, -together with donkeys, pigs, dogs and fowls, in sanitary conditions -that are shockingly disgusting.</p> - -<p>In the Araucanian country, which extends from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> the River Bio Bio on -the north to Valdivia on the south, and from the Cordillera to the -sea, some strange sights may be witnessed. Almost the entire country -is covered with forests, and there are hundreds of miles of solitude -and unbroken wilderness, save the little cultivated patches, where -the Indians engage in farming. Their farms and ranchos are usually -back from, rather than along the trails where travelers pass. There is -little bird or animal life in the forests, and one may ride for days -through those solitudes, with little or nothing to attract attention -or relieve the oppressive silence and monotony, save the sight of an -occasional Indian. The strange, mysterious manner of the Indians only -adds to the uncanny aspect of the wilderness. They are mysterious, -and undesirable as companions, ignorant, superstitious, and by nature -vicious, but like animals, they are dangerous only when disturbed in -the pursuit of life.</p> - -<p>The deeds of heroism, acts of valor and bravery, which caused the -Araucanians to be immortalized in verse and recorded in the more sober -lines of prose and history, were enacted during the days of the Spanish -conquest.</p> - -<p>In 1535, Don Diego de Almagro, the ally and rival of Pizarro, the -despoiler of Peru, set out on a mission of conquest of the territory -which now constitutes the Republic of Chile. He came not as a peaceful -conqueror, as did the Incas long before, but as a tyrant and butcher, -endeavoring to strike terror to the hearts of the Indians by acts of -cruelty and inhuman treatment. They were treated as so many beasts -to be enslaved or slaughtered at the pleasure of those who invaded -the country in quest of gold,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> only. The attitude of Almagro and his -followers aroused all the latent fierce combative spirit and resentful -feelings that had been smoldering in the hearts of the aborigines -during centuries of peaceful occupation of the country, and they -resisted the invasion with a heroism and determination that finds few -parallels in primitive warfare in the history of the world.</p> - -<p>There were then no horses in the country, save those brought by the -Spaniards, and the Indians had to fight on foot. The only weapons they -possessed were bows and arrows, and lances made of long, flexible -bamboo poles, the latter being the weapons of war. They had no military -training or leaders and were ignorant of the arts of war, not even -appreciating or understanding the advantages of combined or orderly -attack. They depended entirely upon impetuous charges, ambush and -secret night attacks. They had no fear of death, and not infrequently -in battle they continued the conflict until every man engaged was -killed. After years of warfare against the Spaniards, they learned the -advantages to be gained by the use of horses in battle, which they -adopted to some extent, but they did not follow the example of their -enemies in the use of saddles, always riding bareback. After many -generations of resistance to the invaders, they became more clever -and systematic in attack and defense, having learned the importance -of better preparation, councils of war and leadership. The Araucanian -war extended intermittently over three centuries, and as the case -in all wars, whether among barbarians or civilized nations, brought -conspicuously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> to the front individuals who by superior intelligence -and bravery were recognized as natural leaders. Chief among those who -achieved fame as warriors, and whose deeds of daring form thrilling -chapters in Chilean history, were Lautaro, a young brave who at the age -of twenty was recognized as the leader of the Indian forces. It was -Lautaro who first attempted to organize the various tribes and bands -into something like a military force. After many successful battles he -was surprised in a night attack by the Spaniards, near Talca, where -almost the entire army under his command was annihilated, he being -among the killed. He was decapitated, and his head taken to Santiago, -where it was placed upon a pole and paraded through the streets as a -victorious trophy.</p> - -<p>Later Caupolican, one of the bravest of his race, assumed the -leadership of the Araucanians. He was finally captured, and his enemies -wishing to make an example of the chief cut off both his arms at the -elbows, after which he was released. Caupolican pointing the stumps of -his amputated arms at his persecutors said: “Be careful, be careful, -murderers and persecutors, I will return to avenge these wrongs.” And -notwithstanding his maimed condition he later returned to the attack -with renewed courage and fierceness, and in many battles, Caupolican -was first in the fray, and when beaten, was the last to retire from the -field.</p> - -<p>Since the days of the conquest of Chile, the Araucanian Indians -have been hedged about and encroached upon with modern civilizing -influences. Under these conditions they have degenerated until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> their -greatness is only a memory. They now have fixed places of residence, -and live upon the proceeds of their labor or lands.</p> - -<p>Some of these Indians own large tracts of land, portions of which -they cultivate, and upon which they raise large numbers of cattle and -horses. The methods employed in farming are crude and primitive. The -rich landowners are personages of note in the section of country where -they live. And when one of them starts on a trip from his ranch, always -on horseback, he is adorned with much silver in the way of ornaments. -He is usually accompanied by five or six “mocetones” (servants), and -travels in grand style.</p> - -<p>Having few wants these Indians work only when it is necessary to supply -their needs. Missionaries have tried in recent years to improve their -moral condition, but have made little progress. The Araucanian ideas -of a serious life are not deep-rooted; there is more stubbornness -than intellect in their composition. The Incas who were the first -foreign nation to invade Chile, taught them to worship the sun, but -in their present degenerate condition they seem to worship only the -God Bacchus. Strong drink and its attendant abuses, the curse of all -barbarous races, when once introduced by civilized nations, is causing -degeneration and a decrease in numbers. It will no doubt continue to -aid materially in the consummation of their final extinction.</p> - -<p>In 1890, during the administration of President Balmaceda, rail and -wagon roads were built through the Araucanian country, and many towns, -populated by Chilenos and foreigners sprung up along<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> these routes -of communication. Special European immigration was solicited and -encouraged by government aid, for the settlement of portions of the -territory. Foreign association and influence, changed conditions and -environments affected radical changes in the character, customs, habits -and beliefs of the Indians. They were brought face to face with the -on-marching hosts of civilization, and confronted with the problem -of accepting and adapting themselves to the new order of things, or -extinction. The ultimate result will be the latter.</p> - -<p>With the indigenous races of Chile, and the same is true of other -countries, vices tread fast upon the heels of civilization. With the -influx of peaceful neighbors, the martial valor of these warlike -Indians seems to have disappeared. They have acquired a passion for the -cheap brands of liquor introduced by foreigners, and in the indulgence -of their appetites for strong drink they have become indolent, and are -neglecting their farms and ranches. Many of them have turned their -lands over to the colonists, to work on shares, and are thus enabled -to lead lives of indolence and excessive indulgence. The raw liquor -which they drink is called “Blanco Toro” (white bull); the vile tobacco -they smoke is “peclen,” and their pipes are called “guitas.” They still -consume large quantities of the ancient Indian drink, “chicha mascada,” -which is made from corn that is first chewed by old women, and then put -through a process of fermentation. A drink is made from flaxseed by -the same process. They are determined and inveterate gamblers, their -favorite game being cards, “cayo.” The game they play is peculiar to -the tribe, and is called “achaco.”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> Among the traditional customs to -which they cling tenaciously are their Indian dances, “loncomeos,” -which are indulged in to the music of an instrument called “cuntum.” -This instrument is odd in design and peculiar in tone, being a sort of -combination banjo and tambourine.</p> - -<p>The Araucanians are as improvident as they are dishonest, and as proud -as they are lazy. Yet there is little extreme poverty and there are no -beggars among them. Until recent years they were strict vegetarians, -and still abstain from eating the flesh of cattle, but they have become -so far civilized as to develop a fondness for horse meat. An Indian -will willingly exchange a cow or bullock, regardless of value, for -a horse, if the equine is sufficiently fat to make it desirable for -food. Although many of them are skilled in the use of firearms, which -have been generally introduced in recent years, they still manifest a -fondness and preference for their bamboo lances, the weapon of war used -by their ancestors. They frequently indulge in personal encounters, -but always without weapons. These fights are questions of force and -endurance, science being left out of the contest, and the belligerent -methods employed are not sufficiently violent to result in death. The -combatants clutch each other by the hair of the head and indulge in a -game of pull-and-haul, the performance being accompanied usually with -a volley of wrathful words uttered in a high shrill voice. Unlike the -North American Indians they seldom resort to the use of a knife as a -weapon of offense or defense.</p> - -<p>The system of counting is strictly decimal—from one to ten. Twenty is -two tens, fifty, five tens, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span> one hundred is ten tens; two hundred -is two tens of ten, etc.</p> - -<p>In case of sickness the “machi” (doctor) is called. That functionary -passes his mouth over the entire body of the patient, pinching the -flesh with his lips to ascertain the location of the affliction. When -that portion is reached where the disease is supposed to be located, -an incision is made, from which the “machi” sucks the blood with his -mouth. Very few medicines are employed, the chief medicinal remedy used -being the leaf of the canelo (wild cinnamon) tree, which is considered -a cure for almost every ill.</p> - -<p>The treatment of the body after death, previous to burial, is one of -the queer and barbarous customs prevalent among the Araucanians. The -body is hung up in a building, usually the house in which the person -dies, and a slow wood fire built under the corpse. This process of -smoking is kept up for several weeks. When the antiseptic principle of -the creosote has completely cured the flesh, the body is taken down, -and is considered ready for burial. A rope is then attached to the -corpse, and a yoke of oxen employed to drag the body to the place of -burial. This grewsome procession is preceded by a number of men armed -with lances, who march in advance in order to drive away any enemies -or evil spirits, that they may not be buried with the dead to disturb -their future.</p> - -</div><div> -<h3>CHILOTES AND CHONOS.</h3> - -<p>The Chilote Indians inhabit the Island of Chiloe, and a portion of the -coast country in the province of Llanquihue, in which territory they -constitute the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> working population. They are a light copper color, and -differ materially in physical appearance from the Araucanians. They -are short in stature, heavy-set, broad, square shoulders, thick necks, -large heads, hands and feet. They have no chiefs or tribal government, -being peculiarly unrestrained in their personal lives by traditional -laws or government. They are peaceful and industrious. Each person -pursues such occupation as he may find or desire, that will afford a -living, without regard to the wishes or requirements of others. The -chief occupation of this small tribe in recent years is the manufacture -of a rough grade of lumber and timbers from a species of red pine, -called alerce. This wood has a beautiful straight grain, and the boards -are made by riving, instead of sawing. This rough lumber is transported -long distances upon the heads of the Indians, to the coast and interior -towns, where the product is exchanged for articles of food and clothing.</p> - -<p>The Chono Indians, inhabiting the archipelagoes of Guitecas and -Chonos, are few in numbers and live in a barbarous state. They live -in caves and small brush huts, and subsist entirely upon fish, which -they procure along the island coast. The Chonos are small in stature, -repulsive in appearance, and in intelligence, and their manner of -living ranks little above animals.</p> - -</div><div> -<h3>FUEGUINOS OR CANOE INDIANS.</h3> - -<p>The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego, which consists of the large island -of the same name, and numerous smaller islands, many of which are -rocky, ice-bound and forbidding in aspect, constitutes the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span> extreme -southern territorial limits of the continent, and is separated from the -mainland by the Strait of Magellan. The aborigines of this far southern -territory are divided into three tribes,—the Onas, Yahgans and the -Alacalupes. It is among these tribes, inhabiting a wild and forbidding -country, undisturbed by the march of progress and civilization, that -one may find the indigenous races living under the same conditions and -maintaining the traditions and customs that prevailed before the coming -of the white man to the western world.</p> - -</div><div> -<h3>ONAS.</h3> - -<p>The Onas are physically a fine race of people, the average height of -the men being a little over six feet; the women are also tall and -muscular. They have no system of tribal government, and are nomadic. -Their only occupation is hunting the guanaco, a fur-coated herbivorous -animal found in great numbers in the lower ranges of the Andes -Mountains in the south. The meat of the guanaco constitutes the chief -food supply of the Onas, and many of them subsist upon it entirely. The -skins of the animals are made into a sort of manta, which constitutes -the only costume worn by the men. They discard this costume when at -war, or in pursuit of the guanaco. The women wear only a small piece -of guanaco skin about their loins. The Onas live in families, one man -usually possessing several women. There is little regard for marriage -rites or usage, the more powerful and valiant of the men selecting -such women from the tribe as they may desire, and are able to maintain -against their rivals.</p> - -<p>Their only weapons are bows and arrows, slings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> and harpoons, the -latter being pointed with barbed bone spikes. The number of Onas is now -estimated at three thousand five hundred, but like the other tribes in -Chile they are decreasing.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>YAHGANS.</h3> - -<p>The coast of the Beagle Channel and all the archipelago south of -Tierra del Fuego to Cape Horn is inhabited by the Yahgan Indians. They -have no chiefs nor tribal laws and are perhaps the lowest grade of -human beings, in point of intelligence, and in the manner and customs -of living, existing on the American continent. They are dwarfed in -stature, have very dark skins and are repulsive in appearance. A -peculiar feature of the Yahgans is the extraordinary projection of -their front teeth, which are used for opening the shells of oysters and -mollusks. These bivalves and crustacea, their sole article of food, are -eaten raw.</p> - -<p>The Yahgans, like their neighbors, the Alacalupes of the western -channels of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, live almost constantly in -their canoes, their only means of transportation. For their fishing -expeditions they rarely pass the night on shore, traveling long -distances in their frail barques. Considering the turbulent waters in -the channels of the archipelago, and the fact that their canoes are -made of trunks of trees, propelled with paddles, and that a single -frail craft is sometimes laden with a family consisting of several -persons, their feats are little less than marvels of navigation.</p> - -<p>About fifty years ago English missions were established at Usuhaia, -on the Wallston Islands, and later<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> at Takanika, where some favorable -results were obtained in distracting the natives somewhat from the -pursuits of their nomadic life. A few of them utilize the knowledge -acquired from the missionaries in the cultivation of the soil. But -the missionaries having practically ceased their efforts in that -inhospitable country, most of the Indians have lapsed into their -traditional nomadic life, and their condition is perhaps worse to-day -than ever before. To add to the misfortunes of these miserable nomads, -who have sterility of soil and a rigorous climate to contend with, -many of them have been placed in actual slavery in recent years by -foreigners, who have acquired interests in the far south, and taking -advantage of the helplessness of the Indians have impressed them into -service without justification in moral or statutory law.</p> - -<p>The Chilean government, apparently indifferent to their fate, has -failed to interest itself in the cause of those unfortunate pariahs of -human society, whose ranks are being rapidly decimated and whose utter -extinction, under present conditions, is only a question of a few years.</p> - -<p>In 1882, Mr. Bridge, the missionary, calculated the Yahgan population -of the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego at three thousand, but in 1883, -the scientific expedition of the “Romanche” estimated the diminishing -population at one thousand three hundred. This estimate was based -upon the number of canoes counted in the channels, approximately two -hundred, each of which was manned by a family of six persons on the -average. From later data, which has been furnished by people living -in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> archipelago, who have endeavored to make a census of the -population, the number of this tribe is calculated at seven hundred.</p> - -<p>On several occasions the Yahgans have requested foreigners who have -visited the islands to present their case to the Chilean government and -ask for relief from existing conditions. But so far nothing has been -done in the way of providing for or improving the condition of these -unfortunate people.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>ALACALUPES.</h3> - -<p>The Alacalupes occupy the coast of the Patagonian Cordilleras to the -northwest of the Straits of Magellan. They are also nomads, practically -living in their canoes. Like the Yahgans they are small and are very -dark, their color being that of mahogany. Notwithstanding the severity -of the climate they wear no clothing, and their appearance is one of -misery and total depravity. Their only food is fish, which they are -most dexterous in catching, and which is eaten raw. This tribe has no -chiefs, nor has it any laws governing or restricting individual action. -They have no religion and observe no religious rites. All property, -such as they have, is individual. Agriculture is unknown among them. -When not in their canoes they remain along the shore, never going far -inland. They sometimes cut branches from trees and arrange them as a -protection against the fierce winds that sweep the coast in winter, but -they never use fire, either as a protection against cold or for cooking.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the fact that these poor, depraved human beings wear -no clothing, they are not dead to a sense of modesty, as is sometimes -evidenced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> when in the presence of foreigners. Marriage is a question -of reciprocal sentiment, without ceremony or demonstration. Each -of these tribes speaks a different language, which like all Indian -languages is euphonious, and attractive in its simplicity.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>PATAGONIANS.</h3> - -<p>The most intelligent and progressive race of aborigines in southern -South America, a tribe that raises to considerable extent the general -low level of life that exists in that section, is the Patagonians. -They live in well-constructed, portable tents, called “toldos,” made -from guanaco skins, fastened to wooden supports by rawhide thongs, and -staked to the ground with pieces of bone. These toldos are so arranged -that they can be easily taken apart and removed as necessity may -require. Their food consists of the meat of the ostrich, guanaco and -deer, all of which abound in the territory inhabited by them.</p> - -<p>Physically the Patagonians are a superior race, the average height of -the men being considerably over six feet, and many of them are fully -seven feet tall. They are well proportioned, deep chested and muscular. -They have intelligent faces, regular features, aquiline nose, high -forehead and square chin. Their facial expression is one of amiability -and good nature. The complexion of the men, when their faces are clean -of paint, is a reddish brown; that of the women a healthy, ruddy hue. -The young women are often good-looking, but the severe climate and -their manner of living make them prematurely old and ugly. The men’s -costume consists<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> of a woolen cloth worn next to the body, and a heavy -cloak made of guanaco skins, fastened at the neck and extending to -the ankles. Their high boots, “buskins,” are made from the skin of -the lower part of the hind legs of horses, and worn in the natural -form. These buskins are procured from the wild horses, thousands of -which roam over the pampas of Patagonia. The costume of the women is -practically the same as that worn by the men, except that the clothing -beneath the guanaco cloak is a little more elaborate.</p> - -<p>They possess the Indian characteristic fondness for jewelry and -personal adornment. They wear huge silver earrings, the pendants of -which are sometimes eight inches square; they also adorn themselves -with silver necklaces and quantities of beads. A Patagonian Indian six -and a half feet tall, robed in a beautiful guanaco cloak with flowing -folds, and adorned with huge silver ornaments, presents a picturesque -and striking appearance.</p> - -<p>The Patagonians differ from most Indian races in their observance of -certain hygienic laws. They sleep upon beds made of guanaco skins, in -tents that are kept fairly clean. Men, women and children indulge in -a cold bath every morning in the year. This practice, in addition to -aiding materially in building up and maintaining the splendid physical -constitutions for which they are noted, enables them to withstand -more easily the rigors of the severe climate. Their occupation is -that of hunting the ostrich, guanaco and other animals indigenous to -the territory. The flesh of the game is used for food, and the skins -converted into robes and rugs, which they market at Punta Arenas, and -for which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> they receive good prices. They are skillful hunters and the -method they employ in hunting ostriches and guanacos is unique. They -possess firearms, both rifles and revolvers, and are not unskilled in -their use; they also carry swords, daggers and lances, which are used -only when dismounted, and none of which are employed in the chase. -Ostriches and animals are pursued on horseback, the hunter carrying a -“bola,” which on near approach to the object of his pursuit he hurls -with unerring aim, seldom failing to stun and entangle the bird or -beast until it becomes an easy victim to his knife or lance. The bola, -which is peculiar to Patagonia, consists of three round stones, or -metal balls, the size of an orange, covered with rawhide. To each of -these is fastened a plaited rawhide rope six feet in length. The ends -of these ropes are united and fastened to a lasso. The hunter before -casting the bola takes it in one hand and by swinging it rapidly over -his head sends the balls rotating in the air with great velocity. He -then casts it as the vaquero does his lasso. When it strikes, the -revolving balls wrap the thongs tightly about the object of the chase, -entangling it and putting a stop to its flight. The hunter then rides -along by the side of the entrammeled prey and dispatches it. It is an -exciting scene to see a Patagonian mounted upon a fleet pony racing -across the pampa in pursuit of an ostrich. It possesses elements of -sport that are peculiarly attractive to one who is fond of hunting.</p> - -<p>These people have no religious creed and do not believe in a personal -God. There is a tradition among them that there is a great good spirit -who created them, but they have no well-defined creed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> and religious -feasts are unknown among them. They believe in the sanctity of animals, -but do not worship any of them. They have a superstitious dread of -demons, whom they try to propitiate through the mediation of medicine -men, to whom only the demons are supposed to be visible. Charms and -talismans are worn as a means of warding off evil spirits. They are -ignorant of culture and conventionalities, yet they are not ungrateful -or inhospitable. They never give presents, nor will they receive favors -from others.</p> - -<p>One of the queer customs of this peculiar people is that of celebrating -marriages. The bridegroom secures the consent of both his own parents -and those of the bride. The fathers of the young couple then move their -tents near each other. An unsaddled horse is placed in front of each -of the tents, and at a prearranged signal the bride and groom rush -from their respective tents, mount the horses and gallop away on their -wedding trip.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CLASSIFIED_HUSBANDMEN">CLASSIFIED HUSBANDMEN</h2> -</div> - - -<p>To describe the life of the country people of Chile it is necessary to -classify the disintegrate parts which enter into combination with all -those who till the soil, and in which each has a personal and common -interest. The first grade in the classification is the peon, the lowest -class, who owns no land, and is illiterate, hard working, destitute, -and docile.</p> - -<p>The second, Land Owner <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 1, lives upon a small plot of non-productive -ground. The possession is small, but nevertheless his own, acquired by -industry, economy, or inheritance. If he works for others as a peon, it -is a matter of choice. If he has sons they work where they choose. His -land being insufficient to maintain himself and family, is used as a -residence only.</p> - -<p>The third husbandman in the classification is different only in -distinction as to the amount of his worldly effects; his habits, -customs and life are the same as Land Owner <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 1, except upon a little -more extensive scale. He is perhaps more selfish and self-contained. -His ambition is not to improve himself or his family, but to add to his -money and possessions. He is facilitated somewhat in his avaricious -aims by his small means.</p> - -<p>The fourth grade in the agricultural classification is the outgrowth, -the evolution of the classes below him. He calls himself a gentleman, -but lacks the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> breeding, manners and education to justify the title. -He is of the “roto” type, only richer, and better dressed, on parade -occasions. He owns lands sufficient to support himself and family -without manual labor. This independence is usually acquired by years of -selfish economy and penuriousness, or by inheritance or marriage. His -one aim in life seems to be the acquisition of money, no matter by what -means.</p> - -<p>Fifth and last in the grading of the agriculturists comes the -hacendado, or landlord, the owner of large, valuable and productive -haciendas. He usually regards himself as the prince of earth, -all-powerful and influential. His hacienda is his dukedom, his -fortress. No one can enter or leave without his permission and all -within its limits do his bidding unquestioned. He is lord and monarch -of all he surveys, and takes little heed of those below his social -station. The hacendados run politics and make presidents, name -congressmen, senators, judges and governors.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>PEONS.</h3> - -<p>It is difficult to describe the peon, or Roto Chileno. He is -contradictory by nature, compound and complex in character. He is -industrious and lazy, simple and cunning, honest and dishonest, brave -and cowardly, true and false. He is homeless, roving, restless, -dirty, slovenly, cares nothing for his past life and is without hope -or ambition for the future. With limitless improvidence he lives in -the present and is a happy-go-lucky, generous, careless, good-natured -individual who never wastes time gazing upon the sorry side of life. -He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> roams from place to place in search of a job, earning barely enough -to keep soul and body together, and not always sufficient to clothe -himself. Russian serfdom is not worse than the life some live in Chile, -especially the “inquilinos” (farm laborers), living upon their master’s -property. Do not pity the peon; he does not ask for, need nor want it. -He possesses the faithful humility of a dog and the cunning qualities -of the fox. Do not try to reform, civilize, reconstruct, or otherwise -change or reclaim him; he will successfully defy all efforts. The -blood of the Incas is in his veins, the old-fashioned way is best for -him, and he is content. He wants no changes or innovations, and will -admit of none. All he wants is to be left alone. Although he has never -known the pleasure of prosperity, he is apparently contented and never -unhappy. Born in poverty and humility, so he lives and dies.</p> - -<p>The Roto Chilenos not only constitute the laboring class in Chile, but -the army, navy and police force are largely recruited from their ranks. -As soldiers they possess a reckless bravery that will stop at nothing. -With a cry of “viva Chile” they will charge an enemy, never to return, -unless victory makes it possible. They are fearless to foolhardiness. -They will rush fortifications under fire, scale walls or steep bluffs, -swim rivers, and if all are killed the loss is not considered. One -single handed will not fight against odds, but in numbers and in hand -to hand conflicts the bravery of the Chileno is not excelled by any -nationality. They do not fight intelligently, but desperately. Their -favorite weapon is a knife, and every Roto Chileno goes armed with a -“corvo,” a knife with a long,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> curved blade, tapering to a sharp point, -and usually ornamented with a heavy metal handle. It is encased in a -leather sheath, and is carried in the belt or boot of the possessor. -It is an article of common utility, as well as a weapon of offense and -defense. When angered, or threatened with danger, the Chilean produces -a corvo as naturally as the American negro does a razor, and he is -exceedingly skillful in its use. It is not an uncommon thing for one -peon to disembowel another with one sweep of the corvo, usually leaving -a triangular shaped wound, a mark of this weapon that is peculiar to -the people. As an evidence of their partiality for the knife as a -fighting weapon, it is related that in many instances during the war -between Peru and Chile, in time of battle, the Chilean soldiers threw -away their rifles and rushed upon the enemy with corvos, fighting in -hand-to-hand conflict.</p> - -<p>These same men are afraid of a small dog, and will exhibit fear in many -ways under most ordinary circumstances. Contradictory elements enter -into their composite characters. They are patient, long suffering, and -have wonderful endurance. They think nothing of a serious flesh wound, -but if one of them has a toothache or headache he will wrap up his head -like an old woman with the mumps. Often they wear such a woe-begone, -lost look that one would almost believe in their manifest troubles if -their cunning ways of shirking a duty were not so well known.</p> - -<p>With five centavos in his pocket the roto is a capitalist, and will -not work until prompted by necessity. He speaks Spanish badly, and in -a mumbling,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> drawling manner, often using the most vile and profane -language in the presence of both men and women of his own class. In -stature the Roto Chileno is, as a rule, short, massive and muscular; -his skin is an amber brown. He has small, black, beady eyes, slight -beard, stiff black hair that grows low upon his forehead. The shape of -his head is generally that of a pumpkin, the back of the head being -quite flat. He has a short, thick neck, large flat feet, and small -tapering hands. The ears, mouth and nose are not out of proportion to -his size. He walks with a rapid, ambling gait, body bent forward, legs -wide apart and his long arms swinging at his sides. His few, scanty, -ragged garments are usually covered with a homemade wool “poncho.” The -bottoms of his feet are covered with rawhide sandals, “ojotas,” and he -invariably wears a straw hat, “chupalla.” The general appearance of -the roto, as one sees him on the road, with dirty face, dingy straw -hat drawn well down over his eyes, trousers rolled up at the ankle, -shirt open at the chest, a corvo in his belt and a poncho thrown over -his shoulders, is that of approaching ruin. His face is more repulsive -than ugly, and he is more nearly naked than ragged. Some of the more -provident among them, however, wear clean clothes on Sundays and other -feast days. They occasionally wash their hands and faces, but never -their bodies. They are by nature a pacific people. The fighting spirit -is generally aroused in them by the consumption of bad liquor. They -help each other in their personal work or difficulties, and are great -jokers, one with another.</p> - -<p>The “patron” (employer) always furnishes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> food to his laborers. The -universal food of the country for the poor people is “porotos” (beans), -and the ration for each man or boy, per day, is all the beans he can -hold in his two hands placed together. The rations are cooked together, -as many being placed in the pot as there are persons to be provisioned. -At meal-time the pot is delivered to the peons who sit on the ground in -a circle around the vessel. Each is supposed to have his own spoon, but -if not, a flat stick or piece of bark serves the purpose. After all are -seated each dips into the pot and eats until the allowance is finished. -One meal is all they eat in a day after eight o’clock in the morning, -at which hour they eat a loaf of black bread, in exchange for which -they may receive a double handful of toasted wheat, “harina tostado.” -This diet is never changed, never varied, after they leave the mother’s -breast. When the supply of beans is short, “mote” (wheat boiled in lye -until the hull is loosened, after which it is removed by rubbing the -grains between two stones), is sometimes mixed with the beans.</p> - -<p>In the extreme southern part of Chile, the ration is somewhat -different. There, “chuchoca” (green corn boiled and dried on the cob) -is mixed with the beans. The peons never depart from the established -ration. When not working they eat a little parched wheat flour in the -morning, or such other food as they may be lucky enough to obtain. If -one has no food he goes to some rancho where there is a supply, and -where he is invariably served, as they are always generous with each -other.</p> - -<p>Peons will sleep anywhere, in places wet or dry,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> clean or unclean. -With a stick of wood or a stone for a pillow, and with a poncho spread -over him he will sleep the sleep of innocence, without care for the -present or thought of the future. An old “mozo” (man servant), known -to be honest, through many years of faithful service, went one day to -the home of his former employer, where he was given food, and a bed -was provided for him in the house. During the night the gentleman was -disturbed by sounds of apparent distress in the corridor. Thinking the -mozo was ill, he went to inquire the cause of the trouble. The peon -informed him that he could not sleep upon that “soft thing,” meaning -the mattress, and asked permission to make his bed out-of-doors. He was -informed that he could sleep where he pleased. Taking his saddle for a -pillow, and a sheepskin for his bed, and spreading a poncho over him he -lay down upon the pavement of the patio. In the morning he was found -sleeping soundly, his face turned toward heaven, his unkempt beard -covered with frost.</p> - -<p>Peons in the cities do not receive a daily ration of beans, as is the -custom in the country, but are given money, “diario,” with which to buy -food. The Chilean peon cannot stand prosperity. As a general rule the -worse he is treated and fed, the better service he will render. This -applies more directly to the “inquilinos,” than to independent peons.</p> - -<p>The rotos are polite to each other and salute when they meet by -touching their hats, saying “Buenos dias, Caballeros” (good day, -gentlemen). When asking for and receiving a light for a cigarette, they -say, “Mil gracias, Dios guarde Ud.,” (a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> thousand thanks, God guard -you). When a peon meets a superior who says, “como le va” (how do you -do), the peon answers, “muy bien, para servirle a Ud.,” (very good, I -offer you my services). They are rarely insolent to their superiors and -when sober, never. They are illiterate to the extreme, having no desire -to learn, but they are naturally clever and are capable of rendering -good service, where mechanical skill is not required. You cannot -out-figure one of them, and he will quickly remind you of any mistake -in a transaction, if it counts against him.</p> - -<p>Among the roto class, grandfather, father and son all work together, -and have always been, as they are now, upon an equality in destitution. -Their only apparent ambition seems to be to work enough during the -week to secure a few pesos on Saturday night, with which to buy -“aguardiente” (raw brandy), “vino” or “chicha” (wine or cider) at the -“Cancha de Bola.” When a crowd of peons congregate at any one of the -many places where drinks are sold, in the country, first one buys a -litro (quart), and after taking a drink, he passes the cup, called -“potrillo,” to the friend next to him, and so it is passed until -empty. Then another buys a litro and passes it, and they continue -to treat each other until all are fighting drunk. This is continued -from Saturday night until Monday morning, and not infrequently until -Monday night or Tuesday. Employers of labor have learned by experience -not to expect anything from or depend upon their workmen for regular -service on Monday, as the majority of them are incapacitated from the -effects of drink—on Sunday. In the drinking places<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> where the roto -spends his Sundays and feast days, in drinking and gambling, there are -always a number of women, “cantoras,” who join in the drinking, and -between drinks entertain the crowd with dancing and singing, playing -accompaniments on guitars.</p> - -<p>The Saturday night and Sunday debauch of the peons generally commences -after a hard week’s work, and frequently lasts thirty-six hours without -sleep, and sixty hours without food. After having slept off the effects -of drink, they are ready for business Tuesday or Wednesday morning. -When they return to work they give a legal day’s labor, without -persuasion to stimulate their activity. All differences are forgotten -and no questions asked, knowing that it is only a few days until they -will have another spree, and the weekly experience be repeated. They -are inveterate gamblers. Men may be seen naked in the road, having -lost all their clothing on a game of chance. The game may be cards, -dice, topeadura, a cock fight or any contest in which the result is in -doubt. The peon is a born gambler, and a cheerful loser. If beaten in -a game he accepts the results with the indifference of a stoic or the -sang-froid of a professional. He never complains, but bides his time -for another chance to recover his losses.</p> - -<p>The “Cancha de Bola,” the peon’s clubhouse, is a cemented or smooth -floor space, covered with a thatched roof, but not enclosed. The game -at the cancha is a sort of Indian billiards, played by rolling large -wooden balls over the floor. There men and women meet on Sundays and -feast days, to play games, drink and discuss the events of the week.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -And every cent is coaxed from every pocket to fill the coffers of the -owner of the cancha.</p> - -<p>Drunkenness is one of the chief curses of Chile, especially among the -common people. The moral standard is not of a character that sets a ban -upon drunkenness, and the custom of excessive drinking is indulged in -by men, women, and not infrequently children. All classes are engaged -more or less in the manufacture, sale and consumption of wine, chicha, -aguardiente and pisco, the latter being alcohol made from the white -grape. Every village store or shop dispenses liquors, and many of the -huts along the country roads retail drinks. On Sundays and feast days -these road houses are common resorts for peons, huasos and inquilinos. -And there viciousness and crime are encouraged by excessive indulgence -in cheap, and often adulterated and poisonous wines and liquors.</p> - -<p>A new liquor law went into effect in 1902, which had for its purpose -a sweeping reform in the manufacture and sale of intoxicants. It -takes control of the production, limits the number and location of -saloons; prohibits the sale within a reasonable distance of a church -or schoolhouse, imposes a fine upon drunkenness and provides a severe -penalty for the adulteration, falsifying or placing upon the market a -product of the country not up to the standard fixed by law. But reforms -and radical changes in customs in Chile are much easier in theory than -in practice, and the promoters of the liquor law find it difficult to -enforce its provisions. It is, however, a move in the right direction, -and much good has resulted from the effort to carry it into effect.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span></p> - -<p>The scene at a country despacho on Sunday or feast days is as -picturesque as it is characteristic. There one will see a great number -of men and women on horseback, frequently indulging in their cups, -while seated on their horses in front of the despacho. The men are -dressed in the peculiar costume of the country, wide-brimmed straw -hats, ornamented with silk cord or braid, ponchos of brilliant colors, -leggings reaching to the thighs, huge spurs and high heeled, pointed -toed boots. Their saddles and bridles are richly ornamented, curiously -fashioned, and form an interesting feature of the peculiar outfit. To -the side of the saddle is usually attached a lasso, made of braided -rawhide, strong, supple and ready for instant use. With this article -the huaso is an artist. He practices the trick of casting the lasso in -his infancy, keeps it up in youth, and becomes a master in the use of -it as a man. One end is attached to his saddle, and the pony on which -he is mounted is schooled in all the tricks of pursuing the animal or -object to be captured, and to stop suddenly and brace itself for the -shock when the lasso has been thrown. So accurate is the aim that it -is difficult for man or beast to escape the noose of the huaso’s lasso -when he sends it circling through the air. He is even more clever than -the cowboy of the western plains, for the reason that his education -begins earlier in life. His use of the lasso is not always limited to -the business of capturing animals. He frequently resorts to it as a -means of sport.</p> - -<p>Two or more will take sides, and, riding at each other full speed, -attempt to drag their opponents from their horses. There is little -regard for consequences,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> and when the noose encircles the arm, neck, -or body of one, and he receives the shock that comes from being -suddenly dragged from his horse at the end of a rawhide rope, the -sensation is not pleasant to say the least.</p> - -<p>Unless fired by bad liquor there prevails among the Chilean huasos a -general good fellowship and friendly familiarity. They are clannish, -with a strong prejudice against all “gringos” (foreigners). When a -crowd of huasos congregate in the country or village, they invariably -indulge in some exciting games or contests requiring rare skill on the -part of the participants, and strength and endurance of the stocky, -intelligent ponies on which they are mounted. One of the most common -of their sports is “topeadura,” on which large sums of money are -frequently wagered—a game which the people for miles around will -assemble to see. On feast days it is the common attraction at all -the despachos and road houses, and every hacienda of any consequence -has its own contest at such times. The game is played at a long pole -called “vara,” generally cut from the blue gum, and fixed in Y-shaped -supports, the object of the opposing teams being to push each other -back to the end of the pole. The captains, or leaders, toss for -position, which is important, as the winner places his horse’s head -under that of his opponent’s, giving him the advantage of driving -his mount like a wedge between the other and the pole. Other members -of the two teams range themselves behind the captains, and a perfect -pandemonium of clamor arises from the players and spectators as soon -as the struggle begins. The horses enter into the spirit of the game,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -and strive with every nerve and sinew to force themselves forward, and -it is a rare thing to see the players use their spurs. The game is -far more interesting when it is reduced to a match or wager between -two players of note, because they are then splendidly mounted, large -sums often being paid for well-trained horses. The terrific straining -of two animals to force each other back provides a marvelous study -of anatomy with muscle at its highest tension. The horse which has -the disadvantage in position will, before the signal to begin has -been given, press down upon its adversary’s neck so as to nullify the -advantage. A feature of the game is the excitement of spectators, -one or more of whom are frequently impelled by zeal or drink, to -drive their horses into the struggle and spoil it. Such interruptions -usually result in the indiscreet meddler getting roughly handled by the -indignant players, whence the Chilean saying that “topeadura is a good -game to watch from a distance.”</p> - -<p>All the horses of Chile cannot, however, be judged by the standard of -these high priced sporting animals. The typical horse of the country -is one peculiar to the Republic and when mounted by a huaso in his -picturesque costume, the pony presents the appearance of supporting a -pair of spurs with rider attached. He is a product of the old Spanish -stock, docile, intelligent, and hardy, and though he has not the fine -quarters of the improved breeds, he is strong, has wonderful endurance -and can climb like a goat. They furnish all the mounts for the Chilean -cavalry, and in recent years Great Britain and some of the European -nations are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> adopting Chilean horses for cavalry purposes. They are -gentle, obedient, seldom ever vicious, and are easily trained for -any kind of service. From this description it would seem that the -remarkable spurs invariably worn by the huaso and “vaqueros” might be -dispensed with, but they are as much a part of their riding kit as -their ponchos and lassos.</p> - -<p>The Chilean saddle, “silla,” is peculiar to the country, and is the -most expensive part of the huaso’s outfit. Many of them are works of -art, covered with patent leather, beautifully and elaborately stitched -with silk thread and ornamented with silver. In shape they are not -unlike the Mexican saddle, except that they are shorter in the seat, -and the front, instead of forming a high pommel with a neck-like -projection, to which the lasso is fastened, is oval-shaped like the -high back, forming a deep cushioned seat into which the rider fits -closely. On either side in front is a leather roll, which prevents the -rider from slipping forward. The stirrups, “estribos,” huge affairs -made from solid blocks of wood, artistically designed, hand-carved and -beautifully ornamented, are supported by single straps, attached to -the saddle so far back that they cause the rider to lean well forward. -These stirrups, which are perhaps the most unique article of their -kind in the world, are usually adorned with silver or inlaid steel -mountings. The wooden stirrups prevent the feet of the rider from -getting wet and protect them from the “espino,” a bush with harsh, -stiff branches and fierce thorns; they also serve as a means of warming -the feet on cold days, as the person in the saddle can by striking his -feet against the stirrups dispel the numbness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> resulting from cold. The -saddle is always fastened with a rawhide cinch and never with a buckle -girth. Many of the saddles have two cinches and are bound so securely -that there is little possibility of accident from slipping or turning.</p> - -<p>The “montura,” a peculiar kind of saddle much used in Chile in pioneer -days, is now seldom seen. It is composed of six sheepskins, a rather -excessive foundation, upon which is placed an “enjalma,” a skeleton -saddle made of wood and bound together with rawhide. Over this are -spread six more skins with the wool on, the whole being covered with -a beautifully dressed kid skin. The montura is fastened with a cinch, -into the fabric of which is woven the national colors of the Republic. -It constitutes a rather elevated seat, which gives to the rider a -peculiarly awkward position. But the montura was designed for and -serves more purposes than one. In the early days when roads were few -and long trips were made across country on horseback the numerous skins -composing the odd saddle were used by the rider for a bed and covering -at night.</p> - -<p>The “espuelas” (spurs), worn by the Chilenos are the largest in -the world, the rowels on some of them being six or eight inches in -diameter. In order to prevent the rowels from dragging on the ground, -they are worn with high heeled boots on which there is a leather -projection back of and above the heel, upon which the spurs rest, and -which keeps them at an elevation that prevents their coming in contact -with the ground. The rowels are not sharp, however, and are less severe -than the smaller spurs with sharp cutting points. They are also used -by the wearer as a means of maintaining his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> equilibrium when a horse -attempts to unseat him. This is accomplished by catching the spurs in -the saddle cinch.</p> - -<p>The bridle, “freno,” made of plaited rawhide, is strong, durable, and -artistic. It is frequently ornamented with silver or inlaid steel -attachments. Buckles are seldom used in the Chilean bridle. The reins -are joined at the ends with a heavy ring to which is attached a single -strand of braided rawhide, ending with a flat piece of the same -material, called “chicote,” or as is often the case, loaded with lead, -when it is called “penca.” The Chilean bit is unlike anything else of -its kind. It is an instrument of torture, unique in design and terrible -in its effect. It is very heavy, and is so formed that the rider can -almost break the jaw of a horse with a hard, quick pull on the reins. -They are used unsparingly upon the poor ponies, who serve their masters -so faithfully. It is a custom of the huaso to practice bringing his -horse from a run to an instant stop. He teaches the animal to rush full -speed at any object. In order to accomplish these maneuvers they apply -the full force of the terrible bit. It is one of the many cruelties -practiced upon the horses. Originally the best of the beautiful and -artistic bits used in Chile were designed by a Chilean mechanic whose -shop or factory was at Pana Flor, a small village near Santiago. The -Pana Flor bits are known throughout the Republic, and the huaso who -possesses one is a proud man, especially if it is silver mounted, as -many of them are. The owner of one of these much prized articles might -be induced to part with his wife, but not with his bridle. This is -particularly true now because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> in recent years the market has been -flooded with cheap imitations of the genuine article, and the Pana Flor -genius who created the unique bit, so characteristic of the country, -has passed from the stage of action, and the product is now regarded as -a “recuerdo” of rare value.</p> - -<p>With all the ill-treatment imposed upon them, the Chilean horses seem -fond of their masters. If left alone unfastened they will wait for -hours for the return of their owners. They will gallop long distances -over sand roads, up-hill and down, over stones, without shoes, and -after a night’s foraging upon scant grass they are fit for another -day’s work that may mean many leagues over bad roads.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to witness the performance of a drunken huaso trying -to reach home on his pony. The animal, perhaps from much experience -with drunken riders, seems to understand the condition of his master, -and his intelligence and patience in trying to help the man who is -helplessly drunk, is both amusing and pathetic. He will stand firmly -and patiently until the man is in the saddle, then start gently along, -swaying from side to side as the rider loses his equilibrium, and -when the man can sit erect no longer, will stop and wait for him to -straighten up. Sometimes hours are spent in going a short distance. -Cruel spurs rake him, and the terrible bit lacerates his mouth, but he -seldom becomes excited, and if the man falls off, the patient beast -invariably stops and waits for him to remount.</p> - -<p>For general thieving the Roto Chileno has an international reputation, -and it is conceded that he is capable of more clever lying and stealing -than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> any known individual. They are not bold thieves, but rather of -the sneak-thief order. If useful articles are left unguarded they seem -to take wings and fly away. Yet no one has been seen or heard, and the -rotos are the meekest of the innocent.</p> - -<p>With all his faults the roto has, however, in many things a sense -of responsibility. You may place one of them to guard any property -(liquors excepted), and he will not steal nor permit others to do so. -You may dispatch him with ladened carts, troops of cargo mules, money -or other valuables, and under most circumstances your orders will be -executed with the utmost fidelity. The responsibility attached to the -service, when upon special missions, seems to convey the idea that he -is under your eye. His faults may be attributed to ignorance and the -custom of bad example rather than an evil heart. If treated kindly -and fairly he will show some gratitude and appreciation by rendering -faithful service. All work done by the peons is under the supervision -of mayordomos. They are not supposed to think, but simply to do as -they are ordered. They work with their hands and not with their heads, -yet no one can give a better day’s work than the roto when he exerts -himself. Their hours are from sunrise to sunset, stopping an hour for -the midday meal. The peons formerly received from twenty to thirty -cents per day, Chilean currency, the latter sum being paid to those in -the country adjacent to the cities, but in more recent years they are -a little better paid. They must be paid on Saturday night or they will -not work willingly. If not working, they are left without food, but -this makes little difference as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> those who are employed divide with -their friends.</p> - -<p>The peons are nearly all born out of wedlock; illegitimacy is nothing -to them. Many are married, but even then they admit no obligations to -support their families. In every district they are nearly all related. -Fathers, mothers, if they can be identified, aunts, uncles, nephews, -cousins, address each other as “comdares” or “compadres” (comrades). -If increased pay tempts the peon away from his district, he will save -his money until a few dollars have accumulated, then he will return -and spend it with his old friends. In the winter months, when the rain -prevents outdoor work, they have many ways to get money. They sell -their labor in advance at greatly reduced rates. This is called “en -verde,” signifying in green, or while growing. They sell a number of -“tareas” of wheat, a certain term used in measuring the cutting of -wheat. Animals are often sold before they are born, fowls before they -are hatched, and wheat before it is sown.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>LAND OWNER <abbr title="number">NO.</abbr> 1.</h3> - -<p>The possessions of Land Owner <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 1 being too small to maintain himself -and family, he rents land to till on the shares. The custom is for -the landlord to provide the land, the seed and the animals with which -to do the cultivating and threshing. The tenant performs the labor -and prepares for market the grain, which is divided equally. When not -engaged in the necessary work of cultivating and harvesting the crops -upon his own or rented land, he works in a “chacra” (vegetable garden), -or finds employment in making adobes, bricks, tiles,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> or wooden -stirrups, cutting lumber, curing skins, etc. Sometimes he is sent by -neighboring hacendados on errands to the city for cargoes of goods, to -mill with wheat, or to the railway with mule trains carrying charcoal. -His possessions consist of a horse, a yoke of oxen, and possibly a -mule. All the tools that he has or requires are an ax, a shovel, a hoe -and a crowbar. His animals are usually pastured in the hacienda, and -the “talaje” (pasturage), paid for in work during plowing, sowing, -or harvest time. His “rancho” (house), which he refers to as “mi -vivienda,” is a creation not defined in the annals of architecture. -It is constructed by placing a number of poles in the ground; to the -tops of these upright posts other timbers of a similar character are -fastened by tying them with rope or pieces of bark. Between the posts, -sticks and branches of trees are woven, forming a sort of basket -work. Over this a coating of mud mixed with straw forms the walls. -The frame for the roof is also made of the trunks of small trees -fastened together with bark; over the crude skeleton is woven a straw -thatch, which is seldom rain proof. The door is made by tying together -sticks or planks, for which pieces of bark or rawhide serve as hinges. -The floors are dirt, and there are no windows or chimneys, and when -necessary to build a fire in the house the smoke filters out through -crevices in the walls and the thatch roof. These miserable huts, which -form the places of habitation of the poor, are never perpendicular -nor stand at proper angles, for the reason that they are shaped by -the crooked timbers forming their framework. The interior presents an -appearance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> quite as barren and devoid of comfort as the exterior. The -furniture consists of a crude bedstead, a rickety table, and a few -benches or stools. There are no articles of comfort or luxury in the -homes of the poor. The men sleep upon the ground, inside or out of the -house, as they choose, or as the weather permits. The crude furniture -and the burnt clay dishes upon which their food is served are made by -the women. The food is usually cooked in an iron kettle over an open -fire, or in an oven of brick and mud built outside of the house. A -peculiar feature of these squalid ranchos, especially in the interior -of the country, is the barrenness of their surroundings. Usually there -is not a tree, shrub, plant or flower, or any living, growing, green -thing to relieve the dreariness of the desolate surroundings. This is -all the more surprising when it is remembered that Chile possesses a -prodigious soil, and that all kinds of vegetation grows quickly and -prolifically when water is applied to the ground. Along the railways -and near the cities a majority of the ranchos are distinguished by the -cultivation of a variety of fruit trees, vegetables and flowers. The -site selected for a country house is usually with reference to a supply -of water.</p> - -<p>Viewed from the roadside these rickety ranchos present a picturesque -appearance. It is the frayed edge of home life that is always to be -found behind the sub-tropical finery of semi-tropical countries. It is -not well, however, to examine too closely or inquire carefully into the -details of this home life. It is better to be gracious, for squalid -as is the peon’s cottage, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> unkempt as the family may appear, the -extraordinary variety of dirt and the fantastic untidiness of the huts -baffle description and escape reproduction. Similar spots may be seen -in any land, for every population has its wastrels, but in the far -east there is not to be found a lower level of life and greater lack -of comfort generally, than that which suffices for the lowest classes -in Chile. In a country blessed with a paucity of noxious reptiles -and insects, where no beast more formidable than the cowardly puma -dwells, and where birds and flowers of rare beauty abound, it seems -inappropriate that man should dwell in such domestic squalor.</p> - -<p>The male occupants of these houses do not, as a rule, contribute -anything to the maintenance of the family. That feature of domestic -life is left exclusively to the women, who are a hard working, -self-sacrificing, humble and long suffering class. While they are -neither honest nor virtuous, their vices are due more to ignorance and -circumstances than natural tendencies, and their rewards do not match -their merits. They do not feel the necessity of acting with scrupulous -honesty at all times, as they are possessed of the belief that the -priests will remit all their sins upon the payment of a given sum of -money. Their education is narrow and limited, and they have never been -well instructed in the virtues of the ten commandments. They spin, -weave and dye ponchos for their men folk, and for sale; make blankets, -fabrics for clothing, and clay dishes for their own use and for the -market. They raise poultry, not for home consumption, but that they may -sell the fowls and eggs, which are usually sold in advance.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span></p> - -<p>These people are always in debt to the well-to-do landowners in the -community where they live, and from whom they buy cloth, wool, dyes, -food, etc. When eggs are laid or fowls are grown they are given in -payment for these articles. One not familiar with the customs and -conditions would be surprised in traveling through the country to find -that it is difficult to buy an egg or a chicken at any of the ranchos, -notwithstanding the fact that there seems to be a plentiful supply at -every house.</p> - -<p>When in need, peons buy on credit, and will obligate anything they -possess, present or prospective, in payment. They live from hand to -mouth, and seldom have more than one day’s supply of food on hand. -Their wants are few, they are easily satisfied and generally contented. -In the production of articles requiring intelligence and skill, the -women excel the men. In different localities they produce different -kinds of articles. For example, in Linares they make a great variety -of beautiful baskets and curios from colored horse hair and fine -straw; in Talcahuano, Concepcion, Chillan and Quillota the country -women devote their time to the production of pretty and durable lace -called “minaque,” which is made by hand and in a variety of patterns; -along the coast country they make excellent hats from the dwarf palm, -called “olma”; in other localities they make baskets, large and small, -useful and ornamental; they also make beautiful as well as useful -articles from the horns of animals, and of wood, stone and paper. -They are clever and adaptive in all of their occupations, but lack in -those qualities which lead to independence. Their favorite position is -sitting on the ground, and while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> engaged in their various occupations -they carry on a chatty gossip about their personal affairs, or those of -their neighbors, which is usually more racy than edifying.</p> - -<p>There is a rustic beauty about the Chilean women in their youth, but -their manner of living causes their beauty to fade at an early age, -and at twenty-five the majority of them begin to look old and grow -stout and homely. They acquire an erect carriage and grace of movement -from the custom of carrying articles of various kinds upon the head. -They have broad hips, well-developed busts, medium-sized feet and -small, tapering hands. A bright, smiling, and attractive face, with -sparkling eyes, small mouth, cherry lips and beautiful teeth, are some -of the features of these peasant women. On Sundays and other feast -days, when dressed in their quaint and fantastic costumes, in which -brilliant colors form a conspicuous feature, they present an attractive -appearance. They are polite, seldom bold and never intrusive. They are -devotees of the Catholic church, but their religion is of a flexible -character. They often go from the church to the “cancha de bola” to -dance, drink and gossip, but are rarely drunk or disorderly. They -are superstitious and believe in witchcraft. In their homes they -are undemonstrative, but show their affection for their families -and friends by their services and sacrifices, and their considerate -attendance upon the aged rather than in expressions of sentiment and -caresses.</p> - -<p>Their love for their offspring is a question that is difficult to -solve. If a male child is born they are pleased, because it means that -the work of another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> peon will be added to the family resources. If a -girl baby arrives, “it is too bad, but will serve.” In this and other -ways they indicate that maternal love corresponds to the prospective -benefits to be derived. If a child leaves its home, or dies, the -parents show little grief or sorrow. Perhaps their sorrow is concealed -from view,—at least it is to be hoped that such is the case.</p> - -<p>The common drink among the people is “mate,” made from the leaves of -the “yerba mate,” a plant that grows in Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil. -Over five million pounds of mate, valued at more than 1,000,000 pesos, -is imported into Chile annually. The beverage is made by steeping -the leaves in hot water. It is drunk from a mate cup, an article -peculiar to the country. They are usually the most expensive part of -the household equipment. Many of those used by the better class of -people are made of hammered silver, oddly shaped, curiously fashioned -and artistically finished. They are frequently ornamented with quaint -figures, representing birds, animals or reptiles. Others are made of -gourds, artistically carved and ornamented with silver mountings, -while common gourd cups serve the poor people. The method of drinking -the mate is through a silver tube called “bombilla,” one end of which -is enlarged, forming a kind of perforated ball, which serves as a -strainer, preventing the dregs of the plant being drawn into the mouth. -One of the curious and interesting sights in the country is the women -sitting about the little ranchos indulging in their cups of mate.</p> - -<p>The men comprising farmers <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 1 are more serious and more honest than -the peons. Their food<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> consists of wheat and beans. The wheat, which is -roasted and ground into flour with a stone, is called “harina tostado.” -It is eaten instead of bread, which they seldom have. When mixed -with water or wine it makes a very nourishing drink, called “ulpo.” -Sometimes when these poor farmer folk have a desire for bread, they buy -a bag of flour, make a quantity of bread and sell it. When they have -disposed of enough to pay for the flour, they convert the remainder of -the supply into bread for home consumption.</p> - -<p>From the families of this class of agriculturists the servants for the -cities are obtained. The women act as house servants, in which capacity -they have no responsibilities, simply performing such duties as they -are given by their masters. They have no initiative, but make good -servants, when properly trained. It is the custom to keep everything of -value under lock and key, but the house servants, especially the women, -are no more dishonest than those of other countries. The boys from -the families in this class also go to the cities, where they become -carpenters, blacksmiths, tailors, harness-makers, or laborers. They -seldom rise to ownership, or positions of greater responsibility than -performing a certain kind of labor for specific wages. As they become -more proficient in their work or trade, enabling them to command better -remuneration for their services, they invariably imitate the better -classes, spending more money than they earn, and are always “atrasado” -(behind in their accounts).</p> - -<p>Few of the poor or middle classes know their ages. No certificate is -given of baptism. If a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> priest is asked why this is not done, he will -say that it is useless, as they cannot read. If it becomes necessary to -establish the right to an inheritance, the church record is examined, -provided that the person whose age is to be ascertained knows where he -was baptized, and that the church register is in existence.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>LAND OWNER <abbr title="number">NO.</abbr> 2.</h3> - -<p>Land Owner <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 2 possesses more land than <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 1, but his holdings are -very small. He owns a cart, a few yoke of oxen, some cows, sheep, hogs -and poultry. He freights grain, flour, and charcoal for others from -haciendas to the mills or railway stations, thereby adding to his -income. The surplus from his earnings he prudently invests in property. -These farmers are, as a rule, provident, having always food supplies -in their houses, yet they seldom lift their families out of the rut of -poverty. Most members of the family, including the head of the house, -either go barefooted or wear only rawhide sandals upon their feet the -year round, except Sundays, feast days and special occasions. It is -only the women who are permitted to indulge frequently in the luxury of -shoes and clean gowns. The sons work with the father and not as peons -for others. These people associate with Farmers <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 1, and even with -the peons as equals. Not, however, without prideful reflection, for -they consider themselves above their poorer neighbors, although they -do not say so. They are not admitted to the society of Land Owner <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> -3, or the hacendados, although they have many interests in common and -commercial relations with those classes. If you are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> his guest he will -serve you wine or water in a glass tumbler, but he never uses such an -article himself, and perhaps you will be given a knife and fork with -which to eat your food. These middle class farmers constitute the best -element in Chile. They work honestly to gain a livelihood, and ask no -favors from others. They are too poor to engage in politics.</p> - -<p>A peculiar feature of the life of this class of people is the methods -they resort to to save money and increase their possessions. They -live solely upon the products of their little farms, and seldom eat -what they can sell. They make bread, but eat very little of it, the -family consumption being limited to the equivalent of the profits on -that which is sold. They keep liquors in the house, but to sell. If an -animal is slaughtered, some kind of a function is arranged, to which -the neighbors are invited and the meat disposed of in a feast, their -guests being served as long as they have money with which to buy. If -a woman desires some article of dress or adornment, and has not the -money with which to purchase it, she gives a feast. She will go to a -neighbor who has a hog and negotiate for the animal on credit: she -also purchases an “arroba” (ten gallons) of “chicha,” for which she -gives her promise to pay, the credit extending until the respective -articles are disposed of. The hog, “chancha,” is slaughtered, and the -feast is announced. There is music and a number of women who dance and -sing are there as a special attraction. These feasts always attract a -crowd and by the time the chancha and the chicha are disposed of, the -woman conducting the affair has made sufficient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> profit to pay her -indebtedness and to purchase the desired article.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>LAND OWNER <abbr title="number">NO.</abbr> 3.</h3> - -<p>The transition of Land Owners <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 3, from what is recognized as the -inferior classes, to respectable citizens is generally due to the -accumulation of property. Wealth constitutes recognized citizenship, -and when obtained, they think that the right of sovereignty is theirs -in the fullest degree. This transition often carries with it the idea -that all law and government should be administered by them. Fortunately -their inexperience and lack of education seldom permits them to -rule higher than municipal legislation, or perhaps sub-delegate of -a district. The phlegmatic temperament of this class of Chilenos is -universal. If emotions ever stir the depths of their souls they manage -to conceal the fact by an apparent calm composure.</p> - -<p>Most of them are illiterate, but to their credit they have in recent -years been endeavoring to secure for their children better education -than that afforded them. The educational facilities of the country -are not good, but the majority of the children of this class of -farmers secure sufficient technical training in the schools to suffice -for their simple lives. They are orderly, hard working people, and -generally honest, as they interpret the meaning of the term. The -Chilean characteristic of sticking tenaciously to custom and tradition -is exemplified in the home life of these people. Their condition is -little better or above that of Land Owners <abbr title="number">No.</abbr> 1 and 2. From choice, -rather than necessity, they follow the custom of their Indian ancestors -by sitting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> upon the ground, a stone or a billet of wood; the food -for the family is served from one dish, there being as many spoons as -persons to be served. The materials which enter into the composition of -the food of these farmer folk consisting of wheat, corn, beans, fruit, -pepper, etc., are ground between stones. In fact the grinding stones -are the most useful utensils in the equipment of the kitchen. They -consist of one large flat stone with a smooth surface, and a smaller -one, oval shaped. The material is placed upon the large stone, and the -other in the hand of the operator is used to crush and grind the grain -or dried vegetables to the proper consistency. This work is always done -by the women. In the kitchen may be found a few pots, clay dishes, tin -cups, wooden spoons and quantities of dirt. Occupying the kitchen, and -apparently upon the most intimate terms with members of the family are -pigs, goats, dogs, and chickens. If there are guests in the house, food -is served in the dining room with some show of formality, but when the -family is alone, the food is served in one dish from which the members -help themselves with spoons until the supply is exhausted. It is then -refilled with some other kind of food and the meal continues until -all are satisfied. With a change of food the same dish and spoons are -used without being washed. Tea and coffee are sometimes served when -strangers are present, but when the family is alone, mate only is -served as a drink, with their meals. The mate cup is filled and passed -to the head of the house who drinks the contents through a “bombilla.” -The cup is filled again and again, each member of the family drinking -out of the same vessel and through the same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> bombilla. When there are -no guests in the house the servants sometimes form part of the family -group, eating out of the same pot, and having their turn at the mate -through the family bombilla.</p> - -<p>The tile-roofed adobe houses inhabited by this class of farmers are -very plain. They are devoid of ornamentation within or without, and -there is seldom a tree or shrub to relieve the dreary monotony of the -surroundings. There are no windows in these places of abode, and the -floor is either dirt or common brick. The furniture consists of beds, -one or two home-made tables, and a few chairs of the commonest kind.</p> - -<p>If a person of the better class visits the home of one of these Chilean -farmers, he must do most of the talking, and it will be necessary to -limit the conversation to subjects pertaining to the church, crops, -animals, gossip, or questions relating to their districts. They know -little of the great world lying beyond the narrow horizon of their -local environments. The methods employed by this class of farmers in -cultivating the soil are crude and primitive. The wooden plow used by -the Spaniards and Greeks a thousand years ago, furnishes the model for -the implement used by these people in this twentieth century. It is -made by mortising one piece of a small tree trunk into another, at an -angle of about forty-five degrees. A piece of iron is usually fastened -over the point of the portion that is intended to stir the ground. -Oxen, attached by a wooden yoke fastened to their horns with rawhide -thongs, are employed in drawing the plows. A stick serves as a handle, -and holding on to the crude implement with one hand, the other used in -directing the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> oxen, the plowman manages to scratch the ground, but is -never able to stir the soil to any depth. When the plowing is done and -the grain planted or sown, some branches of trees serve as a drag for -covering it. Forks for handling grain and hay are made from branches of -trees.</p> - -<p>The grain is harvested with reap hooks, and the threshing is done -with animals. The wheat or barley is placed upon the ground within a -circular enclosure. A number of animals, usually young mares from the -farm, are turned into the enclosure, and one or more men mounted upon -strong horses, follow them around, shouting, whipping and pursuing -them over the grain until the tramping of hoofs has crushed the grain -from the straw. Then comes the process of separating the chaff from -the grain. This, as are all other methods employed in cultivating and -preparing products of the farm for market, is curious and primitive. -The wheat and chaff are placed in baskets, which men hold in their -hands above their heads allowing the contents to empty slowly. As it -falls the chaff and refuse are carried to one side by the wind, leaving -the grain, which is heavier and which falls directly to the ground, -clean and ready for the market.</p> - -<p>Nearly all the land occupied and cultivated by this class of farmers -is what is known as “campo de rulo” (dry hill land), which constitutes -the greater part of agricultural Chile. The only moisture it has is -from the three or four months’ rainfall from June to October. For about -half the year these hill lands are brown, sear and desolate looking, -but in the autumn, winter and spring, they are covered with a mantle -of rich verdure, presenting a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> landscape scene that is attractive and -prepossessing. During the rainy season the mud is deep, roads are -often impassable, bridges are carried away by the swift current of the -streams and there is little communication between different communities -or between country and city.</p> - -<p>The theory of these hill farmers is to get as much out of the soil as -possible, without expense. The land is never fertilized, and crops -are grown alternate years. The plowing is done after the rains set in -in the autumn, and the soil being clay, remains very hard and lumpy. -This plowed land, called “barbecho,” is left over the winter, the -rains having the effect of pulverizing and putting it in condition -for the sowing or planting for the next season. Oxen are used for -plowing, and it is a novel sight to see a large number of those slow, -plodding beasts winding about the hills dragging the crude plows. -Fifty yoke of oxen are often engaged in plowing on one hacienda. This -method of cultivating is employed until the soil becomes so worn that -it will not produce a satisfactory crop. It is then let stand for -several years until nature rejuvenates it, and it is again put into -service. The grain is harvested by hand, and brought from the hills -in primitive wooden carts, or upon the heads of peons. The general -appearance of the soil would indicate that this hill land is valueless -for agricultural purposes, but it produces annually a large per cent. -of the agricultural products of the country, besides maintaining many -horses, cattle and sheep.</p> - -<p>The farmers of this class live in a narrow world. The majority of them -have never been out of the province in which they were born and many -of them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span> never saw a railway train; they know the villages in their -vicinity, and perhaps the provincial capital, but one who has seen -Santiago, the national capital, is the rare exception. The customs -prevailing in other countries, or what is going on in the great world, -are of little consequence to them; they are interested only in what -they are doing. Even if one can read, he seldom subscribes for a -newspaper, as that is considered a useless expenditure.</p> - -<p>The men engage only in the larger affairs of the business of the -family, such as marketing the animals and the grain raised on the farm. -The small trade in chicha, liquors, poultry, etc., is attended to by -the women. In nearly every house is kept a supply of such articles as -may be required by the peons. In the sale of these, the money that is -paid out by the farmer, in wages, comes back in small amounts, and -with interest. The profit made on this small mercantile business, in -the sale of sugar, mate, chicha, etc., pays for the articles of the -same class consumed by the farmer’s family. In these transactions they -never refuse credit to anyone, but politely say they have not the -article called for, notwithstanding the fact that it may be in plain -view of the would-be purchaser, or sold to another before his eyes. -They understand each other and their method of dealing with delinquent -customers furnishes an example that might be emulated with profit by -more progressive and up-to-date tradesmen.</p> - -<p>These farmers are received at the haciendas, not exactly as equals, but -because of a money consideration. They have land, stock, and usually -money in the bank. Notwithstanding the fact that many of them have -a competency, they resort to a method<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span> of economy that is absolute -penuriousness,—stinginess personified. They never visit their friends, -or entertain their neighbors. They never keep a coach, for two reasons, -one being that where they reside, and places to where they journey, -there are no coach roads, and for the more general reason that they -never spend money for such an unnecessary luxury. The men always ride -horseback, and when the women go away from home, which is seldom, they -also travel on horseback. Few of them possess sidesaddles, and the -common custom is for them to go “en anca,” sitting upon a cloth spread -upon the back of the horse, behind the saddle occupied by the man. -There is still another class of dry land, hill farmers, who own large -tracts of land, and farm upon a large scale. In sandy or loam soil -they employ modern machinery and implements. This class often becomes -rich, in which case they invariably move to the provincial cities and -work their estates through an “administrador.” These hill farmers are -autocrats in their respective communities; not in the same despotic -manner as the owners of the large irrigated estates, for the inquilinos -and peons of the hills are more independent, are treated with greater -consideration, and are more nearly on an equality than is the case on -the great hacienda.</p> - -</div><div> - -<h3>HACIENDAS AND HACENDADOS.</h3> - -<p>In the fertile valleys, through which flow the rivers of Chile, are -many magnificent estates, some of them including thousands of acres -of productive land. Upon an eminence in the midst of broad acres, -of golden grain, waving corn and verdant pastures, all framed with -avenues of stately alamos,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> stands the splendid residence of the owner, -overlooking the picturesque and pastoral scene. The majority of these -country mansions are built upon the same general plan, varying only in -size and ornamental elaboration. They represent a letter H in form, -with a front entrance in the middle of the bar connecting the main -lines of the letter, the drawing-room upon one side and the dining-room -on the other. A wide, roomy corridor leads from the main entrance in -front to the beautiful patio, upon either side of which is arranged -the sleeping apartments. These residences are almost invariably well -furnished and finished with artistic interior decorations. Some of them -include rare old paintings and splendid specimens of wood carving. The -drawing-room and dining-room usually contain the best of the furniture -and decorations, as those are the portions of the house most occupied -by guests. There is an absence of fireplaces and stoves, due to the -mild climate. The house is surrounded by well-kept parks and gardens -containing rare trees, shrubs and flowers. There is a peaceful harmony -in the beauty of the surroundings and everything in the environment is -suggestive of comfort and luxury.</p> - -<p>The hacienda constitutes a small empire, with various executive and -administrative branches. The territorial limits are usually defined -by walls made of loose piled stones or adobes. The irrigated portions -are divided into potreros (fields), of from one hundred to two hundred -acres each, the dividing lines being indicated by rows of growing -trees, usually poplar, or alamos, that grow straight and tall, and -which not only add to the beauty of the landscape, but also furnish -shade for the animals<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> in the pastures. The hill lands are divided into -larger sections, frequently as much as one thousand acres constituting -one pasture field or range. These potreros are enclosed with thorned -hedges, from the espino which grows abundantly in the low lands. -Irrigating canals carry water from the hill streams to the cultivated -fields and the pasture land, where clover, alfalfa, and other grasses -grow prodigiously in the rich loam soil.</p> - -<p>Roads flanked with graceful trees lead out from the residence and from -the corrals to various parts of the property. A photographic view of -one of these country homes needs only a few touches of the artist’s -brush to make it an idyl. A home glimpse in Chile, even on an hacienda, -is no exception. Sunlight through a camera glorifies vistas and -ennobles foliage; it promotes stucco and plaster to marble and gives -grace and beauty to commonplace things. The lumbering teams of oxen -and the huge two-wheeled carts add to the picturesque placidity of the -scene which presents an appearance of perpetual summer and glorious -afternoon. But the photograph says nothing, and it is well for the -chronicler to omit any mention of the dust through which the carts -creak and groan at harvest time, in a country where rain falls only -between May and September.</p> - -<p>The servants on a large hacienda consist of an administrador, a capataz -(sub-manager), various mayordomos, vaqueros (cowboys), shepherds and -a troop of peons. The administrador, or manager, is the responsible -executive head, and has entire charge of the farm. He receives orders -only from the proprietor. He suggests to the owner the work<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> and -improvements necessary, and when his suggestions are approved he gives -orders to his subordinates to execute the plan; he receives from the -mayordomos accounts of the work done and wages earned, pays employés, -etc. It is also the business of the manager to dispose of the animals -raised on the farm, when ready for market. These sales are usually made -at auction at the most convenient railway station or shipping point. -Sometimes the sales amount to as much as fifty thousand pesos in one -day. The owner or his representatives are always present, and animals -are never sold for less than they are actually worth.</p> - -<p>The service of an hacienda manager consists in whatever the owner -may order; he passes most of his days on horseback, as do the other -servants, except the peons. The pay of this important personage is -three hundred pesos, equal to one hundred dollars United States -currency, a year. In addition to this meager money compensation he has -the use of ten acres of dry land, suitable for growing wheat, six or -eight acres of chacra, or vegetable producing land, and pasture for -fifteen to twenty animals. Ten horses of the hacienda are usually set -apart for his exclusive use.</p> - -<p>The capataz occupies a position next in importance to the manager; -his business is to ride over the farm daily, and make reports and -suggestions to the manager. It is also the duty of this functionary to -impound all animals not belonging to the estate found in the potreros. -A fine of so much per head is assessed against all such animals, and -the owner is required to pay the amount before they are released.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span></p> - -<p>Vaqueros, who are under the direction of a manager, have certain fields -and animals under their charge. Each is held responsible for the -animals under his care. A daily count is made, and if any are missing -the vaquero is sent in search of them. The vaquero is the cowboy of -South America, and represents a type peculiar to the country.</p> - -<p>His leggins usually consist of untanned goat skin, worn in the natural -form and without attempt to make them conform to the shape of the legs. -They not infrequently differ in color and marking, causing the wearer -to present a grotesque appearance. He also wears immense spurs and -other articles correspondingly fantastic, not the least conspicuous of -which is his hat, an enormous cone-shaped sombrero made of felt and -embroidered in fancy colors. His lasso of plaited rawhide, loosely -coiled in two-foot circles, rests upon the back of his horse. These -servants on the hacienda receive as compensation fifty pesos in cash -annually, the use of two acres of chacra, four acres of wheat-growing -land, and pasture for six or eight animals.</p> - -<p>For each department of labor on these properties, including canals, -corrals, repairs, storehouse, direction of peons, etc., there is a -mayordomo, or foreman. Their pay is the same as that of the vaqueros. -The proprietor furnishes horses but not saddles for all of his -employés, except the peons.</p> - -<p>“Ovejeros” (shepherds), connected with these estates live in the hills -and work on contract. They receive twenty-five centavos for each lamb -born, or one-third of the lambs. In case one receives a per cent. of -the lambs as compensation for his labor, he is compelled to sell them -to his master for one peso<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> each. Each shepherd has in his care from -five hundred to one thousand sheep.</p> - -<p>“Inquilinos,” or farm tenants, comprise the servants living on the -farm. They must work when ordered or furnish someone to labor in their -stead. The head of each of the families is given an allowance of four -acres of wheat-growing land, and pasture for six animals; they receive -no cash compensation. The peons on the hacienda are not given land and -pasturage for animals, but are furnished with a daily ration of food. -The owners of estates furnish houses for their servants, free of rent.</p> - -<p>The owners of the large, irrigated and well-equipped haciendas -constitute the wealthiest, most cultured and aristocratic class in -Chile. Presidents, senators and congressmen are elected from this -class, and ministers, judges, admirals and generals are selected from -the landed gentry. Prominent and influential professional and business -men rely upon their estates for both pleasure and profit. The owners -live upon their haciendas a portion of the year, but their homes are -in the cities, most of them in Santiago, where they live in mansions -and spend with lavish hand the income from their estates. The majority -of them spend more than their income and as a result the heavily -capitalized mortgage bank of Santiago has its octopus-like hand upon -ninety per cent. of the beautiful and valuable country estates in -Chile. The extravagance of the wealthy class in the Republic is cause -for comment, and a surprise to most foreigners. Their prodigality -furnishes a ruinous example to the middle classes, who try to emulate -them, producing thereby a cheap, imitative kind of aristocracy. Most -of them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> belong to old and influential families who inherited their -fortunes and names from pioneer colonists. Some, however, are parvenu -aristocrats who have gained access to the exclusive social circles by -means of money, a position which from lack of education and breeding -they are not qualified to maintain.</p> - -<p>Large landowners give little time to the cultivation of their estates, -and as a result the haciendas never produce to their full capacity. The -chief occupation of the owners is a calculation of the probable income, -with the application of as little capital and labor as possible on the -property.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the fact that Chile owns the richest and most extensive -nitrate fields and guano deposits in the world, and that thousands of -tons of fertilizing material are exported annually to other countries, -to enrich depleted soil, little or none of this valuable re-creative -agency is utilized to rejuvenate the sterile soil of the worn hill -farms of the Republic. They refuse to return to the soil by artificial -means that which is annually drawn from it in the production of crops, -and as a result much valuable land has lapsed into disuse, being -considered sterile and valueless because its producing quality has been -exhausted. Under existing circumstances the farmer’s expenses are heavy -and certain and his income decreasing and uncertain. The result is that -the handsome estates are fast falling under the bane of mortgages, -the payment of the interest on which is sapping the life of the soil. -Economy is not one of the ruling characteristics of the Chileno; social -and political prestige must be maintained, even if the inevitable -result is financial ruin.</p> - -<p>Mortgages will not permit of a disunion of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span> estates they cover, -or selling of a portion of the land with which to pay interest, and -when the owner is unable to longer meet his obligations the hacienda -is sold at auction. The family then retires to a life of seclusion, -and thereafter live upon a very meager income. There is no moral; -remembering their former achievements and the splendor of past life, -they indulge in no regret over present conditions. These families -do not as a rule, however, belong to the best blood of Chile. They -generally consist of those who go from country to the city and whose -vanity leads them into unwonted extravagance.</p> - -<p>The artificial and realistic phases of social life among the above -mentioned classes furnish some sharp and well-defined contrasts. The -phase most commonly known, and the one invariably presented to the -world, is the artificial, with stage effects and deceptive lights; -the other is the real,—the everyday home life, where the natural -characteristics of the actors are presented. In the home, all show, -pomp and exhibition can be safely discarded; no stage effects are -necessary. A “peep” into the home life of some of these families will -reveal the female members sitting in groups upon low stools, or on -the floor, around a “bracero,” charcoal fire, the servants squatting -in close proximity, discussing in a familiar way the latest social -triumphs or the day’s hidden economies.</p> - -<p>Another striking contrast in the home life is the different -characteristics possessed by the men and women. The women are domestic -by nature, patient to a degree, long suffering, good mothers and -loyal wives. They are content with little, and either by inheritance -or through generations of experience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> and training they do not -expect much from their lords and masters. Their education, which is -generally secured in the parochial schools, is influenced by religious -prejudice. They manifest little interest in politics or world affairs, -and a professional career is not to be thought of by a Chilena. ’Tis -considered more respectable for a woman to live proudly in abject -poverty than to earn a livelihood in a profession or commercial -occupation. Many of the Chilean señoritas possess great beauty, are -graceful and vivacious. They know the force and effect of flattery, -and are artists in the use of that dangerous weapon of society. They -have natural talent for languages, usually speak French and have some -knowledge of English, and their own language they use with consummate -skill.</p> - -<p>The sons in the families of the better class are often educated in -the belief that labor is degrading, and encouraged to lead lives of -indolence. Instead of being taught that labor is honorable, that the -gods sell everything to those who work; that the most useless and -uninteresting members of society in this busy world are the drones; -that intelligent industry is the chief factor in modern civilization; -that honest effort is the advance guard of commercial and industrial -progress, the youth of Chile is encouraged in the belief that it is -honorable and manly to rely upon paternal dependence. Their education -and youthful training too often lead them into the erroneous idea -that business is drudgery, and that discipline of mind and will are -hardships to be endured only by the servants and poor classes.</p> - -<p>The men who constitute the wealthy class in Chile contrast sharply in -characteristics with the women<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> in the same social cast. They have -an agreeable, dignified manner and polite address. Intellectually -keen, they are quick to grasp a theory and clever in presenting it. -Super-sensitive, they are quick to take offense, but will keep a -smiling countenance, a polite, unruffled exterior, and even manifest a -liking for people whom they inwardly detest. They are drawn together by -business and political interests and whenever their interests conflict, -enmity and even hatred are the result. This is carried to such extent -that in the cities the families of the managers or heads of competing -commercial houses or business firms will not associate with each other, -and friendship between two Chilean gentlemen engaged in opposition -business is the rare exception. Political opponents are enemies so long -as their interests clash.</p> - -<p>It is generally among the hacendados that political schemes, resulting -in combinations of far-reaching consequence, have their origin. When -a candidate aspires to an elective office, he makes his wants known -to the managers of the party to which he belongs, and assures them of -his willingness to pay the required sum to carry the election. After -securing the nomination the candidate puts himself in communication -with the influential men of his party in the province in which he -stands for election. Among these men he distributes the amount he is -willing to pay for the office. These confidants distribute the fund -among their friends, who in turn re-distribute it, each retaining -as it passes through his hands what he believes is the value of his -services. There is never any accounting, and no questions are asked. On -election day, which is a general<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> feast and field day for the peons, -each candidate has friends and money representing him at the various -voting places. The peons have no political faith or party, probably -do not know, much less care, for what the election is being held. -Their votes are for sale, either publicly or privately, to the highest -bidder. Those from the same farm, district or village, usually band -together, one of the number acting as spokesman. When the polls are -declared open the inspectors of registration take their places behind -the ballot box, and the bidding for the purchase of votes begins. The -agent of one candidate approaches a group of peons and asks for their -votes, the spokesman for the crowd asking in turn what is bid for -their suffrages. After some bargaining an offer is made. Taking that -as a basis, negotiations are then opened by a representative of the -peons with the agent for another candidate. When convinced that they -cannot secure more the peons close with the highest bidder, and march -in single file to the voting place. One by one their names are called, -and as their right to vote is admitted, the agent of the candidate -making the purchase deposits the vote. After the voting is completed -according to agreement, the peons receive the money in the presence -of the inspectors, politicians and other voters. There is no attempt -at secrecy. There is a law upon the statute books making the purchase -or the sale of a vote a crime, with severe penalties attached, but it -is disregarded and has become almost a dead letter. The laws of Chile -also provide for a secret ballot, but it is neither secret nor sacred. -The election of a president in Chile is by the electoral system, the -electors being selected<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> by popular vote, and apportioned on a basis of -population.</p> - -<p>The constitution gives to the poor of Chile the birthright of freedom, -and all men are supposed to be equal under the laws of the Republic. -Many of those living upon the large haciendas, however, have little -freedom of action or individuality and some of them are little more -than a part of the general farm equipment. They are dependent and -apparently defenseless. Inquilinos almost invariably sell their labor -in advance to the owners of the property on which they live. They never -leave the hacienda, for conditions are everywhere the same. The rich -landowners are powerful enough to force into subjugation all within -their domains, and they assert their authority with the arrogance of -autocrats. The inquilinos have nothing beyond a meager living; they -always remain poor. They are not permitted to sow, reap or do any -work for themselves until all the work of a similar character on the -hacienda is finished.</p> - -<p>The majority of these poor people are honest with their patrons. When -crimes are committed it is against others and not their master. As a -rule the only offense of which they are guilty is that of harboring -friendly thieves in their houses on the haciendas, thereby indirectly -aiding in theft committed. If an hacienda changes hands, it makes not -the slightest difference with the servants, who remain, many of them -spending their entire lives upon the estate where they are born. The -average wage of these farm laborers is about forty centavos per day. -This low compensation is not due to a surplus of farm labor, for in -fact there is a scarcity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span></p> - -<p>The condition of the poor people in the farming communities has -resulted in recent years in an exodus of labor to the nitrate fields -and mineral districts of Atacama, Tarapaca, Copiapo and Coquimbo, where -they receive good wages and are paid regularly. This inviting field for -labor, within the territorial limits of the Republic, is encouraging -a more independent spirit among the working classes. That, together -with the resentment against oppression so long imposed upon them by the -hacendados, has already produced a marked effect and is rapidly growing -into a condition of open hostility between employer and employés. The -laborers are already organizing themselves into unions which opens a -fruitful field for the agitator and the political demagogue. This has -been evidenced by organized demands for shorter hours and higher wages -among the employés in many of the seaport towns within the past few -years. It had its most striking and tragic illustration in the riots in -Valparaiso in May, 1903, when the city was sacked and property burned -by a mob of striking stevedores.</p> - -<p>This independent movement, this breaking away from former conditions -had its origin in the revolution of 1891, which inaugurated new and -worse relations between capital and labor. The uprising gave the -Roto Chileno an opportunity to unmask and to manifest his natural -characteristics. Not at first upon a strike plan, but in secret -combination against those who employ labor; to shield each other in -infractions of the law; to organize a class into a union of criminals -that includes in its depredations every act in the category of crime. -An undeclared war is waged, unexpressed antagonism, and unspoken -enmity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> have been inducted into being. The policy of weak submission, -in which they so long acquiesced, is gradually but surely changing to -one of open defiance. Generations of smoldering hatred burst forth in -the flame of strife and revolution, and the growth and menacing hostile -attitude of labor and capital to-day is the outgrowth of that movement.</p> - -<p>These labor troubles, felt first in the populous centers, are gradually -finding their way to the farms and haciendas, and it is easy to predict -the changed condition that will result within a few years; conditions -that will reach the other extreme. There is no class of people so -tyrannical, so unreasonable and dictatorial, as the ignorant, the poor -and oppressed, when once they hold the balance of power. The Roto -Chilenos, as an organized force, would be a desperate, dangerous class, -a menace to society and good government. Let us hope that the distance -between these extremes will be narrowed, that capital will be given -the protection and encouragement to which it is entitled, and upon -which its existence depends, and at the same time labor will be given -the best remuneration, the broadest field and the amplest opportunity -possible. This is a problem that should concern the politicians and -statesmen of Chile. The time has passed when the working class will -submit to intolerance and oppression, and the fact that conditions are -changing, even in a country where the common people cling tenaciously -to tradition and usage, must be recognized. The sons and daughters of -farmers go to the cities and take service with foreigners. When they -return to their country homes they take with them manners and ideas -acquired from a different people—transplanted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> customs from another -world. And so, slowly, backward and forward among the people passes -the shuttle of changing methods, weaving into the fabric of life -new and strange conditions. These influences are making themselves -felt in many ways. In the typical Chilean village one sometimes sees -among the thatched roof adobe huts, a house with some pretensions to -ornamentation. Instead of an earthen floor, and the patio occupied by -fowls and animals, there is a brick or tile floor, and the walls are -ornamented with pictures. The poncho, which was formerly universally -worn by the men, has been almost entirely discarded in the cities, and -generally so in the villages. The mantilla, that most unsanitary of -articles, with which all the women of Chile formerly draped their heads -and faces, and which had also the objectionable feature of giving them -a common and unattractive appearance, is fast growing into disuse, and -is being supplanted by more modern feminine headdress. The country -people are beginning to discard sandals for shoes, and in many ways -manifest a more progressive spirit.</p> - -<p>A Chileno may appear upon the streets of a city in personal attire -the same as that prescribed for gentlemen in any country, but custom -in the country prescribes a different standard. A gentleman huaso, -well mounted and properly equipped, will have several hundred dollars -represented in his personal adornment and caparison, for he must appear -“a la moda del campo” (in the costume of the country). The cost of -the outfit of the average well-mounted Chilean gentleman farmer may -be calculated as follows: Horse, three hundred pesos; silver<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> mounted -bridle and reins, seventy-five; silver mounted saddle, two hundred; -inlaid silver belt and knife, fifty; silver spurs, seventy-five; -poncho, fifty; hat, twenty; special riding suit, one hundred; -embroidered leggins, seventy-five; boots, twenty-five; watch and other -extras, two hundred; total, one thousand one hundred and seventy pesos, -equal to four hundred dollars United States currency.</p> - -</div><div> - -<h3>RODEO.</h3> - -<p>One of the most exciting of the many peculiar practices indulged in by -the country people, and one which requires great skill and courage, is -the “rodeo” (method of managing wild bullocks in a corral, by men on -horseback). It is the Chilean Corrida, taking the place of the Spanish -bull fight, and is an inoffensive sport. A rodeo is an event of much -general interest, and is usually attended by large crowds of people, -friends and invited guests of the owner of the hacienda where it takes -place. Special and elaborate preparations are made, and the rodeo is -looked forward to with much interest, not only by those who take part -in the dangerous proceedings, but also by everyone favored with an -invitation or an opportunity to attend. The company first assembles -at the residence of the gentleman giving the function, where all the -specially invited guests and personal friends are entertained.</p> - -<p>The vaqueros have been instructed to collect in a large corral, -representing a half circle, all the cattle from the hill potreros. The -animals are usually unaccustomed to the sight of anyone except the -vaquero who attends them, and are wild and easily excited. When the -time arrives for opening the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span> rodeo, the horses of the men who are -to participate, are brought out, each attended by a mozo (personal -servant), who carefully adjusts the huge spurs always used on such -occasions, to the boots of their respective masters. The men then -mount and ride to the corrals, each followed by his mozo with several -reserve horses to be used in case of necessity. About the corrals, -which are decorated with flags and bunting, is a large crowd, including -the mounted servants of the hacienda, as well as the inquilinos and -servants from other farms, on horseback and in carts. Later the ladies -of the household and their friends and guests arrive and occupy -seats especially prepared for them, which command a good view of the -corral. An order is given for the function to begin and employés of -the hacienda enter the corral and drive the animals close together, -encircling them to prevent their escape. The men who are to participate -in this sport take their positions and a bullock is permitted to pass -through the line encircling the herd. It is immediately charged by two -of the waiting party, one following and urging it on, the other riding -by its side, forcing the beast as closely as possible to the corral -fence. When they have traversed the distance of the corral enclosure -the person riding by the animal’s side rushes to its head, and by -a clever move turns it suddenly around. The positions of pursuing -parties are reversed, first one riding at the side of and turning the -infuriated beast, and then the other, until it is completely subdued. -Until it is conquered the riders must at no time leave the animal. If -it bolt through the herd, or amongst the bunch of mounted servants on -guard, they must follow, each keeping<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span> his respective position. Their -horses are well trained and enter into the sport with as keen a zest -as the riders. When one animal has been conquered it is driven from -the corral and another turned loose, different persons taking part -in each separate contest. If a horse is gored, as is often the case, -or the rider dismounted and trampled upon, others quickly take their -places and the sport continues. During the rodeo the spectators applaud -or groan at the acts of the participants, according to their merit -or demerit. Rodeos sometimes last for several days. An intermission -is given in the middle of the day during which lunch is served, and -at night there is always entertainment and much merrymaking at the -hacienda residence. This sport is full of surprises, both comic and -tragic, as there is always an element of uncertainty in the actions -of a wild and infuriated young bull, when pursued and harassed until -he becomes desperate. The day’s entertainment often closes with some -daring vaquero lassoing, saddling and mounting a big, untamed bull.</p> - -<p>One of the purposes of a rodeo is that the owners of cattle in -neighboring haciendas may have all of the cattle brought in from the -hills, identified and separated. The cattle belonging to each estate -bear the registered mark of the owner by which they are identified. -Frequently animals stray from their ranges and potreros and join the -herds in neighboring haciendas. In these annual rodeos, or round-ups, -they are divided and each lot according to mark or brand is returned to -the owner. All the vaqueros of the different estates in the locality -attend and participate. In this way the hacendados get all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> wild -young animals from the hills brought in, separated and branded at -practically no expense. What is considered sport, and a festival by -the vaqueros and employés on the big farms, is in reality the annual -collection of cattle, as a matter of business to the owner.</p> - -<p>The crowd constituting the spectators at a rodeo is made up of peons, -inquilinos and vaqueros from neighboring haciendas. They dance the -cuaca, and there is music of primitive harps and guitars. There is much -drinking of chicha and exchange of badinage, all mixed with talk of, -and comment on the rodeo, and the personal skill and bravery, or the -lack of those qualities, displayed by those engaged in the sport. In -the evening, after the conclusion of the rodeo, along the dusty country -roads leading to the homes of these people one may witness strenuous -and exciting contests in topeadura, in which sturdy Chilean ponies and -tipsy riders form the component part.</p> - - -</div><div> -<h3>CHACRA.</h3> - -<p>Chacra (vegetable farm), is usually land rented in small sections by -the poor people from the rich landowners. After the servants have been -allotted their portion of land in the poorest soil of the hacienda, -other portions are rented, usually for a stipulated rental of two -thousand kilos of beans for each quadra (four acres). At the harvest -time the landowner must be paid his rent, either in the proportion -of the products stipulated, or the cash market value of same. This -settlement must be made before the “chacrero” is permitted to remove -any of the crops. The lessee’s family live in the chacra<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> in huts made -of the branches of trees. The hacendado knows the productive capacity -of his land, and gauges the rental value accordingly. If the renter -manages to save a few sacks of beans, after living and paying his rent, -he is fortunate. As a rule this class of tillers of the soil receive -nothing more than a meager living for their labor.</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="HABITS_AND_CUSTOMS">HABITS AND CUSTOMS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>A careful study of the history of Chile from the time that Pedro de -Valdivia attempted to subjugate the Indians, through the colonial -period to the revolution of 1810, when Spanish rule was overthrown and -Chile took her place in the sisterhood of South American Republics; -through the varying vicissitudes of its first half century of national -existence, down to the present time, will reveal the fact that certain -customs and traditions characteristic of the race have been maintained. -In some instances they reflect the influences of changed conditions -and environments; foreign ideas have been engrafted upon the social -structure and the body politic, but in character, and in general -characteristics, the Chileno retains his inheritance from Spanish and -Indian ancestors. This is particularly true of their economic use of -water. It can be safely said that the majority of the working classes -or country people apply water sparingly to their hands and faces only, -and never to their bodies, and many of them are utter strangers to its -personal application.</p> - -<p>This does not apply, of course, to the wealthy, educated and traveled -Chilenos, who go annually to the seashore, or other pleasure and health -resorts, such as Panca, Cauquenes, or Viña del Mar, the latter being -the summer playground of the rich. A visit to any of the pleasure -resorts by a Chilean<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span> family, be they residents of the country or -city, is an event attended with much pomp and ceremony. They take with -them their horses and carriages, a retinue of servants and an extra -supply of clothes for display for the purpose of impressing other -visitors with their financial standing and social importance. The -vacation season in Chile is usually from the first of January to the -fifteenth of March. For two months government service is transferred -from Santiago to Valparaiso, the president and his cabinet taking up -their temporary residence in Viña del Mar, a suburb of Valparaiso. -The courts are closed and practically all business suspended in the -capital. Members of the diplomatic corps follow the Santiaginas to -the seashore, and the suburbs of Valparaiso, with their hotels and -bathing beaches, are gay with fashionably dressed visitors and social -functions. Many people who indulge in this annual seaside frolic are -compelled to resort to strenuous domestic economy for the remainder of -the year, in order to recuperate from the financial sacrifice made in -the effort to compete in the social exhibit with those who can well -afford the expense. Others whose financial condition will not admit of -their joining the procession of those who appear for a few brief weeks -in the year upon the social stage at Viña del Mar, close the front of -their city residences, and do not appear in public during the vacation -season.</p> - -<p>The poor classes who cannot afford a vacation, live in filth and -unsanitary conditions the year round, and during their natural lives. -The dwellings of the poor are built without regard to architecture, -comfort or hygiene, and the domestic condition of the occupants is a -menace to health. The floor of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> a majority of the huts is the ground, -which during the rainy season becomes damp, and not infrequently muddy. -The refuse water from the houses is thrown any place outside to get rid -of it, and there being no drains to carry it away, it becomes stagnant -and creates disease. Donkeys, dogs, pigs and poultry maintain intimate -social relations with the members of the household, not infrequently -being housed with the family at night.</p> - -<p>Chile has several dishes peculiar to and characteristic of the country. -Cazuela is, strictly speaking, a national dish. It is a sort of soup, -served as a first course at any meal, but more particularly for -breakfast. It is made of mutton, “cordero,” or fowl, with various kinds -of vegetables, all cooked together and served hot. It possesses the -merit of including both meat and vegetable, solid and liquid food. In -addition to being inexpensive, it is easily made and is very palatable. -It is extremely popular with all classes of Chilenos and is a dish that -foreigners invariably become fond of after once having tested its good -qualities. A breakfast in Chile without cazuela would be considered a -poor meal. “Puchero,” is another dish of which the Chilenos are fond, -and which is usually served at dinner. It consists of meat boiled with -a variety of vegetables, all being cooked dry, and served without -liquid. “Empanadas,” a sort of meat pie, is also popular and peculiar -to the country.</p> - -<p>The zama cuaca is the national dance of Chile. It is danced by all -classes, and is made clownish or genteel, coarse or refined, according -to the different social grades of the participants. In no case can it -be considered vulgar, and when properly danced it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> is graceful and -attractive. It is danced in couples. The lady and gentleman each carry -a handkerchief in the right hand, which they wave in front of their -partner as they move about the room, keeping time to the lively and -inspiring music of harps and guitars. The music of the instruments is -usually accompanied with the hum of voices and the clapping of the -hands of spectators. The dancers always face each other, except at -certain intervals, when they turn suddenly around and then proceed as -before. Whether in the parlor, in a despacho, a cancha de bola, or in -the open, the zama cuaca is a national favorite, and the music will -always arouse the interest and enthusiasm of everyone present. It is -indulged in on all occasions where people congregate, day or night, and -crowds frequently stop along the country roads to dance the cuaca.</p> - -<p>At places where the country and village people congregate on feast -days, “fondas,” enclosures prepared especially for dancing, are -provided. The fonda is enclosed on three sides and is covered with -branches of the arrayan, a flowering bush, which emits a strong, but -pleasant odor. In front of the entrance is a “vara” for topear. Most -of the people attending feast day demonstrations go on horseback, and -there is always a mixed and miscellaneous mounted crowd in front of the -fonda. Inside, seated upon benches, are men and women who divide their -time between dancing and drinking. Those not engaged in the dance keep -up a constant hand-clapping, timing their movements with the music. -Sometimes during the dance, when a woman performs a special evolution -that is thought to be very clever or unusually graceful, some man<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> -in the crowd, perceptibly affected with alcohol, calls out in a loud -voice, “aro, aro.” At the sound of this magic word, which means drinks -for all, the music and the hand-clapping cease and the dancers stop. -Then the woman in charge of the fonda appears and passes to the man who -called “aro,” a “potrillo” (a large glass tumbler) filled with chicha, -or a mixture of aguardiente and milk. The man takes the brimming -potrillo, approaches the dancers, and bowing profoundly, offers it to -the lady. She appears shy, makes several courtesies, accepts the cup, -takes a sip and returns it to the man. After the women dancers have -been served, the cup is passed to the men engaged in the dance, and -later to the spectators, all drinking from the same potrillo until it -is finished. The man calling aro does the honors in passing the drink, -and for anyone present to refuse would be considered an insult that -would probably be resented.</p> - -<p>A peculiar feature of the cuaca is the solemnity with which it is -conducted. There is never a laugh or a joke, and seldom a smile. Levity -on such occasions would be considered an indiscretion. The Chilenos -take every phase of life lightly and indifferently, except their -amusements, which are sacredly serious.</p> - -<p>A peculiar custom in Chile is that of offering to a friend any -article that he may desire. It is not proper, however, to accept the -proffered gift. The would-be donor is given an opportunity to show -his generosity, and at the same time made happy by having his offer -declined.</p> - -<p>There prevails in Chile a pretty custom in salutations, conversation -and in summoning persons, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> which the christian name is always used. -It is practiced between members of families, friends, acquaintances, -servants and masters. To strangers it conveys the idea of familiarity, -but on the contrary it is the most polite formality. The christian name -is always used in social, domestic and commercial intercourse where -the parties are known to each other. When strangers are addressing -each other it is always Señor, Señora or Señorita. Friends and even -acquaintances are profuse in the use of personal and endearing terms. -Another method of expressing pleasure when friends or relatives, either -male or female, meet, is to embrace, each passing the right hand around -and patting the other affectionately upon the back.</p> - -<p>Politeness is one of the characteristics inherited by the Chilenos from -their Spanish ancestors. Members of the same family, especially among -the better classes, are kind and always considerate of each other’s -feelings and wishes. Family quarrels and disputes are seldom indulged -in, and never in the presence of strangers. Among the middle and poor -classes, there are occasional rows, and sometimes encounters between -members of the same family, but it is usually due to the influence of -drink rather than their natural inclinations. It is a national custom -for the right of correction and punishment to rest with parents, so -long as they and their children live. A son never becomes too old to be -chastised by his father or mother. He may have reached middle age, be -the father of a large family, and even venerably gray, but if either of -his parents sees fit to box his ears, or even to apply more vigorous -methods of punishment for any dereliction of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> duty or for any offense, -the chastisement is administered with impunity and is accepted without -resentment.</p> - -<p>It is the custom among uneducated country people in calculating their -ages, to reckon time from some important event that has taken place -in the country, such as the revolution, severe earthquake, or other -notable occurrences. The great earthquake of 1851, is often used as a -basis for calculating the ages of old people.</p> - -<p>An aire is a muscular affliction of the face or neck, which may result -from sitting or remaining in a draught when one is warm or perspiring. -It is a common affliction in Chile, and to avoid the danger, not only -the country people, but those living in cities and towns, are disposed -to keep their rooms closed to the exclusion of fresh air, and to the -great discomfort of the occupants.</p> - -<p>Sometimes foreigners on arriving in Chile find the customs of the -country unsatisfactory, according to their theories, and at once -constitute themselves missionaries to “convert the natives,” as they -put it. They proceeded to introduce ideas and methods that conform to -their own standard of ideals. The result usually is the acquisition -of an unsatisfactory lot of experience, without having affected any -changes in the prevailing customs, or even made any impression upon -those for whom the education was intended. The Chilenos are slow to -accept innovations, and quick to resent the presumption of foreigners -who attempt to engraft new ideas and customs upon the ways and -traditions of their country.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="RELIGION">RELIGION</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The sanctity of the church is considered forbidden ground to all -those who attempt to portray the life and customs of the people of -any country. To criticise religious forms or customs is to incur the -displeasure, arouse the combative spirit and the resentful nature of -the communicants of the church under discussion. It means to bring down -upon the head of the offending scribe the wrath of those who have found -consolation in the church. Religious views and ideas, with prejudices -deep rooted and strong, are generally inherited.</p> - -<p>Believing that there is good in all churches, that the Christian -religion is the foundation upon which the superstructure of good -society and modern civilization is based, the writer wishes to preface -his comments on the Church in Chile, with the statement that it is not -the purpose to criticise the Christian religion, but to point out some -of the peculiar, and what would seem to the disinterested observer, -objectionable practices in the dominating church.</p> - -<p>The Catholic religion has been so closely interwoven in the fabric -of Chilean history that it forms a feature of every chapter in the -Republic’s record. It is impossible to accurately describe the life -and customs of the country, and at the same time omit so important an -influence as that exercised by the church on the political and social -life of Chile.</p> - -<p>Article 4 of the constitution (1833), says: “La<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> Religion de la -República de Chile és la Católica Apostólica Romana, con exclusión del -ejercicio publico de cualquiera otra.” (The religion of the Republic of -Chile is the Roman Catholic Apostolic with the exclusion of the public -exercise of whatever other.)</p> - -<p>Under constitutional authority the public exercise of all religious -worship, except the Catholic, was excluded from Chile until 1865, when -the right was conceded to establish non-Catholic schools within private -property, and to be supervised by a Catholic board. Later came another -innovation in the civil register law.</p> - -<p>In Chile the State sanctions, helps to support and maintain the -Catholic church, and the church participates in politics and the -affairs of state. Reaching out through its various ramifications the -church extends its influence to the farthest limits of the country, -both socially and politically. The union of Church and State is -strong, and the day seems far distant when they will be divorced. Able -and courageous men, individually and in party groups, have tried to -loosen the hold Catholicism has on Chile, and have in some instances -weakened its influence upon the body politic, but it is still powerful. -President Balmaceda endeavored to separate Church and State, not by -destroying the church, but by directing each in its legitimate channel. -The result was defeat, revolution, disaster and death.</p> - -<p>One of the Popes said concerning the Catholic church: “Its catholicity -is its credentials to Divine origin and authority.” It is not the -intention of the writer to challenge this statement, but the broad, -liberal Catholic idea would seem to suggest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> that the influence of the -church should be directed along lines laid down in the Divine Law, and -not exerted in an effort to control political policies.</p> - -<p>It is not the purpose to discuss here the individual merits of the -clergy, but to consider it as a body politic, its influence for weal -or woe with the people and upon the nation. It is a significant fact -that every law on the statute books tending to secure greater liberty -of action, freedom of thought and speech, has been opposed by the -political element of the church. Such progressive measures as the civil -register law, providing for a public record of births, deaths and -marriages, and requiring civil marriage ceremonies; the establishment -and maintenance of public and private schools, and the designation of -non-Catholic cemeteries, where Protestants might receive burial, have -received the opposition of the clergy.</p> - -<p>To try to lift the veil and look into the private lives of the clergy -would seem little less than sacrilege. It would reveal acts pure -and noble, lives worthy of example and emulation, and it would also -show startling and shocking scenes enacted in the name of religion. -There are those who are sacrificing their lives in the cause of the -Master, others living vicious and licentious lives under the cloak -of Christianity. The illiteracy and superstition of the people give -to the unworthy and insincere opportunities to practice deception -and imposition. Upon the other hand, these same conditions afford an -ample field and unlimited opportunities for good, with those who are -conscientious and possess the true Christian spirit.</p> - -<p>There are more than ten thousand monks of different<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> orders in Chile. -During the summer months they go about the country in pairs or in -trios, holding mission services, which they conduct without price or -reference to money. The expenses of these itinerant clergymen are paid -from the funds of the order they represent. They do much good in the -way of instructing the poor country and village people in the rudiments -of civilized life, cleanliness, and how to rear their children. These -mission services usually continue for a week or ten days in one place, -during which time many of the women and children of the community -remain about the church, sleeping upon the ground at night. These -mission fathers in no way clash with the regular priests, everything -being understood and prearranged. Medallions and colored prints of -their patron saints are freely distributed, and never fail to create a -pleasing effect upon the women and children. The children are gathered -into classes and turned over to the more intelligent of the women of -the church, who teach them the catechism, and to sing the chants. If -the children appear indifferent, or especially stupid in these first -instructions and church discipline, their minds are brightened and -their memories sharpened by whacks with a stick in the hands of the -monks. But alas, these poor children only memorize the printed prayers, -no explanations of their true meaning being made, and so through life -they go on repeating prayers without knowing the significance of the -words. Not infrequently this smattering of an education, gained through -the mission teachings of the traveling monks, is all that many of -them receive. It is through these methods of early instruction that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> -the prolific growth of superstition prevalent in Chile is cultivated -and kept alive. Children are taught that the several saints on the -calendar, the anniversary of each of which is celebrated with a -religious feast, are all powerful, and that the good offices of the -saints can be secured through the intermediary of the priests.</p> - - -<h3>FEAST DAYS.</h3> - -<p>The chief national feast in Chile is September 18th, the anniversary -of the independence of the Republic, known as “El Diez y ocho.” There -are, however, numerous other anniversary celebrations, commemorating -victorious battles and historic events, which are observed with much -demonstration in the cities and thickly populated districts. All other -holidays, of which there are something like seventy in the year, are -called religious festivals. Every saint has his or her feast day, known -as church feasts, except the patron saint of the local church, in which -event the festival lasts for a week or more.</p> - -<p>Ordinary feasts are held at private houses. The adobe walls of the room -selected for the service are covered with paper, and an improvised -altar arranged by placing lighted candles upon a table. Upon the wall -above the table is hung a colored print of the particular saint whose -anniversary is being celebrated. Those taking part in the services -are usually seated around the room upon stones or blocks of wood, and -if such seats are not available they squat upon the dirt floor, the -crowd frequently extending into the open in front of the house. There -are harpists, guitar players and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> singers. The feast, which is held -after the service, consists of boiled beans mixed with hulled corn, -and as extra, boiled dried peaches mixed with flour or toasted wheat. -After the food has been served someone in the crowd gives a “chaucha” -(twenty cents), to one of the players and music is rendered in praise -of the donor. Someone then buys wine or chicha and the health of the -saint is drunk. When the singers have rendered what they consider the -value of the donation, another person contributes, and by this means -the music is kept up. Liquor is passed and repassed until the supply is -exhausted, and the festival continues until the candles are burned out -and the crowd lapses into a state of innocuous desuetude, to sleep off -the effects of the debauch.</p> - -<p>Religious ceremonies and feast day demonstrations are events of much -general interest to the country people. Easter on a farm brings about -the annual festival of “Correr á Cristo” (running to Christ). A mounted -procession with waving flags and banners, and weird shouting, makes a -tour of the farm, and the day is given over to a saturnalia of noise. -Sometimes the procession will stop by the roadside, or in the garden -in front of the farmhouse to hear mass, or long enough for those in -attendance to receive the blessings of the priests. The procession is -usually headed by a cart draped with palms and decorated with flowers.</p> - - -<h3>PROCESSION OF THE PELICAN.</h3> - -<p>One of the peculiar religious festivals of the country is “La Procesión -del Pelicano” (procession of the pelican), a passion play held -annually<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> at Quillota, one of the first communities established by the -Spaniards in Chile. To the old city in the valley of the Aconcagua, -there is an annual pilgrimage of thousands of devout Catholics, and -others attracted by curiosity, to witness the strange procession.</p> - -<p>The Procession of the Pelican has no mythological origin or -significance, as is generally supposed, but derives its name from the -colossal bird, which has figured in the demonstration for more than a -century. The Cathedral of Quillota was built by the Bishop of Romero, -in the beginning of the eighteenth century. By the influence of the -Bishop the ladies of the community formed the society of the “Santo -Sepulcro” (Holy Sepulchre), and by collecting alms raised the funds for -this traditional procession. The annual arrangement was always placed -in charge of one of the ladies of the society, and as only those from -the first families were selected it was considered a great honor.</p> - -<p>About the year 1776, Doña Amilia Alverez de Araya, whose family -founded the original town of Quillota, was selected to direct the -demonstration. Previous to that time the Santo Sepulcro, on which -the figure representing the body of Christ was placed, on being -lowered from the cross, was a common wooden box. With the help of a -San Franciscan monk, who was a good joiner, Doña Amilia planned the -receptacle since used, which represents a swan with wings extended. -The huge image, constructed of wood, represents the bird with arched -neck, picking at its breast upon which there is a bright red spot, in -imitation of a blood stain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span></p> - -<p>On Good Friday a cross is erected in the Plaza, on a miniature mount, -covered with green. During the day it is guarded by huasos, dressed -to represent the Jews. Previous to the procession a man is placed -upon the cross in imitation of the Crucifixion. In the evening the -Cura, standing upon the steps of the cathedral, preaches a sermon on -the “Passion of Our Lord,” after which the procession is formed. The -“andas” (floats), carried upon the shoulders of men, represent scenes -in the life of the Savior, such as “Christ Before Pilate,” “Christ -Carrying the Cross,” “The Virgin Surrounded by Angels,” etc. The -feature of the procession is the Pelican, which is borne by twelve men. -The procession marches from the cathedral to the mount, and the body -of the man representing Christ is lowered from the cross and placed in -the Holy Sepulchre, the Pelican. During the procession the wings of the -Pelican, which are covered with mirrors, open and shut mechanically, -adding a spectacular feature to the scene. After marching around the -Plaza, and through the principal streets the procession returns to the -cathedral, and the Pelican is placed back of the altar where it remains -until the recurrence of Good Friday, when it is again brought into -service in “La Procesión del Pelicano.”</p> - -<p>The hotels in the provincial town are inadequate to accommodate the -people who journey annually to Quillota to witness the strange scenes -presented in the procession of the Pelican, and when the ceremony is -concluded there is an undignified rush for trains. The crowd, that -stands quietly with bared heads during the passion play, resolves -itself into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> a mob, each individual scrambling and fighting for the -most advantageous position at the railway station. Those who cannot -secure accommodation in the trains must spend the night in the streets, -and following “La Procesión del Pelicano” the usual quiet of Quillota -is turned into a drunken rabble. The police are unable to control the -crowd, and the scene of religious fervor and devout Christian spirit -shown by the multitude during the procession representing Christ -crucified, is changed to a bacchanalian carousal. The event brings -out the peculiarities of the Chilean character. One hour they are -intoxicated with religious excitement and the next on aguardiente, -entering as enthusiastically into the spirit of one condition as the -other, with never a thought, apparently, of the inconsistency of their -actions.</p> - - -<h3>FEAST OF THE PATRON SAINT.</h3> - -<p>The celebration of the anniversary of the patron saint of the parish -church is an important event. The little vice-parroquia (district -church), where the annual feast is held, is generally whitewashed, -and has a tile roof, blue doors, and yellow painted windows, and is -topped by a square belfry tower. It is usually situated upon a slight -elevation from which the ground slopes down to a nearby country road. -The only relief to the monotony of the dreary surroundings is a few -flowering shade trees. About the time the “novena” is concluded, carts -begin to arrive and form in line along the roadside. As the crowd -augments the scene resolves itself into one of animation and activity. -People are constructing out of tree boughs, places of temporary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> -residence, in which they sleep and where they conduct a small business -during the festival. Women are engaged in bringing in firewood and -jugs of water, which they carry on their heads. Oxen are unhitched -from carts and driven home, as the feast lasts many days. Often as -many as fifty carts, covered with canvas, branches of trees or skins -are arranged side by side in close proximity. They serve as places of -shelter for the owners, who remain throughout the feast. Each cart is -supplied with a barrel of chicha, wine and aguardiente, and also with -fowls and vegetables, from which is made cazuela, to supply the hungry -crowd.</p> - -<p>During all the day before, and up to the hour of the feast, which -begins at midnight, active preparations for the event continue. People -are arriving from every direction, those from a distance on horseback, -and those from the neighborhood on foot, each carrying a quantity of -supplies to eat or drink, and each expecting to do a little business -on the morrow, and succeeding days, in the way of catering to the -appetite or thirst of the mixed multitude. Some are ladened with skin -bags filled with wine or chicha, others carry earthen pots or baskets -containing such articles as they may have to dispose of. Fires are -blazing, pots are boiling, and the scene along the roadside resembles -a miniature military camp, with active preparations for the customary -meal of soup and beans going forward.</p> - -<p>Later the crowd is divided into groups, squatting upon the ground -and eating from black earthen dishes. There is a tapping of barrels, -uncorking<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> of skin bags and earthen jugs, in which the supplies of -liquor are stored. Small groups of gentlemen, or families, possessing -a little more money than the average persons present, are seated at -home-made tables, which are covered with coarse sacking. All are merry, -and apparently happy to renew acquaintances, many of which have been -neglected since the last feast of our lady of mercy, Santa Mercedes, -the patroness saint of the little church where the feast is being held.</p> - -<p>The parish priest has not yet arrived from his parochial residence, -hence the feast has not formally begun. A murmur along the line of -feasters announces the approach of the cura, the church bells peal -joyously, and the crowd files into the little church, where lighted -tapers and gilt images add a spectacular effect to the scene. The -priest preaches a pleasing sermon, for the purpose of conciliating his -congregation, which has not yet made its offering to the virgin. At -the conclusion of the service the people give to the priest such money -as they think they can afford to contribute, or that which has been -entrusted to them by others who could not attend. They have come from -every section of the surrounding country, some from great distances, -who wish to show their gratitude to this particular saint, for favors -they may have received, or may desire to receive in the future. The -priest is not made aware of the object of the donations. The donors -place their faith implicitly in the saints, believing that they will -execute the bequests. These poor contributors for the most part have -nothing to do with the particular church where the offering is made. -As an example, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> case of serious illness or threatened calamity in a -family, the friends or relatives, as the case may be, make a vow that -if spared the impending trouble, they will give a certain amount to a -certain saint for a given number of years. These promises are usually -redeemed, and the obligation is discharged at the particular church -patronized by the saint to whom the promise is made. Many individual -instances might be cited to illustrate the fidelity with which these -people make offerings to the saints.</p> - -<p>The day following the midnight services is “La Mercedes,” and the -early morning shows hundreds of additional votaries en route to the -church. After the morning mass the image of the virgin Mercedes, -bedecked with flowers, is removed from the church altar, and carried -at the head of a procession that marches about the church. The priest, -leading the procession, and reciting prayers, is showered with flowers. -After this parade the image is again placed upon the altar, there to -remain until the following year, September 8th, which is the date of -the anniversary of Mercedes. The priest then goes his way and the -real fiesta, for which a majority of those present have come, that of -eating, drinking, dancing and carousing uninterruptedly for several -days, begins. The scene about the church presents some features -peculiarly novel and picturesque. The hundreds of people dressed in the -costumes of the country, in which bright colors predominate, dozens of -clumsy bullock carts, and hundreds of horses huddled together in the -church grounds, where they remain for days without being unsaddled, -and in many instances without food or water, are some of the features -of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> this feast day picture. There are improvised dance halls, bowling -alleys, and every cart and temporary hut is turned into a shop where -is dispensed such articles as those in possession may have to offer. -At each place where liquors are dispensed there is singing, dancing -and music of guitars. Everyone seems to have something to sell, and -money with which to buy. Having made their contributions to our lady -of mercy, they pursue the god Bacchus with enthusiasm and reckless -indulgence. Good fellowship prevails, drinks encourage generosity and -the feast goes merrily on.</p> - -<p>This festival falls upon a date that marks the approach of spring in -Chile. The espino is in bloom, and the odor of the yellow blossoms of -that repellant, thorny bush, which grows abundantly throughout the -country, fills the air with sweet perfume; birds in the mating season -are revelling in the first green of the trees and the bloom of wild -flowers. Under clumps of blossoming trees women are cooking cakes and -vending sweets, while señoritas send winning glances at young men who, -too often under the influence of liquor, are easy preys to the arrows -of cupid. The feast continues to increase in interest and enthusiasm -for three or four days, continuing night and day, when it reaches the -climax, after which from loss of sleep and deficiency of drink, the -tide begins to recede, and the crowd to decrease. At the end of the -sixth or eighth day, at the farthest, the last of the crowd disperses, -leaving only the trodden grass and the blackened remains of camp fires -as evidences of the greatest and merriest local frolic of the year.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SUPERSTITIONS">SUPERSTITIONS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In Chile there are large tracts of sparsely populated territory where -there are neither doctors nor drug stores, and in such communities -it is necessary in case of illness for the people to resort to home -remedies. In these rural communities there are many old women who -assume the rôle of doctresses, calling themselves “Medicas.” They are -absolutely ignorant of medicine or its effect upon the human system, -yet with their odd preparations of herbs they sometimes effect cures -within a very short time. However, it is said that they more frequently -kill than cure the persons they treat. Should the patient live for -several days under the treatment of the Medica, and then die, nothing -is said by the friends of the deceased, but should the victim succumb -with the first dose the doctress is asked to change her residence at -once.</p> - -<p>“Brujeria,” or witchcraft, is common among the women in the lower -classes in Chile, many of whom claim to be “brujas,” or sorceresses. -The women profess to be able to inflict strange and wonderful -punishment upon their enemies, or persons who refuse to accede to -their demands. The most common delusion of these superstitious people, -especially the women, is the power of the “brujas” to place reptiles -or insects in their stomachs. Frequently when one becomes ill or -distressed with a pain, she is possessed with the idea that she has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> -been bewitched, declaring that she has a frog, a toad, a snake, spider, -or other object in her stomach, placed there by a sorceress. These poor -women believe that they cannot recover from an illness of this sort -until they have made peace with the person having bewitched them, which -means the giving of money or its equivalent in presents. It is a sort -of faith cure, and any other treatment seems useless, as it will not -dispel the delusion. The man or woman with dropsy or other affliction -will almost invariably attribute the malady to an evil sorceress. These -superstitions even extend to matters of business and chance with the -country people. The methods employed by these witches are curious and -ridiculous. Many claim, and the claims are accepted as true, to be able -by slipping into the presence of an enemy and burning a certain kind of -herb or vegetable, to place the person in their power. In some cases -persons so bewitched assume a form of madness, which unfits them for -service, and sometimes makes them dangerous. Many of these people claim -to cure disease by prayer.</p> - -<p>There are few diseases among the ignorant country people attributed -to legitimate causes. They are believed to be due to the influence of -witches; to be ill from any cause is to be bewitched. It is one of the -many superstitions inherited from Indian ancestors, and is deep rooted -in the minds of the people.</p> - -<p>To predict the elimination or uprooting of these primitive customs -would be hazardous, as they are countenanced, fostered in the minds of -the people and encouraged by the priests. They preach and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span> teach the -supernatural, and in the rural districts the clergy sell “santitos” -(small images representing saints), and medallions that are alleged -to have been consecrated by them, as cures and preventatives for all -kinds of diseases and maladies. Sometimes when a liberal donation has -been made to the church, the donor is given one of these consecrated -objects, which is highly prized, and the curative powers of which are -never doubted by the possessor. Although the laws of the Catholic -church prohibit its members from eating meat on Fridays, the priests -sell privileges, called “bulas,” which permit purchasers to eat -whatever kind of food they like on that day. A very poor person can -secure a bula for fifty centavos, while a well-to-do member will pay -according to his ability, and very rich people in Valparaiso and -Santiago have paid as much as one thousand pesos for the privilege of -violating a fundamental law of the church. With the encouragement of -such beliefs and practices by those who are accepted as teachers and -who should stand as exemplars of moral and intellectual progress, it -is little wonder that the masses among the poor and ignorant cling -tenaciously to customs that seem obsolete in this age of enlightened -progress.</p> - -<p>Superstitions are generally prevalent among the better classes also, -particularly those engaged in agricultural pursuits. It is believed -that sowing, reaping, planting, wood cutting, grafting or pruning -trees, storing of crops, etc., should be done during the last quarter -of the moon. Seed planted during the new moon will not grow, crops -harvested will be damaged, trees pruned will die, etc. The weather for -the following month is always judged<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> by the Indian sign indicated in -the position of the new moon on its first appearance.</p> - -<p>A curious superstitious custom in Chile is the manner of marking the -place where a person has been killed by accident or murdered. Along -the country roads one frequently comes upon a crude sort of altar by -the roadside, which marks the last resting place of some victim of -violence. It may consist of a little enclosure made of rough boards -and covered with the same material, in which lighted tapers are kept -burning practically all the time. In each of these places there is a -small box for the reception of coins, and many passers-by add small -contributions to the collection, and when the candles have burned out, -the money in the receptacle is used to purchase more. A strange feature -of this practice is that no sneak thief, of which there are many in -every community, will ever rob one of these houses of the dead. He has -a superstitious belief that the money is sacred, and that the one who -steals it will be cursed.</p> - -<p>The cry of the “chuncho,” a sort of night owl, is regarded as an evil -omen by all classes. People who are otherwise apparently sane on -hearing the cry of this bird in the night indulge in actions indicative -of a peculiar form of madness. If in bed they leap out, get down upon -their knees, cross themselves, pray, beat their chests and appeal to -God to save them from impending calamity. The origin or significance of -this particular superstition has never been satisfactorily explained.</p> - -<p>One of the superstitious customs that still prevails, and which is -practiced on religious feast days, especially that of San Juan, is -fortune telling.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> Matrimonial fortunes are told with three potatoes, -one of which is peeled, from one, half the peeling is removed, and one -is left in its natural state. These potatoes are placed in a dark room, -and the woman seeking her fortune is directed to go into the room, -and to take the first potato with which her hand comes in contact. If -it is the peeled potato, she is to marry a poor man; should it be the -half-peeled tuber, she will marry a man who can clothe and support -her, and should she be lucky enough to secure the unpeeled potato, she -is destined to marry a man who can keep her in comfort and plenty. So -firm is the faith of many of the people in the fulfillment of these -superstitious prophecies that they invariably preserve the potatoes -thus drawn, to be eaten on their wedding day. Another superstition -among the country women is that of washing their hair at daylight on -the morning of the feast of San Juan. They believe that the practice -will cause the hair to grow luxuriantly during the year.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="MARRIAGES">MARRIAGES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In Chile marriage is simply a contract, entered into between two -persons of opposite sex, regarding exclusive possession, society and -service, and who by a civil, legal ceremony are pronounced husband and -wife. The contract does not by implication, or actually, necessarily -include protection or affection. This does not refer to marriages among -the better classes, where money, social position or advantage are taken -into consideration, but the poor, or middle classes, with whom marriage -is a matter of convenience. With these people fidelity is not expected -or demanded. The women have little to claim their attention, beyond -domestic duties and personal adornment. Inherited characteristics and -the influence of environments make them an easy prey to flattery, -in the dispensing of which the Chilenos are artful and crafty. Evil -motives, wrapped in delusive words, suggesting no interpretation of -their true meaning, are the common weapons used by the men to ensnare -trusting hearts guided by uneducated minds. Manly protection to woman -is so rare in the sub-stratum of Chilean society as to be almost -unknown.</p> - -<p>Twenty-five years of age constitutes a legal majority for both -sexes, after which marriage may be contracted at the pleasure of the -interested parties. A boy of twelve or a girl of fourteen years may -legally marry with the consent of parents or guardian.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span> Once married -the law declares them of legal age.</p> - -<p>Previous to the year 1885, marriage ceremonies were celebrated only -in the Catholic churches, which was recognized by the government as -legal. After a prolonged and bitter discussion, a law was passed on -January 10, 1884, requiring a civil registry of all births, deaths -and marriages, and which deprived the church of the right to legalize -marriages. This act, which went into effect January 1, 1885, recognizes -as legal only marriages solemnized by the “Oficial del Registro -Civil,” residing in the same municipality or sub-delegation as the -contracting parties. The ceremony must be witnessed by two or more -persons. Although a marriage ceremony performed by the priests has no -legal import or effect, women of the Catholic faith always demand it, -and most legal weddings are celebrated by two ceremonies. Even yet in -some instances the civil, or legal service is disregarded, and only the -church ceremony performed. Such marriages are not recognized in the -courts, however, and in case of inheritance by the children born of -such a union, they are barred from sharing in property rights.</p> - -<p>There was much conflict and contention between Church and State during -the first few years of the civil registry law. The priests preached -violently against it, directing their efforts principally to the female -members, who are the loyal supporters of all church organizations, and -with whom they made the law offensive and objectionable, by refusing -in many instances confession and absolution to all those who were -married according to the civil law only. They were given the ultimatum -of defying<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> the law of the land and accepting a church marriage -ceremony as binding, or excommunication. The result of these church -teachings was, that for several years after the law went into effect -most Catholics, and especially those representing the aristocracy, -were married by the church only, not realizing, apparently, the -complications that would result from such defiance of law, until their -children were declared illegitimate by the courts. This created a -dilemma, and a serious effort was made to legalize their marriages and -legitimatize their children by a repeal or modification of the law, but -without success. In the meantime the more radical members of the clergy -declared that it were better to live together as husband and wife under -sanction of the divine order, than to resort to civil marriage. As a -compromise members of the Catholic church are now married before the -“Registro Civil,” and afterwards in the Catholic church. But even now, -in the rural districts of Chile, many people are married by the church -only.</p> - -<p>The party constituting the Liberal-Alliance, which was in power, and -organized the ministry at the sitting of the Ordinary Session of the -National Congress in June, 1904, in outlining a programme for the -party, declared itself in favor of a law that would prohibit the church -from celebrating marriages, without the presentation of a certificate -attesting the fact that the marriage had been previously celebrated -before a Civil Registrar. The Conservative party in Congress announced -through its leaders its intention to vigorously oppose the measure, -showing that there is still a political element<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> in Chile in favor of -empowering the church with authority to legalize marriages.</p> - -<p>In discussing this phase of social life, reference is made to the -common people of the country, and not to the rich and educated few, -where wealth, family connections, or social position may enter into and -influence the question of matrimonial alliances, and among whom wedding -ceremonies are conducted much as they are in other civilized countries.</p> - -<p>Courtship is short; there are no long years of waiting. Once the -question is decided the matter is consummated and all doubts as to -congeniality or advisability are left for future consideration. -The custom of courtship is the same as that prevailing in other -Spanish-American countries. It consists more in impassioned glances, -smiles and actions on the part of the participants to attract each -other than in conversation or a discussion of mutual interests. -Sometimes the proposition is made and accepted after the first -meeting, and not infrequently it is arranged by the families of the -interested parties. Whether the majority of marriages in Chile are -contracted from motives of affection, passion, or material interests -is difficult to determine. There would seem to be little love in the -motive that inspires, for among the poorer classes the object appears -to be mutual care, service and protection. During religious festivals, -where men and women are brought into close relationship and intimate -association, under the influence of liquor, marriages are generally -arranged, proposals accepted, and bans simultaneously published<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> by the -contracting parties and the priests. Their past lives have been more or -less the same and there are no sacrifices on the part of either. There -is no demonstration to make the event conspicuous; what to expect and -how to meet it are conditions well known to both. There is no foolish -sentiment exhibited. The wedding is consummated and celebrated because -it is mutually convenient. Their standards of honor, honesty, fidelity -and veracity are about equal. Should either of the contracting parties -hesitate or refuse to comply with the agreement, he or she, as the case -may be, is accused before the priest of the parish church, who commands -the delinquent to respond, and the marriage is celebrated at once. -Protests are in vain, the marriage contract once having been announced, -like the sentence in court, must be carried out, under ecclesiastical -authority. Illegitimacy among the poor of Chile is no disgrace, and -is not a bar, or even a disadvantage when it comes to the question of -marriage. Children born to women previous to marriage are treated by -the husband upon terms of equality with those of the legal union. An -examination of the baptismal record of the churches in the country -districts will reveal the fact that a large per cent. of the children -are inscribed as “El padre desconocido” (the father is unknown).</p> - -<p>Be it said to the credit of the women in the sub-stratum, as well as -in the upper-crust of Chilean society, that, as a rule, they respect -their marriage vows. With the men it is the rare exception instead -of the rule. After marriage, people of the common class resume their -accustomed life and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> habits, living as a rule under the paternal -or maternal roof of one or the other. The man is not necessarily -expected to contribute to the support of his wife, the custom being -for that member of the family to provide maintenance for the pair, and -invariably to support herself. They seem to enjoy a careless, bohemian -sort of contentment that meets the requirements of their simple lives. -Little is expected, each seems entirely satisfied with the acts of -the other and the stream of domestic harmony runs on uninterruptedly. -Such is life among these simple folk, who mate as do the birds, and -with whom mutual interests, simplicity and natural instincts are the -controlling influences in matrimonial alliances.</p> - -<p>An inventory of all property possessed by each of the contracting -parties at the date of the wedding is carefully taken. It may be a -horse, a cow, pig, fowls, a bed, or other articles. This property -does not enter into the marriage contract and become a part of the -common fund. On the wedding day the bride and groom are accompanied -to the church by friends and neighbors, usually on horseback. There -is singing and music of guitars, firing of shooting crackers and guns -and other demonstrations. There is frequent drinking to the health of -the couple, with “viva los novios.” Anyone who desires may participate -in the wedding feast, as all refreshments are disposed of at a price. -The profits on the feast are given to the bride as a wedding gift. -These celebrations sometimes last three or four days and nights, -with drinking, singing and dancing. Among the middle classes wedding -ceremonies<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> are the same, except that invitations are not quite so -general. And among the more prosperous of the middle classes, the -refreshments served at the wedding feasts are free.</p> - -<p>A married woman never goes by the name of her husband. If Señorita -Carmen Valenzuela is married to Don Jacinto Nuñez, she is afterwards -Señora Carmen Valenzuela de N; if she becomes a widow she retains the -foregoing name with the addition of the letter V before the de N, -meaning widow of Nuñez.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIRTHS_AND_DEATHS">BIRTHS AND DEATHS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Births and deaths do not constitute an attractive subject, but a -description of country life in Chile would be incomplete without some -mention of the entrance into the world and the exit of the people whose -customs and characteristics are under discussion.</p> - - -<h3>BIRTHS.</h3> - -<p>The advent of an atom of humanity into the world in Chile, is not -considered an event of sufficient importance to cause any disturbance -of the current of affairs that flows on with customary indifference. -The fact is accepted and recorded, but there is neither expression -of regret nor rejoicing. The parents seem to regard the circumstance -from a purely economic point of view, and not one to be invested with -sentiment or feeling. It means another member of the family to feed -and clothe, and another pair of hands that in time may serve, and -contribute something to the scanty household supplies. The poor country -women have no medical attention in childbirth, and in most instances -they lack the attention and necessary provisions to protect the life of -mother and child. They rarely go to bed, but wrapped in a heavy manta, -sit on the floor or ground, as the case may be, for a few days, near -a fire kept burning in a “bracero.” The only medicine they take is a -little burnt sugar in hot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> water, seasoned with aromatic leaves. In a -few days they resume their domestic duties, and life flows on in the -even current of its way, the addition to the family being regarded as -inconsequential.</p> - -<p>The children of the poor are inured to hardship from the time of birth. -In infancy they are wrapped up like little mummies, receiving little -maternal attention, usually being committed to the care of older -children, when there are such in the family. When old enough to walk, -they are permitted to run where they please, characterized chiefly by -the scanty clothing they wear, and inattention they receive. These -neglected infants rarely cry or complain, learning early in life that -such demonstrations of dissatisfaction with their lot avails nothing. -The mothers of these children are not cruel or inhuman in the treatment -of their offspring, except from neglect and lack of care through -ignorance.</p> - - -<h3>DEATHS.</h3> - -<p>Away from the cities, where pride or custom holds sway, a death is -little more than a signal for a crowd to assemble at the home of -the deceased for a drunken spree. In case of death the interest and -sympathy manifested by friends and neighbors depends upon the amount -of money forthcoming for the purchase of chicha. Should there be -liberal provisions for this important feature of the funeral service -a large attendance is assured. Should the death be that of a baby it -is generally understood that there is to be a grand feast. The dead -infant, robed in white and bedecked with flowers, is placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> in a -sitting position upon an improvised altar, where, surrounded with -burning candles it remains for twenty-four hours. During this time -there is much drinking and singing by those who assemble to mourn the -death of the child. Usually on the day following the death, the body is -wrapped in a cloth and placed in a candle or soap box, which serves as -a coffin, and carried to the cemetery. The procession is accompanied by -women who sing, and add to their vocal efforts the music of guitars. -The crowd often stops en route to the cemetery to drink and indulge -in demonstrations. Women never accompany the funeral procession of an -adult.</p> - -<p>There are never any preparations in advance for a burial, and the -interment is made in the crudest possible manner. The pall-bearers -carry with them a crowbar and shovel, and the corpse waits while the -grave is being prepared after arrival at the cemetery. Graves are dug -anywhere those preparing them may choose, not infrequently in the -same place where other burials have been made, and if human bones are -encountered in the excavation they are thrown aside as so many stones. -After the corpse is laid to rest, perhaps to the great disturbance of -another previously buried in the same spot, the crowd departs to some -place where more liquor can be secured, and where the final celebration -of the event takes place.</p> - -<p>Should a poor man die, leaving no money with which to provide the -customary drinks at his funeral, and having no friends who will perform -that very necessary service for him, the manner of his burial is -something like that accorded to animals. The method of conveying the -bodies of these unfortunates<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> to their last resting place, in many -instances is not unlike that of taking a sack of potatoes to market. -The corpse is tied upon the back of a mule, and with head nodding, -hands and feet waving in the air, as if in mute protest against the -custom of administering the last rites of the poor, they are conveyed -to the cemetery by someone to whom the disagreeable duty is delegated. -A hole large enough to receive the body is dug in some obscure corner -of the cemetery, and without a coffin, without ceremony or service of -any kind, the unfortunate is committed to earth, which receives him -back to its bosom, as it does all those who inhabit it for a brief -period.</p> - -<p>Without plan, ornament, or official keepers, the cemeteries of -rural Chile present an unattractive prospect, and a scene of dreary -desolation. Usually they are nothing more than enclosed plots of -ground, neglected and overrun with weeds and brambles, without markings -to indicate the location of individual graves. There is little -reverence for those who journey to those dreary spots for the last time.</p> - -<p>In the many sharp contrasts presented in the lives of the different -classes in Chile, none are more striking than that shown in the -disposition of the dead, and in the ceremonies attendant upon -funerals. In the cities, where the rich and cultured bury their dead, -the cemeteries are beautifully kept, and adorned with flowers and -shrubbery, and magnificent tombs and monuments mark the last resting -places of wealth and respectability. Elaborate, solemn and impressive -services are held at the home of the deceased, or in church, the body -is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> borne to the grave in a funeral car, while extra coaches and -hearses are employed in carrying the floral offerings and decorations -provided by the family and friends.</p> - -<p>The civil register law conferred great benefits upon the poor, in the -matter of births and deaths. Previous to that there was no record of -births, except in the church records, made by the priests when they -found it agreeable and convenient. Then, as now, a large per cent. -of the children born were illegitimate, and if the parents did not -want the birth inscribed in the record, it was conveniently omitted. -Then there was no law to compel those in charge of the cemeteries to -issue burial permits, and usually the priests demanded a fee before -permission was given to bury the Catholic dead in the consecrated -grounds, while non-Catholics were denied the right of burial in the -cemeteries on any terms.</p> - -<p>Fortunately the civil law makes the registration of births, deaths and -burials free and compulsory. In every municipal district there is a -civil registrar, whose business it is to keep these records, and to -issue burial permits. Private burials are prohibited by law.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="SCHOOLS_AND_COLLEGES">SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>There is no compulsory educational law in Chile. Several attempts have -been made to secure the passage of such a measure, but without success. -The failure to secure such an enactment may be attributed to the -indifference of the majority of the citizens of the Republic, who take -little or no interest in the question of providing better facilities -for educating the youth of the country.</p> - -<p>Primary instruction is provided by the government, which maintains -two kinds of schools in this class, elementary and superior. In the -elementary, the alphabet, reading, writing, gymnastics, singing, and -the first rules of arithmetic, geography and grammar are taught. -In the superior, in addition to the branches taught in the primary -grades, instructions are given in manual training, physical and -natural science, and other general studies, which prepare the pupils -for entrance into the secondary colleges, “liceos,” and other higher -educational institutions. The number of pupils in attendance at these -schools is about one hundred thousand.</p> - -<p>Teachers in the primary grades, masculine and feminine, are prepared in -five normal schools, located in different parts of the country. When -they have finished their studies and passed their examinations, they -receive the title of “Professor” from the State as evidence of their -qualification for teaching.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> Primary teachers receive a salary of 1,200 -pesos per year. After ten years’ service they are entitled to a pension -from the government, and after thirty years they can retire on full pay.</p> - - -<h3>UNIVERSITY OF CHILE.</h3> - -<p>Previous to the formation of the Republic, the only institutions in -Chile possessing facilities for instruction in the sciences and higher -branches of education were the monasteries, the school at San Filipe -being recognized as a national university. But the monastic education -was not in harmony with the modern republican ideas of the progressive -Chilenos, and the San Filipe institution was abolished by official -decree in 1839, and in its place there was established a group of -schools under the name of the University of Chile. The new institution -which was formally opened in 1842, marked an era in the educational -system of the country. The original building, in Santiago, fronting on -the broad Alameda, with its rows of trees and wide park-way, adorned -with statues of national heroes, is a fine architectural creation of -the Spanish style, with interior patios and galleries. The University, -which has an annual attendance of from 1,500 to 2,000 students has -special and well equipped departments of Philosophy and Letters, Law -and Political Science, Medicine, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Engineering, -Architecture, Pedagogy and a Normal school.</p> - -<p>The State also maintains schools of secondary and superior instruction, -the latter being under the direction of the University, which maintains -thirty-six different colleges in the Republic, and gives courses in -practical and special branches, and also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> industrial training. In -the first six years of the course in these colleges the pupils are -instructed in branches designated in the program prepared by the -Council of Instruction, a corporation whose members are appointed by -the government, and which is required to hold weekly sessions.</p> - -<p>The course of instruction in the secondary institutions consists of -the following, worked out according to the German concentric system: -Physical and natural science, mathematics, Spanish, French, German and -English languages, drawing, geography, history, gymnastics and singing. -The pupils who pass the general and final examinations satisfactorily, -receive the degree of Bachelor of Arts, which admits them to the -superior courses of Law, Medicine, Engineering, Agriculture, etc., in -the University.</p> - -<p>All this instruction is provided by the State, free of expense, except -250 pesos per year which the pupil is required to pay for board. The -government has secured a competent corps of teachers and instructors -for the secondary colleges and the University, the majority of them -coming from Germany and Belgium under contract. Their pay is about -6,000 pesos, equal to $2,000 United States currency, annually.</p> - -<p>Chile also maintains a number of Industrial and Commercial schools. -Among these special institutions are four Commercial and Industrial, -three Agricultural, three Mining, and two professional schools for -women, an Art Institute and a school of Fishery. The pupils attending -these institutions are trained in the various professions and -industries taught in the respective schools. This part of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> the system -of public instruction, especially in the establishments in which the -poorer classes receive their education, is very deficient. But this -particular branch is now receiving the attention of the government -authorities, and there is a prospect of decided improvement in the -standard of these schools. One of the defects of these liceos is -the fact that the number of pupils in each is so great that it is -impossible for the masters to hear all the recitations of each pupil, -or to give them individual attention in their studies.</p> - -<p>In addition to the public schools and higher educational institutions -maintained by the State, there are many private schools and colleges, -which offer fairly good facilities for general and special educational -training. The Catholic church provides many schools that are well -equipped for primary education.</p> - -<p>A weak feature of the educational system of Chile, which possesses many -excellent and commendable qualities, is the fact that the State schools -are crowded with pupils from the wealthy families, to the neglect and -exclusion of the children of the poor. The result is the education of a -class in which the majority are ambitious to engage in the professions, -rather than in the trades, agricultural and commercial life.</p> - -<p>What Chile needs for the development of her varied and rich resources -is engineers, mechanics, and men trained in agricultural and commercial -pursuits, instead of musicians, artists, professors and politicians, -for whom the government is expected to provide employment.</p> - -<p>The fact that over sixty per cent. of the population<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> is illiterate is -due to various causes. The Chilean Roto is without ambition for himself -or his family, and until education is made compulsory he will not -attempt to lift his children above the low intellectual level in which -he and his ancestors for generations have been content to live. He has -yet to learn the importance to himself, to the State and society, of -education, and mental training. Another drawback to primary education -in the rural districts is the geographical and climatic conditions -of the country. In many places the territory is sparsely settled and -schoolhouses far apart. The country is mountainous, and in the winter -season streams become raging torrents from the excessive rains, making -journeys across country impossible for children of school age.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LANGUAGE">LANGUAGE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Spanish is the language of Chile, as it is of all South American -countries, except Brazil, but in Chile it has taken on idioms until it -differs in many particulars from the pure Castilian. Like all Latin -languages it lends itself to elaborate speech, pleasing compliment, -plentiful platitude, vague and uncertain meaning and is a charming -means for the exchange of polite pleasantries. It possesses qualities -that commend it especially for diplomatic usage, as the ordinary -sentence, written or verbally expressed, can be construed to mean one -thing or another to suit the desire or convenience of the person giving -it utterance. These qualities, however, render it unsatisfactory as a -commercial language, which should be direct and definite in meaning.</p> - -<p>Perhaps no other language is so easily acquired by foreigners, and none -is more beautiful and attractive when correctly spoken and properly -enunciated than Spanish. There are no silent letters, and each word -is pronounced as it is spelled. The verbs are irregular, but once the -rules of grammar are learned, it is a matter of comparative ease to -acquire facility of speech.</p> - -<p>The Chilenos, like all Spanish speaking people, emphasize all verbal -expressions with elaborate gestures. Their gesticulations are graceful, -and instead of being objectionable, are attractive. They are born -orators, and the average Chileno can deliver<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> a most effective speech -on any and all occasions, on short notice or with small provocation. -Even small boys will harangue a crowd with well-chosen words formed -into beautiful sentences, and delivered with splendid oratorical -effect. This is true in the larger sense also, and the speeches -delivered on public occasions, and in the legislative halls are as a -rule excellent examples of the art of oratory. The meaning is often -vague, and the language ambiguous, but the diction good. A speech -delivered in Spanish in a well modulated voice, emphasized with -sweeping and graceful gestures, is both pleasing and dramatic in effect.</p> - -<p>In Valparaiso, the principal port and commercial city in the Republic, -English is more generally used in the transaction of business than any -other language, Spanish not excepted.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="COURTS_AND_LEGAL_PROCEDURE">COURTS AND LEGAL PROCEDURE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In the formation of the Republic of Chile, the system of law courts -and legal procedure was patterned after that prevailing in Spain, -and included all of its antique, slow and cumbersome processes. The -Spanish law was modeled after the Roman code, and the custom of the -race to cling tenaciously to precedent, seldom accepting innovation or -change in any practice once established, even to meet the exigencies -of changed conditions, manifested itself in the administration of law -in Spain. So, Chile inherited and adopted the system with all its -crudities, slow processes and impracticable features. The Roman law was -improved and amplified to meet new conditions and requirements, and -Spain made changes in her laws, but Chile continues under the old and -obsolete system copied from the mother country.</p> - -<p>The courts, with their respective jurisdiction, are as follows:</p> - - -<h3>FIRST.</h3> - -<p>Juzgado del Distrito (District Judges). This court, first in the order, -has jurisdiction in civil cases up to an amount equal to fifty pesos. -The procedure is verbal, but the result, which is delivered orally -must be put in writing, as a record. All judgments must be in writing. -No criminal cases are tried before these courts. There is no appeal -in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> cases where the amount involved does not exceed twenty pesos. The -judges receive no salary.</p> - - -<h3>SECOND.</h3> - -<p>Jueces de Subdelegacion (Substitute Judges). The procedure in this -court is practically the same as in the first mentioned, except that -the amounts involved in cases tried therein, range from fifty to two -hundred pesos, and all can be appealed. In rural districts, these -courts have jurisdiction in petty criminal or police cases.</p> - -<p>In certain cities, notably Valparaiso and Santiago, there are “Jueces -de Apelacion” (Judges of Courts of Appeal), to whom go appeals from -the first mentioned courts. They have jurisdiction in commercial -cases involving an amount equal to two hundred pesos, and also in -cases relating to pawn shops, governing which there is a special law, -allowing only a certain per cent. to the holder, on articles pawned. -If pawns are not redeemed within the time specified, they are sold at -auction. With the proceeds the pawnholder is paid, and the residue, -if any, is paid to the person pawning the article. If the money thus -obtained is not claimed within a reasonable time it is turned into -the general government fund. Where there are no Jueces de Apelacion, -their functions are performed by Jueces de Letras. Jueces de Apelacion -receive salary.</p> - -<p>Jueces de Letras (Judges of Letters): These courts have jurisdiction -in probate cases where there is no litigation; civil cases where the -amount involved exceeds two hundred pesos, common mining and fiscal -cases involving any sum, and criminal cases. In the more important -cities and populous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> districts there are special Jueces de Letras for -criminal cases.</p> - -<p>The following named persons are not subject to jurisdiction in courts -presided over by Jueces de Letras: Commanders of Military and Naval -Forces; General Officers, whether of the Army or Navy; Inspector -General of Military and Inspector General of National Guard; Members -of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal; Public Prosecutor, Jueces -de Letras, heads of church districts and their secretaries or vices; -Consuls General, Consuls and Vice-Consuls; also municipal corporations -and charitable institutions.</p> - -<p>These judges also have jurisdiction in cases appealed from Jueces -de Subdelegacion, and without appeal settle cases annulled in lower -courts. Where there are no Jueces de Apelacion they perform these last -named functions. Where there are two or more judges of the same class -in one district, they hold court by weekly turns, except in Valparaiso, -where the court of appeals sends each new case to a certain judge.</p> - -<p>Courts of Appeal are located at Santiago, Valparaiso, Concepcion, La -Serena and Tacna. In Santiago, the capital, these courts have twelve -judges, and in Concepcion they have eight; the others five judges each. -These courts have jurisdiction as follows:</p> - - -<h3>FIRST.</h3> - -<p>In the second instance (that is to say on appeal), of the civil and -criminal cases tried in the first instance by Judges of Letters within -their district.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span></p> - - -<h3>SECOND.</h3> - -<p>In single instance (no appeal allowed), of petitions for the nullifying -of sentences rendered by Judges of Letters.</p> - - -<h3>THIRD.</h3> - -<p>In the first instance, of the civil and criminal cases, in which may -have an interest or be a direct party, the President of the Republic, -the ministers of State, the governors of the provinces and governors -of departments, the Chilean diplomatic agents, foreign diplomatic -agents credited before the Chilean government or in transit through the -territory; the archbishops, bishops, vicars general; and of accusations -or civil claims against Judges of Letters to make effective the -criminal and civil responsibility resulting from their official acts.</p> - -<p>The Supreme Court, which is located in Santiago, has jurisdiction as -follows:</p> - - -<h3>FIRST.</h3> - -<p>In single instance (no appeal), of the petition for the nullification -of judgments pronounced by the Courts of Appeal.</p> - - -<h3>SECOND.</h3> - -<p>In the second instance, of the cases corresponding in the first -instance to the Courts of Appeal, or to one member of the Supreme -Court. One member of the court, according to the turn established by -the court itself, judges in the first, including accusations and civil -claims against one or more members of the Court of Appeals, to make -effective their criminal or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> civil responsibility, and of the capture -of prizes, extradition, and other cases to be judged according to -international law.</p> - -<p>Ministers of the Supreme Court, Ministers of the Courts of Appeal and -Judges of Letters are appointed for an indefinite period, subject to -good behavior. Judges of Subdelegations and of Districts are named for -a term of two years.</p> - -<p>The Supreme Court is composed of ten ministers. Judges of the Supreme -Court and of the Courts of Appeal are named by the President. The -high court prepares a list of persons possessing the necessary -qualifications, which is presented to the Consejo de Estado (Council -of State). From this list the Council selects three names, which are -submitted to the President, and from which he may choose whoever he -pleases. In the appointment of a Judge of Letters, the Judges of the -Courts of Appeal, in whose jurisdiction the vacancy exists, prepare a -list of fifteen persons who have the necessary qualifications and send -it to the Consejo de Estado, which prepares therefrom a list of three, -from which the President names the judge.</p> - -<p>Judges of Subdelegations and Districts are named by the governors of -the respective provinces, from lists of competent persons prepared by -the Judges of Letters within their jurisdiction.</p> - - -<h3>NECESSARY QUALIFICATIONS FOR JUDGES OF LETTERS.</h3> - -<p>Natural or acquired citizenship in the Republic; twenty-five years of -age; the title of “abogado” (lawyer); judge in a department wherein is -not the capital of the province; to have practiced law for two years -in a department in which is located the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> provincial capital; to have -practiced law six years, or served for two as department judge, or -judge of a department wherein is a Court of Appeal; to have practiced -law nine years, or served as judge for five years in a department, or -for two years in the capital of a province.</p> - - -<h3>MEMBERS OF COURTS OF APPEAL.</h3> - -<p>Natural or acquired citizenship; thirty-two years of age; the title of -lawyer; to have practiced law for twelve years, or served for six as -judge in a department, for four years in the capital of a province, or -for two years in a city wherein there is a Court of Appeal.</p> - - -<h3>TO BE A MEMBER OF THE SUPREME COURT.</h3> - -<p>Natural or acquired citizenship; thirty-six years of age; the title of -lawyer; to have practiced for fifteen years, or served for eight years -as judge in a department, for six years where there is the capital of a -province, for four years where there is a Court of Appeal, or for two -years as a member of one of these courts.</p> - - -<h3>DISTRICT JUDGE OR JUDGE OF SUBDELEGATION.</h3> - -<p>Twenty years of age; reside within the district, and know how to read -and write. A person who has obtained a title in one of the liberal -professions may be District Judge, even if conditions one and three are -lacking.</p> - -<p>Each member of the Court of Appeal and of the Supreme Court becomes -president by turns for the period of one year.</p> - -<p>Judges of the Supreme Court receive salaries of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> 15,000 pesos annually, -with an honorarium of 1,000 extra to the president of the court. The -secretary gets 7,500 pesos a year. Ministers of Courts of Appeal, -9,000 pesos, with 500 gratuity to the president of same; secretary, -3,000. Judges of Letters, where there is a Court of Appeal, 7,500. -Judges of Letters in the capital of a province, 6,000. Judges of other -departments, 4,500.</p> - - -<h3>QUALIFICATIONS FOR LAWYERS.</h3> - -<p>The necessary qualifications for engaging in the practice of law are: -Twenty years of age; the title of “licentiate” in the faculty of laws -and political sciences in the University of Chile; to have never been -condemned in the courts, nor actually to have a case pending for a -crime which demands corporal punishment. A five years’ course of study -in one of the Liceos (colleges) is required. After an examination -in one of the subjects included in the course, according to subject -drawn by lottery, the student receives the degree of Bachelor in the -University. After five years’ study in a University as Bachelor of Laws -and Political Science, another year’s study is required before the -degree of lawyer can be obtained. Only lawyers are permitted to plead -in the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal, unless the principal himself -wishes to plead his own case.</p> - -<p>Unfortunately there is a class of individuals other than lawyers -who can appear for defendants in all the courts. They are known as -“tinterillos,” and are the plague of the courts and a curse to the -country. As a class they are without equal or comparison in any -country. They are, as a rule, ignorant of the law, unscrupulous and -dishonest. Their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> special prey is the poorer classes who have not the -means to employ lawyers. Once a victim in the hands of a tinterillo, -the unfortunate individual finds himself enmeshed in a maze of -unscrupulous proceedings that are neither regular nor legal, and are -calculated to draw him deeper into the intricacies of Chilean law. -Their knowledge of practice is gained from observation, and not from -the study of law or proceedings. They usually get cases mixed in an -inextricable tangle, lengthen the proceedings, carrying them through -wrongly, employ unlawful means in the way of false witnesses, etc. -They are permitted to engage in their despicable practices in the -courts under the democratic theory that in a Republic, liberty should -be denied to none, though generally the evil effects of such liberty -are painfully apparent. Because of this theory the evil continues, and -nothing is done to eliminate the objectionable practice from the courts.</p> - - -<h3>PRACTICE.</h3> - -<p>In ordinary civil actions the complaint is made in writing, with the -petitions clearly specified. A demurrer to the complaint may be made by -the defendant on certain legal grounds, but only once. Then comes the -answer to the complaint, with possibly a counterclaim. After the answer -comes the reply, with answer to counterclaim, if there be any. Then -reply to the reply. Next comes the verification of pleadings. The judge -decides the points to be presented. Within five days the parties to the -suit present their list of witnesses, the judge orders thirty days for -them to declare in, fixing within that time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span> certain days wherein they -are to be examined and cross-examined through the judge.</p> - -<p>When the time expires, the plaintiff is given the papers for ten days -for him to sum up the case in writing, and then ten days are given -to the defendant for the same purpose. The judge then makes it known -to the parties that he is going to pronounce sentence, which he is -supposed to do within sixty days according to law. This is not always -carried out according to the intent, however.</p> - -<p>On appeal, in the upper court, the plaintiff presents a complaint -and the defendant an answer, and a day is set for the case to be -heard. Then the lawyers plead, after which comes the final sentence, -from which there is no appeal, although possibly a petition for -nullification, to be heard before the Supreme Court, may be presented.</p> - -<p>In criminal cases there comes first the secret proceedings, or -“sumario,” of which the accused has no cognizance till the judge has -exhausted his means of investigation. So the evidence does not prove -the existence of a crime and does not tend to fix it upon the accused. -The case is either marked “sobresimiento” or else, when there are not -enough proofs against the accused, he is “absuelto de la instancia” -(absolved in this instance). Should there be proofs against the -accused, the public prosecutor accuses (unless it is a private case, -when of course the interested party does so). The accused answers, -and proofs are received for a given number of days at the judge’s -discretion (not above thirty). The hearing of the procedure is secret. -Witnesses declare before the judge and alone, according to questions -formulated in writing by the accused (if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> they are his witnesses). -Proofs are likewise received at the same time in regard to the ability -of the witnesses to act as such. When sentence is pronounced, whether -an appeal is made or not, the case goes to the Court of Appeals for -final decision,—final unless nullification of the decision is asked -for, when it goes to the Supreme Court.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CRIME">CRIME</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Drink is the primary cause of much of the crime committed in Chile. -It is in the despachos and roadhouses that secrets are divulged, -confidences exchanged and robberies planned. There peons and inquilinos -employed on farms and large haciendas reveal to the thieves, with -whom they are often on friendly terms, the plans of their master’s -properties, private roads, where animals are pastured, means of gaining -entrance into houses, when sales of stock were made, the amount of -money received and where it is kept. A robbery is proposed to the -intoxicated servants, who readily acquiesce, more out of drunken -gratitude for the liquor furnished by the thieves, than any motive of -crime or gain. They are often induced to act as guides in directing -the bandits to the home of their master. In this manner the cunning -thieves protect themselves by making a shield of the servants, claiming -in the event of detection before an assault is made, that they were -only accompanying their friends home. When the house is reached one of -the robbers goes to the door and raps. When the summons is answered he -invents some plausible story of friendship, to induce those within to -admit him. If refused he pleads that it be opened far enough to enable -the persons addressed to recognize him. If the door is opened the -robbers rush in, usually firing several shots in the house to terrify -the inmates. Once inside no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> resistance is made to their helping -themselves and pillaging the place, as the people know too well the -cruel and heartless nature of the roto bandit. In the meantime the -servants who piloted the marauders to the house have gone to their -respective huts, as nothing could induce them to commit an assault upon -their master’s house; neither do they share in the benefits of the -robbery.</p> - -<p>When satisfied that they have secured all the money in the house, and -helped themselves to such food, drink, clothing or riding equipment as -they may find and fancy, the robbers leave, threatening to return and -murder the entire family, if an attempt is made to identify and punish -them.</p> - -<p>Bandits have private roads, usually on the higher ranges of hills, and -as far as possible from the main thoroughfares. These bridle paths are -much used at night, and if closed by a fence, are at once reopened. -The men who infest these secret by-ways leading out from main traveled -highways, and from one community to another, cannot be considered -brave. They usually depend upon superior numbers, or the non-resident -character of their victims, aided by cunning and diplomatic deceit. In -self-defense, to avoid arrest or to secure their freedom, they will -fight desperately, and without regard for life.</p> - -<p>Many well-to-do people find it convenient to recognize this lawless -class, for the reason that life and property are much more secure to -friends of the bandits than is the case with those who seek to rid the -country of their presence.</p> - -<p>Land Owners Nos. 2 and 3 are usually the victims of these robbers. They -seldom attack the residences<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span> on the large haciendas, confining their -depredations in such places to the stealing of animals, or robbing -their victims from big estates, on the roads. Another reason is that -the houses on the haciendas are more strongly built and better arranged -for resisting attacks. Then there are numerous servants about the -house, some of whom are always on guard, and savage dogs roam about -the gardens and grounds at night. The hacendado and his employés are -usually well armed and know how to use their weapons. The windows -of the fine country residences are protected with heavy iron bars. -The doors of these houses are never opened after the family retires -at night until the following morning, and the buildings are so well -constructed that it is not an easy matter to gain admittance by force. -Another reason why thieves seldom molest the hacendados in their homes -is the fact that it would take too large a party to surround the house -and guard it.</p> - -<p>These freebooters are a part of every rural district in Chile. They -generally own houses and small tracts of land which serve as a blind -to their real occupation. Those who do not own property are protected -and sheltered by those who do. As cattle thieves they have no rivals. -They will go into the “potreros” of a farm at night, drive the animals -into a “quebrada” (wooded ravine), where they kill and skin them and -pack the meat into sacks prepared for the purpose. With a sack of meat -behind each saddle and the skin of an animal in front, the robbers -mount their horses and ride away. When day dawns they are leagues away -from the scene of their depredations, and have disposed of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> their -spoils for cash. They then seek some secluded spot where they spend the -day sleeping, and resting their horses. There is no lack of “fences” -and “underground systems,” where the bandits can readily dispose of -their plunder. When seen at their humble homes these night marauders -present the appearance of hard working, law abiding citizens, and -any one of them can promptly prove that he has not been absent from -home for many weeks. There is no means of procuring evidence against -them, as they can secure as many witnesses as they desire in their -defense. And it is impossible to get any damaging information from -their families, even from the smallest children. No one can confess -them; they are trained from infancy to observe discreet silence or give -misleading information. Threats or punishment are of no avail.</p> - -<p>The boldest, most fearless and notorious of the bandits have no fixed -places of residence. Large private and government rewards are placed -upon the heads of some of these desperadoes. Some of the more clever -ones do not participate personally in the robberies and attendant -crimes, but employ their talents in planning and directing the deeds. -These clever managers often live what appears to be a most respectable -life, having no fear of detection or interruption in the management -of their reprehensible business. They are clever, cunning, subtle, -penetrating, and always cautious. They have their trusted agents, -through whom their plans are executed, and through whom they receive -their profits in the business. These men levy tribute upon farmers, -merchants and professional men.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span></p> - -<p>Savage dogs are the best protection to country property. Many bandits -who have no fear of armed resistance will not venture into an enclosure -guarded by fierce dogs. It is the purpose of the robbers to always -surprise their victims in an assault, or to gain admission to a house -by stealth, and the barking of dogs frustrates their plans.</p> - -<p>A curious custom among Chilean bandits, who operate in bands, is the -taking with them on their thieving raids what is known as a “loro” -(parrot). This individual is usually selected for his cowardly or -cautious traits, rather than because of his bravery. When a robbery is -planned the loro is placed on guard to keep watch and give the alarm, -in the event of danger or discovery. Fearful of being caught, he is -keenly alert and quick to sound a warning if anything suspicious is -observed.</p> - -<p>Bandits are seldom known by their real names, and some of the cognomens -applied to them are as characteristic of the individual as they are -curious. One who is a clever talker is called a “Pico de Oro” (golden -beak); “cojo” (lame); “Tenorio” (ladies’ man); “El Tuerto” (squint -eye), etc.</p> - -<p>As previously stated there are few great commercial robberies, -embezzlements or forgeries in Chile. This may be due to the fact that -escape is difficult. The Cordilleras forming a natural barrier on one -side and the ocean upon the other, it is only necessary to guard the -mountain passes and watch the departure of ships to prevent persons -from leaving the country. Men connected with commercial interests, -which give them the opportunity to steal or embezzle large sums of -money are, as a rule, unfamiliar with the mountainous country or the -ways of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> bandits, and are therefore unable to escape by going to the -interior.</p> - -<p>There is another class of bandits or brigands who are more clever, -daring and desperate than those already described. They follow the more -well-defined roads of travel, are well dressed, mounted on good horses, -intelligent and generally present a very genteel appearance. They -usually hunt in bands, covering a wide range of territory, know all the -people living within the country covered by their depredations, and are -familiar with every road and by-way. They always have knowledge through -their accomplices of strangers traveling through the country, or of -servants sent upon important missions. They roam about the mountainous -regions, or in close proximity to the Cordillera ranges, where escape -is easy, in case of pursuit. Some of these highwaymen are notorious for -the desperate deeds committed.</p> - -<p>The common weapon of the Chilean bandit, like his methods, is peculiar -to the country. During the revolution in 1891, nearly every Chileno -was engaged in the war, upon one side or the other. After peace was -restored, the arms were retained by the individuals, and practically -every man in the country possessed a rifle. These weapons were too -large and cumbersome for the bandits, so they cut off a portion of -the barrel, to render them more convenient, and so they could be more -easily concealed under their ponchos. These guns are called “rifles -recortado” (re-cut rifles).</p> - -<p>The fact that crime is common leads naturally to the question of law -and its enforcement. Why are there not laws for the punishment of -crime? There<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> are. And why are they not enforced? That is another -question, and one involving various phases of life in the Republic. A -large per cent. of the people are honest, observing and obeying the -law, and would be glad to see it universally enforced. The lawless -element aid and protect each other, and even the more honest of the -poor people look upon a notorious criminal as a hero, rather than a -disgraced member of society, whose companionship is to be avoided. -These people if called upon to testify in court against a man whom they -know to be guilty of numerous crimes, will give evidence as to his good -character. Another thing that operates in favor of the criminal is the -fact that the law requires two disinterested eye-witnesses to establish -the guilt of any person accused of crime.</p> - -<p>If a person catches a man in the act of robbing his house or his -property and takes the thief into custody, his evidence will not be -sufficient to convict the robber. He must have two witnesses who -saw the thief in the act. The evidence of members of his family, -or of servants employed by him will not be admitted. The burden of -proof rests with the prosecutor, and not with the accused. The slow -operation of the law is also responsible for a lack of the enforcement -of statutory provisions. There are so many delays and difficulties -incident to securing the conviction of a criminal, that honest people -frequently refuse to follow to a conclusion cases in which they are -personally interested.</p> - -<p>When convicted and sent to prison, the fact has no detrimental effect -upon the social standing of the convict in the community in which -he lives. Like a horse that has made a record upon the turf, his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> -performances furnish a fruitful topic of conversation to his friends, -the details of which are discussed with animated interest. When -released from prison, and he returns home, which is invariably the -case, the convict becomes the hero of the community. There is no shame -or disgrace connected with his imprisonment. The question of treatment, -the quality and quantity of beans served in the prison fare, are -discussed as if they were common phases of everyday life.</p> - -<p>If a thief is killed and his friends and accomplices secure possession -of the body, which they invariably try to do, the skin is cut from -the face of the corpse, and all clothing removed from the body. These -precautions are taken for the purpose of preventing identification.</p> - -<p>It was once a common custom, and still prevails to some extent in the -rural provinces, to liquidate the crime of a wound or even murder -by cash payment. It is claimed that the law is slow of execution, -expensive and unsatisfactory, giving nothing to the victim or his -family. If a poor man is killed, the assassin or his representatives -will settle the affair for a few dollars, sometimes not more than five -or ten dollars. If a man of means and social standing in the community -meets a violent death, the price is from twenty-five to fifty pesos. -These liquidations in former times were not private. Public interest -was often aroused and the neighbors entered into the negotiations to -see that a fair price was paid. If a person was stabbed a few times it -was not considered of sufficient importance to require a money payment; -a few drinks canceled the account for damages.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span></p> - -<p>So notorious has become the commission of crime, in recent years, that -<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">El Mercurio</i>, the most widely circulated and influential paper -in the country devoted much space to the subject a few years ago. The -following is an extract and translation from an article appearing in -that journal in February, 1903:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“The alarm produced in all classes of society due to the extraordinary -development which is taking place in the criminality in Chile, -especially in the capital, has induced us to open an investigation -as to the causes of such a deplorable social condition. A study -of the causes which have tended to foster such a great increase -in the number of criminal acts is undoubtedly due to the complete -disorganization of public affairs in this country, and should serve -to call seriously the attention of the government to the imperious -necessity of attempting some course of action which would tend to -remedy in part, at least, the disastrous condition of the nation at -large. The enormous development of criminality in this country is not -only the manifestation of a very grave social condition, nor is it -only the symptom of a social dissolution in its worst form, but it -is the visible cause of the discredit which our country is suffering -among foreign nations.</p> - -<p>“The European press avails itself of all data relative to the number -of terrible crimes committed in Chile, and also of their sanguinary -and atrocious character, and denounces them to their fellow citizens -as proof of the insecurity of life and property in this country.”</p> -</div> - -<p><i lang="es" xml:lang="es">El Mercurio</i>, in its endeavor to ascertain the reason for the -extraordinary criminal condition of the country, interviewed Mr. Luis -Urzua Gana, public prosecutor for the department of Santiago, who made -the following statement:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“I believe that the first and foremost cause of the existing criminal -condition is due to the fact that a large proportion of the crimes -remain unpunished. I believe that eighty per cent. of the offenses -committed are not punished, and that a large proportion of them are -not even denounced. As the greater the probability that a crime will -not be punished, so law and justice lose their deterrent effect.</p> - -<p>“Another cause of criminality is the large number of vagrant children, -either in complete idleness or in some kind of work which enables them -to gain in a few hours enough money for their food and vices. Boys -of twelve years of age and even under, exhibit in this country, the -same moral monstrosities as do men old in sin and crime. Among them, -gambling has reached a surprising development, and there seems to be -no form of immorality which has not its adepts among them. And worse -still there are people who foster their vicious practices and make a -business out of their degradation.”</p> -</div> - -<p>Soon after his election in 1901 President Riesco secured the passage -of a bill in the national congress providing for the establishment -and maintenance of a specially selected and well equipped cavalry -regiment, to be used in suppressing lawlessness. This troop is subject -to service in any part of the Republic where the protection of life and -property is required. The usefulness and effectiveness of this kind -of service is due to the fact that a better class of men is selected, -than is found in the municipal and provincial police. It is too small -in numbers, however, to properly guard and protect any considerable -portion of the mountainous country constituting the territory of Chile.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="RAILWAYS">RAILWAYS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The primordial need of every country is good roads and ample -transportation facilities. This is more especially true of Chile, -than of most countries, because the long strip of territory between -the Andean range of mountains and the Pacific is characterized by -narrowness and length, a configuration which is peculiarly lacking in -continuity between productive centers. The nitrate fields and other -rich mineral producing sections of the north are, by nature, completely -isolated from the agricultural districts of the central valley, where -the principal cities and towns are situated, and also from the timber -zone and grazing lands of the far south.</p> - -<p>During the first half century of the Republic’s existence little -progress was made along the line of industrial development because -of a lack of railway communication. The first link in the chain of -Chile’s present, extensive railway systems, a line extending from the -port of Caldera to Copiapo, a distance of fifty miles, was built in -1851. Later other roads were constructed, chief among which was the -line extending from Valparaiso to Santiago, and from the capital south -through the central valley, the great agricultural district of the -country, into the coal producing and timber regions, connecting them -with the seaports and commercial centers. This section of the State -railways, which for many years had its terminus at Concepcion, was -in recent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> years extended to Valdivia, an important industrial and -commercial center, and in 1912 was completed as far as Port Montt. -Since the building of the first line, little more than half a century -ago, the railway system of Chile has grown until it now comprises over -four thousand miles of fairly well equipped roads, the ramifications of -which reach into every part of the country, with the exception of the -territory constituting the southern limits of the Republic, including -Patagonia. A little more than one-half of the railway mileage is -government ownership, the other portion being owned by individuals and -corporations.</p> - - -<h3>TRANSANDINE RAILWAY.</h3> - -<p>The first step in the progressive policy of railway building in which -Chile has been engaged in recent years, was the construction of the -Transandine Railway via Uspillata Pass. This important line, connecting -the Atlantic with the Pacific, and giving to the Republic rail -connections with countries to the east of the Andean range, brought the -importance of better interior transportation facilities more closely to -the minds of the people, and the result has been a period of railway -building surpassing the expectation of the most radical advocates of an -aggressive industrial policy.</p> - -<p>The history of the Transandine Railway will probably never be written, -unless it be given to the world by the Clark Brothers, who conceived -the idea, and labored for more than a quarter of a century to enlist -the assistance of the Chilean government in a plan to build the road. -Every succeeding administration, during the period in which the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> -Clarks were working on the scheme, was apparently favorable to the -plan. The rejection of proposals and the failure always to vote aid or -subsidy, however, was evidence of the fact that there was always secret -opposition.</p> - -<p>During much of the time while the Transandine scheme was under -consideration, a war cloud, arising from a disputed boundary question -between Chile and the Argentine, loomed large and ominous over the -Cordillera, creating a feeling in the minds of the Chilenos that -Argentina was quite near enough, without an additional connecting link -in the way of a railroad across the Andes.</p> - -<p>In 1901 the Transandine Railway, including the portion already in -operation, from Los Andes to Salto del Soldado, passed into the -hands of W. R. Grace & Company. Then John Eyre, manager for Grace & -Company in Chile, took up the work of promoting the undertaking. With -indomitable courage, tireless energy, and full confidence in ultimate -success, he started in to enlist government aid in building the road.</p> - -<p>In February, 1903, Congress passed a law authorizing the President to -advertise for a term of one year, from the first of May, 1903, for -sealed proposals for the construction of the Transandine Railway. The -law also provided for a government guarantee of five per cent. annually -on a capital not to exceed $7,250,000. Grace & Company were the only -bidders. The proposal was for $6,500,000, being $750,000 below the -maximum sum on which the government guaranteed five per cent. interest. -A special commission was appointed to examine the proposal, and on June -7, 1904, the tender was accepted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> by the government, thus insuring to -Chile railway communication with countries beyond the mountain barrier -that had so long restricted commerce and the development of her natural -resources.</p> - -<p>On November 27, 1909, five and a half years after the contract was -approved by the Chilean Government, the last section of rock in the -tunnel, separating the two gangs of workmen operating from different -sides, was removed, and a line of communication which had been the -dream of years was established; a line that has had a marked effect, -not only upon the two republics which it directly connects, but upon -the world. On May 25, 1910, the first train was run through the tunnel -and an all-rail route opened between Valparaiso and Buenos Aires, a -distance of 888 miles,—the first railroad across the South American -continent. Thus after thirty-seven years of work and planning, -vicissitudes and discouragements, the hopes of the promoters of -this great enterprise were realized and the Transandine Railway an -accomplished fact. The date will remain a memorable one in the history -of Chile, as it occurred in the year of the one hundredth anniversary -of the Independence of the Republic.</p> - -<p>The Chilean terminus of the tunnel, which is 10,385 feet long, is at -El Portillo, at an altitude of 10,450 feet above sea level, and on the -Argentine side at Las Cuevas. On the Chilean side the road ascends the -mountains 7,615 feet within a distance of 46 miles, between Los Andes -and the summit, an average of 166 feet to the mile. Directly over the -tunnel, on the Uspillata pass, at an altitude of 13,000 feet stands -the “Christ of the Andes,” a statue erected in 1904, as a symbol of -perpetual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span> peace between the two republics. It was cast in bronze from -cannons contributed by both nations. It stands upon the international -boundary line established by a commission appointed by King Edward, -after war between Chile and the Argentine had been imminent for years. -The figure representing Christ is twenty-six feet high, and placed upon -a colossal column it makes an imposing and impressive monument. In one -hand is held a cross, while the other is extended in a blessing of -peace. The inscription on one of the tablets is: “Sooner shall these -mountains crumble into dust than the people of Argentina and Chile -break the peace to which they have pledged themselves at the feet of -Christ the Redeemer.”</p> - -<p>The Transandine line in Chile is made up of two systems with different -gauges of track. From Valparaiso to Los Andes the route is over the -State railways, which is of standard gauge; from Los Andes to the -Argentine frontier, including the tunnel, a distance of 50 miles, the -road is narrow gauge, 39 inches, a portion of it rack and pinion system.</p> - -<p>This route shortens the distance to Buenos Aires, and consequently -between Europe and Chile, by about twelve days, as formerly, during a -considerable portion of the year traffic from the Atlantic and the east -coast was by way of the Straits of Magellan.</p> - - -<h3>ARICA, LA PAZ RAILWAY.</h3> - -<p>Another important division of the State railways is the line extending -from Arica to La Paz. This road, constructed in accordance with -stipulations in the treaty celebrated between Chile and Bolivia,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> -October 1904, was built at the expense of the Chilean government at a -cost of $11,900,000 U. S. currency. The treaty agreement providing for -this road caused a vigorous protest from the Peruvian government, as -the route lies through the province of Arica which, previous to the war -of 1879, was Peruvian territory, and which is still involved in the -Tacna and Arica question. The contract for the construction was awarded -on March 4, 1906, and the road was completed in 1912.</p> - -<p>The engineering difficulties encountered were numerous and complicated, -the gradient in some places being exceedingly steep. At one point the -line rises 3,610 feet, within a distance of 25 miles. The total length -of the line is 267 miles of which 28 miles is of the Abt rack system on -a six per cent. maximum grade, which constitutes the longest continuous -stretch of rack system railway in the world. The highest altitude -reached is 13,986 feet, at a distance of 112 miles from Arica and 155 -from La Paz.</p> - -<p>The road passes through an undeveloped country that is rich in mineral -resources, and furnishes direct communication between Chilean ports -on the Pacific and the capital of Bolivia. This line, connecting the -two republics, and supplemented as it is with numerous branch roads -leading into the various mining districts, forms a railway system that -has contributed materially to the development of the territory through -which it passes.</p> - -<p>Under treaty agreement it is to be operated by Chile for a period of -fifteen years, after which time the section in Bolivia becomes the -property of the Bolivian government.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span></p> - - -<h3>LONGITUDINAL RAILWAY.</h3> - -<p>The most important division of the government railway system in Chile, -however, because of its relation to the industrial and commercial -interests of the country, is the longitudinal line extending from Tacna -to Port Montt, a distance of over two thousand miles, and constituting -the great central artery of communication, uniting the mineral zones -of the north with the agricultural regions of the central valley -and the timber sections of the south. This road has as feeders over -thirty transverse lines of varying length connecting the productive -centers of the Republic with all the principal seaports of the coast. -Notwithstanding the fact that transport is maintained by sea along -the entire length of the territory constituting the Republic, a -north and south railway was felt to be a necessity. In addition to -commercial needs there are strategic reasons for a longitudinal line: -to facilitate the transportation of troops and armament from one end of -the Republic to the other in case of war.</p> - -<p>As far back as Balmaceda’s time the building of this road figured among -the government’s projects, and in succeeding administrations plans -were made for the execution of the work. It was President Don Pedro -Montt, however, who took up the task of carrying out the idea and, with -characteristic perseverance, succeeded in getting the National Congress -to pass a law in 1908, authorizing him to call for public tenders for -contracts for the construction of the Longitudinal Railway. In 1909 -contracts were let for the building of over eight hundred miles of the -road at a total cost of $35,000,000.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span></p> - -<p>The completion of this longitudinal line leaves only the territory -lying south of latitude 42 degrees, and forming the greater part of -what is known as Chilean Patagonia without a railway.</p> - -<p>The service on the railways in Chile is, as a rule, unsatisfactory, -and on some of the lines it may be designated as bad. This is due to -the fact that the management of the government roads is influenced by -politics. The compensation of government railway employés is very low, -and payment of salaries not infrequently long delayed and somewhat -uncertain. The tenure of service depends upon political influence, -and there is little in the system to encourage honest industry. -Employés feel no personal responsibility and to cheat the government, -particularly in the failure to render good service, is a common -practice that is not considered a crime.</p> - -<p>First class fares correspond to those prevailing in the United States, -but second and third-class fares and freight rates are very low. The -express trains from Valparaiso to Santiago, and from the capital south -to Concepcion carry American chair cars in the day, and on the southern -section, Pullman cars on the night trains.</p> - -<p>The lack of facilities for carrying freight, the unsatisfactory service -in cargo trains, and the slow method of unloading and loading cars, is -a serious handicap to business depending upon the prompt delivery of -merchandise and material. The freight service on the government roads -is generally bad. The yard and track facilities in all the important -commercial centers are wholly inadequate to the requirements. It is -frequently impossible to secure cars, and when once the freight is -loaded and accepted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span> by the railway, there is much uncertainty as to -when it will be forwarded to its destination. If the freight consists -of perishable goods the chances are that it will be seriously damaged -or entirely destroyed before delivery. In either event there is no -recourse in law for damages.</p> - -<p>In 1904 there was a great shortage of freight cars in Valparaiso. -Merchants and manufacturers were demanding cars in which to ship cargo -long overdue in delivery. When the manager of the State railways was -appealed to for relief, he stated that all freight cars on that section -of the road had been ordered to Santiago where a census of the rolling -stock was being taken. Complaint against abuses in the service is -useless.</p> - -<p>One redeeming feature of the railway service in Chile, is the cheap -passenger fares for the poor people, who are ill able to pay high -rates, and who do not expect much in return for their money. Time is no -object to them, and if trains run slowly and not up to schedule, there -is no complaint.</p> - - -<h3>ELECTRIC ROADS.</h3> - -<p>The use of electricity as a motive power in Chile, is in its -incipiency. Electric car systems now in operation are, the street -railways in Santiago, Valparaiso, Concepcion and Talca, and their -respective suburbs, a few lines in mountainous districts, used for -carrying ores from the mines to the reducing stations, an interurban -line connecting Concepcion with the ports of Talcahuano and Coronel, -and one extending from Valparaiso to Viña del Mar. A government -concession has been granted for the building of an electric railway -from Santiago to Valparaiso,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</span> and plans are being made for the -electrification of some of the government roads.</p> - -<p>Connecting with the railways of the country are cart roads, the -best of which may be classed as bad, and the branches connecting -with the principal highways are nothing more than trails over a -rough mountainous country. Few new roads are being built, and little -attention is given to the improvement or maintenance of those already -constructed.</p> - - -<h3>TRAVEL.</h3> - -<p>The only means of travel in many localities is on horseback. Long or -short distance, singly or in numbers, the country people traveling on -horseback, will often follow poorly defined trails over the mountains -for great distances, seldom losing their way or deviating from the -shortest route. They seldom carry any baggage, except such articles of -clothing as they require for the trip, which is transported in bags or -baskets.</p> - -<p>The country people are generally hospitable, usually offering to -passing strangers such food and accommodations as they may have, and -without expectation of remuneration.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDUSTRIAL_INTERESTS">INDUSTRIAL INTERESTS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>From the earliest history of the Republic, the energies of the Chilenos -have been devoted largely to agricultural and horticultural pursuits, -stock raising and mining. The conditions of soil and climate, and the -natural resources of the country have encouraged the people to interest -themselves in those lines rather than in industrial occupations. The -result is that there are few large manufacturing interests in the -country. The majority of the more important manufactured articles are -imported. There are, however, various small industrial institutions, -most of which are closely related to the agricultural and mining -interests. The methods employed are more or less primitive, as is -frequently the case where a low value is placed upon labor.</p> - -<p>Practically all of the manufacturing interests in Chile are operated by -foreigners and controlled by foreign capital. This may be attributed -to the fact that the Chilenos do not possess the taste for industrial -pursuits. Another cause is the irresponsibility of laborers and -mechanics. The average Chilean workman has no sense of responsibility. -If given a task to perform, he cannot be made to understand that -any importance attaches to the time when it is to be completed. -Individually and collectively, the workmen are afflicted with the -“mañana” disease. This condition has existed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</span> from the time of the -earliest history of the country and continues to be one of the serious -drags upon industrial and commercial progress. If remonstrated with -for indifference to his employer’s interests or his procrastination of -time, the workman will declare his willingness to leave his position. -To discharge him does not improve the situation, as the man employed -in his stead will entertain similar ideas as to his rights and duties. -He cannot be encouraged by kindness, or even an increase of wages -to change his habits. He is without ambition, and does not expect -to improve his condition. It is useless to manifest any sympathy -for him, he does not want it. He is satisfied, and will not accept -innovations. That which was good enough for his father and grandfather, -is satisfactory to him. He believes that he was born to his station -in life, and he sticks to it stupidly and stolidly. Another drawback -to the manufacturing business is the fact that the Chilean workman -or mechanic seldom learns his trade properly, and takes no pains to -improve himself or his condition.</p> - -<p>In Chile a lad is put to work in a shop, and in a few weeks or months -he tires of the job, and tries something else. After a time he tires -again and tries another trade. And so he goes on changing until the -time arrives when he should be a competent journeyman tradesman, and -he goes forth a jack of all trades and master of none. The Chilean -workman has his good qualities, however, as well as his faults. If -properly encouraged he will render excellent service as a laborer. -He does not work intelligently, and where skill is required he is -unsatisfactory. Inured to a life of toil, hardship and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> deprivation, -he does not hesitate to engage in any kind of labor, no matter how -menial or trying. He has wonderful endurance, and can subsist upon -the plainest food, in limited quantities, while performing tasks -requiring the greatest exertion. In handling heavy freight or cargo -he has few equals. He has great strength in his arms, back and legs, -and the enormous weights he can carry is cause for comment among those -who witness his feats of strength. A roto will trot along the street -carrying a box or bale of merchandise upon his back that weighs three -or four hundred pounds, and is apparently not distressed with the -burden. It is at labor where strength and endurance count that he is -valuable as a workman.</p> - -<p>Organization among the working classes in Chile is in the formative -stage; yet even in its incipiency, unionism has proved itself to -be a dangerous political element and a serious menace to society. -The working classes are not sufficiently educated to appreciate the -responsibilities, or to enable them to direct with intelligence -and judgment, an organized force. The roto has little idea, and no -appreciation of obligation to his employer, to society, or to the -State; no regard for his word and little for the law. He is illiterate, -intemperate and superstitious. He is not lazy, but improvident, and -works because necessity prompts it, rather than for the purpose of -bettering his condition. He can neither be persuaded nor forced to -understand the importance of reporting for duty at a fixed hour for a -given number of days in the week. He is independent and clannish, and -has an exaggerated idea of his republican citizenship. His hatred of -foreign<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span> workmen is intense, and he will not stop short of murder, if -that be necessary, to prevent the “gringo” from coming into competition -with him. He is an apt pupil in the ethics of trades unions, in so -far as it applies to his side of the question. He believes that -the province of the union is to force shorter hours and more pay, -without giving in turn good and steady service. He has yet to learn -the commercial value of truth; the beneficial effects to himself of -personal industry, of rendering an honest day’s labor for his wage. He -must learn the good result of applying new methods to his work, and -also lessons of economy and providence. In short, he must join the -onmarching procession of industrial and commercial development before -he is qualified and competent to assert his authority and make demands -as an organized force. A dangerous phase of the labor union problem -is the fact that when encouraged by clever leaders and enforced by -numbers, the Roto Chileno is not slow to resort to violence.</p> - -<p>The most serious charge made against labor organizations in Chile, -and one that is well founded is, that they do not seek to elevate -the standard of excellence among their members, or to better their -individual condition. Neither do they encourage temperance, and -obedience to law, or protection to society.</p> - - -<h3>VINEYARDS.</h3> - -<p>Grape culture and the manufacture of its products constitutes one of -the principal industrial interests of Chile. In this, as in other -industries, there are no statistics available on which to base<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span> -satisfactory calculations concerning the acreage, production of wine, -“aguardiente” and “chicha,” manufactured annually. It is estimated -that there are now about 20,000 acres of producing vineyards, and the -acreage is being annually augmented. The soil is especially adapted to -grape culture. Vines thrive and produce well both on the dry hill lands -and in the irrigated sections. The grape vine was introduced in Chile -by the Spaniards during colonial times, but the cultivation of it has -become a national and profitable industry only in recent years. There -is already a large export trade in wine, which is annually increasing. -On the large estates the French method is employed in the manufacture -of wine, and most of the distilleries are in charge of expert wine-men -from France.</p> - -<p>There are few more interesting sights than that of a large estate -devoted to vineyards. The vines, planted in even rows, are carefully -wired and trimmed and gracefully festooned. On the terraces of the -hill farms the vari-tinted foliage presents an artistic appearance, -particularly so when from the vines are suspended millions of amber and -purple clusters ready for the vintage.</p> - -<p>The grapes are picked from the vines by women and children, and placed -in baskets. Two-wheeled ox carts, equipped with large tanks made of -animal skins, are used for conveying the grapes to the winery. The -first process consists of passing the fruit through a machine that -mangles the grapes but does not crush the seeds. From these machines -the pulp and juice fall into fermenting vats. If red wine is to be -made the liquid and stems are left to ferment together; if white wine -or chicha, the liquid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</span> is drawn off through a strainer. The method of -fermenting, bottling, seasoning, etc., is the same as that employed in -large wineries in other countries.</p> - -<p>In the smaller vineyards, different methods are used; there, the -primitive process of making wine by hand is still employed. The vats -for holding the wine, instead of being made of cement or wood, are the -skins of bullocks, removed from the animals with as little opening -as possible. While green these hides are placed upon poles, hammock -fashion, and filled with stones, which stretch them into the desired -form, and in which position they are left to dry. When seasoned these -skins form natural tubs or vats, to which the portion originally -covering the tail forms a faucet, or outlet. In some instances these -primitive wine producers employ the original method of crushing the -grapes, by throwing them into vats, where naked men trample them, often -walking neck deep in the pulpous mass. The wine is fermented in casks, -and when ready for use is stored in large earthen jars, made by hand -and baked in crude kilns.</p> - - -<h3>VEHICLES.</h3> - -<p>There are no large manufactories for the production of vehicles. -Most of the vehicles used in Chile are primitive in design, crude -in construction and finish. Two-wheeled carts, which are almost -universally used as transports for freight, are manufactured in all the -towns and villages. Most of them are clumsy, with high wheels, heavy, -rough spokes, broad, thick fellies, and wide tires. The box or frame -is fastened to the axle, without springs or other means of relieving -the jolting sensation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span> produced by the wheels passing over the rough -country roads or uneven streets.</p> - -<p>In the country, oxen are used almost exclusively for drawing carts. The -pole of the cart is a piece of timber fastened firmly in the center -of the axle, and extending forward a sufficient distance for the -animals to be harnessed to the vehicle. The yoke by which the oxen are -attached, instead of resting upon the neck of the beast, as is common -in most countries, is placed upon the head just back of the horns, and -fastened with strips of rawhide passed around the horns and over the -forehead. This method of harnessing gives to the animal no freedom of -action of the head. The frame of the cart being firmly fastened to the -tongue, all the jarring sensation produced by the motion of the vehicle -comes upon the head, causing great torture.</p> - -<p>Vehicles used for transporting goods in the cities and towns are the -same as those employed for similar purposes in the country, except that -they are not so heavy. They are provided with shafts and are drawn by -horses. One horse works between the shafts, and another is attached by -a single trace, upon the left, or near side. A saddle constitutes a -part of the harness of the animal on the left, on which the driver is -mounted.</p> - -<p>One of the common methods of transporting cargo in the towns and -cities, is upon the backs of horses. Groceries, meat, milk, in fact all -classes of freight from barrels of oil and cement to huge timbers and -piles of lumber, are carried upon horses. In the country, mules are -employed for the same purpose, as they are more sure footed upon the -hills, and will carry heavy loads for greater distances.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span></p> - - -<h3>COAL.</h3> - -<p>Outcroppings of coal were discovered in Talcahuano, Coronel and -Lota, all of which are situated upon the Gulf of Arauco, Province of -Concepcion, department of Lautaro, as nearly as 1840. The first attempt -to work the mines was made by Don Antonio Memparte, in the vicinity of -Lota, in 1850. Two years later the property passed into the possession -of Don Matais Cousino, who finally succeeded in establishing the -reputation of the Lota coal for smelting, steam and domestic purposes. -Later other mines were opened, and the district known as the Lota -and Coronel country now produces coal in large quantities, supplying -nearly all the steamships passing that way, as well as the government -and corporation railways of the country. The development of the coal -industry at Lota encouraged the establishment of various manufacturing -industries in that locality. Among the more important industrial -concerns are brick and pottery works, which were established in 1855, -and a large copper smelting plant that has been in operation since -1860. Later a glass factory, the only works of the kind in Chile, was -added to the industries of the place. These concerns are all operated -by the Lota Company in connection with the coal mines.</p> - -<p>The first practical teachers and pioneer miners at Lota were Scotchmen, -very few of whom now survive. They were about thirty in number. Their -original destination was the island of Vancouver, but owing to some -difficulties that occurred on the voyage, the ship on which they were -traveling put into Valparaiso, where they remained for some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span> time, -and from where they were later engaged for the mines at Lota. There -they founded what is still designated the British colony. It is now, -however, British in name only, there being but few of the original -colonists or their families left. The remaining few abandoned their -national customs and language for the customs of the country in which -they lived. To such an extent have they adapted themselves to local -conditions and influences that very few of the residents at Lota -bearing English names can speak the English language.</p> - -<p>The coal from the Lota district is of a low grade, producing an unusual -amount of cinders and refuse. The Arauco Company which operates mines -in the same district, and which has a railroad running from Coronel -to Colico, a distance of some twenty miles, is also producing coal in -large quantities.</p> - - -<h3>MINING AND MANUFACTURING.</h3> - -<p>Owing to the extensive working of the great nitrate of soda deposits, -mining takes first place among Chilean industries. Although producing -nearly a million tons annually, coal mining has not developed -sufficiently to supply the needs of the country, the importations -amounting to about one and a half million tons a year. Copper is the -most important of the metals mined, although gold and silver are mined -in considerable quantities.</p> - -<p>In recent years more attention has been paid to manufacturing. In 1909 -there were 5,000 manufacturing establishments, large and small, with a -capital of $45,000,000, and an aggregate output valued at $64,000,000. -There are 960 establishments in the shoe and leather industry, 870 in -food supplies,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> 670 in metal industries, 555 in the manufacture of -garments, 440 wood working industries, 210 in paper and printing and -200 in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages.</p> - -<p>The value of imports into Chile in 1909 was approximately $95,000,000 -and the export values for the same year $110,000,000. Of the total -imports Great Britain supplied 32 per cent., Germany 22 per cent., -and the United States 10 per cent. Of the total exports, amounting to -$110,000,000, Great Britain purchased 45 per cent., Germany 24 per -cent., and the United States 20 per cent. Europe and the United States -bought over 90 per cent. of the exports, and furnished 80 per cent. of -the imports.</p> - -<p>Nitrate of soda constitutes about 75 per cent. of the total exports -from Chile, and copper, 5 per cent. The four articles of import showing -the largest values are, steel and manufactures of, coal, cotton goods -and industrial machinery. Eighty-five per cent. of the imports consist -of manufactured articles.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="POPULATION_AND_COLONIZATION">POPULATION AND COLONIZATION</h2> -</div> - - -<p>Pedro Valdivia, in a letter to Carlos V. of Spain, dated at La Sarena, -September 5, 1545, described the beautiful climate of Chile as one -where man could work under the summer sun without inconvenience, and -expressed the belief that there could be developed and maintained a -strong, virile, superior race of people that would be an honor to, and -the pride of the mother country. He also expressed the belief that -in the conquest of Chile he would secure territory where he and his -companions might leave a lineage that would honor their memories.</p> - -<p>In some respects this seems to have been a prophetic view of the -situation. The mixing of the blood of those bold, intelligent, but -cruel and unscrupulous “conquistadores,” with the strong, courageous -qualities of the Araucanian Indians, has left in Chile a distinct -type, a characteristic race of people. They possess the romantic -tendencies and diplomatic qualities of the Spaniards, combined with the -independent natures of the Araucanians.</p> - -<p>They are a hospitable people, but are clannish, and have a strong -prejudice against all foreigners. This prejudice, apparently -inherent, and deep rooted in the minds of the people, while it has -contributed materially to the maintenance of racial characteristics, -has also discouraged and restricted immigration. As a result of this -antagonistic feeling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span> against foreigners coming to the country, the -increase in population has been small, and the progress of commercial -and industrial development correspondingly slow.</p> - -<p>At the time of the Spanish invasion, in the sixteenth century, the -Indian population was estimated at 1,000,000. The aggregate number of -inhabitants is now calculated at 3,500,000, an increase of 2,500,000 in -two hundred and seventy years. This very slow increase in population in -a country possessing an equable and healthful climate may be attributed -to several causes.</p> - -<p>During the period of the conquest the ranks of the indigenous races -were greatly decimated by war. Later, the utter disregard for hygienic -conditions, the proverbial uncleanliness of the common people and the -unsanitary manner in which the majority of them live, have increased -the death rate to abnormal proportions. This is especially true among -the children, many of whom die from inattention, cold or lack of proper -food. Tuberculosis is a common malady, and annually claims thousands -of victims. The prevalence of this disease is also due largely to the -manner of living. In the homes of the majority of the poor people there -are no floors, except the ground upon which the houses are built. In -the winter, or rainy seasons, the cold and dampness of the dirt floors -cause pneumonia, and colds that prove fatal to delicate children -and adults of weak constitution, or those suffering from hereditary -pulmonary diseases. The number of births in Chile in recent years has -been little in excess of the number of deaths.</p> - -<p>As a means of increasing the population, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> hoping thereby to promote -the development of natural resources and industrial interests of the -country, the government of Chile adopted a colonization law for the -purpose of inducing emigrants from Europe to settle in the agricultural -and timber regions of the south. The law contains some liberal -provisions, and attractive features, including free transportation -for colonists from European ports to their destination, one hundred -and sixty acres of land for the head of each family, and a government -subsidy of five hundred pesos, with which to buy farm implements, -build a house, etc. To promote this scheme of colonization, the -Chilean government maintains agencies in Europe, through which the -advantages to be gained, and the attractive features of colonial life -in the Republic are liberally advertised. Through this plan a number -of important foreign colonies, especially German communities, have -been established throughout southern Chile. Valdivia, which has grown -into an important manufacturing city, as well as the highly developed -and cultivated country surrounding it, are settled almost exclusively -by Germans. In more recent years the Italians have established large -communities in the southern provinces, but they have been less -successful than the Germans, and much dissatisfaction is the result. -Among the early settlers in Chile, under the colonization law, were -communities of Scotch, the majority of whom were disappointed with the -conditions and with what they claim was a lack of protection of their -personal interests, and their property rights.</p> - -<p>A book published by an anonymous writer, entitled “La Raza Chilena” -(The Chilean Race), and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span> signed “Chileno,” bearing date 1905, -is devoted to a discussion of the race question, population and -colonization. The writer criticises severely the colonization plan, and -the evils that have crept into the system, citing many instances of -dissatisfaction among colonists, and cases of corruption and jobbery on -the part of immigration agents, in support of his demands for reforms -in the law, and a change in the plan for encouraging colonists to -settle in the country.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VILLAGES_AND_CITIES">VILLAGES AND CITIES</h2> -</div> - - -<p>All the villages in Chile are similar in appearance and general aspect. -There is little variety and few attractive features to distinguish -any of them, or one from another. The one story houses are almost -invariably built of adobe, and roofed with tile or thatch. The -architecture, if the style of the village buildings can be dignified -with the term, is Spanish. The houses front directly upon and are flush -with the sidewalk, most of them being built round a patio.</p> - -<p>There is an unattractive sameness about Chilean villages, even to -the disagreeable smells. There is usually one long, straight street -upon which are located the shops and better class of dwellings. This -main thoroughfare is backed by a few other streets, flanked with low, -rambling huts, the habitations of the poorer classes. In the center -of the town is the plaza, the chief feature of every Spanish-American -municipality, large or small,—the common meeting place of the village -people and playground for the children. Ornamented with trees and -flowers, it forms a pleasing contrast to the dull gray of dusty streets -and adobe walls. In the more pretentious of the municipalities, -the plaza is frequently enlivened in the evenings with music by a -band, which never fails to attract a crowd. On such occasions the -plaza presents a scene of lively interest and animation. There the -people congregate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span> to visit, gossip and enjoy the music. Black-eyed -señoritas and stout matrons, with faces framed in mantillas, join in -the promenade, passing and repassing the caballeros with whom they -exchange knowing looks and significant glances, the method employed in -love-making and conducting flirtations in Chile. Upon the green sward, -beneath the friendly trees, happy children engage in juvenile sports -and youthful pleasures. It is in these public meeting places that the -village people are seen at their best; there they abandon themselves to -the simple pleasures and enjoyments to which their environments limit -them.</p> - -<p>A curious feature of every Chilean village is the varied and violent -colors used in painting the houses. Shades of blue, red, yellow, pink -and green frequently appear in strange contrast in the same row of -buildings. Intermingling with these peculiarly contrasting hues are red -tile roofs, the lighter shades of thatch, and the gray of undecorated -adobe walls, relieved by occasional stretches of whitewashed houses and -garden enclosures.</p> - -<p>The little “despachos,” with their inartistically decorated windows -and curious assortment of bottles of “chicha,” wine, “aguardiente,” -dry goods, provisions, firewood and charcoal, are a feature of every -town in the country. In the front of these shops where articles of -various kinds are dispensed, is a sort of hitch-rack which may be used -as a place for customers to leave their horses when on business, or as -a means of engaging in the common sport of the country, “topiadura.” -It is in the village drinking places that the country people meet -to exchange news and gossip of the neighborhood,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span> and to indulge -in a social cup. On feast days and Sundays crowds congregate in -these places where drinking is indulged in to excess. There are few -places of amusement, and perhaps no place where the opportunities -for entertainment of an intellectual or elevating character are more -limited and restricted than in a Chilean village. The despachos with -their gambling, drinking and accompanying vices, afford the only relief -from the monotonous home life of the poor people, which has little in -it to encourage mental or moral improvement.</p> - -<p>The population of the villages varies from three to five thousand in -the departmental centers, and from one to two thousand each in the -others. They have no industries except a few shoe shops, blacksmith -and carpenter shops. Some of the general stores have well assorted -stocks, and in some of the small towns there is a drug store with a -billiard room and cafe. These together with the drinking places fill -the commercial list. The business of the villages depends entirely upon -the people living in the adjacent farming country. When in the towns -they spend their time in eating, drinking, talking politics, singing, -dancing and playing cards.</p> - -<p>The crops of the adjoining farms do not enter into the business of -the towns and villages, but are shipped to the nearest mill, railway -center or seaport. In all the towns there is wealth, not extensive, but -considerable, when the necessities and modes of life are taken into -account. In Chile, as in other countries, there is a predisposition -on the part of the country people to congregate in the towns and -villages, be they great or small; in close proximity to any of the -municipalities, any day in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span> the week, one will meet all classes and -conditions of rural residents on horseback, in ox carts and on foot, -wending their way to town. It is another evidence of the universal -desire of mankind to seek companionship and association with his fellow -man, even though the contact furnishes no novelty or new sensation.</p> - -<p>Every village has a Catholic church, and the female portion of the -population finds relief in the “iglesia,” from the monotony of domestic -life. They attend every service, and on Sundays and feast days the -scene about the village church suggests a convent, as the women all -wear mantillas draped over their heads, giving them the general -appearance of nuns.</p> - - -<h3>SANTIAGO.</h3> - -<p>There are few municipalities of sufficient size and commercial -importance to entitle them to be classified as cities. Santiago, the -capital, is a beautiful city of over 300,000 inhabitants, charmingly -situated in the verdant valley of the Mapocho, and surrounded by -rugged, snow-crowned mountains. Few cities possess so many natural -advantages in situation and environments. All around loom giant peaks -of the Andes, their white crests among the clouds. In the smiling -valley, clothed in the green of perennial summer, is Santiago. Long, -quiet streets, badly paved, are lined with handsome houses, French and -Spanish in architectural design; many of them palatial in proportions. -The lack of industrial life and commercial activity, and the peaceful -repose of this daughter of Latin America, give to the capital of Chile -more the appearance of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span> an indolent Oriental city than the metropolis -of an ambitious young Republic.</p> - -<p>Situated in the center of a great natural amphitheater, in a -beautiful fertile plain, through which flow several streams, supplied -with crystal waters from melting snow in the higher ranges of the -Cordilleras, Santiago, viewed from any of the many points of advantage, -presents an attractive, picturesque and prepossessing appearance. In -the center of the city, rising abruptly from the level plain upon which -it rests, is “El Cerro Santa Lucia,” a precipitous, rocky hill, four -hundred feet high, and covering at its base an area of eight acres. -This wonderful natural formation, often described as a freak of nature, -is one of the most remarkable of its kind in the world. The entrance to -the “cerro” is through a gateway of artistic design, with approaches -of fine stone columns and buttresses. The summit is reached by winding -carriage roads of easy grade, which are flanked with stone walls, -towers and battlements. There are also shaded walks, lined with many -hued flowers, by which the hill may be ascended. From the summit one -looks down upon tile roofs, flower bedecked patios, adobe walls green -with moss and overrun with rose-vines, streets and avenues fringed -with poplars and alamos. The Alameda, one of the finest avenues in the -world, with its wide roadways, fine old trees and shaded promenades, -starting at the foot of the Santa Lucia, extends for a distance of -three miles, cleaving the city in halves, marking the center and focus -of traffic in the metropolis. The Cathedral with its double towers -and central dome, fronting upon the Plaza de Armas, in the heart of -the city is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span> a good viewpoint from which to trace and locate other -objects of interest. In the near distance are the parks and the “Quinta -Normal,” the government agricultural and horticultural propagating -station, all robed in the gorgeous green of semi-tropical verdure and -adorned with a variety of beautiful flowers that grow luxuriantly and -bloom most generously in the soft, sweet air and golden sunshine of -temperate Chile. This lovely picture, this charming ensemble of city -and plain, hill and river, parks and gardens, this municipal mosaic -with emerald green settings, crowned with a dome of turquoise blue, is -framed in a wall of wonderful mountains composing a part of the Andean -range.</p> - -<p>In detail Santiago is not unlike other cities, resembling in many -features some European municipalities. Being the capital it has -attracted to and includes in its population the rich landowners, -the aristocratic classes, political elements, literary and cultured -people and the exclusive society of the country. The homes of these -well-to-do, traveled and cultured people are equal in appearance, -appointment, furnishing, decoration and equipment to those occupied -by similar classes in older countries. The social life of the rich -and seclusive classes in Santiago is composed of a pleasure loving -people, with an inherent love of display. They are musical by nature, -with a keen appreciation of, and an aptness for acquiring quickly a -little knowledge of music, and other accomplishments, conveying the -impression that they are clever, if not brilliant. They lack, however, -the industry and application that lead to thoroughness, and few of them -develop great talent for any art or profession. Their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> knowledge is -more general than genuine, more superficial than special.</p> - -<p>The life of the poor people in Santiago, the manner in which they live, -their customs and habits, the misery and vice, the depravity, the -disregard for law, and the low level of intelligence that prevails, -form a sharp contrast to the picture presented in the homes of the rich.</p> - - -<h3>VALPARAISO.</h3> - -<p>Valparaiso, the principal commercial port in Chile, and the second city -in population in the Republic, is picturesquely situated upon a poorly -protected harbor on the Pacific. It is crescent in shape, describing -a semi-circle around the bay. The business section occupies a margin -of low lying ground along the water front, the residence portions -extending back over a series of high, rugged hills. Viewed from the -harbor it presents an attractive appearance. Along the “malecon” are -the business houses, uniform in height, and presenting a straight stiff -sky line, back of and beyond which rise rugged, terraced hills. Adobe -houses, painted in various colors, red tile roofs, and patios green -with verdure and brilliant with the bloom of flowers, are some of the -features of the scene presented in a view of the hills forming the -residence districts of Valparaiso. Conspicuous objects in the view are -the church of El Espiritu Santo, a large, inartistic building topped -with a huge, single, square tower, and situated in the center of the -city, and the “Escuela Naval” (naval school), a fine architectural -creation crowning one of the numerous hills that surround the bay.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span></p> - -<p>Valparaiso is as cosmopolitan in architecture as it is in population. -It possesses no architectural features that can be considered national -in character; it has few public buildings worthy of the name, no -system of parks or boulevards,—nothing to distinguish it, except a -consistent mismanagement of municipal affairs. Being a great seaport, -into which sail annually thousands of ships, representing nearly all -the nations of earth, it has caught in the net of travel a cosmopolitan -conglomeration, and includes in its population all kinds and conditions -of people.</p> - -<p>It is more European than Spanish in appearance, and the languages -spoken are as varied and numerous as the nationalities of which its -population is composed. The majority of the business is done by -foreigners, the British, Germans, Americans, French and Italians taking -the wholesale, importing and exporting trade, in the order named, while -the small retail business is largely in the hands of Italians and -Spaniards.</p> - -<p>There are few places of amusement, especially for the poor people, -and desirable, or intellectual public entertainments are infrequent. -The municipal theater is a fine building with a capacity sufficient -to accommodate several thousand people, but with the exception of two -weeks of Italian opera during the winter it is little used.</p> - -<p>The municipal government has done nothing in recent years to improve or -beautify the city. There is practically no drainage, except for streets -receiving the water from ravines coming down from the hills, and they -are usually in a state of disorder that renders them useless. The -streets are miserably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</span> paved and proverbially filthy, and during the -rainy season they are filled with sludge washed down from the hills.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the great shipping interests represented, and the fact -that Valparaiso is the chief commercial port in the country, the bay -upon which it is built affords one of the most insecure harbors on -the west coast of South America. There is absolutely no protection to -ships and shipping interests against the strong winds and severe storms -that prevail during the months of June, July and August. There is no -breakwater in the bay, which faces to the north, the direction from -which the storms and heavy seas come during the winter, and as a result -great damage is done to vessels in port, and to cargo along the water -front.</p> - - -<h3>VIÑA DEL MAR.</h3> - -<p>The majority of foreigners and many Chilenos engaged in business in -Valparaiso find relief from the disagreeable features of life in the -port by living in Viña del Mar, a beautiful residence suburb situated -on the opposite side of the bay, six miles distant, and connected with -the city by steam and electric railways.</p> - -<p>Viña del Mar, which includes the stations of Mira Mar and Chorrillos, -is the popular pleasure and seaside resort of Chile. It is attractively -situated in a verdant valley, surrounded by rugged hills, has a fine -bathing beach, a number of large hotels, many beautiful residences -and cottages, and during the summer season, December to March, it is -thronged with visitors from Santiago and other interior cities, who -go annually to that favorite resort for the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span> baths and the social -pleasures incident to a season at Viña. Among the attractive features -of the resort are a fine race course, where are held two race meetings -a year, polo, cricket, football, tennis, golf, etc.</p> - - -<h3>CONCEPCION.</h3> - -<p>Concepcion, the third city in size and commercial importance in -the Republic, has a population of 60,000. It is a characteristic -Spanish-American municipality, with some European features, Oriental -and indolent in appearance, with long stretches of unattractive -streets, flanked with houses painted in many colors.</p> - -<p>Situated in the verdant valley of the Bio Bio, near its confluence with -the bay of Arauco, it is surrounded by orchards ladened with fruits, -and gardens brilliant with the bloom of beautiful flowers. Well tilled, -irrigated haciendas, with stone walls and lines of graceful alamos -defining their limits, cover the lovely plain, back of which rise -tree-crowned hills, adding a picturesque feature to the scene. It is -the commercial metropolis of a large section of productive country, -and enjoys a business prosperity and trade activity surpassed only -by Valparaiso. The ports of entry for Concepcion are Talcahuano and -Coronel, a few miles distant and situated on the bay of Arauco.</p> - - -<h3>MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.</h3> - -<p>Under the constitution of Chile, municipalities constituted a part -of the general government, and until recent years were controlled by -national authority.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span> Article 127 of the Constitution, 1833, says:</p> - -<p>“The governor is the chief of all the municipalities in his department, -and president of that one in which his capital is established. The -sub-delegate is president of the municipality in his sub-delegation.”</p> - -<p>The Intendentes, or governors of provinces, with jurisdiction over -the cities and towns in their respective territories, are appointed -by the president, and they in turn appoint the sub-delegates. All -public improvements and municipal works were formerly authorized by the -government and paid for out of the general fund. The purpose of the -framers of the constitution was apparently to keep the municipalities -out of politics. The authority of the legislative branches of the -municipal government, whose members are elected for three years, was -limited and their duties perfunctory.</p> - -<p>The politicians of Chile were not satisfied, however, with leaving -the management of municipalities with the national government. City -offices were attractive political plums, and the control of public -works and improvements could be used to advantage in influencing -election results, and a means was found for placing them in the hands -of officials elected by popular vote.</p> - -<p>The scheme for changing the plan of municipal government originated -with Senator Irrazaval, who having traveled in Switzerland, thought to -engraft the system employed there upon the laws of Chile. After his -return from Europe he secured the passage of a measure by Congress -which provided for the election of municipal officers by accumulative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span> -vote. Under this system one man can cast as many ballots for a single -candidate as there are names on the ticket. If there are ten offices -to fill, the voter may cast ten ballots for one candidate instead -of voting once for each of the ten different aspirants to office. -This gave politicians an opportunity to deal with the lower classes, -to encourage unscrupulous men to engage in questionable political -practices, and the working classes now dominate municipal politics. -Having become a political factor in the cities and towns, they aspired -to higher positions, and in recent years a number of representatives of -organized labor have been elected to Congress. There is an encouraging -sign, however, in the fact that a better class of people is beginning -to manifest greater interest in political affairs. There is also a -strong public sentiment in favor of abolishing the law providing for -the accumulative vote in municipalities.</p> - -<p>As a result of the present political system the management of -municipalities in Chile is proverbially bad. As an illustration of -this fact, there could be no better example offered than Valparaiso. -The business portion occupying a narrow strip of land along the water -front, the residence districts extending over and occupying the hills -that rise abruptly all around, Valparaiso affords natural facilities -for drainage which should render it an easy matter to establish and -maintain an excellent sewerage system. Yet it is proverbially and -notoriously filthy, and it is only the influence of a salubrious and -healthful climate that prevents the population from being annually -decimated by contagion and epidemics.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span></p> - -<p>A most tragic example of municipal mismanagement was witnessed in -Valparaiso in 1905, when the smallpox plague visited the port. Finding -there in the filth of the streets, in the general lack of sanitary -observance, in the crowded, foul, disease-breeding condition of the -“conventillos” (apartment houses) and in homes of the poor, a prolific -atmosphere for contagion, the plague spread so rapidly that the number -of cases reached into the thousands, and the death rate was two hundred -daily. When the municipal authorities found the city in the throes of -a disastrous epidemic, and the public was demanding ways and means -for combating and checking the plague, and caring for those stricken -with the malady, the municipal government proved utterly impotent, -absolutely incompetent to handle the situation. The result was a -national tragedy in which thousands of lives were sacrificed. The -municipal treasury which from various sources is annually augmented -by two millions of pesos, was found empty, and to make a showing at -combating the epidemic the national government was requested to provide -means for establishing a vaccination service, hospitals, ambulance -and medical corps. Speaking of the first appropriation by the central -government for this purpose, amounting to ninety-two thousand pesos, -<i lang="es" xml:lang="es">La Union</i>, one of the leading dailies of Valparaiso, under date -of July 12, 1905, discussed the question in an article from which the -following is an abstract and translation:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Ninety-two thousand pesos in sand, mud and mire. This fact is in -reality worthy of mention in history, because one who reads in foreign -lands of the project of law passed by the President to Congress, to -solicit the above<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> sum to clean drains and carry away sand, mud and -mire from the streets of the first port of Chile, cannot but feel the -horror and dread for the country whose principal port on the Pacific -lies in a pestilential pool. Years go by, cruel and compassionless -plagues and calamities afflict us, the government money is squandered -upon frivolous matters which are far from curing the evils, and -Valparaiso lies in her muddy bed, inhaling the breath of death -evaporated from the infested and unhealthy drains and streets.”</p> -</div> - -<p>The following is an extract from and translation of an editorial that -appeared in <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">El Mercurio</i> of Valparaiso, July 8, 1905:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“The foreign press is beginning to occupy itself with the situation -of Valparaiso, and take note of the sad state in which the first -port of the Republic finds itself, and in which reigns a deplorable -and filthy abandon that helps the devastating work of smallpox that -is decimating its population. Valparaiso with its infested streets, -sidewalks destroyed, pavements removed and full of holes, with the -enormous piles of dirt and mud accumulated in residence districts; -Valparaiso, where there is no municipal street sweeping nor watering, -or even carrying away of dirt; with infested public buildings (like -the prisons), without organization to resist an epidemic, must create -the impression in the minds of people in foreign countries, who read -of its deplorable condition, that it is not the city of 200,000 -inhabitants, described in geography as possessing an advanced and -cultivated population and situated in an agreeable climate; as not -being the port of so much commercial and maritime movement, which, as -a bitter irony has sometimes been called the ‘Jewel of the Pacific.’”</p> -</div> - -<p class="center">Translation from <i lang="es" xml:lang="es">La Union</i>, Valparaiso:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Valparaiso is again unfortunately under the weight and opprobrium -of the great calamity of every winter. Mud covers all the streets, -traffic is interrupted, social life is suspended, and one touches -on every side mud and filth. To this is added the calamity of -administrative corruption, and life is little more than a fight of a -few civilized elements against barbarism, which destroys everything, -morally and maternally.”</p> -</div> - -<p>(The foregoing refers to Valparaiso before the earthquake in August, -1906, which destroyed the greater part of the business portion of -the city, which has since been practically rebuilt, and the sanitary -conditions somewhat improved.)</p> - -<p>These and similar arraignments by the press of Chile of the management -of municipalities, give a better idea of the existing conditions than -any criticism that might be offered by a foreigner.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_NATIONAL_HYMN">THE NATIONAL HYMN</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The first National Hymn of Chile was written in 1819, by Bernardo Vera, -y Pintado. It was well received by the public from the first, and -enthusiastically so when sung on September 18th, the anniversary of -Republican Independence.</p> - -<p>The hymn was first sung to the music of the Argentine National Anthem, -but in 1820 Manuel Robles, a Chilean composer wrote appropriate music -for the patriotic words. His composition was used until 1828, when -Ramon Carnicer composed the music since used.</p> - -<p>The verses as first written expressed the bitter feelings of the -Chileans towards the Spaniards, but later when public sentiment became -less hostile, the wording of the hymn was modified. In 1847 it was -again rewritten. The following is a copy in Spanish, and a translation:</p> - - -<h3>THE NATIONAL HYMN</h3> -<div xml:lang="es" lang="es"> -<p class="center">(La Cancion Nacional)</p> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Dulce Patria, Recibe los Votos</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Con que Chile en tus Aras Juro;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que o la Tumba Sera de los Libres,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">O el Asilo Contra la Opresion.</span></span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>1</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ha cesado la lucha sangrienta.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ya es hermano el que ayer invasor;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">De tres siglos lavamos la afrenta,</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Combatiendo en el campo de honor.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">El que ayer doblegabase esclavo</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Libre al fin y triunfante se ve:</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Libertad es la herencia del bravo,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">La victoria se humilla á sus pies.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>2</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alza Chile, sin mancha la frente,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conquistaste tu nombre en la lid:</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Siempre noble, constante y valiente</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Te encontraron los hijos del Cid!</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que tus libres, tranquilos coronen</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">A las artes, la industria y la paz,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y de triunfo cantares entonen,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que amedrenten al despota audaz.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>3</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vuestros nombres valientes soldados</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que habeis sido de Chile el sosten.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuestros pechos los llevan grabados,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Los sabran nuestros hijos tambien:</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sean ellos el grito de muerte</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que lancemos, marchando á lidiar;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y sonando en la boca del fuerte,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ilagan siempre al tirano temblar.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>4</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Si pretende el canon estranjero</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuestros pueblos osado invadir,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Desnudemos al punto el acera</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y sepamos vencer ó morir.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Con su sangre el altivo araucano</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nos lego por herencia el valor.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y no tiembla la espada en la mano</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Defendiendo de Chile el honor.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span></p> - - -<h4>5</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Puras brisas te cruzan tambien,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y tu campo de flores sembrado</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Es la copia feliz del Eden.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Majestuosa es la blanca montana</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que te dio por baluarte el Señor,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Y ese mar que tranquilo te banas</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Te promete futuro esplendor.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>6</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Esas galas oh Patria! esas flores,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Que tapizan tu suelo feraz</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">No las pisen jamas invasores,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Con su sombra las cubra la paz.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuestros pechos seran tu baluarte</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Con tu nombre sabremos vencer,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">O tu noble y glorioso estandarte</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nos vera combatiendo caer.</span><br /> -</p> -</div> - -<p class="center p2">TRANSLATION</p> - -<p class="center">(Chorus)</p> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Sweet Country, Receive the Vows</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To which Thou Didst on Thy Altar Make Oath,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That Chile Shall Be the Tomb of the Free,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or an Asylum Against Oppression.</span></span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>1</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The bloody fight has ceased and</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Yesterday’s invader is now a brother.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Of three centuries we wash the affront,</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Fighting on the field of honor.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">He that was yesterday called slave</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Is seen at last free and triumphant,—</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Liberty is the inheritance of the brave,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Victory humbles herself at his feet.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>2</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lift, O Chile, thy stainless brow,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">For thou didst win thy name in battle;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The sons of the Cid did ever find thee</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Noble, constant, true and brave.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Let thy children tranquilly crown</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Industry, peace and the arts,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And sing hymns of victory</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">To terrify the audacious despot.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>3</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Your names, valiant soldiers,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Who have been Chile’s support,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shall be engraved on our hearts</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And on those of our children as well.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Let them be the war cry of death</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">On our march to the battle,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And out of the mouth of the strong,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May they ever make the tyrant tremble.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>4</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Should the foreigners’ cannon</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dare to invade our lands,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Let us draw the sword at once,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And know how to conquer or die.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With the blood of the Araucanian</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">We have inherited our valor;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The sword shall not tremble in the hand</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">That defends the honor of Chile.</span><br /> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span></p> - - -<h4>5</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pure, O Chile, is thy azure sky,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Purest breezes do cross thee as well,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And thy flower-embroidered fields</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Are the happy copy of Eden.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Majestic are the snow-covered mountains,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Given by God for thy bulwark,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">And the ocean that washes thy shores</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Is a promise of thy future splendor.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<h4>6</h4> - -<p class="poetry"> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Those graces, O Chile, those flowers</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Which carpet thy fruitful soil,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Let them never be trod by invaders,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">But sheltered by the shadow of peace.</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Our hearts shall be thy walls,—</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">With thy name we shall know how to win,</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Or thy noble and glorious standard</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Shall see us fall fighting.</span><br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>A few minor errors in punctuation were fixed.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_65">Page 65</a>: “Vina del Mar” changed to “Viña del Mar”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_69">Page 69</a>: “Don Fedrico” changed to “Don Federico”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_117">Page 117</a>: “in Uraguay” changed to “in Uruguay”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_127">Page 127</a> & <a href="#Page_128">128</a>: “alemos” changed to “alamos”</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PROGRESSIVE CHILE ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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