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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d720de4 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67636 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67636) diff --git a/old/67636-0.txt b/old/67636-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7547567..0000000 --- a/old/67636-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,9021 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Useful Arts Employed In The -Construction Of Dwelling Houses, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Useful Arts Employed In The Construction Of Dwelling Houses - Second Edition - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: March 16, 2022 [eBook #67636] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE USEFUL ARTS EMPLOYED IN -THE CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLING HOUSES *** - - - - - - THE - - USEFUL ARTS - - EMPLOYED IN - - THE CONSTRUCTION OF - - DWELLING HOUSES. - - - _THE SECOND EDITION._ - - - LONDON: - - JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. - - MDCCCLI. - - - - - LONDON: - SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, - CHANDOS STREET. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The dwellings of mankind, at first rude and simple in the extreme, -increase in complexity as their inhabitants advance in civilization. -Primitive dwellings are scarcely distinguished by signs of superior -skill or sagacity above the holes and nests of the lower animals. The -hut of the Hottentot may be considered as an inverted nest, and it is -certainly not more ingenious than the nests of many birds; but where -man constructs such a habitation for himself, he is invariably in a -low state of civilization. The wants of the bird are few and simple, -and the nest is a temporary abode annually constructed and annually -deserted: the wants of man, in a state of nature, are almost as -limited, and thus the Hottentot’s hut affords him as good a nest as he -desires. But when he steps forth into the rank which the Creator has -destined him to fill; when he feels that he is a responsible being, the -creation of an Almighty Power to whom worship is due; when he finds -that the productions of the earth are capable of being rendered useful -to him by the exercise of his ingenuity, and that his own mental powers -are capable of being developed by communion with, and by the assistance -of his fellow-men;--then the hut--the inverted nest--is no longer equal -to his necessities. He makes implements, and he must have a place -to shelter them; he cultivates grain, and he requires a store-house -for it; he collects and records the thoughts and the wisdom of his -predecessors, and he must have a roof to cover these precious mementos: -unlike other animals, he requires _fire_ for the preparation of the -greater portion of his food; and his fire, as well as his utensils, -must be well defended from without:--in short, his wants are so -multiplied by the cultivation of his reason, that a _house_ has become -necessary to him. The beasts of the field and the birds of the air have -certain natural instincts given to them which guide them through life, -and are perpetuated in their offspring; the same routine goes on race -after race without the operation of what we term improvement. Not so -with man: he is a progressive being: he steps forth beyond the limits -of mere animal life, and has a mental existence, with wants created -by it, and depending on it; wants which are not known to him when -considered as a mere animal. - -The building of houses has in all ages formed part of the employment of -man as he advanced from a state of mere barbarism to one of comparative -civilization. In devoting this little volume, therefore, to the subject -of the Application of the Useful Arts to the construction of Dwellings, -it is necessary to set a limit to so large a subject. A wigwam is -a house,--so is a palace, and examples of every possible gradation -between the two might be given. In order, then, to avoid the seeming -ambition of grasping the whole of this extensive subject we shall not -travel out of our own country; nor shall we ascend to the very highest, -or descend to the very lowest class of dwellings; but shall describe -the principal arts concerned in building a modern English house of -moderate rank. In so doing, we shall treat the subject under a few -simple heads, classified mainly according to the materials employed. - -[Illustration] - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PREFACE p. iii - - - CHAPTER I. THE WALLS--STONE AND STONE-WORK. - - Introduction, 9--Principal varieties of building stone, - 10--On quarrying stone, 13--The application of electricity to the - blasting of rocks, 17--Sawing the stones for the mason, - 22--The processes of stone-masonry, 22. - - - CHAPTER II. ON THE DURABILITY OF STONE BUILDINGS. - - On the choice of a stone for building purposes, 27--Examination of a - variety of buildings as to the durability of the stone employed - therein, 28--The stone for the new Houses of Parliament--how chosen, - 32--An easy method of determining whether a stone will resist the - action of frost, 33--Directions for practising this method, 38. - - - CHAPTER III. THE WALLS--BRICKS AND BRICK-WORK. - - Early use of bricks, 40--Floating bricks, 41--Making bricks by hand, - 42--Varieties of bricks, 44--Tiles, 45--Making bricks and tiles by - machinery, 46--The Marquis of Tweeddale’s method, 46--Another method, - 47--The processes of bricklaying, 48--Mortar, 48--Defects of modern - brick houses, 52. - - - CHAPTER IV. THE ROOF--SLATES AND OTHER ROOF COVERINGS. - - Slate quarries, 54--The process of slating, 57--Paper roofs, 58--Their - advantages, 60--Terrace roofs, 61--Asphalte roofs, 61--Scotch fir - roofs, 61--Iron roofs, 62--Zinc and other metallic roofs, 63--Thatch - roofs, 63. - - - CHAPTER V. THE WOOD-WORK--GROWTH AND TRANSPORT OF TIMBER. - - The oak as a timber tree, 66--The two chief varieties of oak, - 67--Teak, 69--The fir and pine as timber trees, 69--The Norway spruce - fir, 70--The Scotch fir, 73--Transport of timber from the forests, - 77--Historical notices, 78--Rafts on the Rhine, 80--The slide of - Alpnach, 81--Cutting the Norway deals, 83--The cutting and transport - of Canadian timber, 83--Lumberers, 83--Saw-mills, 84--Rafts on the - American rivers, 85--Miscellaneous kinds of timber, 86--Fancy woods, - 87. - - - CHAPTER VI. THE WOOD-WORK--CARPENTRY. - - Sawing timber, 89--Scarfing or joining timber, 89--Trussing or - strengthening, 90--Details of roof, 92--The mortise and other joints, - 93--Distinction between carpentry and joinery, 95--The tools employed, - 96--Glue, 98--A window sash, as an example of joiner’s work, 99--A - second example of joiner’s work, 100. - - - CHAPTER VII. THE FIRE-PLACE. - - Open fire-places, 102--Philosophy of a chimney, 103--Defects of open - fires, 103--Remedies for some of these defects, 106--The register - stove, 108--Smoky chimneys, 108--Causes of, and cure, 108--Close - stoves, 111--The German stove, 112--Dr. Arnott’s stove, - 113--Objections thereto, 115--Warming buildings by heated air, - 116--The Russian stove, 116--Other methods, 117--Sir Stewart - Monteith’s stove, 118--Warming buildings by steam, 118--Warming - buildings by hot-water, 119--The high-pressure system, 120. - - - CHAPTER VIII. THE WINDOWS AND LEAD-WORK. - - Introduction of glass windows, 122--The manufacture of crown glass, - 122--The manufacture of plate glass, 129--Cutting glass, 133--The - process of glazing, 134--Sheet lead for roofs and cisterns, 135--Lead - pipes, 136--The process of plumbing, 136--Solder or cement for metals, - 139--Autogenous soldering, 140--Its advantages, 144. - - - CHAPTER IX. THE INTERIOR--PLASTERING AND PAPER-HANGING. - - Plastering walls and ceilings, 148--Plaster and papier-maché ornaments - for rooms, 149--Whitewashing and stuccoing, 150--Origin of - paper-hangings, 150--The manufacture of paper-hangings, 151--Stencil, - washable, and flock paper-hangings, 153--The process of paper-hanging, - 155. - - - CHAPTER X. THE INTERIOR--PAINTING AND GILDING. - - Reasons for painting a house, 158--Materials used in house painting, - 158--Preparing the paint, 160--The process of painting, 160--Graining - and marbling, 162--Gilding as an interior decoration, 164--The process - of burnish-gilding, 165--The process of oil-gilding, 167--Gilding - enriched ornaments, 168. - - - CHAPTER XI. A MODEL DWELLING-HOUSE. - - The late Sir John Robison’s house at Edinburgh, 170--The Interior, - 170--Warming, 170--Ventilating, 171--Lighting, 172--Gas cooking - apparatus, 172--Flues, 173--Interior decorations by Mr. Hay, - 173--A beau-ideal English villa, 174--Situation, 175--Style, - 175--Arrangement of the interior, 176--The principal apartments, - bed-rooms, &c., 177--The kitchen, 179. - - - CHAPTER XII. FIRE-PROOF HOUSES. - - Hartley’s method of making houses fire-proof, 181--Earl Stanhope’s - methods, 181--Pambœuf’s method, 183--Fire-proof paint, - 184--Experimental trials, 184--Leconte’s method, 185--Varden’s method, - 186--Frost’s method, 186--Loudon’s methods, 187--General remarks, 188. - - - CHAPTER XIII. MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. - - Manufacture of nails, 188--Locks and keys, 188--Stoves and grates, - 190--Bells, 190--Brass handles, ornaments, &c., 191--Preservation of - timber, 191--Various methods, 193--Kyanizing, 194--Soluble glass, - 194--Its uses in preserving timber, &c., 197--Veneering, 198--Brunel’s - method of cutting veneers, 198--Russian method, 199--The process of - veneering, 199--Manufacture of glue, 201--The house decorator of - Italy, 201--Fresco painting as applied to the decoration of houses, - 206--Nature and difficulties of the art, 207--Notices of the ancient - custom of decorating walls, 208--The practice of fresco painting, - 208--The Cartoon, 209--The preparation of the wall, 210--The process - of painting, 210--The colours and implements, 211--A fresco painter at - work described, 212--General remarks on fresco painting, 214. - - - CONCLUSION 215 - - - - -The Useful Arts Employed in the Construction of Dwelling-Houses. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE WALLS. STONE AND STONE-WORK. - - -The material mainly employed in the construction of buildings depends -partly on the purpose for which the buildings are intended, and -still more, perhaps, on the prevailing geological character of the -surrounding country. In such a place as London, where there is an -immense mass of tenacious clay beneath the vegetable soil, and where -solid stone is not to be had, except by bringing it, at a great -expense, from a distance of many miles, clay seems to be the natural -material for dwellings; and thus we find that almost all the London -houses are built of brick formed of clay. In other parts of Great -Britain, such as Glasgow or Edinburgh, the case is very different; for, -in those places, clay is scarce, and stone is plentiful. There are -quarries not far from Edinburgh, and others within the very precincts -of Glasgow, where an abundant supply of good building-stone is obtained -at a very low rate. Hence it follows as a natural consequence, that -the houses in those two cities exhibit a large proportion of stone -structures; so much so, indeed, that an inhabitant of London, who is -accustomed to see stone appropriated only to large important public -buildings, is apt to imagine that the houses in the two northern cities -must necessarily be very costly. This is by no means certain, however, -for the builders in each city make use of those materials which may be -most available. - -Whether stone form the main portion of the walls of a house, as in the -cases just named, or whether it is only used in smaller degree, as in -London houses, the operations by which it is worked and fitted are -pretty much the same; and we will therefore devote this chapter to a -brief description of the principal kinds of building-stone, followed by -an outline of the _Mason’s_ operations. - - -Principal Varieties of Building-stone. - -_Granites_ are rocks which have been formed by the union of three -different minerals in a state of fusion; these, on cooling, have -crystallized and become distinct from each other in the mass. It is on -the varied proportions in which these three constituents are combined, -that the colour, hardness, durability, and beauty of the various -granites depend. The light-red and rose-coloured granites contain the -felspar in greatest abundance and in the largest crystals; but this -mineral varies in hue from the purest white to nearly black; it is the -ingredient most acted on by the atmosphere; the rock, therefore, which -abounds in it, though it may be more beautiful to the eye, and more -easily worked at first, is not so durable as that which contains it -in smaller crystals, and with a larger proportion of _quartz_. It is -to this last-named mineral that granite owes the sparkling appearance -which it presents when the sun shines on it; quartz is the hardest and -most imperishable of the three minerals which form the granite-rock. -The third, _mica_, is distinguishable from the other two by its satiny, -shining, dark hue, and is very apparent in the coarse-grained, handsome -stone of our own country, brought from Cornwall. - -When the felspar is replaced by another mineral called _hornblende_, -the stone is of a dark-greenish hue, and the component parts are in -a finer form and less distinguishable from each other. The Aberdeen -granite is an example of this kind, which is more durable than the -former, though not so pleasing to the eye. - -Granite occurs in all the larger mountain-ranges, and in isolated -masses in every country; not being a stratified rock, and being -excessively hard, it is difficult to quarry and get out in manageable -masses. Blasting with gunpowder is the mode usually employed in this -country; the pieces detached by this means are hewn roughly into form -on the spot by a small pickaxe. Aberdeen granite is quarried by cutting -a deep line some yards long, and placing strong iron wedges at equal -distances in this line; these wedges are struck in succession by heavy -hammers till the mass splits down. This, or analogous modes, may always -be employed when the rock approaches a slaty or stratified structure, -as is the case with some nearly related to granite. Another method -of detaching masses of rock, is by driving wooden wedges into a deep -fissure, either natural or artificial; the wedges are then wetted, and -the consequent expansion of the wood bursts the rock asunder. - -As granite has always to be brought from a great distance to the spot -where it is wanted, because its natural localities are far from the -places where edifices are usually constructed, and also on account of -its hardness, this rock is only used for important buildings, such -as bridges, markets, churches, &c., and not commonly even for these. -London and Waterloo bridges, Covent Garden and Hungerford markets, and -the York column in Pall Mall, are instances of its use in London. - -The principal kinds of stone used in building are the LIMESTONES, or -_calcareous rocks_ of the geologist; of these it would be useless -to describe or enumerate more than a few. In our own country, the -_Portland stone_, so called from its principal quarries being in -Portland Island, in Dorsetshire, holds the first rank, and is that -almost exclusively used in London for building, and for the ornamental -parts of edifices. It unites the qualities of being easily sawn and -worked, when lately quarried, and of subsequently hardening by exposure -to the air; it is close and even in its texture, admitting of being -wrought into delicate work, and receiving a very smooth surface, which -it will retain for a considerable period, though it is surpassed in -durability by many other rocks. It is said that the Banquetting-house, -Whitehall, was the first building in London in which this stone was -employed. St. Paul’s, Westminster and Blackfriars’ bridges, Newgate, -and, indeed, most of the public buildings of the metropolis, are -examples of its use. - -_Bath-stone_, so called from its being entirely used in the -neighbourhood of that city, is softer and far less durable than the -preceding. When recently quarried, it may be sawn with a toothed -saw, like timber, and can be carved with the greatest facility into -the richest ornaments; hence it is often employed, and, if sheltered -from the weather, is well adapted for such purposes, from its rich, -even cream colour; but though it hardens considerably by exposure, -it is acted upon, after a time, by the air, so as to render it very -perishable. The restoration of Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, Westminster, -is, unfortunately, made with this stone. - -The two preceding, and many others, distinguished by names according -to the principal localities, as _Oxford_-stone, _Ketton_-stone, -&c., belong to what geologists term the _Oolitic_ formation, from -the resemblance of some kinds of the rock to fishes’ roe, which is -observable in that we have last mentioned. They all agree in their -principal qualities. - -_Purbeck-stone_, also from Dorsetshire, is used for steps, paving, -door-sills, and copings; it is coarser, harder, and less uniform in -texture than the foregoing, and not, therefore, calculated for fine -buildings, except for the purposes we have specified. - -_Yorkshire-stone_ resembles the last; it is used for the same purposes, -but especially for paving. The greatest part of the foot-paths in the -streets of London are laid with this or the preceding. - -_Rag-stone_ is obtained from quarries on the banks of the Thames, -Medway, &c. It was the stone chiefly used for building in ancient -London, and a great deal is still used for paving. - -The lower _chalk_, which is of a grey colour, and contains masses of -flint, was formerly much employed for building in the south-western -counties of England; its good qualities are proved by the perfect state -of many old churches in that part of the kingdom, which are known to be -from seven to nine hundred years old. It is now only sparingly used in -farm-building and cottages, but it is consumed in vast quantities to -burn into lime for mortar and other purposes, and as a manure. - -Belonging to the same family of calcareous rocks, and next in utility -to those we have just enumerated, though far surpassing them in beauty -and value, stand the endless varieties of _Marbles_, essentially -characterized by their crystalline texture, superior hardness, and by -the absence of shells or organic remains found so abundantly in all -other limestones. The name of marble is, however, popularly given to -many stones not possessing these characters, but which are hard enough -to be susceptible of a high polish, and are ornamental when so treated. -In this country the finer kinds of real marble are only sparingly -employed in the decorative departments of architecture, such as, for -chimney-pieces, slabs, hearths, capitals of columns in halls, saloons, -monuments, &c. The secondary kinds are also employed for similar -purposes, but more abundantly. The cold white statuary marble is not -adapted for out-of-door use in our foggy and cloudy climate, under the -influence of which it would soon become dingy and disagreeable, as is -proved by the total failure in the effect of the little triumphal arch -erected before Buckingham Palace. In Italy many ancient and modern -edifices are faced with white marble, and in that clear and pure -atmosphere they retain the beauty of the material for ages. The use to -which the finest marbles of Greece and Italy are applied in sculpture, -is familiar to every one. - -The last class of rocks employed in building, in those localities where -they occur, are the _Sandstones_, silex, or flint, in finely-comminuted -particles agglutinated together, being their principal ingredient; they -constitute excellent building-stone, and are abundantly used as such in -the West of England. - - -On Quarrying Stone. - -A quarry is an excavation made in the ground, or among rocks, for the -purpose of extracting stone for building, or for sculpture. The name -appears to have originated in the circumstance that the stones, before -they are removed to a distance, are first _quadrated_, or formed into -rectangular blocks. - -The following may be taken as an example of the general operations of -quarrying building-stones. If the stone be vertically below the surface -of the ground, the quarrymen first remove the earth and surface soil, -and then dig a perpendicular shaft, or pit, to afford access to the -stone; but if, as frequently happens, the stone be within the flank of -a hill, or mountain, the quarrymen excavate horizontal galleries into -the hill, leaving pillars here and there to support the superincumbent -mass. Supposing a large quarry about to be opened beneath the soil, the -earth is first removed, and then a sort of inferior stone called “rag,” -which generally lies between the soil and the good stone beneath. Large -masses of available stone generally consist of distinct strata lying -close together in a kind of cemented bulk, and the contiguous surfaces -forming _cleavages_, greatly assist the quarrymen in detaching blocks -from the mass. The block is always more easily separated in a direction -parallel to these planes of cleavage than in any other direction, and -the operations are, therefore, guided by this circumstance. The workmen -drive a series of iron wedges into the mass of stone parallel to the -cleavage-planes; and, after a few blows, a portion of the mass becomes -separated in that direction. They then measure off a portion equal to -the intended length and breadth of the stone, and drive their iron -wedges similarly in these directions, by which the piece is entirely -severed from the rocky mass. The cleavage-planes vary interminably in -direction, so that the quarrymen have to work in various positions, -according to the direction of stratification. The operations are more -easily conducted when the cleavage-planes are vertical, than in any -other direction. After the blocks have been severed, they are brought -to an irregularly square shape, by means of a tool called a _kevel_; -and are finally hoisted by cranes on to low trucks, and conveyed on -tram-ways out of the quarry; or else are hoisted to the surface of the -quarry at once, if the depth render that plan necessary. - -In quarrying sandstone, and those rocks which consist of regular -layers, the pick, the wedge, the hammer, and the pinch, or lever, are -the chief tools. But for many kinds of limestone, and for greenstone -and basalt, recourse is had to the more violent and irregular effects -of gunpowder. Indeed, some of the primitive rocks, such as granite, -gneiss, and sienite, could scarcely be torn asunder by any other means. -The great objection to blasting by gunpowder is, that the blocks are -broken irregularly, and much of the stone is wasted; but it has the -advantage of being simple in its application, and powerful in its -effects. The grains of powder are suddenly converted into a permanently -elastic air, occupying about four hundred and seventy-two times more -space than their own bulk. The elastic fluid expands with a velocity -calculated at the rate of about ten thousand feet per second; and its -pressure or force, when thus expanding, has been estimated as equal to -one thousand atmospheres, that is, one thousand times greater than the -atmospheric pressure upon a base of the same extent. By applying this -product to a square inch, upon which the atmosphere exerts a pressure -of about fifteen pounds, the elastic fluid of the gunpowder will be -found, at the moment of the explosion, to exert a force equivalent to -six tons and a half upon the square inch of surface exposed to it; and -that with a velocity which the imagination can hardly follow. - -[Illustration] - -In boring a rock preparatory to blasting, it is necessary to consider -the nature of the stone, and the inclination or dip of the strata, in -order to decide upon the diameter, the depth, and direction of the hole -for the gunpowder. The diameter of the hole may vary according to the -nature of the rock, from half an inch to two and a half inches; and the -depth from a few inches to as many feet; the direction may vary to all -the angles from the perpendicular to the horizontal. The tools used -in this operation are very simple. The chisel, or _jumper_, as it is -called, varies in size according to the work to be performed, and its -edge is more or less pointed to suit the hardness of the rock to be -bored. If the hole is to be small and not deep, it may be bored by a -single person; with one hand he manages the chisel, which he turns at -every blow so as to cross the previous cut, and with the other hand he -strikes it with a hammer of six or eight pounds’ weight, occasionally -clearing out the hole by means of a _scraper_. But when the hole is -large and deep, one man in a sitting posture directs the jumper, pours -water into the hole, and occasionally cleans it out, while two or three -men, with hammers of ten or twelve pounds’ weight, strike successive -blows upon the jumper, until the rock is perforated to the required -depth. To prevent annoyance to the workmen, a small rope of straw or -hemp is twisted round the jumper, and made to rest in the orifice of -the hole. When the holes are to be made to a greater depth than about -thirty inches, it is common to use a chisel from six to eight feet -in length, pointed at both ends, having a bulbous part in the middle -for the convenience of holding it; it thus becomes a kind of double -jumper, and is used without a hammer, with either end put into the -hole at pleasure. The workmen holding this jumper by the bulbous part, -lift it, and allow it to drop into the hole by its own weight, and by -this simple operation, a hole to the depth of five feet and upwards -is perforated with ease and expedition. When the boring is completed, -the fragments are carefully removed, and the hole is made as dry as -possible, which is done by filling it partially with stiff clay, and -then driving into it a tapering iron rod, called the _claying bar_, -which nearly fills it. This, being forced in with great violence, -drives the clay into all the crevices of the rock, and secures the -dryness of the hole. Should this plan fail, tin cartridges are used: -these are furnished with a stem or tube, as shown in the following -figure, through which the powder may be ignited. When the hole is dry, -the powder is introduced, mixed sometimes with quicklime, which, it -is said, increases the force of the explosion. A long iron or copper -rod, called the _pricker_, is then inserted amongst the powder, and -is afterwards withdrawn, when the priming powder is introduced. The -hole is filled up with burnt clay, pounded brick, stone, or any other -substance not likely to produce a spark during the ramming. This is -called the _tamping_. In filling up the hole, the chief danger is the -production of a spark among the materials, a circumstance which has -occasioned the most fatal and distressing accidents to quarriers. -Prickers and rammers of copper, or of bronze, have been employed, but -their greater expense, and liability to twist and break, have prevented -their general introduction. - -[Illustration] - -The quarrier is, of course, accustomed to suppose that the more firmly -he rams in the powder, the greater will be the resulting effect. It -is, however, a curious property of sand, that it fills up all the void -spaces in the tube or hole, and for some rocks entirely supersedes the -necessity of ramming and pricking. - -When the hole is fully charged with the powder and wadding, the pricker -is withdrawn, and the small tubular space, or vent-hole, which it -leaves, is sometimes filled up with powder; but, for the sake of -economy, it is more common to insert straws filled with powder, and -joined together, so as to reach the required depth. The lower straw is -one terminating in the root part, where a natural obstruction occurs, -or it is artificially stopped with clay to prevent the powder from -being lost. The lower part of the priming straw is pared quite thin, -so as to insure the inflammation of the charge of powder in the hole. -Sometimes the fire is conveyed by means of the large and long green -rushes, which grow in marshy ground. A slit is made in one side of the -rush, along which the sharp end of a bit of stick is drawn, so as to -extract the pith, when the skin of the rush closes again by its own -elasticity. This tube is filled up with gunpowder; it is then dropped -into the vent-hole, and made steady with a bit of clay. This being -done, a slow match, called a _smift_, consisting generally of a bit of -soft paper, prepared by dipping it into a solution of saltpetre, is -carefully applied to the priming powder. When this match is about to be -fired, the quarriers usually blow a horn or ring a bell, to give notice -to all around them to retire. The explosion commonly takes place in -about a minute; the priming first explodes, attended only with flame; a -short interval of suspense commonly ensues; the eyes of the bystanders -being anxiously directed towards the spot; the rock is instantly seen -to open, when a sharp report or detonating noise takes place, and -numerous fragments of stone are observed to spring into the air, and -fly about in all directions, from amidst a cloud of smoke. The quarrier -then returns with alacrity to the scene of his operations. - -[Illustration] - -The accompanying figure shows the plan of blasting the rock, and a -section of the hole ready prepared for firing. The portion of the rock -to be dislodged by the explosion is that included between A and B. The -charge of powder is represented as filling the bore to C, from which -point to the top, the hole is filled up with _tamping_. The _smift_ is -represented at D. - -In the year 1831, a patent was taken out by Mr. Bickford, of Tucking -Mill, Cornwall, for an invention called “the Miner’s Safety Fuse.” -It consists essentially of a minute cylinder of gunpowder, or other -suitable explosive mixture, inclosed within a hempen cord, which -is first twisted in a peculiar kind of machine, then overlaid to -strengthen it; afterwards it is varnished with a mixture of tar and -resin to preserve the powder from moisture, and finally is coated with -whitening to prevent the varnish from sticking to the fingers, or the -fuses to one another. These fuses are said to have been used with good -effect, and to have greatly diminished the number of accidents. - - -The application of Electricity to the Blasting of Rocks. - -Perhaps the greatest modern improvement that has been made in blasting -rocks has been by the introduction of the galvanic battery. It is -well known that by closing the circuit of a voltaic current by means -of thin platinum wire, or by fine iron or steel wire, the platinum -becomes red-hot, and the iron or steel becomes instantly fused. All, -therefore, that is necessary is to connect the two terminal wires of -a voltaic battery by means of a fine wire of platinum or iron, and to -bury this in gunpowder contained in a tin canister, or a fuse connected -with a deposit of gunpowder. This was the method adopted by Colonel -Pasley in removing the Royal George, which lay sunk at the bottom of -the water at Spithead. Canisters of gunpowder, sometimes to the extent -of three thousand pounds’ weight, were employed, and securely deposited -in the sunken vessel, by workmen who descended in the diving-bell; the -terminal wires of the battery, connected as above stated, having been -previously inserted in the canisters, and these wires being extended -to a great distance, the explosion took place the instant they were -connected with the voltaic battery. After the vessel was thus blown -to pieces by repeated explosions, divers descended to clear away the -wreck, and to attach guns, &c., to chains let down from a ship above, -and which were then hauled up by means of a crane. - -Mr. Morgan, in the _American Journal of Science_, describes a fuse or -cartridge which he has used with success in connexion with the voltaic -battery. This cartridge is prepared by joining two pieces of clean -copper wire to the ends of a fine steel wire, about one quarter of an -inch in length, by means of waxed silk; a thin piece of wood is then -spliced to both copper wires, to protect the steel wire from accidents, -and to enable the maker to introduce it easily into a quill or small -paper tube, which is to form the cartridge. This tube is filled with -fine gunpowder, and made air and water-tight. Another piece of wood is -then attached to this arrangement, and one of the copper wires is bent -over so as to form an angle with the straight wire. - -When it is required to use this cartridge, the copper wires are rubbed -with sand-paper, and twisted round the wires of the voltaic battery. -The cartridge is then placed deep in the hole made to receive the -gunpowder, and the charge is fired from any distance. - -Mr. Morgan found this arrangement very useful in removing stumps of -trees; but one of his applications of it was curious and novel: he -exploded some powder in a pond at the depth of ten feet, with the -battery at the distance of two hundred and ten feet; the explosion, -which was instantaneous, had the effect of killing a large eel; and “I -have no doubt,” says Mr. Morgan, “that wild-fowl will yet be killed by -means of shells placed at low-water on the banks where they feed; and -by means of long connecting wires, the shells can be made to explode -simultaneously among the birds.” - -But the grandest application of gunpowder and the voltaic battery to -the blasting of rocks, was made in the month of January, 1843, at -Dover. It was determined by these means to attempt the removal of an -enormous mass of the cliff facing the sea, which formed an obstruction -to the line of railroad. A portion of the cliff which was penetrated -by the tunnel made through Shakspeare’s Cliff gave way, about two -years previously. About fifty yards of the tunnel were carried away, -and a clear space was thus formed for the line of railroad, with the -exception of a projecting point, which, prior to the slip alluded to, -was the extremity of the part of the cliff pierced by the tunnel, and -to remove which was the object of the operation in question. - -To clear away this mass by the tedious process of manual labour, would -have cost above twelve thousand pounds; and this consideration, as -well as the time that would have been lost, induced Mr. Cubitt, the -engineer, to try the bold expedient of blowing it away with gunpowder. -“It cannot be denied,” remarks Captain Stuart, whose account of this -great engineering operation we follow, “that there was apparent danger -in the undertaking, for the weight of the mass to be removed was -estimated at two million tons, and the quantity of powder used was -more than eight tons, or eighteen thousand pounds. The quantity used in -blowing up the fortifications of Bhurtpore was twelve thousand pounds, -and this is said to have been the greatest explosion that had ever -previously taken place for any single specific object.” - -The front of the projection was about one hundred yards wide; this -front was pierced with a tunnel about six feet in height, and three -in breadth; three shafts, equidistant from each other, and from the -entrances to the tunnel, were sunk to the depth of seventeen feet, and -galleries were run, one from each shaft, parallel with each other, and -at right angles with the line of the tunnel. These galleries varied -in length, the longest having been twenty-six feet, and the shortest -twelve feet, and at their extremities chambers were excavated in a -direction parallel with the tunnel. This description will be the better -understood by reference to the following figure. 1. The tunnel. 2. The -shafts. 3. The galleries. 4. The chambers. - -[Illustration] - -In the chambers, the powder was deposited in three nearly equal -quantities; it was done up in fifty-pound bags, and the proportion -in each chamber was contained in a wooden case, nearly as large as -the chamber itself. Ignition was communicated by means of a voltaic -battery; the conducting wires, one thousand feet in length, were -passed over the cliff, one to each chamber, and the electricity was -communicated in a shed built for the purpose on the top of the cliff, -about fifty yards from the edge. The explosion was conducted by -Lieutenant Hutchinson, R.E., who was engaged with General Pasley in -blowing up the wreck of the Royal George. The time appointed for the -explosion to take place, was two o’clock P.M., 26th January, 1843, the -tide being then at its lowest ebb. The arrangements, to preserve order -and prevent danger, were good. A space was kept clear by a cordon of -artillery, and the following programme was issued:-- - - - “Signals, January 26, 1843. - - “1st. Fifteen minutes before firing, all the signal flags will be - hoisted. - - “2nd. Five minutes before firing, one gun will be fired, and all the - flags will be hauled down. - - “3rd. One minute before firing, two guns will be fired, and all the - flags (except that on the point which is to be blasted) will be - hoisted up again.” - -These signals were given exactly at the specified times, and when -the expected moment arrived, a deep subterranean sound was heard, a -violent commotion was seen at the base of the cliff, and the whole mass -slid majestically down, forming an immense _débris_ at the bottom. -Tremendous cheers followed the blast, and a royal salute was fired. - -The remarks of different intelligent observers, as to the effects of -this explosion, would of course differ according to their position with -respect to the scene of explosion. One observer states that “the earth -trembled to the distance of half a mile; a stifled report, not loud, -but deep, was heard; the _base_ of the cliff, extending on either hand -to upwards of five hundred feet, was shot as from a cannon, from under -the superincumbent mass of chalk seaward; and in a few seconds not less -than a million tons of chalk were dislodged by the shock, and settled -gently down into the sea below.” - -But the most eminent observer who has described the effects of this -explosion is Sir John Herschel, from whose letter to the _Athenæum_ we -gather the following particulars. His position was on the summit of the -cliff, next adjoining the scene of operations, to the southward, the -nearest point to which access was permitted. - -Sir John Herschel was particularly struck with “the singular and almost -total absence of all those tumultuous and noisy manifestations of -power, which might naturally be expected to accompany the explosion -of so enormous a quantity (19,000lbs.) of gunpowder.” He describes -the noise which accompanied the immediate explosion as “a low murmur, -lasting hardly more than half a second, and so faint, that had a -companion at my elbow been speaking in an ordinary tone of voice, I -doubt not it would have passed unheeded.” - -The fall of the cliff, the ruins of which extended over no less -than eighteen acres of the beach, to an average depth of fourteen -feet, was not accompanied with any considerable noise. “The entire -absence of smoke was another and not less remarkable feature of the -phenomenon. Much dust, indeed, curled out at the borders of the vast -rolling and undulating mass, which spread itself like a semi-fluid -body, thinning out in its progress; but this subsided instantly; and -of true smoke there was absolutely not a vestige. Every part of the -surface was immediately and clearly seen--the prostrate flagstaff -(speedily re-erected in the place of its fall)--the broken turf, -which a few seconds before had been quietly growing at the summit of -the cliff--and every other detail of that extensive field of ruin, -were seen immediately in all their distinctness. Full in the midst of -what appeared the highest part of the expanding mass, while yet in -rapid motion, my attention was attracted by a tumultuous and somewhat -upward-swelling motion of the earth, whence I fully expected to see -burst forth a volume of pitchy smoke, and from which my present -impression is, that gas, purified from carbonaceous matter in passing -through innumerable fissures of cold and damp material, was still in -progress of escape; but whether so or not, the remark made at the -moment is sufficient to prove the absence of any impediment to distinct -vision.” - -The amount of tremor experienced by Sir John Herschel at the point -where he was standing was so slight, that he thinks he has felt -it surpassed by a heavy waggon passing along a paved street. “The -impression, slight as it was, was single and brief, and must have -originated with the first shock of the powder, and not from the -subsequent and prolonged rush of the ruins.” We have already noticed -the remark of one observer, that “the earth trembled to the distance of -half a mile;” but this seems to be a mistake; the writer fancied that -it must have been so, and that he should be suspected if he were to -state it otherwise. It is to be regretted that people do not endeavour -to describe what they see and hear, without the embellishment of the -imagination. - -This grand experiment was no less grand from the absence of noise, -smoke, earthquake, and fragments hurled to vast distances through -the air. “I have not heard of a single scattered fragment flying out -as a projectile in any direction”--continues Sir John Herschel--“and -altogether the whole phenomenon was totally unlike anything which, -according to ordinary ideas, could have been supposed to arise from the -action of gunpowder. Strange as it may seem, this contrast between the -actual and the expected effects, gave to the whole scene a character -rather of sublime composure than of headlong violence--of graceful ease -than of struggling effort. How quietly, in short, the gigantic power -employed performed its work, may be gathered from the fact, that the -operators themselves who discharged the batteries were not aware that -they had taken effect, but thought the whole affair a failure, until -reassured by the shout which hailed its success.” - - -Sawing the Stones for the Mason. - -Whatever may be the purpose to which the stone is to be applied, the -larger blocks obtained from the quarry must be cut into smaller and -more manageable pieces; this is done by _sawing_. The saw used is a -long blade of steel without teeth, fixed in a heavy wooden frame, -similar in principle to that which holds the finer spring-saws employed -by cabinet-makers. The stone-saw, from its great size, however, -requires a more powerful contrivance for drawing it to the proper -degree of tension: this consists of a long screw-bolt fixed to a piece -of chain, which hooks over one of the upright arms of the frame; a -similar chain from the other carries a swivel-joint with a screw-nut -to receive the screw: by turning the swivel by a lever, the nut on the -screw draws up or tightens the chains, and that draws the blade tight, -which is contained between the other ends of the arms. - -These huge saws are worked by one or two men, who, in London -stone-yards, sit in watch-boxes, in order to be sheltered from the sun -and rain. Barrels filled with water, which is allowed to drop out at a -tap, are mounted on the block of stone, so that the water may drip into -the cut and facilitate the motion of the saw by removing some of the -friction, as well as prevent it becoming hot, and so losing its temper -by the same cause. - -In some large establishments, the sawing is effected by machinery. The -block is fixed in a proper position, and a group of saws brought to act -on it. These saws are all arranged parallel, according to the thickness -of the pieces into which the stone is to be cut; and a steam-engine -being brought to bear on the whole group, the cutting is effected with -great rapidity. - - -The Processes of Stone-Masonry. - -When the stone is sawed to the proper size, the surfaces which are -exposed to view, have to be made smooth and even. The tools used by the -mason for this purpose consist of iron chisels of different widths, and -principally of a sharp-pointed one called a _pointer_; these chisels -are struck with a mallet made of a conical-formed lump of hard wood, -fixed to a short handle. - -[Illustration: Stone-Sawyer.] - -The _pointer_ is used for chipping off the principal roughnesses on the -face and edges, and for working the whole face over to bring it level, -the workman trying his work by applying a _straight-edge_ occasionally -to it. When the front and edges are made _true_, the face is sometimes -_tooled_ over, so as to leave regular furrows in it, according to -certain forms, by which the different kinds of work are distinguished. -But this practice is going out of use, now that soft free-stone is -so much employed in building. In old edifices, such as St. Paul’s, -Whitehall, &c., &c., the stone will be found to be wrought on its face -in the manner alluded to. - -Stones in buildings are not only fixed with mortar, as bricks are, but -are further secured in their places by being clamped together with iron -clamps. These are short iron bars, from seven to twelve inches long, -one and a half wide, and half an inch thick, according to the size of -the stone; the ends of the clamps being turned down a little, to afford -a better hold. A channel is cut in the two contiguous stones deep -enough for the clamp to lie in, and the ends of the channel are sunk -deeper, to receive the turned-down ends of the clamp; when this is put -into the channel, molten lead is poured in to fill up the interstices, -to keep the clamp in its place, and to prevent it from rusting. - -From the expense of carrying and working stone, the walls of buildings -at a distance from a quarry, such for example as those in London, are -seldom now built of solid stone, but a facing of this material is -applied only on the external surface of the wall, which is built of -brick. This kind of work is called _ashler_ work, and both the brick -and stone-work must be executed with considerable care, to enable -a wall composed of two materials to preserve its perpendicularity; -it being obvious, that if the brick part yielded to the weight, it -must, from its construction, do so more than the stone facing, and, -therefore, the wall would bend inwards and become crippled. - -The width of the courses of ashlers must, therefore, be made equal -exactly to a certain number of courses of bricks with the intervening -mortar, and the brick-work must be executed with such care, that this -number of courses may be everywhere of the same width in the whole -height of the wall. In every course of ashler there must be solid -stones laid quite, or nearly quite, across the width of the wall to -form a _bond_ to the stone facing, and all the stones of the ashler -must be fixed with iron cramps to one another and to these bond-stones. -But, however carefully a faced wall may be executed, it is never so -firm or durable as one built entirely of either material; indeed, -if well executed, of good materials, and of competent thickness in -proportion to its height, a brick wall is the most durable, light, and -efficient structure that can be erected. - -When stone is to be cut into cornices, mouldings, &c., the blocks -having been sawed, the ends, top and bottom, are worked very true and -parallel, or perpendicular to each other, and one edge or _arris_ cut -to a perfectly straight line; a thin wooden mould of the section of the -cornice is then applied to each end, and the profile of the mouldings -marked out on the stone. The workman being guided by this figure, cuts -away the stone down to the general surface of the mouldings, and then -proceeds to get the flat fillets of the mouldings perfectly straight -and true by the rule; these again guide him in working the curved -mouldings, such as _ovolos_, _cavettos_, _cyma rectas_, and _ogees_; -when these are cut nearly to their profile, and perfectly straight on -the _bed_ line, they are finished off by being rubbed down smooth by -thin long straight-edges of stone. - -Foliage and carved work is executed by a better kind of workman, -possessing some of the taste of an artist, and he works on the same -general principles as a sculptor when executing a statue; it would be -foreign to our present object, therefore, to dwell on this branch of -the mason’s art. - -It often, or even most commonly occurs, that the distance between -two columns of a portico, is of greater length than a stone can be -obtained, and if the architrave, or that part of the _entablature_ -immediately over the capitals of the columns, be looked at attentively, -a stone will be perceived between the columns apparently unsupported, -for neither end rests on the column, and the joints of those ends are -upright, not presenting any character of a voussoir-stone or arch. The -contrivance by which such an architrave stone is supported deserves to -be described. - -[Illustration] - -The stone in question has a projecting part, wrought at each end, of -the form shown in the annexed figure; this projection is received into -a corresponding cavity, cut in the end of the stone supported by the -column, and the joint is thus really an arched or wedge-shaped one, -though the bevel line is concealed, and the two stones, when put -together, present only a vertical joint. - -The mason uses _squares_, _levels_, _plumb-lines_, and _straight-edges_ -to set out his work, and trowels and mortar to set the stones with; -but the latter is rather used to make the joints water-tight than -to keep the stones together, this being effected by their weight or -by iron clamping. Formerly the mason required far more accurate and -extensive knowledge of geometry than is possessed by persons of the -trade at present; this was when he was called on to construct groined -and vaulted roofs, enriched with carved work and pendent corbels, -where the nicest workmanship was required, to ensure the stability of -the light and graceful columns and vaulting of a Gothic cathedral. It -was this possession of superior skill and knowledge that caused the -establishment of the Society of Freemasons, which dates its rise from -the tenth or eleventh century. - -Marble, from its costliness, and the difficulty of working it, is -seldom, if ever, used in solid pieces in buildings; thin facings of -it are set upon stone _backings_, much as rare woods are used in -_veneering_ by the cabinet-maker. The marble is sawn into thin slabs, -like other stone, and the face is polished by rubbing on it the surface -of another piece, fine sand, mixed up with water, being used to cause -abrasion. - -Various contrivances are resorted to for cutting marble, and -building-stones generally, into _curved_ forms. In some cases a lever -is made to work at one end on a pivot, while at the other end is -attached a curved piece of sheet-iron, which passing backwards and -forwards over the stone, cuts it in a circular form. In other cases -a cylinder of sheet-iron is formed; and this being allowed to fall -vertically on the surface of the stone, and rotated rapidly, cuts out -a piece of stone of the diameter of the cylinder. Sometimes, when a -large circular piece of stone is required, a kind of wheel is employed, -furnished on its under surface with four curved cutting-irons, -and these cutters, when the wheel revolves, cut the stone. By a -modification of the arrangements, an oval instead of a circular curve -may be given to the piece of stone. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ON THE DURABILITY OF STONE BUILDINGS. - - -On the Choice of a Stone for Building Purposes. - -“Everything belonging to the earth, whether in its primitive state, -or modified by human hands, is submitted to certain and innumerable -laws of destruction, as permanent and universal as those which produce -the planetary motions. The operations of nature, when slow, are no -less sure; however man may for a time usurp dominion over her, she is -certain of recovering her empire. He converts her rocks, her stones, -her trees, into forms of palaces, houses, and ships; he employs the -metals found in the bosom of the earth as instruments of power, and the -sands and clays which constitute its surface as ornaments and resources -of luxury; he imprisons air by water, and tortures water by fire to -change, to modify, or destroy the natural forms of things. But in some -lustrums his works begin to change, and in a few centuries they decay -and are in ruins; and his mighty temples, framed, as it were, for -divine purposes, and his bridges formed of granite, and ribbed with -iron, and his walls for defence, and the splendid monuments by which he -has endeavoured to give eternity even to its perishable remains, are -gradually destroyed; and these structures which have resisted the waves -of the ocean, the tempest of the sky, and the stroke of the lightning, -shall yield to the operation of the dews of heaven, of frost, rain, -vapour, and imperceptible atmospheric influences; and as the worm -devours the lineaments of his mortal beauty, so the lichens and the -moss, and the most insignificant plants, shall feed upon his columns -and his pyramids, and the most humble and insignificant insect shall -undermine and sap the foundations of his colossal works, and make their -habitations amongst the ruins of his palaces, and the falling seats of -his earthly glory.”[1] - -Although it is true that all human works must decay, yet it is a point -of great importance to ourselves and our successors whether that decay -be slow or speedy. The causes enumerated in the above eloquent passage, -though sure, are exceedingly slow in their action, and provided the -building materials have been selected with reference as well to their -durability as to their beauty, the resulting structure may defy the -corroding tooth of time for many ages, and we may thus transmit to a -long posterity, lasting memorials of our wisdom and science, as well as -of our piety. Modern science has, to a very great extent, enabled the -architect and builder to determine beforehand what is the durability of -any given stone; and it is with great pleasure that we now notice the -extensive inquiry made at the suggestion of Mr. Barry, the architect -of the new Houses of Parliament, under the Commission issued by Her -Majesty’s Government, to investigate the qualities of stone in various -parts of the kingdom, in order to select that which should best -ensure perpetuity to this grand national monument. This commission, -consisting of Mr. Barry, Sir H. T. De la Beche, Dr. W. Smith, and Mr. -C. H. Smith, visited one hundred and five quarries, and examined one -hundred and seventy-five edifices; and their collected specimens were -then submitted to tests, both mechanical and chemical, by Professors -Daniell and Wheatstone, of King’s College, London. In order to leave -a permanent record of their labours, the Commissioners published a -Report, and deposited in the Museum of Economic Geology, a variety of -specimens of the stones which they had collected. From this Report, we -select such details as are calculated to serve the purposes of popular -instruction. The Commissioners did not consider it necessary to extend -their inquiries to granites, porphyries, and other stones of similar -character, on account of the enormous expense of converting them to -building purposes in decorated edifices, and from a conviction that an -equally durable, and in other respects more eligible material, could be -obtained for the object in view from among the limestones or sandstones -of the kingdom. - -The Commissioners soon had striking proofs of the necessity and -importance of this inquiry in the lamentable effects of decomposition -observable in the greater part of the limestone employed at Oxford; in -the magnesian limestones of the Minster, churches, and other public -edifices at York; and in the sandstones of which the churches and -other public buildings at Derby and Newcastle are constructed; and -numerous other examples. The unequal state of preservation of many -buildings, often produced by the varied quality of the stone employed -in them, although it may have been taken from the same quarry, showed -the propriety of a minute examination of the quarries themselves, in -order to gain a proper knowledge of the particular beds from whence the -different varieties have been obtained. An inspection of quarries was -also desirable for the purpose of ascertaining their power of supply, -and other important matters; for it frequently happens, that the -best stone in quarries is often neglected, or only partially worked, -in consequence of the cost of laying bare, and removing those beds -with which it may be associated; whence it happens, that the inferior -material is in such cases supplied. - -Stone buildings decay more rapidly in towns than in the open country, -where dense smoke, fogs, and vapours, which act injuriously on -buildings, do not exist. There is also another curious cause which -contributes to the durability of stone buildings situated in the -country. In the course of time, the stone becomes covered with minute -lichens, which, though in themselves decomposing agents, act with -extreme slowness, and when once firmly established over the entire -surface of the stone, seem to exercise a protective influence, by -defending the surface from the more violent destructive agents; -whereas, in populous smoky towns, these lichens are prevented from -forming, and thus the stone is exposed to severer trials than stone of -the same kind situated in the country. - -As a remarkable illustration of the difference in the degree of -durability in the same material, subjected to the effects of the air -in town and country, the appearance is noticed of several frusta of -columns, and other blocks of stone, that were quarried at the time -of the erection of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, and which are now -lying in the Isle of Portland, near the quarries from whence they were -obtained. These blocks are invariably found to be covered with lichens, -and, although they have been exposed to all the vicissitudes of a -marine atmosphere for more than one hundred and fifty years, they still -exhibit beneath the lichens their original form, even to the marks of -the chisel employed upon them; whilst the stone which was taken from -the same quarries, (selected no doubt with equal, if not greater care, -than the blocks alluded to,) and placed in the Cathedral itself, is, in -those parts which are exposed to the south and south-west winds, found, -in some instances, to be fast mouldering away. - -Colour is more important in the selection of a building-stone to be -situated in a populous and smoky town, than for one to be placed in -the open country, where all edifices become covered with lichens; for, -although in such towns, those fronts which are not exposed to the -prevailing winds and rains, will soon become blackened, the remainder -of the building will constantly exhibit a tint depending upon the -natural colour of the stone. - -The chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire -matter of the limestones, and in the cementing substance of sandstones, -according to the amount of surface exposed to it. The particles of the -stone first loosened by the action of frost are removed by powerful -winds and driving rains. The buildings in this climate were generally -found to suffer the greatest amount of decomposition on their south, -south-west, and west fronts, arising doubtless from the prevalence of -winds and rains from those quarters. - -Those buildings which are highly decorated, such as the churches of -the Norman and pointed styles of architecture, generally afford a more -severe test of the durability of a building-stone, than the more simple -and less decorated castles of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; -because, in the former class of buildings, the stone is worked into -more disadvantageous forms than in the latter, as regards exposure to -the effects of the weather. Buildings in a state of ruin, from being -deprived of their ordinary protection of roofing, glazing of windows, -&c., afford an equally severe test of the durability of the stone -employed in them. - -The durability of various building-stones in particular localities was -estimated by examining the condition of the neighbouring buildings -constructed of them. Among sandstone buildings was noticed the remains -of Ecclestone Abbey, of the thirteenth century, near Barnard Castle, -constructed of a stone closely resembling that of the Stenton quarry, -in the vicinity, in which the mouldings and other decorations were in -excellent condition. The circular keep of Barnard Castle, apparently -also built of the same material, is in fine preservation. Tintern -Abbey is noticed as a sandstone edifice, that has to a considerable -extent resisted decomposition. Some portions of Whitby Abbey are fast -yielding to the effects of the atmosphere. The older portions of Ripon -Cathedral; Rievaulx Abbey; and the Norman keep of Richmond Castle, in -Yorkshire, are all examples of sandstone buildings, in tolerably fair -preservation. - -Of sandstone edifices in an advanced state of decomposition, are -enumerated Durham Cathedral, the churches at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, -Carlisle Cathedral, Kirkstall Abbey, and Fountain’s Abbey. The -sandstone churches of Derby are also extremely decomposed; and the -church of St. Peter, at Shaftsbury, is in such a state of decay, that -some portions of the building are only prevented from falling by means -of iron ties. - -The choir of Southwell Church, of the twelfth century, affords an -instance of the durability of a magnesio-calciferous sandstone after -long exposure to the influences of the atmosphere. The Norman portions -of this church are also constructed of magnesian limestone, similar to -that of Bolsover Moor, and which are throughout in a perfect state, the -mouldings and carved enrichments being as sharp as when first executed. -The following buildings, also of magnesian limestone, are either in -perfect preservation, or exhibit only slight traces of decay: the keep -of Koningsburgh Castle; the church at Hemingborough, of the fifteenth -century; Tickhill Church, of the same date; Huddlestone Hall, of the -sixteenth century; Roche Abbey, of the thirteenth century. - -The magnesian limestone buildings which were found in a more advanced -state of decay, were the churches at York, and a large portion of the -Minster, Howden Church, Doncaster Old Church, and buildings in other -parts of the county, many of which are so much decomposed, that the -mouldings, carvings, &c., are often entirely effaced. - -The report speaks in high terms of the preservation of buildings -constructed of oolitic and other limestones; such are Byland Abbey, of -the twelfth century; Sandysfoot Castle, near Weymouth, constructed of -Portland oolite in the time of Henry the Eighth; Bow-and-Arrow Castle, -and the neighbouring ruins of a church of the fourteenth century, in -the island of Portland. - -The oolite in the vicinity of Bath does not seem to wear well. - -The excellent condition of the parts which remain of Glastonbury Abbey -shows the value of a shelly limestone similar to that of Doulting; -whilst the stone employed in Wells Cathedral, apparently of the same -kind, and not selected with equal care, is in parts decomposed. In -Salisbury Cathedral, built of stone from Chilmark, we have evidence of -the general durability of a siliciferous limestone; for, although the -west front has somewhat yielded to the effects of the atmosphere, the -excellent condition of the building generally is most striking. - -The materials employed in the public buildings of Oxford, afford a -marked instance both of decomposition and durability; for whilst a -shelly oolite, similar to that of Taynton, which is employed in the -exposed parts of the more ancient parts of the Cathedral, in Morton -College Chapel, &c., is generally in a good state of preservation, a -calcareous stone from Heddington, employed in nearly all the colleges, -churches, and other public buildings, is in such a deplorable state of -decay as, in some instances, to have caused all traces of architectural -decoration to disappear, and the ashler itself to be, in many places, -deeply disintegrated. - -In Spofforth Castle, two materials, a magnesian limestone and a -sandstone, have been employed, the former in the decorated parts, and -the latter for the ashler, and although both have been equally exposed, -the magnesian limestone has remained as perfect in form as when first -employed, while the sandstone has suffered considerably from the -effects of decomposition. In Chepstow Castle a magnesian limestone is -in fine preservation, and a red sandstone rapidly decaying. A similar -result was observed in Bristol Cathedral, which afforded a curious -instance of the effects of using different materials; for a yellow -limestone and a red sandstone have been indiscriminately employed both -for the plain and the decorated parts of the building; not only is the -appearance unsightly, but the architectural effect of the edifice is -also much impaired by the unequal decomposition of the two materials. - -After enumerating these and other examples, the Report gives the -preference to the limestones, on account of their more general -uniformity of tint, their comparatively homogeneous structure, and the -facility and economy of their conversion to building purposes; and, of -this class, preference is given to those which are most crystalline. -Professor Daniell is of opinion that the nearer the magnesian -limestones approach to equivalent proportions of carbonate of lime and -carbonate of magnesia, the more crystalline and better they are in -every respect. - -It was considered that this crystalline character, together with -durability, as instanced in Southwell Church, &c.; uniformity in -structure; facility and economy in conversion; and advantage in -colour, were all comprised in the magnesian limestone, or dolomite -of Bolsover[2] Moor and its neighbourhood, and was accordingly -recommended as the most fit and proper material to be employed in -the New Houses of Parliament.[3] This opinion was not arrived at, -nor this recommendation made, until after a very extensive series of -experiments had been completed by Professors Daniell and Wheatstone -upon specimens of the stones of the various quarries visited by the -Commissioners. The specimens, as delivered to these gentlemen, were -in the form of two-inch cubes. These experiments were of a most -comprehensive kind. The composition of the stones was determined by -chemical analysis:--their specific gravities; their weights after -having been perfectly dried by exposure in heated air for several days; -then their weights after having been immersed in water for several -days so as to become saturated; the object being to ascertain the -absorbent powers of the stones, which was further tested by placing -them in water under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump. The stones -were also subjected to the process of disintegration, invented by -M. Brard, the object of which is to determine, by easy experiments, -whether a building-stone will or will not resist the action of frost. -Lastly, the cohesive strength of each specimen, or its resistance to -pressure, was tested by the weight required to crush it. This weight -was furnished by a hydrostatic press, the pump of which was one inch in -diameter: one pound at the end of the pump lever produced a pressure -on the surface of the cube equal to 2·53 cwt., or to 71·06 lbs. on the -square inch. These trials were made with caution; the weight on the -lever was successively increased by a single pound; and, in order to -ensure a gradual action, a minute was allowed to elapse previous to the -application of each additional weight. It was noted for each specimen -the pressure at which the stone began to crack, and also the pressure -at which it was crushed. - -The results of all these experiments (which are stated for each -stone) gave a decided preference to the Bolsover magnesian limestone, -which was noticed as being remarkable for its peculiarly beautiful -crystalline structure, while it was the heaviest and strongest of -all the specimens, and absorbed least water. Its composition was 50 -per cent. of carbonate of lime, and 40 of carbonate of magnesia; the -remaining ten parts consisting chiefly of silica and alumina. - - -An easy Method of determining whether a Stone will resist the Action of -Frost. - -In the choice of a stone for building purposes, it is of the utmost -importance to be able to determine, by a few prompt and easy -experiments, whether the proposed stone is capable of resisting the -destructive action of moisture and frost. The means of ascertaining -this were difficult and uncertain, until M. Brard, several years ago, -communicated his method to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. -This learned body having appointed a Committee of their own members to -inquire into the merits of M. Brard’s process, and to make a report -thereon, the united testimony of engineers, architects, masons, and -builders from different parts of France, was received, and proved -so favourable as to its merits and simplicity, that the Committee -recommended the plan to public notice and general adoption. From their -Report we select a few details, which hitherto, we believe, have not -appeared in English. - -When water is converted into ice an increase in bulk suddenly -takes place with such amazing force that it appears to be almost -irresistible. This is the force which cracks our water-bottles and -ewers; splits asunder the trees of our forests; and destroys some of -the stones of our buildings. But the action of frost upon stone is -very gradual; it is confined to the surface, and when we see a layer -of stone separated from the rock or the building, we see the result of -the action of the frost during several successive winters, whereby the -fragment is gradually thrust out of its perpendicular position, and at -length falls. This natural process is repeated in our buildings: we -rarely see squared stones split into large fragments by the action of -frost except there be a cavity of some considerable size, in which a -quantity of water can be collected. The usual action of the frost is at -the surface, which is destroyed by the chipping off of small fragments -in consequence of the adhesion of the materials of the stone being -partially destroyed. - -All stones absorb water in greater or less quantities, and there is no -rock that does not contain some humidity. The great difference between -stones which is now to be considered is in their power of resisting -frost. Stones of the same kind, nay, stones from different parts of -the same quarry, are acted upon very differently by frost; for, while -one stone soon begins to show the destructive effects of its action, -another remains uninjured during many centuries. It will, therefore, -be convenient to call those stones, of whatever kind, which withstand -the action of frost, _resistant_, and those which yield to its action, -_non-resistant_. - -M. Brard’s first idea, in order to test these resistant properties -in building-stones, was, to saturate the stone with water, and then -expose it to cold artificially produced; but this was found to be -impracticable on a large scale, and the freezing mixtures and other -means of producing cold were liable to act chemically upon the stone, -and thus produce other effects than those of cold. - -M. Brard was then led to compare water with those numerous solutions of -the chemist, which, under certain modes of treatment, crystallize. The -expansive force of salts in crystallizing is very great, and he saw no -reason why water should not be regarded as a crystalline salt similar -in its nature to those saline bodies which effloresce at the surfaces -of stones, and in time destroy them and even reduce them to powder. - -He therefore tried, in a very large number of experiments, the action -upon building-stones of solutions of nitre, of common salt, of Epsom -salts, of carbonate and sulphate of soda, of alum and of sulphate -of iron, and found that the stones cracked and chipped, and in many -cases behaved precisely in the same way as when under the influence -of freezing water. In the course of these trials, sulphate of soda -(Glauber’s salts) was found to be the most energetic and active, and to -be the best exponent of the action of freezing water. - -In order, therefore, to determine promptly if a stone be resistant or -non-resistant, the following process was adopted. A saturated solution -of sulphate of soda was made in cold water; the solution being put into -a convenient vessel, the stone was immersed, and the solution boiled -during half an hour: the stone was then taken out, and placed in a -plate containing a little of the solution. It was then left in a cool -apartment, in order to facilitate the efflorescence of the salt with -which the stone was now impregnated. At the end of about twenty-four -hours the stone was covered with a snowy efflorescence, and the liquid -had disappeared either by evaporation or by absorption. The stone was -then sprinkled gently with cold water until all the saline particles -disappeared from the surface. After this first washing the surfaces -of the stone were covered with detached grains, scales, and angular -fragments, and the stone being one that was easily attacked by frost, -the splitting of the surfaces was very marked. But the experiment was -not yet terminated: the efflorescence was allowed to form, and the -washing was repeated many times during five or six days, at the end of -which time the bad qualities of the stone became fully established. The -stone was finally washed in pure water; all the detached parts were -collected, and by these the ultimate action of the frost upon the stone -was estimated. - -The behaviour of various non-resistant stones under this process was -remarkable. Some were found to have deteriorated in the course of -the third day; others to have entirely fallen to pieces; those of -which the power of resistance was somewhat greater, held out till the -fifth or sixth day; but few stones, except the hard granites, compact -limestones, and white marbles, were able to stand the trial during -thirty consecutive days. For all useful purposes, however, eight days -suffice to test the resistant qualities of any building-stone. - -The explanation of this process is very easy. The boiling solution -dilates the stone and penetrates it to a certain depth, nearly in -the same way that rain water by long-continued action introduces -itself into stones exposed to the severity of our changeable climate. -Pure water when frozen occupies a greater bulk than when fluid, and -the pores or cellules of the stone not being able to accommodate -themselves to the increased bulk of the water, great pressure is -exerted between and among them, whereby a portion of the water is -driven to the surface, and in doing so rends and detaches small -portions of the stone. The same action takes place with the saline -solution; it is introduced into the stone in a fluid state, from which -passing into the solid it occupies a greater bulk, and a portion of -it appears at the surface. The repeated washings have no other object -than to allow the salt to exert its greatest amount of destructive -action upon the stone. There is a striking analogy between the effect -of congealed water and that of the efflorescence of salts, in the -disintegration of non-resistant stones; namely, that pure water acts on -the stones destructively only in a state of snowy efflorescence, which -evidently proceeds from the interior to the exterior like the saline -efflorescence; whilst water at the surface of the stones may freeze -into hard ice without injuring them, just in the same way as salts, -which may crystallize upon stones without exerting any injurious action. - -The experience of several engineers, extending as it does over several -years, fully proves, of a large variety of stones whose qualities -were well known, that the action of M. Brard’s process and that of -long-continued frost exactly coincide. - -It is not the least interesting part of the inquiry to know that this -process may be applied with perfect success to ascertain the solidity -and resistant power of bricks, tiles, slates, and even mortar. From a -mass of minute detail, we will select a few general results. - -During one winter season M. Vicat composed seventy-five varieties of -mortar, the difference between any two consisting in the proportion of -sand and the method of slaking the lime. In the following June these -mortars were exposed to the disintegrating process. Most of them were -attacked in twenty-four hours; almost all of them in forty-eight hours; -and all except two in three days. This gentleman also found that a -mortar made ten years previously, of one hundred parts lime, which had -been left exposed to the air, under cover, during a whole year, and -then mixed up into a paste with fifty parts of common sand, withstood -the trial admirably during seventeen days, while the best stones of -the neighbourhood speedily gave way. In this case the solution was -saturated while hot, which is so powerful in its effects that stones -which have resisted the action of the frost for ages, soon gave way -when exposed to it. - -M. Vicat calculates that the effect of the sulphate of soda upon a -non-resistant stone after the second day of trial equals a force -somewhat greater than that exerted by a temperature of about 21° -Fahrenheit, on a stone saturated with water. - -The action of the process upon bricks proved that, whatever their -qualities in other respects, if imperfectly burnt, they are speedily -acted on. The sharp edges of the brick, and then the angles, are first -rounded, and finally the brick is reduced to powder. Such is precisely -the action of frost often repeated. Well-baked bricks, on the contrary, -retain their colour, form, and solidity by this process, as well as -under the influence of frost. Ancient Roman bricks, tiles, and mortar, -and hard well-baked pottery resisted the process perfectly; as did also -white statuary marble of the finest quality, while common white marble -was soon attacked. In Paris, portions of buildings which had been -exposed to the air during twenty years without undergoing the least -alteration, were submitted to this ordeal, and the experiment agreed -with observation. In one extensive series of experiments on stones from -different quarries of France, the action of the salt was continued -for seven days, and the results noted down; it was then continued for -fourteen days, and the results compared with the preceding ones; which -only served to confirm the judgment first given, for those stones which -were noted as of bad quality crumbled to dust or split into fragments, -while those noted for their good qualities had experienced no sensible -alteration. - -One of the great advantages of this process is the power it gives to -the architect of choosing a hard, durable stone for those parts of the -building most exposed to the action of the weather, when the funds -are insufficient to admit of the whole building being so constructed. -Thus the cornices, the columns, and their capitals, are struck in all -directions by rain, and hail, and damp air, and are consequently far -more exposed to their destructive action than the flat surface of a -wall, which offers but one plane to the air. - -In the course of this inquiry a very curious case arose. During the -erection of a church in Paris, the architect required a good durable -stone for the Corinthian capitals; and many circumstances disposed him -to select it from the neighbouring quarry of the Abbaye du Val. But, on -seeking the opinion of two brother architects, he was surprised to find -their estimations of the stone to be totally at variance, for while one -declared that he had employed it with the greatest success, another -said that he had seen it yield speedily to the effects of frost. On -visiting the quarry it was found that two beds of stone were being -worked, an upper and a lower bed; specimens of the stone were taken -from each, and on submitting them to a hot saturated solution, it was -ascertained almost immediately that the upper layer furnished excellent -stone, while the lower one supplied that of which the architect had -so much reason to complain. But it is remarkable that the stones from -the two beds had precisely the same appearance in grain, colour, and -texture; so much so, that when brought into the mason’s yard it was -impossible by ordinary tests to distinguish the good from the bad stone. - -At the conclusion of the inquiry of the Committee, the Royal Academy -of Sciences proved the high estimation in which they held this -contribution of science to the useful arts, by directing to be -published the following practical directions for repeating the process, -for the use of architects, builders, master masons, land proprietors, -and all persons engaged in building. - -1. The specimens of stone are to be chosen from those parts of the -quarry, where from certain observed differences in the colour, grain, -and general appearance of the stone, its quality is doubtful. - -2. The specimens are to be formed into two-inch cubes, carefully cut, -so that the edges may be sharp. - -3. Each stone is to be marked or numbered with Indian ink or scratched -with a steel point; and corresponding with such mark or number a -written account is to be kept as to the situation of the quarry, -the exact spot whence the stone was detached, and other notes and -information relating to the specimen. - -4. Continue to add a quantity of sulphate of soda to rain or distilled -water, until it will dissolve no more. You may be quite sure that the -solution is saturated, if, after repeatedly stirring it, a little of -the salt remains undissolved at the bottom of the vessel an hour or two -after it has been put in. - -5. This solution may be heated in almost any kind of vessel usually put -on the fire, but perhaps an earthen pipkin may be most convenient. When -the solution boils, put in the specimens of stone, one by one, so that -all may be completely sunk in it. - -6. Continue the boiling for thirty minutes. Be careful in observing -this direction. - -7. Take out the cubes one at a time, and hang them up by threads in -such a way that they may touch nothing. Place under each specimen a -vessel containing a portion of the liquid in which the stones were -boiled, having first strained it to remove all dirt, dust, &c. - -8. If the weather be not very damp or cold the surfaces of each stone -will, in the course of twenty-four hours, become covered with little -white saline needles. Plunge each stone into the vessel below it, so as -to wash off these little crystals, and repeat this two or three times a -day. - -9. If the stone be one that will resist the action of frost, the -crystals will abstract nothing from the stone, and there will be found -at the bottom of the vessel neither grains, nor scales, nor fragments -of stone. Be careful, in dipping the stone, not to displace the vessel. - -If, on the contrary, the stone is one that will not resist the action -of frost, this will be discovered as soon as the salt appears on the -surface, for the salt will chip off little particles of the stone, -which will be found in the vessel beneath; the cube will soon lose -its sharp edges and angles; and by about the fifth day from the first -appearance of the salt, the experiment may be considered at an end. - -As soon as the salt begins to appear at the surface its deposit is -assisted by dipping the stone five or six times a day into the solution. - -10. In order to compare the resisting powers of two stones which are -acted upon by the frost in different degrees, all that is necessary is, -to collect all the fragments detached from the six faces of the cube, -dry them and weigh them, and the greatest weight will indicate the -stone of least resistance to the frost. Thus, if a cube of twenty-four -inches of surface loses 180 grains, and a similar cube only 90 grains, -the latter is evidently better adapted than the former to the purposes -of building. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. - -[2] Bolsover is a small market town in Derbyshire, on the borders of -the county of Nottingham, and about 145 miles from London. - -[3] The various quarries visited by the commissioners are noticed in -the fullest and fairest manner. They have stated for each quarry its -name and situation; the names and addresses of the freeholder, of his -agent, and of the quarryman; the name of the stone; its composition; -colour; weight per cubic foot; entire depth of workable stone; -description of the beds; size of blocks that can be procured; prices, -per cubic foot, of block stone at the quarry; description and cost of -carriage to London; cost, per cubic foot, of the stone delivered in -London; cost, per foot of surface, of plain rubbed work, as compared -with Portland stone; and, finally, where known or reported to have been -employed in building. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE WALLS. BRICKS AND BRICK-WORK. - - -We now come to that material which is, in England, a more important -agent than stone in the construction of dwelling-houses; namely, -_bricks_ made from clay. There were three millions and a half of -houses in Great Britain in the year 1841; and there can be no doubt -that of this number those which were built of brick constituted a vast -majority. It is only in a few particular districts that stone is a more -available material for houses than bricks. In other countries, too, as -well as our own, the arts of brick-making and bricklaying are carried -on more extensively than the operations of the stone-mason. - - -Bricks and Brick-work in Early Times. - -It has been observed that “the art of making bricks is so simple, that -it must have been practised in the earliest ages of the world; probably -before mankind had discovered the method of fashioning stones to suit -the purposes of building.” It is stated in the Book of Genesis that -burnt bricks were employed in the construction of the Tower of Babel. -Now, as this structure appears to have been raised about four hundred -years after the Deluge, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the -art of making bricks was invented almost as soon as men began to build. -Bricks seem to have been in common use in Egypt while the Israelites -were in subjection to that nation; for the task assigned them was the -making of brick, and we are informed in the Book of Exodus, that the -Israelites built two Egyptian cities. No particulars are given in -Scripture of the method of making bricks; but as straw was one of the -ingredients, and as very little rain falls in Egypt, it is probable -that their bricks were not burned, but merely baked by the heat of -the sun. The same mode of baking bricks seems still to be practised -in the East. The ruins of the tower near Bagdad are formed of unburnt -bricks. The art of brick-making was carried to considerable perfection -among the Greeks. Pliny states that they made use of bricks of three -sizes, distinguished by the following names: _didoron_, or six inches -long; _tetradoron_, or twelve inches long; and _pentadoron_, or fifteen -inches long. That the Romans excelled in the art of making bricks -there is the amplest evidence, since brick structures raised at Rome -seventeen hundred years ago, still remain nearly as entire as when -first built. - -A remarkable kind of _floating brick_, used by the ancients, has been -made the subject of investigation in modern times, with a view to the -suggestion of improvements in the making of bricks for particular -purposes. Pliny states that at various places in Spain, in Asia Minor, -and elsewhere, bricks were made which, besides possessing considerable -strength and a remarkable power of enduring heat, were yet of such -small specific gravity, that they floated on the surface of water. Like -many of the arts of the ancients, the method of making these bricks, as -well as the material of which they were made, were forgotten for many -ages. About the year 1790, however, an Italian, named Fabbroni, turned -his attention to the subject, and after various experiments on minerals -of small specific gravity, he came to the conclusion that these -bricks must have been composed of a substance called “mountain-meal;” -or, at least, he found that he could make of this substance bricks -which appeared to agree in every respect with those described by the -ancients. This mountain-meal is an earth composed of flint, magnesia, -clay, lime, iron, and water, in certain definite proportions. The -bricks which Fabbroni formed of this material had the property of -floating in water; they could not be fused by any ordinary degree of -heat; and so low was their conducting power, that while one end of the -brick was red-hot, the other could be held in the hand without the -smallest inconvenience. It has been supposed that a peculiar kind of -earth, found in some parts of Cornwall is the same as that with which -Fabbroni experimented on in Italy, and that both are analogous to the -kind of which the ancients made their floating bricks. Proceeding on -this supposition, it has been proposed to make such bricks for the -construction of _floating houses_ upon ornamental waters. At present -such structures can be made only of timber; and, however the owner may -decorate them, they have always a flimsy and unsubstantial appearance, -and they are soon injured by the weather. If, however, a platform of -good timber were employed as the base of the whole, and the weight -so contrived as to keep this platform constantly under water, it -would last a long time. The upper part of the structure formed of the -floating bricks, might have all the appearance, and, indeed, all the -stability of a brick house upon land; for this description of brick -resists the influence of the atmosphere as well as the action of fire; -and although it is not absolutely so strong as the heavy brick in -common use, it is far more so in proportion to its specific gravity. We -do not know whether these conjectures have yet been put to the test. - -That the early inhabitants of many countries in the eastern and -central parts of Asia were acquainted with the use of bricks in -building, we have abundant proof from the descriptions of intelligent -travellers; and there are even grounds for attributing to them a very -high degree of mechanical skill both in the making of the bricks and -the formation of brick walls. Dr. Kennedy, in his _Campaign of the -Indus_, says:--“Nothing I have ever seen has at all equalled the -perfection of the early brick-making, which is shown in the bricks -to be found in these ruins [ancient tombs near Tatta]: the most -beautifully chiselled stone could not surpass the sharpness of edge, -and angle, and accuracy of form; whilst the substance was so perfectly -homogeneous and skilfully burned, that each brick had a metallic ring, -and fractured with a clear surface, like breaking freestone. I will not -question the possibility of manufacturing such bricks in England, but I -much doubt whether such perfect work has ever been attempted.” - - -Making Bricks by Hand. - -In the mechanical arrangements for making bricks two very different -systems are adopted; the one handicraft, and the other by machinery. -The former has always been and still is far more extensively adopted -than the latter. - -In the selection of materials for brick-making, a brown loamy clay, -that is, clay which contains a small quantity of calcareous matter, is -considered best for ordinary bricks, but the ingredients vary according -to the purposes for which the brick is required; and every one must -have remarked the difference in colour between the light yellow _marl -stocks_, as they are called, employed in the facing of houses of the -better kind, and the dark red brick used in Lancashire and other -northern counties. The colour also varies with the proportion of ashes -or sand employed in the mixture, and with the degree of heat they are -subjected to in drying. The general process is, however, much the same -everywhere; and we shall describe that used in England, where bricks -are always burnt. - -The proper kind of clay being found, the top vegetable mould is -removed, and the earth dug and turned over to expose it as much as -possible to atmospheric action, and for this purpose it is left for -the winter. In spring, a quantity of fine ashes, varying in proportion -to the clay from one-fourth to a fifth, according to the stiffness of -the latter, is added by degrees, and well incorporated by digging and -raking, water being poured on to render the mass soft. When the union -is effected, the clay is carried in barrows to a rude mill, erected -near the shed, in which the brickmaker works. - -This mill consists usually of a vat, or circular vessel, fixed on a -timber frame; an upright iron axle is placed in the centre of the -vat, and carries some iron plates, or rakes with teeth, to stir up -the soft clay when placed in the mill: this axle is turned round by a -horse harnessed to a horizontal shaft which proceeds from the axle. -The clay being put into the vat, the rakes or _knives_ complete the -incorporation of the ashes, and thoroughly temper the whole mass, which -is gradually squeezed out through a hole in the bottom of the vat. - -A better kind of mill is used in tempering the material for the better -bricks; it only differs, however, in being larger. An iron harrow -loaded with weights is dragged round in a circular pit lined with -brick-work. The clay in this case is diluted with water sufficiently -to allow of the stones sinking to the bottom; and the fluid is drawn -off into pits, where it is left to settle and thicken, to the proper -consistence. - -The prepared clay is first separated into masses, each large enough to -make a brick, by the _feeder_, or assistant, who sands the pieces ready -for the _moulder_; the _mould_ is an open rectangular box, the four -sides of which are made to separate from the bottom, to allow of the -brick being turned out. The bottom is now made with a lump raised on -it, by which a slight depression is formed on one side of the brick, to -admit a mass of the mortar being received and detained in it when the -wall is built. - -The moulder takes the piece of clay prepared for him, and dashing each -into the mould so as to cause it to fill it, removes the superfluous -quantity by means of a flat piece of wood which he draws across the -open side of the mould; this _strike_ is kept in a bowl of water to -wet it, and prevent the adhesion to it of the clay. The man then -lifts off the sides of the mould, and deposits the brick on a flat -_pallet-board_, and this is removed by a boy who ranges the bricks on a -lattice frame set sloping on the barrow in which they are to be taken -to the field to dry; fine sand is strewed on the frame and over the -bricks, to prevent their adhering together. - -The bricks are taken to the field, and piled in long lines called -_hacks_. This is a nice operation, as the soft bricks, if handled -roughly, would become twisted, and rendered useless; the bottom -course of bricks is raised a few inches to keep it from the wet; -and the ground is prepared to receive them by being covered with -dry brick-rubbish or ashes, and raked smooth. The bricks are set -alternately in rows lengthwise and crosswise, with intervals between -them of an inch or more, to allow a thorough circulation of air: the -hack, when raised about a yard high, is covered over with straw to -throw off the rain. - -If the weather be favourable, ten or twelve days are enough to dry the -bricks in the hacks sufficiently to prepare them for burning, but they -should be thoroughly dry, or the subsequent process will fail. - -Ordinary bricks for building are burnt in _clamps_, which are large -oblong masses, built up of the unburnt bricks, laid regularly in -layers, with large flues or passages at intervals, in which ashes, -cinders, coal, and brush-wood are laid; layers of ashes are strewed -over those of the bricks. The object is, that the fire, when the fuel -is ignited, may penetrate every part of the mass, and bake every -brick equally; even the ashes mixed up in the clay are intended to be -partly burnt by the heat. In clamps well constructed the outside is -coated with clay or plaster to keep in the heat, and when the fuel is -thoroughly lighted, the external apertures should be stopped up. - -The clamp when completed contains from 100,000 to 500,000 bricks. The -fire will continue burning about three weeks, if the pile has been well -constructed: when all smoke ceases to rise, the clamp is taken down -when cold, and the bricks sorted; for, even with the utmost care, it -must happen that the bricks are not all equally burnt. The best are -those in the centre. The under-burnt ones are reserved to be rebuilt -into a new clamp for further baking, and those which are over-done, and -have run together by partial vitrification, are sold at a cheap rate -for making foundations for houses, roads, &c. - -The better or peculiar kinds of bricks, as well as tiles of all kinds, -are burnt in kilns instead of clamps. These kilns, though of a peculiar -form, according to the purpose to which they are applied, yet do not -differ in principle from the lime-kiln, &c. In the kiln, the fire is -not intermixed with the bricks, but is applied beneath; nor are ashes -mingled with the clay of which kiln-burnt bricks are made. - -As the general principles are the same in making tiles and bricks, -we shall class all these coarse pottery-works together here, in an -enumeration of the most important kinds used in Britain. - -_Place-Bricks_ are the worst of the clamp-burnt stocks, and are used -for common walls, and the poorest kinds of work; they are soft and -unequally burnt; they sell from 20_s._ to 30_s._ a thousand. - -_Stock-Bricks_ are those from the centre of the clamp, and are -regularly burnt, of an equally hard texture, and even colour; they are -used for good work of all kinds; the price varies from 30_s._ to 40_s._ -a thousand. - -_Malm-Stocks_ are clamp bricks, but made with more care from clay to -which ooze, chalk, or marl is added; and the whole carefully tempered; -they are of a fine clear yellow colour, and are used for facing the -walls of good houses, and for making arches over doors and windows -in general, where they are to be seen. The softest kind are called -_cutters_, from their admitting of being cut, or trimmed, with the -trowel with nicety. The prices of these bricks vary greatly. - -_Fire-Bricks_ are made of a peculiar kind of clay, found in perfection -at Windsor, Stourbridge, and parts of Wales, whence the varieties -derive their names. They are formed from the clay without any admixture -of ashes, and are always kiln-burnt. They vary in size, and are used -for building furnaces, ovens, boilers, &c. - -_Pan-Tiles_ are tiles, the cross section of which may be represented -thus. [Illustration: two overlapping 〜 〜] They are used for roofing -outhouses, stables, &c., the edges of one row overlapping those of -another next it, and they are always set in mortar: the end of the tile -is formed with a projecting knob or fillet, by means of which the tile -is hooked on to the batten or lath. These tiles are much larger than -the _Plain-Tiles_, which are used in roofing dwellings, &c.; they are -flat, as the name indicates, and are fixed to the laths of the roof by -wooden pegs, two holes being left in the tile for that purpose. Foot -and ten-inch tiles are thick square tiles of those dimensions, used for -paving, hearths, &c., or for coping walls. All tiles are burnt in a -kiln. - -Bricks made in Great Britain are charged with a duty, and as it -constitutes an important item in the revenue, the manufacture is -laid under strict surveillance by the Excise. The duty on tiles was -repealed in the year 1833. Bricks can only be made at certain seasons, -in certain quantities, and even the screen through which the ashes are -sifted, to be mingled with the clay, must be made of wire of a certain -mesh. Bricks made larger than the standard measure of 8½ inches long, -4 wide, and 2½ thick, pay a higher duty than the common ones; if the -bricks are smaller than the proper size, the maker is fined heavily. No -duty is charged upon bricks made in Ireland. - -About 1500 millions of bricks, 42 millions of plain, 23 millions pan, -and 6 millions of other tiles, are made annually in Britain. A good -moulder can make from 5000 to 6000 bricks in a day, from five A.M. to -eight P.M. - -Within the present century, the annual use of bricks in Great Britain -has more than doubled, owing to the increase of manufactories, and to -the construction of railroads and other public works. - - -Making Bricks by Machinery. - -Within the last few years the making of bricks and tiles by machinery -has occupied much attention. A large number of patents has been taken -out for contrivances having this object in view. In some cases the -patentee has directed his attention chiefly to the preparation of -bricks for houses; while in others the making of tiles for draining -has been the chief object. A description of one or two of these -contrivances will give an idea of the general character of the whole. - -The Marquis of Tweeddale, having his attention drawn to the importance -of employing draining tiles in agriculture, directed his talents -to the invention of a machine which should make them so quickly as -to enable them to be sold at a low price. After many attempts, he -perfected a machine which worked out this object, and at the same time -possessed all the facilities for making common bricks. The machine is -not constructed on the principle of imitating the manual operation, -by forming the bricks in moulds; but it arrives at the same end in a -different and remarkable manner. The principle adopted is, to form -and protrude, by mechanical means, a continuous fillet of clay, of -the proper width and thickness for a brick, and to stop this act of -protrusion for a moment, whilst a length of the fillet equal to that -of a brick is cut off. This is effected by the following mechanical -arrangements:--Two vertical roller-wheels, one of them being placed -over the other, and having an interval between them equal to the -thickness of the intended bricks or tiles, are made to revolve in -contrary directions; consequently they draw between them the clay with -which they are fed on the one side (either by hand or by any mechanical -contrivance), and deliver it on the other in a highly compressed state, -and in the form of a straight, smooth, and even fillet of the width of -the rollers. To provide for the squareness and smoothness of the sides -of the fillet, the sides of the aperture through which the clay passes -are made square and neat, so as to prevent the clay from spreading -out laterally. The clay is supported in a horizontal position whilst -delivered to and received from the rollers, upon a short endless band -on each side revolving on rollers rather close together; and in order -to facilitate this object the rollers themselves have bands, which are -prolonged in the direction of the endless bands in such a manner as to -meet them, and form one horizontal line of support. These bands are -made of fustian, the nap of which prevents the adhesion of the clay. -The rollers are so acted on by the working power that they protrude -a length of clay equal to the required length of the brick or tile, -and then stopping, they allow time for a straight stretched wire to -descend and cut off the brick or tile, after which the motion between -the rollers is resumed, until another length is protruded, and so on -continuously. The fillet of clay is double the width for a brick, and a -wire is kept constantly stretched in the middle of its path, dividing -it into two fillets, so that two bricks are cut off at once. Two boys -are sufficient to remove the bricks as fast as they are produced, which -is at the rate of from fifteen to eighteen hundred in an hour. The -consistence of the clay is so much stiffer than that used for hand-made -bricks, that only half the time is required in the drying. From there -being so little water in the clay, and from its undergoing so much -compression, the bricks produced are remarkably dense and strong, -weighing half as much again as the ordinary brick, and absorbing only -one-seventh as much water. - -Many machines have been contrived, having for their object the -formation of bricks on a principle somewhat analogous. Another class -of machines have effected the desired end in a different way,--viz., -by forming each brick separately in a mould. A slight description of -one machine of this kind will illustrate all the others. The main -part of the machine is a horizontal wheel of large diameter. Round -the periphery of this wheel is a series of moulds, the exact size and -shape for bricks, placed nearly close together. Each mould has a loose -bottom, incapable of falling below the mould, but capable of rising -to its upper edge. The clay for the bricks, being properly prepared -in vessels at one side of the wheel, is made to fall into one of the -moulds, and the superfluous quantity is scraped off by a flat edge -which passes over the mould. The wheel rotates, and in its movement it -passes over a circular inclined plane, so constructed as to lift the -bottom of the mould up, so as to protrude the newly-made brick above -the mould, where it can be conveniently taken off by the hand. All the -different moulds, perhaps thirty or forty in number, are at any given -instant in different conditions as to their quota of clay; one is -receiving the clay, another is having the superfluous clay scraped off, -another has travelled so far round as to have the brick lifted halfway -out of it, another presents the brick wholly out of the mould, ready -to be taken off, while the others are travelling on empty to receive a -new supply of clay, all the moveable bottoms gradually sinking to their -proper position as the wheel proceeds, so that one rotation of the -wheel carries each mould through all its different stages of position. - - -The Processes of Bricklaying. - -When we consider that a wall forty or fifty feet high, and not more -than two feet thick at the bottom, and fourteen or fifteen inches -thick at the top, is constructed of such small bodies as bricks, we -may well suppose that considerable nicety in workmanship must be -requisite to give stability to such a structure. The uniformity in size -in the bricks themselves, arising from their being _copies_ of one -mould, is obviously the first condition that tends to the object; the -next is, that they should be put together in such a way as to cause -them mutually to adhere, independently of the tenacity of the mortar -employed; and lastly, the bricks must be set with great attention, -that their surfaces may be perfectly parallel and perpendicular to the -direction of gravity, for otherwise the wall composed of them, instead -of being truly perpendicular, would lean over on one side and fall. We -shall enter into some particulars on these points, but first we must -describe the tools and materials used in Bricklaying. - -The _trowel_ is the first and most indispensable of these tools. It -is a thin, flat, lozenge-shaped blade of steel, fixed into a handle. -It is with the trowel the workman takes up and spreads the layer of -mortar put between each brick, and with it he also _cuts_ the bricks -so as to fit into any corner, or to adapt them to some particular -form; and to enable it to cut, or rather chip, such a hard substance -as burnt clay, and yet not break, it is necessary that the blade -should be of well-tempered hard steel. The _square_ and _level_ are -made of wooden rules put together; the first at a true right angle, -to enable the bricklayer to set out his walls correctly perpendicular -to each other,--the second is framed like a ⟂, with a plummet hanging -in a slit in the upright piece; now, as the two rules are correctly -perpendicular to each other, it is clear that when the first is set by -means of the plumb-line perpendicular to the horizon, the other will be -truly horizontal. By means of this important instrument, the workman -guides his work, so that the wall he is building shall be upright, -and the courses of bricks composing it horizontal. By means of this -important instrument, the workman guides his work, so that the wall he -is building shall be upright, and the courses of bricks composing it -horizontal. - -_Mortar_ is the name given to the composition with which the bricks -are put together. Good mortar should be made of newly-burnt quicklime -from grey limestone, and of clean river-sand, in the proportions of -one-third lime to two-thirds sand. The lime is _slaked_ by pouring -a little clean water on it, and when it falls to powder by the -chemical action, the sand is added gradually, and the whole well -mixed up with a spade, more water being used till the mass is of the -proper consistence for spreading easily. As the adhesion of the -bricks depends on the mortar being applied before it begins to _set_ -or harden, it should not be mixed till it is to be used. When these -simple precautions are attended to, the mortar becomes in time as -hard as stone, and the brick-work constructed with it is nearly as -indestructible. It was by taking this care with their materials that -our forefathers built walls that have stood uninjured for centuries. In -some of the cheap common buildings of the present day, mortar is too -often made from lime which has been so long from the kiln, that it is -nearly reconverted into a hydrate, and has lost the chemical quality -which renders it valuable; the sand, too, is taken from the road with -all its impurities, and the water from the nearest kennel. With such -materials a mass of mortar is made, and suffered to stand for several -days before it is used; the consequence is, that such buildings are -neither safe nor durable. - -The mortar is made up by an assistant, called a bricklayers’ labourer, -and is taken by him to the spot where the workman wants it in what -is called a _hod_: this utensil, which consists of three sides of -a rectangular box fixed edgeways at the end of a long handle, is -expressly contrived to be carried on the man’s shoulder, and leave -his hands disengaged, to enable him thus loaded to ascend and descend -a long ladder; the hod being held standing upright on the handle, -the labourer can put bricks into it with his right hand, or another -assistant fills it with mortar. - -The manner in which the bricks are arranged in the work, is termed -_bond_, and is of different kinds, according to the thickness of -the wall, and the purposes for which it is intended. The bond most -generally used is termed _Flemish_, in which the bricks are laid -alternately lengthwise and across the thickness of the wall, the -broadest side of the brick being laid horizontal, and never edgeways, -in building _walls_ of every thickness. It was formerly usual to lay -a whole course of bricks lengthwise, and that above it across; this -disposition may be seen in old walls, and was termed _English-bond_. In -every kind of bond, the joints of the bricks of one course are always -made to fall over a brick in that beneath, or so that one joint may -never be immediately over another. - -The site of a wall, or the walls of a building, being _set out_ or -marked on the ground, a trench is dug in the earth for the foundations, -the width and depth being determined on from the thickness and height -of the superstructure, and from the nature of the soil. If this be -loose or soft, and the edifice be an important one, it is often -necessary to drive piles into the bottom of the trench, and lay a -course of oak planking on the tops of these timbers, to form a firm -foundation for the wall; but if the nature of the ground do not require -such precautions, it is only necessary to level the bottom of the -trench carefully, as on this the stability of the wall will entirely -depend. A course of bricks is then laid dry on the earth, forming a -band twice the width of the lowermost thickness of the wall to be -built. This and the subsequent courses of the foundations should be -constructed of the best bricks; but unfortunately in common houses this -obvious requisite is entirely neglected. When this course is laid, -thin mortar, or mortar almost fluid and having but little sand in it, -is poured over the bricks, so as to flow into the joints and bind them -together by hardening: a second course is then laid on the first, only -narrower in width, and each subsequent course diminishes in the same -regular manner on each side, till the width is reduced to the thickness -at which it is proposed that the lower part of the wall should be -built. A cross section of these foundations thus constructed would -present the outline of a truncated pyramid, diminishing by regular -sets-off or steps; this part of a wall is called the _footings_. For -garden walls, or such as have no weight to carry, the footings need not -be made of so many courses, nor so broad, but every wall must have two -courses at least for a foundation. - -The bricklayer makes use of a string stretched between two pins, to -enable him to keep his work straight; and he lays the outermost bricks, -those forming the face of the wall, carefully by this guide, setting -each brick alternately lengthwise and transversely, and spreading a -layer of mortar on the brick beneath, to form a bed for the new one to -lie on, and also a layer between each upright joint. It is usual only -to lay the outer bricks in this manner, and to fill up the interstices -of those forming the interior of the wall by pouring mortar on each -course previously laid dry with sufficient interval between them. The -workman as he proceeds, repeatedly makes use of his level and square; -by the former, he examines whether the face of his wall, and all the -corners, or _arrises_, are correctly perpendicular, and whether the -courses of bricks are laid horizontal. - -Apertures, such as windows or doors which are to be formed in the wall, -are marked out on the wall when the work is built up to the height -where they are to commence; in carrying up the _piers_ between these -windows, it will frequently happen that the width of the pier is not -precisely commensurate with a certain number of bricks or half-bricks, -but that a brick must be cut to bring the work to the correct -dimensions. This smaller piece is termed a _closure_, and is usually -placed within a brick or two of the arris of the window or door, and -preserves its place for the whole height of the pier. - -The thickness of brick walls is described by the number of bricks’ -length they contain in that direction: thus a nine-inch wall is -one-brick thick; a brick-and-a-half wall is fourteen inches; a -two-brick wall is eighteen inches thick, and so on. The walls of small -houses are often only one brick thick, even when they are two stories -high; but usually a wall to be steady should decrease in thickness half -a brick at least every story, and for a large substantial building of -four or five stories, the main walls should be two-and-a-half bricks -at least on the basement story, and one-and-a-half at the top; but of -course the size of the apartments, or, in fact, the area of wall which -is to remain without any lateral support, must govern the strength of -it, as well as the total height to which it is to be raised. - -When the wall is raised as high as the tops of the windows, &c., which -were left in it, these apertures must have arches turned over them, to -support the brick-work above. This leads us to consider the different -modes of constructing brick arches. When the width of the opening is -not above three or four feet, the arch over it is frequently straight -in its outline, or but slightly curved in the intrado or lower line. -The bricks which are to form the arch are rubbed down on a board -till they are brought to the proper wedge form. A piece of wood for -a centering is supported in the opening by upright slips: the upper -side of this centering is, of course, cut to the true _camber_ or -curve the intrado of the arch is to have: the bricks are set upright -on this centre, and alternately, so as to break the joints. The face -of the arch, which is seen in the street over the windows and doors, -is constructed of the best bricks, carefully cut to a mould and set -in _putty_, or in thin mortar made of lime only: the rest of the arch -behind this face is less carefully constructed, and the bricks are -often not cut at all, but made to form an arch by the intervening layer -of mortar being spread unequally thick, or in a wedge shape. When, -however, a large arch is to be built of bricks, these are cut to the -proper level to form the wedge-shaped voussoirs. The construction of -groined arches in brick-work is the most difficult operation in the -trade. Each brick that forms the arris or intersection of the cross -vaults requires to be cut to a true form given by a drawing made to -the full size on a board. Another perhaps still more delicate piece -of workmanship for a bricklayer to execute is an oblique arch, such -as are often seen in the bridges over railroads and canals, which -cut established roadways obliquely. These arches are portions of a -cylinder, but the ends of the cylinder, instead of being perpendicular -to the axis, are oblique to it, and this requires that the courses of -bricks composing the arch shall also not be parallel to the axis, and -therefore not in straight lines: hence, every brick has to be cut or -rubbed to a wedge form in two directions, and great nicety in this and -the subsequent operations are requisite in these structures. - -Formerly columns, pilasters, cornices, niches, and similar -architectural embellishments, were constructed in brick-work, but stone -has now superseded brick for all embellishments; and the bricklayer’s -greatest skill is only required in the construction of arches, or -occasionally building a circular wall. The best specimens of elaborate -brick-work of the old school may be seen at the conservatory of -Kensington Palace, at Burlington House, and many other edifices of -the time of William and Mary, and Queen Anne, throughout the country. -The series of arches extending for nearly four miles on the Greenwich -Railway, and those for nearly an equal distance on the Blackwall -Railway, are perhaps among the best and most imposing specimens of -modern brick-work, and afford, in many places, beautiful examples of -the oblique arch. There are brick arches of a large span at each end of -the new London and Waterloo bridges. - -Brick-work is measured by the _rod_, which is a superficial area of -sixteen and a half feet each side, or 272 square feet, at a thickness -of one-and-a-half brick, and all plain wall-work is reduced to this -standard for valuation. A rod of brick-work contains 4500 bricks, -and together with the mortar required to build it, weighs about 15 -tons 8 cwt. It differs in value from 10_l._ to 15_l._, according to -circumstances. - -Besides building walls, bricklayers are employed to tile roofs, set -coppers, pave stables, &c., build drains, and, in short, on all -occasions where bricks or tiles are the materials used. - - -Defects of Modern Brick Houses. - -A writer in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ endeavours, with much -ingenuity, to show that the quality of English bricks and the system -of bricklaying are very much influenced by the customary leasehold -tenure of land. His remarks are as follow:--“Brick-making has been -carried to great perfection by the Dutch, who have long been in the -habit of forming their floors, and even, in some cases, of paving their -streets with bricks. And it is remarkable how long their bricks will -continue unimpaired in such situations. Though brick-making has long -been carried on in England, and especially in the neighbourhood of -London, upon a very great scale, and though the process upon the whole -is conducted in this country with very considerable skill, yet it must -be acknowledged that English bricks are by no means so durable as Dutch -bricks. We are disposed to ascribe this inferiority not so much to the -nature of the materials employed in the manufacture of English bricks, -as to the mode most frequently adopted in London of building houses. -Few of the London houses, comparatively speaking, are freeholds. Most -of them are built upon ground let for a lease of a certain number of -years, which seldom exceeds ninety-nine years. After the expiration -of this period the house becomes the property of the landlord who let -the ground. Thus it becomes the interest of the builder to construct -the house so that it shall last only as long as the lease. Hence the -goodness of the bricks becomes only a secondary object. Their cheapness -is the principal point. The object, therefore, of the brickmaker is -not to furnish durable bricks, but to make them at as cheap a rate as -possible. Accordingly, the saving of manual labour and of fuel has -been carried by the makers of London bricks to very great lengths. We -cannot but consider this mode of proceeding as very objectionable, and -as entailing a much heavier expense upon London than would have been -incurred had twice the original price been laid out upon the bricks -when they were first used, and had the houses been constructed to last -a thousand instead of a hundred years. No doubt certain advantages -attend these ephemeral structures. The inhabitants are enabled, once -every century, to suit their houses to the prevailing taste of the day; -and thus there are no (few?) antiquated houses in London. But as the -increase of the price of all the materials of building has more than -kept pace with the increase of the wealth of individuals, it is to be -questioned whether the houses are always improved when they are pulled -down and rebuilt.” - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE ROOF. SLATES, AND OTHER ROOF COVERINGS. - - -We might, perhaps, under the designation of “Slates and Slating,” -have included the operations usually understood to appertain to the -construction of a roof. But modern improvements have rendered such a -designation incomplete. We cannot now properly understand the mode of -roofing houses without referring to many other substances besides slate. - - -Slate-Quarries. - -Slate is the popular name for a variety of rocks which are sufficiently -stratified in their structure to allow of their being cleaved into -thin plates, a property which renders them valuable for a variety of -purposes. Slate has superseded the use of lead for covering roofs, even -of the largest buildings: from its lightness it is preferable to tile, -but the latter being cheaper, in flat countries which do not contain -rocks, but which yield brick-clay, slate in such localities is only -used on the better class of houses. In mountainous countries, a slaty -rock, which admits of being split thin, though not so much as clay -slate, is used under the name of _shingle_. - -Besides being employed for roofing, slate is used in large slabs to -form cisterns, for shelves in dairies, for pavement, and similar -purposes, for which its great strength and durability, coolness, and -the ease with which it can be cleaned, owing to its non-absorbing -property, adapt it. The latter quality renders it also of great value -as a cheap substitute for paper, in the business of education; the -system of teaching in large classes in National and Sunday-schools -would be greatly fettered but for the use of slates. - -The principal slate-quarries in Britain are in Wales, Cumberland, and -various parts of Scotland; the mode of working them is generally the -same. The rock is got out in tabular masses by means of large wedges, -and is then subdivided by smaller to the requisite thinness; the pieces -are roughly squared by a _pick_, or axe, and sorted, according to their -sizes, for roofing. The largest called _imperial_, are about three and -a half feet long, and two and a half wide; the smallest average half -those dimensions. When wanted for paving, &c., the large blocks are -_sawn_ into thinner slabs, in the same manner as stone or marble is. - -A few words respecting the position and working of some of the -slate-quarries may be appropriate, as illustrating the nature of this -remarkable geological formation. - -[Illustration: A Slate-Quarry.] - -The most extensive slate-quarries in Great Britain are those near -Bangor, in Wales, from which slate is shipped to all parts of the -world. The slate occupies the greater part of the distance from Snowdon -to the Menai Straits. Upwards of two thousand men are employed in these -quarries; and the proprietor is said to gain from thirty to forty -thousand pounds per annum by them. Although this one is the largest, -yet there is one in Cumberland in which the slate is found more -remarkably situated. This is Hourston Crag, a mountain near Buttermere -Lake, about two thousand feet above the level of the lake, and nearly -perpendicular. On account of the difficulty of access, the workmen -take their provisions for the week, and sleep in temporary huts on the -summit. During the winter months they are generally involved in clouds, -and not unfrequently blocked up by the snow. The slate is conveyed -on sledges down a zigzag path cut in the rock, one man attending to -prevent the acceleration of the descent. When the slate is emptied at -the bottom the sledge is carried back on the man’s shoulders to the -summit. - -Notwithstanding the value of slate, few quarries are worked to a very -great depth, or have subterranean galleries like mines. There is one, -however, near Charleville, in France, which is an exception to this -rule. The mouth of the mine is near the summit of a hill; the bed -inclines forty degrees to the horizon, and is about sixty feet in -thickness, but the extent and depth are unknown. It has been worked by -a principal gallery to the depth of four hundred feet, and many lateral -galleries have also been driven, extending about two hundred feet on -the side of the main gallery. Twenty-six ladders are so placed as to -give passage to the workmen and carriage for the slate. Of the sixty -feet which constitutes the thickness of the bed of slate, about forty -are good slate, the rest being mixed with quartz. The slate is cut into -blocks of about two hundred pounds each, called _faix_; each workman, -in his turn, carrying them on his back to the very mouth of the pit, -mounting all or part of the twenty-six ladders, according to the depth -of the bed where he may be working. When brought to the surface, these -blocks are split into thick tables called _repartons_, by means of a -chisel and mallet; and these repartons are divided by similar means -into roofing-slates. - -Another remarkable slate-quarry in France, is situated near Angers. -The bed of slate extends for a space of two leagues, passing under the -town of Angers, which is in great part built of slate; those blocks -which are the least divisible being employed in masonry. The quarries -actually explored are all in the same line, from west to east, as well -as the ancient pits, the bed of the best roof-slate rising to the -surface in this direction. Immediately under the vegetable earth is -found a brittle kind of slate, which, to a depth of four or five feet, -splits into rhomboidal fragments. A little lower is the building-stone, -which is a finer but scarcely divisible slate, and is employed in the -construction of houses, after it has been sufficiently hardened by -exposure to the air. At fourteen or fifteen feet from the surface is -found the good slate, which has been quarried to the perpendicular -depth of three hundred feet, without its lower limit being attained. -The interior structure of the slaty mass is divided by many veins or -seams of calcareous spar and quartz, fifteen or sixteen feet in length, -by two feet thick; these veins are parallel, and proceed regularly -from west to east in a position rising seventy degrees to the south; -they are intersected by other veins at intervals of a similar kind, -but whose rise is seventy degrees north; so that when the two series -meet, they form rhombs or half-rhombs. All the layers or laminæ of -slate have a direction similar to those of the veins of quartz, so -that the whole mass becomes divided into immense parallel rhomboids. -The slate is extracted in blocks of a determinate size, which are then -divided into leaves for roof-slates. When the blocks have been drawn -from the quarry, if they are left exposed to the sun or the open air, -they lose what is called the _quarry-water_, and then become hard and -untractable, and can only be employed as building-stone. Frost produces -a singular effect on these blocks; while frozen, they may be broken -with more ease than before; but if thawed rather quickly, they become -no longer divisible; yet this quality may be restored by exposing them -once more to the frost. - - -The Process of Slating. - -When the blocks of slate for roofing have been split, and the laminæ -roughly squared, they are sorted, according to their size and quality, -and are brought to market under the quaint names of _Imperial slates_, -_Duchesses_, _Countesses_, &c., the first variety being the largest. -The best roofing-slates come from the celebrated vale of Festiniog. - -Slates are laid on _battens_, or thin narrow deal boards, which are -nailed horizontally on the common rafters of the roof, at equal -distances apart, which distance is governed by the size of the slate -to be employed. An entire board is nailed along the lowest edge of the -roof to receive the lead of the gutters, which are first laid, and -then the lowest _course_ of slates are nailed and pinned down to the -lowermost batten; so that two-thirds the length of the slate, at least, -shall lie over the lead. The next course of slates is then fixed, so -that every slate shall overlap two-thirds the depth of the course below -it, every slate being also laid over the joint, between two slates of -that undercourse. By this construction the rain that runs through the -joint between any two slates is kept from penetrating into the roof by -being received on the surface of the slate beneath that joint; and the -bottom course of slates is double, to continue the same principle down -to the lead gutter. - -[Illustration] - -The slates are fixed to the battens by two copper nails and a wooden -pin when the work is well executed; holes being picked through each -slate for the nails to pass through. - - -Paper Roofs. - -Although, as intimated in a former page, in covering our imaginary -dwelling with tiles or slates, we may seem to have done all that is -necessary in respect to “roofing,” yet we should leave our subject only -half treated if we were to omit mention of other contrivances which -have been partially acted on; such as the use of paper, of asphaltum, -and various other substances. - -About thirty years ago, Mr. Loudon published a pamphlet, in which -he described the mode of preparing paper for roofs, and discussed -the various arguments for and against its adoption. His description -had immediate relation to a series of paper roofs in a large farm at -Tew Lodge, in Oxfordshire, and comprised the following among other -particulars. - -Paper roofs may be made very flat, being raised no higher than just -sufficient for throwing off the water. Instead of tile, slate, or -thatch, they are covered with paper, prepared by immersion in a mixture -of tar and pitch. In the first place, pieces of wood called “couples,” -are laid across the walls of the building, rising two inches and a half -to the foot to obtain a drainage obliquity; these couples vary from two -or three to six inches square, according to the size of the roof. On -the couples are placed horizontal rafters, about two inches square; the -distance between the couples being from five to eight feet, and between -the rafters about eighteen inches; the couples are nailed to the wall -plate, and the rafters to the couples. At Tew Lodge, the rafters used -were young larch-trees, sawn up the middle, cut to the proper lengths, -and prepared so that the upper surface should be level. On the rafters -are placed thin boards, from a half to five-eighths of an inch in -thickness; these boards are nailed to the rafters, not horizontally -as for slating, but in a direction from the eaves to the ridge of the -roof. In some cases substitutes for thin boards may be used; such as -close copse-wood hurdles, plastered over; or common plaster-laths. - -The paper employed may be any common, coarse, strong kind; that kind -used by button-makers being favourable for the purpose. It is prepared -as follows: a boiler or cauldron, three feet wide by two deep, placed -over a fire, is filled to within six inches of the top with tar and -pitch, in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the -latter; the fire being applied and the mixture made to boil, the paper -is immersed in it one sheet at a time, and then laid in a stack or pile -with such a slope as to allow it to drain, a little grease of any kind -being placed between the sheets to prevent their adhering; and when dry -the paper is similarly treated a second time. The paper thus prepared -is then nailed down to the roof. The workman begins at the eaves, and -allows three inches for being turned down and nailed underneath the -end of the board, which boards project an inch over the first rafter. -If the paper be common, coarse, wrapping paper, it is laid on much the -same as slate, so that when finished it will remain in double thickness -all over the roof; but if thicker paper be employed, it is only made -to overlap about three inches in each layer. Every sheet is fixed down -with four nails about an inch in length, having broad flat heads. - -On the paper thus fixed is laid a composition consisting of two parts -of tar to one of pitch, thickened to the consistence of paste, with -equal parts of whiting and powdered charcoal. The composition being -well boiled and kept constantly stirred, it is spread over the roof -with a hempen mop as quickly as possible on account of the speedy -cooling. When properly laid on and dried, the composition totally -conceals the joints of the paper, and forms a smooth and glossy -black covering an eighth of an inch in thickness. Sometimes, while -the composition is yet wet, sand, dust, or ashes are strewed on, to -increase the substance, and shield the composition from the action of -the sun. - -Mr. Loudon enumerates as the advantages of this roof--economy, -durability, and elegance. The economy is shown by the circumstance -that, on account of the lightness of the paper, less massive walls -and timbers are required than for other kinds of roof. The expense at -Tew Lodge was from fourpence to tenpence per square foot, everything -included. It is one result of the flatness of the roof, that ten square -feet will cover as much as fourteen feet at the usual pitch of slated -roofs. As to the durability, many proofs are adduced to support it. -A paper roof to a church at Dunfermline remained forty years without -requiring any repairs; and several warehouses at Greenock, Deal, Dover, -and Canterbury, had paper roofs, which were known to stand from ten -to twenty years. Mr. Loudon considered that, from the flatness of the -roofs, and from other circumstances connected with the appearance -of the prepared sheets, the paper roofs were more fitted to join -harmoniously with certain styles of architecture than slated roofs. - -Objections have been made to this kind of roof, on the ground that it -is liable to be blown off by high wind, and still more that it is very -inflammable. With regard to the former, Mr. Loudon states that if the -roof be properly made there is little danger of its being removed by -high wind. In reference to the second objection, he states:--“They seem -to me not so liable to set fire to as thatch. Pitch (especially if -coated over with sand or smithy ashes) will not be lighted by a spark, -nor even by the application of a slender flame, as will that material; -though, on the other hand, when lighted, it will unquestionably -burn with greater velocity than any species of thatching.... In the -steward’s house and men’s lodge wood is constantly used as fuel, which, -though more dangerous for emitting sparks than coal, yet no accident -has or is ever likely to happen to the roof. In my house, where coals -were chiefly used, the chimneys have been repeatedly set on fire to -clean them, without the least accident happening to the roof.” - -Many years afterwards, when Mr. Loudon published his elaborate -_Encyclopædia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture_, he briefly -sketched some of the forms of roof which have more or less recently -come into use. These we must here notice. - - -Terrace Roofs. - -_Terrace roofs_ have been much used in and about London. They are -formed of thin arches of tiles and cement, supported on cast-iron -bearers or ribs, which are placed about three feet apart. The arch is -composed of three courses of common plain tiles, bedded in fine cement -without sand. In laying the tiles, laths or small slips of wood are -used, resting on temporary bearers between the iron ribs; the laths -being shifted as the work advances, in the course of about half an hour -after the tiles are laid. Particular attention is required in bonding -the tiles both ways; and they are rubbed down closely upon each other, -much in the same manner as a joiner glues a joint. Sometimes these -terrace roofs are coated with a layer of coarse gravel, and then with -nine inches of good soil, so as to form a terrace garden. The roofs of -two taverns at Hungerford Market are formed of these cemented tiles. - - -Asphalte Roofs. - -_Asphalte_ or _bitumen_ has come into use as a material for roofs. It -had been employed for various purposes in France for many years, but -did not attract much attention till within the last eight or ten years. -It is now in very general use in that country for foot pavements, flat -roofs, and water-cistern linings; and in England it has also been -a good deal used for the same purposes, and for barn-flooring. The -particular modes in which it is employed for floors and pavements we -need not here consider, but it has been used for roofs in the following -manner. Mr. Pocock has patented a “flexible Asphaltic roofing,” -intended to supersede the use of slates, tiles, zinc, thatch, &c., -in the covering and lining of farm-buildings, sheds, cottages, and -other erections; and it is approved for its durability, lightness, and -economy. The weight of this material being only sixty pounds to the -square of one hundred feet, the walls and timbers to support it need to -be but half the usual substance; it is also a non-conductor of heat, -impervious to damp, and will bear a heat of two hundred and twenty -degrees without injury. This peculiar material is said to be formed of -asphalte mixed with the refuse felt of hat manufactories, compressed -into thin plates. - - -Scotch Fir Roofs. - -_Scotch fir roofs_ are occasionally made. The method of giving -durability to the timber for this purpose consists in first cutting -the wood to the required size, and then steeping it for a fortnight -in a pond of lime-water; it is found that the acid contained in the -wood becomes crystallized by combining with the alkali of the lime. Sir -Charles Menteath is said to have some farm buildings which, although -roofed with Scotch fir forty years ago, are as well protected now as -when the roofs were first laid on; the wood having been previously -steeped in lime-water. The sulphate of copper, the chloride of zinc, -the corrosive sublimate, and the various other chemical substances -which have been recommended of late years as means for preventing the -decay of timber, will possibly render the use of timber roofs more -practicable than it has been hitherto considered. - - -Iron Roofs. - -_Roofs of iron_ are in great request at the present time. One of these -sorts of roofs may be formed of three kinds of cast-iron plates. The -first, called the “roof-plate,” is shaped with three of its sides -turned up and one turned down, and is made tapering narrower towards -one end; the second, called the “low-ridge plate,” has two of its -sides turned up and the other two turned down; the third, called the -“high-ridge plate,” has all its sides turned down, and is formed with -an angle in the middle, so as to slope each way of the roof. Such a -roof may be made very flat, inasmuch, that for a house twenty feet -wide, the height of the roof in the middle need not exceed two feet; -no boarding is required, the plates resting without either cement or -nails on the rafters. From the manner in which the edges of the plates -overlap, there is no risk of contraction or expansion. - -Some of the iron roofs recently made are on the principle of those -used in Russia, of which the following description has been given in -the _Repertory of Patent Inventions_:--“Sheet-iron coverings are now -universally made use of in all new buildings at Petersburgh, Moscow, -&c. In the case of a fire, no harm can come to a house from sparks -falling on a roof of this description. The sheets of this iron covering -measure two feet four inches by four feet eight inches, and weigh -twelve pounds and a half avoirdupois per sheet, or one pound five -ounces each superficial square foot. When the sheets are on the roof, -they measure only two feet wide by four feet in length: this is owing -to the overlapping. They are first painted on both sides once, and, -when fixed on the roof, a second coat is given. The common colour is -red, but green paint, it is said, will stand twice the time. Small -bits or ears are introduced into the laps, for nailing the plates to -the two-inch square laths on which they are secured. It takes twelve -sheets and a half to cover one hundred feet, the weight of which is one -hundred and fifty pounds--the cost only £1 15_s._, or about threepence -per foot.” - -Iron roofs are now often made of _corrugated_ or _furrowed_ sheet-iron. -In this form the iron is impressed so as to present a surface of -semi-circular ridges with intervening furrows lengthwise of the -sheets. By this means, a piece of sheet-iron, which, as a plain flat -surface, has no strength but in its tenacity, becomes a series of -continued arches abutting against each other; and the metal, by this -new position, acquires increased strength. Iron so furrowed is deemed -preferable to common sheet-iron for covering a flat-roof, because the -furrows will collect the water and carry it more rapidly to the eaves. -But there are greater advantages than this. If the furrowed sheets be -bent into a curved surface, convex above and concave below, they will -form an arch of great strength, capable of serving as a roof without -rafters or any other support, except at the eaves or abutments. Iron -roofs measuring two hundred and twenty-five feet by forty have been -constructed in this manner. To increase their durability the iron -sheets are coated with paint or tar. - - -Zinc and other Metallic Roofs. - -Additions are made every year to the number of contrivances for forming -metallic roofs, among which is one now the subject of a patent, for the -use of _galvanized_ iron. In this case the aid of the electric agent is -employed to give iron sheets an amount of durability which they do not -possess in their natural state. - -Zinc has been much employed within the last few years as a material for -roofs. Its availability for this purpose rests partly on its superior -lightness as compared with lead, and its superior condition under the -action of the atmosphere as compared with iron. The latter quality -arises thus; after the zinc has been covered with a thin film of oxide -by the action of the atmosphere, it suffers no further change from long -exposure; so that the evil of rust checks itself. At the temperature -of boiling water, zinc sheets, which are brittle when cold, become -malleable, and their availability for roofs is thereby increased. The -property which zinc has, however, of taking fire at a temperature of -about 700° Fahr., rather detracts from its value as a material for -roofs. - - -Thatch Roofs. - -The most common material employed as thatch is either the straw of -wheat, rye, or other grain, or reed, stubble, or heather. The straw -of wheat and rye, when well prepared and laid, forms the neatest and -most secure thatching; the former being preferable to the latter in -smoothness, suppleness, and durability. Barley-straw is placed next -to rye in fitness for thatch, and oat-straw the lowest of the four. -The reed is a very durable material for thatch, but is generally too -expensive. It has been stated that, in Norfolk, where the reed is a -favourite material for thatch, a reed roof will lie fifty years without -wanting repair, and that, with very slight attention, it will last for -a whole century. Viewed in this light, a reed roof may probably be -considered economical. - -The method of thatching with reed, (which is one of the best and most -difficult specimens of the thatcher’s art,) has been thus described. -No laths being made use of as a support to the thatch, a few of the -longest and stoutest reeds are scattered irregularly across the naked -spars as a foundation whereon to lay the main coat; and thus a partial -gauze-like covering is formed, called the _fleaking_. On this fleaking -the main covering is laid, and fastened down to the spars by means of -long rods called _sways_, laid across the middle of the reed, and tied -to the spars with rope-yarn or with brambles. In laying on the reed, -the workman begins at the lower corner of the roof on his right hand, -and keeps an irregular diagonal line until he reaches the upper corner -on his left; a narrow eaves-board being nailed across the feet of the -spars, and some fleaking scattered on. The thatcher begins to “set his -eaves” by laying a coat of reed, eight or ten inches thick, with the -heads resting upon the fleaking and the butts upon the eaves-board. -He then lays on his sway, or rod, about six or eight inches from the -lowest point of the reed, whilst his assistant, on the inside, runs -a needle threaded with rope-yarn close to the spar and to the upper -edge of the eaves-board. The thatcher draws it through on one side of -the sway and enters it again on the contrary side both of the sway and -of the spar. The assistant, in his turn, draws it through, unthreads -it, and, with the two ends of the yarn, makes a knot round the spar, -thereby drawing both the sway and the reed tight down to the roof; -whilst the thatcher above, beating and pressing the sway, assists in -consolidating the work. The assistant, having made good the knot below, -proceeds with another length of thread to the next spar, and so on till -the sway is bound down the whole length, that is, about eight or ten -feet. This being done, another stratum of reed is laid upon the first, -so as to make the entire coat eighteen or twenty inches thick at the -butts; and another sway is laid on and bound down about twelve inches -above the first. - -When the eaves are completely set they are adjusted and made even -by an instrument called a _legget_. This is made of a board eight -or nine inches square, with a handle two feet long adjusted to its -upper surface in an oblique position. The face of the legget is set -with large-headed nails, and these enable the workman, by using the -instrument somewhat as if it were a turf-beating tool, to lay hold of -the butts of the reed and to adjust them in their places. When the -eaves are thus shaped, the thatcher lays on another stratum of reeds, -and binds it down by another sway somewhat shorter than the last, and -placed eighteen or twenty inches above it; and above this, others, in -successive rows, continuing to shorten the sways until they diminish to -nothing, and a triangular corner of thatching be formed. After this the -remaining surface of the roof is similarly done. - -In order to finish the ridge of the roof, a _cap_ of straw is adjusted -to it in a very careful manner. In this operation the workman begins by -bringing the ridge to a sharp angle, by laying straw lengthwise upon -it: and to keep this straw in its place, he pegs it down slightly with -“double-broaches,” which are cleft twigs about two feet long and half -an inch thick, sharpened at both ends, bent double and notched, so as -to clasp the straw on the ridge. This done, the thatcher lays a coat of -straight straw six or eight inches thick across the ridge, beginning -on either side at the uppermost butts of the reeds, and finishing with -straight handsful evenly across the top of the ridge. Having laid a -length of about four feet in this manner, he proceeds to fasten it -firmly down, so as to render it proof against wind and rain; this is -done by laying a “broachen-ligger” (a quarter-cleft rod, half an inch -thick and four feet long) along the middle of the ridge, pegging it -down at every four inches with a double-broach, which is first thrust -down with the hands, and afterwards driven with the legget or with -a mallet. The middle ligger being firmly laid, the thatcher smooths -down the straw with a rake and his hands, about eight or nine inches -on one side; and at six inches from the first, he lays down another -ligger, and pegs it down with a similar number of double-broaches, thus -proceeding to smooth the straw and to fasten on liggers at every six -inches, until he reaches the bottom of the cap. One side being thus -finished, the other is similarly treated; and the first length being -completed, others are done in like manner, till the farther end of the -ridge is reached. He then cuts off the tails of the straw neatly with a -pair of shears, level with the uppermost butts of the reed. - -When straw or heather is used for thatching, the material is laid on in -parallel rows, much the same as the reeds, but the mode of fastening is -generally somewhat different. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE WOOD-WORK. GROWTH AND TRANSPORT OF TIMBER. - - -The operations of the carpenter and joiner in the preparation of the -wood-work of a house are quite as important as those of the mason or -bricklayer. It would not be possible in this little volume to trace -clearly all the different processes connected with the building of a -house as they occur in practice; for the bricklayer and the carpenter -combine their work, as it were, step by step. But as the bricklaying -and the slating, or tiling, relate principally to the exterior of the -house, and the carpentry work to the interior, we have thus a line of -separation, which will greatly contribute to the clearness of these -details. - -As on a former occasion we noticed the operations of the quarry, -whence the builder is supplied with stone, slate, &c., it will now be -interesting to give a few details respecting the growth and transport -of timber. - - -The Oak as a Timber Tree. - -It is obvious that in every country native timber is preferred, -provided it can be obtained in sufficient quantity at a cheap rate; -if not, it is imported from other countries. In Britain, the first -and most important of all trees is, of course, our own oak, of which -we have two species and several varieties, belonging to the genus -_Quercus_. - -The two species of oak natives of Britain, though greatly resembling -each other in general appearance, may yet very readily be -distinguished, when once their specific characters are pointed out. As -these two species are very commonly confounded together, and as one of -them is believed to afford a far more valuable timber than the other, -it may be useful to note their difference, and exhibit the characters -by which each may be known. - -The true British oak, _Quercus robur_, (fig. 1) bears its acorns on -a stalk, or _peduncle_ (fig. 1, A), and hence it is sometimes called -_Quecus pedunculata_, but its leaves grow close to the stem, without -a footstalk, or at least with a very short one. In the other native -species (fig. 2), these two characters are reversed: the leaves grow -upon a footstalk, while the acorns are produced _sessile_, that is, -sitting close to the stem (fig. 2, A); from which latter character this -species has acquired the name of _Quercus sessiliflora_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. - -Fig. 2.] - -The above characters will, for the most part, be found pretty -constant. At the same time, it may be remarked, that the oak is a -tree subject to great variations; and accordingly individuals of each -species occasionally occur, which in their characters are found more -or less to approach those of the other. _Quercus robur_, for example, -sometimes bears its acorns almost close to the stem, and sometimes -_Quercus sessiliflora_ will bear them on a short footstalk. The leaves, -too, of each, frequently vary in the length of the _petiole_, or -leafstalk. But in a general way (as already stated), each kind may be -readily distinguished by the above obvious points of difference. - -Both species are common in Britain, though _Quercus sessiliflora_ -appears to be not so generally distributed as the other; in many -districts its growth seems to be principally confined to woods and -coppices, where it sometimes occurs even in greater abundance than the -common species. _Quercus robur_ is believed to afford the more valuable -timber of the two, owing, probably, to its being of slower growth. -It is doubtful, however, whether the respective merits of each, in -point of durability of timber, have yet been fairly put to the test. -Where oak is grown in coppices, to be cut down periodically for poles, -_Quercus sessiliflora_ is at least a valuable, perhaps a preferable -tree, on account of its more rapid and cleaner growth. - -No certain specific characters, we are aware, can be derived from -the mere size or shape of the acorns, or of the leaves. It may be -mentioned, however, as a general, though not a constant rule, that -_Quercus sessiliflora_ usually bears very small acorns, and that its -leaves are, for the most part, larger, and more regularly laciniated -or notched, and consequently handsomer, as _individual leaves_, than -those of _Quercus robur_. The foliage of the latter species, however, -taken as a whole, is by far the more beautiful; its leaves, being -smaller, and growing close to the stem, and not on footstalks, combine -better, form more dense and compact masses, and exhibit to greater -perfection those exquisite tufts, or rosettes, which constitute one of -the peculiar charms of oak foliage. - -The oak is far less used in civil architecture than formerly, although -there are certain purposes in building to which it is still applied; -but owing to its value and the demand for it for ships, and to the -great labour required to work it, its place is now supplied by _fir_. -The best oak is that which grows on cold, stiff, clayey soils, and is -the slowest in arriving at maturity; and the colder the climate, or -the higher above the level of the sea the tree grows, provided it be -not stunted from severity of climate, the better the timber: hence -Scottish and Welsh oak is more esteemed than that from the middle -or southern counties of Britain. Our own island does not produce -this timber in sufficient abundance to supply the demand, and large -quantities of oak are imported from different countries, especially -from Prussia and Canada. There are four kinds of oak used in the -Royal Dock-yards,--Welsh, Sussex, Adriatic, and Baltic,--besides two -others, termed African oak, employed in different parts of the vessels, -according to the qualities requisite for the particular purpose. Next -to our own oak, that from the shores of the Baltic is by far the most -esteemed. - -In domestic architecture, oak is only used in the largest and best -buildings, occasionally for the principal beams; but its chief use is -for door and window frames, sills, sleepers, king-posts of roofs, for -trussing fir girders, for sashes, for gates of locks, sluices, posts, -piles, &c. The timber called _African oak_, used in the navy, is wood -of a different genus. - -_Wainscot_ is the wood of a species of oak, imported from Russia and -Prussia in a particular form of log. - -Teak is the produce of a tree of the genus _Tectona_. _T. grandis_ -is one of the largest Indian trees, and one of the most valuable, on -account of its excellent timber. The trunk is neat, lofty, and of an -enormous size; the leaves about twenty inches long and a foot or more -wide; the flowers small, white, and fragrant, and collected into very -large panicles. It is a native of various parts of India, and was -introduced into Bengal by Lord Cornwallis and Colonel Kydd. The wood -of this tree has been proved by long experience to be the most useful -timber in Asia; it is light and easily worked, and at the same time -strong and durable. It is considered equal to oak for ship-building, -and has some resemblance to it in its timber; many vessels trading -between this country and India are constructed of it. That which grows -near the banks of the Godavery is beautifully veined, closer in the -grain, and heavier than other varieties. “On the banks of the river -Irrawaddy, in the Birman empire, the teak forests are unrivalled; -and they rise so far over the jungle or brushwood, by which tropical -forests are rendered impenetrable, that they seem almost as if one -forest were raised on gigantic poles over the top of another. The teak -has not the broad strength of the oak, the cedar, and some other trees; -but there is a grace in its form which they do not possess.” A specimen -of this tree was introduced into the Royal Gardens at Kew about seventy -years ago; but from the coldness of our climate it can never become a -forest-tree in this country. - -Valuable as teak is found to be in ship-building, it has not yet been -used in domestic building to any extent. From sixteen to eighteen -thousand loads of teak are annually imported into Britain from India, -principally for the Royal Dock-yards, this wood being used for certain -beams and pillars in ships. - - -The Fir and Pine as Timber Trees. - -_Fir_, or _Pine_, ranks next to oak for its valuable qualities, and -if its universal application be taken into consideration, it might -be thought even superior in importance. It is used for every part -of houses, and extensively in ship-building, in the fittings-up, -while it constitutes the only material for masts, for which purpose -its lightness, and the great length and straightness of the trunk, -peculiarly fit it. - -Pine, or fir, is imported into this kingdom under the various names of -timber, battens, deals, laths, masts, yards, and spars, according to -the size or form into which the tree is sawed. It is called _timber_ -when the tree is only squared into a straight beam of the length of -the trunk, and from not less than eight or nine inches square, up to -sixteen or eighteen square; fifty cubic feet is a load of timber. Deals -vary in length and thickness from eight to sixteen feet, eleven inches -wide, and from one and a half to three and a half inches thick. Four -hundred superficial feet of one and a half inch plank make a load. -_Battens_ are small long pieces of fir about three inches wide and one -inch thick. Masts, yards, and spars, are the trunks of small trees -simply barked and topped. - -The pine is, generally speaking, an evergreen, and the wood becomes -harder and more durable when the situation is cold, and also when the -growth of the tree is slow. Norway, Sweden, the shores of the Baltic, -and Canada, are the chief localities of the forests of pine. England -is supplied principally from Canada, not because the timber from that -country is better than that derived from the north of Europe, but -because our timber duties fall heavily on the European pine, the object -of the legislature being to encourage the importation of pine from our -North American colonies. - -Almost the whole of what is now called Canada was once an immense -pine forest. With respect to the Baltic region, Dr. Clarke said, that -if we take up a map of Sweden, and imagine the Gulf of Bothnia to be -surrounded by one contiguous unbroken forest, as ancient as the world, -consisting principally of pine trees, with a few mingling birch and -juniper trees, we shall have a general and tolerably correct notion of -the real appearance of the country. The same writer observed, that the -King of Sweden might travel from sunrise to sunset through some parts -of his territories, without meeting any other of his subjects than pine -trees. - - -The Norway Spruce Fir. - -The species of Spruce Fir (_Pinus abies_), represented in the -engraving, has been known as a British tree for more than three hundred -years, but Norway seems, as far as it can be ascertained, to be its -native country. It differs from the Scotch fir in general appearance, -as well as in the structure of its leaves and cones. The beautiful -feathery appearance of its foliage is very striking, but the extreme -regularity of its form rather detracts from the beauty of a landscape -when it is too often repeated; it is easily known by its long pendulous -cones, as well as by its formal shape. The spruce fir is found in -great abundance in all the Norwegian forests; it is also spread over -the whole of the north of Europe, and part of Asia, and it occurs on -most of the mountain-ranges of both these quarters of the globe; in -favourable situations it attains a great height, as much at times as -150 feet. - -[Illustration: The Norway Spruce Fir.] - -The spruce grows more rapidly than any other of the fir tribes; its -wood is extremely tough and strong, and answers well for masts and -spars, but it is not so valuable when cut into planks as that of other -species. It does not attain the same size in Britain as in colder -climates, the tree perhaps being weakened by the loss of its sap, -which in hot weather is discharged through the bark in considerable -quantities. The more protracted season of growth, and the greater -difference between the temperature of the day and the night, must have -an effect upon it, and judging from the situations which it prefers -on the Continent, the summer rains of England cannot be by any means -favourable. The almost continual day in the Polar countries, while -vegetation is active, produces a uniformity of temperature, and a -consequent uninterrupted growth day and night, while in countries -farther south, the vegetable action is checked every night, and renewed -again every morning, especially in the early part of the season, when -such alternations are most dangerous. - -[Illustration: - - 1 1 Male Catkins, or Blossoms. - 2 2 2 Cones containing the Seed.] - -The Norway Spruce is called by the French the Pitch Spruce, from its -yielding the Burgundy Pitch of commerce. To obtain this, parts of the -bark are removed in the spring, and the resin exudes in greater or -smaller quantities, according to the state of the tree; this is scraped -off from time to time. After a sufficient quantity has been collected, -it is melted in hot water, and strained through bags to separate the -impurities. If the strips of bark which are removed are narrow, the -trees will continue to yield for several years. - -The Norway Spruce, and all other trees of the fir tribe, are propagated -by means of seeds. These are to be sown rather thinly about the -middle of March, in a shady well-sheltered border; towards the autumn -the ground is to be carefully weeded, and a quantity of rich earth -strewed lightly over the whole. During the winter, if the frosts are -very severe, the young plants ought at times to be protected from the -severity of the weather. In the next spring, and during the months -of May and June, the young plants will be much assisted by frequent -waterings, and in the autumn the ground must be again cleaned. In -the succeeding spring, when their heads begin to swell, they may be -removed. At four years old they may be transplanted again to a spot -of good land, and placed in rows two and a half feet asunder, and -fourteen or sixteen inches distant in each row. Three years after they -will again require to be transplanted four feet asunder, and so on, -increasing the space between the trees at each remove, until the young -ones are fourteen or sixteen feet in height. - - -The Scotch Fir. - -One of the most useful kinds of pine is the _Pinus Sylvestris_ (wild -pine), generally known as Scotch fir. It is this tree which produces -that kind of wood so extensively useful to the carpenter under the name -of _deal_. The term “deal” implies timber squared into a convenient -size for exportation, and it is in the form of deals that the wood of -which we are now speaking is imported into England from Norway and the -Baltic. The best part of this wood is near the root; and the roots -themselves are valuable for many purposes. It is of this wood that -the bodies of violins and the sounding boards of musical instruments -generally, are made: the grain of the wood formed by the annual layers -being very straight and regular. In trees which have not arrived at -maturity, there is a portion of sap-wood next the bark; this sap-wood -is converted into ligneous matter in about two or three years from its -formation. - -[Illustration: The Scotch Fir.] - -The Scotch Fir, or Pine, is not peculiar to Scotland, but is common -to all the mountain-ranges of Europe; in low damp situations it never -thrives, but delights in the exposed summits of the loftiest rocks, -over which the earth is but thinly scattered; there its roots wander -afar in the wildest reticulation, whilst its tall, furrowed, and often -gracefully-sweeping, red and gray trunk, of enormous circumference, -rears aloft its high umbrageous canopy. - -The fir was a very great favourite with Gilpin, who considered it, as -it really is, to be under favourable circumstances, a very picturesque -object in a landscape: the earnestness with which he defends its -character is peculiarly forcible; he says, “It is a hardy plant, and, -therefore, put to every servile office. If you wish to screen your -house from the south-west wind, plant Scotch firs, and plant them -close and thick. If you want to shelter a nursery of young trees, -plant Scotch firs, and the phrase is, you may afterwards weed them -out at your pleasure. This is ignominious. I wish not to rob society -of these hardy services from the Scotch fir, nor do I mean to set it -in competition with many trees of the forest, which, in their infant -state, it is accustomed to shelter; all I mean is, to rescue it from -the disgrace of being thought fit for nothing else, and to establish -its character as a picturesque tree. For myself, I admire its foliage, -both the colour of its leaf and its mode of growth. Its ramification, -too, is irregular and beautiful.” - -The practice of planting this tree in groups is the cause to which its -unfavourable character, as a picturesque object, may be attributed, the -closeness of growth causing the stems to run upward without lateral -branches. The hilly regions of the whole of Great Britain and Ireland -were formerly covered with vast forests, a great portion of which -consisted of fir-trees. Of these ancient forests some remains still -exist; in Scotland, the relics of the Rannock forest, on the borders -of the counties of Perth, Inverness, and Argyle, are well known: -these consist of the roots and a few scattered trees, which are still -found in situations of difficult access. This forest appears to have -stretched across the country, and to have been connected with the woody -districts of the west of Scotland. The Abernethy forest, in Perthshire, -still furnishes a considerable quantity of timber. - -“At one time,” we quote Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Bart., “the demand for -it was so trifling, that the Laird of Grant got only twenty pence for -what one man could cut and manufacture in a year. In 1730 a branch of -the York Buildings Company purchased seven thousand pounds’ worth of -timber, and by their improved mode of working it, by saw-mills, &c., -and their new methods of transporting it in floats to the sea, they -introduced the rapid manufacture and removal of it, which afterwards -took place throughout the whole of the sylvan districts. About the year -1786 the Duke of Gordon sold his Glenmore forest to an English company -for 10,000_l._ This was supposed to be the finest fir-wood in Scotland. -Numerous trading vessels, some of them above five hundred tons burden, -were built from the timber of this forest, and one frigate, which was -called the Glenmore. Many of the trees felled measured eighteen and -twenty feet in girth, and there is still preserved at Gordon Castle a -plank nearly six feet in breadth, which was presented to the Duke by -the Company. But the Rothienmurchus forest was the most extensive of -any in that part of the country; it consisted of about sixteen square -miles. Alas! we must indeed say, it was, for the high price of timber -hastened its destruction. It went on for many years, however, to make -large returns to the proprietor, the profit being sometimes 20,000_l._ -a year.” - -[Illustration: Leaves and Male Blossom of Scotch Fir.] - -[Illustration: Cone of Scotch Fir.] - -Besides the forest we have mentioned, there are still in existence -other tracts of land in different parts of Scotland covered with this -timber. The attention which has been drawn to the value of the Scotch -fir has been an inducement to proprietors of land to cause extensive -plantations to be formed on suitable spots; but Nature herself takes -measures to perpetuate her work where the hand of man has carried -destruction; for, after the old trees have been felled and carried off -the ground, young seedlings come up as thick as in the nurseryman’s -seed bed. - -The timber supplied by the Scotch fir is called Red Deal, and the -uses to which it is applied render it necessary that the stem should -be straight, and close planting materially assists in this object, by -preventing the possibility of the trees flinging out their lateral -branches; this, as we have already noticed, disfigures the tree in -the eye of an artist, however much it may delight that of a timber -merchant. The straightest and cleanest-grown trees are selected for -masts, spars, scaffold-poles, &c., while the largest _sticks_ are sawed -into planks for various purposes. Its wood is very durable, and resists -the action of water excellently. The persons employed at different -times in the endeavour to rescue the cargo of the Royal George, -which foundered off Spithead, in the year 1782, discovered that the -fir-planks had suffered little, if any injury, while the other timbers -of the vessel had been much acted upon by the water and different -species of worms. - -In Holland this tree has been used for the purpose of preparing the -foundations of houses in their swampy soil; 13,659 great masts of this -timber were driven into the ground for the purpose of forming the -foundation of the Stadthouse at Amsterdam. But it is not only for its -timber that we are indebted to this tree; those useful articles, tar, -pitch, and turpentine, are all yielded by its sap. - - -Transport of Timber from the Forests. - -Probably but few of our readers think of the means by which _timber_ -is conveyed from the forest where it grows, to the spots where it is -to be applied to the purposes of building. And yet it must be evident -that the means of transport form a matter of no small importance. We -know that our timber-yards are plentifully supplied with the various -kinds of wood necessary for building; and that the timbers are shaped -by the axe and the saw. But, in most cases, the wood which we employ is -brought from foreign countries, often many miles inland. It is conveyed -across the ocean in ships; but the mode of transporting it from the -forests where it grows to the ports where it is to be shipped, is a -curious subject, and one well worthy of a little attention. - -The main circumstance that forms the groundwork of all the plans -adopted for this purpose is, that nearly all kinds of wood are, bulk -for bulk, lighter than water, and will consequently swim on its -surface. Now as all countries are, more or less intersected by rivers, -which flow from the interior into the sea, a very simple and economical -mode of transport for timber is at once attained, by causing it to -float down running streams, either by the mere force of the descending -water, or by the aid of mechanical agents. There is no necessity that -each piece of wood should be floated separately down the stream; for -they may be fastened together and steered down the middle of the river, -in the form of a long and broad raft. - -Beckmann says: “It is probable that the most ancient mode of -constructing vessels for the purpose of navigation, gave rise to the -first idea of conveying timber in the like manner; for the earliest -ships or boats were nothing else than rafts, or a collection of beams -and planks bound together, over which were placed deals. By the Greeks -they were called _schedai_, and by the Latins _rates_; and it is -known, from the testimony of many writers, that the ancients ventured -out to sea with them, on piratical expeditions, as well as to carry -on commerce; and that after the invention of ships, they were still -retained for the transportation of soldiers, and of heavy burdens.” - -There are some passages in the Bible which allude to the floating of -wood. 1 Kings v. 9: “My servants shall bring them down from Lebanon -unto the sea; and I will convey them by sea in floats unto the place -that thou shalt appoint me.” 2 Chron. ii. 16: “And we will cut wood out -of Lebanon, as much as thou shalt need: and we will bring it to thee in -floats by sea to Joppa, and thou shalt carry it up to Jerusalem.” These -passages relate to a compact between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre, -by which the latter was to cause cedars for the building of the Temple -to be cut down on the western side of Mount Lebanon, above Tripoli, and -to be floated to Jaffa or Joppa, probably along by the sea shore. - -The Romans transported by water both timber for building and fire-wood. -When, during their wars against the Germans, they became acquainted -with the qualities of the common _larch_, they caused large quantities -of it to be carried on the river Po, to Ravenna, from the Alps, -particularly the Rhætian, and to be conveyed also to Rome, for their -most important buildings. Vitruvius says, that this timber was so -heavy that the waters could not support it, and that it was necessary -to carry it in ships or on rafts. Could it have been brought to Rome -conveniently, says he, it might have been used with great advantage in -building. It has also been supposed that the Romans procured fire-wood -from Africa, and that it was brought partly in ships and partly on -rafts. - -But it is in Germany that the transportation of timber by means of -floats has been most extensively carried on, partly on account of -its noble forests, and partly through the possession of the river -Rhine. There is evidence of the floating of timber-rafts in Germany so -far back as the year 1410. A letter from the Landgrave of Thuringia -says, that on account of the scarcity of wood that existed in their -territory, the landgraves had so far lessened the toll usually paid on -the river Sale as far as Weissenfels, that a Rhenish florin only was -demanded for _floats_ brought on that river to Jena, and two Rhenish -stivers for those carried to Weissenfels; but the proprietors of the -floats were bound to be answerable for any injury occasioned to the -bridges. - -In 1438, Hans Munzer, an opulent citizen of Freyberg, with the -assistance of the then burgomasters, put a float of wood upon the river -Mulda, which runs past the city, in order that it might be conveyed -thither for the use of the inhabitants: this seems to imply that -such a practice was not then uncommon. When the town of Aschersleben -was adorned with a new church, in 1495, the timber used for its -construction was transported on the Elbe, from Dresden to Acken, and -from thence on the Achse to the place of its destination. In the year -1561, there was a float-master in Saxony, who was obliged to give -security to the amount of four hundred florins; so that at that time -the business of floating must have been of considerable importance. - -When the citizens of Paris had used all the timber growing near the -city, the enormous expense of land carriage led to the suggestion of -an improved mode of transport. John Rouvel, a citizen and merchant, -in the year 1549, proposed to transport timber, bound together, along -rivers which were not navigable for large vessels. With this view he -made choice of the forests in the woody district of Morvant, which -belonged to the government of Nivernois; and as several small streams -and rivulets had their sources there, he endeavoured to convey into -them as much water as possible. This great undertaking, at first -laughed at, was completed by his successor, René Arnoul, in 1566. The -wood was thrown into the water in single trunks, and suffered to be -driven in that manner by the current to Crevant, a small town on the -river Yonne; where each timber-merchant drew out his own, which he -had previously marked, and after it was dry, formed it into floats -that were transported from the Yonne to the Seine, and thence to the -capital. By this method large quantities of timber were conveyed to the -populous towns. - -A similar mode of transporting timber from the central parts of Germany -to the great towns or to the seaports is practised at the present day. -Mr. Planché, in his _Descent of the Danube_, says: “Below this bridge, -(at Plattling on the Danube,) the raft-masters of Munich, who leave -that city every Monday for Vienna, unite their rafts before they enter -the Danube. They descend the Isar upon single rafts only; but upon -reaching this point, they lash them together in pairs, and in fleets -of three, four, or six pairs, they set out for Vienna. A voyage is -made pleasantly enough upon these floating islands, as they have all -the _agrémens_, without the confinement of a boat. A very respectable -promenade can be made from one end to the other, and two or three huts -erected upon them afford shelter in bad weather, and repose at night.” - -But the anonymous author of _An Autumn near the Rhine_ gives a more -detailed account of the timber-rafts of Germany, of which we will -avail ourselves. A little below Andernach, on the banks of the Rhine, -the small village of Namedy appears on the left bank, under a wooded -mountain. The Rhine here forms a little bay, where the pilots are -accustomed to unite together the lesser rafts of timber, floated down -the tributary rivers into the Rhine, and to construct enormous floats, -which are navigated to Dordrecht and sold. These machines have the -appearance of a floating village, composed of twelve or fifteen huts, -on a large platform of oak and deal timber. They are frequently eight -or nine hundred feet long, and sixty or seventy in breadth. The rowers -and workmen sometimes amount to seven or eight hundred, superintended -by pilots and a proprietor, whose habitation is superior in size and -elegance to the rest. The raft is composed of several layers of trees, -placed one on the other, and tied together. A large raft draws not less -than six or seven feet water. Several smaller ones are attached to it, -by way of protection, besides a string of boats, loaded with anchors -and cables, and used for the purpose of sounding the river, and going -on shore. The domestic economy of an East Indiaman is hardly more -complete. Poultry, pigs, and other animals, are to be found on board, -and several butchers are attached to the suite. A well-supplied boiler -is at work night and day in the kitchen. The dinner hour is announced -by a basket stuck on a pole, at which signal the pilot gives the word -of command, and the workmen run from their quarters to receive their -allowances. - -The consumption of provisions in the voyage to Holland is almost -incredible, sometimes amounting to forty or fifty thousand pounds of -bread, eighteen or twenty thousand pounds of fresh meat, a considerable -quantity of salt meat, and butter, vegetables, &c., in proportion. The -expenses are so great, that a capital of three or four hundred thousand -florins is considered necessary to undertake a raft. Their navigation -is a matter of considerable skill, owing to the abrupt windings, the -rocks and shallows of the river; and some years ago the secret was -thought to be monopolized by a boatman of Rudesheim and his son. - -The timber of the spruce firs which grow on the sides of the Alps, is -considered much finer than that which is produced in other situations; -but the inaccessible nature of these Alpine forests long prevented -those useful trees from being sent in any great quantity to the market. -During our long continental war, however, a bold and skilful plan was -invented, by which this timber was procured in abundance. M. Rupp, an -enterprising foreigner, constructed an immense inclined plane of wood -on the sides of Mount Pilatus, near the Lake Lucerne; its length was -eight miles and a half. Twenty-five thousand large pine trees were -employed in its construction. These were barked and put together very -ingeniously, without the aid of iron. It occupied one hundred and sixty -workmen during eighteen months, and cost nearly a hundred thousand -francs, or 4250_l._ sterling. It was completed in the year 1812. - -The following description of the slide appeared in a German periodical -shortly after its completion:--“This slide has the form of a trough, -about six foot broad and from three to six foot deep. Its bottom is -formed of three trees, the middle one of which has a groove cut out -in the direction of its length, for receiving small rills of water, -which are conducted into it from various places, for the purpose of -diminishing the friction. The whole of the slide is sustained by about -two thousand supports; and in many places it is attached, in a very -ingenious manner, to the rugged precipices of granite. - -“The direction of the slide is sometimes straight, and sometimes -zig-zag, with an inclination of from 10° to 18°. It is often carried -along the sides of hills and the flanks of precipitous rocks, and -sometimes passes over their summits. Occasionally it goes under ground, -and at other times it is conducted over the deep gorges by scaffoldings -one hundred and twenty feet in height. - -“The boldness which characterizes this work, the sagacity and skill -displayed in all its arrangements, have excited the wonder of every -person who has seen it. Before any step could be taken in its erection, -it was necessary to cut several thousand trees to obtain a passage -through the impenetrable thickets. All these difficulties, however, -were surmounted, and the engineer had at last the satisfaction of -seeing the trees descend from the mountain with the rapidity of -lightning. The larger pines, which were about a hundred feet long, and -ten inches thick at their smaller extremity, ran through the space of -_three leagues_, or nearly _nine miles_, _in two minutes and a half_, -and during their descent, they appeared to be only a few feet in -length. The arrangements for this part of the operation were extremely -simple. From the lower end of the slide to the upper end, where the -trees were introduced, workmen were posted at regular distances, and -as soon as everything was ready, the workman at the lower end of the -slide cried out to the one above him, ‘_Lachez_’ (Let go.) The cry -was repeated from one to another, and reached the top of the slide in -_three_ minutes. The workman at the top or the slide then cried out to -the one below him, ‘_Il vient_’ (It comes), and the tree was instantly -launched down the slide, preceded by the cry which was repeated from -post to post. As soon as the tree had reached the bottom, and plunged -into the lake, the cry of _Lachez_ was repeated as before, and a new -tree was launched in a similar manner. By these means a tree descended -every five or six minutes, provided no accident happened to the slide, -which sometimes took place, but which was instantly repaired when it -did. - -“In order to show the enormous force which the trees acquired from the -great velocity of their descent, M. Rupp made arrangements for causing -some of the trees to spring from the slide. They penetrated by their -thickest extremities no less than from eighteen to twenty-four feet -into the earth; and one of the trees having by accident struck against -another, it instantly cleft it through its whole length, as if it had -been struck by lightning. - -“After the trees had descended the slide, they were collected into -rafts upon the lake, and conducted to Lucerne. From thence they -descended the Reuss, then the Aar to near Brugg, afterwards to Waldshut -by the Rhine, then to Basle, and even to the sea when it was necessary. - -“It is to be regretted that this magnificent structure no longer -exists, and that scarcely a trace of it is to be seen upon the -flanks of Mount Pilatus. Political circumstances having taken away -the principal source of demand for the timber, and no other market -having been found, the operation of cutting and transporting the trees -necessarily ceased.”[4] - -Professor Playfair, who visited this singular work, states, that six -minutes was the usual time occupied in the descent of a tree; but that -in wet weather, it reached the lake in three minutes. He found it quite -impossible to give two successive strokes of his stick to any, even the -largest tree, as it passed him. The logs entered the lake with such -force, that many of them seemed to penetrate its waters to the very -bottom. Much of the timber of Mount Pilatus was thus brought to market; -but the expense attending the process rendered it impossible for the -speculator to undersell the Baltic merchant, when peace had opened a -market for his timber, and so the Slide of Alpnach fell to ruin. - - -Cutting the Norway Deals. - -When the timber is squared before it is exported, it is effected by -saw-mills; the manner of proceeding may be illustrated by the treatment -of Norway deals. In some cases, the trees are merely roughly-shaped -with the axe; but those which are to be made into deals are floated -down the mountain-streams to a spot where many collect together, -and where a saw-mill is erected. Dr. Clarke thus speaks of one that -he visited:--“The remarkable situation of the sawing-mills, by the -different cataracts, are among the most extraordinary sights a -traveller meets with. The mill here was as rude and picturesque an -object as it is possible to imagine; it was built with the unplaned -trunks of large fir-trees, as if brought down and heaped together -by the force of the river. The saws are fixed in sets parallel to -each other, the spaces between them in each set being adapted to the -intended thickness for the planks. A whole tree is thus divided into -planks, by a simultaneous operation, in the same time that a single -plank would be cut by one of the saws. We found that ten planks, -each ten feet in length, were sawed in five minutes, one set of saws -working through two feet of timber in a single minute.” The deals are -afterwards transported by river or canal to seaports. - - -The Cutting and Transport of Canadian Timber. - -The conveyance of timber to market in Canada is a very remarkable -instance of commercial enterprise. While standing in the vast pine -forests the timber-trees are common property: they acquire money-value -only when the axe has been applied to them, and when they have been -brought down to a shipping port. - -The words _lumber_ and _lumbering_, which convey no very definite idea -to us, have in Canada and the United States a large and important -meaning. _Lumber_ is the general name for all kinds of timber, not -only while growing in the form of stately trees, but after it is cut -down, and even after it has been rudely fashioned into such pieces -as may be convenient for shipment. So, in like measure, _lumbering_ -may be taken as a general name for all the operations whereby the -timber is brought into a marketable state; including the cutting down -of the trees; the conveyance to the saw-mills; the sawing them into -boards, planks, joists, and other pieces; the forming them into rafts: -and the navigating of these rafts down the creeks and rivers to the -seaports. All the persons employed in these operations are designated -_lumberers_; and they are subdivided into smaller groups according to -the duties they undertake to perform. - -As the practice of lumbering has been carried on for a great number of -years, all the forests in the vicinity of seaports have been denuded -of their trees: and the lumberers have therefore to go far inland to -obtain their supply of timber. This occasions one circle of operations -to last an entire year, from summer to summer. As the lumberers who -dwell in the interior frequently carry on some other occupation, -perhaps an agricultural one, they cut down trees in the forest just -as it suits their convenience, during the summer and autumn. These -trees are either hewn and shaped into balks and beams, or divided into -shorter pieces, according as they are to be exported whole, or sawed up -into boards and scantlings for the American or Canadian markets. - -When a large supply of timber has been thus cut down, and the winter -is so far advanced that snow lies on the ground, preparations are made -for conveying the timber to some stream or river which flows down to -a commercial port. On the banks of such streams saw-mills worked by -water-power are erected, and these are employed for cutting up such of -the “lumber” as is to be sold in the form of planks. The conveyance -to the saw-mills and the operation of sawing occupy together the -entire winter season. When snow is on the ground, a stout pair of oxen -can drag a log from the forest to the saw-mill; and this method of -transport is almost universally adopted, very few horses being employed -in this way. Sometimes the saw-mills are constructed in a small creek -near the forest, but in other cases they are lower down, on the banks -of larger streams; and in this latter case the logs are floated down -the smaller streams till they arrive at the larger one, where a dam -or barrier is placed across the stream to prevent them from floating -beyond the precincts of the saw-mill. The saws are circular in shape. -Many of the mills have but one saw in operation; others have groups -of parallel saws capable of cutting the log into eight or ten planks -at once. Some of the smaller mills are built in so rude and rough -a manner, that their cost does not exceed 30_l._ or 40_l._; but if -the mill lasts as long as the supply of timber in the neighbourhood, -that is deemed sufficient, and a new mill is built when it is found -advantageous to shift the quarters farther inland. A small mill with -one saw, worked for twenty-four hours, will cut up three or four -thousand superficial feet of timber. Men are employed to roll the logs -along the gangways to a platform, and place them in a proper position -to be acted on by the saw. - -During the season of these operations the rivers and streams are frozen -up; but in spring, when the melting of the ice renders them navigable, -preparations are made for transporting the timber from the mills to -the shipping ports. If the mill be on the banks of a small stream, the -lumberers make up the logs and planks into rafts, the dimensions of -which are suited to the capacity of the stream, and when these reach -a larger stream into which the smaller one empties itself, the small -rafts are broken up and re-arranged into larger ones; but if the mill -be on the banks of the larger stream, the timber is at once made up -into the rafts which float down to the shipping port--three or four -hundred thousand feet of timber being sometimes conveyed in one raft. -Sometimes the streams are too small to admit the rafts to float down -them: and in such case they often lie aground for months, until an -accidental flooding increases the body of water; or else they have to -be broken up altogether, and other means adopted for conveying them -to market. The rafts are generally put together very slightly, the -value of labour being high, and the lumberers regulating the strength -of the raft only in proportion to the distance which it has to float. -This distance may vary from fifty to three or four hundred miles. -Some one of the lumberers who may happen to be best acquainted with -the stream acts as pilot, all the others following his directions in -the navigation. The raft moves just as fast as the stream will convey -it, be it slow or quick, no acceleration of speed being attempted -by sails or oars; so that the time which elapses before the raft -reaches its destination depends on many different circumstances. In -some instances, where all the circumstances are favourable, the pilot -navigates his cumbrous raft night and day without stopping; but if -there are difficulties, he directs it into some cove or sheltered place -during the night. The men are provided with long poles, by which they -can regulate the position of the raft in the stream, keeping it either -in the middle of the current or near the bank. The men seldom trouble -themselves to make huts or cabins on the rafts: for the weather being -spring, and it being optional to them to go on shore when they please, -they make very few arrangements for their trip except in provisions. -On the St. Lawrence, however, where the French Canadians bring down -timber-rafts to Quebec for shipment, the men erect small huts or -temporary dwellings on the rafts, since the voyage becomes of a more -serious character. - -When the rafts reach their destination, the lumber is sold, and the -men share the proceeds according to the nature of their stake in the -enterprise. This share is one entire year’s earnings, and the final -disposal of the timber is therefore a matter of importance. The men -then set out on foot to return to the interior, and as the distance -they have to travel is sometimes three or four hundred miles, and -the summer warmth has arrived, the journey is generally a fatiguing -one. The men are not all fellow-labourers in an equal degree, for--as -in almost every other kind of commercial enterprise--there must be -some one to act as a capitalist, to feed the labourers while they are -employed, or others who will supply necessaries in advance. There are -storekeepers who purchase an annual supply of provisions, clothing, -implements, &c., and retail them out to the lumberers on credit, to -be paid for when the sales are effected in the spring, and when the -mill-owner has been enabled to pay the wages of the men who felled, -transported, and sawed the timber. If any unforeseen accident prevents -the raft from reaching the shipping port in a saleable state, or if any -other mishap occurs, the whole community share the loss. - -The lumberers are among the roughest and rudest of the Canadian and -American population: for their occupation takes them so little among -the haunts of commercial or cultivated men, that they are only a few -shades superior to the American Indians--in some points far beneath -them. - - -Miscellaneous kinds of Timber. - -Deal so completely takes precedence of all other timber in -house-building, that a very slight notice of other varieties will -suffice. - -_Beech_ is partially employed in ship-building for the keel and timbers -near it; but it is not at all employed, in civil architecture. The -principal use made of this wood is in the construction of machines, -mill-work, lock-gates, &c., and for handles to tools; it is also a good -wood for the turner, being of a close grain. It will not, however, bear -alternations of moisture and dryness, and is liable to be attacked by -worms, so that it is not extensively employed. - -_Chestnut_ belongs to the same tribe as the beech, but although a -valuable wood, it is now little, if ever, used. Formerly it was -extensively so, and the roofs of several ancient buildings were -constructed of it. From some experiments, indeed, it seems to be as -durable as oak itself. - -_Ash_ is the wood for the wheelwright and the maker of agricultural -implements; it is one of the most valuable of all timber trees, -combining great strength with elasticity and lightness; it, however, -splits easily. Ash is not used either by the shipwright or the common -carpenter. - -_Elm_ is a coarse-grained wood, but strong and durable, it does not -work readily, and is therefore but little used. It is, however, -employed for certain parts of ships, and for making casks, chests, -coffins, posts for mill-work, and a few other purposes. - -Next to oak and fir, the foreign wood _Mahogany_ is by far the most -valuable, and that most extensively used; it is the growth of the West -Indies and South America, and the tree, the _Swietenia mahogani_, -is, perhaps, the most majestic of all timber trees from the enormous -dimensions to which its trunk attains, its vast height and size, and -its dark beautiful foliage. The mahogany of the island of Cuba, and -that from the bay of Honduras, is first in estimation. There are two -East Indian species, but they are not imported in any quantities into -this country. - -The best mahogany is that which grows in dry, cold, and exposed -situations. Such wood is fine-grained, hard, and dark in colour, -richly variegated, causing it from its beauty to rank among the most -ornamental of fancy woods, while the light, coarse-grained wood, which -grows in warm moist climates, is sufficiently abundant to be used for -ordinary purposes, and yet possesses admirable properties for all, -where no great strength or tenacity is wanted. - -Within the last twenty years the use of this wood has increased -amazingly, and some ships have many of their upper timbers above the -water-line constructed of Honduras mahogany. Its use in furniture and -cabinet-making is well known, and, indeed, it may be said to be the -principal wood used for this purpose, and to have entirely supplanted -our own walnut, which was formerly in universal use for the same -purposes. - -The woods above enumerated are those most extensively or largely used -by the carpenter; but there are several others employed for small -articles, and for particular purposes, which deserve mentioning. - -_Box_ is the wood of the _Buxus sempervirens_, a hardy evergreen plant, -indigenous in all the southern parts of Europe and Western Asia, and -long domesticated in our shrubberies. Box is especially the wood for -turning, it being closer-grained, denser, and tougher than perhaps -all others, except _iron-wood_, _Lignum Vitæ_, and one or two rarer -woods. Box is used for rules, scales, and for small cabinet works; but -that which gives it particular importance is its universal use for -wood-engraving. - -_Lance_ is the name given to the wood of the _Guatteria virgata_, a -tree indigenous to Jamaica, and one of the most important that are so, -from the valuable qualities of its timber, lance-wood far exceeding -our ash in lightness, strength, and elasticity; hence it is admirably -calculated for shafts to carriages, handles to spears, and for all -purposes where straight, light, flexible, and tough wood is required. -It is neither so close-grained nor so hard as box, but it turns well, -and does not split; in colour, it is lighter than box. - -_Ebony_ is the name given to the wood of several different trees, -which agree in being dark-coloured, dense, and durable; it is used for -inlaying and for making rules or scales, as not being liable to warp. -It is an excellent wood for turning; but, except for these purposes, -it is less in request now than formerly, when it was much used in -cabinet-making. - -_Lignum Vitæ_ is the wood of the _Guaiacum officinale_, a large tree -indigenous in the West Indies. This wood is the hardest and heaviest -known, and can only be worked in the lathe. It is much used for -making the _sheaves_, or pulleys of blocks used in shipping, and for -friction-rollers, &c. - -There are various foreign woods which, from their beautiful grain and -varied tints, are used in cabinet-making. But as these woods are too -valuable to be used solid, they are sawed into thin leaves, called -_veneers_, which are glued down on a backing of ordinary mahogany. The -principal of these fancy woods are-- - -_Rose-wood_, which is produced by a tree a native of Brazil. This wood -is much used for furniture, both as a veneer, and solid for legs of -tables, chairs, &c. - -_King-wood_ is also the produce of Brazil; it is a dark chocolate wood, -veined with fine black veins. - -_Beef-wood_ comes from New Holland; is of a pale-red even tint, and -intensely hard and heavy. It is used for inlaying and bordering. - -_Tulip-wood_ is a wood of a clouded red and yellow colour, and very -hard, and used for bordering to larger woods. The tree is unknown to -our botanists. - -_Zebra-wood_ is a large-sized tree, and abundant enough to be used as -a veneer in large furniture, like rose-wood: it is more curious than -elegant. - -_Satin-wood_ is well known for its glossy yellowish tint, from which it -derives its name; there are two varieties. - -_Maple_, from our own indigenous tree, is a very elegant wood, of a -light colour, or else, near the root, variegated with knots and twisted -grain. It is much used in fancy work. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[4] The Mines of Bolanos, in Mexico, are supplied with timber from -the adjacent mountains by a slide similar to that of Alpnach. It was -constructed by M. Floresi, a gentleman well acquainted with Switzerland. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE WOOD-WORK. CARPENTRY. - - -Having thus briefly noticed the principal kinds of timber, and some of -the modes of bringing it to market, we have in the present chapter to -trace the wood through the various processes whereby it becomes part -and parcel of a house. - - -Sawing Timber. - -When a timber-tree is felled, the branches, arms, and boughs, are cut -off, and the bark stripped, this being valuable for many purposes. -The trunk is then sawed square, and again cut into _planks_, _deals_, -_battens_, &c., as the different-sized boards into which it is reduced -are called. - -Teak and mahogany are imported into this country in _logs_, -distinguished from the long beams known technically as _timber_, by -their width and thickness being considerable in proportion to their -length. - -Timber is sawed in countries producing, or using it, in great -quantities in saw-mills, in which the tools are worked by water or -steam, as described in the last chapter; and it is also sawed into -battens, laths, &c., by circular saws, turned by machinery, like a -lathe; but when timber is sawed by hand, it is done by two men acting -in concert in the following manner:--A pit is generally chosen, round -the margin of which a stout frame is laid. The beam to be sawed is -laid along the centre of this frame, in the direction of the length of -the pit. One man stands on the beam while another is in the pit below -him, and each alternately raises or pulls down a large vertical saw, -with which the beam is cut lengthwise into planks. Wedges of wood are -placed in the fissure as the work proceeds, to keep the cut open, and -thus allow the saw to play freely. This is very hard labour, especially -to the upper man, who has not only to raise the weight of the saw in -the up-stroke, but to guide it correctly along the chalked line on the -beam. This man gets higher wages, and is called the _top-sawyer_, a -term technically given in jest to any one who is, or fancies himself, -of superior importance. - - -Scarfing or Joining Timber. - -When timber is wanted in lengths exceeding those that can be procured -from the tree in one piece, it must be joined by what is called -_scarfing_; that is, the ends of the two lengths that are to be united -into one, are cut so that a portion of the one may lap over and fit -into a portion of the other, which is cut so as to receive it. The -timber, when united, is thus of the same uniform size. The joined ends -are secured together by bolts or spikes. The following figures show the -more usual modes of scarfing timber for different purposes. - -[Illustration] - -The last is a mode of scarfing invented by Mr. Roberts, of the Royal -Dock Yards. - - -Trussing or Strengthening. - -When a beam of timber is long in proportion to its breadth and -thickness, it will bend by its own weight, and will be incapable of -supporting much additional load; it may be strengthened by _trussing_, -in different modes, of which we will only describe that usually adopted -for girders, intended for floors. The beam is sawed longitudinally into -two equal beams, each, of course, half the thickness of the original: -these halves are reversed, end for end, so that if there were any weak -part in the original beam, this may be divided equally between the ends -of the compound beam made up of the two halves when bolted together. -A flat _truss_, usually of oak, with iron _king-bolts_ and abutting -plates, resembling in form and principle a timber roof or bridge, is -placed between the two half beams, and let into a shallow groove cut -in each half to receive it; the compound beam, with this truss in the -middle, is then bolted together again by means of iron bolts, with -washers and nuts, and consequently becomes rigid by the construction -of the truss. The truss is not entirely let into the double beam, as -the full effect of strength may be obtained without the necessity for -cutting the groove in each half beam of half the thickness of the oak -truss; consequently, when the girder is completed, there is a slit all -along it, through which the truss is seen lying in its place between -the two sides. - -Iron trusses are often used instead of oak, and beams are frequently -strengthened by screwing a thin flat iron truss on one or both sides, -let into the beam for about half the thickness of the metal. - -[Illustration] - -This mode of strengthening a beam by trussing is only adopted in -floors, where it is necessary to limit the depth of the truss to -that of the beam, to obtain a level surface by means of joists laid -across, and supported by, the beam. But it is obvious that much greater -strength may be imparted to a long beam by making it the base of a -triangular frame, as is done in roofs, in various manners, when the -slanting sides of the triangular frame carry the battens or laths for -supporting the tiles or other covering. - -The annexed is the simplest form of a roof, and will help to explain -the subject of carpentry in other respects. The beam A, called the -_tie-beam_, is of such a length as to rest on the side walls of the -house at each of its ends, and is supposed to be of such dimensions -in depth and thickness as would render it inadequate to support much -more than its own weight. The two sloping rafters B B, are called -_principals_; they are _mortised_ into the tie-beam at their ends by -a joint, shown in the lower figure, by which they are provided with a -firm abutment, to prevent the ends from slipping outwards; and in order -to prevent the principal from starting upwards out of the mortise, it -is strapped down to the tie-beam by an iron strap, bolted or screwed to -both timbers. - -[Illustration] - -P is termed a _king-post_, and is cut out with a head and foot, the -former to receive the upper ends of the principals, which, being cut -square, abut firmly against the sloping face of the head. The sloping -principals hold up the king-post, and the tie-beam is supported from -the latter by a stirrup-shaped strap, that goes under the beam, and is -bolted, or screwed, to the post on each side. To prevent the principals -from bending by the strain, or by the weight of the roof covering, the -struts C C, are placed, abutting against the bevelled part of the foot -of the king-post, and are strapped to the principals, or mortised into -them. - -The number of tie-beams, with their trusses, &c., of course depends on -the length of the roof, or the material with which it is to be covered. -A longitudinal _scantling_, or thin beam, called a _purline_, E, is -laid lengthwise, resting on the principals over the ends of the struts, -and is secured to the former by a spike, or else by being notched down -on to the principal. These purlines support the common rafters R, -which abut at their feet against a longitudinal scantling S, lying on, -and _halved_ down on, the tie-beams; at their upper ends, the rafters R -rest against a _ridge-piece_, or thin plank, let edgeways into the head -of the king-post. The rafters are placed about a foot apart, and on to -them are nailed the laths or battens to carry the tiles or slates. - - -The Mortise and other Joints. - -In constructing roofs, floors, and other structures of timber, the -various beams are _framed_, or fastened together, by certain processes -calculated to insure strength and permanence in the framing, which -ought to be understood, and their names remembered. - -The _Mortise_ and _Tenon_ joint is used when one beam is to be attached -to, and supported by, another, without resting on it, but so that -the beams may be in the same plane. The mortise is a hole cut into, -or through, the side of the one beam, into which hole the end of the -other, cut down to fit the form of the hole, is inserted and fastened. -It is obviously necessary to consider two things in determining the -size and form of the mortise and tenon. First, that by the former the -one beam may not be too much weakened, and yet that it should be large -enough to give the tenon that fits into it, sufficient strength to -enable the beam to carry the weight intended. - -[Illustration] - -If the one beam is horizontal, and the other to stand perpendicularly -upon it, the tenon need only be large enough to retain the upright -beam in its place. The foregoing figures are the most usual forms of -mortises and tenons, and will explain their use and principle. - -It is obvious that two mortises never should come opposite each other -on the two sides of the same beam. - -When the tenon comes through the beam, it is secured from drawing by a -pin or peg put through it. - -The _Dovetail_ is used to secure one beam into another, when they have -to resist any strain acting so as to draw them asunder, rather than to -carry any weight; it is consequently employed to frame wall-plates, or -the timber laid in walls to carry the ends of beams of floors, roofs, -and so on, which plates tend to bind the walls together as well as to -receive the ends of the beams. The term is derived from the end of one -beam being cut into a shape resembling the spreading tail of a bird, -which is pinned down in a corresponding wedge-shaped recess cut in the -other beam to receive it. It is clear from this construction that no -force, acting in the direction of its length, could pull the first beam -out of the second without breaking off the dovetail, which the tenacity -of wood-fibre renders nearly impracticable in one of any size. The -dovetail is extensively used in all cabinet-making, and may be seen in -almost any mahogany or deal-box. - -[Illustration] - -When two beams of equal thickness are required to cross one another and -to lie in the same plane, they are _halved_ together; that is, a notch -is cut in each of half the thickness of the other, then the uncut part -of each lies in the notch of the other respectively, and the two are -pinned together. - - -Distinction between Carpentry and Joinery. - -The smaller and better kind of work executed by the carpenter is -called _Joiner’s work_, such as the making of doors, windows, stairs, -wainscotting, boxes, tables, &c. &c., which are usually formed of -yellow or Norway deals, wainscot, or mahogany. - -When a large surface is to be of wood, it is not formed of planks fixed -together side by side till the requisite width is attained, but it is -formed of _framing_ and _panelling_. A frame-work of the area required -to be covered, is formed of narrow planks, with cross-bars between to -strengthen the frame; these are called _stiles_ and _rails_, according -to the directions in which they run, the former name being given to the -upright planks of the frame, while the horizontal ones are called rails. - -The rails are mortised into the stiles, and the tenons, since they must -be comparatively thin, are made proportionably wide, nearly as wide -as the rail. The tenons are always pinned into the mortise holes by -one or two wooden pins driven quite through the stiles and through the -inclosed tenon. - -The edges of the stiles and rails are _ploughed_, that is, a -rectangular furrow is cut in the edge by means of a plane, to receive -the ends and sides of the _panels_. These panels are formed of thinner -deals than the stiles and rails, and are made by glueing the edges of -two or more boards together to make the proper width of the panel; the -ends and edges of the panel are thinned off to fit into the groove or -furrow in the stiles and rails, or else the ends and sides of the panel -are _rebated_, that is, worked by a plane into the form shown in the -following figure, the projecting part being received into the furrow. - -As the panels are thinner than the frame, the former constitute so many -recesses, at least on one side of the framing; and a small moulding is -glued round the edge of the panel to form a finish to the work. Or else -the same object is attained by working the edge of the stiles and rails -with such a moulding, so that when the panel is put in, the moulding -may finish against it. Sometimes the face of the panel is made to lie -in the same plane with the face of the stiles and rails, and the panel -is then said to be _flush_, and the edges of the stiles, &c., are -finished with a small bead, also flush with the panel when finished. - -[Illustration] - -In joiner’s work the whole surface of the work is made perfectly smooth -by _planing_ the material, and allowance must be made for the reduction -in thickness and width of the wood, produced by this planing, in the -choice of the rough material. - - -The Tools employed. - -All mouldings in wood are worked out by planes made of the proper form, -to leave the moulding in the wood when the plane has been passed over -the part. The carpenter and joiner consequently require a vast variety -of planes for these purposes, which constitutes the most expensive part -of the expensive tools used by these workmen. These planes receive -their names from the form they are intended to produce in the wood, -such as _rebating_ planes, O G planes, ovolo-planes, beading-planes, -and so on. - -The next most important tools used by both carpenter and joiner, -are _saws_, of different sizes, for reducing the rough wood to the -size adapted for the purpose to which it is to be applied. Small, -fine-toothed saws, both long and thin blades, termed spring-saws, -are used for cutting out small holes in wood, and for analogous -purposes, when precision and nicety are required; these spring-saws -are sometimes mounted in a frame on the same principle as that of the -stone-mason’s saw, formerly described; but commonly, the blade of the -saw, of whatever size it may be, is only fixed on a convenient handle, -so that the whole blade of the saw may pass through the fissure it -makes in the material. All saws are made of the best steel, highly -tempered, so as to recover their form if bent by the resistance of the -wood. - -Next to the planes and saws, _chisels_ are the most indispensable tool -to the carpenter. These _chisels_ are of different widths, adapted -to different uses, and are not only used with a hammer or mallet, as -the mason employs them, but also as cutting-tools, used by hand for -finishing the re-entering angles of mortise-holes, or for finishing the -ends of pieces of wood too small to be planed. - -The carpenter employs _gimlets_ for making holes for screws and -nails. The gimlet is a short rod of steel, finished at one end into -a sharp-pointed screw of one or two turns only, which, acting on the -principle of that mechanical power, compels the tool to sink deeper and -deeper into the wood, as the tool is turned round: and to enable the -workman to turn the gimlet, it is fixed into a cross handle, which, -acting as a lever, allows the friction of the tool to be overcome. Just -above the screw point, the rod or shaft of the gimlet is _fluted_ or -hollowed out: the sharp edges of this fluted part cut the hole made by -the screw end larger and smoother, and the hollow receives the chips or -shavings cut off, and prevents them from clogging the hole and stopping -the progress of the tool. - -_Augers_ are large tools shaped like a gimlet, and, acting in the same -manner, are employed for making large holes for bolts, spikes, &c. -_Centre-bits_ are steel tools of different shapes made to fit into a -bent handle something like the letter G, which, acting as a lever, -allows of the tool being turned round and round by one hand, while by -the other the workman holds the top of the handle steady and vertically -over the point of the tool. Some of the _bits_ or tools are for cutting -out cylindrical holes, and are shaped at the cutting-edge like a -chisel, with a small point projecting from the centre of the edge, on -which the instrument turns in the wood and acts on the principle of a -lathe. On each side this point, the chisel-edge is bent sideways in -opposite directions, to allow of its _ploughing_ up the wood before it -with greater efficacy than it would do if it were not so formed. - -The _brad-awl_, or _nail-piercer_, is a short steel wire, sharpened at -the point into a flat chisel-edge, and put into a plain turned handle. -This edge being pushed into the wood, and the handle turned round, the -tool divides the fibre, and makes its way on the simple principle of a -wedge, and does not cut away or remove any portion of the material, as -the above-described tools do. - -The carpenter uses nails and screws to fasten the different parts of -his work together, and it is necessary to make a hole to receive them -before they are driven in, or else the wood would split by the action -of forcing the nail or screw into the solid material, and, indeed, it -would be impossible to force a screw into the solid wood at all. - -The screw is forced into the wood by being turned round and round by -means of a blunt chisel, called a _screw-driver_, the edge of which is -inserted into a notch cut in the head of the screw to receive it. - - -The Glue employed. - -Joiners fasten one piece of their work to another by _glue_, made by -boiling down refuse animal matter containing the animal principle -called _gelatine_ in abundance, such as hoofs, horns, tendons, skin, -gristle, &c.: it is a property of gelatine to dissolve in hot water, -and to harden again when cold, and the water evaporates. Accordingly -the glue, which is only concentrated impure gelatine, is dissolved by -heat in a small quantity of water, and being applied to the clean faces -of the wood to be united, by a coarse brush, these faces are closely -pressed and retained together till the water evaporates, when such is -the tenacity of the glue, that the wood may be broken in another place -as easily as at the glued joint. To enable glue, however, to act in -this manner well, the wood should be clean, the parts to be glued well -warmed before the glue is applied, and the joint should be close, or -the parts accurately brought together. - -Besides the before-mentioned tools and materials, and some others, -such as hammers, axes, &c., which need not be described, carpenters -and joiners use instruments for measuring and setting out their work, -and for drawing on the surface of the material the forms into which -it is to be reduced, or the shape and situations of portions of the -material to be removed for the purposes of framing. The instruments are -compasses, squares, rules, levels, plumb-lines, and so on, common to -all artificers who form their materials into geometrical shapes: and, -like the mason, the carpenter and joiner must be conversant with the -more elementary problems of practical geometry. - - -A Window-sash, as an example of Joiner’s Work. - -In illustration of the nature of joiner’s work, we may point out the -mode of proceeding in making a window-sash, which is one of the most -delicate operations of the common joiner. The outer part of the sash -is made broader and stronger than the intermediate cross-bars which -receive the panes of glass, in order to give strength and rigidity -to the sash. This outer part is framed together at the four angles -by mortises and tenons, the latter coming quite through the stuff, -and having a small sharp wedge driven into the middle of the tenon -when inserted into the mortise: by means of this wedge, the tenon is -expanded at its end into a wedge-shaped form, by which it fits more -tightly into the mortise, and is retained in its place, the wedge-shape -not allowing the tenon to be withdrawn again. But it may be here -remarked, that, besides this precaution, all small mortises and tenons -are put together with glue, to ensure the stability of the joint. - -The inner edge of this frame is formed by a _plane_ into the half -moulding, of which the cross-bars present the entire section, so that -when the sash is completed, each panel, as it were, which is filled in -with the glass, is surrounded on its sides by a continuous moulding, -and on the other side of the frame each panel presents a _rebate_ in -which the glass lies. The annexed figure of the section of part of the -outer frame and one cross-bar, will make this clear. - -[Illustration] - -The cross-bars are made in lengths out of slips of wood, by a plane, -which first forms the mouldings and rebate on one side, and then by -turning the slip over, the same plane finishes the other with an exact -counterpart of the first. These bars are framed into the outer part of -the sash by delicate mortises and tenons put together in the manner -before described; but it will be seen by reference to the figure, that -the moulded part of the bar must unite to that of the outer frame, or -of another bar, by a _mitre_-joint, that is, by one which allows of -the lines of mouldings returning on the second piece, at right angles -to their direction on the first, without any interruption to the -continuity of the surface. - -This and all analogous mitre-joints are formed by planing the ends -of the wood to form a face, making an angle of 45° with the axis or -length of the stuff, and the joiner is provided with a tool called a -_mitre-box_, consisting of a stock or frame, in which the stuff being -put, resting against one another’s surface, guides the plane so as to -cut off the end obliquely at the requisite angle. It is clear that -this mitre must be made on both faces of the bar, and therefore the -two mitre faces form a wedge-shaped termination by meeting at a right -angle, as shown in the last figure. Now, as besides the mitre end, a -tenon is to be left to fit into a mortise in the outer frame, it is -clear that the whole must be a very nice piece of workmanship to be -executed on so small a material as the thin bar of a modern sash. - -The bevelled mitred end of the bar is received into a -corresponding-shaped notch cut the depth of the half moulding in the -outer frame to receive it, and at the bottom of this notch is the fine -mortise-hole intended to receive the tenon. - -The bars of the sash can, of course, only be made in one length in one -direction, and the cross-bars which divide the long panels, formed by -these continuous bars, into the sizes of the glass, are made of similar -short pieces with mitred ends; but these ends, where they frame into -the long bars, have no tenon, the thinness of the stuff not admitting -of one, since the cross-bars come, end for end, opposite each other, on -the two sides of the upright bars. - -It is evident that the long bars must be put together with the outside -frame, or else the tenons could not be inserted into the mortises made -in this last. - - -A second example of Joiner’s Work. - -In further explanation of joiner’s work, we will briefly describe the -mode of making a drawing-board, requiring to be _true_, _plane_, and -_square_. Suppose the board is intended to be so wide as to require -three boards side by side to make it: these three boards being sawn out -of the right length, their edges are first planed perfectly straight -and smooth, so that when any two are placed side by side, the edges -touching, those edges may touch or fit together accurately for their -whole length; this accuracy of joint is obtained by testing the edge -after each time the plane is applied, by a straight-edge, or rule, -known to be _true_. There are two modes of proceeding to make these -joints firm: one by _dowelling_, that is, by inserting short pieces -of hard wood, as oak or wainscot, let for half their length into a -mortise cut in the edges of the boards that are to fit together; these -mortises, being, of course, made opposite each other, these dowels -prevent the boards from rising up or starting from their places when -the work is finished. Instead of short dowels, a strip, the whole -length of the boards, is let into each joint, half the strip lying in a -ploughed groove, made in the middle of the corresponding edges of the -two boards. But, besides those precautions, the joints are well glued -up. - -There are two modes by which this board may be strengthened, to prevent -its _warping_ or _casting_ by the drying or shrinking of the wood. A -cross-piece of deal, or better still, of wainscot, is fixed across -the ends of the boards, these ends being double rebated or _tongued_, -to fit into a groove made in the cross-piece to receive the tongue; -these cross-pieces prevent the long boards from warping, since the -cross-pieces would have no tendency to alter their figure in the -direction of their grain. - -If, however, the board be larger, _keying_ is better than this -clamping. Keying consists in attaching two stout cross-pieces at the -back of the boards, the faces of which pieces are worked so as to fit, -and are glued into a dovetail-shaped groove cut across the direction -of the boards at their back to receive the keys, as will be understood -from the annexed sketch. - -[Illustration] - -When the board is made, and the glued joints quite dry, the face is -planed perfectly smooth and level, and the edges made truly square, or -at right angles; if the board be keyed, the back must be planed smooth -before the keys are put in. - -The flooring-boards in the better kinds of houses are often _dowelled_ -in the manner above described, and the ends of the flooring-boards -are tongued and grooved to fit together, to prevent the boards from -starting up from the joists and becoming uneven. - -Beyond this point, it will be not necessary to trace the operations -of the carpenter and joiner; for the sawing, scarfing, trussing, and -joining large beams for the roof, and the minuter details connected -with the window-sash, will illustrate pretty accurately the general -nature of the whole routine of processes. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE FIRE-PLACE. - - -Perhaps no part of the interior fittings of a house is more associated -with ideas of cheerfulness and domestic comfort than the _fire-place_. -Our abundant supply of coal has probably induced Englishmen to prefer -the cheerful fire and the “comfortable fire-side” to any other mode of -heating the interior of houses. The steps by which we have arrived at -the use of modern grates and stoves, and the question how far these -are likely to give way to the methods of warming houses by hot air, -by hot water, or by steam, will form an interesting matter for our -consideration; and we shall be indebted to Dr. Arnott’s treatise on -_Warming and Ventilating_, for many illustrative details. - - -Open Fire-places. - -The manner in which rude nations kindle a fire in or near their huts, -is one of the most wasteful arrangements in which fuel can be used. -Houseless savages, because they know no better, and soldiers at -bivouac, because they must make a virtue of necessity, kindle a fire in -the open air, and place themselves near it, benefiting by that portion -of the radiant heat which falls on their bodies; but all the rest of -the heat is wastefully dissipated. - -The next step of improvement is, to kindle a fire in a place more or -less inclosed. Under this arrangement, not only will that part of the -radiant heat which falls on the persons be available, but a portion of -the remainder also, which, falling on the walls and warming them, is -partially reflected; and moreover, heat combined with the smoke will be -for a time retained in the place, and thus still further contribute to -the warmth of the interior. By such an arrangement, nearly the whole -of the heat evolved in the combustion is applied to use; but it is -contaminated with the smoke from the fuel. The savages of North America -place fires in the middle of the floor of their huts, and sit around -in the smoke, of which the excess escapes by the one opening in the -hut that serves as a chimney, window, and door. A few of the peasantry -in the remote parts of Ireland and Scotland still place their fires -in the middle of their floors, and leave for the escape of the smoke -only a small opening in the roof, often not directly over the fire. In -Italy and Spain, almost the only fires seen in sitting-rooms are large -dishes of live charcoal, or braziers, placed in the middle, with the -inmates sitting around, having to breathe the noxious carbonic acid gas -which ascends from the fire and mixes with the air of the room: there -is no chimney, and the windows and doors are the only ventilators. The -method of warming with open fires in the middle of the room was adopted -in some of the English Colleges, and some of the London Inns of Court, -down to a comparatively modern period. - -A step further in advance is to have a fire, not only in an inclosed -space as a means of keeping in the heat, but with an aperture over it -to act as a chimney or vent for the smoke. This is the form, under -various modifications, adopted in most English houses; the fire being -kindled in a kind of recess under a chimney. By degrees we have become -accustomed to the adoption of a _grate_, which keeps the fuel at a -certain height above the ground; but the principle involved is just the -same. In olden times the fire used to be kindled on the hearth under a -huge chimney, or on a very low grate; but the general course of modern -improvement has tended to lessen the size of the chimney, and to raise -the grate higher from the hearth. - -The philosophy of a chimney is well explained by Dr. Arnott, in his -_Elements of Physics_. He says: “Chimneys quicken the ascent of hot -air, by keeping a long column of it together. A column of two feet high -rises higher, or is pressed up with twice as much force as a column of -one foot, and so, in proportion, for all other lengths; just as two or -more corks strung together and immersed in water, tend upwards with -proportionally more force than a single cork, or as a long spear of -light wood, allowed to ascend perpendicularly from a great depth in -water acquires a velocity which makes it dart above the surface, while -a short piece under the same circumstances rises very slowly. In a -chimney where one foot in height of the column of hot air is one ounce -lighter than the same bulk of the external cold air, if the chimney -be one hundred feet high, the air or smoke in it is propelled upwards -with the force of one hundred ounces. In all cases, therefore, the -_draught_, as it is called, of a chimney is proportioned to its length.” - - -Defects of Open Fires. - -This being the general arrangement of a fire in a recess on one side of -the room, and an open chimney above it, Dr. Arnott enumerates a long -list of evils and inconveniences consequent on such an arrangement. - -1. _Waste of fuel._--It has been found that in a common open English -fire, seven-eighths of the heat produced from the fuel ascend the -chimney, and are absolutely lost. This lost fuel is thus accounted for. -One half of the heat is carried off in the smoke from the burning mass; -one quarter is carried off by the current of the warmed air of the -room, which is constantly entering the chimney between the fire and the -mantel-piece, and mixing with the smoke; lastly, one eighth part of the -combustible matter is supposed to form the black and visible part of -smoke, in an unburned state. Some writers have even gone so far as to -estimate the loss of heat in an open fire at fourteen-fifteenths of the -whole. 2. _Unequal heating at different distances from the fire._--This -forms a remarkable contrast with the uniform temperature in the air of -a summer afternoon. In rooms with a strong fire, in very cold weather, -it is not uncommon for persons to complain of being “scorched” on one -side, and “pierced with cold” on the other; this is particularly the -case in large apartments; for as the intensity of radiating heat (like -light) is only one-fourth as great at a double distance, the walls of -the room farthest from the fire are but little warmed, and, therefore, -reflect but little heat to the backs of persons grouped round the fire. -3. _Cold draughts._--Air being constantly required to feed the fire, -and to supply the chimney-draught, the fresh air which enters by the -crevices and defects in the doors, windows, floors, &c., is often felt -most injuriously as a cold current. “There is nothing more dangerous to -health than to sit near such inlets, as is proved by the rheumatisms, -stiff necks, and catarrhs, not to mention more serious diseases, which -so frequently follow the exposure. There is an old Spanish proverb, -thus translated, - - If cold wind reach you through a hole, - Go make your will, and mind your soul, - -which is scarcely an exaggeration.” The current of fresh air which -enters to feed the fire becomes very remarkable when doors or windows -are opened, for the chimney can take much more than it otherwise -receives when the doors and windows are shut; and thus the room with -its chimney becomes like an open funnel, rapidly discharging its -warmed air. 4. _Cold to the feet._--The fresh air which enters in -any case to supply the fire, being colder and specifically heavier -than the general mass already in the room, lies at the bottom of -this as a distinct layer or stratum, demonstrable by a thermometer, -and forming a dangerous cold-bath for the feet of the inmates, often -compelling delicate persons to keep their feet raised out of it by -footstools, or to use unusual covering to protect them. 5. _Bad -ventilation._--Notwithstanding the rapid change of air in the room, -perfect ventilation is not effected. The breath of the inmates does not -tend towards the chimney, but directly to the ceiling; and as it must -therefore again descend to come below the level of the mantel-piece -before it can reach the chimney, the same air may be breathed over -and over again. In a crowded room, with an open fire, the air is for -this reason often highly impure. As another source of impure air in -a house, it may be noticed that the demand of the chimneys, if not -fully supplied by pure air from about the doors and windows, operates -through any other apertures. 6. _Smoke and dust._--These are often -unavoidable from an open chimney, much affecting the comfort and -health of the inhabitants of the house, and destroying the furniture. -Householders would make great sacrifices in other respects to be -free from the annoyance of smoke. In large mansions, with many fires -lighted, if the doors and windows fit closely, and sufficiency of air -for so many chimneys cannot therefore enter by them, not only do the -unused chimneys become entrances for air, but often the longest and -most heated of them in use overpower the shorter and less heated, and -cause the shorter chimneys to discharge their smoke into the room. 7. -_Loss of time._--During the time every morning while the fires are -being lighted, the rooms cannot be used; and there are, besides, the -annoyances of smell, smoke, dust, and noise, all of which are again -renewed if the fire is allowed to go out and to be relighted in the -course of the day. 8. _Danger to person and to property._--How numerous -are the losses of property by carelessness as to fires is well known -to all, while the loss frequent but more distressing loss of life too -well attests the danger to children and to females thinly clad often -consequent on an open fire. - -Such are the principal defects which Dr. Arnott enumerates as being -inherent in the use of open fires. Many of them have been greatly -lessened by improved arrangements; but others are still without an -appropriate remedy. - -The usual construction of a fire-place is tolerably familiar. In most -cases, the vertical or nearly vertical channel for the chimney is -inclosed within a casing of brick-work, which projects into the room at -one side. The opening for this chimney gradually narrows upwards, until -only large enough to admit the poor little climbing-boy whose task -it was, until within a recent period, to sweep down the unburnt fuel -which our own ill arrangements have wasted; but, happily for humanity -and justice, this system is at an end, and machines are now employed -for the purpose. A hearth of stone is laid whereon to erect the stove -or grate, and this grate is, as we all know, composed mainly of an -iron receptacle for the fuel, and of “hobs,” for supporting culinary -vessels. We cause fire to be kindled in the grate, and then suppose -that all will go on well, without troubling ourselves to inquire -whether the arrangements for the supply of cold air, and the exit of -warmed air and smoke, are such as are best fitted for those purposes. - - -Remedies for some of these Defects. - -In course of time, as the evils of this plan became one by one known, -attempts were made to remedy some of them, and with an approach towards -success. In a recent treatise on the subject by Dr. Fyfe, of Edinburgh, -various modes are suggested for remedying many of the evils incident to -open fire-places. These we must briefly notice. - -Sometimes the rooms of a new house are subject to the nuisance of smoky -chimneys simply from deficiency of air. The workmanship of the rooms -being all good, the joints of the flooring-boards and of the wainscot -panels are all true and tight, the more so as the walls, perhaps, not -yet thoroughly dry, preserve a dampness in the air of the room, which -keeps the wood-work swelled and close. The doors and the sashes, too, -work closely and correctly, so that there is no passage left open for -the air to enter except the key-hole, and even this is often closed -over by a little brass cover. Thus, air being denied admission into -the room, there is nothing to feed the fire and to cause a “draught,” -and the smoke cannot ascend the chimney. Instances have been known -of well-built houses being rendered almost untenantable from this -cause, and several hundred pounds being spent in endeavouring to -find a remedy. If, on opening the door or window of a smoky room, it -be generally found that the smoke disappears, this may be taken as -an indication that the close-fitting joints of the wood-work do not -admit air enough for the fire when doors and windows are closed. In -such a case, the opening of the door or window is a poor attempt at -a remedy; for the air proceeds direct to the chimney, and in its way -causes cold to the back and feet of those who may be sitting before -the fire. Numerous methods have been devised for admitting additional -air to the rooms without this inconvenience, among which Dr. Arnott -recommends tubes leading directly from the outer air to the fire-place, -and provided with what are called “throttle-valves,” for the regulation -of the quantity. The following plan has also been recommended as one of -the most practicable. As the air in the upper part of a room is warmer -than in the lower, it is desirable that the supply should come in that -direction, so as to be slightly warmed in its progress towards the -fire, and thus produce less chill to those in its immediate vicinity. -This may be done by drawing down the upper sash of the window about an -inch; or, if not moveable, by cutting such a crevice through its frame; -in both which cases, a thin shelf of the length of the opening may be -placed to conceal it, sloping upwards, to direct the air horizontally -along and near the ceiling. In some houses, the air may be admitted in -such a crevice made in the wainscot or cornice near the ceiling, and -over the fire-place; this, if practicable, is the better of the two, -since the cold air in entering will there meet with the warmest rising -air from before the fire, and be soonest tempered by the mixture. -Another contrivance is to take out an upper pane of glass in one of -the sashes, set it in a tin frame, giving it two springing angular -sides, then replacing it, with hinges below, on which it may turn; by -drawing in this pane more or less, the quantity of air admitted may be -regulated, and its position will naturally direct the admitted air up -and along the ceiling. The circular vane or ventilator sometimes fixed -in windows admits cold air in a similar manner, when the supply for the -room and fire would be otherwise deficient. - -The opening or breadth and height of the fire-place, though we may -fancy it leads to the diffusion of more heat into the room, is really a -cause of loss of fuel, and of smoke. The size of the fire-place opening -is often considered in relation to the size of the room, without -regard to the principles on which a fire is maintained in a grate; a -course about as rational (it has been well observed) as to proportion -the step in a staircase to the height of the story, instead of to the -convenience of our legs in mounting them. As the chimneys of different -rooms are unavoidably of different heights, and as the force of the -draught is in proportion to the height of chimney filled with warmed -and rarefied air, it is found that the opening for a tall chimney -may be larger than for a lower one. If the opening be unnecessarily -large, there is room not only for the entrance of fresh air, but also -for the exit of smoke driven down by an opposing current from the -chimney itself; and the air, too, ascends into the chimney in too cold -a state, because the largeness of the opening enables it to enter -without passing very close to the fire. The principal evil attending -the use of a fire-place having too small an opening, is that the fuel -is burned away with unnecessary rapidity. When the opening is found by -experience to be so large as to lead to the descent of smoke into the -room, the easiest remedy is to place moveable boards or sheets of tin -or iron, so as to lower and narrow it gradually. The effect of which, -by excluding a part of the colder air from the chimney, is to produce -a quicker action, so that the fire begins to roar as if blown by a -bellows. “This means is often used to blow the fire instead of bellows, -or to cure a smoky chimney, by increasing the draught. What is called a -_register stove_ is a kindred contrivance. It has a flap placed in the -throat of the chimney, which serves to widen or contract the passage -at pleasure. Because the flap is generally opened only enough to allow -that air to pass which rises directly from the fire, the chimney -receives only very hot air, and therefore acts well. The register stove -often cures smoky chimneys; and by preventing the too ready escape of -the moderately warmed air of the room, of which so much is wasted by a -common fire-place, it also saves fuel.” There does not appear to have -been any attempt to determine by experiment the proper opening of the -fire-place for a given height of chimney; and, indeed, there are so -many disturbing causes, that it would be scarcely possible to determine -this with precision. Dr. Franklin, however, proposed to make the -fire-place openings in the lower rooms about thirty inches square and -eighteen inches deep; those in the upper, eighteen inches square, and -not quite so deep; and those in the intermediate rooms, of dimensions -between these two extremes. - -In some cases, where other matters are properly attended to, -inconvenience results from the chimney being too low; as, for instance, -in the case of an attic chimney. In this instance the column of heated -and rarified air is not high enough to give a rapid ascensive power -within the chimney, and thus the smoke cannot be carried up. The best -method of cure is to add to the length of chimney, if this can be done, -and if the fire be in a low building near the ground, this may perhaps -be effected; but in an attic, the means of supporting a lofty chimney -would be inefficient. Another recourse is to contract the opening of -the fire-place to the smallest available dimensions, so that all the -entering air may pass through or close to the fire before entering the -chimney, and thus acquire an ascensive power which will counterbalance -the shortness of the vertical column. It has been recommended that in -some cases there may be three chimneys to one room, so that the united -length of the whole may be equal to that of a tall chimney; but it is -not easy to conceive how this can be practically effected, nor how -the desired result would follow, even if the arrangements were made. -In some cases, the chimney of a room is rendered practically shorter -by being bent round and made to enter the chimney of another room; -since, unless there be a fire in this room also, the warm air from -the shorter chimney has often an adverse current to contend against at -the junction with the other chimney. This is one reason why every open -fire-place should have its own chimney independently of others. - -If there be a lofty building or hill near a house, and over-topping -the chimney of one of the rooms, that room is very likely to become -smoky, on account of a current being driven in at the top of the -chimney, and forcing the smoke down with it. Two rival chimneys may -produce a similar effect in a remarkable way. Suppose that there were -two fires in one room, one burning with more force, and therefore -having a more ascensive column of air above it, than the other; if -the doors and windows be shut, the stronger fire will overpower the -weaker, and for its own demand will draw down air from the chimney of -the latter, which air in descending brings down smoke into the room. -The same would be observable in a greater degree if one fire-place had -a fire in it but the other had none, both being at the same time open. -If, instead of being in one room, the chimneys are in two different -rooms communicating by a door, the case is the same whenever that -door is open. In a house where all the openings, such as doors and -windows fitted tightly, a kitchen chimney has been known to overpower -every other chimney in the house, and to draw air and smoke into an -upper room as often as the door communicating with the room was open. -The remedy for this inconvenience lies in the arrangement of the -fire-places, so that each fire shall have exactly enough air for the -consumption of the fuel, without having to borrow from other rooms. - -The arrangement of the door of a room influences materially the proper -action of a fire in the fire-place. When the door and chimney are on -the same side of the room, and if the door be in the corner, and is -made to open against the wall, (an arrangement which is often made -for the sake of convenience,) it follows, that when the door is only -partly opened, a current of air rushes along the wall into and across -the opening of the fire-place, and drives some of the smoke out into -the room. This acts more certainly when the door is being closed, for -then the force of the current is augmented, and becomes an annoyance -to persons who may happen to be situated in its path. When the door -and fire-place of a room have been thus ill-arranged with respect to -each other, the evil may be lessened by placing an intervening screen -between the door and the fire, or by reversing the position of the -hinges on the door, so as to make it open in the opposite direction. - -Sometimes the smoke from a chimney is driven out into the room, even -when the chimney is not commanded by a superior elevation, it being -driven down by strong winds passing over the top of the chimney. Dr. -Franklin mentioned one or two instances of this kind which he had met -with:--“I once lodged at a house in London, which in a little room -had a single chimney and funnel. The opening was very small, yet it -did not keep in the smoke, and all attempts to have a fire in this -room were fruitless. I could not imagine the reason, till at length -observing that the chamber over it, which had no fire-place in it, -was always filled with smoke when a fire was kindled below, and that -the smoke came through the cracks and crevices of the wainscot, I had -the wainscot taken down, and discovered that the funnel which went up -behind it had a crack many feet in length, and wide enough to admit -my arm; a breach very dangerous with regard to fire, and occasioned -probably by an apparent irregular settling of one side of the house.” -This does not at first thought seem to be an illustration of the effect -of wind passing over the top of a chimney; but the explanation is to be -sought for in a similar way; the air, by entering this fractured part -freely, destroyed the drawing-force of the chimney. - -The manner in which the passing of a current of wind over the top of a -chimney may produce a “smoky room” is this:--the warm air which rises -from the fire, in order to obtain a free issue from the chimney, must -repel the air that is hovering over the chimney-pot. In a time of calm -or of little wind, this is done easily; but when a violent current is -passing over the top of the chimney, its particles have such a strong -horizontal velocity, that the heated air in ascending has not power to -displace it, and thus the smoke, not finding a ready exit by that path, -is driven back into the room. - -The following anecdote, told by Dr. Franklin, will show what accidental -causes will sometimes occasion a fire to fail in its desired office of -yielding heat without smoke:--“Another puzzling case I met with at a -friend’s house near London. His best room had a chimney, in which he -told me he never could have a fire, for all the smoke came out into the -room. I flattered myself I could easily find the cause, and prescribe -the cure. I opened the door, and perceived it was not want of air. I -made a temporary contraction of the opening of the chimney, and found -that it was not its being too large that made the smoke to issue. -I went out and looked up at the top of the chimney: its funnel was -joined in the same stack with others, some of them shorter, that drew -very well, and I saw nothing to prevent its doing the same. In fine, -after every other examination I could think of, I was obliged to own -the insufficiency of my skill. But my friend, who made no pretension -to such kind of knowledge, afterwards discovered the cause himself. -He got to the top of the funnel by a ladder, and looking down, found -it filled with twigs and straw, cemented by earth, and lined with -feathers. It seems the house, after being built, had stood empty some -years before he occupied it, and he concluded that some large birds had -taken the advantage of its retired situation to make their nests there. -The rubbish, considerable in quantity, being removed, and the funnel -cleared, the chimney drew well and gave satisfaction.” - -From these details it will at once appear, that that part of the -builder’s art which relates to the arrangement and building of the -fire-place is by no means an unimportant one, since the comfort of the -inmates is seriously affected by want of skill on his part. Hence we -may also observe, that chimney doctors are liable to the same kind of -errors as quack doctors in another sphere; for it is almost as absurd -to attempt to cure all smoky chimneys by one course of proceeding, -as to cure all kinds of diseases by one medicine. There may be a -deficiency of air in the room; the opening of the fire-place maybe -too large; the chimney may not have height enough; one chimney may -overpower another in its draught; the chimney may be overtopped by -higher buildings or by a hill; the door of a room may be badly placed -with respect to the window; or, lastly, as in Dr. Franklin’s “puzzling -case,” the chimney may be nearly stopped up. All these are sources of -the much-dreaded “smoky chimney,” and all require modes of treatment -adapted to the nature of the evil. Many of these evils have, to a -considerable extent, been remedied by the use of Rumford stoves, and -other forms of stove and grate, in which, although retaining all the -chief characters of an open fire-place, there is yet a great diminution -of the evils to which the latter is liable. There have, however, been -marked extensions recently made in the construction of _close stoves_, -intended to obviate the ill effects attendant on open fire-places. -These must be briefly noticed. - - -Close Stoves. - -In a close stove, no air is admitted but what passes at once through -the fire; and the chimney or funnel is only just large enough to carry -off the sulphurous and other vapours, for there is hardly any smoke -from a close stove, and, therefore, it is not necessary to make a -chimney large enough to admit a climbing-boy. - -A small German stove, suitable for a room twenty-four feet by eighteen, -will give an idea of the general character of this kind of close -stove. The stove rests on a base about thirty-six inches by fourteen. -The fire-place has a bottom to receive the fuel, but no bars, and is -shut by a door which fits closely to its case. This door has a small -wicket at the bottom, the aperture of which is regulated by a sliding -plate, so as to admit no more air than will suffice for the slow -combustion of the fuel. The flame and heated air ascend to the top of -the fire-place, and pass into two hollow pillars or piers, which rise -to a height of five or six feet, so that the heat is communicated to a -large surface, before the volatilized products of combustion make their -exit by a pipe into the chimney. The stove is supplied with fuel and -with air by the front door. If it is desired to make the fire visible, -and impart some of that cheerfulness which belongs to an open grate, -the door of the stove maybe thrown open, for there is no danger of the -smoke coming out after the current has once warmed the upper part of -the stove. When the stove is of such dimensions that the body of it is -about two feet and a half high, the fire-place may be furnished with -a small grate in the English style. If the door is so hung that it -can not only be thrown back, but also lifted off its hinges, it will -approach still more to the character of a stove-grate. - -A cheap form of “German stove” is often made in this country, and used -in workshops and small manufactories, where the body of the stove is -an upright cylinder, of which the lower part is the ash-pit, closed or -opened by a hinged-door, the middle part the fire-place, where the fuel -rests on bars, and the upper part a vacant space, which becomes filled -with flame, smoke, and heated air, so as to impart great heat to a flat -iron plate at the top. There is a door at which the fuel is introduced, -and a small flue or funnel of iron pipe, which conveys the smoke into -a chimney or into the open air. Many forms of stove have been used -more or less resembling this in principle; but there is one great -defect pertaining to them all. The metal of which the stove is formed -becomes so highly heated near the stove, that it acquires a _burnt_ -smell, owing to the decomposition of animal and vegetable particles -which are at all times floating about in the air. The air, too, in the -room, becomes close and oppressive from another cause; for as only a -small quantity of air is consumed by the stove, the air does not become -renewed in the room so frequently as when an open fire is used, and -thus it is respired over and over again. - -To remedy the evils resulting from burnt air, close stoves are made -with a double case, so that there shall be a body of air between the -fire and the air of the room. It is on this principle, modified in -various ways, that a large number of stoves have been constructed; -of which one, by Mr. Sylvester, may be briefly described. There is a -hollow cast-iron box, on the outside of which are cast several ribs. -Those ribs are about three-quarters of an inch thick, and project three -or four inches beyond the surface of the box; and their object is to -increase the heating surface; for the fire being lighted in the hollow -of the box, the conducting power of the iron causes the whole exterior -case of the box, together with the projecting ribs, to become heated. -The box is placed within an ornamental case, the sides and top of which -are fretted with lattice-work, to allow free access to the air, which -enters through the lattices at the sides and escapes from the top of -the stove, passing in its passage over the ribbed surface of the heated -box. The grating on which the fuel lies is formed of a number of loose -bars fitted together into a frame, and prolonged so as to emit heat -into the room as well as to support the fuel. Everything is so arranged -as to give as much iron surface as possible, so as to communicate heat -to the surrounding air; while at the same time the extent of the heated -surface prevents any one part from being excessively and injuriously -heated. - - -Dr. Arnott’s Stove. - -To describe all the “chunk” stoves, “Vesta” stoves, “Olmsted” stoves, -and other similar contrivances of modern times, would fill a volume -instead of a few pages. We may, however, speak briefly of Dr. Arnott’s -stoves as a means of showing some of the inconveniences to which close -stoves are liable, if not constructed with care. This stove consists of -an external case of iron, of any ornamental shape. Within this case is -placed a box made of fire-clay, to contain the fuel, having a grating -at the bottom; and there is a space left between the fire-box and the -exterior case, to prevent the communication of too much heat to the -latter. Thee pedestal of the stove forms the ash-pit; and there is no -communication between the stove and the ash-pit, except through the -grating at the bottom of the fire-box. A small external hole in the -ash-pit, covered by a valve, admits the air to the fire; and according -as this valve is more or less open, the vividness of the combustion is -increased or diminished, and thence the greater or less heat produced -by the stove. The quantity of air admitted by this valve is governed by -a self-regulating apparatus, either by the expansion and contraction -of air confined by mercury in a tube, or by the unequal expansion of -different metals. The smoke escapes through a pipe at the back of the -stove; but the fuel employed is such as to yield very little smoke. -By adjusting the regulator so as to admit only a small quantity or -air, the temperature of the stove is kept within the required limits; -and owing to the slow-conducting power of the fire-clay, of which the -fire-box is formed, the heat of the fuel is concentrated within the -fire-box, and the fuel burns with less air and less rapidity than it -would otherwise do. - -The construction of Dr. Arnott’s “thermometer stove” will be better -understood from the following figure, which represents the stove with -one of its sides removed, so as to exhibit its interior arrangements:-- - -[Illustration] - -The outlines of the figure, _a a a a_, represent the case or body of -the stove, which might be formed either of cast or sheet iron. It is -divided into two chambers by the partition, _b b_; but in such a way -that there may be a free communication at the top and bottom. _c_ is a -small furnace, or, as it is called by the inventor, a fire-box, made -of iron, and lined with fire-bricks. The fire-box is not in contact -with the exterior case of the stove. It communicates at the bottom with -an ash-pit, the door of which is at _d_,--that of the stove, by which -the fuel is introduced, is at _d´_. Both these doors must fit very -accurately. Above the door of the ash-pit is a bent pipe _e_, by which -air gains admittance to the fire. - -A fire being kindled and the doors at _d d´_ shut, the only way in -which air has access to the fuel is by the pipe _e_; the air so -admitted, passing through the fire before it enters the upper part of -the stove. That portion of the air not required to aid the combustion -of the fuel having reached the main body of the stove, and there -mixing with the smoke and other products, they circulate slowly in the -directions indicated by the arrows, and at length pass into the chimney -by the pipe _f_. - -The slow movement just mentioned as taking place within the stove may -well be contrasted with what happens in an open fire-place. In one -case the greater part of the heat produced is rapidly carried off by a -current of air ascending the chimney--by the thermometer stove it is -detained until almost the whole of it has been diffused throughout the -apartment. - -The bent tube _g_ terminating in a cup-shaped opening at _g´_, is a -self-regulating valve. The tube is closed at the end _g_ within the -stove, _g´ g´´_ represents mercury which occupies the bend of the tube. -When the fire in the stove burns too briskly, the air in the tube -occupying the space between _g_ and _g´´_ is expanded, and by expelling -some of the mercury from the tube at _g´´_ into the cup at _g´_, it -closes the aperture of the pipe _e_; thus cutting off the supply of air -to the fire. In a few minutes (the fire in the mean time having abated -its energy,) the air in the tube will return to its former dimensions, -and the mercury subsiding in the cup, air is again permitted to enter -the ash-pit. - -The stove, of which we have thus attempted to convey a general -idea, may be made of any required form or size. Instead of the -self-regulating air-valve just described, it is fitted up with others -of a very simple construction, and which admit of being adjusted with -the greatest accuracy by the hand. - -The objections to this form of stove arise chiefly from the formation -of deleterious gases, which are not carried off completely. The slow -combustion of the fuel produces a large quantity of carbonic oxide, -which is liable to escape into the room, and is of an injurious -character. Carburetted hydrogen gas is also formed in these stoves. -Many modifications of form have been suggested for the remedy of these -evils; but the slow combustion, which was one of the merits originally -claimed for the stove, and which it certainly deserves, seems an -unavoidable cause for the production of these gases. - -All the varieties of open fire-place, as adopted in English houses, the -hearth, the recess, and the chimney, are at one side or at one corner -of the room; but in the adoption of close stoves this arrangement -is not necessary; for the stove may be in any part of the middle of -a room, provided the pipe constituting the flue be long enough. In -some cases this pipe is carried upwards to the ceiling, and thence -conveyed to some outlet into the open air; in other cases it is turned -downwards and conveyed under the flooring to a proper place of exit; -while in others the pipe is stretched or extended horizontally from the -stove to the regular chimney of the room. - - -Warming Buildings by Heated Air. - -Our builders have not yet entered so far into the mechanical -contrivances of the age as to dispense with chimneys altogether; nor -could such a thing be done until a total change is effected in the -opinion of persons concerning the cheerfulness of an “open fire.” But -there are nevertheless three modes, more or less adopted in the present -day, whereby a house is warmed without the necessity for anything -like a fire-place. These methods--in all of which the heating agent -is brought from another room into the one to be warmed--are of three -kinds; heating by _hot air_, by _hot water_, and by _steam_. - -When we speak of warming an apartment by heated air, it is necessary -to give precision to the meaning of the term. All rooms are, in fact, -warmed by heated air, for the stove or grate must raise the temperature -of the air in the room before we can appreciate the sensation of -warmth. But what is generally meant by the term as here used is the -warming of one apartment by air heated in another. The stoves used in -Russia, though not coming exactly under this description, will serve in -some degree to illustrate the principle. - -The Russian stove is intended as a sort of magazine, in which a great -quantity of heat maybe quickly accumulated, to be afterwards slowly -communicated to the apartment. The stove is therefore made of a massive -size. It is formed of brick-work, clay, glazed tiles, which together -form a great mass of matter to be heated by the fuel; and there is in -every part a considerable thickness of slow-conducting material between -the fuel and the air of the room. The fire is kindled early in the -morning, after which the stove door is shut, and the air aperture below -left open for some time as a means of admitting draught to the fire; -but in the course of a short time the fire-door is opened to check the -draught, so as to prevent the too rapid combustion of the fuel. In -this way the combustion is allowed to go on, and the substance of the -stove becomes warmed, after which the air passages are shut, so as to -prevent any abstraction of heat by the current that would otherwise -be occasioned. The stove thus becomes a great mass of heated matter, -which is gradually pouring warmth into the apartment during the whole -of the day; and as the temperature of the surface never becomes very -high, the impurities in the atmosphere are not decomposed, and it is -consequently free from those offensive effluvia, unavoidable when metal -stoves are used. The fuel is allowed to be nearly burnt out before -the apertures of the stove are closed; and therein the stove differs -greatly from those hitherto considered; the heated air within the stove -being so completely shut in that it can find no outlet, except through -the substance of the brickwork. - -The modifications of the arrangements whereby warmed air is conveyed -from one room to another, may next be noticed. In such cases the air -either escapes from a heated receptacle outside the fire-case, or -else it merely passes over a heated metallic surface. The following -description relates to one variety of the first of these two methods. -In the lower part of a house or building is a cast-metal double stove; -the inner part forming the stove, and the outer one the case or -envelope. The fuel is burned in the inner stove, and the smoke produced -during the process of combustion is carried off by a chimney, which -passes through both stoves or cases, and is conveyed to the outside -of the building. The outer case includes not only the furnace or -inner stove, but also a considerable space occupied by the air of the -atmosphere, which is freely admitted through a number of holes placed -around it; and when any current of warmed air is produced, it passes -off from the space between the outer case and the inner stove, and is -conveyed by tubes to any apartment in the building; so that the rooms -are warmed by the air which has passed between the outer case and the -inner stove. - -In another form of arrangement, having the same end in view by means -of heated air, the air, instead of passing through an enclosed space -between the outer case and the inner stove, passes over a surface of -metal which is heated either by a fire underneath, or, which is better, -by steam or hot water contained in pipes. The temporary House of -Commons, the Reform Club-house, and many other buildings, are warmed in -this way. - -The following simple and cheap form of stove has been erected in the -cottages of Sir Stewart Monteath’s labourers. The accompanying figure -represents a section of the stove, the principle of which will be -understood from the following explanatory notes:-- - -[Illustration - - 1. _Kitchen fire._ - - 2. _Chimney._ - - 3. _Hot air Chamber._ This is a cast-iron box, which forms the back of - the kitchen grate. - - 4. _Cold air pipe, or passage_; made with brick, or stone, or iron - piping, communicating with the open air for the purpose of feeding the - hot air chamber with an ascending current of fresh air. - - 5. _Hot air pipe_, receives the ascending current of air, which - becomes heated by passing over the back of the fire. At the top this - pipe branches off at right angles, and terminates near the floor in - the two sleeping rooms above. - - 6. _Gratings_ to admit the warm air from the hot-air pipe into - the bed-rooms. The addition of sliding valves over the face of the - gratings would serve to cut off the current of warm air during the - summer, and when not otherwise required. - - 7. _Sitting-room_, into which sufficient heat is radiated from the hot - air chamber, not only to warm the apartment, but even to dry wet - linen.] - -By means of one common fire in a stove of the above description, a -four-roomed cottage can be comfortably warmed, and kept dry throughout. - - -Warming Buildings by Steam. - -The arrangements for warming rooms and buildings by steam are very -different from those in which stoves are employed. They are generally -such as the following. At a convenient part of the building, and as -low as possible, there is placed a close steam-boiler of the ordinary -construction. From this boiler a small steam-pipe is carried to the -parts of the building which are to be warmed; the pipe being wrapped -round with a thick layer of flannel, to prevent the heat from radiating -before it arrives at the destined place. Pipes of a larger size are -laid round the rooms above the floor, or under a perforated floor, or -in any other convenient position. The steam issues into these larger -pipes, from the surface of which heat radiates into the room, and thus -the steam is condensed into water. Small pipes of lead or tin are -provided for convoying the water back into the boiler, a gentle slope -being given to all the pipes to facilitate this object. This water, -again flowing into the boiler, is again converted into steam, again -ascends to the pipes which surround the apartment, again gives out heat -to the air of those apartments, and again flows back to the boiler in -the form of water. Thus the same supply of water circulates over and -over again through the pipes, carrying heat from the fire below to the -rooms above. In some cases the steam-pipes in the apartments, instead -of being laid round the sides, are grouped together in a compact form, -and have an ornamental character imparted to them. - -Instead of pipes, the steam is sometimes made to circulate between -parallel sheets of copper or iron, in such manner that every sheet of -metal shall have steam on one side of it, and air on the other, the air -in that position receiving heat from the steam through the metal. - - -Warming Buildings by Hot Water. - -Lastly we have to notice the method of warming by _hot water_. In -this method there is usually a boiler communicating by an upper and -lower pipe, with an upright pipe the same height as the boiler. On the -application of heat to the boiler, the column of water becomes lighter -than that in the upright pipe; therefore the pressure on the water in -the lower pipe being less at the end nearest to the boiler than it -is at the other end, a portion of the water in this lower pipe moves -forward towards the boiler, which causes a corresponding quantity to -pass along the upper pipe in a contrary direction. This motion will -necessarily continue as long as the column of water in the boiler -is hotter, and therefore lighter than that in the upright pipe; and -this must be the case so long as the boiler continues to receive heat -from the fire, and the pipes to part with their heat to the air, and -thereby cool the water contained in them. In whatever form the hot -water apparatus is constructed, this difference of pressure of the two -columns of water is the cause of the circulation. - -In this form of apparatus some part or other of the water is open to -the atmosphere, either at the top of the boiler or at the top of one -of the pipes, so that there is no danger from the bursting action of -water heated above the boiling temperature. But, on the other hand, the -water cannot well be conveyed to rooms at different elevations in the -building. To increase the efficacy of the arrangement in this respect, -the following adaptation has been suggested. A pipe is made to dip into -an open boiler, reaching only an inch or two below the surface of the -water, and passing round the room to be warmed, returns again to the -boiler and dips again into the water, descending quite to the bottom of -the boiler. An air-pump is connected with this pipe by a small tube; -and the air in the pipe being exhausted by this means, the water rises -into the pipes above the level of the boiler by atmospheric pressure, -and the circulation then takes place by the hot water ascending through -the pipe at the top of the boiler, and passing through the whole -circuit of the pipe, it returns through the upper end of the pipe which -reaches to the bottom of the boiler. - -In the last-described form of apparatus the water will rise in the -syphon pipe to a height of about thirty feet above the boiler, being -that elevation which is due to the action of the atmosphere on liquid -flowing through a vacuum. But when a whole house or building is warmed -by hot water in all the different floors or heights, a modification of -the system, called the _high-pressure system_, is adopted. - -The apparatus on this system consists of a spiral coil of small iron -pipe built into a furnace, the pipe being carried from the upper part -of the coil, and entwined round the room intended to be warmed, forming -a continuous pipe when again joined to the bottom of the coil. The size -of the pipe is usually only half an inch in diameter internally, and an -inch externally. A large pipe of about two and a half inches diameter -is connected, either horizontally or vertically, with the small pipe, -and is placed at the highest point of the apparatus. This, which is -called the “expansion pipe,” has an opening near its lower extremity, -by which the apparatus is filled with water, the aperture being -afterwards secured by a strong screw; but the expansion pipe itself -cannot be filled higher than this opening. After the water has been -introduced, the screw is securely fastened, and the apparatus becomes -completely closed in all parts. The expansion pipe, which is thus left -empty, is calculated to hold about one-tenth or one-twelfth as much -water as the whole of the small pipes; this being necessary in order -to allow for the expansion that takes place in the volume of the water -when heated, and which otherwise would inevitably burst the pipes, -however strong they might be. - -In this apparatus the principle of action is different from that in the -low-pressure method. Here the water is raised to so high a temperature -that it wholly overcomes the effect of gravity, and rises to the -highest rooms of a building if required, the circulation through the -system of pipes being more rapid as the heat of the water is greater. -But there are inconveniences attending the method. If the pipes be not -very strong, they will be burst by the intense pressure from within; -as they will likewise if the expansion pipe be too small. If, on the -contrary, this latter pipe be too large, it occasions the water to be -driven up into it so violently as to leave the lower part of the coil -of small pipe almost empty, and therefore liable to be burned by the -heat of the fire. And if all these points be properly attended to, -there is still the inconvenience resulting from the decomposition of -the floating particles in the air, by the highly-heated metal of the -pipes. In some cases water, instead of being heated in a coil of small -pipes, passes into and through large flat boxes or chambers, whose -extended surface enables the surrounding air to be heated more rapidly. - -The details of this chapter will enable the reader to perceive, that -that part of the builder’s art which relates to the construction of the -_fire-place_ rests on more scientific principles, and is more liable to -change by successive discoveries and inventions, than most others. It -is not simply to make a square opening by the side of a room, to have a -vertical chimney or flue above that opening, and a few bars within it; -it is not by such means that the object to be answered by a fire-place -can be attained; some knowledge of chemistry, pneumatics, and -hydraulics, is required before we can properly regulate the combustion -of our fuel, the ventilation of our apartments, or effectually warm -them by the ascension of hot air, the circulation of hot water, or the -condensation of steam. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE WINDOWS AND LEAD-WORK. - - -We must now give to our dwelling-house those conveniences which call -for the services of the glazier and the plumber. These two occupations -are so often combined by the same tradesman, and the two classes of -operations thereby resulting are both so necessary to the finishing of -the _exterior_ of a house, that we may conveniently treat of them in -one chapter. - - -Introduction of Glass-Windows. - -Among the features which distinguish modern houses from those existing -in the early ages of English history, few have been more conducive to -comfort than the adoption of _Glass-Windows_. Before the employment of -that invaluable substance--glass--for this purpose, windows consisted -either of uncovered holes in the wall of a house, whereby in order to -admit light, the cold would also gain admittance; or else they were -holes covered with oiled skin, oiled paper, thin horn, or some other -partially transparent material, which would admit a dim light, and yet -exclude wind and rain. It is only by placing ourselves in a room thus -lighted, that we can form a correct idea of the increase of comfort -resulting from the use of glass instead of such imperfectly transparent -substances. The slow and imperfect modes of making glass soon after its -introduction necessarily gave it a high value, and it could only be -employed by the wealthy; but its price has gradually so much lessened, -and its claim to a place among the necessaries of life so generally -felt and acknowledged, that there are now but few persons in England, -except those moving in the very humblest ranks of society, who have not -a room with a glazed window. - - -The Manufacture of Window Glass. - -The glass with which windows are generally glazed, is called _Crown -glass_. It is formed of different materials in different manufactories. -In some instances the materials consist of fine white sand, carbonate -of lime, carbonate of soda, and clippings or waste pieces of old glass; -while in other cases they consist of white sand, pearl-ash, saltpetre, -borax, and arsenic, in certain proportions. On this point we shall -not dwell, for almost every manufacturer has a favourite receipt of -his own. Whatever substances are employed, they are intimately mixed -before being melted. The melting takes place in large crucibles or -melting pots, made of a particular kind of clay capable of enduring -intense heat. Several such crucibles are placed in a furnace, a little -door being situate in the furnace opposite to each crucible. Through -this door the materials are introduced and are suffered to melt; and -as soon as these become melted, other portions of the materials are -added, until the crucible contains a given amount of melted material. -A curious effect is then observable. Although most or all of the -materials are nearly opaque in their separate states, it is found that -when they are all melted together, they form a transparent liquid, -which is _glass_. - -It requires about forty-eight hours of intense heat to bring the -whole contents of the crucible to a liquid state. During this period, -a quantity of dross or impurity, called _sandiver_ or _glass gall_, -collects at the surface, and is carefully removed; it is afterwards -sold to refiners of metals, who use it as a flux. The temperature of -the furnace is then gradually lowered, by which means the glass loses -sufficient heat to assume a pasty consistence, which is more convenient -for the workman than if it were perfectly fluid. - -The glass maker then stands before the door of the furnace, exposed -to an intensity of heat such as few persons can adequately conceive, -and dips into the pasty mass of glass the end of a hollow iron tube -about five feet long. On withdrawing the tube, a portion of glass is -found adhering to it, and this is made to equalize itself round the -circumference of the tube by turning the latter rapidly round. The -workman then applies his mouth to the other end, and blows through the -tube, whereby the pasty mass is made to assume a hollow globular form -at the remote end of the tube. This process is continued for some time -and with great dexterity, until the globe has attained a considerable -diameter and a proportionably small thickness. The globe is then -somewhat flattened at the side opposite to the tube by pressing it upon -a hard plane surface; and a solid iron rod, called a _punt_, having a -small quantity of melted glass at the end, is applied to the centre of -the flattened side opposite to the tube, to which it adheres; the tube -is then removed by wetting the glass near the point of union with the -tube, leaving a small circular hole. During these processes the glass -is repeatedly heated by holding it for a few minutes at the door of the -furnace, in order that it may retain the requisite degree of softness. - -The _punt_, with the flattened globe of glass at its end, is then -rapidly whirled round in a manner nearly resembling that in which a mop -is twirled. By this motion, the globe becomes more and more flattened -and extended in diameter, until at length, not being able longer to -retain its shape, it bursts open, and spreads out in the form of a -flat circular sheet of glass three or four feet in diameter. There -is perhaps nothing in the whole range of the mechanical arts more -astonishing to a spectator than this process, and there are few that -require, from the workman, more of that dexterity of hand which can -only be acquired by long practice. The workman continues to whirl the -sheet of glass round,--gradually receding from the furnace,--until it -is sufficiently set or solidified to retain its form. The punt is then, -by a dextrous movement, detached from the centre of the sheet, leaving -that bulb which is known as the “bull’s eye,” or the “knot.” The sheet -is placed in an annealing oven, the temperature of which is lowered by -slow degrees until cold; for it is found that glass is less brittle -when it has been allowed to cool gradually than when the cooling has -been rapid. Considerable care is required to regulate the temperature -of the annealing oven; if the heat be too great the softened glass will -bend: if the heat be insufficient the plates are liable to crack, or -they prove so brittle that when they come to be used, the glazier will -not be able to divide the glass so as to suit his purposes. Indeed, -the management of the heat in the manufacture of crown glass requires -so much care and skill that few workmen produce an article of the same -value, even though working at the same furnace; hence crown glass is -known in the market as firsts, seconds, thirds, and fourths; the fourth -quality producing less than one-half of the price of the first. - -We have not interrupted this description, to refer to engravings; but -we may now illustrate it by the following cuts representing the glass -in eight different stages of its formation. - -1st. The melted glass attached to the tube, and worked on a board. - -[Illustration] - -2nd. The workman blowing through the tube, to expand the glass. - -[Illustration] - -3rd. Whirling it rapidly at the mouth of the furnace. - -[Illustration] - -4th. Transferring it from the hollow tube to the solid punt. - -[Illustration] - -5th and 6th. Successive stages of expansion, by constant and rapid -rotation. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -7th. Final expansion into a flat circular sheet. - -[Illustration] - -8th. The sheet of glass, held on a kind of fork, being placed into the -annealing oven. - -[Illustration] - -When cold, the sheets of glass are cut into two unequal pieces, one -of which contains the _knot_, and are packed with straw in wooden -_crates_, in which they are forwarded to the warehouses, and from -thence to the glaziers. - -As plate glass is sometimes used for windows, a slight notice of it -seems to be necessary in this place, in order that the reader may have -a clear idea of the difference between these two descriptions of window -glass. - -The manufacture of plate glass is confined to very few hands, and -great reluctance is manifested by the proprietors to permit visitors -to inspect their works. The late Mr. Parkes, however, was permitted to -visit the works of the British Plate Glass Company, at Ravenhead, and -has recorded his observations in one of his valuable chemical essays, -from which the following details are taken. - -In the preparation of plate glass the materials are selected with -greater care than in any other branch of the glass manufacture. The -materials employed are sand of the finest and whitest kind, soda, and -lime. Manganese and oxide of cobalt are also used for the purpose of -destroying colour, which they do by the curious, and at first view, -paradoxical property each has of imparting colour. The manganese has -the effect of a slight tinge of red, the cobalt of blue; while the sand -and alkali produce a slight yellow tinge; and thus these three colours -(being those which naturally produce white light) by proper combination -in the glass neutralise each other, and the result is an almost -perfectly transparent material. - -The process of filling the pots and fusing the materials is similar -to that already described for crown glass. The crucibles are of two -kinds; the larger ones wherein the glass is melted, are called _pots_, -and because these when full of glass are too bulky and heavy to be -moved, smaller ones, called _cuvettes_, are employed. These are kept -empty in the furnaces, exposed to the full degree of heat, so that when -the glass is ready for casting and is transferred to them, they may not -greatly lower its temperature. - -The subsequent operations are very well described in an abstract of -Mr. Parkes’s essay, given by the writer of the volume on Glass and -Porcelain, in the _Cabinet Cyclopædia_. - -“When the glass is thoroughly refined, the cuvette--which must be -perfectly clean, and, as already mentioned, of a temperature equal -with that of the glass--is filled in the following manner:--A copper -ladle, ten to twelve inches in diameter, fixed to an iron handle seven -feet long, is plunged into the glass pot, and brought up filled with -melted glass, which is transferred to the cuvette; the ladle during -this transference is supported upon a strong iron rest, placed under -its bottom, and held by two other workmen. This precaution is necessary -to prevent the bending and giving way of the red-hot copper under the -weight of fluid glass which it contains. When by successive ladlings -the cuvette is filled, it is suffered to remain during some hours in -the furnace, that the air bubbles formed by this disturbance may have -time to rise and disperse; an effect which is ascertained to have -ensued by the inspection of samples withdrawn from time to time for the -purpose. - -“Another essential part of the apparatus consists in flat tables -whereon the plates of glass are cast. These tables have perfectly -smooth and level metallic surfaces, of suitable dimensions and -solidity, supported by masonry. At St. Gobain, and formerly also at -Ravenhead, these tables were made of copper; the reason assigned -for preferring this metal being, that it does not discolour the hot -melted glass, while the use of iron was thought to be accompanied by -this disadvantage. These copper tables were very costly, both from -the nature of their material, and the labour bestowed in grinding -and polishing their surfaces; and as the sudden access of heat that -accompanied the pouring over them of such a torrent of melted glass -occasioned the metal frequently to crack, the tables were by such an -accident rendered useless. The British Plate Glass Company having -experienced several disasters of this nature, its directors determined -upon making trial of iron; and they accordingly procured a plate to be -cast, fifteen feet long, nine feet wide, and six inches thick, which -has fully answered the intended purpose--having, during several years -of constant use, stood uninjured through all the sudden, and violent -alternations of temperature to which it has been exposed. This table is -so massive, weighing nearly fourteen tons, that it became necessary to -construct a carriage purposely for its conveyance from the iron foundry -to the glasshouse. It is supported on castors, for the convenience of -readily removing it towards the mouths of the different annealing ovens. - -“The foundry at Ravenhead wherein this table is used is said to be -the largest room under one roof that has ever yet been erected in -this kingdom; it is 339 feet long, 155 feet wide, and proportionately -lofty. Westminster Hall, to which the superiority in this respect -is so commonly ascribed, is smaller--its length being 300 and its -breadth only 100 feet. The melting furnaces, which are ranged down the -centre, occupy about one-third of the whole area of this apartment. -The annealing ovens are placed in two rows, one on each side of the -foundry, and occupy the greatest proportion of the side walls. Each -of these ovens is sixteen feet wide and forty feet deep. Their floors -being level with the surface of the casting table, the plates of glass -may be deposited in them immediately after they are cast, with little -difficulty and without delay. - -“When the melted glass in the cuvette is found to be in the exact -state that experience has pointed out as being most favourable for its -flowing readily and equably, this vessel is withdrawn from the furnace -by means of a crane, and is placed upon a low carriage, in order to -its removal to the casting table, which, as it is previously placed -contiguous to the annealing oven that is to be filled, may therefore -be at a considerable distance from the melting furnace. Measures are -then taken for cleaning the exterior of the crucible, and for carefully -removing with a broad copper sabre any scum that may have formed upon -the surface of the glass, as the mixture of any of these foreign -matters would infallibly spoil the beauty of the plate. These done, -the cuvette is wound up to a sufficient height by a crane; and then, -by means of another simple piece of mechanism, is swung over the upper -end of the casting table; and being thrown into an inclined position, -a torrent of melted glass is suddenly poured out on the surface of the -table, which must previously have been heated, and wiped perfectly -clean. - -“The glass is prevented from running off the sides of the table by ribs -of metal, one of which is placed along the whole length of each side, -their depth being the exact measure which it is desired to give to the -thickness of the glass. A similar rib, attached to a cross piece, is -temporarily held, during the casting, at the lower end of the table. -When the whole contents of the crucible have been delivered, a large -hollow copper cylinder, which has been made perfectly true and smooth -in a turning lathe, and which extends entirely across the table, -resting on the side ribs, is set in motion; and the glass, during its -progress, is spread out into a sheet of uniform breadth and thickness. -Its length depends upon the quantity of melted glass contained in the -cuvette: should this be more than is needed for the formation of a -plate having the full dimensions of the table, the metal rib is removed -from its lower part, and the surplus glass is received in a vessel of -water placed under the extreme end for the purpose. - -“Mr. Parkes, in speaking of this operation, remarks--‘The spectacle -of such a vast body of melted glass poured at once from an immense -crucible, on a metallic table of great magnitude, is truly grand; and -the variety of colours which the plate exhibits immediately after the -roller has passed over it, renders this an operation far more splendid -and interesting than can possibly be described.’ - -“At least twenty workmen are busily employed during this process of -casting. From the time that the cuvette is removed from the furnace, -to the completion of the casting by the hardening of the glass, the -apartment must be kept as free as possible from disturbance; even -the opening and shutting of a door might, by setting the air in -motion, disturb the surface of the glass, and thus impair the value -of the plate. So soon as it is completely set, the plate is carefully -inspected; and should any flaws or bubbles appear upon any part of its -surface, it is immediately divided by cutting through them.” - -“When the plate of glass thus formed has been sufficiently fixed by -cooling, it is slipped from the table gradually and carefully into one -of the annealing ovens, where it remains in a horizontal position; its -treatment differing in this respect from that pursued with crown and -broad glass, which stand on edge during the annealing process. As each -oven in this manner becomes filled, it is closed up by an iron door, -the crevices of which are carefully stopped with mortar or clay, to -prevent an access of external air to the oven; and thus to provide as -far as possible for the gradual cooling of the plates, the necessity -for which has already been sufficiently explained. When the glass has -remained during about fifteen days in these ovens, they are opened, and -the contents withdrawn.” - -The plates have then to undergo the operations of squaring, grinding, -and polishing, which need not be described in this place. - -The various kinds of glass manufactured in Great Britain amount every -year to the enormous quantity of 300,000 cwt., which is valued at two -millions sterling. - - -Glass Cutting. - -Such, then, being a few details as to the mode of manufacturing glass; -we will next suppose that the glass has reached the hands of the -glazier or glass-cutter; and that the window-frame or sashes are ready -to receive the panes of glass. - -One of the earlier operations of the glazier is to _prime_ the sash, -that is, to give it a coat of thin paint, for the purpose of making the -putty adhere more firmly to the wood. He next takes the dimensions, in -inches and eighths of an inch, of the groove or rebate in which each -square of glass is to be fixed, and then proceeds to cut squares of -those sizes from the semicircular pieces in his crate. This requires -much tact and judgment, since to procure square or rectangular panes -necessarily entails a loss of some of the circular portions. The -circular sheets are made of diameters varying from forty-eight to -sixty-four inches, and these are cut at various distances from the -central knot, so that the glazier is enabled to choose that piece which -experience teaches him will entail least waste: sometimes it is better -to cut the pane from a _table_ (the half which contains the knot), -sometimes from a _slab_ (the remaining portion of the disc). - -In order to cut a table or slab, so as to procure a pane of the proper -size, the straight edge of the table is placed near the glazier, and he -cuts at right angles to it, by means of a diamond, and of an instrument -called a _square_; and two other cuts, at the proper distances, are -sufficient to give a pane of the required size. With respect to the -power by which a diamond is enabled to cut glass, we may explain it by -saying, that it is a general rule among mineralogists, lapidaries, and -others concerned with stony or crystalline bodies, that the hardest -among a certain number of bodies will _cut_, or at least _scratch_, -any of the others:--in fact, tables of the _hardness_ of different -substances are formed from the determination of what substances will -mark or scratch others, that one being reckoned hardest which will -scratch all others, without being equally affected by them in return. -Now the diamond is the hardest body in nature, and cannot be cut by -any substance but its own dust; but it can cut glass and other bodies, -which are not so hard as itself. - - -The Process of Glazing. - -The glass having been cut to the right size, it is next to be fitted -into the sash; and among the many kinds of cement which might be -suggested for this purpose, _oil putty_ is found to be the most -advantageous, since it is conveniently soft when used, but hardens -afterwards to the consistence of stone. Putty is made of whiting and -linseed oil. The whiting is purchased in lumps, which are well dried, -and then pounded and sifted. The linseed oil is poured into a tub, and -the powdered whiting added to it, and stirred up with a stick. When -some degree of stiffness is attained, the mass is taken out of the tub -and placed upon a board, where more whiting is added, and the whole -mixed up by hand. The mass is then beaten for a long time with a wooden -mallet, until it attains a perfectly smooth and uniform consistency. - -A portion of putty is taken up on a knife, and inserted in the groove -of the window sash. The pane of glass is then laid in the groove, and -gently pressed down in every part, so as to lie on the putty. As the -sheets of glass are never perfectly flat, it is a rule among glaziers -to let the _concave_ side of a pane be within doors and the convex -side without. After the glass is laid in, the edge is carefully coated -with putty, to the extent of about an eighth of an inch: if this be -carefully done, it is sufficient to secure the glass in its place, -without presenting an unsightly appearance from the interior of a room. -The opposite side of the glass now requires a little attention, since -the bed of putty originally laid in the groove has been partially -squeezed out by the pane of glass: a little trimming and finishing are -all that are required in this matter. - -When a broken pane is to be replaced in a window, it is done generally -without taking out the sash; but in the case of glazing the sashes of -a new house, such as we have been supposing, it is done before the -sashes are fitted into their places. If sashes are glazed with _plate_ -instead of _crown_ glass, the only difference in the glazier’s method -of proceeding is, that the pane being heavier, must be fixed in with -greater attention to security. Sometimes a small beading or fillet of -wood is used instead of putty, in which case it is either nailed or -screwed to the sash. - -Where skylights are used instead of windows, a different plan must -be observed, since there are no cross bars to the sashes. In this -case the squares of glass are fixed in somewhat in the way adopted in -slating a roof, that is, the lower pieces are puttied in first, and -the upper ones are lapped over them, so that each pane projects about -three-quarters of an inch over the one next below it. This is to effect -two objects,--to prevent the necessity of puttying the joints, and to -exclude rain. - -_Ground_, _fluted_, _painted_, _stained_, and _embossed_ glass, are -occasionally employed for windows. These need not be noticed, since the -processes by which they are fluted, stained, &c., would carry us to -details of too extensive a nature. So far as the glazier is concerned, -rather more care and delicacy are required in proportion as the kind of -glass employed is more costly or more ornamental. - -In some of the better kinds of houses, rooms are provided with double -windows, separated a few inches from one another. The object of this -is, to prevent the room from being affected by rigorous cold from -without; for a mass of air _when stationary_, conducts heat very -slowly; the stratum of air between the two windows, therefore,--being -stationary,--is slow to conduct the cold from without, or, more -correctly, to conduct the warmth from within. - - -Sheet Lead for Roofs and Cisterns. - -Whether the glazier precedes the plumber or the plumber the glazier, -or whether the labours of both alternate during the building of a -house, is a question of no great importance to our present object. We -will therefore proceed to notice the kind of material employed by the -plumber. - -The comparative cheapness of lead, its admirable qualities, and the -facility with which it can be cast and rolled into thin sheets, and -drawn into pipes, cause it to be extensively used in building. The -most productive mines of this metal in our own country are situated in -Derbyshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, in Wales, and in the North; in short, -the ore from which lead is generally obtained, called _Galena_, or -_Sulphuret of Lead_, is found in all countries where the primary rocks -appear at the surface. The ore greatly resembles the pure metal in -brilliancy; but it is brittle, and not so easily fused. It frequently -contains a sufficient quantity of silver to make it worth while to -adopt a peculiar process in the reduction of it, in order to separate -this more valuable metal. The ore is first broken into small pieces, -and is then _roasted_ in a reverberatory furnace, to drive off the -sulphur. When this object is attained, the heat is increased, till the -metal is fused, and then it is drawn off into moulds, which give it the -form of blocks or slabs, called _sows_ and _pigs_. - -_Sheet lead_ is made thus:--A large furnace is provided, into which -pig-lead is thrown, and heat applied. When the lead is melted, a valve -or cock is opened in the side of the furnace, and the glistening liquid -metal pours forth, and falls on a large table, covered over with an -even surface of fine sand, and having a ledge of an equal height above -the sand all round it. When the melted metal is poured on the sand, -two men, holding each end of a stiff wooden rule, called a _strike_, -draw it along the table, resting on each side ledge: the liquid lead is -pushed onwards by the strike, till it covers the whole surface of an -even thickness, which of course is governed by the depth of the ledge -round the table. - -_Milled sheet lead_ is formed by rolling a cast plate of the metal -between large iron rollers, turned by machinery. These rollers are set -closer and closer together, till the lead is reduced by rolling to the -requisite degree of thinness. By this process, the lead is rendered -more dense and more equally so, than it ever is by simply casting: -milled lead, consequently, is more durable than cast-lead. - -It should be here noticed that lead, when it is used for roofing, or -for lining cisterns and gutters, is always laid on an even boarded -surface, and not on battens or laths, like slate and tiles. - - -Lead Pipes. - -Lead pipe is either formed by bending thin sheet lead round a -cylindrical mould, and soldering the joint; or when the pipe is less -than four or five inches in diameter, it is formed by casting a thick -cylinder of lead with a small bore, and about five or six feet long. A -long smooth iron rod, a little larger than the bore of the cylinder, -is forced into this, and then the cylinder is gradually drawn through -a succession of circular holes, decreasing in diameter, in a steel -plate, by means of a powerful draw-mill, worked by a steam-engine. The -lead is by this process extended out over the iron rod, which preserves -the bore of the pipe of an equal diameter, and when the pipe is -sufficiently reduced in thickness, the rod, or _triblet_, is forcibly -drawn out, and the pipe left with a smooth bore, ready for use. -Attempts have been made to form lead pipes wholly by casting; an outer -mould and an inner core being so adjusted as to leave a space between -them, into which lead might be forced while in a melted state; but this -method has not been practically worked out to any great extent. - - -The Process of Plumbing. - -When a roof is to be covered, or a cistern lined, with lead, the sheet -of the metal is unrolled on a level floor, and made free from creases -and undulations, by beating them down with a heavy wooden _flogger_, -formed like a roller with a flattened side, and a handle to it. The -plumber then draws on the lead the form into which it must be cut to -fit the surface it is intended to cover, and afterwards cuts through -the lines described with a strong sharp knife. The piece is then rolled -up again for facility of carriage, and raised by tackle into its -intended situation, it being placed there so that when again unrolled, -it may lie in the proper situation and position on the boarding. The -sheet is then again beat out flat as before. - -The next sheet being put into its place, and so that the edges of -the two may overlap about one and a half or two inches, the workman -proceeds to make the joint, or to solder the two sheets together. The -first step for this purpose is to scrape the two edges or borders of -the sheets that are to come in contact quite clean and bright, with a -tool constructed for this purpose, consisting of a small triangular bit -of steel ground sharp at its edges, and fastened at right angles on -an iron socket, fixed in a handle. When these borders of the lead are -quite clean, they are painted over with black-lead paint, to prevent -their tarnishing, or _oxidising_ again, as the solder will only adhere -to a clean pure metallic surface. The paint also serves as a flux to -cause the solder and lead to melt together, and thus make a close joint. - -The solder is melted in an iron ladle, on a rude temporary fire-place, -built as near the spot where the solder is wanted as possible. The -plumber having turned back the edge of the upper sheet at the joint, -an assistant carefully pours the solder on the lower edge. The workman -then spreads it evenly along the joint, by means of _soldering irons_, -which are irregularly-shaped iron bars, swelling at their ends -into rounded forms of different sizes and shapes, according to the -particular purpose for which they are intended. These irons are used in -a red-hot state in order to keep the solder melted. - -As soon as the workman has spread the solder, he presses and hammers -down the upper edge upon the lower, and spreads the solder forced -out of the joint, along the seam. The outermost edge of the lead -covering is nailed down to the boarding or cistern-frame by nails, -with their heads leaded over to prevent the corrosion of the metal, by -the chemical or _voltaic_ action that takes place when two metals in -contact are exposed to moisture. The situation of the soldered joints -depends on the size and form of the surface to be covered over; and a -good workman considers well how he can cut out the lead so as to have -the fewest joints, and these in the most favourable situations. If he -has to line a cistern, he will cover the bottom in one piece, cutting -the lead large enough to admit of its turning up for an inch or two at -two of the sides, the joint consequently being made at these angles. - -When a large roof, like that of a church, is covered with lead, this -is laid on in parallel bands as wide as the sheet will admit of, the -edge of one sheet being turned over a wooden roller or fillet, nailed -down on the boarding to receive it, while the edge of the next sheet -is turned over the former lead again; the double thickness being well -_flogged_ down to render the joint water-tight: and in this case no -solder is used. - -The edges of lead gutters that turn up against the inside of the -parapet are either laid as flat against the brick-work as possible, -and secured so by iron _holdfasts_, so as to prevent rain from getting -in; or to effect the same object, they are in all the better kind of -buildings, turned into a joint, in the brick-work, between two courses. - -When the plumber has to join two lengths of lead pipe into one, he -opens out the end of one length into a funnel-shaped aperture, by -gently driving a wooden cone into it, so as to avoid splitting the -pipe. The end of the other length is then scraped down a little by the -triangular tool before mentioned, not only to obtain a clean surface -for soldering, but to allow of the end fitting into the funnel-shaped -aperture alluded to. The two pipes being thus put together, the workman -holds a thick wadding of old woollen cloth, well greased, under the -joint, while a labourer gently pours melted solder over the joint, -which the plumber smoothes and shapes down by his soldering-iron and -the cloth into a regular smooth rounded swelling, all round the joint, -making this perfectly close and water-tight. - -We observed in the chapter on “Roofs,” that within the last few -years, the metal zinc has been much used instead of lead for all -the purposes of the latter, and many others beside, for which the -admirable qualities of zinc particularly qualify it. This metal is -lighter than lead, and equally durable in the open air. It bears water -almost equally well; but it is not so flexible or manageable, being -neither so fusible nor malleable. Zinc only admits of being rolled or -hammered when it is heated to about two hundred and twenty degrees -of Fahrenheit. When cold it is too brittle to bear much bending; -nevertheless, pipes, gutters, cisterns, chimney-pots, &c., are made out -of sheet zinc; and roofs, &c. covered with it. - - -Solder or Cement for Metals. - -The solder alluded to above, as being the means of joining two pieces -of sheet lead or of lead pipe, is an alloy of lead and tin, in the -proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. This mixed -metal is fusible at a lower temperature than either the tin or the lead -separately; and may therefore be applied in a melting state to tin or -lead, which still remains solid, even at the same temperature: this it -is which constitutes the principle of soldering. The solder is cast -into triangular bars, weighing from thirty to fifty pounds each. - -There has, however, been a method recently introduced which seems -likely to effect considerable changes in the mode of joining pieces of -metal, whether for buildings or for other purposes; and we may here -give some account of it. - -The great object of soldering is of course to form joints or seams in -pipes, and other articles, so perfectly, that they shall be subject to -no leakage or flaw. But this object is not easily obtained by the old -method of soldering; the chances of flaw are numerous, and have been -enumerated thus:--1st, the difference of expansion between the lead and -its alloys with tin, a difference which is particularly experienced -in very cold or very elevated temperatures; 2nd, the electro-chemical -actions which are developed under certain circumstances by the contact -of two different metallic substances;[5] 3rd, the very powerful -reaction which a number of chemical agents exert on alloys of lead and -tin, though not upon lead alone; 4th, the extreme fragility of these -alloys, which, particularly when heated, often break on the slightest -blow; 5th, the difficulty of making the solder adhere to the surface of -the lead;[6] 6th, the use of rosin, which frequently conceals fractures -for a time. - -All of these objections are removed by a new method of soldering, -invented by M. E. Desbassays de Richemont, who has recently obtained, -at the National Exhibition of Arts at Paris, a gold medal for his -invention. The committee on whose recommendation the medal was awarded, -included some of the most distinguished chemists and men of science -in France; and in their report on the subject, they say:--“We consider -this invention of the highest importance; it is applicable to many -branches of industry, and will render great service to a large number -of manufactures. Its efficacy has not only been proved by experiment, -but is confirmed by the fact, that most of our eminent manufacturers -and tradesmen have taken out licences for the use of it.” - -This invention (which is patented in France, Great Britain, and -Ireland) is called _autogenous soldering_, and consists of a method -of uniting two pieces of metal without the use of solder. The parts -to be joined are united by the fusion of the metal at the points or -lines of junction; so that the pieces when joined form one homogeneous -mass, no part of which can be distinguished from the rest. This result -is obtained by means of jets of flame, produced by the combustion of -hydrogen gas, mixed with atmospheric air; these jets are so ingeniously -managed, that they can be used and directed with as much, or even more -facility, than the common tools of the solderer. - -The apparatus employed in this new process consists of a peculiarly -constructed vessel for producing hydrogen gas, to which vessel a -variety of tubes and jets can be attached, so as to meet the various -demands of the solderer. - -A section of the gas-producer is shown in fig. 1: _a_ is a leaden tank, -for containing dilute sulphuric acid; _b_, a pipe which passes from the -acid vessel to another similar leaden vessel, _c_, which is to contain -cuttings of zinc; _d_ is a conical plug, with a stalk and handle -covered with lead, by the opening of which the acid is allowed to flow -through the pipe _b_, to the zinc cuttings, and thus hydrogen gas is -produced; _e_ is an opening by which zinc is put into the vessel _c_. -The opening, _e_, has a cover furnished with screws and nuts, by which -it may be firmly secured; _f_ is an opening by which acid and water are -poured into the vessel _a_. When the hydrogen gas is produced, it has -to pass through the safety chamber _g_; _h_ is a bent tube or pipe, -which conducts the gas from the vessel _c_ to the bottom of the safety -chamber, the mouth of the pipe dipping into an inch or two of water in -the safety chamber. This water is introduced by the pipe _i_, which is -furnished with a stopple. The cock, _k_, cuts off the flow of gas from -the vessel _c_, to the safety chamber, _g_. A flexible tube, _m_, is -screwed to the top of the safety chamber, and conveys the gas to the -working instrument, or jet, in the hands of the solderer. - -As long as the dilute acid is allowed to flow upon the zinc, hydrogen -gas will be produced: the gas will also be formed as long as the -cock is open, which allows the gas to issue as it is produced; but -as soon as the cock is shut, a small quantity of gas accumulates, -and interferes with the further action of the liquid on the zinc. -Consequently there is no danger of an explosion, because the production -of the gas is never more than is required for working; and when the -work ceases, the production of the gas ceases also. When the dilute -acid has become saturated with oxide of zinc, and gas ceases to be -produced, the discharging pipe is opened, and the liquid withdrawn. By -spontaneous evaporation, this liquid furnishes sulphate of zinc (white -vitriol), which may be sold at a price which will more than cover the -first and daily cost of the apparatus. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.] - -We now proceed to describe the part of the apparatus with which the -workman operates. In fig. 2, the flexible tube, _m_, is attached to -one arm of the forked tube, _o_; the other arm of _o_ is attached to a -pipe, _q_, proceeding from a bellows, or other means for supplying air. -The solderer may work a bellows with his foot to supply his apparatus -with air, or the men in a whole factory may be supplied from a blowing -apparatus. A cock, _n_, regulates the supply of gas; _p_ is a cock for -regulating the supply of air; _r_ is the pipe or tube in which the gas -and air are mixed; _s_, the beak or tool, from which issues the jet of -flame, _t_, with which the workman operates. - -The forked tube, _o_, is attached to the girdle of the workman, and the -regulating cocks, _n_ and _p_, are so placed, that by using one hand, -the man can allow the exact proportions of air and gas to issue. By -stopping both cocks, the flame is of course extinguished. - -The beak, _s_, may be exchanged for others of every variety of form, so -as to produce jets of flame adapted to any kind of work. Fig. 3 is a -tool formed like the rosette of a watering-pot, capable of producing a -most intense flame of jets. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.] - -Fig. 4 allows a length of flame instead of a point to be produced; _n_ -is the hydrogen gas-pipe and cock; _p_, the air-pipe and cock; _r_, -the tube, in which air and gas mingle; _u_, a pipe with a longitudinal -slit on one side of it; and _v_, another pipe covering _u_, and -exactly fitting over it. Gas and air escaping from the slit, on being -ignited, will produce a long strip of flame, which may be lengthened or -shortened by sliding off or on the covering tube, _v_, on the slit tube -_u_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.] - -Fig. 5 is a soldering tool, to be used where a jet of flame is not -available, as in joining zinc. In this arrangement, the hydrogen -and air flame heats apiece of copper, _y_, with which the work is -performed. _w_ is the tool, with a hollow handle and stalk; air being -supplied by the pipe _p_, passes through the hollow handle and stalk; -_x_ is a small tube which passes down the hollow handle and stalk, -_w_, and conveys gas from the pipe _n_ to the extremity of _w_, where -it mingles with the issuing air, and, on being ignited, the flame will -heat the piece of copper, _y_, (which, of course, may be of the shape -of any soldering tool required,) held by the arms, _z_. - - -Advantages of the Improved Method of Soldering Metals. - -One great advantage to the public at large to be derived from the -general introduction of “autogenous soldering,” will be the diminution -of the number of cases of the escape of water and gas, which every day -occasion so much inconvenience and even danger as regards the stability -of buildings, the maintenance of the public thoroughfares, and the -security of life. - -The disuse of charcoal and tin by plumbers will have the important -effect of rendering their trade less unhealthy, the fumes from their -brasiers, and the arsenical vapours emanating from impure tin, being a -very common cause of serious maladies. - -By the old method of soldering, there is great danger of setting fire -to houses and public buildings: the destruction of the corn market of -Paris, and of the Cathedrals of Chartres and of Bruges, by fire, was -partly owing to the negligence of plumbers; a negligence for which -there could be no reason, if the new method of soldering had been -introduced, since it is only necessary to turn a cock in order to -extinguish or rekindle, at any moment, the jet of gas which serves for -the plumber’s tool. By means of the new apparatus, a soldering flame -can be conducted to a distance of several fathoms without the dangerous -necessity of lighting a brasier to heat irons, to melt masses of -solder, and to carry the whole into the midst of complicated carpentry -work. - -The disuse of solder will also greatly reduce the price of plumber’s -work, without, however, diminishing the demand for the services of the -workmen. The disuse of seams or overlapping, which from this new mode -of connecting lengths of lead will almost entirely be given up, will -alone occasion a considerable saving in the quantity of lead employed. -The ease with which lead of from one-thirtieth to one-tenth of an inch -in thickness may be soldered, and defects repaired, will permit of -the substitution of this, in many cases, for thicker lead, and thus -diminish the expense; perhaps, also, it will give rise to the use of -lead for purposes to which it has not yet been applied, or the return -to others, in which from motives of economy it has been superseded by -other metals. - -The plumber will also be indebted to M. de Richemont’s method for -several important improvements. He will be able in future to make -internal joints wherever a jet of flame can be introduced and directed; -to reconstruct on the spot, of pure lead, any portion of a pipe, -a vase, or a statue, that may have been removed or destroyed; to -execute in rapid succession any number of solderings; to repair in -a few minutes all dents, cracks, and flaws, in sheets or pipes of -new lead; to remove entirely the enormous edges or knots left by the -old-fashioned joints, and that without weakening them; to give, in -short, to works of lead a precision of execution, and a solidity, -unattainable up to this time. - -Autogenous soldering will also be of great assistance to several -chemical manufactures, where it is so important to have large vessels -of lead without alloy. By uniting a number of sheets into one, vessels -of pure lead of any size may be formed for the process of acidification -and concentration of saline solutions; for the formation of scouring -vats employed by so many artisans who work metals; for vessels of every -kind used to contain liquids which act upon tin solder. - -In the repair of leaden vessels exposed to the action of heat, peculiar -advantages are offered by autogenous soldering. By the old method, the -holes which are so often caused in the bottoms of these vessels, either -by the action of sudden flames, or by deposits that form on their -surface, can be stopped only when they are not of too large dimensions, -by making what are called weldings of pure lead. The cases in which -this mode of repair is available, are very limited, and whenever it is -impracticable, the boilers must be taken down, the lead changed, and -then reset; thus occasioning considerable expense and an interruption -to business. By the new method, nothing is easier than to apply pieces -to the bottom or sides of the vessels, whatever be the size of the -holes, and thus the whole of a boiler may be renewed piecemeal. By -this plan, too, the old lead remains uncontaminated with solder, and -consequently will yield a pure metal to the melting-pot. - -The great ductility of lead, which, in many cases, is one of its most -valuable qualities, is, however, an inconvenience when instruments or -utensils are required of considerable strength. At the same time, there -are circumstances where this metal alone can be employed, on account -of the manner in which it resists chemical action. By constructing -vessels or instruments of iron, zinc, or wood, and covering them with -lead, utensils can be formed that will resist pressure and blows, and -most chemical agents, as well as if they were made of solid lead. -Such vessels are required in the preparation of soda, and other -gaseous waters; in the distillation or evaporation of acid or alkaline -solutions; and for many other purposes. - -Another application that deserves especial notice is that of lining -common barrels with thin sheet-lead. These vessels would be of great -utility in chemical factories, more particularly in the construction of -Woulf’s apparatus, and other pneumatic instruments, to which greater -dimensions could be given by this means; but they could be employed -with singular advantage in the transport of acid and alkaline liquids -by sea and land. Sulphuric and muriatic acids are transported in stone -bottles, or glass carboys placed in baskets, which, however carefully -packed, are liable to be broken, not only with the loss of the acids, -but with danger to surrounding bodies. We are told of two French ships -that perished at sea on a voyage to the colonies, in consequence of the -breaking of some bottles of sulphuric acid. - -In the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the use of ordinary solder is -impracticable, since it would soon be corroded. The following method -was introduced some years ago for forming sulphuric acid chambers, and -the concentration pans. Two edges of lead being placed in contact, -were flattened down into a long wooden groove, and secured in their -situation by a few brass pins driven into the wood. The surfaces -were next brightened by a triangular scraper, rubbed over with -candle-grease, and then covered with a stream of hot melted lead. The -riband of lead thus applied, was finally equalized by being brought -into partial fusion with the plumber’s conical iron, heated to redness; -the contact of air being prevented by sprinkling rosin over the -surface. The autogenous soldering apparatus will greatly simplify the -above method. - -The advantages to be derived from the new process, are by no means -confined to lead: the apparatus may be employed in using for solder -either the common alloys, or pure lead, to unite zinc, and iron, and -lead, with iron, copper, and zinc. It may be substituted also with -advantage for the common blow-pipe and lamp of the enameller in all -their applications to the soldering and joining performed by the aid of -these instruments by jewellers, goldsmiths, tinmen, manufacturers of -plated goods, of buttons, &c. - -The flame produced by the combustion of the gas may be most -economically employed for heating soldering irons. A few seconds -suffice to bring the iron to the desired temperature, and it can be -kept at that temperature for many hours without being liable to burn, -nothing more being necessary than to regulate the flame by means of -cocks, and the workman need not be obliged to change his iron, or even -to leave it for a single moment. Hence there is not only a considerable -saving in manual labour, but also in fuel, which in most cases is of -greater consequence. - -Such are a few only of the advantages of this simple and beautiful -invention, which is now very extensively adopted in France, and will -doubtless get into extensive use in this country, when its merits are -more generally known. - -It may be here stated, in justice to some of our own ingenious -countrymen, that after this method had become extensively known, -M. Richemont’s claim to the invention was disputed. We have been -informed, that previously to the year 1833, a Mr. Mallet had employed -an apparatus constructed on the same principle, and used in a similar -manner, as that already described as the invention of M. de Richemont. -In LOUDON’S _Encyclopædia of Cottage Architecture_, published in 1833, -the following passage occurs:--“Mr. Daniell, of King’s College, London, -has since published the same thing as new, and of his invention: -however, I can establish priority by my laboratory journal.” - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] Messrs. Vauquelin and D’Arcet state that they have seen in -soap-works the soldering of vats lined with lead crumble in a few days -to a powder. The same has been remarked of leaden pipes passing through -certain soils. - -[6] The solder often sticks without uniting and the workman may be -quite ignorant of his imperfect work; and thus gas, water, or dangerous -liquids, may be allowed to escape. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE INTERIOR--PLASTERING AND PAPER-HANGING. - - -As men rise above the rude condition of uncivilized nations, they are -not satisfied with the mere _necessaries_ of life. Their standard -of comfort becomes elevated. Those things which are luxuries to the -lowest class are comforts to the next higher class, and necessaries -to the class which is higher still in the social scale; so that -the interpretation given to the words, “luxuries,” “comforts,” and -“necessaries,” becomes a sort of index whereby to mark the grade which -an individual occupies. A roof to cover the dwelling, a glass window -which may exclude the wind and the rain, while it admits light,--a -fire-place, with appliances for carrying off smoke and the products of -combustion--however far above the standard of the uncivilized man--are -not sufficient for the Englishman of middle station. He must have his -rooms nicely squared and neatly fitted; the roof must be concealed from -view by a smooth white ceiling; the rough brick walls must be covered -not only with plaster, but with an ornamental covering of paper or -paint. Hence arises occupation for many artisans whose sole business is -to make the dwelling agreeable to the eye, after the more necessary and -indispensable parts of the structure have been finished. - - -Plastering Walls and Ceilings. - -The occupation of the plasterer is generally united with that of the -bricklayer. The business of the plasterer, as such, is to cover over -the rough walls and ceilings of a building with _plaster_, which is the -name given to a better kind of mortar, made of lime only. When this -plaster is of the coarser kind for the under or first coating, cow-hair -is mixed with it to make it bind better. When a plain brick wall is -to be plastered, the surface is at once covered with the plaster, -this adhering readily to the rough brick-work: but for ceilings or -partitions, a groundwork of laths is required to receive the first -coating. - -Laths are of different sizes and qualities, according to the various -work for which they are intended. Those used by the plasterer are -termed _single_, and are about from two to three feet long, an inch -broad, and a quarter of an inch thick. They are split out of a coarse -kind of deal. _Double_ laths are considerably longer and thicker, and -are sawn out: they are therefore regular in their size. They are used -for better work in plastering, but chiefly by tilers or slaters. - -The single laths are nailed up to the joists of the ceiling, or to the -_quartering_ of partitions, with but a small interval between each, so -as entirely to cover the surface. The workmen then proceed to cover -the lathing with coarse plaster, a labourer supplying them with a -small quantity at a time on a square board, held in the plasterer’s -left hand by means of a short thick handle stuck upright into the back -of the board. The man uses a rectangular flat wooden trowel, with a -bridge-shaped handle, to transfer the _stuff_ from the board to the -wall, and to spread it evenly over the surface. When the room of -which the walls are being plastered is of a better description, the -work is _floated_, that is, a regular surface is obtained by drawing -a long straight-edge over the wet plaster, so as to scrape off the -inequalities and reduce the whole to a plane surface. - -A thinner coating of finer plaster is spread over the first to finish -the plastering, and this is again floated in drawing-rooms, and so on. - - -Plaster and Papier-Maché Ornaments for Rooms. - -The mouldings of cornices in rooms are formed by a wooden mould drawn -along a straight-edge to guide the mould, acting like the carpenter’s -plane, when forming analogous mouldings in wood. When such cornices are -of sufficient size and depth to require it, wooden brackets, shaped -something like the profile of the cornice, are fixed up against the -wall, and laths are nailed on these brackets, to serve as a foundation -for the mouldings. By this means the necessity for a heavy mass of -plaster, to get the requisite projection in the cornice is avoided; -which mass would be unwieldly to manage, and liable to fall down by its -weight. - -Foliage and ornamental work in plaster is made by _modelling_ the -ornaments by hand, in a proper kind of clay, worked by steel or wooden -tools, resembling small spatulas in form. To do this requires a taste -and skill in drawing or designing in the workman, which raises him to -the rank of an artist. When the model is finished and dry, the surface -of it is covered with a thin coat of oil, and a mould of fine plaster -is taken from it in separate pieces. To allow of the plaster mould -being taken off the model, the edges of these separate pieces of the -mould are made smooth so as to fit accurately together. From this mould -any number of _casts_ may be taken by pouring fluid plaster into the -mould when it is put together; and as soon as each cast has _set_, or -become hard, the mould is taken off it, to be put together again for -a new cast. There has been recently an improvement introduced, which -leads to a diminution of the use of plaster for ornaments; this is by -the substitution of _papier-maché_. The material so named is formed -chiefly of paper, brought to the state of a paste, and then compressed -in moulds. There is to every ornament so made a counter-mould, -following the general contour of the ornament, so that the piece is -made about equally thick in every part. The resulting ornament is very -much less ponderous than those made of plaster, and much less liable to -fracture. The interior decorations of many buildings are now made of -this material. - - -Whitewashing and Stuccoing. - -Old plaster ceilings, walls, &c., are cleaned by being _whitewashed_. -The plaster is first washed over with clean water, by means of broad -flat brushes, to remove the dirt. All cracks and defects in the plaster -are then _stopped_ by filling them up with new plaster, and it is -frequently necessary to cut away the plaster in such places to obtain a -clean new surface to enable the new plaster to adhere. When the surface -is dry, the whitewash, made of whiting mixed up in water, is laid on -with the same form of brushes, and two or three times gone over, so as -effectually to cover all stains and marks on the surface. Instead of -being whitewashed, walls are frequently coloured by mixing ochre, of -the proper tint, in the water along with the whiting. - -The outside of walls of houses, &c., are now frequently covered with -stucco, a kind of plaster made with a lime that resists the action of -water, when set, and which, if well managed, causes the wall to look as -if built of stone. The mode of stuccoing walls is exactly the same as -that of covering them with common plaster. - - -Origin of Paper-hangings. - -In early times, wealthy people were accustomed to have the walls of -their rooms covered with _tapestry_, which was a combination of woven -cloth and needlework, somewhat mid-way between the _sampler_ work -and the _carpet_ work of our own day. These specimens of tapestry -frequently represented some historical events, and were often worked -by the hands of the lady of the mansion and her maids; but at other -times were the work of men following that line of occupation. The walls -of those rooms which were not thus covered, were usually of panelled -wainscot, or oak. - -But when tapestry went out of fashion, and a more lively covering for -a wall than oak was wished for, a custom arose of printing or stamping -certain coloured devices on sheets of paper, and of pasting those -sheets against the wall. We believe that it is in England more than in -any other country that this covering for walls is employed; and since -the removal of the duty which was formerly laid on paper-hangings, -they have become so very cheap as to be almost universally employed in -houses of every class; indeed, it may be regarded as a circumstance not -a little conducive to the comfort and neatness of humble dwellings, -that a yard of printed wall-paper can now be purchased for _one -halfpenny_. From this trifling price up to five or even ten shillings -per yard, paper-hangings are now manufactured; so great are the -improvements gradually made in the modes of manufacture. - - -The Manufacture of Paper-hangings. - -It will be interesting to give a brief description of the mode of -making, or rather printing, paper-hangings, before we speak of the -employment of the paper-hanger; for all that devolves upon him is to -fix up the paper when printed. - -The paper employed is a sort of cartoon or cartridge paper manufactured -for the purpose,--rough, but strong. Until recently, every piece of -such paper was stamped, and the excise duty paid on it, before the -process of printing commenced. - -In general, the paper is printed in “distemper,” that is, in -colours mixed with melted size, but sometimes in varnish. The -pigments or colouring substances employed, are principally -these:--_Red_ or _crimson_,--lake, vermilion, rose-pink, and red -ochre:--_Blue_,--Prussian blue, verditer, and indigo:--_Yellow_,--Dutch -pink, yellow ochre, and chrome yellow:--_Green_,--verdigris, -and various mixtures of the blues and yellows just -mentioned:--_Orange_,--vermilion, or red lake, mixed with Dutch -pink:--_Purple_,--a wash made of logwood, and various mixtures of lake -with Prussian blue, or with indigo:--_Black_,--ivory black and lamp -black:--_White_,--whiting and white lead. There are other substances -occasionally used, according as improvements or discoveries are made in -the manufacture of colours; but various combinations of those which we -have mentioned will yield almost every tint that can be desired. - -These colours are mixed with water, together with a little size or gum, -by which the colours are made adhesive without being too stiff for -working. If the paper is to be glossy when completed, or if any one -of the colours with which it is printed is desired to be glossy, the -pigment for that colour is mixed with oil of turpentine and certain -gums and resins which will give a glossy surface to the paint when -dry. Before the printing commences, the piece of paper (which is about -twelve yards long) is coated all over with that colour which is to form -the _ground_. Powdered whiting is mixed with melted size to a proper -consistence, and laid on with a large brush, in the same manner as a -ceiling is whitewashed: the piece of paper is then left to dry. If the -ground is to be white, nothing more is required before the printing; -but if it is to be coloured, a second ground is laid on, made of melted -size, and of such colouring substances as will give the required tint: -this, when dry, is the ground which is to receive the ornamental -pattern. If the ground is to be glossy, the colouring substance is -mixed with varnish, gum, resin, &c., instead of size and water. - -When the ground is thoroughly dried, the device is laid upon it, and -this is, in most cases, done by a process almost exactly corresponding -with wood-cut printing, in the fine arts. An impression is taken from -wooden blocks, which are cut in such a manner that the figure to be -expressed is made to project from the surface, by cutting away all the -other parts. But this raised device only represents that portion of the -whole figure which is to be of _one_ colour; so that if the pattern -is to be ultimately represented in four colours, as is frequently -the case, there must be four differently-carved blocks or stamps to -represent these, and the blocks must be so carefully carved with -reference to one another, that though the sizes of them are all exactly -alike, the devices occupy different parts, and do not interfere with -one another: the whole beauty and correctness of the figures depend on -the accuracy with which the blocks are carved. - -Suppose, now, that the paper is properly painted with the ground -colour, dried and spread out on a flat board,--the carved blocks ready -for use,--and the colours mixed and melted in a warm state,--the -process is then conducted as follows. A piece of leather or of oilskin -is stretched over a flat block, and a boy lays a coating of one of the -colours to be used--say green--on the leather, with a brush. A man -then takes that one of the carved blocks which is to stamp the green -part of the device, and lays it down flat on the wet colour, by which -a coating is transferred to all the raised parts of the block. This -is then stamped down, with a firm and steady pressure, upon the piece -of paper, by which the green device is permanently impressed. As the -carved block is only large enough to stamp a small portion at a time, -an adjoining portion of the long piece of paper is taken,--a fresh -coating of colour laid on the leather by the boy,--this coating again -transferred to the carved block,--and again from thence to the paper. -This continues until the whole length of the paper is printed with the -green device, care being taken that the different impressions shall -accurately join one another at the proper parts. - -The paper is then laid aside to dry, and preparations are made for -printing the second colour upon it. - -Let us suppose this colour to be _pink_. The proper ingredients are -mixed with size, and melted, and a coating of this laid on a block -covered with leather, as in the former case. The proper carved block -is then taken, and an impression stamped by its means in precisely -the same manner as before, with the exception of the colour being -pink instead of green. But in laying the wet stamp on the piece of -paper, great care is requisite in adjusting the two colours so that -they shall not interfere with each other:--for instance, if the green -represents leaves and the pink represents flowers, it is important that -the pink should not, by a misadjustment of the second stamp, go over -a part already occupied by green, so as to give a confused mixture of -green leaf and pink flower at the same spot. If we closely examine -the pattern of paper-hangings on the walls of our rooms, particularly -the inferior papers, we shall frequently see instances of the bad -adjustment to which we here allude. - -The pink stamping proceeds from end to end of the piece of paper, until -the whole is done; after which it is laid aside to dry. A process -precisely similar in every respect is followed with all the subsequent -colours, be they few or many. The more complicated the figure is, or -the greater the number of colours it contains, the greater is the -degree of care required in impressing the successive colours on the -papers. In order that no time should be lost, directly the workman -has taken a supply of colour on to his block, the boy lays on another -coating on the leather. Indeed, the whole process very much resembles -the rudest kind of _printing_, with the exception of the use of -different colours. - -The description we have here given is such as will afford a general -idea of the nature of the process. Various improvements have been from -time to time introduced for facilitating the printing; but it is hardly -necessary to dwell upon them. - - -Stencil, Washable, and Flock Paper-hangings. - -In some of the cheaper papers, the preparation of the carved wooden -block, and the time and attention necessary in using them, would -be incompatible with the charge made for the finished article: an -alteration is therefore made in the mode of proceeding. The principal -outline is printed on the paper by means of a carved block in the -usual way; but the remaining colours are put in by _stencilling_. A -stencil, or stencil-plate, is a piece of leather, oil-cloth, or thin -sheet metal, with any required device cut in it. Such a stencil is laid -down flat on the paper, and is covered with the required colour by -means of a brush. This colour of course passes through the holes in the -stencil, and falls on the paper, while the uncut parts of the stencil -prevent the colour from falling on any other part of the paper. A -device is thus painted on the paper in a much easier manner than by the -use of a carved block. But from the nature of the process it is found -that the delicate parts of the pattern cannot be represented by this -means, as it is difficult to ensure the passage of the colour through -small perforations. But for the purposes to which stencilling is -applied--viz., the preparation of cheap paper-hangings, this delicacy -is not required. One or more carved blocks are used with the stencil -plates according to circumstances, the choice between blocks and -stencils depending both on the nature of the pattern, and on the value -of the paper when finished. - -Some of the more costly kinds of paper-hangings have gold as one of the -materials forming the device. This is effected by using a wash of gold -powder, instead of a pigment, on one of the carved blocks. There are -also _washable_ paper-hangings, in which the surface is of a glossy or -varnished nature, by which it may be washed free from dirt and grease -without removing the colours with which the paper is printed. There is -likewise a kind of paper-hangings called _flock_ paper, which has been -much in use, and of which the following description has been given. - -The flock is woollen cloth reduced to great fineness, and laid on -with varnish. After the coloured portions of the paper are finished, -a carved block representing the device which is to be flocked, is -laid down on a flat place coated with wet varnish, and an impression -of the varnish is transferred to the paper, just as if it had been a -coloured pigment. A quantity of the powdered flock is then strewed over -the whole paper, and pressed on it by a flat board, a roller, or some -other convenient means. The paper is then left to dry, after which the -dry flock is brushed off from those parts where no varnish had been -applied, leaving an appearance much resembling that of coarse woollen -cloth, which our readers may frequently have noticed. The flock is -prepared in various ways. Sometimes pieces of woollen cloth of the -proper colour are taken, and chopped up by means of a bill or knife; -but this is a rude and imperfect way, now probably out of use. Another -mode is, to place the pieces of cloth in a flat box, and cause a sharp -knife, moved by machinery, to pass rapidly, with a chopping motion in -every direction over the various pieces of cloth. In some cases, also, -the cloth is reduced to flock by a kind of grinding process. - - -The Process of Paper-hanging. - -This, then, is an outline of the mode by which paper-hangings are -prepared; and we must next speak of the method of pasting them against -the walls of a room. As the long pieces or strips of paper do not -average more than two feet in width, it is obvious that a great many -joints must be made in covering the side of a room with paper. These -joints proceed not crosswise, but perpendicularly from the ceiling -downwards; and considerable care is necessary to insure the continuance -of the pattern on the two sides of a joint: it is in this that the -principal art of the paper-hanger consists. - -A strip of printed paper twelve yards long is called technically _a -piece_. This piece has ragged unfinished edges, and the edges are to be -cut away in a straight even line until a proper part of the pattern is -reached; for the blocks are so carved, that one edge always corresponds -exactly with the opposite edge. The wall, which is generally plastered, -is washed or sized, and made fit to receive the paper. The cement with -which the paper is fixed up is thin paste; and when that paste is -ready, the paper-hanger proceeds as follows. Supposing the height of -the papered part of a room to be twelve feet, he cuts on four yards -from his piece of paper, with the two ends accurately at right angles -to the long edges. He then lays it down on a flat board or bench, face -downwards, and coats the whole of the back of the paper with liquid -paste, by means of a brush. He then slightly folds the paper over, so -as to prevent it from dragging on the ground, and, mounting a ladder -or a pair of steps, applies one end of the paper to the upper part -of the wall, close to the cornice: then, by letting the paper unfold -itself, it falls to its full length, and extends down to the bottom of -the room, close to the wall. The workman has now to judge, by the eye, -whether the edges of the paper are perfectly vertical, for the whole -beauty of the work depends in a great measure on this circumstance. -When he has ascertained that the paper hangs perpendicularly, he -proceeds to press it firmly to the wall, by means of cloths; and the -paste has so far softened the paper, that wrinkles of every kind -disappear. This done, he cuts off another piece twelve feet, or four -yards long, and pastes it against the wall in precisely the same -manner. But here great precautions are necessary; for the workman has -to attend to three particulars in fixing the second piece by the side -of the first:--to cause it to hang vertically,--to make an accurate -joining of the pattern,--and to refrain from soiling the surface of the -first piece by the paste of the second. All these are precautions which -can only be properly attended to after considerable practice. - -When the workman is approaching an angle or corner of the room, he -must cut his paper to such a width as will just reach the corner, for -it is generally difficult to bring the paper round both sides of the -angle. In the case which we have supposed, the height of the room is -just one-third the length of the piece of paper, so that there need be -no joints at any intermediate part of the height. But if the height -were any other amount,--say ten feet--three pieces of that length would -leave a fourth only six feet long; and as such a piece is not likely to -be wasted, it follows that there must be a joint at some intermediate -point between the floor and the ceiling. Such a joint requires especial -care, as the pattern has to be attended to both in a vertical and a -horizontal direction. - -When the side of a room is broken by recesses, projections, &c., a good -workman will so arrange his pieces of paper as to give a symmetrical -appearance to the two sides of a projection of a recess, so that the -same part of the pattern which comes to the right hand edge shall also -be seen at the left hand. In papering a staircase, when the upper and -lower edges are oblique and not horizontal, it is of course necessary -that the ends of the paper should be cut in a corresponding manner, in -order that the long joints should be vertical. - -As it is difficult to bring the ends of the paper precisely to the -cornice at the top and to the skirting-board at the bottom, it is usual -to hide those ends by pasting a narrow strip of paper along the top -and bottom of a room, which gives a neat finish to them. This strip of -paper is printed in colours with some pleasing device; and as a broad -piece is printed as quickly as one two or three inches wide, it is -customary to carve a block with twelve or twenty repetitions of the -same narrow pattern, side by side; so that the whole are printed on one -sheet. The paper-hanger has therefore carefully to cut the strips one -from another, and paste them round the wall at the parts which we have -mentioned, and sometimes up the corners of the room likewise. - -It is sometimes preferred, instead of papering the walls of a room, -to _stencil_ them. In this case the plaster of the wall is prepared in -a smooth manner to receive the distemper colour, and the pattern is -stamped or printed on the wall in a manner almost exactly the same as -that which we have described respecting stencilling paper-hangings. -This mode is not susceptible of so much neatness as the use of printed -or stamped paper, and is only employed for common apartments. - -There is occasionally a kind of work which falls into the hands of the -paper-hanger very different from those we have mentioned--viz., fixing -gilt wood mouldings round the top and bottom of a room, instead of -pasting a paper bordering in the same place. What little we shall have -to say on this subject will be contained in the following chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE INTERIOR--PAINTING AND GILDING. - - -Reasons for Painting a House. - -The love of neatness and elegance which distinguishes the cultivated -from the rude man in the decoration of his dwelling, is not the only -motive for these interior fittings of a modern house. There are in many -instances manifest advantages, in relation to dryness and durability, -resulting from such arrangements. Such is the case with respect to -one of the two processes which will occupy the present chapter. In -noticing the services of the house-painter, it will be found that they -are conducive to something more than our love of colours and tasteful -decoration, for they greatly promote the durability of wood and iron -work. Wood of almost every kind is liable to injury from the effects of -the atmosphere, if left unprotected; but when coated with oil-paint, -its power of resisting those effects is much increased. Cleanliness is -also more easily preserved where paint is employed. If a room door, -for instance, were not painted, it would require the same scouring and -cleaning which an uncarpeted floor so often receives, though perhaps -not so frequently. When we consider, therefore, that durability, -cleanliness, neatness, and pleasing decoration, are all derived from -the judicious employment of oil-paint in a house, we shall conclude -that a painter renders important service in the preparation of a -dwelling-house. - - -Materials used in House-painting. - -House-painting, in most cases, consists in laying on several coats of -some mineral substances mixed up to a fluid consistence with _oil_. -There is no other liquid body which is found to have so many advantages -for this purpose as oil; for although turpentine, milk, beer, spirit, -and other liquids are occasionally employed, oil is the standard -material with which the colouring substances are mixed. The colouring -substances, as well as the oils, employed in painting, are very -numerous; and we can only offer a brief description of the principal -among them. - -_White lead_ is the most valuable of all the colouring bodies, since -it enters into the composition of almost every other. It is made -by exposing sheet-lead to the action of vinegar, by which a white -substance is procured. _Bougival white_, and _Spanish white_, are -mineral substances procured from abroad. _Chrome yellow_, _Turner’s -yellow_, _Massicot_, _Naples yellow_, _King’s yellow_, _Orpiment_, and -_Ochres_, are various bodies of a yellow colour, some derived from -earths, others from ores, and others from chemical treatment of metals. -_Vermilion_, _Carmine_, _Cochineal lake_, _Madder lake_, _Red lead_, -_Indian red_, _Venetian red_, &c., produce various tints of red and -crimson; but the materials themselves are derived from very different -sources. Vermilion is a compound of sulphur and mercury; Carmine and -Cochineal lake are prepared from an animal substance; Madder lake from -a vegetable; Red lead is an oxide of that metal; while the others are -derived from various kinds of earth. For a _blue_ colour, the painter -employs _Prussian blue_, which is a compound of prussic acid and iron; -_Indigo_, derived from a plant growing in the East Indies; _Blue -Verditer_, a nitrate of copper; and some other substances. Most _green_ -paints are made of salts of copper, such as _Verdigris_, which is an -acetate of copper; _Scheele’s green_, an arseniate of copper; _Green -Verditer_, a nitrate of copper, and _Brunswick green_, a muriate of -copper; together with two or three earths, such as _Italian green_, -_Saxon green_, &c. _Browns_ are generally produced by a mixture of -_black_ and _red_; but there are several earths which yield a brown -colour. These are the principal colouring materials employed by the -house-painter, for almost every intermediate tint or grade of colour -can be produced by mixtures of two or more of the above-mentioned -materials, in certain proportions. - -The liquid principally employed to mix with these dry colours is -_Linseed oil_. This is obtained by beating, pressing, or heating, from -the seed of the flax plant, the _Linum usitatissimum_, which grows in -most parts of Europe. This oil has so much _fatness_ or unctuousness, -that it would dry with extreme slowness were not some further -precautions taken. It is boiled with _litharge_ and _white vitriol_, -in certain proportions, by which it has a drying quality imparted to -it. _Nut oil_ is sometimes used in painting: this is procured from -the kernels of walnuts, beech nuts, hazel nuts, and other kinds of -nut, by a process similar to that by which linseed oil is obtained. -_Oil of turpentine_, or _turps_, is largely used by painters, as it -has a drying quality which counteracts the fatty nature of linseed -oil, in combination with which it is generally used. It is obtained -from a liquid or sap exuding from a species of pine tree, in North -America: the sap is crude, or common turpentine; and by a process of -distillation, the _oil of turpentine_ is obtained from it, leaving -a substance behind which constitutes yellow resin. _Oil of spike_, -_oil of lavender_, and _oil of poppies_, are sometimes used by the -painter; but not very frequently, on account of their expense; they -are vegetable preparations. _Pilchard oil_, (obtained from the fish,) -_common tar_, _coal tar_, and _oil of tar_, are used occasionally for -rough exterior work. _Varnish_, _size_, _beer_, _milk_, and one or two -other liquids are used to a small extent in some processes to which the -painter has to direct his attention. Varnishes are mixtures of various -resinous bodies with spirit; and size is a jelly obtained by boiling -parchment, leather, parings of hoofs, or of horn, or some similar -animal substance, in water. - - -Preparing the Paint. - -Such being the principal materials from which the painter prepares -his paint, we proceed to speak of the mode by which he mixes them. -The colours are mostly purchased in that form which is called _dry -colours_, that is, in coarse powder or small lumps; and they have to -be reduced to fine powder before they are mixed with the oils, &c. If -they contain gritty particles of sand, &c., the colour is put into a -tub or pan, and water thrown upon it, and mixed up with it. The gritty -particles soon fall to the bottom, and the remainder is poured into -another vessel, where, in a short time, the colouring substance falls -to the bottom, and can be obtained by pouring off the water; after -which the powder is dried. But if the substance is one which will -dissolve in water, or if it is not very gritty, it is ground up to -powder in a dry state. - -When the substance is reduced to fine powder, the painter begins -to incorporate the oil with it. He has a _grindstone_ of marble or -porphyry, on which he places a small quantity of the dry colour, -and moistens it with a little oil. With a large flattened pebble, -called a _muller_, he then grinds up the powder with the oil, until -both form a perfectly smooth paste. That portion is then removed -by a palette knife, (which is a broad thin knife,) and placed in -an earthen paint-pot. Another small portion of powder and oil is -ground up in a similar manner, and put into the paint-pot; and so on, -until a sufficient quantity has been obtained. When this is done, -the pot contains paint, which is too thick for use; to liquefy it, -therefore, a given quantity, which is determined by experience, of oil -or turpentine, or a mixture of both, is added, until the paint has -acquired a consistence--thick enough to prevent it from running into -drops when laid on the work--and thin enough to make it work with ease. - - -The Process of Painting. - -Supposing the carpenter to have left the doors, the windows, &c., in -a clean and smooth state, the painter’s first office is _knotting_. -Knots are round places in a plank, in which the grain of the wood runs -through the thickness of the board, so as to show the ends of the pores -at the surface. These ends absorb a greater quantity of paint than the -other portion of the wood, so that if the same number of coats were -given to all alike, the knots would have an ugly, dead appearance, in -consequence of the absorption. The painter, therefore, gives the knots -more paint than the rest of the wood-work; and the preparatory coat, -which is laid on the knots only, is called the _knotting_. The paint -used is generally red lead, and boiled oil; or sometimes red lead and -size. When this knotting is dry, the _priming_ is applied, consisting -of a thin coat of white paint. White is used for the priming under -almost every variety of circumstances, whatever the subsequent colours -may be. This white paint is a mixture of white lead, linseed oil, -and oil of turpentine, and is laid on, as are the subsequent coats, -by means of brushes which are too well known to need a lengthened -description. They vary from a quarter of an inch to three inches in -diameter, and are generally made of hog’s bristles bound round with -string, or sometimes with tin. - -When the priming is dry, the painter proceeds to fill up all the nail -holes and other irregularities, with putty. This he does by means -of a pointed knife, with which he works in small portions of putty -wherever they may be needed. It is then ready for the second coat of -paint, which is thicker than the first, generally white, but sometimes -coloured. Painting appears to be a very easy process, but in common -with other trades, it requires considerable practice before skill -can be attained. After having worked the brush over the wood-work in -every direction, so as to completely cover every part with paint, the -“laying-off” is effected by drawing the brush smoothly over every part -in the direction of the grain, particularly at the stiles and panels -of doors. Brushes of various sizes are employed, by means of which the -workman can paint the fine mouldings, beading, &c., as well as the -broader surfaces. The more skilful the workman is in the use of his -tools, the less do the marks of the brush remain visible when the work -is done. - -As each coat of paint dries, another is laid on, until sufficient has -been applied. The number varies from two to seven, according to the -part which is to be painted, and the means of those who have to pay -the painter; but in general, four coats is the average quantity which -new wood-work receives. It is the last two coats only which are of -the colour selected, as those which are preparatory are seldom other -than white. On some occasions it is desired to have the last coat -_glossy_; but in others _dead_. To effect these differences, all that -is necessary is, to vary the oil with which the colour is mixed. If -a glossy surface is required, linseed oil is principally used; but -if a dead surface, oil of turpentine predominates. It is frequently -seen that the walls of staircases, and other large surfaces, are, when -finished painting, totally without gloss. This is effected by what -is called _flatting_, that is, a coat of paint mixed wholly with oil -of turpentine: the turpentine soon evaporates, and leaves the colour -without gloss on the walls; whereas, when linseed oil is employed, the -oil dries and hardens, instead of evaporating, and assumes much of the -character of a varnish. If no linseed oil is employed in flatting, it -is called a _dead flat_; but if a little is added, in order to produce -a faint gloss, it is called a _bastard flat_. This part of the work -forms one of the most unwholesome in which the painter is engaged, -since the oil of turpentine, which is constantly evaporating during the -process, is found to be extremely prejudicial to health. - -As we are here speaking of a _new_ house, we need not detail the -process followed in repairing an old one. Nor is it necessary so to -do even in respect of the processes themselves, for they are nearly -the same for old work and new. The principal points of difference -are these:--that in old work, greasy and dirty spots are washed with -pearl-ash and water, or with turpentine; that the old paint is rubbed -smooth with pumice-stone, or, if very rough, burned off; that a smaller -number of new coats of paint will suffice; and that a larger proportion -of turpentine is used than in new work. - - -Graining and Marbling. - -We have in the above details confined our attention to that more -general and economical kind of house-painting in which a large surface -is painted of one uniform colour. But the department of house-painting -in which the taste of the workman is more fully developed, is that in -which imitations of various species of wood and marble are attempted; -these processes are called _graining_ and _marbling_. We may perhaps -call this a humble branch of the _fine_ arts, since the workman -prepares a _picture_ of a piece of wood or of a slab of marble; but -whether this be a correct term or not, it is certain that skill in this -branch depends more on taste and observation than on fixed rules. - -Graining and marbling are sometimes done in oil-paint, but more -frequently in _distemper_, that is, with a colour mixed with beer or -some other liquid more limpid than oil; in this latter case, as the -graining would not have a durable character, it receives one or more -coats of varnish. We will endeavour to give a general idea of the mode -in which graining and marbling are effected. - -The kind of wood usually imitated in this way is _oak_, or _wainscot_, -as it is more generally called. When this is imitated in oil, the last -coat of paint previous to the graining is made of rotten stone, white -lead, and linseed oil, and is of a light oak colour. On this is laid -the graining colour, which painters call the _megilp_, and which is -a thin paint composed of oil, rotten stone, sugar of lead, and white -wax. When this has set a little, the painter draws over the surface -the teeth of a kind of comb, called the _graining comb_, by which an -imitation of the grain of oak is produced; these grained lines, to make -the imitation more close, are drawn in a wavy direction. The workman -then wraps a little piece of leather round the finger, and delicately -wipes off the colour from small spots of various forms, by which the -light parts of a piece of oak are imitated. In this state, the grain -and the light parts have rather a harsh appearance, to remove which, -a soft dry brush is worked over the whole in such a manner as to make -the various parts blend with one another. A little Vandyke brown is -then mixed up into a smooth paint, and with this the dark veins are -imitated, by means of a small brush or pencil. - -But in graining oak in distemper, the graining colour consists of other -materials; many receipts are given, but one is Vandyke brown, burnt -umber, and raw umber, mixed into a paint with beer or ale. This is laid -on with a brush, and the subsequent processes of producing the grain, -the light patches, the dark veins, &c., are much the same as in oil -graining, with this exception, that the grain is produced by _veining -brushes_, instead of _graining combs_. When the whole is dry, it -receives one or two coats of varnish, to act as a preservative. - -By processes very similar to that just described, mahogany, rose-wood, -satin-wood, maple, pollard oak, zebra-wood, walnut-wood, elm, and other -species of wood, are imitated. For mahogany, the ground is Venetian red -and white lead, and the graining colour is Sienna, or Vandyke brown, -ground in beer. For rose-wood, the ground is lake, vermilion, and -flake white, and the graining colour Vandyke brown, ground in ale. For -satin-wood, the ground is the same as for light oak, and the graining -colour is Oxford ochre, ground in ale. The other kinds of wood are -imitated by grounds and graining colours more or less resembling those -now mentioned. The manual use of the tools is more difficult for the -variegated woods than for oak. Satin-wood, and some other kinds, have -large spots or patches of a lighter colour than the rest of the wood, -and of a peculiarly soft appearance; these are imitated by letting a -sponge fall on various parts of the wet graining colour, by which some -is wiped off, and the edges of these parts are then softened by means -of a badger-hair brush, called a _soft even_, which is drawn lightly -across the light and dark parts, whereby the sharp edges are softened -and blended. - -The imitation of marble is effected in a similar manner to that of -wood. For white marble, or rather, that which is slightly marked -with dark veins, the walls are first whitewashed, and then washed -with whiting and milk, to obtain a fine white surface. Lamp black, -damp blue, Indian red, and some other colours, are then laid on with -very fine pencils or brushes, in fine but irregular lines, so as to -imitate the veins of the marble. _Sienna marble_ has a ground of -yellow ochre; _Florentine marble_, one of white, black, and Indian -red; _dove-coloured_ marble, one of light lead colour; and _black_ -and _green_ marbles have the colours designated by their names. On -these grounds are pencilled the light and delicate veins traversing -the surface in every direction, according to the colour and character -of the veins in the marble to be imitated. There are then various -contrivances made use of, by which a softness is produced in all -the veins; this is of more importance in marbling than in graining, -since much of the beauty which we acknowledge to exist in marble is -undoubtedly due to the exquisite softness with which its colours are -blended. The kind of marble called _porphyry_ is imitated in a singular -manner. This marble is spotted all over in various colours; and the -imitation is therefore spotted. A ground is laid on of the proper -colour, and a brush is dipped into a mixture of vermilion and white, -and after being allowed to drain nearly dry, is struck against a piece -of wood, by which a sprinkling of small spots falls on the surface. The -brush is then dipped into another colour, and a similar process gives -a second sprinkling. This is done a third and sometimes a fourth time, -according to the colours of the spots in the marble to be imitated. The -mica, quartz, and feldspar, in granite, are sometimes roughly imitated -by similar means. - -Whatever be the kind of marble which is imitated, it is varnished after -the marbling is completed, in order both to give it greater durability, -and to imitate the beautiful polish which can be imparted to marble. - - -Gilding, as an Interior Decoration. - -Supposing the internal decorations to have proceeded thus far, we -may next say a few words about the costly material _gold_, as applied -in furtherance of these embellishments. This is only of limited -application, and in the better class of houses; but as gilt mouldings -frequently form the finishing part of the papering of a room, and as -the houses of most persons contain some articles which are gilt, we -will give a slight description of the processes followed by the gilder, -but without reference to any particular article of _furniture_, since -that is a department into which we do not profess to enter. - -A _metal gilder_, or _water gilder_, is a different workman from -the _carver and gilder_, who gilds various articles of wood or -composition. The former lays a thin coating of gold on articles of -metal, by means of mercury and of heat, an employment of an extremely -unhealthy character. The carver and gilder lays a surface of leaf-gold -on ornaments, frames, or mouldings, made of wood, plaster of Paris, -papier-maché, or composition. - -If the gold were laid on the bare material by any sort of gum or -cement, it would not adhere permanently, nor would it have that -brilliancy of appearance which the natural lustre of the metal is -calculated to produce; above all, that dazzling surface, known as -_burnished gold_, could not be so produced. The gilder, therefore, lays -on a certain thickness of such substances as experience has taught him -will answer the proposed end. There are, doubtless, many substances -which would answer for this purpose; but the course which is actually -adopted we proceed to describe. - - -The Process of Burnish-Gilding. - -We will take, as an instance, a long piece of the moulding which the -paper-hanger applies in the way to which we have alluded. This is cut -out to the proper hollow or reeded form by a carpenter, who employs -planes suited for the purpose. The wood which he uses is of a kind -tolerably free from knots and holes: and when the moulding is ready, -it passes into the hands of the gilder. The first thing done is to -wash it with a mixture of whiting and parchment-size, made quite hot, -and almost as limpid as water. The size used for this and for other -purposes required by the gilder, is obtained by boiling cuttings of -parchment in water until a stiff jelly is produced. - -When the moulding is dry from the application of this preparatory -wash, any small holes that may exist are stopped up with putty, and -the moulding is ready to receive five or six coatings of a very thick -mixture of whiting and size. Those coatings are laid on moderately -warm, by means of a brush, each coat being thoroughly dried before the -next is applied. By this means the moulding is coated to the thickness -of a sixteenth or twelfth of an inch, by which the fine squares and -hollows produced by the plane (if there happened to be such in the -moulding) would be liable to be stopped up: to prevent this, modelling -tools of various forms are drawn along the wet whiting, so as to -preserve the original pattern in tolerable condition. The whole surface -is then smoothed by small pieces of pumice-stone worked to fit the -various parts of the moulding. The stones and the whiting being kept -constantly wetted, and the former worked steadily over the latter, a -smooth and even surface is attained. - -When the moulding is dry after this smoothing process, it is further -smoothed with sand or glass paper, and is then coated with five or six -layers of _burnish gold size_. This is a very peculiar composition of -suet, black lead, clay, parchment-size, and other ingredients, mixed to -a stiff consistency. These successive coats or layers are well dried -after each application; and after one or two other processes by which -the gold size is rendered smooth, the moulding is ready to receive the -leaf gold. - -Gold, in the form in which it is thus used, is one of the thinnest -substances which the art of man has ever prepared in a solid form, -since it would require more than a quarter of a million of the small -sheets into which it is beaten, to make a pile _one inch_ in thickness. -A solid piece of gold is rolled into the form of a ribbon by means of a -flatting-mill: and the gold-beater then reduces it to the thickness--or -rather thinness--to which we have alluded, by means of hammering. - -The gilder receives this leaf gold in the form of sheets or leaves -about three inches square, inclosed between the leaves of a small book. -He blows out some of these leaves on a leather cushion surrounded by a -parchment border on three sides; this border, is to prevent the gold -from being blown away, the fourth side being left open for the future -proceedings of the workman. The gilder supports the cushion on his left -hand, and with a knife in the other, he takes up one of the leaves -of gold, and by dexterous management, spreads it out smoothly on the -cushion. He then considers the width of the moulding, (which is laid -before him,) and determines how he can best cut up the leaf of gold so -as to adapt the pieces to the width of the moulding:--if for instance -a slip one inch in width will cover the width of the moulding, he cuts -the leaf into three equal pieces. He is next provided with a flat -camel-hair brush, called a _tip_, the hairs of which are from one to -two inches in length, and laid parallel with great regularity. - -His tools being thus ready, he wets a small portion of the moulding by -means of a camel-hair pencil dipped in water, and, taking the _tip_ in -his right hand, he lays the hairs on one of the slips of gold, which -slightly adheres to it. This slip of gold he transfers to the moulding, -where it instantly adheres by means of the water with which the latter -is wetted. Another portion is wetted in a similar manner, and another -slip of gold laid on, one end of which is made to lap a little way -over the one first laid on. A third slip is now laid on in a similar -manner; and by this time the first leaf of gold is all used. A second -is therefore laid out smooth by means of the knife,--cut into three -pieces,--and laid on the moulding as before. This process continues -until the moulding has been gilt in its whole extent. We may remark, -that the moulding is placed in an inclined position, the higher end -being first gilt: this is done in order that the water should gradually -flow off from beneath the pieces of gold after they are laid on, to -facilitate the drying. - -When the gold--or rather the wetted gold size which is beneath it--has -attained a certain degree of dryness known only by experience, and -which occurs in a time varying from one to twelve hours according -to the state of the atmosphere, the gold is _burnished_ by means of -a burnisher made of flint, agate, or bone. This, if carefully done, -produces a brilliant gloss, but could not be at all attained without -the layers of whiting and gold size under the gold. Sometimes a portion -of the moulding is preferred, for relief and contrast, to be left dead -or _matt_, as it is termed. In this case the burnisher is not used; but -the gold, after it is dried, is merely secured by a thin clear cement -or varnish of parchment size. - - -The Process of Oil-Gilding. - -Sometimes no burnishing at all is required, while a degree of -durability which cannot be conveniently obtained with burnish-gilding -is desired. In this case the moulding is gilt in _oil gold_, by a -process differing in many respects from that which we have mentioned. - -For oil-gilding a ground of whiting and size is required, as in -burnish-gilding, but not in so great quantity. After the application of -a few coats of whiting and size, the moulding is smoothed in the manner -before described; and in some cases a few coats of burnish gold size -are applied, but not always. The next process is to wash the moulding -with two or three coatings of strong size, by which it acquires a gloss -somewhat similar to that produced by varnish, and which has the effect -of preventing the absorption of the substance next employed. - -The moulding is now ready to receive the _oil gold size_, which is -an exceedingly smooth mixture of ochre and oil. This is laid on in a -stratum as thin and smooth as possible; and after being set aside for -some hours, it acquires a peculiar degree of clamminess between wet -and dry; when it is ready to receive the coating of gold. The gold is -blown into the cushion, spread out, cut into slips, taken up by the -tip, and applied to the work, in the same manner as in burnish-gilding; -but the moulding is not wetted with water, the partially dry oil gold -size serving that purpose. The gold is, in this case, pressed down into -the hollows and crevices of the moulding, by means of a piece of cotton -wool; and when the whole is gilt, a soft brush is lightly applied, -by which the gold is worked into small depressions, which it would -not otherwise have reached, and the superfluous gold is rubbed off. -The gold is now left as it is, or is washed with transparent size, or -receives a coat of varnish. In either case it becomes in a short time -so far hardened as to be susceptible of washing without being rubbed -off. - - -Gilding Enriched Ornaments. - -The description which has been given of the process with reference to -the mouldings used by the paper-hanger will also apply to most other -articles with which the gilder is concerned. But in proportion to -the elaborate nature of the article must be the care bestowed by the -gilder. This particularly applies in the case of an elegant carved -looking-glass frame. - -The richly ornamented frames, window-cornices, mouldings, &c., which -form a great part of the work of the gilder, are in general not carved -in wood, but are cast in moulds, and are made of a tough and durable -composition formed principally of glue and whiting. The ornaments, -when cast, are fixed on wood frame-work or foundation, and in that -state pass into the hands of the gilder. His mode of treating them -is somewhat different from that required by a straight plain piece -of moulding:--the material itself does not require so many layers of -whiting and size as those articles which are made wholly of wood; and -the difficulty of smoothing intricate and ornamental surfaces renders -many precautions necessary. - -Sometimes the cornice of a room, or a portion of it, and also the -central ornament of the ceiling, are gilt. This is generally done in -oil gold; and as the material of which they are made, viz., plaster of -Paris, very much resembles whiting, scarcely any of the last-mentioned -substance is required to be applied by the gilder. - -We may here state, in connexion with what has been said about gilt -mouldings for rooms, that the paper-hanger fixes them to the wall by -means of broken needles, or headless brittle needles made for the -purpose. The pieces of moulding are cut to the required length, and -mitred, so as to join accurately at the corner; after which they are -fastened to the wall by driving in some of the needles at distances of -two or three feet. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -A MODEL DWELLING-HOUSE. - - -The late Sir John Robison’s House at Edinburgh. - -The various contrivances for rendering a dwelling-house complete in all -that respects the comfort of the inmates, could not perhaps be better -illustrated than by taking some actual instance, and showing what has -really been effected. The late Sir John Robison, an enlightened man of -science at Edinburgh, erected a house in the north-west part of that -city, and fitted it up with a care which has been rarely observed in -other places. So much has this house been regarded as a model, that a -full description of it has been given in the Supplement to LOUDON’S -_Encyclopædia of Cottage and Villa Architecture_; and we propose -to give an abstract of such portions of this description as can be -understood without the aid of elaborate drawings. - -The distribution of the internal space of the house is so managed, -that, with the exception of two partitions in the first chamber-floor, -which cross the floors without resting on them, all the internal -walls reach from the foundation to the roof. The two partitions here -mentioned are of stone, and are supported on cast-iron beams isolated -from the floors, the joists of which are supported by wooden beams -placed alongside, but not connected with the iron beam. The movements -of the flooring, therefore, are not communicated to the partitions, and -do not consequently affect them by vibration. - -The arrangement of the rooms, staircases, and passages, has especial -reference to the ventilation of the whole house. While the mass of -air in the rooms and passages is constantly undergoing renewal by the -escape of the vitiated air above, and the admission of large supplies -of fresh air from below, no currents are perceived in the apartments, -which, even when crowded with company, and amply lighted, preserve a -remarkable degree of freshness. Cylindrical flues of earthenware, nine -inches in diameter, are built into the gables, in close proximity to -the smoke flues of each room; and the lower ends of these ventilating -flues open into the spaces between the ceilings of the respective rooms -and the floors of those above them; and there is one or more of these -exit air-flues in each room, according to its size and use. The heated -and vitiated vapours pass upwards through the ceiling by a continuous -opening of about one inch and a half wide (behind one of the fillets -of the cornice) all round each room; and having thus passed into the -space between the ceiling and the floor immediately above, they ascend -by the flues in the wall, and are discharged by them into the vacant -space between the ceilings of the attics and the roof, from whence they -find their way through the slates to the open air. The passage for the -air through the cornice is not visible from the floor of any of the -rooms, an ornamental moulding being so arranged as to conceal it. The -air flues are made to terminate above the ceilings of the attics, and -below the roof of the house, rather than at the chimney heads, in order -to prevent the possibility of smoke being over brought down by reverse -currents; and an advantage is likewise gained in protecting the attic -story from the cold which would otherwise be communicated from the roof -during winter. - -The continued supply of fresh air to the lower part of the house, -to replace that which is carried off by the ventilators and by the -chimneys, is brought in from the garden behind the house by a passage, -the sectional area of which is eight square feet. The cold air admitted -by this passage (or by another similar one from the front of the house) -is made to pass over a stove in a lower chamber having a surface of -nearly ninety square feet, so that a temperature of from 64° to 70° -Fahr., can thus be imparted to the air. In very cold weather, 70° -is occasionally given to compensate the cooling effect of the walls -and glass windows, so as to preserve an equable temperature of 60° -throughout the house; but the usual temperature of the air issuing from -the stove is as low as 64°. The whole of this air is discharged into -the well of the staircase, which forms a reservoir from whence the -rooms draw the quantity required to maintain the upward currents in the -chimneys and in the ventilating flues. The air in the staircase finds -its way into the apartments by masked passages, of four or five inches -wide, and four feet long, over the doors, and by openings an inch in -width left under each door. The sectional areas of these passages are -more than equal to the areas of the chimney and ventilating flues; -there is, therefore, no rarefaction of the air within the rooms, nor -any tendency of the external air to enter at chinks of windows or other -irregular apertures. The course of the air, from the great aperture -over the stove, through the staircases, over and under the doors, into -the rooms, thence through the ceilings, and upwards by the escape -flues, forms a continuous series, in which all the air for all the -rooms comes from one central point, and is raised at that centre to the -precise temperature required. The quantity of escape is regulated by -hand, by means of throttle-valves at the mouth of each escape flue; -hence, by opening or shutting each throttle-valve, the rate of the -ventilating current is augmented or diminished. - -The kitchen is ventilated on the same principle as the upper rooms. One -flue proceeds from the ceiling over the fire-place, and another from -over a gas-cooking apparatus. The first of these is built in the gable, -close to the smoke flue; and the second passes up near the back of the -water cistern, so that the constant ascent of the warmed air may by its -vicinity prevent the water in the cistern from freezing in the winter. - -The house is lighted by gas in every part; but no offensive vapour -or inconvenience of any kind appears ever to be felt from it. The -distribution pipes are of greater diameter than are generally employed, -and the pressure or current is thereby so equalized, that no sinkings -or flutterings of the flame are caused by the opening and shutting -of doors. The forms and proportions of the Argand burners and glass -chimneys are also so arranged as to effect nearly a maximum development -of light (of an agreeable hue) from the gas, and to prevent any -disengagement of sooty vapour; and the white and gold ceilings of the -drawing-room are said to attest the complete success with which this -latter object has been attained. The mirrors over the chimney-pieces -have statuary marble frames, and each chimney-piece has two gas lights. -But the use of gas in the kitchen is perhaps the most remarkable. Here -there is a _gas-cooking_ apparatus. In the application of gas for -cooking, the arrangements are generally as follow:--A metallic ring, -pierced on its upper side with a great number of holes of very small -size, is attached to the pipe communicating with the gas main, and is -placed within a double drum or cylinder of iron, raised an inch or two -from the floor on short legs. This double cylinder is so constructed -as to leave a space between the inner and the outer cylinder of about -two inches; and in this space near to the bottom, the pierced ring is -fixed. A stop-cock in the pipe connecting the pierced ring with the -gas main shuts off the supply of gas when the stove is not in use. On -opening the cock, and applying the gas to the pierced ring, a brilliant -ring of flame is immediately produced, which soon heats both cylinders. -The air within the inner cylinder ascends into the room, which it -helps to warm; the outer surface of the outer cylinder also performs a -similar service; while the space between the two cylinders contains the -products of combustion, which are allowed to escape into the room, if -the heating power of the whole is required; but which are carried off -by an inclosed channel, if it be wished to protect the air of the room -from deleterious mixture. - -In this house, the gas-cooking stoves are eight in number, the mouth of -each being four inches in diameter, a size which experience has shown -to be the most useful. The kitchen fire-place is no larger than is -requisite for roasting; all the other processes being performed either -in the oven, the steaming vessels, or at the gas stoves. These stoves -are placed in the bay of a large window, thus giving the cook the -advantage of a good light above the level of the pans. A close boiler -at the back of the grate affords steam for the cooking utensils and for -a hot closet; it also contains a coil of iron tubing, through which the -water of a bath, placed in a dressing-room on the chamber floor, is -made to circulate when a hot bath is wanted. - -The flues for carrying off heated vapours, &c., are of two kinds. -It has already been stated, that the vitiated air of the rooms is -convoyed by apertures just below the ceiling into pipes which find an -exit at the top of the house. These flues are made of cylinders of red -earthenware, eight or nine inches in diameter. Those by which the smoke -of the fires is carried away, are cylinders of fire-brick clay, from -two to three inches thick, and from seven to ten inches in diameter. -In each fire-place, where the throat of the chimney is contracted over -the grate, there is a valve made of rolled iron plate, which fits into -a cast-iron seat fixed in the brick-work; when this valve is in its -seat, neither soot nor smoke can pass; and when it is thrown back, the -passage to the flue is unobstructed. - -After describing the mortise locks for the doors, and the arrangements -of some French windows for opening into a balcony, both of which -exhibit ingenious and novel features, Mr. Loudon quotes a letter -from Mr. Hay, of Edinburgh, the author of a _Treatise on Harmonious -Colouring_, and who superintended the interior decorations of the -house. The drawing-rooms are first spoken of thus:--The walls have been -prepared with several coats of white lead, grained to imitate morocco -leather; on this a pattern of gilded rosettes has been laid, and the -whole varnished with copal. Another pattern has then been superadded -in flat white, so that the whole has been compared in appearance -to a lace-dress over satin and spangles. Mr. Hay says: “There is -nothing very much out of my usual practice in the painting done in -Sir John Robison’s house in Randolph Crescent, except the walls of -the drawing-rooms and staircase. The bed-rooms were done in the usual -way; namely, ceilings sized on two coats of oil paint; walls papered -with a white embossed satin-ground paper, with small brown sprigs; -and the wood-work painted white, and finished with copal varnish. -The dining-room and Sir John’s own room were both done in imitation -of wainscot, with white ceilings, varnished. The staircase ceilings -and cornices painted white and flatted; and the walls and wood-work -painted also white, and varnished with copal. The drawing-rooms and -ante-rooms were all painted white; the ceilings and cornices, as well -as the wood-work, being finished flat, and heightened with gilding. -The walls are, as I have already said, rather peculiar in their -style of painting. The ground work is rendered regularly uneven by -being granulated--by working it over with the point of a dry brush, -immediately applying the two last coats of paint. This is partly -varnished and partly flat, the flat parts forming large rosettes. -Between these rosettes are smaller ones, gilded, not in the base-metal -used upon paper-hangings, but in sterling gold leaf. This style of -decorative painting, from the great body of paint employed in producing -the granulated surface, the copal varnish, and the gold leaf, must -be of the most durable description. I may here mention, that during -the last two or three years, I have painted a very great number of -drawing-rooms in various styles, some with rich borders, others in -my patent imitation of damask, and a few in styles similar to that -employed upon Sir J. Robison’s; and have papered very few. I feel very -sure, that as the advantages of painting over papering, especially -in the public rooms of a mansion, become generally known, the latter -style of decoration will be entirely given up. As to the colouring -of ceilings, that must be left in a great measure to the taste of -the proprietor; as some like pure white, others delicate tints, and -a few go the length of the most intense colours, or polychrome. With -this last class I myself agree; but I am at the same time aware, that -if this be not done with the most strict attention to the laws of -harmonious colouring, the effect must be bad; it would be like a person -unacquainted with the science of music, running his fingers at random -over the keys of a powerful organ. In the one case, white, or a light -tint, is better than colours; and in the other, silence better than -such an attempt at music.” - - -A Beau-ideal English Villa. - -The work from which the above has been derived, viz., LOUDON’S -_Encyclopædia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture_, contains -a chapter contributed by an anonymous writer, but devoted to a -singular and interesting subject. The object is to lay down rules -for the construction and furnishing of a villa which should be -the _beau-ideal_--the standard of excellence--of this class of -dwelling-house. He describes the characteristics of the old English -country-house; and, taking that as his model, shows how modern -improvements may be brought to bear on the general arrangements of the -building. The description is too long to be given here in full, even -if it were right so to do; but we will condense into a few paragraphs -those details which relate to the construction and fittings of the -house, omitting all those matters which relate only to furniture. - -The residence here described, or rather imagined, is the country house -of an English gentleman of ample means, but partaking much more of the -_manorial_ than of the palatial character. The term _villa_ is not -perhaps so fixed in meaning as to convey to every one the same idea -of the kind of building alluded to. The word was originally used by -the Romans to denote a farm-house, with the offices requisite for the -accommodation of a husbandman. Afterwards, when luxury increased, the -term _villa_ was applied to the country residence of an opulent Roman -citizen. It is in a somewhat similar style that the word is here to be -used. - -The villa being a place of agreeable retirement, but not one of -seclusion from the world, it should be situated within reach of a -public road, at an easy distance from the metropolis. “I should prefer -a situation removed about a mile from the great public road, and about -ninety miles or a day’s journey from the metropolis. Here I would -inclose a park of 100 or 150 acres; bounded on the north and west sides -by lofty wooded hills; on another side by a road; and elsewhere by the -inclosed country of the district; the surface of the park varied, but -gently inclining to the south, with a rapid stream of water passing -through it at no great distance from the site of the house.” - -A villa (the writer proceeds to say) should always form part of a -village, and be placed if possible on rather higher ground. The old -English style of architecture is preferred; as being more picturesque -and ornamental; as according best with rural scenery; as, by admitting -great irregularity of form, it affords space for the various offices -and conveniences necessary in a country house; and as being better -suited to our climate than the Grecian style, which, by requiring -porticoes, projecting cornices, and windows of rather small size, -tends to intercept the light and make the house gloomy. The old style -also allows more variety of ornament upon the roof, such as the -stacks of chimneys, gables, pinnacles, turrets, and other appendages -to the general effect of a building when seen at a distance; whereas -in the Grecian style, which requires perfect symmetry of form, and -the prevalence of straight lines, these arrangements could not be -admissible. For these reasons an old English or “Elizabethan” house -is selected. The front of the house would present a centre and two -projecting wings. The centre would contain the hall and dining-room, -with a gallery and staircase behind them. One wing would be occupied -by the drawing-room and library, with the saloon between them. The -other wing might contain a sitting-room, and superior offices for -servants; the inferior offices being on the basement, or in a separate -building in the kitchen-court. The principal part should be highly -ornamented, and form a symmetrical whole. In the centre would be the -porch of two stories, with its rich gable, small pillars, escutcheons, -&c.; the wall on either side (broken into compartments by pilasters, -or handsome buttresses, and proper string-courses) would contain large -mullioned windows; the whole supporting a battlement or parapet, with -its appropriate ornaments. The ends of the projecting windows would -present each a bay window of two stories, square or semicircular in -form, with balustrade or stone covering above; the gables of the wings -corresponding with that of the porch. The high and steep roof should be -varied by ornamental chimneys of different patterns, placed in their -proper situations; and, rising above them, the tower, containing the -grand staircase, appearing at a short distance behind the porch; its -waving cupola roof terminating in a rich lantern, and supporting a -weathercock or dwarf spire. - -After giving his reasons for thinking that a country residence in the -Elizabethan style should have a kind of rich framework of courts and -gateways, balustraded terraces, and architectural gardens, the writer -proceeds to describe the interior of his supposed edifice, beginning -with the _porch_. This should be ascended by a flight of stone steps; -it should be floored with stone; and the ceiling, the door, and the -door-way, highly enriched. - -The entrance-hall, which succeeds the porch, would vary in its -character according to the size of the house. In the large old English -mansions it was formerly the dining-room and place of rendezvous for -the servants and retainers; but in a smaller house, such as might be -termed a villa, and especially under the altered habits of English -society, a smaller hall, and one more nearly resembling a mere -entrance, would be fitting. An English hall admits of much picturesque -embellishment, such as a carved oak roof or ceiling, either flat or -semicircular, enriched with highly-wrought bosses or coats of arms; a -music gallery across the end, supported by pillars or a carved screen; -a chimney-piece reaching to the cornice of the roof; and a carved -wainscot covering half the height of the walls. - -Having entered the porch-door, and crossed the lower end of the -hall, entrance would be gained to the _gallery_, a sort of an in-door -promenade, between the hall and the staircase; having one door leading -to the saloon, another to the billiard-room, and another to the -domestic offices. “The staircase is an important convenience in every -house; and it should always be a striking feature in a mansion of any -elegance. The tower, which I suppose to contain the staircase, would -be square, as high as the ceiling of the upper floor, where it would -take a sort of octagon form; the roof coned, and ending in a lantern: -in the centre of the lantern a boss would support a lamp. In the side, -opposite to the arch by which you enter, would be a tall mullioned -window filled with stained glass. Advancing a few steps, you would -reach the first flight in the middle of the tower, and ascend to the -first landing-place; you would find a flight of stairs on the right -and left leading to the second landing, in the centre of which is the -upper gallery door, immediately over the arch below. As the house is -to be in the old English style, the stairs might be either of oak or -stone; but the balusters must be of oak handsomely carved, and rather -heavy. They might begin at the foot of the stairs with a richly-carved -sort of pedestal, and the same at each corner as they ascend. In old -staircases there was frequently an animal of some sort sculptured in -wood, supporting the family arms, placed on these pedestals, especially -at the foot of the stairs; or the animal had a substitute in a ball or -pine-apple.” - -The chief apartments on the ground floor are described as being the -saloon, the drawing-room, the library, the dining-room, and the study. -The saloon is generally a sort of vestibule to the dining-rooms; and, -supposing it to be such in this case, and of a parallelogram form, its -arrangement is thus sketched:--The entrance door is in the centre of -the side next the gallery; in the centre of the end on the right hand -would be the drawing-room door, and in the centre of the other end the -library door. On the other side should be two windows, with a glass -door between them opening to the terrace and garden. The drawing-room -would be larger than the saloon. On entering from the saloon the -opposite end would present a square or circular bay-window, commanding -a view of the park and the distant country beyond it. On the right side -would be the fire-place, and on the opposite side two windows looking -over the terrace. - -Crossing the saloon from the drawing-room we should arrive at the -library. This would be about the same size as the drawing-room, and -would, like it, have a bay window opposite the entrance, and two other -windows opposite the fire-place. This room, it is supposed, would be -the family sitting-room when there is no company in the house; and -would be the forenoon resort of the gentlemen when guests are stopping -at the house; and hence arises a very minute and curious detail of the -manner in which the library should be fitted up, in order to answer -this double purpose. These, however, we cannot enter upon; but the -following will give an idea of the manner in which this imaginative -house-builder fills up the rooms of his villa:--“As to the smaller -ornaments to be placed around the room, they should be curious and -interesting, and on no account frivolous. Handsome silver inkstands, a -few curious fossils, or models of celebrated buildings; all sorts of -writing-cases and implements, taper stands of silver, boxes of coins, -old china in large jars, and anything of these kinds, with handsome -books, might decorate the tables; and, as nothing gives a room a more -dismal effect than an appearance of idleness, everything should be so -arranged, both here and in the drawing-room, as if the persons using -the rooms had been employed in some way or other. This effect would -be produced by the daily papers, and some periodical works, and open -letters received in the morning, on the principal tables; and, on other -tables, some of the blotting-books might be open; the inkstands not -thoroughly in order, with some unfinished writing and open books or -portfolios, would give at least the appearance of industry. I do not -recommend such foolish tricks, which are, I know, often used by idle -people, who have sense enough to feel the bad taste of indolence; and -in a sensible family, who spent their time rationally, this would be, -in fact, the usual state of the room, at least during the morning.” - -The dining-room of the _beau-ideal_ villa is contiguous to the hall, -whence entrance is obtained by double doors. The walls are covered with -old oak wainscot. The fire-place should be very large, reaching nearly -to the ceiling, and all the fittings and arrangements of a massive, -solid, and handsome kind. The gentleman’s study, or business room, -would be a smaller, plainer, and more strictly private room, on the -same floor, and used for writing, reading, and transacting business. - -Having disposed of the principal apartments, the writer proceeds -to describe the rooms on the next floor above, occupied chiefly as -bed-rooms. The grand staircase leads up to a second gallery, over -the lower one; and in this gallery are the doors of all the best -sleeping-rooms. The sitting and sleeping nurseries are also on this -floor; as is likewise the governess’s sitting-room, “in a quiet part -of the house.” The bed-rooms for the servants are on the upper floor, -approached by the back staircase. - -Then we descend to the basement of the house, where the various -servants’ rooms are situated. The housekeeper’s room should be a -spacious comfortable room, furnished as a respectable parlour; and so -situated that the other offices may be overlooked by the housekeeper. A -door in this room should open into the still-room, which is the common -sitting-room of the under female servants, and where portions of the -ordinary operations are carried on. A store-closet opens conveniently -into the still-room, and has conveniences for arranging the stores -and provisions as they are unpacked. The butler’s pantry, being the -room in which the plate is lodged, should be placed in a part secluded -from the back entrance to the house, and should have strong doors and -window-shutters to prevent depredation. The servants’ hall would be -near the back entrance to the house, and easy of access. Here all the -under servants would dine, and it would be the common sitting-room -for the males. The larders, if the house were large, would be four in -number; the wet larder for undressed meat, the dry larder for cold -meat, the game larder, and the pastry. - -The kitchen, as being one of the most important rooms in a hospitable -mansion, is treated with due importance. The writer describes the -arrangements in the kitchen of a mansion in Warwickshire, as being -fitted to serve as a model. “The kitchen, scullery, larder, &c., formed -a range of building on one side of the kitchen-court, separate from -the house, but there was a covered way between them. The building was -of two stories, the kitchen occupying the centre. It was a large lofty -room, of good proportions, as high as two stories of the building. You -entered it at one end, by large folding-doors, from a passage through -the building; at the opposite end was the fire-place, with the screen -before it; on one side of which was the door to the scullery and -bakehouse, on the other a range of set coppers of different sizes. On -one side of the room were two rows of windows, and under the lower row -a range of charcoal stoves and hot plates: the latter to keep things -warm. The other side had only the upper row of windows, and against the -wall was a dresser, above which the copper cooking utensils, &c., were -ranged in a very ornamental way. A long table was in the centre of the -room, and over the door a dial-clock. The ceiling had a very handsome -cornice, and a boss in the centre, from which hung a brass lamp. -Opposite the entrance door another door admitted you to a passage, on -one side of which were the larders, on the other salting-rooms, &c.; -and at the end a staircase led to the cook’s apartment over. There -was a sort of turret in the centre of the roof, containing a capital -clock, which struck upon the dinner bell. The other offices were in -the basement of the house, and the kitchen was detached, to prevent -the annoyance of the smell of cooking, which commonly ascends from -a kitchen beneath the house. I thought the arrangement particularly -convenient, and the kitchen was really an elegant apartment. As, in a -large establishment, there is cooking going on through the whole day, -it is of importance to the comfort of the family, to place the kitchen -in such a situation that the smell of cooking, which is particularly -offensive, may not be an annoyance to the principal apartments. A house -with the kitchen in the basement story is generally subject to this -inconvenience, and it is usually avoided by having the kitchen and -offices in a separate building adjoining the house.” - -The writer continues his remarks and descriptions in a similar manner, -treating of all the various parts of the building in succession; then -of the riding-house, the stable-yard, the coach-houses, the harness -and saddle rooms, and the dog-kennel; then of the kitchen garden, -the pleasure garden, the dairy, the farm buildings for a “gentleman -farmer;” and, lastly, of the village and the village church, so far -as regards the relation between them and the mansion. In short, this -writer seems to have proposed to himself this question--“What are the -excellencies to be desired and attained in the mansion of an English -country gentleman?” and he appears to have solved it by putting -together the scattered fragments of his experience in various quarters, -and building up an ideal mansion therefrom. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -FIRE-PROOF HOUSES. - - -The attempts which have been made to render houses fire-proof are so -intimately connected with the construction of dwellings, that it will -be proper to give a few brief details on the subject. There are many -difficulties attending these attempts; for so long as wood forms the -chief inner frame-work of a house, there will always be considerable -liability to destruction by fire. Most of the proposed plans have had -relation to the coating of the wood with some substance which should -render it less inflammable, while others have been directed rather to -the rejection of combustible substances from the list of those used in -house-building. - -So long back as 1775, Mr. Hartley made several trials in order to -test the efficacy of a method invented by him for that purpose. Thin -iron plates were nailed to the top of the joists; the edges of the -sides and ends being lapped over, folded close, and hammered together. -Partitions, stairs, and floors were proposed to be defended in the same -manner. The plates were so thin as not to prevent the floor from being -nailed on the joists in the same manner as if the iron were not used; -and the plates were kept from rust by being painted or varnished with -oil and turpentine. Mr. Hartley had a patent for this invention; and -Parliament voted a sum of money towards defraying the expense of his -numerous experiments. It does not, however, appear that the plan was -permanently adopted. - -About the same period, Lord Mahon, afterwards Earl Stanhope, a -nobleman possessing a highly inventive tact in mechanical matters, -brought forward another method having the same object in view. This -method was of a three-fold character, comprising _under-flooring_, -_extra-lathing_, and _inter-securing_. - -The method of under-flooring is either single or double. In single -under-flooring, a common strong lath of oak or fir, about one-fourth -of an inch thick, should be nailed against each side of every joist, -and of every main timber, supporting the floor which is to be secured. -Other similar laths are then to be nailed along the whole length of the -joists, with their ends butting against each other. The top of each of -these laths or fillets ought to be at an inch and a half below the top -of the joists or timbers against which they are nailed; and they will -thus form a sort of small ledge on each side of all the joists. These -fillets are to be well bedded in a rough plaster when they are nailed -on, so that there may be no interval between them and the joists; and -the same plaster ought to be spread with a trowel upon the tops of -all the fillets, and along the sides of that part of the joists which -is between the top of the fillets and the upper edge of the joints. -In order to fill up the intervals between the joists that support the -floor, short pieces of common laths, whose length is equal to the width -of these intervals, should be laid in the contrary direction to the -joists, and close together in a row, so as to touch one another; their -ends must rest upon the fillets, and they ought to be well bedded in -the rough plaster, but are not to be fastened with nails. They must -then be covered with one thick coat of the rough plaster, which is to -be spread over them to the level of the tops of the joists; and, in a -day or two this plaster should be trowelled over, close to the sides of -the joists, without covering the tops of the joists with it. - -In the method of double-flooring, the fillets and short pieces of laths -are applied in the same manner as here noticed; but the coat of rough -plaster ought to be little more than half as thick as that in the -former method. Whilst the rough plaster is being laid on, some more of -the short pieces of laths must be laid in the intervals between the -joists upon the first coat, and be dipped deep in it. They should be -laid as close as possible to each other, and in the same direction with -the first layer of short laths. Over this second layer of short laths -there must be spread another coat of rough plaster, which should be -trowelled level with the tops of the joists, without rising above them. -The rough plaster may be made of coarse lime and hair; or, instead of -hair, hay chopped to about three inches in length may be substituted -with advantage. One measure of common rough sand, two measures of -slaked lime, and three measures of chopped hay, will form in general -a very good proportion, when sufficiently beaten up together in the -manner of common mortar. The hay should be put in after the two other -ingredients are well mixed up together with water. This plaster should -be made stiff; and when the flooring boards are required to be laid -down very soon, a fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder, formed -by dropping a small quantity of water on the limestone shortly before -it is used, and well mixed with this rough plaster, will cause it to -dry quickly. If any cracks appear in the rough plaster work near the -joists, when it is thoroughly dry, they ought to be closed by washing -them over with a brush wet with mortar wash: this wash may be prepared -by putting two measures of quicklime and one of common sand into a -vessel, and stirring the mixture with water till the water becomes of -the consistence of a thin jelly. - -Before the flooring boards are laid, a small quantity of very dry -common sand should be strewed over the plaster work, and struck smooth -with a hollow rule moved in the direction of the joists, so that it -may lie rounding between each pair of joists. The plaster work and -sand should be perfectly dry, before the boards are laid, for fear of -the dry rot. The method of under-flooring may be applied to a wooden -staircase, but no sand is to be laid upon the rough plaster work. The -method of extra-lathing maybe applied to ceiling joists, to sloping -roofs, and to wooden partitions. The third method, which is that of -inter-securing, is very similar to that of under-flooring; but no sand -is afterwards to be laid on. Inter-securing is applicable to the parts -of a building as the method of extra-lathing. - -Such is a general outline of the modes proposed by Lord Mahon for -rendering houses fire-proof; in which it will be seen that the -safeguard consists in the use of a non-combustible material, with, and -among, and between the pieces of wood forming the frame-work of a house. - -The more recent attempts to gain the same object by means somewhat -similar have been very numerous; some of which we may here notice as -examples of the whole. - -An American patent was granted in 1837 to a Mr. Louis Pambœuf, for -the invention of a fire-proof paint. The mode of preparing it is thus -described. A quantity of the best quicklime is selected, and slacked -with water in a covered vessel; when the slacking is complete, water, -or skimmed milk, or a mixture of both, is added to the lime, and -mixed up with it to the consistence of cream. When milk is not used a -solution of rice paste is employed, obtained by boiling eight pounds -of rice to every hundred gallons of paint. When the creamy liquor is -prepared, alum, potash, and common salt are added, in the proportion of -twenty pounds of alum, fifteen pounds of potash, and a bushel of salt, -to every hundred gallons of the paint. If the paint is to be white, six -pounds of prepared plaster of Paris and the same quantity of fine white -clay are added to the above proportions of the other ingredients. All -these ingredients being mingled, the mixture is strained through a fine -sieve, and then ground in a colour-mill. - -When roofs are to be covered, or when crumbling brick walls are to be -coated, fine white sand is mixed with the paint, in the proportion of -one pound to ten gallons of paint; this addition being made with a view -to giving the ingredients a binding or petrifying quality. In applying -this paint, except in very warm weather, it is prepared in a hot -state; and in very cold weather precautions are necessary to prevent -it from freezing. Three coats of this paint are deemed in most cases -sufficient. - -In another variety of this paint oil is the chief liquid ingredient. To -prepare it forty gallons of boiled linseed oil are mixed with slacked -lime to the consistence of a paint; and to this are added two pounds -of alum, one pound of potash, and eight pounds of common salt; or good -wood-ashes may be substituted for the potash. This paint is used in the -same manner as other paint; and any colour may be obtained by adding -the usual pigments to the composition. - -The preparation of a kind of paint containing alkalies seems to have -been a favourite measure among inventors of “fire-proof” composition; -for many of the modern projects have had this for its basis. But in -most cases there have not been means for determining the degree of -efficacy possessed by these compositions. There were, however, a few -years ago trials made of rather an interesting character, which were -described in the public journals, and which were of the following -nature. - -In 1838, a company was formed for the sale and use of a composition -of this kind, and an experiment was made in the Clapham Road to show -its efficacy. The house, which was a small one, had been built in the -usual way, with the intention of being fitted up in the ordinary style. -While yet a mere shell, all the boards, timbers, floors, ceilings, -stairs, and wood-work generally, were coated thickly with a greyish or -slate-coloured composition, which dried to a state of great hardness. - -On a particular day the upper floor was covered with shavings in great -abundance, to which a number of deal planks were subsequently added. -The first floor front room was fitted up as a chamber, with bed and -furniture, chairs, tables, &c., as nearly as possible in the usual -style. The shavings and wood on the upper floor were then kindled, as -were also planks and shavings placed on the floor of the furnished -room. The consequence of this was that the two rooms speedily exhibited -a blaze of light: the whole of the furniture (purposely selected of an -inexpensive kind) being ignited. The flames burst from the windows; but -although the entire contents of the room were consumed, the fire did -not communicate to the floor above, nor to that beneath, nor even to -the other room on the same floor. Several small parcels of gunpowder -were introduced between the ceiling of the burning room and the floor -of the room above it; but they did not ignite; nor were the other -parts of the house injured in any material degree. - -Another trial took place at the White Conduit Gardens; where two close -wooden buildings, of the size and shape of sentry boxes, were placed in -the grounds. One of them was coated on the inside to the thickness of -about an eighth of an inch with the composition, and was also partially -covered on the outside; while the other was left in the plain wood -state. A flooring was placed at about the centre of each of these, and -through the holes in front shavings were put and then ignited. The box -which was not coated with the composition was soon in flames; while -the fire in the other went out without having had any effect upon the -general structure. The building which was in flames was then placed -contiguous to the partially-coated outside of the other, and although -it was not materially injured, the exterior coating peeled off in some -places, and the wood became charred; the interior, however, appeared -perfectly uninjured by the flame. - -If the results of these experiments were really such as the description -would seem to imply, it might excite surprise how it happens that no -practical results have followed. But there are always numerous reasons -why an experiment, which succeeds under circumstances _made_ for the -occasion, should not be available in practice; and it is probable that -some such discordance may exist here. Perhaps the mode in which we may -more consistently look for the practical attainment of the object in -view is by the adoption of some improved mode of building, in which -either wood is not employed at all, or, where sparingly used, measures -are taken to shield it from the action of fire. One such method is -Leconte’s, described as follows. - -This plan consists in the employment of iron frames to receive concrete -matter for forming the walls. The basement story of the building is -constructed according to the ordinary methods up to one foot or more -above the ground. On the basement so constructed is to be erected the -patent wall, formed of frames entirely of cast-iron, in one or more -pieces, or a combination of cast-iron and wrought-iron plates. These -frames are to be set one on the other until the required height is -attained, the necessary stability being obtained by means of steady -pins at the corners of one frame fitting into holes made in the -corners of the frame which is opposed to it. Suitably-shaped frames -are employed for the internal partition walls, and for doorways, -window-frames, &c. The flues of the chimneys are formed of iron or -other metal pipes, placed in the thickness of the walls. When the -required elevation is obtained, a concrete of any suitable material is -poured into the framing, and fills up the vacant space, giving firmness -and solidity to the structure; the concrete being made of gravel and -lime. To give steadiness, lead is to be introduced between the joinings -of the iron-work. The doors and window-frames are to be fastened to -the walls by any of the usual known methods. The main beams and cross -beams of floors and roofs may be of cast-iron, or formed of iron and -wood; or they maybe formed of one or more pieces of plate-iron, bent up -into an oval form, and straightened by an iron or wooden bar passing -through them lengthwise, the upper edges of the metal being turned -over to increase the strength. In the interval between the beams there -are to be iron rods running in various directions, and supporting a -metallic wire-work, which forms the foundation for the ceiling. Similar -wire-work is to be employed in lieu of laths for plaster surfaces. All -the iron-work is to be painted over with some suitable composition to -prevent oxidation. - -A plan for the same purpose has been proposed by Mr. Varden as -follows:--“It appears probable that common fir or oak joists with -their lower edges chamfered, and coated over with a mixture of alum, -black lead, clay, and lime, or some similar composition, would (if -closely floored above with earthenware tiles, bedded all round into -the plastering, the joists being made air-tight) resist the action -of flames, at least for a considerable time. Fire could not descend -through such a flooring so as to communicate with the rooms below, till -the tiles used in it had become red-hot; neither could it ascend until -the tiled floor above gave way, from the burning of the joists; which, -if coated as proposed, would not take fire from below till the tiling -over them acquired a sufficient heat to cause the distillation of the -turpentine from the wood. In general, there is not furniture enough of -a combustible nature in any room to do this. The battening against the -outer walls might be of larch, as that wood burns less freely than most -others; but if the walls were brick, or lined with brick, battening of -any kind will be unnecessary. If this plan should be thought likely to -answer the end proposed, houses built in the common manner might be -altered at a moderate expense, by taking up the boarded floors, and -substituting earthenware tiles.” - -Another Plan, proposed by Mr. Frost, consists in forming the floors of -rooms of hollow earthenware tubes embedded in cement, combined so as to -form a sort of flag-stone, covering the whole floor. These hollow tubes -are square in section, about an inch and a half on the side externally, -with a tubular space of an inch and a quarter on the side internally; -they are formed of brick earth, prepared in a superior manner, and -pressed through moulds by machinery; and their length is about two -feet. In forming a floor of these tubes, the centering, after being -prepared and fixed in the usual manner, is first covered with a coating -of cement of a quality sufficiently fine to form the ceiling of the -apartment to be floored over; and if it is desired that there should -be mouldings or ornaments in this ceiling or its cornices, moulds for -them can be placed in the centering, so as to form a part of it. One -or two coats of cement having I then been laid over the centering, a -stratum of the square tubes laid side by side, and breaking joint, -is next embedded in fine cement, and the interstices between them -also filled in with that material. One thin coating of cement is then -laid over the whole stratum; and in a week, when this is dry, another -stratum of tubes is laid over the first in a contrary direction, bedded -and filled in with cement as before, and finished by a coating of the -same material. This, when dry, may have a second coating to serve as -the floor of an upper apartment, or the covering of a roof, as the case -might be. - -Mr. Loudon gives descriptions of two methods, the one for building -houses in general fire-proof, and the other for imparting that -property to houses already built. He considers the two main points -for consideration to be, to have staircases of iron or stone, or both -combined, and to avoid having any hollow partitions or floors. A house -having a stone or iron staircase, and having all the partitions either -of four-inch brick-work, or of brick nogging, in whatever way it might -be set on fire, could hardly be burned down, if ordinary exertions were -made to extinguish the flames. One apartment might be set on fire, but -before the flames could spread to the one under or over it, or to a -staircase adjoining it, the fire might be extinguished. In a house so -constructed, there would be no piece of timber that was not in close -contact with mortar, at least on one side; and all the strong pieces -of timber, such as joists, rafters, quartering in partitions, &c., -would be closely embedded in mortar on two sides. Where the partition -could not be made entirely of brick, the interstices might be filled -up with a mortar prepared of clay with a small proportion of lime. The -same material might be filled in between the joists, and where it was -desired to render the roof fire-proof, the rafters might be made of -iron, or the space between wooden rafters might be filled in with thin -mortar. This mode of proceeding would lengthen the time required for -the drying of a newly-built house, and would also add somewhat to the -expense; but it is conceived that the increased safety would more than -counterbalance these inconveniences. - -In respect to the means of giving a fire-proof quality to a house -already built, Mr. Loudon remarks:--“All the interstices between the -floors, in the partitions, and in the roof, where there was a ceiling -formed to the rafters, might perhaps be filled in with earthy matter -in a state of powder. This powder might be clay or loam mixed with -a small proportion of Roman cement; it might be injected into the -vacuities, through small orifices, by some description of forcing-pump -or bellows, which, while it forced in the powder, would permit the -escape of the air; and, while this operation was going forward steam -might be injected at the same time, so as to mix with the mortar and be -condensed by it; by which means the whole mass would be solidified with -a minimum of moisture. In short, in rendering houses fire-proof, the -next important object to using fire-proof materials, is that of having -all the walls and partitions, and even the steps of wooden staircases, -filled in-with such materials as will render them in effect solid. On -examining into the causes of the rapidity of the spread of the flames -in London houses when on fire, it will almost invariably be found, -that whatever may have occasioned the fire to break out, the rapidity -of its progress has been in proportion to the greater or less extent -of the lath and plaster partitions, the hollow wooden floors, and the -wooden staircases. Were the occupiers of houses sufficiently aware of -the danger from lath and plaster partitions, especially when inclosing -staircases, they would never occupy such houses, or, if they did, they -would not give such rents for them, as they would for houses with -brick-nogging partitions. It appears to us to be the duty either of the -general or local government or police to see that no houses whatever -are built without stone or iron staircases; and that no partitions and -floors are made hollow; or, if they are, that the materials should -be iron and tiles, or slates, or stones, or cement, or other earthy -composition.” - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES. - - -The various processes and details which have occupied the preceding -chapters, are for the most part necessary to the production of every -house. There are, however, many articles of iron and a few of brass -employed in the interior and exterior fittings; but were we to enter -into details respecting the iron manufacture, in order to show the -modes of producing these articles, it would be difficult to confine -this volume within reasonable limits. A few miscellaneous processes and -details may, however, be collected in this chapter. - -The principal metallic articles employed in the construction or -permanent fittings of a house, are nails and screws; hinges; locks and -keys; stoves and grates; bells, and the mechanism for hanging them; -iron railings and bars; brass handles, plates, and other decorations; -latches and fastenings, &c. - - -Nails. - -_Nails_ are made of iron, either _cut_ by means of a machine into the -tapering form which we call _cut brads_, or _wrought_ by means of -hammers into the various forms of flooring nails, tacks, &c. _Screws_ -are made by forcing a piece of iron wire into a cavity, the surface -of which is cut into a spiral or screw-like form; this spiral cuts a -similar spiral on the surface of the iron wire, which then becomes a -screw; and one end of the wire is hammered or pressed down so as to -form the _head_ of the screw. _Hinges_ of the commoner kinds are made -by two flat pieces of iron, with a kind of projecting tube at one edge. -These tubes are partially cut away, so that the two pieces may lap into -each other; and a spindle or pin being passed down through both tubes, -acts as an axis, on which both parts of the hinges turn. The more -costly hinges require elaborate workmanship in their construction. - - -Locks and Keys. - -_Locks_ and _Keys_ form a curious part of the hardware manufacture. -The lock is made of a great many pieces, put together with screws. -One part of it is always a moveable latch or bolt, which is capable, -by tolerable force, of being thrust partially out through a hole in -the side of the lock; and it is this bolt which, catching in a box or -cell fixed to the door-post, secures the door to which the lock is -attached. The object of the key is to act as a lever which shall move -the bolt; and the great point of attention in the matter is, that no -key or lever but one of a particular _size_ and _shape_ shall be able -to move the bolt; herein is the security which we feel in a good lock. -Wolverhampton and its neighbourhood is the great seat of the lock -manufacture. - - -Stoves and Grates. - -_Stoves_ and _Grates_ are made in a variety of forms. Their employment -is obviously greatly dependent on the kind of fuel employed. In the -kitchens of the old baronial residences, large logs of wood were -thrown upon an immense stone or brick hearth, and there kindled. But -when coals became commonly used in London and other great towns of -England, about the year 1400, the use of some kind of stove or grate -began to be felt, since the fuel was too valuable to be scattered -on a wide-spreading hearth. From that time to the present, one -continual series of improvements has taken place, having for their -objects, to add to the elegance and neatness of a room, to facilitate -culinary occupations, and to derive the greatest possible heat from -a given quantity of fuel. It is only within a very few years that -the principles regulating the last-mentioned circumstance have been -at all well understood. Some parts of the metal for a grate or stove -are produced by casting, others by forging, and others by rolling or -pressing; and they are put together principally by rivets. For further -details on this subject we refer to our seventh chapter. - - -Bells. - -_Bells_ are, generally speaking, made of an alloy of copper and tin, -which possesses more resonant qualities than most others. There is also -a little ball or clapper suspended in the bell, which, by striking -against it, produces the same effect as the hammer which strikes the -outside of a church bell. The bell is generally fixed in a different -part of the house from the handle with which it is rung, and the -connexion between them is made by means of copper wire. As the wire has -to turn round many corners and angles, it is fixed, at each corner to a -_crank_, which is a kind of hinge or lever, so contrived as to transfer -motion in a new direction at right angles to the former. Considerable -care is required on the part of the bell-hanger, to prevent the wire -from becoming entangled or interrupted in its free communication from -the handle to the bell. - - -Brass Handles, Ornaments, &c. - -Those are produced by _turning_, by _casting_, by _stamping_, or by -_drawing_. In the first mode, the article is placed in a lathe, and -turned by tools made of hard steel: in the second mode, melted brass -is poured into moulds formed generally of sand, by which any desired -form is produced: in the third mode, two stamps, one called a _matrass_ -and the other a _die_, are cut or moulded to similar figures; a piece -of sheet brass is laid on the matrass or lower stamp, the die or upper -stamp is laid on the brass, and a powerful blow, either from a hammer, -or from machinery, forces the brass to assume the form given to the -two stamps. By the last mode, a slip of thin brass is forcibly drawn -between two rollers, whose surfaces are indented with the requisite -device, which device is thereby impressed on the bars. In one or other -of these ways, most of the brass-work in our houses is made. - -_Iron railings_ and _bars_ of various kinds are made either by forging -or casting, and do not call for further notice here. - - -Preservation of Timber. - -In our notices of the timber which enters into the construction of a -house, no mention was made of the existing methods of preparing it so -as to resist the action of dry rot and other decomposing agencies. -Timber so prepared is not in very general use in house-building, and -hence the notice of it occupies a more fitting place in the present -chapter. - -Vegetable matter, in common with all organic substances, is subject -to decomposition and decay, as soon as life becomes extinct; and -although the process is comparatively slower in its commencement -and progress in vegetable than in animal matter, it is not, under -ordinary circumstances, the less certain. During the existence of -a plant, its various organs, under the influence of the mysterious -principle of life, perform their respective functions in a manner -similar to that of which we are more readily conscious in the animal -frame. The plant absorbs its food from the soil and the surrounding -air; it digests that food under the influence of respiration, and -prepares rich and nutritive juices which circulate throughout its whole -vegetable frame, and deposit materials of growth wherever they are -wanted; it sheds its leaves in autumn, undergoes a season of torpor, -and again becomes active and vigorous; thus it is clad in fresh leafy -honours in the following spring. All this is the effect, or rather the -result, of vitality. The plant dies, and then its constituent parts -gradually assert their individual existence, and resume their original -affinities. Some pass into the air; some form new compounds; and -others, which during the life of the plant ministered to its healthy -action, now work energetically and destructively on each other; so -that the original mass gradually decomposes under the influence of -various causes. The first step to decay is a process of fermentation, -which is more or less rapid in proportion as heat and moisture are -more or less present. In the absence of damp air, even the vegetable -mass will of itself supply moisture; for, according to Count Rumford, -the best-seasoned timber retains one-fourth of its weight of water. A -certain extent of moisture is essential to vegetable fermentation; but -a complete saturation appears inimical to it. A temperature not so low -as to produce freezing, nor so high as to produce rapid evaporation, is -also favourable to it. The humidity of the air in ships, and in houses -built on clay or in moist situations, and the difficulty of obtaining -a free circulation of air, contribute greatly to this fermentative -process. - -The chemical constitution of the vegetable kingdom yields to analysis -only three or four ultimate elements, viz., oxygen, hydrogen, and -carbon, and sometimes nitrogen. The most active agent in the process -of decomposition is the oxygen contained in the dead plant, whether -such decomposition proceed under the rapid influence of fermentation, -or be produced more slowly by the operation of the law which renders -decay the necessary consequence of organization. As soon as the tree -is felled, the oxygen begins to be liberated and to act upon the woody -fibre, combining with its carbon, and producing carbonic acid gas. The -tenacity of the several parts is thus gradually destroyed. After timber -is felled, and during the process of seasoning, a gradual diminution -of strength may be remarked. The effect, however, of seasoning is to -deprive the wood of superabundant moisture, and of those vegetable -juices which would otherwise induce a rapid decomposition. - -In addition to the natural decay of timber, the decomposition is often -accompanied by the apparently spontaneous vegetation of parasitical -fungi, inducing a species of decay to which the term “dry rot” is -applied, probably in consequence of the attendant phenomena; the -wood being converted into a _dry_ friable mass, destitute of fibrous -tenacity. It is uncertain whether the seeds of these fungi exist in -a dormant state in the juices of the timber, and wait only until the -first stages of decomposition furnish them with a nidus favourable to -their growth; or whether they float in the atmosphere and settle in -places favourable to their vegetation. It is found, however, that -badly-seasoned timber is peculiarly subject to this species of decay; -and hereby the former of the two suppositions is favoured. - -From the moment when timber is felled, the process of decay commences, -and although so slowly in many cases that we are not conscious of it, -yet there is a limit to the existence of the most durable articles -of wood, however carefully preserved. Dryness, cleanliness, a free -circulation of air, or the entire exclusion of it, are among the best -checks to vegetable decomposition: while damp accumulations, and a -vitiated atmosphere, rapidly induce it. - -Unseasoned timber should never be used in carpentry, and the -best-seasoned timber should be used only in a dry state. Diseased and -decayed portions of the wood should be cut out, together with the -sap-wood, which, being more soft and porous than the spine, is more -liable to fermentation. - -The iron fastenings used about timber frequently cause its premature -decay. Iron, under the influence of moisture becomes rusty, that is, -oxygen, either from the air or from the wood itself, unites with the -metal, forming an oxide, which, in its turn acts upon the woody fibre, -and gradually destroys its tenacity. The iron is further subject to -attack from the acid juices of the wood; this effect, however, varies -in different woods. Oak contains a smaller proportion of oily or -resinous particles than many other kinds of wood; and, in addition to -the usual vegetable acid common to most woods, oak contains an acid -peculiar to itself, called _gallic_ acid. In teak, on the contrary, -the quantity of acid is not only smaller, but the resinous particles -are very abundant, and these form a sort of protecting covering to -the iron fastenings. Maconochie states, on the authority of the -shipping built in India and used in the India trade, that the average -duration of an iron-fastened teak ship is thirty years; and that it -is a misapplication of expense to use copper fastenings with teak, as -the additional advantage gained is not at all commensurate with the -additional expense. But it is different with oak; the action of oak on -copper is by no means so destructive as on iron, and the reaction of -the metal on the wood is not so destructive. - -The methods which have been from time to time adopted for the -preservation of timber are so numerous, that a slight sketch of them -would probably fill a good-sized volume. We will name a few of the most -successful, and terminate this notice with a description of the method -now in practice. - -Maconochie recommends all the iron fastenings to be provided with -a protecting paint, and to impregnate the timber with some oily -preparation, which he proposes to effect thus: the wood is to be -placed in a steam-tight chamber, and subjected to the action of steam, -by which the air will be expelled from the timber. Then by condensing -the steam, and repeating the process until all the elastic fluids are -withdrawn from the wood, and its juices converted into vapour, the -wood becomes freed from them, and if plunged into oil, and subjected -to atmospheric pressure, all the internal cavities of the wood will -be filled with oil. In this way, Maconochie had in daily use a -steam-chamber capable of containing twenty or thirty planks of timber -forty feet long, in which, while the planks were steaming, to render -them flexible, they were impregnated with teak oil. He says the oil may -easily be procured from the chips and saw-dust used for the fuel of the -steam-boilers; for it has been ascertained that Malabar teak contains -such a quantity of oleaginous (oily) or terebinthinous (turpentine) -matter, that the chips from the timber and planks of a ship built of -it will yield, by a proper process, a sufficient quantity of tar for -all its own purposes, including the rigging; and that, although oak -timber does not contain so much of these substances, the chips of the -fir alone consumed in the Royal Navy, would be more than sufficient to -supply tar to saturate the oak. - -There have been many other proposals to saturate timber with different -substances; the most successful of which, up to the process of Mr. -Kyan, was that of M. Pallas, whose plan was to saturate the timber in -a solution of sulphate of iron, and then precipitate the salt by means -of lime-water. About the year 1822, Mr. Bill produced samples of timber -impregnated throughout with a substance resembling asphaltum. These -samples were subjected to a trial of five years in the dry-rot pit -at Woolwich, and withstood the fungus-rot perfectly. Sir John Barrow -recommends kreosote, which he says, “in a vaporous form, penetrates -every part of the largest logs, and renders the wood almost as hard as -iron--so hard as not easily to be worked.” - -Mr. Kyan’s plan, now so universally adopted, is to soak the timber in a -solution of bichloride of mercury, commonly called corrosive sublimate. - -“Aware of the established affinity of corrosive sublimate for albumen, -Mr. Kyan applied that substance to solutions of vegetable matter, both -acetous and saccharine, on which he was then operating, and in which -albumen was a constituent, with a view to preserve them in a quiescent -and incorruptible state; and obtaining a confirmation of his opinions -by the fact, that during a period of three years, the acetous solution, -openly exposed to atmospheric air, had not become putrid, nor had -the saccharine decoction yielded to the vinous or acetous stages of -fermentation, but were in a high state of preservation, he concluded -that corrosive sublimate, by combination with albumen, was a protection -against the natural changes of vegetable matter. He conceived, -therefore, if albumen made a part of wood, the latter would be -protected by converting that albumen into a compound of protochloride -of mercury and albumen; and he proceeded to immerse pieces of wood -in this solution, and obtained the same result as that which he had -ascertained with regard to the vegetable decoctions.”--BIRKBECK. - -It having been found that the precipitate caused by the Kyanization -was soluble in salt water, Sir William Burnett has lately substituted -chloride of zinc for corrosive sublimate, and the resulting compound -which this forms with the albuminous portion of the wood, effectually -resists the action of salt water. - - -Soluble Glass. - -A remarkable method of preserving wood-work, and rendering it -fire-proof, was invented some years ago by M. Fuchs, in consequence of -his discovery of a kind of glass which could be prepared and kept in a -liquid state, and hardened only on being exposed in a thin layer to the -air. - -Soluble glass is a union of silica and an alkali, which has, in -addition to some of the properties of common glass, the property of -dissolving in boiling water. The preparation of soluble glass does -not greatly differ in its early stages from that of common glass, an -account of the manufacture of which will be found in the eighth chapter. - -When sand and carbonate of potash are heated together, the carbonic -acid is not entirely driven off, unless the sand be in excess, but the -whole of the gas may be expelled by the addition of powdered charcoal -to the mixture. - -Carbonate of potash and pure sand being taken in the proportion of -two to three, four parts of charcoal are added to every ten parts of -potash and fifteen of sand. The charcoal accelerates the fusion of the -glass, and separates from it all the carbonic acid, a small quantity of -which would otherwise remain, and exert an injurious effect. In other -respects the same precautions that are employed in the manufacture -of common glass are to be observed. The materials must first be well -mixed, then fritted, and finally melted at a high heat, until a liquid -and homogeneous mass be obtained. This is removed by means of an iron -ladle, and the glass pot filled with fresh frit. - -The crude glass thus obtained is usually full of bubbles: it is as -hard as common glass: it is of a blackish gray, and more or less -transparent at the edges. Sometimes it has a whitish colour, and at -others is yellowish or reddish, indicating thereby that the quantity -of charcoal has been too small. Exposed to the air for several weeks, -it undergoes slight changes, which tend rather to improve than injure -its qualities. It attracts a little moisture from the air, which slowly -penetrates its mass without changing its aggregation or appearance, -except that it cracks, and a slight efflorescence appears at its -surface. If after this it be exposed to heat, it swells up, owing to -the escape of the moisture it has absorbed. - -In order to prepare the glass for solution in water it must be reduced -to powder by stampers. One part of the glass requires from four to five -of water for its solution. The water is first boiled in an open vessel, -the powdered glass is added gradually, and is continually stirred, to -prevent its adhesion to the vessel. The boiling must be continued for -three or four hours, until no more glass is dissolved. If the boiling -be checked before the liquor has thus attained the proper degree of -concentration, carbonic acid will be absorbed by the potash from the -air, and produce an injurious effect. When the solution has acquired -the consistence of syrup, and a density of 1·24, it is fit for use. -It is then allowed to repose, in order that the insoluble parts may -be deposited: while it is cooling a film forms on the surface, which -after some time disappears, or may be dissolved by depressing it in the -liquor. - -Soluble glass being employed only in the liquid state, it is preserved -for use in solution. No particular care is necessary to preserve -the liquid, as, even after a long space of time, it undergoes no -perceptible change, if the solution have been properly prepared. The -only precaution is not to allow too free an access of air to it. - -Soluble glass may be prepared by using carbonate of soda, instead of -that of potash. This glass has the same properties as the other, but is -more valuable in its applications. The solutions of these two kinds of -glass may be mixed in any proportion, and the mixture is sometimes more -useful than either of the solutions separately. - -The solution of soluble glass is viscid, and when concentrated -becomes turbid or opalescent. The solution unites with water in all -proportions. At a density of 1·28 it contains nearly 28 per cent. -of glass, and if the concentration be carried beyond this point, it -becomes so viscid that it may be drawn out in threads like molten -glass. When the solution is applied to other bodies, it dries rapidly -in the air, and forms a coat like a varnish; a property which leads us -to notice some of the numerous and varied applications of this curious -preparation. - -It is well known that all sorts of vegetable matter, such as wood, -cotton, hemp, linen, paper, &c., are combustible, but in order to burn -them, two conditions are necessary,--an elevated temperature, and -free access of air to supply the oxygen necessary to their conversion -into water and carbonic acid. When once inflamed their own combustion -supplies the heat necessary to the chemical action, provided they be in -contact with the air. If deprived of such contact, and made red-hot, -they will yield inflammable volatile products, but the residual carbon -will not burn, because deprived of air; and thus the combustion will -cease of itself. Such is the property of all the fixed fusible salts, -if they be composed of substances incapable of yielding their oxygen -at a low red heat, either to carbon or hydrogen. Such salts melt as -the vegetable matter becomes healed: they form upon it a coating -impermeable by air, and either prevent or limit the combustion. The -phosphate and borate of ammonia have such a character, but they are so -readily soluble in cold water as to be liable to objections which are -not found in soluble glass. This last-named substance forms a solid -and durable coating, which suffers no change by exposure to the air -(since soluble glass possesses the valuable properly of being almost -entirely unaffected by cold water): it does not involve any great -expense, and is easy of application. But in order that it may not fail, -particular care must be taken, both in preparing and employing it. To -cover wood and other bodies with it the solution must be made of a -pure glass, otherwise it would effloresce and fall off. But still a -slight degree of impurity is not injurious, although after a few days a -slight efflorescence will appear: this may be washed off by water, and -will not occur a second time. When a durable coating is to be applied -to wood, the first solution must not be too strong, for if it be it -will not be absorbed: it will not displace the air from the pores, and -consequently will not adhere strongly. A more concentrated solution -may be employed for the after-coats, but each coat must be dry before -another is applied, and the drying, in the most favourable weather, -will occupy at least twenty-four hours. When the glass is made with -potash the coating is liable to crack: this defect does not apply to -glass made with soda. - -Although soluble glass is of itself a good preservative from fire, yet -it fulfils the object better when mixed with incombustible powders, -such as those procured from clay, whiting, calcined bones, powdered -glass, &c. In applying soluble glass to the wood-work of a public -building at Munich, ten per cent. of yellow clay or yellow earth was -added. After six months the coating had suffered but little change: it -was damaged only in a few places, where it had need of some repair. -This arose from the very short time allowed for the preparation and -application of the glass. - - -On Veneering. - -In our notice of the interior fittings of houses of the better class, -it was stated that the process of veneering is sometimes adopted for -wainscoting. This process is most generally used for articles of -furniture, and deserves to be noticed on account of its ingenuity. - -The employment of wood for articles of domestic use or ornament, gives -rise to many departments of mechanical labour, according to the manner -in which the grain of the wood is to be made conspicuous or visible. -In the antique pieces of furniture still existing in old mansions, -the wood employed, such as oak, walnut-wood, mahogany, &c., was -always solid; but in modern times, the desire of making a respectable -appearance, at as small an outlay as possible, has led to the method of -_veneering_,--that is, making some article of furniture of some cheap -wood,--such as deal,--and then covering it with thin leaves or sheets -of some more expensive and beautiful wood, such as rose-wood, maple, -satin-wood, zebra-wood, pollard oak, &c. So very prevalent has this -custom become, that almost every house now contains some article of -domestic furniture, whose surface is covered with a kind of wood more -valuable than that of which the bulk of the article is made. - -It must be obvious, that the mode of procuring or preparing the thin -leaves of veneer calls for great care and nicety, since they are -seldom thicker than a shilling. When the method of veneering was first -introduced, the sawing was effected by hand, in a manner more rude than -the necessities of the case warranted; but when circular saws became -introduced, they were found very efficacious for cutting veneers. Mr. -Brunel, in 1805, took out a patent for improvements in the machinery -for sawing timber, in which he employed a large circular saw, composed -of several pieces fitted together, and placed in a frame at such an -elevation that the lower edge was a little below the lower side of the -timber. The timber was placed in a carriage, and moved towards the saw -by a rack. - -In such a manner as this veneers are now cut from the timber in this -country. But it is stated that the Russians have devised a very -curious and effective method of cutting veneers, without the use of -a saw, and without making any waste of material. It is a _planing_ -machine, the action of which is so accurate, that veneers thin enough -for the covering of books, and for lithographic and other engravings, -have been produced; thus serving the place of paper. The operation -is begun by placing the timber from which the leaf is to be cut upon -a square axle, where it is revolved, and made circular by a turner’s -gouge. The blade of a plane of highly-tempered steel, and rather -longer than the cylinder of wood, is fixed at the extremity of a frame -six or seven feet in length, in such a manner as to exert a constant -pressure upon the cylinder, and pare off a sheet of equable thickness, -which folds upon another cylinder like a roll of linen. The frame -to which the blade is attached is moveable at its lower extremity, -and by the action of a weight it depresses in proportion as the mass -diminishes in substance. That this depression may be progressive and -perfectly regular, the inventor has appended a regulator to the machine -consisting of a flat brass plate, preserved in an inclined direction, -upon which the frame descends as the regulator itself is advanced. The -motion is communicated to the cylinder of wood by several cog-wheels, -which are turned by a crank. One hundred feet in length of veneering -may be cut by this machine in the space of three minutes. - -When veneers are produced by the action of circular saws, as is now -almost universally the case in England, it is evident that both -surfaces must be rough, from the marks of the serrated edge of the -cutting instrument; and it is in this rough state that they are -purchased by cabinet-makers or others who employ them in veneering -articles of furniture. The operations which are then to be performed -are, to bring the surface of the veneer to a tolerable level, to fix -the veneer to the article of furniture, and to clean and polish it when -so fixed. - -Supposing the top of a sideboard to be the article which is to be -veneered. The workman cuts out a piece of veneer, a little larger than -is actually required, to allow for waste; and then lays it flat on -his work-bench. With a veneering plane--which is a small-sized plane, -having an iron jagged with notches like the teeth of a very fine -saw--he works steadily over the whole surface of the veneer, carrying -the plane in the direction of the grain of the wood. The action of this -plane-iron removes all the saw marks, which were irregular in their -course, and gives instead of them a series of regular parallel channels -from end to end of the piece of veneer; these channels are but small in -depth, and their object is to retain the glue which is afterwards used -in the process of veneering. - -The surface of the deal or other wood on which the veneer is to be -laid, is in like manner planed with these parallel indentations; and -then the process of veneering proceeds. The wood, having been well -warmed before a fire, is coated with warm melted glue; and the piece of -veneer is laid down flat on the veneered surface, and rubbed backwards -and forwards, in order that the glue which is between the veneer and -the under-wood may be pressed into all the little grooves produced by -the plane. When the glue begins to get cool, the veneer can no longer -be pressed to and fro, and is then left. This glueing has the general -effect of making the veneer adhere to the foundation beneath; but there -are parts where, from the accumulation of too much glue in one part, or -from the presence of air which had not been expelled by the pressure -of the hands, the veneer rises up as a kind of blister, convex on the -upper surface. The workman employs a veneering hammer to level these -protuberances. This veneering hammer is a piece of wood three or four -inches long, and an inch in thickness, having a straight strip of iron -plate fixed to one edge. The workman, placing the iron edge down upon -the veneer, presses on the block of wood with his hand, and works all -over the surface of the veneer, expressing all the superfluous glue -from the parts which had formed the protuberances. As this redundant -glue must have some place from whence to escape, the workman begins -rubbing at the centre, and thence proceeds towards the edge, at -which the glue finally exudes. There is a curious plan adopted for -ascertaining whether there are any parts, imperceptible to the eye, -where the veneer does not adhere closely to the foundation--viz., by -sound. The workman strikes the veneer all over with a wooden or other -hammer; and if the sound be distinct and solid, he knows that the -proper degree of adhesion has taken place; but if the sound be hollow -and dull, it indicates the existence of a vacant space between the -veneer and the foundation; and a greater degree of rubbing or pressing -is consequently necessary. If the surface of the piece of veneer be of -large dimensions, two workmen are required to level all parts of the -veneer before the glue gets cold and loses its fluidity. - -But this operation--however good the glue may be, or however well the -veneer may be pressed down--is not sufficient to cause the veneer to -adhere permanently to the foundation, especially at the edges, where -the air is liable to enter, and to cause the veneer to rise. To prevent -this inconvenience, the veneer, at and near the edges, is kept down, -either by the pressure of heavy weights, or, still better, by the -action of screw-presses. These screw-presses consist of two pieces -of wood or clamps, which are brought to any degree of closeness by -means of two wooden screws, each screw passing through holes in both -clamps, the handles of the two screws being, respectively to each -other, outside the opposite clamps. The clamps are opened, by means of -the screws, to such a width as to admit the edge of the veneered wood -between them; and the screws are then worked up till the clamps grasp -the wood tightly, where they remain till the glue is quite cold, and -the veneer closely adhering to the foundation. - -But even all this care is not in every case sufficient to produce a -firm adhesion of the veneer to the foundation. It frequently happens -that, when the hardened veneered surface is tried with the hammer, a -hollow sound indicates that there is yet a place where the veneer has a -vacancy beneath it. In such a case, the only remedy is one of a curious -kind--viz., to lay a hot iron on the defective part of the veneer, -by which the glue beneath is remelted. A small part of the veneer, -reaching from the defective part to the edge, is also similarly heated, -and the glue beneath remelted. Then, by means of the veneering hammer, -the superfluous glue which had caused the defect is squeezed out, and -pressed to the edges of the veneer through the kind of channel which -had been prepared for it by the heated iron. - -Where the surface of the wood to be veneered is more or less -cylindrical, such as a pillar, the front of a drawer, &c., the piece -of veneer has a curvature given to it, corresponding in some degree to -that of the surface on which it is laid, by the action of hot water, -before the glueing is effected. By sponging one side of the veneer with -hot water, it causes that side to swell, while the other side remains -dry; the consequence of which is, that the wetted surface rises into -a convex form, leaving the other side hollow or concave:--this is, in -fact, an instance of _warping_, where a thin piece of wood is either -unequally heated or damped on opposite sides. The hollow side is then -laid on the glued foundation. - -When the veneered surface is dry, its edges are trimmed, and its -surface scraped and sand-papered, preparatory to the finishing -processes which the piece of furniture is to undergo. - - -Manufacture of Glue. - -The preparation of this useful article forms a curious and important -branch of national industry. The chief use of glue is for binding or -cementing pieces of wood together, as practised by the carpenter and -cabinet-maker, in which trades very large quantities are constantly -employed. - -Glue (which is nothing more than gelatine in a dry state) is obtained -from the hides, hoofs, and horns of animals; the refuse of the -leather-dresser, and the offal of the slaughter-house; ears of oxen, -calves, sheep; parings of parchment, old gloves; and, in short, animal -skin and (by a late improvement) bones, are all employed for making -glue. - -The first process in this manufacture is to free the materials from -dirt, blood, and other matters which do not afford glue. For this -purpose they are steeped in lime and water, and then placed in baskets, -and rinsed by the action of a stream of water. They are then removed to -a sloping surface, and allowed to drain, and whatever lime remains is -deprived of its caustic property by the reabsorption of carbonic acid -from the atmosphere, since the presence of lime would prove injurious -in the subsequent processes. - -The gelatine is removed from the animal matter by boiling. This -process is effected in a somewhat shallow boiler, which is provided -with a false bottom, pierced with holes, and elevated a few inches, -thus serving as a support to the animal matter, and preventing it -from burning by the heated bottom of the boiler. The boiler is filled -about two-thirds with soft water, and then the animal substances are -added: these are piled up above the brim of the boiler, because soon -after boiling commences, they sink down below the level of the liquid. -The contents of the boiler are occasionally stirred up and pressed -down, while a steady boiling is maintained throughout this part of the -process. - -As the boiling proceeds, small portions of the gelatine are drawn off -into egg-shells, when, in the course of a few minutes, if the liquid -gelatine becomes, by exposure to the cool air, a clear mass of jelly, -the boiling process is complete,--the fire is smothered up, and the -contents of the boiler left to settle for ten or twenty minutes. The -stop-cock is then turned, and the gelatine flows into a deep vessel, -kept hot by being surrounded with hot water, and thus it remains for -several hours, during which time it deposits any solid impurities. It -is then drawn off into congealing boxes, and prepared as we shall soon -explain. - -The undissolved matter in the boiler is treated with boiling water a -second, and even a third time, and the above process continued until -nothing more can be extracted. The subsequent solutions are often too -weak to be made into glue, but they are economically used with fresh -portions of animal matter. - -A clear idea may be formed of this part of the manufacture by the -annexed illustration, which represents a section of three vessels, on -different levels. The uppermost vessel, which is heated by the waste -heat of the chimney, supplies warm water to the animal matter contained -in the second vessel: the third vessel receives the liquid gelatine, -and retains it in a fluid state, while the solid impurities are being -deposited. - -[Illustration] - -The gelatine is drawn off from this third vessel into buckets, and -conveyed to the congealing boxes. These boxes are of deal, of a square -form, but somewhat narrower at bottom than at top. The liquid glue is -poured through funnels, provided with filter-cloths, into the boxes -until they are entirely filled. This process is conducted in a very -cool and dry apartment, paved with stone and kept very clean, so that -any glue which may be spilt may be recovered. In twelve or eighteen -hours the liquid glue becomes sufficiently firm for the next process, -which is performed in an upper story, furnished with ventilating -windows, so as to admit air on all sides. The boxes are inverted on a -moistened table, so that the cake of jelly may not adhere to it: this -cake is cut into horizontal layers, by means of a brass wire, stretched -in a frame, and is guided by rulers, so disposed as to regulate the -thickness of the cake of glue. The slices thus formed are carefully -lifted off, and placed on nets stretched in wooden frames. As these -frames are filled they are placed over each other, with an interval of -about three inches between every two frames, so that the air may have -free access. Each frame is so arranged as to slide in and out like a -drawer, to allow the cakes to be turned, which is done two or three -times every day. - -An experienced writer on manufactures thus observes, concerning this -part of the process:--“The drying of the glue is the most precarious -part of the manufacture. The least disturbance of the weather may -injure the glue during the two or three first days of its exposure. -Should the temperature of the air rise considerably, the gelatine -may turn so soft as to become unshapely, and even to run through the -meshes upon the pieces below, or it may get attached to the strings -and surround them, so as not to be separable without plunging the -net into boiling water. If frost supervene, the water may freeze, -and form numerous cracks in the cakes. Such pieces must immediately -be remelted and reformed. A slight fog even produces upon glue newly -exposed a serious deterioration, the damp condensed upon its surface -occasioning a general mouldiness. A thunder-storm sometimes destroys -the coagulating power in the whole laminæ at once, or causes the glue -to _turn_ on the nets, in the language of the manufacturer. A wind too -dry or too hot may cause it to dry so quickly as to prevent it from -contracting to its proper size, without numerous cracks and fissures. -In this predicament the closing of all the flaps of the windows is -the only means of abating the mischief. On these accounts it is of -importance to select the most temperate season of the year, such as -spring and autumn, for the glue manufacture.” - -When the glue is properly dried a gloss is imparted to each cake, by -dipping it in hot water, and passing over it a brush, also wetted -with hot water. The cakes are then placed on a hurdle, dried in the -stove-room, or in the open air, if the weather be sufficiently dry and -warm. It is then packed in casks for sale. - -It has been found by experiment that when two cylinders of dry ash, one -inch and a half in diameter, were glued together, and after twenty-four -hours torn asunder, a force of 1260 pounds was required to produce the -separation, thus making the force of adhesion equal to 715 pounds per -square inch. Another experiment made the force of adhesion to equal -4000 pounds on the square inch. - - -The House-Decorator of Italy. - -In an interesting notice, by Mr. Wilson, of the present state of -the arts in Italy, read before the Society of Arts, in Scotland, -in November, 1840, a few details are given of the skill with which -the house-builder converts the commonest materials into tasteful -decorations. The following is an abstract of that part of the notice -which relates to the subject of the present volume:-- - -Notwithstanding the comparatively small employment afforded to Italian -architects in the present day, yet there can be no question as to the -skill displayed in erecting their designs. The masonry is excellent, -and the ancient Roman brick-work is rivalled by that of the present -generation; houses are built of brick, in which all the exterior -decorations are moulded in that material as perfectly as if executed in -stone. The skill with which the Italian workmen build in brick, may be -exemplified by the Florentine practice of arching over rooms without -centering of any description. Two thin moulds of board, the shape of -the intended arch, alone are used: these are placed at each end of the -apartment which it is intended to cover in, and pieces of string are -stretched from the one to the other, guiding the workman as he advances -in the formation of his arch, which he builds, uniting the bricks by -their thin edges (greatly thinner than those we use), and trusting -entirely to the tenacity and quick-setting of the cement. - -Plastering is also carried to a perfection in Italy, of which we have -very little idea in this country; rooms are so exquisitely finished, -that no additional work in the shape of house-painting is required; but -the polish of the plaster, and its evenness of tint, are such as to -rival those of the finest porcelain. Sometimes the plaster is fluted, -or various designs are executed in _intaglio_ upon it, in the most -beautiful manner. Scagliola, a very fine preparation from gypsum, is -the material chiefly used. An instance of the cheap rate at which this -work is done, is afforded in the new ball-room in the Palazzo Pitti -grand-ducal residence at Florence, which, including mouldings, figures, -bas-reliefs, and ornaments, was executed at a cost of two crowns for -every four square feet. - -A most beautiful art among the Italians, and one which might be -advantageously introduced into this country, is that of making what are -termed Venetian pavements. This method of finishing the floors of rooms -is conducted in the following manner. In the first place a foundation -is made of lime mixed with pozzolana, and small pieces of broken stone; -this is, in fact, a sort of concrete, which must be well beaten and -levelled. When this is perfectly dry, a fine paste, as it is termed -by the Italians, must be made of lime, pozzolana, and sand; a yellow -sand is used which tinges the mixture; this is carefully spread to a -depth of one or two inches, according to circumstances. Over this is -laid a layer of irregularly broken minute pieces of marble of different -colours, and if it is wished these can be arranged in patterns. After -the paste is completely covered with pieces of marble, men proceed to -beat the floor with large and heavy tools made for the purpose; when -the whole has been beaten into a compact mass, and the paste appears -above the pieces of marble, it is left to harden. It is then rubbed -smooth with fine-grained stones, and is finally brought to a high -polish with emery powder, marble dust, and lastly, with boiled oil -rubbed on with flannel. This makes a durable and very beautiful floor, -which in this country would be well adapted for halls, conservatories, -and other buildings. - -The carpentry of the Italians, as observable in ordinary houses, -displays little skill and indifferent workmanship, but in the roofs -and floors of important buildings, they satisfactorily prove their -knowledge of scientific principles, and several of their designs are -well known to British architects. - -With regard to the working of iron, in comparison with our system, the -Italian is primitive indeed; yet at times he can and does produce very -good specimens of workmanship, but at a heavy cost; consequently they -are generally content with very ordinary productions. A manufactory -of wire, and of driving and screw nails, by means of machinery, now -occupies the villa of Mecænas at Tivoli; the articles produced are -very well made. Copper is extensively used in Italy, and there are -productive mines in the _Maremma Toscana_. The workmanship of articles -made of this metal is respectable; various utensils are made of brass -in a neat and satisfactory manner, but in the interior finishing of -houses, if much nicety is required, articles of foreign manufacture are -used. - -House-painters may be mentioned in the last place, and these display -much taste and skill; and there is a class of them who greatly excel -those in this country, having more the feeling and taste of artists. -Surrounded by the finest models in this art, the Italian decorator -enjoys every advantage in its study, and he inherits besides from the -best periods of art, or rather from antiquity, taste, and a good system -of workmanship. He is not a mere machine, employed in the use of the -moulds, stamps, and other mechanical contrivances, which too often keep -the decorative arts within such narrow limits. - - -Fresco Painting. - -The proposed introduction of Fresco Painting into our public buildings -will, it is hoped and expected, have the effect of employing the artist -in fresco upon the walls of our dwelling-houses. Already have a few of -the mansions of our nobility been thus decorated, and in anticipation -of its general introduction it may not be out of character with this -little work to describe the process in detail. - -Respecting the origin of the term fresco there are two opinions; -according to some the term is said to have been adopted because the -practice of it is used in the open air. Thus in the Italian language, -_andare al fresco_ signifies “to take the air;” or “to walk abroad in -the air;” but a more probable explanation is to be found in another -meaning of the word fresco, viz., “new,” or “fresh,” as applied to the -state of the plaster in which it is wrought. The artist traces his -design, colours it, and completely finishes in one day so much of his -picture as will occupy the wet plaster ground that has been prepared -for him, so that when the ground is dry, he may not retouch any part -of his work. This is the characteristic distinction of painting in -fresco--a method by which the painting is incorporated with the mortar, -and drying along with it becomes extremely durable, and brightens in -its tones and colours as it dries. - -It will therefore be readily conceived that the artist in fresco has -to encounter difficulties of no ordinary kind; a few of them are thus -noticed by a writer in REES’S _Cyclopædia_:--“From the necessity there -is in the progress of this style of art, that it should be executed -with rapidity, and from the impossibility of retouching it without -injuring the purity of the work, the artist, unless he be endowed with -very extraordinary powers of imagination and execution indeed, is -obliged to prepare a finished sketch of the subject, wrought to its -proper hue and tone of colour, and so well digested, that there may -be no necessity for making any essential alterations in the design. -This, which is a very useful mode of proceeding in all fine works of -painting, is absolutely indispensable in fresco, to those who are -not determined to give the rein to their ideas, and leave as perfect -whatever may first present itself. There is no beginning in this, by -drawing in the whole of the parts at one time, and correcting them at -leisure, as is the custom with oil-painters, who may therefore proceed -to work without a sketch; here all that is begun in the morning must -be completed in the evening; and that almost without cessation of -labour, while the plaster is wet; and not only completed in form, but -also, a difficult, nay, almost impossible task, without a well-prepared -sketch, must be performed, viz., the part done in this short time must -have so perfect an accordance with what follows, or has preceded, of -the work, that when the whole is finished, it may appear as if it had -been executed at once, or in the usual mode, with sufficient time to -harmonize the various forms and tones of colour. Instead of proceeding -by slow degrees to illuminate the objects, and increase the vividness -of the colours, in a manner somewhat similar to the progress of nature -in the rising day, till at last it shines with all its intended effect, -which is the course of painting in oil, the artist working in fresco -must at once rush into broad daylight, at once give all the force in -light, and shade, and colour, which the nature of his subject requires, -and this without the assistance (at least in the commencement) of -contrast to regulate his eye; so that here, as has been said, a well -digested and finished sketch seems indispensably requisite.” - -The custom of decorating walls with paintings is very ancient. Those -discovered by Belzoni, among the royal tombs of Egypt, prove the -existence of the art among the Egyptians many centuries before the -Christian era. There is also abundant evidence that it was practised -by the Etruscans and Romans. But the more common practice up to the -time of Augustus seems to have been to paint the walls of houses of one -single colour, and to relieve this with fantastic ornaments. According -to Pliny, Augustus was the first to suggest the covering of whole walls -with pictures and landscapes. About the same time a painter named -Ludius invented that style of decoration, now called _arabesque_ or -_grotesque_, many beautiful examples of which have been discovered at -Pompeii and other places. The invention of the Arabesque style, as its -name implies, has been improperly claimed for the Arabians of Spain; -whose religion forbidding the representation of animals, they employed -foliage, stalks, stems, tendrils, flowers, and fruit, in a variety of -forms and combinations, with which they adorned the surfaces of their -buildings. Hence the fanciful combinations of natural objects occupying -a flat surface came to be called Arabesque, although it differed so -much from the Mohammedan compositions as to contain animals real or -fabulous. That the term is badly chosen, especially as applied to the -fanciful enrichments on the walls of Pompeii, &c., will be seen from -the fact that such ornaments were invented and executed long before -the sons of Ishmael had learned to draw. The term grotesque is less -objectionable: it is derived from the subterranean rooms (grotte) in -the baths of Rome, in which those specimens of ancient art were found, -from which Raphael derived the plan of the beautiful frescos which -adorn the piers and pilasters of the arcaded gallery of the palace of -the Vatican, called, in honour of the artist, “Le Logge di Raffaelle.” - -The practice of Fresco Painting may be conveniently considered under -the following heads:--1. The cartoon. 2. The preparation of the wall. -3. The process of painting. 4. The colours and implements. The methods -as adopted by different artists are of course subject to variation; but -as general principles are not altered by variations in those details -which conduce to the same end, so the following may be taken as an -accurate exposition of the practice of the art. - -1. _The Cartoon._ Since the artist cannot without injury retouch a -fresco painting, it is necessary that every part of the design be -decided on by preparatory sketches finished of the full size, from -which the fresco may be transferred, by tracing to the wall. When the -painting is very large, the whole composition of the full size is -sometimes divided into two or more cartoons. - -In the preparation of a cartoon, a strong cloth is stretched on a -frame, as if to be prepared for painting; paper is then firmly glued -on the cloth. When this is dry, a second layer of paper is attached -by glue. The edges of the separate sheets, where they overlap, are -scraped, so as to preserve an even surface. The surface is then -prepared for drawing with size and alum.[7] The drawing is made with -charcoal, and when finished is fixed by wetting the cloth at the -back with cold water, and then steaming the drawing in front. The -steaming is performed with a tea-kettle with two or three spouts, kept -boiling by the flame of a spirit lamp; by this means the charcoal is -incorporated with the melted glue, and a solid surface like that of a -picture is produced. - -From this finished drawing the outline is traced on oiled paper. As -much of this working outline as can be finished in one painting is -then nailed to the wet wall, and the forms are again traced with a -sharp point, whereby an indented outline is produced on the soft -plaster. According to another method, the paper to be applied to the -wall is placed behind and in close contact with the finished cartoon; -the outlines of the latter are then pricked, and a similar pricked -outline is thus produced on the paper behind. This pricked paper is -then made the working drawing: it is fastened to the wall, and dusted -with a little bag filled with black or red dust; this leaves a dotted -outline on the wall. This method is sometimes adopted for small works, -and the advantage of it is that it leaves the surface of the plaster -undisturbed. The first mode is, however, generally preferred; since it -insures the best and most decided outline, and preserves the finished -cartoon uninjured. - -Cartoons prepared for fresco may be seen in the National Gallery: -those at the head of the staircase are by Agostino Caracci. In one of -these (the Triumph of Galatea) the pricked outline is very apparent; -as also in the fragment of the Cartoon by Raphael, (the Murder of the -Innocents,) also in the National Gallery. In many celebrated Italian -frescos the indented outline, produced by tracing, is apparent. - -In addition to the cartoon it is desirable to have a coloured sketch of -the whole composition. - -2. _The preparation of the Wall._ The greatest obstacle to the -permanence of fresco painting is damp: hence, if the wall to be painted -is covered with old mortar, the ingredients of which are unknown, this -coat should be entirely removed until the solid brick or stone is laid -bare. The rough coat then applied is composed of river-sand and lime, -and of such thickness as is generally used in preparing the walls of -dwelling-houses. The surface of this coat should be rough, but not -uneven. Thus prepared, the wall should be suffered to become perfectly -dry and hard; the longer it remains in this state the safer it will be, -especially if the lime used was in the first instance fresh. In that -case two or three years should elapse before the process of painting is -commenced. - -The preparation and seasoning of the lime is one of the essential -conditions of fresco painting. At Munich it is made and kept as -follows:--A pit is filled with clean burnt limestone, which is slaked, -and then stirred continually till it is reduced to an impalpable -consistence. The surface having settled to a level, clean river-sand -is spread over it to the depth of a foot or more, so as to exclude the -air, and, lastly, the whole is covered with earth. It is allowed to -remain thus for at least three years before it is used, either for the -purposes of painting (lime being the white pigment) or for coating the -walls. - -The last preparation for painting on the mortar, is as follows:--The -surface is wetted with pure water, till it ceases to absorb. A thin -coat of plaster is then spread over that portion only which is to be -painted: the surface of this coat should be moderately rough. As soon -as it begins to set (_i. e._, in about ten minutes or so, according -to the temperature) a second thin coat is laid on, and the surfaces -are smoothed with a wooden trowel. Some painters like to work on a -perfectly smooth surface, in which case the last coat is polished by -applying a piece of paper on the surface, and passing the trowel over -it. When a small amount of roughness is required, a dry brush, or a -piece of beaver nap attached to the trowel, is passed over the plaster -in all directions. - -3. _The process of Painting._ The wall being properly prepared, the -outline of the figures is to be traced with a sharp point on the -plaster, as before described. The artist commences his work when the -surface is in such a state that it will barely receive the impression -of the finger, and not so wet as to allow the colours to run or to be -liable to be stirred up by the brush. If the wall has been previously -well wetted, it will in general not dry too rapidly; but if in warm -weather the surface becomes too hard to imbibe the colour properly, a -small quantity of water is from time to time sprinkled over the surface. - -The colours being ground fine in water, and the most useful tints -abundantly supplied, they are arranged in pots or basins, and several -palettes with raised edges are ready at hand to work from. A few pieces -of tile or some absorbent material are provided to prove the tints -upon, because all colours ground in water become much lighter when dry -than they appear when wet. The brick absorbs the water, and leaves the -colour nearly in the state in which it will appear upon the wall. - -The first tints that are applied sink in and have a faint appearance; -it is therefore necessary to go over the work several times before the -full effect is produced: but after some time the last edition of colour -will not unite with that already applied unless the part be again -wetted. - -At the close of a day’s work, any portion of the prepared plaster which -remains over and above the finished part is to be cut away, care being -taken to make the divisions at a part where drapery, or some object or -its outline, forms a boundary, for if this be not attended to, the work -will appear patchy. The next day, in preparing a new surface, the edges -of the previously painted portion must be carefully wetted so as to -ensure a perfect junction of all the parts of the painted surface. - -At Munich the artists have a contrivance for arresting the drying of -the work should they be unable to finish the day’s allotted portion. -A piece of fine linen is wetted and spread over the fresh plaster and -painting, and pressed to the surface by means of a cushion covered with -waxed cloth. - -Defects are sometimes remedied by cutting out the objectionable -portion, and painting it anew upon a fresh surface of plaster. In the -finished fresco, shadows are sometimes deepened, parts are rounded, -subdued, or softened by hatching in lines of the colour required, mixed -up with vinegar and white of egg. Crayons made of pounded egg-shells -are sometimes used to heighten the lights. But all these additional -amendments are highly objectionable; they impair the durability of the -fresco, and in the open air these retouchings are useless, because the -rain washes them away, whereas it has no influence upon frescos painted -without retouching. - -4. _The Colours and Implements._ The colours employed in fresco -painting are few and simple. They consist chiefly of earths and a few -metallic oxides variously prepared. No animal and vegetable substances -can be used, because the lime would destroy them. The brushes are of -hog’s hair, but longer than those used in oil painting. Small pencils -of otter hair are also used; no other hair being found to resist the -lime. Pure distilled water ought to be employed in all the operations -of this art. - -Such is the process of fresco painting, the details of which, after the -above statement, will be rendered more intelligible by the following -abridged account of a visit, by Mr. Andrew Wilson, to the royal palace -at Genoa, to see the Signor Pasciano paint a ceiling in fresco:-- - -The artist had prepared his tints upon a table with a large slate for -the top: they consisted of terra vert, smalt, vermilion, yellow ochre, -Roman ochre, darker ochre, Venetian red, umber, burnt umber, and black. -These colours were all pure, mixed with water only, and rather stiff. -He mixed each tint as he wanted it, adding to each from a pot of pure -lime, or from one containing a very pale flesh tint. A lump of umber -served to try his colours on. He used a resting-stick with cotton on -the top to prevent injury to the prepared wall, or _intonaco_, as the -Italians call it. The moment this surface would bear touching, the -artist began to work upon the figure, the outline of which had just -been traced. The head was that of the Virgin. The artist began with a -pale tint of yellow round the head for the glory: he then laid in the -head and neck with a pale flesh colour, and the masses of drapery round -the head and shoulders with a middle tint, and with brown and black -in the shadows. He next, with terra vert and white, threw in the cool -tints of the face; then with a pale tint of umber and white, modelled -in the features, covered with the same tint the part where the hair -was to be seen, and also indicated the folds of the white veil. All -this time he used the colours as thin as we do in water colours; he -touched the intonaco with great tenderness, and allowed ten minutes to -elapse before touching the same spot a second time. He now brought his -coloured study, which stood on an easel near him, and began to model -the features, and to throw in the shades with greater accuracy. He put -colour in the cheeks, and put in the mouth slightly, then shaded the -hair and drapery, deepening always with the same colours, which became -darker and darker every time they were applied, as would be the case -on paper for instance. Having worked for half an hour, he made a halt -for ten minutes, during which time he occupied himself in mixing darker -tints, and then began finishing, loading the lights, and using the -colours much stiffer, and putting down his touches with precision and -firmness: he softened with a brush with a little water in it. Another -rest of ten minutes; but by this time he had nearly finished the head -and shoulders of his figure, which being uniformly wet, looked exactly -like a picture in oil, and the colours seemed blended with equal -facility. Referring again to the oil study, he put in some few light -touches in the hair, again heightened generally in the lights, touched -too into the darks, threw a little white into the yellow round the -head, and this portion of his composition was finished, all in about -an hour and a half. This was rapid work, but it will be noticed that -the artist rested four times, so as to allow the wet to be sufficiently -absorbed into the wall to allow him to repass over his work. He now -required an addition to the intonaco; the tracing was again lifted -up to the ceiling, and the space to be covered being marked by the -painter, the process was repeated, and the body and arms of the figure -were finished. - -On the occasion of a second visit, Mr. Wilson remarked that the -artist had cut away from his tracing or cartoon those parts which -he had finished upon the ceiling: that the tracing was in fact cut -into several portions, but always carefully divided by the outline -of figures, clouds, or other objects. These pieces are nailed to the -plaster, so as to fold inwards or outward for the convenience of -tracing the outlines. The artist was now about to proceed with a group -of figures. Having gone over the outline carefully with a steel point, -he waited till the intonaco became a little harder, and in the mean -time mixed up a few tints; he then commenced with a large brush, and -went over the whole of the flesh; he next worked with a tint which -served for the general mass of shadow, for the hair, and a slight -marking out of the features. He now applied a little colour to the -cheeks, mouth, nose, and hands, and all this time he touched as lightly -as possible. He then paused for ten minutes, examined his oil study, -and watched the absorption of the moisture. - -The intonaco would now bear the gentle pressure of his fingers, and -with the same large brush, but with water only, he began to soften and -unite the colours already laid on. He had not as yet used any tint -thicker than a wash of water-colour, and he continued to darken in the -shadows without increasing the force or depths of colour. The artist -now increased the number of his tints; he made them of a much thicker -consistence, and he now began to paint in the lights with a greater -body of colour, softening them into the shades with a dry brush, or -with one a little wet, as was required. In drying, the water comes to -the surface and actually falls off in drops, but this does no harm, -although, as Mr. Wilson remarks, it sometimes looks alarming. - -The effect of fresco painting is described as being exceedingly -beautiful. It does not require for the production of its general effect -those particular and concealed lights which the shining surface of an -oil-painting renders necessary. Fresco is seen entire in any situation -and by any light, even by artificial light, which perhaps shows it -best. Mr. Severn was much struck by the increased beauty and power -of the Caracci frescos at Rome by artificial light. Even a dim or -diminished light does not destroy their effect. - -“It must have been for this reason that Raphael adopted fresco in -the Vatican, after he had made experiments in oil; for the rooms are -so ill-lighted, that oil pictures could never have been seen at all; -and it is surprising to find such fine works in such a place. Three -sides of the rooms are illuminated merely by the reflected light from -the great wall of the Sistine chapel, yet this beautiful and luminous -material of fresco is so brilliant in itself, that the pictures are -well seen. Nine of them were painted without a ray of real light, and -have always been seen in the same way. I think this is a very important -consideration; for as we have but a diminished light at any time, it is -most necessary to adopt a manner of painting suited to it, which can be -seen at all times.” - -Fresco does not seem to be at all understood in this country; it is -generally confounded with scene painting; it is a common mistake to -suppose that the cartoons of Raphael are the same as his frescos. It -is often confounded with distemper painting, which is done on a dry -ground, and does not admit of richness of colour. - -“This will be clearly understood (writes Mr. Severn) by those who -have had the good fortune to see Raphael’s and Guido’s frescos at -Rome, which for colour are exquisitely beautiful, and even powerful in -all the fascinations of this part of the art, presenting to us still -greater varieties than oil painting can pretend to; excelling in all -the delicate effects of atmosphere, from the gorgeous daylight, the air -of which you seem to breathe in a fresco picture, down to the silvery -flitting charm of twilight. In these particulars, it reminds us of -English water-colour effects. Then I should mention the magnificence -of fresco landscape, and of landscape backgrounds, particularly by -Domenichino, in which not only the characters, but the movements of -trees, are always rendered in a way which I have rarely seen in oil -colours.... Then I must remind you of the grandeur of colour and effect -in Michael Angelo’s frescos on the ceiling of the Sistine chapel. What -oil could ever have approached such things? When he said ‘that oil -painting was only fit for women and children,’ he meant on account of -the labour and difficulties of the material compared with fresco. We -are assured he performed this gigantic labour in twenty months, without -the usual assistance of colour-grinders or plasterers, but alone with -his own hand. There are on this ceiling fourteen figures, of at least -forty feet in stature, and nearly five hundred figures, the least of -which are double the size of life. While we regard this as the most -extraordinary example of individual human power, we must consider that -it was only in the simplicity and ease of the fresco material that -Michael Angelo could have accomplished such a stupendous work. The -preparation of oil colours, varnishes, &c., would alone have occupied -the twenty months.” - -The small cost and great durability of frescos are not the least -of their advantages. It was feared that the smoke of London would -soon destroy our frescos, but Professor Hess stated that “if frescos -were painted in the open air in London, the rain would be the best -picture-cleaner.” Indeed, competent authorities agree that pure water -and a soft sponge are the best means for cleaning frescos from the -effects of smoke. That the change effected by time on the colours -is to increase their effect. The great enemy to fresco is a wall -constitutionally damp, in which lime in too new a state has been -employed, or new timber or imperfectly burnt bricks. The nitre which -sometimes accumulates on walls is also very destructive. - -Nor are frescos such permanent fixtures as is generally imagined. Some -ingenious Italians have succeeded perfectly in removing large frescos -from one wall and applying them securely to another. The colours in -fresco do not penetrate very deep, and the thin layer of pigment and -lime of which the painting consists, may be removed by glueing several -layers of calico to the wall: a slight force is then sufficient to -detach the painting: it is removed to its new bed, and when firmly -attached, the cloths and glue may be removed by warm water. - - * * * * * - -We must now leave the Reader in possession of the dwelling-house which -we have endeavoured to build for him. If we have not _furnished_ it, -or described the modes in which the various articles of furniture are -made, it was not because the subject is devoid of interest, far from -it; but because we were anxious not to injure the completeness and -interest of the preceding details by attempting too much within the -limits of this little volume. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[7] The term Cartoon is derived from _curtone_, the augmentative of -_carta_, the Italian for _paper_. - - - - - LONDON: - SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, - CHANDOS STREET. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - -In a few cases, obvious errors in punctuation have been fixed. - -Page 28: “the standstones of which” changed to “the sandstones of which” - -Page 141: “the vessel _e_” changed to “the vessel _c_” - -Page 213: “upon the cieling” changed to “upon the ceiling” - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE USEFUL ARTS EMPLOYED IN THE -CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLING HOUSES *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Useful Arts Employed In The Construction Of Dwelling Houses</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Second Edition</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Anonymous</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 16, 2022 [eBook #67636]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE USEFUL ARTS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLING HOUSES ***</div> - - - - - -<h1><span class="xsmall">THE</span><br /><br /> -USEFUL ARTS<br /><br /> -<span class="xsmall">EMPLOYED IN</span><br /><br /> -THE CONSTRUCTION OF<br /><br /> -<span class="big">DWELLING HOUSES.</span></h1> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center p0"> <i>THE SECOND EDITION.</i></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center p0 p4 big"> LONDON:</p> - -<p class="center p0"> JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.</p> - -<p class="center p0 small"> MDCCCLI. -</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - - - -<p class="center p0 p4 small"> LONDON:<br /> - SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS,<br /> - CHANDOS STREET. -</p></div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Preface">PREFACE.</h2> -</div> -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p>The dwellings of mankind, at first rude and simple in the extreme, -increase in complexity as their inhabitants advance in civilization. -Primitive dwellings are scarcely distinguished by signs of superior -skill or sagacity above the holes and nests of the lower animals. The -hut of the Hottentot may be considered as an inverted nest, and it is -certainly not more ingenious than the nests of many birds; but where -man constructs such a habitation for himself, he is invariably in a -low state of civilization. The wants of the bird are few and simple, -and the nest is a temporary abode annually constructed and annually -deserted: the wants of man, in a state of nature, are almost as -limited, and thus the Hottentot’s hut affords him as good a nest as he -desires. But when he steps forth into the rank which the Creator has -destined him to fill; when he feels that he is a responsible being, the -creation of an Almighty Power to whom worship is due; when he finds -that the productions of the earth are capable of being rendered useful -to him by the exercise of his ingenuity, and that his own mental powers -are capable of being developed by communion with, and by the assistance -of his fellow-men;—then the hut—the inverted nest—is no longer equal -to his necessities. He makes implements, and he must have a place -to shelter them; he cultivates grain, and he requires a store-house -for it; he collects and records the thoughts and the wisdom of his -predecessors, and he must have a roof to cover these precious mementos: -unlike other animals, he requires <em>fire</em> for the preparation -of the greater portion of his food; and his fire, as well as his -utensils, must be well defended from without:—in short, his wants are -so multiplied by the cultivation of his reason, that a <em>house</em> -has become necessary to him. The beasts of the field and the birds -of the air have certain natural instincts given to them which guide -them through life, and are perpetuated in their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span> offspring; the same -routine goes on race after race without the operation of what we term -improvement. Not so with man: he is a progressive being: he steps forth -beyond the limits of mere animal life, and has a mental existence, with -wants created by it, and depending on it; wants which are not known to -him when considered as a mere animal.</p> - -<p>The building of houses has in all ages formed part of the employment of -man as he advanced from a state of mere barbarism to one of comparative -civilization. In devoting this little volume, therefore, to the subject -of the Application of the Useful Arts to the construction of Dwellings, -it is necessary to set a limit to so large a subject. A wigwam is -a house,—so is a palace, and examples of every possible gradation -between the two might be given. In order, then, to avoid the seeming -ambition of grasping the whole of this extensive subject we shall not -travel out of our own country; nor shall we ascend to the very highest, -or descend to the very lowest class of dwellings; but shall describe -the principal arts concerned in building a modern English house of -moderate rank. In so doing, we shall treat the subject under a few -simple heads, classified mainly according to the materials employed.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img001"> - <img src="images/001.jpg" class="w75" alt="Some people near a hut" /> -</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Preface"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"><abbr title="page">p.</abbr> <a href="#Page_iii">iii</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_I"><span class="smcap">Chapter I. The Walls—Stone and Stone-Work.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Introduction, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>—Principal varieties of building stone, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>—On quarrying stone, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>—The application of electricity to the blasting of rocks, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>—Sawing the stones for the mason, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>—The processes of stone-masonry, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>. -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_II"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter II. On the Durability of Stone Buildings.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -On the choice of a stone for building purposes, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>—Examination of a -variety of buildings as to the durability of the stone employed therein, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>—The -stone for the new Houses of Parliament—how chosen, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>—An easy -method of determining whether a stone will resist the action of frost, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>—Directions -for practising this method, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>. -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_III"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter III. The Walls—Bricks and Brick-Work.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Early use of bricks, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>—Floating bricks, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>—Making bricks by hand, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>—Varieties -of bricks, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>—Tiles, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>—Making bricks and tiles by machinery, -<a href="#Page_46">46</a>—The Marquis of Tweeddale’s method, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>—Another method, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>—The -processes of bricklaying, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>—Mortar, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>—Defects of modern brick -houses, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>. -</td> -</tr><tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_IV"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter IV. The Roof—Slates and other Roof Coverings.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Slate quarries, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>—The process of slating, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>—Paper roofs, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>—Their -advantages, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>—Terrace roofs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Asphalte roofs, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Scotch fir roofs, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span><a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Iron roofs, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>—Zinc and other metallic roofs, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>—Thatch roofs, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>. -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_V"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter V. The Wood-Work—Growth and Transport of Timber.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -The oak as a timber tree, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>—The two chief varieties of oak, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>—Teak, -<a href="#Page_69">69</a>—The fir and pine as timber trees, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>—The Norway spruce fir, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>—The -Scotch fir, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>—Transport of timber from the forests, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>—Historical -notices, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>—Rafts on the Rhine, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>—The slide of Alpnach, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>—Cutting -the Norway deals, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>—The cutting and transport of Canadian timber, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>—Lumberers, -<a href="#Page_83">83</a>—Saw-mills, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>—Rafts on the American rivers, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>—Miscellaneous -kinds of timber, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>—Fancy woods, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_VI"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter VI. The Wood-Work—Carpentry.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Sawing timber, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>—Scarfing or joining timber, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>—Trussing or strengthening, -<a href="#Page_90">90</a>—Details of roof, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>—The mortise and other joints, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>—Distinction -between carpentry and joinery, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>—The tools employed, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>—Glue, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>—A -window sash, as an example of joiner’s work, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>—A second example of -joiner’s work, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_VII"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter VII. The Fire-Place.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Open fire-places, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>—Philosophy of a chimney, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>—Defects of open -fires, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>—Remedies for some of these defects, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>—The register stove, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>—Smoky -chimneys, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>—Causes of, and cure, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>—Close stoves, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>—The -German stove, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>—<abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott’s stove, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>—Objections thereto, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>—Warming -buildings by heated air, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>—The Russian stove, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>—Other -methods, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>—Sir Stewart Monteith’s stove, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>—Warming buildings by -steam, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>—Warming buildings by hot-water, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>—The high-pressure -system, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_VIII"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter VIII. The Windows and Lead-Work.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Introduction of glass windows, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>—The manufacture of crown glass, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>—The -manufacture of plate glass, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>—Cutting glass, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>—The process -of glazing, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>—Sheet lead for roofs and cisterns, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>—Lead pipes, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>—The -process of plumbing, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>—Solder or cement for metals, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>—Autogenous -soldering, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>—Its advantages, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_IX"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter IX. The Interior—Plastering and Paper-Hanging.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Plastering walls and ceilings, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>—Plaster and papier-maché ornaments -for rooms, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>—Whitewashing and stuccoing, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>—Origin of paper-hangings, -<a href="#Page_150">150</a>—The manufacture of paper-hangings, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>—Stencil, washable, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span>and flock paper-hangings, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>—The process of paper-hanging, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>. -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_X"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter X. The Interior—Painting and Gilding.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Reasons for painting a house, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>—Materials used in house painting, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>—Preparing -the paint, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>—The process of painting, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>—Graining and -marbling, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>—Gilding as an interior decoration, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>—The process of -burnish-gilding, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>—The process of oil-gilding, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>—Gilding enriched -ornaments, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_XI"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter XI. A Model Dwelling-House.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -The late Sir John Robison’s house at Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>—The Interior, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>—Warming, -<a href="#Page_170">170</a>—Ventilating, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>—Lighting, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>—Gas cooking apparatus, -<a href="#Page_172">172</a>—Flues, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>—Interior decorations by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hay, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>—A beau-ideal -English villa, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>—Situation, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>—Style, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>—Arrangement of the -interior, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>—The principal apartments, bed-rooms, &c., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>—The<br /> -kitchen, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_XII"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter XII. Fire-proof Houses.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Hartley’s method of making houses fire-proof, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>—Earl Stanhope’s -methods, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>—Pambœuf’s method, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>—Fire-proof paint, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>—Experimental -trials, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>—Leconte’s method, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>—Varden’s method, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>—Frost’s -method, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>—Loudon’s methods, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>—General remarks, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>. -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#Chapter_XIII"> -<span class="smcap">Chapter XIII. Miscellaneous Processes.</span></a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> -Manufacture of nails, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>—Locks and keys, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>—Stoves and grates, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>—Bells, -<a href="#Page_190">190</a>—Brass handles, ornaments, &c., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>—Preservation of timber, -<a href="#Page_191">191</a>—Various methods, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>—Kyanizing, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>—Soluble glass, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>—Its -uses in preserving timber, &c., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>—Veneering, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>—Brunel’s method of -cutting veneers, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>—Russian method, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>—The process of veneering, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>—Manufacture -of glue, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>—The house decorator of Italy, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>—Fresco -painting as applied to the decoration of houses, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>—Nature and difficulties -of the art, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>—Notices of the ancient custom of decorating walls, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>—The -practice of fresco painting, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>—The Cartoon, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>—The preparation -of the wall, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>—The process of painting, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>—The colours and -implements, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>—A fresco painter at work described, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>—General -remarks on fresco painting, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdl"> -<a href="#Page_215"><span class="smcap">Conclusion</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr page"> -<a href="#Page_215">215</a> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span></p> - -</div> - -<p class="center p0 xbig">The Useful Arts Employed in the Construction of Dwelling-Houses.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_I"><span class="smcap">Chapter I.</span><br />THE WALLS. STONE AND STONE-WORK.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>The material mainly employed in the construction of buildings depends -partly on the purpose for which the buildings are intended, and -still more, perhaps, on the prevailing geological character of the -surrounding country. In such a place as London, where there is an -immense mass of tenacious clay beneath the vegetable soil, and where -solid stone is not to be had, except by bringing it, at a great -expense, from a distance of many miles, clay seems to be the natural -material for dwellings; and thus we find that almost all the London -houses are built of brick formed of clay. In other parts of Great -Britain, such as Glasgow or Edinburgh, the case is very different; for, -in those places, clay is scarce, and stone is plentiful. There are -quarries not far from Edinburgh, and others within the very precincts -of Glasgow, where an abundant supply of good building-stone is obtained -at a very low rate. Hence it follows as a natural consequence, that -the houses in those two cities exhibit a large proportion of stone -structures; so much so, indeed, that an inhabitant of London, who is -accustomed to see stone appropriated only to large important public -buildings, is apt to imagine that the houses in the two northern cities -must necessarily be very costly. This is by no means certain, however, -for the builders in each city make use of those materials which may be -most available.</p> - -<p>Whether stone form the main portion of the walls of a house, as in the -cases just named, or whether it is only used in smaller degree, as in -London houses, the operations by which it is worked and fitted are -pretty much the same; and we will therefore devote this chapter to a -brief description of the principal kinds of building-stone, followed by -an outline of the <em>Mason’s</em> operations.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p> - - -<h3>Principal Varieties of Building-stone.</h3> - -<p><em>Granites</em> are rocks which have been formed by the union of three -different minerals in a state of fusion; these, on cooling, have -crystallized and become distinct from each other in the mass. It is on -the varied proportions in which these three constituents are combined, -that the colour, hardness, durability, and beauty of the various -granites depend. The light-red and rose-coloured granites contain the -felspar in greatest abundance and in the largest crystals; but this -mineral varies in hue from the purest white to nearly black; it is the -ingredient most acted on by the atmosphere; the rock, therefore, which -abounds in it, though it may be more beautiful to the eye, and more -easily worked at first, is not so durable as that which contains it in -smaller crystals, and with a larger proportion of <em>quartz</em>. It is -to this last-named mineral that granite owes the sparkling appearance -which it presents when the sun shines on it; quartz is the hardest and -most imperishable of the three minerals which form the granite-rock. -The third, <em>mica</em>, is distinguishable from the other two by its -satiny, shining, dark hue, and is very apparent in the coarse-grained, -handsome stone of our own country, brought from Cornwall.</p> - -<p>When the felspar is replaced by another mineral called -<em>hornblende</em>, the stone is of a dark-greenish hue, and the -component parts are in a finer form and less distinguishable from each -other. The Aberdeen granite is an example of this kind, which is more -durable than the former, though not so pleasing to the eye.</p> - -<p>Granite occurs in all the larger mountain-ranges, and in isolated -masses in every country; not being a stratified rock, and being -excessively hard, it is difficult to quarry and get out in manageable -masses. Blasting with gunpowder is the mode usually employed in this -country; the pieces detached by this means are hewn roughly into form -on the spot by a small pickaxe. Aberdeen granite is quarried by cutting -a deep line some yards long, and placing strong iron wedges at equal -distances in this line; these wedges are struck in succession by heavy -hammers till the mass splits down. This, or analogous modes, may always -be employed when the rock approaches a slaty or stratified structure, -as is the case with some nearly related to granite. Another method -of detaching masses of rock, is by driving wooden wedges into a deep -fissure, either natural or artificial; the wedges are then wetted, and -the consequent expansion of the wood bursts the rock asunder.</p> - -<p>As granite has always to be brought from a great distance to the spot -where it is wanted, because its natural localities<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> are far from the -places where edifices are usually constructed, and also on account of -its hardness, this rock is only used for important buildings, such -as bridges, markets, churches, &c., and not commonly even for these. -London and Waterloo bridges, Covent Garden and Hungerford markets, and -the York column in Pall Mall, are instances of its use in London.</p> - -<p>The principal kinds of stone used in building are the -<span class="allsmcap">LIMESTONES</span>, or <em>calcareous rocks</em> of the geologist; of -these it would be useless to describe or enumerate more than a few. -In our own country, the <em>Portland stone</em>, so called from its -principal quarries being in Portland Island, in Dorsetshire, holds the -first rank, and is that almost exclusively used in London for building, -and for the ornamental parts of edifices. It unites the qualities of -being easily sawn and worked, when lately quarried, and of subsequently -hardening by exposure to the air; it is close and even in its texture, -admitting of being wrought into delicate work, and receiving a very -smooth surface, which it will retain for a considerable period, though -it is surpassed in durability by many other rocks. It is said that -the Banquetting-house, Whitehall, was the first building in London in -which this stone was employed. <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Paul’s, Westminster and Blackfriars’ -bridges, Newgate, and, indeed, most of the public buildings of the -metropolis, are examples of its use.</p> - -<p><em>Bath-stone</em>, so called from its being entirely used in the -neighbourhood of that city, is softer and far less durable than the -preceding. When recently quarried, it may be sawn with a toothed -saw, like timber, and can be carved with the greatest facility into -the richest ornaments; hence it is often employed, and, if sheltered -from the weather, is well adapted for such purposes, from its rich, -even cream colour; but though it hardens considerably by exposure, -it is acted upon, after a time, by the air, so as to render it very -perishable. The restoration of Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, Westminster, -is, unfortunately, made with this stone.</p> - -<p>The two preceding, and many others, distinguished by names according to -the principal localities, as <em>Oxford</em>-stone, <em>Ketton</em>-stone, -&c., belong to what geologists term the <em>Oolitic</em> formation, -from the resemblance of some kinds of the rock to fishes’ roe, which -is observable in that we have last mentioned. They all agree in their -principal qualities.</p> - -<p><em>Purbeck-stone</em>, also from Dorsetshire, is used for steps, paving, -door-sills, and copings; it is coarser, harder, and less uniform in -texture than the foregoing, and not, therefore, calculated for fine -buildings, except for the purposes we have specified.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<p><em>Yorkshire-stone</em> resembles the last; it is used for the same -purposes, but especially for paving. The greatest part of the -foot-paths in the streets of London are laid with this or the preceding.</p> - -<p><em>Rag-stone</em> is obtained from quarries on the banks of the Thames, -Medway, &c. It was the stone chiefly used for building in ancient -London, and a great deal is still used for paving.</p> - -<p>The lower <em>chalk</em>, which is of a grey colour, and contains masses -of flint, was formerly much employed for building in the south-western -counties of England; its good qualities are proved by the perfect state -of many old churches in that part of the kingdom, which are known to be -from seven to nine hundred years old. It is now only sparingly used in -farm-building and cottages, but it is consumed in vast quantities to -burn into lime for mortar and other purposes, and as a manure.</p> - -<p>Belonging to the same family of calcareous rocks, and next in utility -to those we have just enumerated, though far surpassing them in beauty -and value, stand the endless varieties of <em>Marbles</em>, essentially -characterized by their crystalline texture, superior hardness, and by -the absence of shells or organic remains found so abundantly in all -other limestones. The name of marble is, however, popularly given to -many stones not possessing these characters, but which are hard enough -to be susceptible of a high polish, and are ornamental when so treated. -In this country the finer kinds of real marble are only sparingly -employed in the decorative departments of architecture, such as, for -chimney-pieces, slabs, hearths, capitals of columns in halls, saloons, -monuments, &c. The secondary kinds are also employed for similar -purposes, but more abundantly. The cold white statuary marble is not -adapted for out-of-door use in our foggy and cloudy climate, under the -influence of which it would soon become dingy and disagreeable, as is -proved by the total failure in the effect of the little triumphal arch -erected before Buckingham Palace. In Italy many ancient and modern -edifices are faced with white marble, and in that clear and pure -atmosphere they retain the beauty of the material for ages. The use to -which the finest marbles of Greece and Italy are applied in sculpture, -is familiar to every one.</p> - -<p>The last class of rocks employed in building, in those localities -where they occur, are the <em>Sandstones</em>, silex, or flint, in -finely-comminuted particles agglutinated together, being their -principal ingredient; they constitute excellent building-stone, and are -abundantly used as such in the West of England.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span></p> - - -<h3>On Quarrying Stone.</h3> - -<p>A quarry is an excavation made in the ground, or among rocks, for the -purpose of extracting stone for building, or for sculpture. The name -appears to have originated in the circumstance that the stones, before -they are removed to a distance, are first <em>quadrated</em>, or formed -into rectangular blocks.</p> - -<p>The following may be taken as an example of the general operations -of quarrying building-stones. If the stone be vertically below the -surface of the ground, the quarrymen first remove the earth and surface -soil, and then dig a perpendicular shaft, or pit, to afford access -to the stone; but if, as frequently happens, the stone be within -the flank of a hill, or mountain, the quarrymen excavate horizontal -galleries into the hill, leaving pillars here and there to support -the superincumbent mass. Supposing a large quarry about to be opened -beneath the soil, the earth is first removed, and then a sort of -inferior stone called “rag,” which generally lies between the soil -and the good stone beneath. Large masses of available stone generally -consist of distinct strata lying close together in a kind of cemented -bulk, and the contiguous surfaces forming <em>cleavages</em>, greatly -assist the quarrymen in detaching blocks from the mass. The block is -always more easily separated in a direction parallel to these planes -of cleavage than in any other direction, and the operations are, -therefore, guided by this circumstance. The workmen drive a series of -iron wedges into the mass of stone parallel to the cleavage-planes; -and, after a few blows, a portion of the mass becomes separated in -that direction. They then measure off a portion equal to the intended -length and breadth of the stone, and drive their iron wedges similarly -in these directions, by which the piece is entirely severed from the -rocky mass. The cleavage-planes vary interminably in direction, so -that the quarrymen have to work in various positions, according to the -direction of stratification. The operations are more easily conducted -when the cleavage-planes are vertical, than in any other direction. -After the blocks have been severed, they are brought to an irregularly -square shape, by means of a tool called a <em>kevel</em>; and are finally -hoisted by cranes on to low trucks, and conveyed on tram-ways out of -the quarry; or else are hoisted to the surface of the quarry at once, -if the depth render that plan necessary.</p> - -<p>In quarrying sandstone, and those rocks which consist of regular -layers, the pick, the wedge, the hammer, and the pinch, or lever, are -the chief tools. But for many kinds of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> limestone, and for greenstone -and basalt, recourse is had to the more violent and irregular effects -of gunpowder. Indeed, some of the primitive rocks, such as granite, -gneiss, and sienite, could scarcely be torn asunder by any other means. -The great objection to blasting by gunpowder is, that the blocks are -broken irregularly, and much of the stone is wasted; but it has the -advantage of being simple in its application, and powerful in its -effects. The grains of powder are suddenly converted into a permanently -elastic air, occupying about four hundred and seventy-two times more -space than their own bulk. The elastic fluid expands with a velocity -calculated at the rate of about ten thousand feet per second; and its -pressure or force, when thus expanding, has been estimated as equal to -one thousand atmospheres, that is, one thousand times greater than the -atmospheric pressure upon a base of the same extent. By applying this -product to a square inch, upon which the atmosphere exerts a pressure -of about fifteen pounds, the elastic fluid of the gunpowder will be -found, at the moment of the explosion, to exert a force equivalent to -six tons and a half upon the square inch of surface exposed to it; and -that with a velocity which the imagination can hardly follow.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img002"> - <img src="images/002.jpg" class="w50" alt="A tool for quarrying" /> -</span></p> - -<p>In boring a rock preparatory to blasting, it is necessary to consider -the nature of the stone, and the inclination or dip of the strata, in -order to decide upon the diameter, the depth, and direction of the hole -for the gunpowder. The diameter of the hole may vary according to the -nature of the rock, from half an inch to two and a half inches; and -the depth from a few inches to as many feet; the direction may vary -to all the angles from the perpendicular to the horizontal. The tools -used in this operation are very simple. The chisel, or <em>jumper</em>, -as it is called, varies in size according to the work to be performed, -and its edge is more or less pointed to suit the hardness of the -rock to be bored. If the hole is to be small and not deep, it may be -bored by a single person; with one hand he manages the chisel, which -he turns at every blow so as to cross the previous cut, and with the -other hand he strikes it with a hammer of six or eight pounds’ weight, -occasionally clearing out the hole by means of a <em>scraper</em>. But -when the hole is large and deep, one man in a sitting posture directs -the jumper, pours water into the hole, and occasionally cleans it out, -while two or three men, with hammers of ten or twelve pounds’ weight, -strike successive blows upon the jumper, until the rock is perforated -to the required depth.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> To prevent annoyance to the workmen, a small -rope of straw or hemp is twisted round the jumper, and made to rest in -the orifice of the hole. When the holes are to be made to a greater -depth than about thirty inches, it is common to use a chisel from six -to eight feet in length, pointed at both ends, having a bulbous part -in the middle for the convenience of holding it; it thus becomes a -kind of double jumper, and is used without a hammer, with either end -put into the hole at pleasure. The workmen holding this jumper by the -bulbous part, lift it, and allow it to drop into the hole by its own -weight, and by this simple operation, a hole to the depth of five feet -and upwards is perforated with ease and expedition. When the boring -is completed, the fragments are carefully removed, and the hole is -made as dry as possible, which is done by filling it partially with -stiff clay, and then driving into it a tapering iron rod, called the -<em>claying bar</em>, which nearly fills it. This, being forced in with -great violence, drives the clay into all the crevices of the rock, and -secures the dryness of the hole. Should this plan fail, tin cartridges -are used: these are furnished with a stem or tube, as shown in the -following figure, through which the powder may be ignited. When the -hole is dry, the powder is introduced, mixed sometimes with quicklime, -which, it is said, increases the force of the explosion. A long iron -or copper rod, called the <em>pricker</em>, is then inserted amongst -the powder, and is afterwards withdrawn, when the priming powder is -introduced. The hole is filled up with burnt clay, pounded brick, -stone, or any other substance not likely to produce a spark during the -ramming. This is called the <em>tamping</em>. In filling up the hole, -the chief danger is the production of a spark among the materials, -a circumstance which has occasioned the most fatal and distressing -accidents to quarriers. Prickers and rammers of copper, or of bronze, -have been employed, but their greater expense, and liability to twist -and break, have prevented their general introduction.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img003"> - <img src="images/003.jpg" class="w50" alt="A tool for quarrying" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The quarrier is, of course, accustomed to suppose that the more firmly -he rams in the powder, the greater will be the resulting effect. It -is, however, a curious property of sand, that it fills up all the void -spaces in the tube or hole, and for some rocks entirely supersedes the -necessity of ramming and pricking.</p> - -<p>When the hole is fully charged with the powder and wadding, the pricker -is withdrawn, and the small tubular space, or vent-hole, which it -leaves, is sometimes filled up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> with powder; but, for the sake of -economy, it is more common to insert straws filled with powder, and -joined together, so as to reach the required depth. The lower straw is -one terminating in the root part, where a natural obstruction occurs, -or it is artificially stopped with clay to prevent the powder from -being lost. The lower part of the priming straw is pared quite thin, -so as to insure the inflammation of the charge of powder in the hole. -Sometimes the fire is conveyed by means of the large and long green -rushes, which grow in marshy ground. A slit is made in one side of the -rush, along which the sharp end of a bit of stick is drawn, so as to -extract the pith, when the skin of the rush closes again by its own -elasticity. This tube is filled up with gunpowder; it is then dropped -into the vent-hole, and made steady with a bit of clay. This being -done, a slow match, called a <em>smift</em>, consisting generally of a -bit of soft paper, prepared by dipping it into a solution of saltpetre, -is carefully applied to the priming powder. When this match is about -to be fired, the quarriers usually blow a horn or ring a bell, to give -notice to all around them to retire. The explosion commonly takes -place in about a minute; the priming first explodes, attended only -with flame; a short interval of suspense commonly ensues; the eyes of -the bystanders being anxiously directed towards the spot; the rock is -instantly seen to open, when a sharp report or detonating noise takes -place, and numerous fragments of stone are observed to spring into the -air, and fly about in all directions, from amidst a cloud of smoke. The -quarrier then returns with alacrity to the scene of his operations.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img004"> - <img src="images/004.jpg" class="w50" alt="Plan to blast rock" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The accompanying figure shows the plan of blasting the rock, and a -section of the hole ready prepared for firing. The portion of the rock -to be dislodged by the explosion is that included between A and B. -The charge of powder is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> represented as filling the bore to C, from -which point to the top, the hole is filled up with <em>tamping</em>. The -<em>smift</em> is represented at D.</p> - -<p>In the year 1831, a patent was taken out by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Bickford, of Tucking -Mill, Cornwall, for an invention called “the Miner’s Safety Fuse.” -It consists essentially of a minute cylinder of gunpowder, or other -suitable explosive mixture, inclosed within a hempen cord, which -is first twisted in a peculiar kind of machine, then overlaid to -strengthen it; afterwards it is varnished with a mixture of tar and -resin to preserve the powder from moisture, and finally is coated with -whitening to prevent the varnish from sticking to the fingers, or the -fuses to one another. These fuses are said to have been used with good -effect, and to have greatly diminished the number of accidents.</p> - - -<h3>The application of Electricity to the Blasting of Rocks.</h3> - -<p>Perhaps the greatest modern improvement that has been made in blasting -rocks has been by the introduction of the galvanic battery. It is -well known that by closing the circuit of a voltaic current by means -of thin platinum wire, or by fine iron or steel wire, the platinum -becomes red-hot, and the iron or steel becomes instantly fused. All, -therefore, that is necessary is to connect the two terminal wires of -a voltaic battery by means of a fine wire of platinum or iron, and to -bury this in gunpowder contained in a tin canister, or a fuse connected -with a deposit of gunpowder. This was the method adopted by Colonel -Pasley in removing the Royal George, which lay sunk at the bottom of -the water at Spithead. Canisters of gunpowder, sometimes to the extent -of three thousand pounds’ weight, were employed, and securely deposited -in the sunken vessel, by workmen who descended in the diving-bell; the -terminal wires of the battery, connected as above stated, having been -previously inserted in the canisters, and these wires being extended -to a great distance, the explosion took place the instant they were -connected with the voltaic battery. After the vessel was thus blown -to pieces by repeated explosions, divers descended to clear away the -wreck, and to attach guns, &c., to chains let down from a ship above, -and which were then hauled up by means of a crane.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Morgan, in the <i>American Journal of Science</i>, describes a -fuse or cartridge which he has used with success in connexion with the -voltaic battery. This cartridge is prepared by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> joining two pieces of -clean copper wire to the ends of a fine steel wire, about one quarter -of an inch in length, by means of waxed silk; a thin piece of wood -is then spliced to both copper wires, to protect the steel wire from -accidents, and to enable the maker to introduce it easily into a quill -or small paper tube, which is to form the cartridge. This tube is -filled with fine gunpowder, and made air and water-tight. Another piece -of wood is then attached to this arrangement, and one of the copper -wires is bent over so as to form an angle with the straight wire.</p> - -<p>When it is required to use this cartridge, the copper wires are rubbed -with sand-paper, and twisted round the wires of the voltaic battery. -The cartridge is then placed deep in the hole made to receive the -gunpowder, and the charge is fired from any distance.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Morgan found this arrangement very useful in removing stumps of -trees; but one of his applications of it was curious and novel: he -exploded some powder in a pond at the depth of ten feet, with the -battery at the distance of two hundred and ten feet; the explosion, -which was instantaneous, had the effect of killing a large eel; and “I -have no doubt,” says <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Morgan, “that wild-fowl will yet be killed by -means of shells placed at low-water on the banks where they feed; and -by means of long connecting wires, the shells can be made to explode -simultaneously among the birds.”</p> - -<p>But the grandest application of gunpowder and the voltaic battery to -the blasting of rocks, was made in the month of January, 1843, at -Dover. It was determined by these means to attempt the removal of an -enormous mass of the cliff facing the sea, which formed an obstruction -to the line of railroad. A portion of the cliff which was penetrated -by the tunnel made through Shakspeare’s Cliff gave way, about two -years previously. About fifty yards of the tunnel were carried away, -and a clear space was thus formed for the line of railroad, with the -exception of a projecting point, which, prior to the slip alluded to, -was the extremity of the part of the cliff pierced by the tunnel, and -to remove which was the object of the operation in question.</p> - -<p>To clear away this mass by the tedious process of manual labour, would -have cost above twelve thousand pounds; and this consideration, as -well as the time that would have been lost, induced <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Cubitt, the -engineer, to try the bold expedient of blowing it away with gunpowder. -“It cannot be denied,” remarks Captain Stuart, whose account of this -great engineering operation we follow, “that there was apparent danger -in the undertaking, for the weight of the mass to be removed was -estimated at two million tons, and the quantity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> of powder used was -more than eight tons, or eighteen thousand pounds. The quantity used in -blowing up the fortifications of Bhurtpore was twelve thousand pounds, -and this is said to have been the greatest explosion that had ever -previously taken place for any single specific object.”</p> - -<p>The front of the projection was about one hundred yards wide; this -front was pierced with a tunnel about six feet in height, and three -in breadth; three shafts, equidistant from each other, and from the -entrances to the tunnel, were sunk to the depth of seventeen feet, and -galleries were run, one from each shaft, parallel with each other, and -at right angles with the line of the tunnel. These galleries varied -in length, the longest having been twenty-six feet, and the shortest -twelve feet, and at their extremities chambers were excavated in a -direction parallel with the tunnel. This description will be the better -understood by reference to the following figure. </p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img005"> - <img src="images/005.jpg" class="w50" alt="Tunnel, shafts, galleries, and chambers" /> -</span></p> -<p class="caption center p0 p2">1. The tunnel. 2. The -shafts. 3. The galleries. 4. The chambers.</p> - -<p>In the chambers, the powder was deposited in three nearly equal -quantities; it was done up in fifty-pound bags, and the proportion -in each chamber was contained in a wooden case, nearly as large as -the chamber itself. Ignition was communicated by means of a voltaic -battery; the conducting wires, one thousand feet in length, were -passed over the cliff, one to each chamber, and the electricity was -communicated in a shed built for the purpose on the top of the cliff, -about fifty yards from the edge. The explosion was conducted by -Lieutenant Hutchinson, R.E., who was engaged with General Pasley in -blowing up the wreck of the Royal George. The time appointed for the -explosion to take place, was two o’clock <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, 26th January, -1843, the tide being then at its lowest ebb. The arrangements, to -preserve order and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> prevent danger, were good. A space was kept clear -by a cordon of artillery, and the following programme was issued:—</p> - - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>“Signals, January 26, 1843.</p> - -<p>“1st. Fifteen minutes before firing, all the signal flags will be -hoisted.</p> - -<p>“2nd. Five minutes before firing, one gun will be fired, and all the -flags will be hauled down.</p> - -<p>“3rd. One minute before firing, two guns will be fired, and all the -flags (except that on the point which is to be blasted) will be -hoisted up again.”</p> -</div> - -<p>These signals were given exactly at the specified times, and when the -expected moment arrived, a deep subterranean sound was heard, a violent -commotion was seen at the base of the cliff, and the whole mass slid -majestically down, forming an immense <em>débris</em> at the bottom. -Tremendous cheers followed the blast, and a royal salute was fired.</p> - -<p>The remarks of different intelligent observers, as to the effects of -this explosion, would of course differ according to their position with -respect to the scene of explosion. One observer states that “the earth -trembled to the distance of half a mile; a stifled report, not loud, -but deep, was heard; the <em>base</em> of the cliff, extending on either -hand to upwards of five hundred feet, was shot as from a cannon, from -under the superincumbent mass of chalk seaward; and in a few seconds -not less than a million tons of chalk were dislodged by the shock, and -settled gently down into the sea below.”</p> - -<p>But the most eminent observer who has described the effects of -this explosion is Sir John Herschel, from whose letter to the -<i>Athenæum</i> we gather the following particulars. His position was -on the summit of the cliff, next adjoining the scene of operations, to -the southward, the nearest point to which access was permitted.</p> - -<p>Sir John Herschel was particularly struck with “the singular and almost -total absence of all those tumultuous and noisy manifestations of -power, which might naturally be expected to accompany the explosion -of so enormous a quantity (19,000<abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr>) of gunpowder.” He describes -the noise which accompanied the immediate explosion as “a low murmur, -lasting hardly more than half a second, and so faint, that had a -companion at my elbow been speaking in an ordinary tone of voice, I -doubt not it would have passed unheeded.”</p> - -<p>The fall of the cliff, the ruins of which extended over no less -than eighteen acres of the beach, to an average depth of fourteen -feet, was not accompanied with any considerable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> noise. “The entire -absence of smoke was another and not less remarkable feature of the -phenomenon. Much dust, indeed, curled out at the borders of the vast -rolling and undulating mass, which spread itself like a semi-fluid -body, thinning out in its progress; but this subsided instantly; and -of true smoke there was absolutely not a vestige. Every part of the -surface was immediately and clearly seen—the prostrate flagstaff -(speedily re-erected in the place of its fall)—the broken turf, -which a few seconds before had been quietly growing at the summit of -the cliff—and every other detail of that extensive field of ruin, -were seen immediately in all their distinctness. Full in the midst of -what appeared the highest part of the expanding mass, while yet in -rapid motion, my attention was attracted by a tumultuous and somewhat -upward-swelling motion of the earth, whence I fully expected to see -burst forth a volume of pitchy smoke, and from which my present -impression is, that gas, purified from carbonaceous matter in passing -through innumerable fissures of cold and damp material, was still in -progress of escape; but whether so or not, the remark made at the -moment is sufficient to prove the absence of any impediment to distinct -vision.”</p> - -<p>The amount of tremor experienced by Sir John Herschel at the point -where he was standing was so slight, that he thinks he has felt -it surpassed by a heavy waggon passing along a paved street. “The -impression, slight as it was, was single and brief, and must have -originated with the first shock of the powder, and not from the -subsequent and prolonged rush of the ruins.” We have already noticed -the remark of one observer, that “the earth trembled to the distance of -half a mile;” but this seems to be a mistake; the writer fancied that -it must have been so, and that he should be suspected if he were to -state it otherwise. It is to be regretted that people do not endeavour -to describe what they see and hear, without the embellishment of the -imagination.</p> - -<p>This grand experiment was no less grand from the absence of noise, -smoke, earthquake, and fragments hurled to vast distances through -the air. “I have not heard of a single scattered fragment flying out -as a projectile in any direction”—continues Sir John Herschel—“and -altogether the whole phenomenon was totally unlike anything which, -according to ordinary ideas, could have been supposed to arise from the -action of gunpowder. Strange as it may seem, this contrast between the -actual and the expected effects, gave to the whole scene a character -rather of sublime composure than of headlong violence—of graceful ease -than of struggling effort. How quietly, in short, the gigantic power -employed performed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> its work, may be gathered from the fact, that the -operators themselves who discharged the batteries were not aware that -they had taken effect, but thought the whole affair a failure, until -reassured by the shout which hailed its success.”</p> - - -<h3>Sawing the Stones for the Mason.</h3> - -<p>Whatever may be the purpose to which the stone is to be applied, the -larger blocks obtained from the quarry must be cut into smaller and -more manageable pieces; this is done by <em>sawing</em>. The saw used is -a long blade of steel without teeth, fixed in a heavy wooden frame, -similar in principle to that which holds the finer spring-saws employed -by cabinet-makers. The stone-saw, from its great size, however, -requires a more powerful contrivance for drawing it to the proper -degree of tension: this consists of a long screw-bolt fixed to a piece -of chain, which hooks over one of the upright arms of the frame; a -similar chain from the other carries a swivel-joint with a screw-nut -to receive the screw: by turning the swivel by a lever, the nut on the -screw draws up or tightens the chains, and that draws the blade tight, -which is contained between the other ends of the arms.</p> - -<p>These huge saws are worked by one or two men, who, in London -stone-yards, sit in watch-boxes, in order to be sheltered from the sun -and rain. Barrels filled with water, which is allowed to drop out at a -tap, are mounted on the block of stone, so that the water may drip into -the cut and facilitate the motion of the saw by removing some of the -friction, as well as prevent it becoming hot, and so losing its temper -by the same cause.</p> - -<p>In some large establishments, the sawing is effected by machinery. The -block is fixed in a proper position, and a group of saws brought to act -on it. These saws are all arranged parallel, according to the thickness -of the pieces into which the stone is to be cut; and a steam-engine -being brought to bear on the whole group, the cutting is effected with -great rapidity.</p> - - -<h3>The Processes of Stone-Masonry.</h3> - -<p>When the stone is sawed to the proper size, the surfaces which are -exposed to view, have to be made smooth and even. The tools used by the -mason for this purpose consist of iron chisels of different widths, -and principally of a sharp-pointed one called a <em>pointer</em>; these -chisels are struck with a mallet made of a conical-formed lump of hard -wood, fixed to a short handle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img006"> - <img src="images/006.jpg" class="w75" alt="Stone-Sawyer." /> -</span></p> -<p class="caption center p0">Stone-Sawyer.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<p>The <em>pointer</em> is used for chipping off the principal roughnesses -on the face and edges, and for working the whole face over to bring it -level, the workman trying his work by applying a <em>straight-edge</em> -occasionally to it. When the front and edges are made <em>true</em>, the -face is sometimes <em>tooled</em> over, so as to leave regular furrows in -it, according to certain forms, by which the different kinds of work -are distinguished. But this practice is going out of use, now that soft -free-stone is so much employed in building. In old edifices, such as -<abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Paul’s, Whitehall, &c., &c., the stone will be found to be wrought -on its face in the manner alluded to.</p> - -<p>Stones in buildings are not only fixed with mortar, as bricks are, but -are further secured in their places by being clamped together with iron -clamps. These are short iron bars, from seven to twelve inches long, -one and a half wide, and half an inch thick, according to the size of -the stone; the ends of the clamps being turned down a little, to afford -a better hold. A channel is cut in the two contiguous stones deep -enough for the clamp to lie in, and the ends of the channel are sunk -deeper, to receive the turned-down ends of the clamp; when this is put -into the channel, molten lead is poured in to fill up the interstices, -to keep the clamp in its place, and to prevent it from rusting.</p> - -<p>From the expense of carrying and working stone, the walls of buildings -at a distance from a quarry, such for example as those in London, are -seldom now built of solid stone, but a facing of this material is -applied only on the external surface of the wall, which is built of -brick. This kind of work is called <em>ashler</em> work, and both the -brick and stone-work must be executed with considerable care, to enable -a wall composed of two materials to preserve its perpendicularity; -it being obvious, that if the brick part yielded to the weight, it -must, from its construction, do so more than the stone facing, and, -therefore, the wall would bend inwards and become crippled.</p> - -<p>The width of the courses of ashlers must, therefore, be made equal -exactly to a certain number of courses of bricks with the intervening -mortar, and the brick-work must be executed with such care, that this -number of courses may be everywhere of the same width in the whole -height of the wall. In every course of ashler there must be solid -stones laid quite, or nearly quite, across the width of the wall to -form a <em>bond</em> to the stone facing, and all the stones of the -ashler must be fixed with iron cramps to one another and to these -bond-stones. But, however carefully a faced wall may be executed, it -is never so firm or durable as one built entirely of either material; -indeed, if well executed, of good<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> materials, and of competent -thickness in proportion to its height, a brick wall is the most -durable, light, and efficient structure that can be erected.</p> - -<p>When stone is to be cut into cornices, mouldings, &c., the blocks -having been sawed, the ends, top and bottom, are worked very true and -parallel, or perpendicular to each other, and one edge or <em>arris</em> -cut to a perfectly straight line; a thin wooden mould of the section -of the cornice is then applied to each end, and the profile of the -mouldings marked out on the stone. The workman being guided by this -figure, cuts away the stone down to the general surface of the -mouldings, and then proceeds to get the flat fillets of the mouldings -perfectly straight and true by the rule; these again guide him in -working the curved mouldings, such as <em>ovolos</em>, <em>cavettos</em>, -<em>cyma rectas</em>, and <em>ogees</em>; when these are cut nearly to -their profile, and perfectly straight on the <em>bed</em> line, they are -finished off by being rubbed down smooth by thin long straight-edges of -stone.</p> - -<p>Foliage and carved work is executed by a better kind of workman, -possessing some of the taste of an artist, and he works on the same -general principles as a sculptor when executing a statue; it would be -foreign to our present object, therefore, to dwell on this branch of -the mason’s art.</p> - -<p>It often, or even most commonly occurs, that the distance between -two columns of a portico, is of greater length than a stone can be -obtained, and if the architrave, or that part of the <em>entablature</em> -immediately over the capitals of the columns, be looked at attentively, -a stone will be perceived between the columns apparently unsupported, -for neither end rests on the column, and the joints of those ends are -upright, not presenting any character of a voussoir-stone or arch. The -contrivance by which such an architrave stone is supported deserves to -be described.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img007"> - <img src="images/007.jpg" class="w50" alt="Architrave stone" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The stone in question has a projecting part, wrought at each end, of -the form shown in the annexed figure; this projection is received into -a corresponding cavity, cut in the end of the stone supported by the -column, and the joint is thus really an arched or wedge-shaped one, -though the bevel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> line is concealed, and the two stones, when put -together, present only a vertical joint.</p> - -<p>The mason uses <em>squares</em>, <em>levels</em>, <em>plumb-lines</em>, and -<em>straight-edges</em> to set out his work, and trowels and mortar to -set the stones with; but the latter is rather used to make the joints -water-tight than to keep the stones together, this being effected by -their weight or by iron clamping. Formerly the mason required far -more accurate and extensive knowledge of geometry than is possessed -by persons of the trade at present; this was when he was called on -to construct groined and vaulted roofs, enriched with carved work -and pendent corbels, where the nicest workmanship was required, to -ensure the stability of the light and graceful columns and vaulting -of a Gothic cathedral. It was this possession of superior skill and -knowledge that caused the establishment of the Society of Freemasons, -which dates its rise from the tenth or eleventh century.</p> - -<p>Marble, from its costliness, and the difficulty of working it, is -seldom, if ever, used in solid pieces in buildings; thin facings of -it are set upon stone <em>backings</em>, much as rare woods are used in -<em>veneering</em> by the cabinet-maker. The marble is sawn into thin -slabs, like other stone, and the face is polished by rubbing on it the -surface of another piece, fine sand, mixed up with water, being used to -cause abrasion.</p> - -<p>Various contrivances are resorted to for cutting marble, and -building-stones generally, into <em>curved</em> forms. In some cases a -lever is made to work at one end on a pivot, while at the other end -is attached a curved piece of sheet-iron, which passing backwards and -forwards over the stone, cuts it in a circular form. In other cases -a cylinder of sheet-iron is formed; and this being allowed to fall -vertically on the surface of the stone, and rotated rapidly, cuts out -a piece of stone of the diameter of the cylinder. Sometimes, when a -large circular piece of stone is required, a kind of wheel is employed, -furnished on its under surface with four curved cutting-irons, -and these cutters, when the wheel revolves, cut the stone. By a -modification of the arrangements, an oval instead of a circular curve -may be given to the piece of stone.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_II"><span class="smcap">Chapter II.</span><br />ON THE DURABILITY OF STONE BUILDINGS.</h2> -</div> - -<p></p> - - - -<p>“Everything belonging to the earth, whether in its primitive state, -or modified by human hands, is submitted to certain and innumerable -laws of destruction, as permanent and universal as those which produce -the planetary motions. The operations of nature, when slow, are no -less sure; however man may for a time usurp dominion over her, she is -certain of recovering her empire. He converts her rocks, her stones, -her trees, into forms of palaces, houses, and ships; he employs the -metals found in the bosom of the earth as instruments of power, and the -sands and clays which constitute its surface as ornaments and resources -of luxury; he imprisons air by water, and tortures water by fire to -change, to modify, or destroy the natural forms of things. But in some -lustrums his works begin to change, and in a few centuries they decay -and are in ruins; and his mighty temples, framed, as it were, for -divine purposes, and his bridges formed of granite, and ribbed with -iron, and his walls for defence, and the splendid monuments by which he -has endeavoured to give eternity even to its perishable remains, are -gradually destroyed; and these structures which have resisted the waves -of the ocean, the tempest of the sky, and the stroke of the lightning, -shall yield to the operation of the dews of heaven, of frost, rain, -vapour, and imperceptible atmospheric influences; and as the worm -devours the lineaments of his mortal beauty, so the lichens and the -moss, and the most insignificant plants, shall feed upon his columns -and his pyramids, and the most humble and insignificant insect shall -undermine and sap the foundations of his colossal works, and make their -habitations amongst the ruins of his palaces, and the falling seats of -his earthly glory.”<span class="fnanchor" id="fna1"><a href="#fn1">[1]</a></span></p> - -<p>Although it is true that all human works must decay, yet it is a point -of great importance to ourselves and our successors whether that decay -be slow or speedy. The causes enumerated in the above eloquent passage, -though sure, are exceedingly slow in their action, and provided the -building materials have been selected with reference as well to their -durability as to their beauty, the resulting structure may defy the -corroding tooth of time for many ages, and we may thus transmit <span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> to a long posterity, lasting memorials of our wisdom and science, as -well as of our piety. Modern science has, to a very great extent, -enabled the architect and builder to determine beforehand what is the -durability of any given stone; and it is with great pleasure that we -now notice the extensive inquiry made at the suggestion of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Barry, -the architect of the new Houses of Parliament, under the Commission -issued by Her Majesty’s Government, to investigate the qualities of -stone in various parts of the kingdom, in order to select that which -should best ensure perpetuity to this grand national monument. This -commission, consisting of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Barry, Sir H. T. De la Beche, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> W. -Smith, and <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> C. H. Smith, visited one hundred and five quarries, and -examined one hundred and seventy-five edifices; and their collected -specimens were then submitted to tests, both mechanical and chemical, -by Professors Daniell and Wheatstone, of King’s College, London. In -order to leave a permanent record of their labours, the Commissioners -published a Report, and deposited in the Museum of Economic Geology, a -variety of specimens of the stones which they had collected. From this -Report, we select such details as are calculated to serve the purposes -of popular instruction. The Commissioners did not consider it necessary -to extend their inquiries to granites, porphyries, and other stones of -similar character, on account of the enormous expense of converting -them to building purposes in decorated edifices, and from a conviction -that an equally durable, and in other respects more eligible material, -could be obtained for the object in view from among the limestones or -sandstones of the kingdom.</p> - -<p>The Commissioners soon had striking proofs of the necessity and -importance of this inquiry in the lamentable effects of decomposition -observable in the greater part of the limestone employed at Oxford; in -the magnesian limestones of the Minster, churches, and other public -edifices at York; and in the sandstones of which the churches and -other public buildings at Derby and Newcastle are constructed; and -numerous other examples. The unequal state of preservation of many -buildings, often produced by the varied quality of the stone employed -in them, although it may have been taken from the same quarry, showed -the propriety of a minute examination of the quarries themselves, in -order to gain a proper knowledge of the particular beds from whence the -different varieties have been obtained. An inspection of quarries was -also desirable for the purpose of ascertaining their power of supply, -and other important matters; for it frequently happens, that the -best stone in quarries is often neglected, or only partially worked, -in consequence of the cost of laying bare, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> removing those beds -with which it may be associated; whence it happens, that the inferior -material is in such cases supplied.</p> - -<p>Stone buildings decay more rapidly in towns than in the open country, -where dense smoke, fogs, and vapours, which act injuriously on -buildings, do not exist. There is also another curious cause which -contributes to the durability of stone buildings situated in the -country. In the course of time, the stone becomes covered with minute -lichens, which, though in themselves decomposing agents, act with -extreme slowness, and when once firmly established over the entire -surface of the stone, seem to exercise a protective influence, by -defending the surface from the more violent destructive agents; -whereas, in populous smoky towns, these lichens are prevented from -forming, and thus the stone is exposed to severer trials than stone of -the same kind situated in the country.</p> - -<p>As a remarkable illustration of the difference in the degree of -durability in the same material, subjected to the effects of the air -in town and country, the appearance is noticed of several frusta of -columns, and other blocks of stone, that were quarried at the time -of the erection of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Paul’s Cathedral, London, and which are now -lying in the Isle of Portland, near the quarries from whence they were -obtained. These blocks are invariably found to be covered with lichens, -and, although they have been exposed to all the vicissitudes of a -marine atmosphere for more than one hundred and fifty years, they still -exhibit beneath the lichens their original form, even to the marks of -the chisel employed upon them; whilst the stone which was taken from -the same quarries, (selected no doubt with equal, if not greater care, -than the blocks alluded to,) and placed in the Cathedral itself, is, in -those parts which are exposed to the south and south-west winds, found, -in some instances, to be fast mouldering away.</p> - -<p>Colour is more important in the selection of a building-stone to be -situated in a populous and smoky town, than for one to be placed in -the open country, where all edifices become covered with lichens; for, -although in such towns, those fronts which are not exposed to the -prevailing winds and rains, will soon become blackened, the remainder -of the building will constantly exhibit a tint depending upon the -natural colour of the stone.</p> - -<p>The chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire -matter of the limestones, and in the cementing substance of sandstones, -according to the amount of surface exposed to it. The particles of the -stone first loosened by the action of frost are removed by powerful -winds and driving rains. The buildings in this climate were generally -found to suffer the greatest amount of decomposition on their south,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span> -south-west, and west fronts, arising doubtless from the prevalence of -winds and rains from those quarters.</p> - -<p>Those buildings which are highly decorated, such as the churches of -the Norman and pointed styles of architecture, generally afford a more -severe test of the durability of a building-stone, than the more simple -and less decorated castles of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; -because, in the former class of buildings, the stone is worked into -more disadvantageous forms than in the latter, as regards exposure to -the effects of the weather. Buildings in a state of ruin, from being -deprived of their ordinary protection of roofing, glazing of windows, -&c., afford an equally severe test of the durability of the stone -employed in them.</p> - -<p>The durability of various building-stones in particular localities was -estimated by examining the condition of the neighbouring buildings -constructed of them. Among sandstone buildings was noticed the remains -of Ecclestone Abbey, of the thirteenth century, near Barnard Castle, -constructed of a stone closely resembling that of the Stenton quarry, -in the vicinity, in which the mouldings and other decorations were in -excellent condition. The circular keep of Barnard Castle, apparently -also built of the same material, is in fine preservation. Tintern -Abbey is noticed as a sandstone edifice, that has to a considerable -extent resisted decomposition. Some portions of Whitby Abbey are fast -yielding to the effects of the atmosphere. The older portions of Ripon -Cathedral; Rievaulx Abbey; and the Norman keep of Richmond Castle, in -Yorkshire, are all examples of sandstone buildings, in tolerably fair -preservation.</p> - -<p>Of sandstone edifices in an advanced state of decomposition, are -enumerated Durham Cathedral, the churches at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, -Carlisle Cathedral, Kirkstall Abbey, and Fountain’s Abbey. The -sandstone churches of Derby are also extremely decomposed; and the -church of <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Peter, at Shaftsbury, is in such a state of decay, that -some portions of the building are only prevented from falling by means -of iron ties.</p> - -<p>The choir of Southwell Church, of the twelfth century, affords an -instance of the durability of a magnesio-calciferous sandstone after -long exposure to the influences of the atmosphere. The Norman portions -of this church are also constructed of magnesian limestone, similar to -that of Bolsover Moor, and which are throughout in a perfect state, the -mouldings and carved enrichments being as sharp as when first executed. -The following buildings, also of magnesian limestone, are either in -perfect preservation, or exhibit only slight traces of decay: the keep -of Koningsburgh Castle; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> church at Hemingborough, of the fifteenth -century; Tickhill Church, of the same date; Huddlestone Hall, of the -sixteenth century; Roche Abbey, of the thirteenth century.</p> - -<p>The magnesian limestone buildings which were found in a more advanced -state of decay, were the churches at York, and a large portion of the -Minster, Howden Church, Doncaster Old Church, and buildings in other -parts of the county, many of which are so much decomposed, that the -mouldings, carvings, &c., are often entirely effaced.</p> - -<p>The report speaks in high terms of the preservation of buildings -constructed of oolitic and other limestones; such are Byland Abbey, of -the twelfth century; Sandysfoot Castle, near Weymouth, constructed of -Portland oolite in the time of Henry the Eighth; Bow-and-Arrow Castle, -and the neighbouring ruins of a church of the fourteenth century, in -the island of Portland.</p> - -<p>The oolite in the vicinity of Bath does not seem to wear well.</p> - -<p>The excellent condition of the parts which remain of Glastonbury Abbey -shows the value of a shelly limestone similar to that of Doulting; -whilst the stone employed in Wells Cathedral, apparently of the same -kind, and not selected with equal care, is in parts decomposed. In -Salisbury Cathedral, built of stone from Chilmark, we have evidence of -the general durability of a siliciferous limestone; for, although the -west front has somewhat yielded to the effects of the atmosphere, the -excellent condition of the building generally is most striking.</p> - -<p>The materials employed in the public buildings of Oxford, afford a -marked instance both of decomposition and durability; for whilst a -shelly oolite, similar to that of Taynton, which is employed in the -exposed parts of the more ancient parts of the Cathedral, in Morton -College Chapel, &c., is generally in a good state of preservation, a -calcareous stone from Heddington, employed in nearly all the colleges, -churches, and other public buildings, is in such a deplorable state of -decay as, in some instances, to have caused all traces of architectural -decoration to disappear, and the ashler itself to be, in many places, -deeply disintegrated.</p> - -<p>In Spofforth Castle, two materials, a magnesian limestone and a -sandstone, have been employed, the former in the decorated parts, and -the latter for the ashler, and although both have been equally exposed, -the magnesian limestone has remained as perfect in form as when first -employed, while the sandstone has suffered considerably from the -effects of decomposition. In Chepstow Castle a magnesian limestone is -in fine preservation, and a red sandstone rapidly decaying.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> A similar -result was observed in Bristol Cathedral, which afforded a curious -instance of the effects of using different materials; for a yellow -limestone and a red sandstone have been indiscriminately employed both -for the plain and the decorated parts of the building; not only is the -appearance unsightly, but the architectural effect of the edifice is -also much impaired by the unequal decomposition of the two materials.</p> - -<p>After enumerating these and other examples, the Report gives the -preference to the limestones, on account of their more general -uniformity of tint, their comparatively homogeneous structure, and the -facility and economy of their conversion to building purposes; and, of -this class, preference is given to those which are most crystalline. -Professor Daniell is of opinion that the nearer the magnesian -limestones approach to equivalent proportions of carbonate of lime and -carbonate of magnesia, the more crystalline and better they are in -every respect.</p> - -<p>It was considered that this crystalline character, together with -durability, as instanced in Southwell Church, &c.; uniformity in -structure; facility and economy in conversion; and advantage in -colour, were all comprised in the magnesian limestone, or dolomite -of Bolsover<span class="fnanchor" id="fna2"><a href="#fn2">[2]</a></span> Moor and its neighbourhood, and was accordingly -recommended as the most fit and proper material to be employed in the -New Houses of Parliament.<span class="fnanchor" id="fna3"><a href="#fn3">[3]</a></span> This opinion was not arrived at, nor this -recommendation made, until after a very extensive series of experiments -had been completed by Professors Daniell and Wheatstone upon specimens -of the stones of the various quarries visited by the Commissioners. -The specimens, as delivered to these gentlemen, were in the form -of two-inch cubes. These experiments were of a most comprehensive -kind. The composition of the stones was determined by chemical -analysis:—their specific gravities; their weights after having been -perfectly dried by exposure in heated air for several days; then their -weights after having been immersed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span>in water for several days so as to become saturated; the object -being to ascertain the absorbent powers of the stones, which was -further tested by placing them in water under the exhausted receiver -of an air-pump. The stones were also subjected to the process of -disintegration, invented by M. Brard, the object of which is to -determine, by easy experiments, whether a building-stone will or will -not resist the action of frost. Lastly, the cohesive strength of each -specimen, or its resistance to pressure, was tested by the weight -required to crush it. This weight was furnished by a hydrostatic press, -the pump of which was one inch in diameter: one pound at the end of the -pump lever produced a pressure on the surface of the cube equal to 2·53 -cwt., or to 71·06 <abbr title="pounds">lbs.</abbr> on the square inch. These trials were made with -caution; the weight on the lever was successively increased by a single -pound; and, in order to ensure a gradual action, a minute was allowed -to elapse previous to the application of each additional weight. It was -noted for each specimen the pressure at which the stone began to crack, -and also the pressure at which it was crushed.</p> - -<p>The results of all these experiments (which are stated for each -stone) gave a decided preference to the Bolsover magnesian limestone, -which was noticed as being remarkable for its peculiarly beautiful -crystalline structure, while it was the heaviest and strongest of -all the specimens, and absorbed least water. Its composition was 50 -per cent. of carbonate of lime, and 40 of carbonate of magnesia; the -remaining ten parts consisting chiefly of silica and alumina.</p> - - -<h3>An easy Method of determining whether a Stone will resist the Action of -Frost.</h3> - -<p>In the choice of a stone for building purposes, it is of the utmost -importance to be able to determine, by a few prompt and easy -experiments, whether the proposed stone is capable of resisting the -destructive action of moisture and frost. The means of ascertaining -this were difficult and uncertain, until M. Brard, several years ago, -communicated his method to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. -This learned body having appointed a Committee of their own members to -inquire into the merits of M. Brard’s process, and to make a report -thereon, the united testimony of engineers, architects, masons, and -builders from different parts of France, was received, and proved -so favourable as to its merits and simplicity, that the Committee -recommended the plan to public notice and general adoption. From their -Report we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> select a few details, which hitherto, we believe, have not -appeared in English.</p> - -<p>When water is converted into ice an increase in bulk suddenly -takes place with such amazing force that it appears to be almost -irresistible. This is the force which cracks our water-bottles and -ewers; splits asunder the trees of our forests; and destroys some of -the stones of our buildings. But the action of frost upon stone is -very gradual; it is confined to the surface, and when we see a layer -of stone separated from the rock or the building, we see the result of -the action of the frost during several successive winters, whereby the -fragment is gradually thrust out of its perpendicular position, and at -length falls. This natural process is repeated in our buildings: we -rarely see squared stones split into large fragments by the action of -frost except there be a cavity of some considerable size, in which a -quantity of water can be collected. The usual action of the frost is at -the surface, which is destroyed by the chipping off of small fragments -in consequence of the adhesion of the materials of the stone being -partially destroyed.</p> - -<p>All stones absorb water in greater or less quantities, and there is no -rock that does not contain some humidity. The great difference between -stones which is now to be considered is in their power of resisting -frost. Stones of the same kind, nay, stones from different parts of -the same quarry, are acted upon very differently by frost; for, while -one stone soon begins to show the destructive effects of its action, -another remains uninjured during many centuries. It will, therefore, be -convenient to call those stones, of whatever kind, which withstand the -action of frost, <em>resistant</em>, and those which yield to its action, -<em>non-resistant</em>.</p> - -<p>M. Brard’s first idea, in order to test these resistant properties -in building-stones, was, to saturate the stone with water, and then -expose it to cold artificially produced; but this was found to be -impracticable on a large scale, and the freezing mixtures and other -means of producing cold were liable to act chemically upon the stone, -and thus produce other effects than those of cold.</p> - -<p>M. Brard was then led to compare water with those numerous solutions of -the chemist, which, under certain modes of treatment, crystallize. The -expansive force of salts in crystallizing is very great, and he saw no -reason why water should not be regarded as a crystalline salt similar -in its nature to those saline bodies which effloresce at the surfaces -of stones, and in time destroy them and even reduce them to powder.</p> - -<p>He therefore tried, in a very large number of experiments, the action -upon building-stones of solutions of nitre, of common<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> salt, of Epsom -salts, of carbonate and sulphate of soda, of alum and of sulphate -of iron, and found that the stones cracked and chipped, and in many -cases behaved precisely in the same way as when under the influence -of freezing water. In the course of these trials, sulphate of soda -(Glauber’s salts) was found to be the most energetic and active, and to -be the best exponent of the action of freezing water.</p> - -<p>In order, therefore, to determine promptly if a stone be resistant or -non-resistant, the following process was adopted. A saturated solution -of sulphate of soda was made in cold water; the solution being put into -a convenient vessel, the stone was immersed, and the solution boiled -during half an hour: the stone was then taken out, and placed in a -plate containing a little of the solution. It was then left in a cool -apartment, in order to facilitate the efflorescence of the salt with -which the stone was now impregnated. At the end of about twenty-four -hours the stone was covered with a snowy efflorescence, and the liquid -had disappeared either by evaporation or by absorption. The stone was -then sprinkled gently with cold water until all the saline particles -disappeared from the surface. After this first washing the surfaces -of the stone were covered with detached grains, scales, and angular -fragments, and the stone being one that was easily attacked by frost, -the splitting of the surfaces was very marked. But the experiment was -not yet terminated: the efflorescence was allowed to form, and the -washing was repeated many times during five or six days, at the end of -which time the bad qualities of the stone became fully established. The -stone was finally washed in pure water; all the detached parts were -collected, and by these the ultimate action of the frost upon the stone -was estimated.</p> - -<p>The behaviour of various non-resistant stones under this process was -remarkable. Some were found to have deteriorated in the course of -the third day; others to have entirely fallen to pieces; those of -which the power of resistance was somewhat greater, held out till the -fifth or sixth day; but few stones, except the hard granites, compact -limestones, and white marbles, were able to stand the trial during -thirty consecutive days. For all useful purposes, however, eight days -suffice to test the resistant qualities of any building-stone.</p> - -<p>The explanation of this process is very easy. The boiling solution -dilates the stone and penetrates it to a certain depth, nearly in -the same way that rain water by long-continued action introduces -itself into stones exposed to the severity of our changeable climate. -Pure water when frozen occupies a greater bulk than when fluid, and -the pores or cellules of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> stone not being able to accommodate -themselves to the increased bulk of the water, great pressure is -exerted between and among them, whereby a portion of the water is -driven to the surface, and in doing so rends and detaches small -portions of the stone. The same action takes place with the saline -solution; it is introduced into the stone in a fluid state, from which -passing into the solid it occupies a greater bulk, and a portion of -it appears at the surface. The repeated washings have no other object -than to allow the salt to exert its greatest amount of destructive -action upon the stone. There is a striking analogy between the effect -of congealed water and that of the efflorescence of salts, in the -disintegration of non-resistant stones; namely, that pure water acts on -the stones destructively only in a state of snowy efflorescence, which -evidently proceeds from the interior to the exterior like the saline -efflorescence; whilst water at the surface of the stones may freeze -into hard ice without injuring them, just in the same way as salts, -which may crystallize upon stones without exerting any injurious action.</p> - -<p>The experience of several engineers, extending as it does over several -years, fully proves, of a large variety of stones whose qualities -were well known, that the action of M. Brard’s process and that of -long-continued frost exactly coincide.</p> - -<p>It is not the least interesting part of the inquiry to know that this -process may be applied with perfect success to ascertain the solidity -and resistant power of bricks, tiles, slates, and even mortar. From a -mass of minute detail, we will select a few general results.</p> - -<p>During one winter season M. Vicat composed seventy-five varieties of -mortar, the difference between any two consisting in the proportion of -sand and the method of slaking the lime. In the following June these -mortars were exposed to the disintegrating process. Most of them were -attacked in twenty-four hours; almost all of them in forty-eight hours; -and all except two in three days. This gentleman also found that a -mortar made ten years previously, of one hundred parts lime, which had -been left exposed to the air, under cover, during a whole year, and -then mixed up into a paste with fifty parts of common sand, withstood -the trial admirably during seventeen days, while the best stones of -the neighbourhood speedily gave way. In this case the solution was -saturated while hot, which is so powerful in its effects that stones -which have resisted the action of the frost for ages, soon gave way -when exposed to it.</p> - -<p>M. Vicat calculates that the effect of the sulphate of soda upon a -non-resistant stone after the second day of trial equals<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> a force -somewhat greater than that exerted by a temperature of about 21° -Fahrenheit, on a stone saturated with water.</p> - -<p>The action of the process upon bricks proved that, whatever their -qualities in other respects, if imperfectly burnt, they are speedily -acted on. The sharp edges of the brick, and then the angles, are first -rounded, and finally the brick is reduced to powder. Such is precisely -the action of frost often repeated. Well-baked bricks, on the contrary, -retain their colour, form, and solidity by this process, as well as -under the influence of frost. Ancient Roman bricks, tiles, and mortar, -and hard well-baked pottery resisted the process perfectly; as did also -white statuary marble of the finest quality, while common white marble -was soon attacked. In Paris, portions of buildings which had been -exposed to the air during twenty years without undergoing the least -alteration, were submitted to this ordeal, and the experiment agreed -with observation. In one extensive series of experiments on stones from -different quarries of France, the action of the salt was continued -for seven days, and the results noted down; it was then continued for -fourteen days, and the results compared with the preceding ones; which -only served to confirm the judgment first given, for those stones which -were noted as of bad quality crumbled to dust or split into fragments, -while those noted for their good qualities had experienced no sensible -alteration.</p> - -<p>One of the great advantages of this process is the power it gives to -the architect of choosing a hard, durable stone for those parts of the -building most exposed to the action of the weather, when the funds -are insufficient to admit of the whole building being so constructed. -Thus the cornices, the columns, and their capitals, are struck in all -directions by rain, and hail, and damp air, and are consequently far -more exposed to their destructive action than the flat surface of a -wall, which offers but one plane to the air.</p> - -<p>In the course of this inquiry a very curious case arose. During the -erection of a church in Paris, the architect required a good durable -stone for the Corinthian capitals; and many circumstances disposed him -to select it from the neighbouring quarry of the Abbaye du Val. But, on -seeking the opinion of two brother architects, he was surprised to find -their estimations of the stone to be totally at variance, for while one -declared that he had employed it with the greatest success, another -said that he had seen it yield speedily to the effects of frost. On -visiting the quarry it was found that two beds of stone were being -worked, an upper and a lower bed; specimens of the stone were taken -from each, and on submitting them to a hot saturated solution, it was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -ascertained almost immediately that the upper layer furnished excellent -stone, while the lower one supplied that of which the architect had -so much reason to complain. But it is remarkable that the stones from -the two beds had precisely the same appearance in grain, colour, and -texture; so much so, that when brought into the mason’s yard it was -impossible by ordinary tests to distinguish the good from the bad stone.</p> - -<p>At the conclusion of the inquiry of the Committee, the Royal Academy -of Sciences proved the high estimation in which they held this -contribution of science to the useful arts, by directing to be -published the following practical directions for repeating the process, -for the use of architects, builders, master masons, land proprietors, -and all persons engaged in building.</p> - -<ol> -<li>The specimens of stone are to be chosen from those parts of the -quarry, where from certain observed differences in the colour, grain, -and general appearance of the stone, its quality is doubtful.</li> - -<li>The specimens are to be formed into two-inch cubes, carefully cut, -so that the edges may be sharp.</li> - -<li>Each stone is to be marked or numbered with Indian ink or scratched -with a steel point; and corresponding with such mark or number a -written account is to be kept as to the situation of the quarry, -the exact spot whence the stone was detached, and other notes and -information relating to the specimen.</li> - -<li>Continue to add a quantity of sulphate of soda to rain or distilled -water, until it will dissolve no more. You may be quite sure that the -solution is saturated, if, after repeatedly stirring it, a little of -the salt remains undissolved at the bottom of the vessel an hour or two -after it has been put in.</li> - -<li>This solution may be heated in almost any kind of vessel usually put -on the fire, but perhaps an earthen pipkin may be most convenient. When -the solution boils, put in the specimens of stone, one by one, so that -all may be completely sunk in it.</li> - -<li>Continue the boiling for thirty minutes. Be careful in observing -this direction.</li> - -<li>Take out the cubes one at a time, and hang them up by threads in -such a way that they may touch nothing. Place under each specimen a -vessel containing a portion of the liquid in which the stones were -boiled, having first strained it to remove all dirt, dust, &c.</li> - -<li>If the weather be not very damp or cold the surfaces of each stone -will, in the course of twenty-four hours, become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> covered with little -white saline needles. Plunge each stone into the vessel below it, so as -to wash off these little crystals, and repeat this two or three times a -day.</li> - -<li>If the stone be one that will resist the action of frost, the -crystals will abstract nothing from the stone, and there will be found -at the bottom of the vessel neither grains, nor scales, nor fragments -of stone. Be careful, in dipping the stone, not to displace the vessel. -<br /><br /> -If, on the contrary, the stone is one that will not resist the action -of frost, this will be discovered as soon as the salt appears on the -surface, for the salt will chip off little particles of the stone, -which will be found in the vessel beneath; the cube will soon lose -its sharp edges and angles; and by about the fifth day from the first -appearance of the salt, the experiment may be considered at an end.<br /><br /> - -As soon as the salt begins to appear at the surface its deposit is -assisted by dipping the stone five or six times a day into the solution.</li> - -<li>In order to compare the resisting powers of two stones which are -acted upon by the frost in different degrees, all that is necessary is, -to collect all the fragments detached from the six faces of the cube, -dry them and weigh them, and the greatest weight will indicate the -stone of least resistance to the frost. Thus, if a cube of twenty-four -inches of surface loses 180 grains, and a similar cube only 90 grains, -the latter is evidently better adapted than the former to the purposes -of building.</li> -</ol> - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<p class="footnote" id="fn1"><a href="#fna1">[1]</a> <span class="smcap">Sir Humphry Davy.</span></p> - -<p class="footnote" id="fn2"><a href="#fna2">[2]</a> Bolsover is a small market town in Derbyshire, on the borders of -the county of Nottingham, and about 145 miles from London.</p> - - - -<p class="footnote" id="fn3"><a href="#fna3">[3]</a> The various quarries visited by the commissioners are noticed in -the fullest and fairest manner. They have stated for each quarry its -name and situation; the names and addresses of the freeholder, of his -agent, and of the quarryman; the name of the stone; its composition; -colour; weight per cubic foot; entire depth of workable stone; -description of the beds; size of blocks that can be procured; prices, -per cubic foot, of block stone at the quarry; description and cost of -carriage to London; cost, per cubic foot, of the stone delivered in -London; cost, per foot of surface, of plain rubbed work, as compared -with Portland stone; and, finally, where known or reported to have been -employed in building.</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_III"><span class="smcap">Chapter III.</span><br />THE WALLS. BRICKS AND BRICK-WORK.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>We now come to that material which is, in England, a more important -agent than stone in the construction of dwelling-houses; namely, -<em>bricks</em> made from clay. There were three millions and a half of -houses in Great Britain in the year 1841; and there can be no doubt -that of this number those which were built of brick constituted a vast -majority. It is only in a few particular districts that stone is a more -available material for houses than bricks. In other countries, too, as -well as our own, the arts of brick-making and bricklaying are carried -on more extensively than the operations of the stone-mason.</p> - - -<h3>Bricks and Brick-work in Early Times.</h3> - -<p>It has been observed that “the art of making bricks is so simple, that -it must have been practised in the earliest ages of the world; probably -before mankind had discovered the method of fashioning stones to suit -the purposes of building.” It is stated in the Book of Genesis that -burnt bricks were employed in the construction of the Tower of Babel. -Now, as this structure appears to have been raised about four hundred -years after the Deluge, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the -art of making bricks was invented almost as soon as men began to build. -Bricks seem to have been in common use in Egypt while the Israelites -were in subjection to that nation; for the task assigned them was the -making of brick, and we are informed in the Book of Exodus, that the -Israelites built two Egyptian cities. No particulars are given in -Scripture of the method of making bricks; but as straw was one of the -ingredients, and as very little rain falls in Egypt, it is probable -that their bricks were not burned, but merely baked by the heat of the -sun. The same mode of baking bricks seems still to be practised in the -East. The ruins of the tower near Bagdad are formed of unburnt bricks. -The art of brick-making was carried to considerable perfection among -the Greeks. Pliny states that they made use of bricks of three sizes, -distinguished by the following names: <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">didoron</i>, or six inches -long; <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">tetradoron</i>, or twelve inches long; and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">pentadoron</i>, -or fifteen inches long. That the Romans excelled in the art of making -bricks there is the amplest evidence, since brick structures raised at -Rome seventeen hundred years ago, still remain nearly as entire as when -first built.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span></p> - -<p>A remarkable kind of <em>floating brick</em>, used by the ancients, has -been made the subject of investigation in modern times, with a view to -the suggestion of improvements in the making of bricks for particular -purposes. Pliny states that at various places in Spain, in Asia Minor, -and elsewhere, bricks were made which, besides possessing considerable -strength and a remarkable power of enduring heat, were yet of such -small specific gravity, that they floated on the surface of water. Like -many of the arts of the ancients, the method of making these bricks, as -well as the material of which they were made, were forgotten for many -ages. About the year 1790, however, an Italian, named Fabbroni, turned -his attention to the subject, and after various experiments on minerals -of small specific gravity, he came to the conclusion that these -bricks must have been composed of a substance called “mountain-meal;” -or, at least, he found that he could make of this substance bricks -which appeared to agree in every respect with those described by the -ancients. This mountain-meal is an earth composed of flint, magnesia, -clay, lime, iron, and water, in certain definite proportions. The -bricks which Fabbroni formed of this material had the property of -floating in water; they could not be fused by any ordinary degree of -heat; and so low was their conducting power, that while one end of the -brick was red-hot, the other could be held in the hand without the -smallest inconvenience. It has been supposed that a peculiar kind of -earth, found in some parts of Cornwall is the same as that with which -Fabbroni experimented on in Italy, and that both are analogous to the -kind of which the ancients made their floating bricks. Proceeding on -this supposition, it has been proposed to make such bricks for the -construction of <em>floating houses</em> upon ornamental waters. At -present such structures can be made only of timber; and, however the -owner may decorate them, they have always a flimsy and unsubstantial -appearance, and they are soon injured by the weather. If, however, a -platform of good timber were employed as the base of the whole, and the -weight so contrived as to keep this platform constantly under water, -it would last a long time. The upper part of the structure formed of -the floating bricks, might have all the appearance, and, indeed, all -the stability of a brick house upon land; for this description of brick -resists the influence of the atmosphere as well as the action of fire; -and although it is not absolutely so strong as the heavy brick in -common use, it is far more so in proportion to its specific gravity. We -do not know whether these conjectures have yet been put to the test.</p> - -<p>That the early inhabitants of many countries in the eastern<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span> and -central parts of Asia were acquainted with the use of bricks in -building, we have abundant proof from the descriptions of intelligent -travellers; and there are even grounds for attributing to them a very -high degree of mechanical skill both in the making of the bricks and -the formation of brick walls. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Kennedy, in his <i>Campaign of the -Indus</i>, says:—“Nothing I have ever seen has at all equalled the -perfection of the early brick-making, which is shown in the bricks -to be found in these ruins [ancient tombs near Tatta]: the most -beautifully chiselled stone could not surpass the sharpness of edge, -and angle, and accuracy of form; whilst the substance was so perfectly -homogeneous and skilfully burned, that each brick had a metallic ring, -and fractured with a clear surface, like breaking freestone. I will not -question the possibility of manufacturing such bricks in England, but I -much doubt whether such perfect work has ever been attempted.”</p> - - -<h3>Making Bricks by Hand.</h3> - -<p>In the mechanical arrangements for making bricks two very different -systems are adopted; the one handicraft, and the other by machinery. -The former has always been and still is far more extensively adopted -than the latter.</p> - -<p>In the selection of materials for brick-making, a brown loamy clay, -that is, clay which contains a small quantity of calcareous matter, is -considered best for ordinary bricks, but the ingredients vary according -to the purposes for which the brick is required; and every one must -have remarked the difference in colour between the light yellow <em>marl -stocks</em>, as they are called, employed in the facing of houses of -the better kind, and the dark red brick used in Lancashire and other -northern counties. The colour also varies with the proportion of ashes -or sand employed in the mixture, and with the degree of heat they are -subjected to in drying. The general process is, however, much the same -everywhere; and we shall describe that used in England, where bricks -are always burnt.</p> - -<p>The proper kind of clay being found, the top vegetable mould is -removed, and the earth dug and turned over to expose it as much as -possible to atmospheric action, and for this purpose it is left for -the winter. In spring, a quantity of fine ashes, varying in proportion -to the clay from one-fourth to a fifth, according to the stiffness of -the latter, is added by degrees, and well incorporated by digging and -raking, water being poured on to render the mass soft. When the union -is effected, the clay is carried in barrows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> to a rude mill, erected -near the shed, in which the brickmaker works.</p> - -<p>This mill consists usually of a vat, or circular vessel, fixed on a -timber frame; an upright iron axle is placed in the centre of the vat, -and carries some iron plates, or rakes with teeth, to stir up the soft -clay when placed in the mill: this axle is turned round by a horse -harnessed to a horizontal shaft which proceeds from the axle. The -clay being put into the vat, the rakes or <em>knives</em> complete the -incorporation of the ashes, and thoroughly temper the whole mass, which -is gradually squeezed out through a hole in the bottom of the vat.</p> - -<p>A better kind of mill is used in tempering the material for the better -bricks; it only differs, however, in being larger. An iron harrow -loaded with weights is dragged round in a circular pit lined with -brick-work. The clay in this case is diluted with water sufficiently -to allow of the stones sinking to the bottom; and the fluid is drawn -off into pits, where it is left to settle and thicken, to the proper -consistence.</p> - -<p>The prepared clay is first separated into masses, each large enough to -make a brick, by the <em>feeder</em>, or assistant, who sands the pieces -ready for the <em>moulder</em>; the <em>mould</em> is an open rectangular -box, the four sides of which are made to separate from the bottom, to -allow of the brick being turned out. The bottom is now made with a lump -raised on it, by which a slight depression is formed on one side of the -brick, to admit a mass of the mortar being received and detained in it -when the wall is built.</p> - -<p>The moulder takes the piece of clay prepared for him, and dashing each -into the mould so as to cause it to fill it, removes the superfluous -quantity by means of a flat piece of wood which he draws across the -open side of the mould; this <em>strike</em> is kept in a bowl of water -to wet it, and prevent the adhesion to it of the clay. The man then -lifts off the sides of the mould, and deposits the brick on a flat -<em>pallet-board</em>, and this is removed by a boy who ranges the bricks -on a lattice frame set sloping on the barrow in which they are to be -taken to the field to dry; fine sand is strewed on the frame and over -the bricks, to prevent their adhering together.</p> - -<p>The bricks are taken to the field, and piled in long lines called -<em>hacks</em>. This is a nice operation, as the soft bricks, if -handled roughly, would become twisted, and rendered useless; the -bottom course of bricks is raised a few inches to keep it from the -wet; and the ground is prepared to receive them by being covered with -dry brick-rubbish or ashes, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> raked smooth. The bricks are set -alternately in rows lengthwise and crosswise, with intervals between -them of an inch or more, to allow a thorough circulation of air: the -hack, when raised about a yard high, is covered over with straw to -throw off the rain.</p> - -<p>If the weather be favourable, ten or twelve days are enough to dry the -bricks in the hacks sufficiently to prepare them for burning, but they -should be thoroughly dry, or the subsequent process will fail.</p> - -<p>Ordinary bricks for building are burnt in <em>clamps</em>, which are -large oblong masses, built up of the unburnt bricks, laid regularly -in layers, with large flues or passages at intervals, in which ashes, -cinders, coal, and brush-wood are laid; layers of ashes are strewed -over those of the bricks. The object is, that the fire, when the fuel -is ignited, may penetrate every part of the mass, and bake every -brick equally; even the ashes mixed up in the clay are intended to be -partly burnt by the heat. In clamps well constructed the outside is -coated with clay or plaster to keep in the heat, and when the fuel is -thoroughly lighted, the external apertures should be stopped up.</p> - -<p>The clamp when completed contains from 100,000 to 500,000 bricks. The -fire will continue burning about three weeks, if the pile has been well -constructed: when all smoke ceases to rise, the clamp is taken down -when cold, and the bricks sorted; for, even with the utmost care, it -must happen that the bricks are not all equally burnt. The best are -those in the centre. The under-burnt ones are reserved to be rebuilt -into a new clamp for further baking, and those which are over-done, and -have run together by partial vitrification, are sold at a cheap rate -for making foundations for houses, roads, &c.</p> - -<p>The better or peculiar kinds of bricks, as well as tiles of all kinds, -are burnt in kilns instead of clamps. These kilns, though of a peculiar -form, according to the purpose to which they are applied, yet do not -differ in principle from the lime-kiln, &c. In the kiln, the fire is -not intermixed with the bricks, but is applied beneath; nor are ashes -mingled with the clay of which kiln-burnt bricks are made.</p> - -<p>As the general principles are the same in making tiles and bricks, -we shall class all these coarse pottery-works together here, in an -enumeration of the most important kinds used in Britain.</p> - -<p><em>Place-Bricks</em> are the worst of the clamp-burnt stocks, and are -used for common walls, and the poorest kinds of work; they are soft and -unequally burnt; they sell from 20<em><abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr></em> to 30<em><abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr></em> a thousand.</p> - -<p><em>Stock-Bricks</em> are those from the centre of the clamp, and are -regularly burnt, of an equally hard texture, and even colour;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> they are -used for good work of all kinds; the price varies from 30<em><abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr></em> to -40<em><abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr></em> a thousand.</p> - -<p><em>Malm-Stocks</em> are clamp bricks, but made with more care from -clay to which ooze, chalk, or marl is added; and the whole carefully -tempered; they are of a fine clear yellow colour, and are used for -facing the walls of good houses, and for making arches over doors and -windows in general, where they are to be seen. The softest kind are -called <em>cutters</em>, from their admitting of being cut, or trimmed, -with the trowel with nicety. The prices of these bricks vary greatly.</p> - -<p><em>Fire-Bricks</em> are made of a peculiar kind of clay, found in -perfection at Windsor, Stourbridge, and parts of Wales, whence the -varieties derive their names. They are formed from the clay without any -admixture of ashes, and are always kiln-burnt. They vary in size, and -are used for building furnaces, ovens, boilers, &c.</p> - -<p><em>Pan-Tiles</em> are tiles, the cross section of which may be -represented thus. <span class="figcenter" id="img000"> - <img src="images/000.jpg" class="w5" alt="Two overlapping tile images" /> -</span> They are used for -roofing outhouses, stables, &c., the edges of one row overlapping those -of another next it, and they are always set in mortar: the end of the -tile is formed with a projecting knob or fillet, by means of which the -tile is hooked on to the batten or lath. These tiles are much larger -than the <em>Plain-Tiles</em>, which are used in roofing dwellings, &c.; -they are flat, as the name indicates, and are fixed to the laths of the -roof by wooden pegs, two holes being left in the tile for that purpose. -Foot and ten-inch tiles are thick square tiles of those dimensions, -used for paving, hearths, &c., or for coping walls. All tiles are burnt -in a kiln.</p> - -<p>Bricks made in Great Britain are charged with a duty, and as it -constitutes an important item in the revenue, the manufacture is -laid under strict surveillance by the Excise. The duty on tiles was -repealed in the year 1833. Bricks can only be made at certain seasons, -in certain quantities, and even the screen through which the ashes are -sifted, to be mingled with the clay, must be made of wire of a certain -mesh. Bricks made larger than the standard measure of 8½ inches long, -4 wide, and 2½ thick, pay a higher duty than the common ones; if the -bricks are smaller than the proper size, the maker is fined heavily. No -duty is charged upon bricks made in Ireland.</p> - -<p>About 1500 millions of bricks, 42 millions of plain, 23 millions -pan, and 6 millions of other tiles, are made annually in Britain. A -good moulder can make from 5000 to 6000 bricks in a day, from five -<span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> to eight <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span></p> - -<p>Within the present century, the annual use of bricks in Great Britain -has more than doubled, owing to the increase of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> manufactories, and to -the construction of railroads and other public works.</p> - - -<h3>Making Bricks by Machinery.</h3> - -<p>Within the last few years the making of bricks and tiles by machinery -has occupied much attention. A large number of patents has been taken -out for contrivances having this object in view. In some cases the -patentee has directed his attention chiefly to the preparation of -bricks for houses; while in others the making of tiles for draining -has been the chief object. A description of one or two of these -contrivances will give an idea of the general character of the whole.</p> - -<p>The Marquis of Tweeddale, having his attention drawn to the importance -of employing draining tiles in agriculture, directed his talents -to the invention of a machine which should make them so quickly as -to enable them to be sold at a low price. After many attempts, he -perfected a machine which worked out this object, and at the same time -possessed all the facilities for making common bricks. The machine is -not constructed on the principle of imitating the manual operation, -by forming the bricks in moulds; but it arrives at the same end in a -different and remarkable manner. The principle adopted is, to form -and protrude, by mechanical means, a continuous fillet of clay, of -the proper width and thickness for a brick, and to stop this act of -protrusion for a moment, whilst a length of the fillet equal to that -of a brick is cut off. This is effected by the following mechanical -arrangements:—Two vertical roller-wheels, one of them being placed -over the other, and having an interval between them equal to the -thickness of the intended bricks or tiles, are made to revolve in -contrary directions; consequently they draw between them the clay with -which they are fed on the one side (either by hand or by any mechanical -contrivance), and deliver it on the other in a highly compressed state, -and in the form of a straight, smooth, and even fillet of the width of -the rollers. To provide for the squareness and smoothness of the sides -of the fillet, the sides of the aperture through which the clay passes -are made square and neat, so as to prevent the clay from spreading -out laterally. The clay is supported in a horizontal position whilst -delivered to and received from the rollers, upon a short endless band -on each side revolving on rollers rather close together; and in order -to facilitate this object the rollers themselves have bands, which are -prolonged in the direction of the endless bands in such a manner as to -meet them, and form one horizontal line of support. These bands are -made of fustian, the nap of which prevents the adhesion of the clay. -The rollers are so acted on by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> working power that they protrude -a length of clay equal to the required length of the brick or tile, -and then stopping, they allow time for a straight stretched wire to -descend and cut off the brick or tile, after which the motion between -the rollers is resumed, until another length is protruded, and so on -continuously. The fillet of clay is double the width for a brick, and a -wire is kept constantly stretched in the middle of its path, dividing -it into two fillets, so that two bricks are cut off at once. Two boys -are sufficient to remove the bricks as fast as they are produced, which -is at the rate of from fifteen to eighteen hundred in an hour. The -consistence of the clay is so much stiffer than that used for hand-made -bricks, that only half the time is required in the drying. From there -being so little water in the clay, and from its undergoing so much -compression, the bricks produced are remarkably dense and strong, -weighing half as much again as the ordinary brick, and absorbing only -one-seventh as much water.</p> - -<p>Many machines have been contrived, having for their object the -formation of bricks on a principle somewhat analogous. Another class -of machines have effected the desired end in a different way,—viz., -by forming each brick separately in a mould. A slight description of -one machine of this kind will illustrate all the others. The main -part of the machine is a horizontal wheel of large diameter. Round -the periphery of this wheel is a series of moulds, the exact size and -shape for bricks, placed nearly close together. Each mould has a loose -bottom, incapable of falling below the mould, but capable of rising -to its upper edge. The clay for the bricks, being properly prepared -in vessels at one side of the wheel, is made to fall into one of the -moulds, and the superfluous quantity is scraped off by a flat edge -which passes over the mould. The wheel rotates, and in its movement it -passes over a circular inclined plane, so constructed as to lift the -bottom of the mould up, so as to protrude the newly-made brick above -the mould, where it can be conveniently taken off by the hand. All the -different moulds, perhaps thirty or forty in number, are at any given -instant in different conditions as to their quota of clay; one is -receiving the clay, another is having the superfluous clay scraped off, -another has travelled so far round as to have the brick lifted halfway -out of it, another presents the brick wholly out of the mould, ready -to be taken off, while the others are travelling on empty to receive a -new supply of clay, all the moveable bottoms gradually sinking to their -proper position as the wheel proceeds, so that one rotation of the -wheel carries each mould through all its different stages of position.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span></p> - - -<h3>The Processes of Bricklaying.</h3> - -<p>When we consider that a wall forty or fifty feet high, and not more -than two feet thick at the bottom, and fourteen or fifteen inches thick -at the top, is constructed of such small bodies as bricks, we may well -suppose that considerable nicety in workmanship must be requisite to -give stability to such a structure. The uniformity in size in the -bricks themselves, arising from their being <em>copies</em> of one -mould, is obviously the first condition that tends to the object; the -next is, that they should be put together in such a way as to cause -them mutually to adhere, independently of the tenacity of the mortar -employed; and lastly, the bricks must be set with great attention, -that their surfaces may be perfectly parallel and perpendicular to the -direction of gravity, for otherwise the wall composed of them, instead -of being truly perpendicular, would lean over on one side and fall. We -shall enter into some particulars on these points, but first we must -describe the tools and materials used in Bricklaying.</p> - -<p>The <em>trowel</em> is the first and most indispensable of these tools. -It is a thin, flat, lozenge-shaped blade of steel, fixed into a handle. -It is with the trowel the workman takes up and spreads the layer -of mortar put between each brick, and with it he also <em>cuts</em> -the bricks so as to fit into any corner, or to adapt them to some -particular form; and to enable it to cut, or rather chip, such a hard -substance as burnt clay, and yet not break, it is necessary that the -blade should be of well-tempered hard steel. The <em>square</em> and -<em>level</em> are made of wooden rules put together; the first at -a true right angle, to enable the bricklayer to set out his walls -correctly perpendicular to each other,—the second is framed like a -⟂, with a plummet hanging in a slit in the upright piece; now, as -the two rules are correctly perpendicular to each other, it is clear -that when the first is set by means of the plumb-line perpendicular -to the horizon, the other will be truly horizontal. By means of this -important instrument, the workman guides his work, so that the wall he -is building shall be upright, and the courses of bricks composing it -horizontal. By means of this important instrument, the workman guides -his work, so that the wall he is building shall be upright, and the -courses of bricks composing it horizontal.</p> - -<p><em>Mortar</em> is the name given to the composition with which the -bricks are put together. Good mortar should be made of newly-burnt -quicklime from grey limestone, and of clean river-sand, in the -proportions of one-third lime to two-thirds sand. The lime is -<em>slaked</em> by pouring a little clean water on it, and when it falls -to powder by the chemical action, the sand is added gradually, and the -whole well mixed up with a spade, more water being used till the mass -is of the proper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> consistence for spreading easily. As the adhesion -of the bricks depends on the mortar being applied before it begins to -<em>set</em> or harden, it should not be mixed till it is to be used. -When these simple precautions are attended to, the mortar becomes in -time as hard as stone, and the brick-work constructed with it is nearly -as indestructible. It was by taking this care with their materials that -our forefathers built walls that have stood uninjured for centuries. In -some of the cheap common buildings of the present day, mortar is too -often made from lime which has been so long from the kiln, that it is -nearly reconverted into a hydrate, and has lost the chemical quality -which renders it valuable; the sand, too, is taken from the road with -all its impurities, and the water from the nearest kennel. With such -materials a mass of mortar is made, and suffered to stand for several -days before it is used; the consequence is, that such buildings are -neither safe nor durable.</p> - -<p>The mortar is made up by an assistant, called a bricklayers’ labourer, -and is taken by him to the spot where the workman wants it in what -is called a <em>hod</em>: this utensil, which consists of three sides -of a rectangular box fixed edgeways at the end of a long handle, is -expressly contrived to be carried on the man’s shoulder, and leave -his hands disengaged, to enable him thus loaded to ascend and descend -a long ladder; the hod being held standing upright on the handle, -the labourer can put bricks into it with his right hand, or another -assistant fills it with mortar.</p> - -<p>The manner in which the bricks are arranged in the work, is termed -<em>bond</em>, and is of different kinds, according to the thickness of -the wall, and the purposes for which it is intended. The bond most -generally used is termed <em>Flemish</em>, in which the bricks are -laid alternately lengthwise and across the thickness of the wall, -the broadest side of the brick being laid horizontal, and never -edgeways, in building <em>walls</em> of every thickness. It was formerly -usual to lay a whole course of bricks lengthwise, and that above it -across; this disposition may be seen in old walls, and was termed -<em>English-bond</em>. In every kind of bond, the joints of the bricks of -one course are always made to fall over a brick in that beneath, or so -that one joint may never be immediately over another.</p> - -<p>The site of a wall, or the walls of a building, being <em>set out</em> or -marked on the ground, a trench is dug in the earth for the foundations, -the width and depth being determined on from the thickness and height -of the superstructure, and from the nature of the soil. If this be -loose or soft, and the edifice be an important one, it is often -necessary to drive piles into the bottom of the trench, and lay a -course of oak planking on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> tops of these timbers, to form a firm -foundation for the wall; but if the nature of the ground do not require -such precautions, it is only necessary to level the bottom of the -trench carefully, as on this the stability of the wall will entirely -depend. A course of bricks is then laid dry on the earth, forming a -band twice the width of the lowermost thickness of the wall to be -built. This and the subsequent courses of the foundations should be -constructed of the best bricks; but unfortunately in common houses this -obvious requisite is entirely neglected. When this course is laid, -thin mortar, or mortar almost fluid and having but little sand in it, -is poured over the bricks, so as to flow into the joints and bind them -together by hardening: a second course is then laid on the first, only -narrower in width, and each subsequent course diminishes in the same -regular manner on each side, till the width is reduced to the thickness -at which it is proposed that the lower part of the wall should be -built. A cross section of these foundations thus constructed would -present the outline of a truncated pyramid, diminishing by regular -sets-off or steps; this part of a wall is called the <em>footings</em>. -For garden walls, or such as have no weight to carry, the footings need -not be made of so many courses, nor so broad, but every wall must have -two courses at least for a foundation.</p> - -<p>The bricklayer makes use of a string stretched between two pins, to -enable him to keep his work straight; and he lays the outermost bricks, -those forming the face of the wall, carefully by this guide, setting -each brick alternately lengthwise and transversely, and spreading a -layer of mortar on the brick beneath, to form a bed for the new one to -lie on, and also a layer between each upright joint. It is usual only -to lay the outer bricks in this manner, and to fill up the interstices -of those forming the interior of the wall by pouring mortar on each -course previously laid dry with sufficient interval between them. The -workman as he proceeds, repeatedly makes use of his level and square; -by the former, he examines whether the face of his wall, and all the -corners, or <em>arrises</em>, are correctly perpendicular, and whether -the courses of bricks are laid horizontal.</p> - -<p>Apertures, such as windows or doors which are to be formed in the -wall, are marked out on the wall when the work is built up to the -height where they are to commence; in carrying up the <em>piers</em> -between these windows, it will frequently happen that the width of the -pier is not precisely commensurate with a certain number of bricks or -half-bricks, but that a brick must be cut to bring the work to the -correct dimensions. This smaller piece is termed a <em>closure</em>, and -is usually placed within a brick or two of the arris of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> window or -door, and preserves its place for the whole height of the pier.</p> - -<p>The thickness of brick walls is described by the number of bricks’ -length they contain in that direction: thus a nine-inch wall is -one-brick thick; a brick-and-a-half wall is fourteen inches; a -two-brick wall is eighteen inches thick, and so on. The walls of small -houses are often only one brick thick, even when they are two stories -high; but usually a wall to be steady should decrease in thickness half -a brick at least every story, and for a large substantial building of -four or five stories, the main walls should be two-and-a-half bricks -at least on the basement story, and one-and-a-half at the top; but of -course the size of the apartments, or, in fact, the area of wall which -is to remain without any lateral support, must govern the strength of -it, as well as the total height to which it is to be raised.</p> - -<p>When the wall is raised as high as the tops of the windows, &c., which -were left in it, these apertures must have arches turned over them, to -support the brick-work above. This leads us to consider the different -modes of constructing brick arches. When the width of the opening is -not above three or four feet, the arch over it is frequently straight -in its outline, or but slightly curved in the intrado or lower line. -The bricks which are to form the arch are rubbed down on a board -till they are brought to the proper wedge form. A piece of wood for -a centering is supported in the opening by upright slips: the upper -side of this centering is, of course, cut to the true <em>camber</em> or -curve the intrado of the arch is to have: the bricks are set upright -on this centre, and alternately, so as to break the joints. The face -of the arch, which is seen in the street over the windows and doors, -is constructed of the best bricks, carefully cut to a mould and set -in <em>putty</em>, or in thin mortar made of lime only: the rest of the -arch behind this face is less carefully constructed, and the bricks -are often not cut at all, but made to form an arch by the intervening -layer of mortar being spread unequally thick, or in a wedge shape. -When, however, a large arch is to be built of bricks, these are cut to -the proper level to form the wedge-shaped voussoirs. The construction -of groined arches in brick-work is the most difficult operation in the -trade. Each brick that forms the arris or intersection of the cross -vaults requires to be cut to a true form given by a drawing made to -the full size on a board. Another perhaps still more delicate piece -of workmanship for a bricklayer to execute is an oblique arch, such -as are often seen in the bridges over railroads and canals, which -cut established roadways obliquely. These arches are portions of a -cylinder, but the ends of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> cylinder, instead of being perpendicular -to the axis, are oblique to it, and this requires that the courses of -bricks composing the arch shall also not be parallel to the axis, and -therefore not in straight lines: hence, every brick has to be cut or -rubbed to a wedge form in two directions, and great nicety in this and -the subsequent operations are requisite in these structures.</p> - -<p>Formerly columns, pilasters, cornices, niches, and similar -architectural embellishments, were constructed in brick-work, but stone -has now superseded brick for all embellishments; and the bricklayer’s -greatest skill is only required in the construction of arches, or -occasionally building a circular wall. The best specimens of elaborate -brick-work of the old school may be seen at the conservatory of -Kensington Palace, at Burlington House, and many other edifices of -the time of William and Mary, and Queen Anne, throughout the country. -The series of arches extending for nearly four miles on the Greenwich -Railway, and those for nearly an equal distance on the Blackwall -Railway, are perhaps among the best and most imposing specimens of -modern brick-work, and afford, in many places, beautiful examples of -the oblique arch. There are brick arches of a large span at each end of -the new London and Waterloo bridges.</p> - -<p>Brick-work is measured by the <em>rod</em>, which is a superficial -area of sixteen and a half feet each side, or 272 square feet, at a -thickness of one-and-a-half brick, and all plain wall-work is reduced -to this standard for valuation. A rod of brick-work contains 4500 -bricks, and together with the mortar required to build it, weighs about -15 tons 8 cwt. It differs in value from 10<em>l.</em> to 15<em>l.</em>, -according to circumstances.</p> - -<p>Besides building walls, bricklayers are employed to tile roofs, set -coppers, pave stables, &c., build drains, and, in short, on all -occasions where bricks or tiles are the materials used.</p> - - -<h3>Defects of Modern Brick Houses.</h3> - -<p>A writer in the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i> endeavours, with much -ingenuity, to show that the quality of English bricks and the system -of bricklaying are very much influenced by the customary leasehold -tenure of land. His remarks are as follow:—“Brick-making has been -carried to great perfection by the Dutch, who have long been in the -habit of forming their floors, and even, in some cases, of paving their -streets with bricks. And it is remarkable how long their bricks will -continue unimpaired in such situations. Though brick-making has long -been carried on in England, and especially<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> in the neighbourhood of -London, upon a very great scale, and though the process upon the whole -is conducted in this country with very considerable skill, yet it must -be acknowledged that English bricks are by no means so durable as Dutch -bricks. We are disposed to ascribe this inferiority not so much to the -nature of the materials employed in the manufacture of English bricks, -as to the mode most frequently adopted in London of building houses. -Few of the London houses, comparatively speaking, are freeholds. Most -of them are built upon ground let for a lease of a certain number of -years, which seldom exceeds ninety-nine years. After the expiration -of this period the house becomes the property of the landlord who let -the ground. Thus it becomes the interest of the builder to construct -the house so that it shall last only as long as the lease. Hence the -goodness of the bricks becomes only a secondary object. Their cheapness -is the principal point. The object, therefore, of the brickmaker is -not to furnish durable bricks, but to make them at as cheap a rate as -possible. Accordingly, the saving of manual labour and of fuel has -been carried by the makers of London bricks to very great lengths. We -cannot but consider this mode of proceeding as very objectionable, and -as entailing a much heavier expense upon London than would have been -incurred had twice the original price been laid out upon the bricks -when they were first used, and had the houses been constructed to last -a thousand instead of a hundred years. No doubt certain advantages -attend these ephemeral structures. The inhabitants are enabled, once -every century, to suit their houses to the prevailing taste of the day; -and thus there are no (few?) antiquated houses in London. But as the -increase of the price of all the materials of building has more than -kept pace with the increase of the wealth of individuals, it is to be -questioned whether the houses are always improved when they are pulled -down and rebuilt.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IV"><span class="smcap">Chapter IV.</span><br />THE ROOF. SLATES, AND OTHER ROOF COVERINGS.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>We might, perhaps, under the designation of “Slates and Slating,” -have included the operations usually understood to appertain to the -construction of a roof. But modern improvements have rendered such a -designation incomplete. We cannot now properly understand the mode of -roofing houses without referring to many other substances besides slate.</p> - - -<h3>Slate-Quarries.</h3> - -<p>Slate is the popular name for a variety of rocks which are sufficiently -stratified in their structure to allow of their being cleaved into -thin plates, a property which renders them valuable for a variety of -purposes. Slate has superseded the use of lead for covering roofs, even -of the largest buildings: from its lightness it is preferable to tile, -but the latter being cheaper, in flat countries which do not contain -rocks, but which yield brick-clay, slate in such localities is only -used on the better class of houses. In mountainous countries, a slaty -rock, which admits of being split thin, though not so much as clay -slate, is used under the name of <em>shingle</em>.</p> - -<p>Besides being employed for roofing, slate is used in large slabs to -form cisterns, for shelves in dairies, for pavement, and similar -purposes, for which its great strength and durability, coolness, and -the ease with which it can be cleaned, owing to its non-absorbing -property, adapt it. The latter quality renders it also of great value -as a cheap substitute for paper, in the business of education; the -system of teaching in large classes in National and Sunday-schools -would be greatly fettered but for the use of slates.</p> - -<p>The principal slate-quarries in Britain are in Wales, Cumberland, and -various parts of Scotland; the mode of working them is generally the -same. The rock is got out in tabular masses by means of large wedges, -and is then subdivided by smaller to the requisite thinness; the pieces -are roughly squared by a <em>pick</em>, or axe, and sorted, according -to their sizes, for roofing. The largest called <em>imperial</em>, are -about three and a half feet long, and two and a half wide; the smallest -average half those dimensions. When wanted for paving, &c., the large -blocks are <em>sawn</em> into thinner slabs, in the same manner as stone -or marble is.</p> - -<p>A few words respecting the position and working of some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> of the -slate-quarries may be appropriate, as illustrating the nature of this -remarkable geological formation.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img008"> - <img src="images/008.jpg" class="w75" alt="A Slate-Quarry." /> -</span></p> -<p class="caption center p0">A Slate-Quarry.</p> - -<p>The most extensive slate-quarries in Great Britain are those near -Bangor, in Wales, from which slate is shipped to all parts of the -world. The slate occupies the greater part of the distance from Snowdon -to the Menai Straits. Upwards of two thousand men are employed in these -quarries; and the proprietor is said to gain from thirty to forty -thousand pounds per annum by them. Although this one is the largest, -yet there is one in Cumberland in which the slate is found more -remarkably situated. This is Hourston Crag, a mountain near Buttermere -Lake, about two thousand feet above the level of the lake, and nearly -perpendicular. On account of the difficulty of access, the workmen -take their provisions for the week, and sleep in temporary huts on the -summit. During the winter months they are generally involved in clouds, -and not unfrequently blocked up by the snow. The slate is conveyed -on sledges down a zigzag path cut in the rock, one man attending to -prevent the acceleration of the descent. When the slate is emptied at -the bottom the sledge is carried back on the man’s shoulders to the -summit.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the value of slate, few quarries are worked to a very -great depth, or have subterranean galleries like mines. There is one, -however, near Charleville, in France, which is an exception to this -rule. The mouth of the mine is near the summit of a hill; the bed -inclines forty degrees to the horizon, and is about sixty feet in -thickness, but the extent and depth are unknown. It has been worked -by a principal gallery to the depth of four hundred feet, and many -lateral galleries have also been driven, extending about two hundred -feet on the side of the main gallery. Twenty-six ladders are so placed -as to give passage to the workmen and carriage for the slate. Of the -sixty feet which constitutes the thickness of the bed of slate, about -forty are good slate, the rest being mixed with quartz. The slate is -cut into blocks of about two hundred pounds each, called <em>faix</em>; -each workman, in his turn, carrying them on his back to the very -mouth of the pit, mounting all or part of the twenty-six ladders, -according to the depth of the bed where he may be working. When brought -to the surface, these blocks are split into thick tables called -<em>repartons</em>, by means of a chisel and mallet; and these repartons -are divided by similar means into roofing-slates.</p> - -<p>Another remarkable slate-quarry in France, is situated near Angers. -The bed of slate extends for a space of two leagues, passing under the -town of Angers, which is in great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> part built of slate; those blocks -which are the least divisible being employed in masonry. The quarries -actually explored are all in the same line, from west to east, as well -as the ancient pits, the bed of the best roof-slate rising to the -surface in this direction. Immediately under the vegetable earth is -found a brittle kind of slate, which, to a depth of four or five feet, -splits into rhomboidal fragments. A little lower is the building-stone, -which is a finer but scarcely divisible slate, and is employed in the -construction of houses, after it has been sufficiently hardened by -exposure to the air. At fourteen or fifteen feet from the surface is -found the good slate, which has been quarried to the perpendicular -depth of three hundred feet, without its lower limit being attained. -The interior structure of the slaty mass is divided by many veins or -seams of calcareous spar and quartz, fifteen or sixteen feet in length, -by two feet thick; these veins are parallel, and proceed regularly from -west to east in a position rising seventy degrees to the south; they -are intersected by other veins at intervals of a similar kind, but -whose rise is seventy degrees north; so that when the two series meet, -they form rhombs or half-rhombs. All the layers or laminæ of slate -have a direction similar to those of the veins of quartz, so that the -whole mass becomes divided into immense parallel rhomboids. The slate -is extracted in blocks of a determinate size, which are then divided -into leaves for roof-slates. When the blocks have been drawn from the -quarry, if they are left exposed to the sun or the open air, they -lose what is called the <em>quarry-water</em>, and then become hard and -untractable, and can only be employed as building-stone. Frost produces -a singular effect on these blocks; while frozen, they may be broken -with more ease than before; but if thawed rather quickly, they become -no longer divisible; yet this quality may be restored by exposing them -once more to the frost.</p> - - -<h3>The Process of Slating.</h3> - -<p>When the blocks of slate for roofing have been split, and the laminæ -roughly squared, they are sorted, according to their size and quality, -and are brought to market under the quaint names of <em>Imperial -slates</em>, <em>Duchesses</em>, <em>Countesses</em>, &c., the first variety -being the largest. The best roofing-slates come from the celebrated -vale of Festiniog.</p> - -<p>Slates are laid on <em>battens</em>, or thin narrow deal boards, which -are nailed horizontally on the common rafters of the roof, at equal -distances apart, which distance is governed by the size of the slate -to be employed. An entire board is nailed along the lowest edge of the -roof to receive the lead of the gutters, which are first laid, and then -the lowest <em>course</em> of slates are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> nailed and pinned down to the -lowermost batten; so that two-thirds the length of the slate, at least, -shall lie over the lead. The next course of slates is then fixed, so -that every slate shall overlap two-thirds the depth of the course below -it, every slate being also laid over the joint, between two slates of -that undercourse. By this construction the rain that runs through the -joint between any two slates is kept from penetrating into the roof by -being received on the surface of the slate beneath that joint; and the -bottom course of slates is double, to continue the same principle down -to the lead gutter.</p> - - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img009"> - <img src="images/009.jpg" class="w75" alt="Process of slating a roof" /> -</span></p> -<p>The slates are fixed to the battens by two copper nails and a wooden -pin when the work is well executed; holes being picked through each -slate for the nails to pass through.</p> - - -<h3>Paper Roofs.</h3> - -<p>Although, as intimated in a former page, in covering our imaginary -dwelling with tiles or slates, we may seem to have done all that is -necessary in respect to “roofing,” yet we should leave our subject only -half treated if we were to omit mention of other contrivances which -have been partially acted on; such as the use of paper, of asphaltum, -and various other substances.</p> - -<p>About thirty years ago, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon published a pamphlet, in which -he described the mode of preparing paper for roofs, and discussed -the various arguments for and against its adoption. His description -had immediate relation to a series of paper roofs in a large farm at -Tew Lodge, in Oxfordshire, and comprised the following among other -particulars.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span></p> - -<p>Paper roofs may be made very flat, being raised no higher than just -sufficient for throwing off the water. Instead of tile, slate, or -thatch, they are covered with paper, prepared by immersion in a mixture -of tar and pitch. In the first place, pieces of wood called “couples,” -are laid across the walls of the building, rising two inches and a half -to the foot to obtain a drainage obliquity; these couples vary from two -or three to six inches square, according to the size of the roof. On -the couples are placed horizontal rafters, about two inches square; the -distance between the couples being from five to eight feet, and between -the rafters about eighteen inches; the couples are nailed to the wall -plate, and the rafters to the couples. At Tew Lodge, the rafters used -were young larch-trees, sawn up the middle, cut to the proper lengths, -and prepared so that the upper surface should be level. On the rafters -are placed thin boards, from a half to five-eighths of an inch in -thickness; these boards are nailed to the rafters, not horizontally -as for slating, but in a direction from the eaves to the ridge of the -roof. In some cases substitutes for thin boards may be used; such as -close copse-wood hurdles, plastered over; or common plaster-laths.</p> - -<p>The paper employed may be any common, coarse, strong kind; that kind -used by button-makers being favourable for the purpose. It is prepared -as follows: a boiler or cauldron, three feet wide by two deep, placed -over a fire, is filled to within six inches of the top with tar and -pitch, in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the -latter; the fire being applied and the mixture made to boil, the paper -is immersed in it one sheet at a time, and then laid in a stack or pile -with such a slope as to allow it to drain, a little grease of any kind -being placed between the sheets to prevent their adhering; and when dry -the paper is similarly treated a second time. The paper thus prepared -is then nailed down to the roof. The workman begins at the eaves, and -allows three inches for being turned down and nailed underneath the -end of the board, which boards project an inch over the first rafter. -If the paper be common, coarse, wrapping paper, it is laid on much the -same as slate, so that when finished it will remain in double thickness -all over the roof; but if thicker paper be employed, it is only made -to overlap about three inches in each layer. Every sheet is fixed down -with four nails about an inch in length, having broad flat heads.</p> - -<p>On the paper thus fixed is laid a composition consisting of two parts -of tar to one of pitch, thickened to the consistence of paste, with -equal parts of whiting and powdered charcoal. The composition being -well boiled and kept constantly stirred, it is spread over the roof -with a hempen mop as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span> quickly as possible on account of the speedy -cooling. When properly laid on and dried, the composition totally -conceals the joints of the paper, and forms a smooth and glossy -black covering an eighth of an inch in thickness. Sometimes, while -the composition is yet wet, sand, dust, or ashes are strewed on, to -increase the substance, and shield the composition from the action of -the sun.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon enumerates as the advantages of this roof—economy, -durability, and elegance. The economy is shown by the circumstance -that, on account of the lightness of the paper, less massive walls -and timbers are required than for other kinds of roof. The expense at -Tew Lodge was from fourpence to tenpence per square foot, everything -included. It is one result of the flatness of the roof, that ten square -feet will cover as much as fourteen feet at the usual pitch of slated -roofs. As to the durability, many proofs are adduced to support it. -A paper roof to a church at Dunfermline remained forty years without -requiring any repairs; and several warehouses at Greenock, Deal, Dover, -and Canterbury, had paper roofs, which were known to stand from ten -to twenty years. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon considered that, from the flatness of the -roofs, and from other circumstances connected with the appearance -of the prepared sheets, the paper roofs were more fitted to join -harmoniously with certain styles of architecture than slated roofs.</p> - -<p>Objections have been made to this kind of roof, on the ground that it -is liable to be blown off by high wind, and still more that it is very -inflammable. With regard to the former, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon states that if the -roof be properly made there is little danger of its being removed by -high wind. In reference to the second objection, he states:—“They seem -to me not so liable to set fire to as thatch. Pitch (especially if -coated over with sand or smithy ashes) will not be lighted by a spark, -nor even by the application of a slender flame, as will that material; -though, on the other hand, when lighted, it will unquestionably -burn with greater velocity than any species of thatching.... In the -steward’s house and men’s lodge wood is constantly used as fuel, which, -though more dangerous for emitting sparks than coal, yet no accident -has or is ever likely to happen to the roof. In my house, where coals -were chiefly used, the chimneys have been repeatedly set on fire to -clean them, without the least accident happening to the roof.”</p> - -<p>Many years afterwards, when <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon published his elaborate -<i>Encyclopædia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture</i>, he -briefly sketched some of the forms of roof which have more or less -recently come into use. These we must here notice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span></p> - - -<h3>Terrace Roofs.</h3> - -<p><em>Terrace roofs</em> have been much used in and about London. They -are formed of thin arches of tiles and cement, supported on cast-iron -bearers or ribs, which are placed about three feet apart. The arch is -composed of three courses of common plain tiles, bedded in fine cement -without sand. In laying the tiles, laths or small slips of wood are -used, resting on temporary bearers between the iron ribs; the laths -being shifted as the work advances, in the course of about half an hour -after the tiles are laid. Particular attention is required in bonding -the tiles both ways; and they are rubbed down closely upon each other, -much in the same manner as a joiner glues a joint. Sometimes these -terrace roofs are coated with a layer of coarse gravel, and then with -nine inches of good soil, so as to form a terrace garden. The roofs of -two taverns at Hungerford Market are formed of these cemented tiles.</p> - - -<h3>Asphalte Roofs.</h3> - -<p><em>Asphalte</em> or <em>bitumen</em> has come into use as a material -for roofs. It had been employed for various purposes in France for -many years, but did not attract much attention till within the last -eight or ten years. It is now in very general use in that country for -foot pavements, flat roofs, and water-cistern linings; and in England -it has also been a good deal used for the same purposes, and for -barn-flooring. The particular modes in which it is employed for floors -and pavements we need not here consider, but it has been used for roofs -in the following manner. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Pocock has patented a “flexible Asphaltic -roofing,” intended to supersede the use of slates, tiles, zinc, thatch, -&c., in the covering and lining of farm-buildings, sheds, cottages, and -other erections; and it is approved for its durability, lightness, and -economy. The weight of this material being only sixty pounds to the -square of one hundred feet, the walls and timbers to support it need to -be but half the usual substance; it is also a non-conductor of heat, -impervious to damp, and will bear a heat of two hundred and twenty -degrees without injury. This peculiar material is said to be formed of -asphalte mixed with the refuse felt of hat manufactories, compressed -into thin plates.</p> - - -<h3>Scotch Fir Roofs.</h3> - -<p><em>Scotch fir roofs</em> are occasionally made. The method of giving -durability to the timber for this purpose consists in first cutting -the wood to the required size, and then steeping<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> it for a fortnight -in a pond of lime-water; it is found that the acid contained in the -wood becomes crystallized by combining with the alkali of the lime. Sir -Charles Menteath is said to have some farm buildings which, although -roofed with Scotch fir forty years ago, are as well protected now as -when the roofs were first laid on; the wood having been previously -steeped in lime-water. The sulphate of copper, the chloride of zinc, -the corrosive sublimate, and the various other chemical substances -which have been recommended of late years as means for preventing the -decay of timber, will possibly render the use of timber roofs more -practicable than it has been hitherto considered.</p> - - -<h3>Iron Roofs.</h3> - -<p><em>Roofs of iron</em> are in great request at the present time. One of -these sorts of roofs may be formed of three kinds of cast-iron plates. -The first, called the “roof-plate,” is shaped with three of its sides -turned up and one turned down, and is made tapering narrower towards -one end; the second, called the “low-ridge plate,” has two of its -sides turned up and the other two turned down; the third, called the -“high-ridge plate,” has all its sides turned down, and is formed with -an angle in the middle, so as to slope each way of the roof. Such a -roof may be made very flat, inasmuch, that for a house twenty feet -wide, the height of the roof in the middle need not exceed two feet; -no boarding is required, the plates resting without either cement or -nails on the rafters. From the manner in which the edges of the plates -overlap, there is no risk of contraction or expansion.</p> - -<p>Some of the iron roofs recently made are on the principle of those -used in Russia, of which the following description has been given in -the <i>Repertory of Patent Inventions</i>:—“Sheet-iron coverings -are now universally made use of in all new buildings at Petersburgh, -Moscow, &c. In the case of a fire, no harm can come to a house from -sparks falling on a roof of this description. The sheets of this iron -covering measure two feet four inches by four feet eight inches, and -weigh twelve pounds and a half avoirdupois per sheet, or one pound -five ounces each superficial square foot. When the sheets are on the -roof, they measure only two feet wide by four feet in length: this is -owing to the overlapping. They are first painted on both sides once, -and, when fixed on the roof, a second coat is given. The common colour -is red, but green paint, it is said, will stand twice the time. Small -bits or ears are introduced into the laps, for nailing the plates to -the two-inch square laths on which they are secured. It takes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> twelve -sheets and a half to cover one hundred feet, the weight of which is -one hundred and fifty pounds—the cost only £1 15<em><abbr title="shillings">s.</abbr></em>, or about -threepence per foot.”</p> - -<p>Iron roofs are now often made of <em>corrugated</em> or <em>furrowed</em> -sheet-iron. In this form the iron is impressed so as to present a -surface of semi-circular ridges with intervening furrows lengthwise of -the sheets. By this means, a piece of sheet-iron, which, as a plain -flat surface, has no strength but in its tenacity, becomes a series of -continued arches abutting against each other; and the metal, by this -new position, acquires increased strength. Iron so furrowed is deemed -preferable to common sheet-iron for covering a flat-roof, because the -furrows will collect the water and carry it more rapidly to the eaves. -But there are greater advantages than this. If the furrowed sheets be -bent into a curved surface, convex above and concave below, they will -form an arch of great strength, capable of serving as a roof without -rafters or any other support, except at the eaves or abutments. Iron -roofs measuring two hundred and twenty-five feet by forty have been -constructed in this manner. To increase their durability the iron -sheets are coated with paint or tar.</p> - - -<h3>Zinc and other Metallic Roofs.</h3> - -<p>Additions are made every year to the number of contrivances for forming -metallic roofs, among which is one now the subject of a patent, for the -use of <em>galvanized</em> iron. In this case the aid of the electric -agent is employed to give iron sheets an amount of durability which -they do not possess in their natural state.</p> - -<p>Zinc has been much employed within the last few years as a material for -roofs. Its availability for this purpose rests partly on its superior -lightness as compared with lead, and its superior condition under the -action of the atmosphere as compared with iron. The latter quality -arises thus; after the zinc has been covered with a thin film of oxide -by the action of the atmosphere, it suffers no further change from long -exposure; so that the evil of rust checks itself. At the temperature -of boiling water, zinc sheets, which are brittle when cold, become -malleable, and their availability for roofs is thereby increased. The -property which zinc has, however, of taking fire at a temperature of -about 700° Fahr., rather detracts from its value as a material for -roofs.</p> - - -<h3>Thatch Roofs.</h3> - -<p>The most common material employed as thatch is either the straw of -wheat, rye, or other grain, or reed, stubble, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> heather. The straw -of wheat and rye, when well prepared and laid, forms the neatest and -most secure thatching; the former being preferable to the latter in -smoothness, suppleness, and durability. Barley-straw is placed next -to rye in fitness for thatch, and oat-straw the lowest of the four. -The reed is a very durable material for thatch, but is generally too -expensive. It has been stated that, in Norfolk, where the reed is a -favourite material for thatch, a reed roof will lie fifty years without -wanting repair, and that, with very slight attention, it will last for -a whole century. Viewed in this light, a reed roof may probably be -considered economical.</p> - -<p>The method of thatching with reed, (which is one of the best and most -difficult specimens of the thatcher’s art,) has been thus described. -No laths being made use of as a support to the thatch, a few of the -longest and stoutest reeds are scattered irregularly across the naked -spars as a foundation whereon to lay the main coat; and thus a partial -gauze-like covering is formed, called the <em>fleaking</em>. On this -fleaking the main covering is laid, and fastened down to the spars by -means of long rods called <em>sways</em>, laid across the middle of the -reed, and tied to the spars with rope-yarn or with brambles. In laying -on the reed, the workman begins at the lower corner of the roof on his -right hand, and keeps an irregular diagonal line until he reaches the -upper corner on his left; a narrow eaves-board being nailed across -the feet of the spars, and some fleaking scattered on. The thatcher -begins to “set his eaves” by laying a coat of reed, eight or ten inches -thick, with the heads resting upon the fleaking and the butts upon -the eaves-board. He then lays on his sway, or rod, about six or eight -inches from the lowest point of the reed, whilst his assistant, on the -inside, runs a needle threaded with rope-yarn close to the spar and to -the upper edge of the eaves-board. The thatcher draws it through on one -side of the sway and enters it again on the contrary side both of the -sway and of the spar. The assistant, in his turn, draws it through, -unthreads it, and, with the two ends of the yarn, makes a knot round -the spar, thereby drawing both the sway and the reed tight down to the -roof; whilst the thatcher above, beating and pressing the sway, assists -in consolidating the work. The assistant, having made good the knot -below, proceeds with another length of thread to the next spar, and so -on till the sway is bound down the whole length, that is, about eight -or ten feet. This being done, another stratum of reed is laid upon the -first, so as to make the entire coat eighteen or twenty inches thick -at the butts; and another sway is laid on and bound down about twelve -inches above the first.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span></p> - -<p>When the eaves are completely set they are adjusted and made even by -an instrument called a <em>legget</em>. This is made of a board eight -or nine inches square, with a handle two feet long adjusted to its -upper surface in an oblique position. The face of the legget is set -with large-headed nails, and these enable the workman, by using the -instrument somewhat as if it were a turf-beating tool, to lay hold of -the butts of the reed and to adjust them in their places. When the -eaves are thus shaped, the thatcher lays on another stratum of reeds, -and binds it down by another sway somewhat shorter than the last, and -placed eighteen or twenty inches above it; and above this, others, in -successive rows, continuing to shorten the sways until they diminish to -nothing, and a triangular corner of thatching be formed. After this the -remaining surface of the roof is similarly done.</p> - -<p>In order to finish the ridge of the roof, a <em>cap</em> of straw -is adjusted to it in a very careful manner. In this operation the -workman begins by bringing the ridge to a sharp angle, by laying straw -lengthwise upon it: and to keep this straw in its place, he pegs it -down slightly with “double-broaches,” which are cleft twigs about -two feet long and half an inch thick, sharpened at both ends, bent -double and notched, so as to clasp the straw on the ridge. This done, -the thatcher lays a coat of straight straw six or eight inches thick -across the ridge, beginning on either side at the uppermost butts of -the reeds, and finishing with straight handsful evenly across the -top of the ridge. Having laid a length of about four feet in this -manner, he proceeds to fasten it firmly down, so as to render it proof -against wind and rain; this is done by laying a “broachen-ligger” -(a quarter-cleft rod, half an inch thick and four feet long) along -the middle of the ridge, pegging it down at every four inches with -a double-broach, which is first thrust down with the hands, and -afterwards driven with the legget or with a mallet. The middle ligger -being firmly laid, the thatcher smooths down the straw with a rake and -his hands, about eight or nine inches on one side; and at six inches -from the first, he lays down another ligger, and pegs it down with a -similar number of double-broaches, thus proceeding to smooth the straw -and to fasten on liggers at every six inches, until he reaches the -bottom of the cap. One side being thus finished, the other is similarly -treated; and the first length being completed, others are done in like -manner, till the farther end of the ridge is reached. He then cuts off -the tails of the straw neatly with a pair of shears, level with the -uppermost butts of the reed.</p> - -<p>When straw or heather is used for thatching, the material is laid on in -parallel rows, much the same as the reeds, but the mode of fastening is -generally somewhat different.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_V"><span class="smcap">Chapter V.</span><br />THE WOOD-WORK. GROWTH AND TRANSPORT OF TIMBER.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The operations of the carpenter and joiner in the preparation of the -wood-work of a house are quite as important as those of the mason or -bricklayer. It would not be possible in this little volume to trace -clearly all the different processes connected with the building of a -house as they occur in practice; for the bricklayer and the carpenter -combine their work, as it were, step by step. But as the bricklaying -and the slating, or tiling, relate principally to the exterior of the -house, and the carpentry work to the interior, we have thus a line of -separation, which will greatly contribute to the clearness of these -details.</p> - -<p>As on a former occasion we noticed the operations of the quarry, -whence the builder is supplied with stone, slate, &c., it will now be -interesting to give a few details respecting the growth and transport -of timber.</p> - - -<h3>The Oak as a Timber Tree.</h3> - -<p>It is obvious that in every country native timber is preferred, -provided it can be obtained in sufficient quantity at a cheap rate; -if not, it is imported from other countries. In Britain, the first -and most important of all trees is, of course, our own oak, of which -we have two species and several varieties, belonging to the genus -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus</i>.</p> - -<p>The two species of oak natives of Britain, though greatly resembling -each other in general appearance, may yet very readily be -distinguished, when once their specific characters are pointed out. As -these two species are very commonly confounded together, and as one of -them is believed to afford a far more valuable timber than the other, -it may be useful to note their difference, and exhibit the characters -by which each may be known.</p> - -<p>The true British oak, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus robur</i>, (<abbr title="figure">fig.</abbr> 1) bears its acorns -on a stalk, or <em>peduncle</em> (<abbr title="figure">fig.</abbr> 1, <span class="allsmcap">A</span>), and hence it -is sometimes called <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quecus pedunculata</i>, but its leaves grow -close to the stem, without a footstalk, or at least with a very short -one. In the other native species (<abbr title="figure">fig.</abbr> 2), these two characters are -reversed: the leaves grow upon a footstalk, while the acorns are -produced <em>sessile</em>, that is, sitting close to the stem (<abbr title="figure">fig.</abbr> 2, -<span class="allsmcap">A</span>); from which latter character this species has acquired the -name of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus sessiliflora</i>.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img010"> - <img src="images/010.jpg" class="w50" alt="Oak tree leaves and acorns" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The above characters will, for the most part, be found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span> pretty -constant. At the same time, it may be remarked, that the oak is a -tree subject to great variations; and accordingly individuals of -each species occasionally occur, which in their characters are found -more or less to approach those of the other. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus robur</i>, -for example, sometimes bears its acorns almost close to the stem, -and sometimes <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus sessiliflora</i> will bear them on a short -footstalk. The leaves, too, of each, frequently vary in the length of -the <em>petiole</em>, or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> leafstalk. But in a general way (as already -stated), each kind may be readily distinguished by the above obvious -points of difference.</p> - -<p>Both species are common in Britain, though <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus sessiliflora</i> -appears to be not so generally distributed as the other; in many -districts its growth seems to be principally confined to woods and -coppices, where it sometimes occurs even in greater abundance than the -common species. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus robur</i> is believed to afford the more -valuable timber of the two, owing, probably, to its being of slower -growth. It is doubtful, however, whether the respective merits of each, -in point of durability of timber, have yet been fairly put to the -test. Where oak is grown in coppices, to be cut down periodically for -poles, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus sessiliflora</i> is at least a valuable, perhaps a -preferable tree, on account of its more rapid and cleaner growth.</p> - -<p>No certain specific characters, we are aware, can be derived from -the mere size or shape of the acorns, or of the leaves. It may be -mentioned, however, as a general, though not a constant rule, that -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus sessiliflora</i> usually bears very small acorns, and -that its leaves are, for the most part, larger, and more regularly -laciniated or notched, and consequently handsomer, as <em>individual -leaves</em>, than those of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Quercus robur</i>. The foliage of -the latter species, however, taken as a whole, is by far the more -beautiful; its leaves, being smaller, and growing close to the stem, -and not on footstalks, combine better, form more dense and compact -masses, and exhibit to greater perfection those exquisite tufts, or -rosettes, which constitute one of the peculiar charms of oak foliage.</p> - -<p>The oak is far less used in civil architecture than formerly, although -there are certain purposes in building to which it is still applied; -but owing to its value and the demand for it for ships, and to the -great labour required to work it, its place is now supplied by -<em>fir</em>. The best oak is that which grows on cold, stiff, clayey -soils, and is the slowest in arriving at maturity; and the colder the -climate, or the higher above the level of the sea the tree grows, -provided it be not stunted from severity of climate, the better the -timber: hence Scottish and Welsh oak is more esteemed than that from -the middle or southern counties of Britain. Our own island does not -produce this timber in sufficient abundance to supply the demand, -and large quantities of oak are imported from different countries, -especially from Prussia and Canada. There are four kinds of oak used in -the Royal Dock-yards,—Welsh, Sussex, Adriatic, and Baltic,—besides -two others, termed African oak, employed in different parts of the -vessels, according to the qualities requisite for the particular -purpose.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span> Next to our own oak, that from the shores of the Baltic is by -far the most esteemed.</p> - -<p>In domestic architecture, oak is only used in the largest and best -buildings, occasionally for the principal beams; but its chief use is -for door and window frames, sills, sleepers, king-posts of roofs, for -trussing fir girders, for sashes, for gates of locks, sluices, posts, -piles, &c. The timber called <em>African oak</em>, used in the navy, is -wood of a different genus.</p> - -<p><em>Wainscot</em> is the wood of a species of oak, imported from Russia -and Prussia in a particular form of log.</p> - -<p>Teak is the produce of a tree of the genus <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tectona</i>. <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">T. -grandis</i> is one of the largest Indian trees, and one of the most -valuable, on account of its excellent timber. The trunk is neat, -lofty, and of an enormous size; the leaves about twenty inches long -and a foot or more wide; the flowers small, white, and fragrant, and -collected into very large panicles. It is a native of various parts of -India, and was introduced into Bengal by Lord Cornwallis and Colonel -Kydd. The wood of this tree has been proved by long experience to be -the most useful timber in Asia; it is light and easily worked, and -at the same time strong and durable. It is considered equal to oak -for ship-building, and has some resemblance to it in its timber; many -vessels trading between this country and India are constructed of it. -That which grows near the banks of the Godavery is beautifully veined, -closer in the grain, and heavier than other varieties. “On the banks -of the river Irrawaddy, in the Birman empire, the teak forests are -unrivalled; and they rise so far over the jungle or brushwood, by which -tropical forests are rendered impenetrable, that they seem almost as if -one forest were raised on gigantic poles over the top of another. The -teak has not the broad strength of the oak, the cedar, and some other -trees; but there is a grace in its form which they do not possess.” -A specimen of this tree was introduced into the Royal Gardens at Kew -about seventy years ago; but from the coldness of our climate it can -never become a forest-tree in this country.</p> - -<p>Valuable as teak is found to be in ship-building, it has not yet been -used in domestic building to any extent. From sixteen to eighteen -thousand loads of teak are annually imported into Britain from India, -principally for the Royal Dock-yards, this wood being used for certain -beams and pillars in ships.</p> - - -<h3>The Fir and Pine as Timber Trees.</h3> - -<p><em>Fir</em>, or <em>Pine</em>, ranks next to oak for its valuable -qualities, and if its universal application be taken into -consideration, it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> might be thought even superior in importance. It is -used for every part of houses, and extensively in ship-building, in -the fittings-up, while it constitutes the only material for masts, for -which purpose its lightness, and the great length and straightness of -the trunk, peculiarly fit it.</p> - -<p>Pine, or fir, is imported into this kingdom under the various names -of timber, battens, deals, laths, masts, yards, and spars, according -to the size or form into which the tree is sawed. It is called -<em>timber</em> when the tree is only squared into a straight beam of -the length of the trunk, and from not less than eight or nine inches -square, up to sixteen or eighteen square; fifty cubic feet is a load of -timber. Deals vary in length and thickness from eight to sixteen feet, -eleven inches wide, and from one and a half to three and a half inches -thick. Four hundred superficial feet of one and a half inch plank make -a load. <em>Battens</em> are small long pieces of fir about three inches -wide and one inch thick. Masts, yards, and spars, are the trunks of -small trees simply barked and topped.</p> - -<p>The pine is, generally speaking, an evergreen, and the wood becomes -harder and more durable when the situation is cold, and also when the -growth of the tree is slow. Norway, Sweden, the shores of the Baltic, -and Canada, are the chief localities of the forests of pine. England -is supplied principally from Canada, not because the timber from that -country is better than that derived from the north of Europe, but -because our timber duties fall heavily on the European pine, the object -of the legislature being to encourage the importation of pine from our -North American colonies.</p> - -<p>Almost the whole of what is now called Canada was once an immense -pine forest. With respect to the Baltic region, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Clarke said, that -if we take up a map of Sweden, and imagine the Gulf of Bothnia to be -surrounded by one contiguous unbroken forest, as ancient as the world, -consisting principally of pine trees, with a few mingling birch and -juniper trees, we shall have a general and tolerably correct notion of -the real appearance of the country. The same writer observed, that the -King of Sweden might travel from sunrise to sunset through some parts -of his territories, without meeting any other of his subjects than pine -trees.</p> - - -<h3>The Norway Spruce Fir.</h3> - -<p>The species of Spruce Fir (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pinus abies</i>), represented in the -engraving, has been known as a British tree for more than three hundred -years, but Norway seems, as far as it can be ascertained, to be its -native country. It differs from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> Scotch fir in general appearance, -as well as in the structure of its leaves and cones. The beautiful -feathery appearance of its foliage is very striking, but the extreme -regularity of its form rather detracts from the beauty of a landscape -when it is too often repeated; it is easily known by its long pendulous -cones, as well as by its formal shape. The spruce fir is found in -great abundance in all the Norwegian forests; it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> also spread over -the whole of the north of Europe, and part of Asia, and it occurs on -most of the mountain-ranges of both these quarters of the globe; in -favourable situations it attains a great height, as much at times as -150 feet.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img011"> - <img src="images/011.jpg" class="w50" alt="The Norway Spruce Fir." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption p0">The Norway Spruce Fir.</p> - -<p>The spruce grows more rapidly than any other of the fir tribes; its -wood is extremely tough and strong, and answers well for masts and -spars, but it is not so valuable when cut into planks as that of other -species. It does not attain the same size in Britain as in colder -climates, the tree perhaps being weakened by the loss of its sap, -which in hot weather is discharged through the bark in considerable -quantities. The more protracted season of growth, and the greater -difference between the temperature of the day and the night, must have -an effect upon it, and judging from the situations which it prefers -on the Continent, the summer rains of England cannot be by any means -favourable. The almost continual day in the Polar countries, while -vegetation is active, produces a uniformity of temperature, and a -consequent uninterrupted growth day and night, while in countries -farther south, the vegetable action is checked every night, and renewed -again every morning, especially in the early part of the season, when -such alternations are most dangerous.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img012"> - <img src="images/012.jpg" class="w50" alt="Blossoms and cones of the spruce" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption p0">1 1 Male Catkins, or Blossoms.<br />2 2 2 Cones containing the Seed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> - -<p>The Norway Spruce is called by the French the Pitch Spruce, from its -yielding the Burgundy Pitch of commerce. To obtain this, parts of the -bark are removed in the spring, and the resin exudes in greater or -smaller quantities, according to the state of the tree; this is scraped -off from time to time. After a sufficient quantity has been collected, -it is melted in hot water, and strained through bags to separate the -impurities. If the strips of bark which are removed are narrow, the -trees will continue to yield for several years.</p> - -<p>The Norway Spruce, and all other trees of the fir tribe, are propagated -by means of seeds. These are to be sown rather thinly about the -middle of March, in a shady well-sheltered border; towards the autumn -the ground is to be carefully weeded, and a quantity of rich earth -strewed lightly over the whole. During the winter, if the frosts are -very severe, the young plants ought at times to be protected from the -severity of the weather. In the next spring, and during the months -of May and June, the young plants will be much assisted by frequent -waterings, and in the autumn the ground must be again cleaned. In -the succeeding spring, when their heads begin to swell, they may be -removed. At four years old they may be transplanted again to a spot -of good land, and placed in rows two and a half feet asunder, and -fourteen or sixteen inches distant in each row. Three years after they -will again require to be transplanted four feet asunder, and so on, -increasing the space between the trees at each remove, until the young -ones are fourteen or sixteen feet in height.</p> - - -<h3>The Scotch Fir.</h3> - -<p>One of the most useful kinds of pine is the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pinus Sylvestris</i> -(wild pine), generally known as Scotch fir. It is this tree which -produces that kind of wood so extensively useful to the carpenter under -the name of <em>deal</em>. The term “deal” implies timber squared into a -convenient size for exportation, and it is in the form of deals that -the wood of which we are now speaking is imported into England from -Norway and the Baltic. The best part of this wood is near the root; -and the roots themselves are valuable for many purposes. It is of this -wood that the bodies of violins and the sounding boards of musical -instruments generally, are made: the grain of the wood formed by the -annual layers being very straight and regular. In trees which have not -arrived at maturity, there is a portion of sap-wood next the bark; this -sap-wood is converted into ligneous matter in about two or three years -from its formation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img013"> - <img src="images/013.jpg" class="w50" alt="The Scotch Fir." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption p0">The Scotch Fir.</p> - - -<p>The Scotch Fir, or Pine, is not peculiar to Scotland, but is common -to all the mountain-ranges of Europe; in low damp situations it never -thrives, but delights in the exposed summits of the loftiest rocks, -over which the earth is but thinly scattered; there its roots wander -afar in the wildest reticulation, whilst its tall, furrowed, and often -gracefully-sweeping, red and gray trunk, of enormous circumference, -rears aloft its high umbrageous canopy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p> - -<p>The fir was a very great favourite with Gilpin, who considered it, as -it really is, to be under favourable circumstances, a very picturesque -object in a landscape: the earnestness with which he defends its -character is peculiarly forcible; he says, “It is a hardy plant, and, -therefore, put to every servile office. If you wish to screen your -house from the south-west wind, plant Scotch firs, and plant them -close and thick. If you want to shelter a nursery of young trees, -plant Scotch firs, and the phrase is, you may afterwards weed them -out at your pleasure. This is ignominious. I wish not to rob society -of these hardy services from the Scotch fir, nor do I mean to set it -in competition with many trees of the forest, which, in their infant -state, it is accustomed to shelter; all I mean is, to rescue it from -the disgrace of being thought fit for nothing else, and to establish -its character as a picturesque tree. For myself, I admire its foliage, -both the colour of its leaf and its mode of growth. Its ramification, -too, is irregular and beautiful.”</p> - -<p>The practice of planting this tree in groups is the cause to which its -unfavourable character, as a picturesque object, may be attributed, the -closeness of growth causing the stems to run upward without lateral -branches. The hilly regions of the whole of Great Britain and Ireland -were formerly covered with vast forests, a great portion of which -consisted of fir-trees. Of these ancient forests some remains still -exist; in Scotland, the relics of the Rannock forest, on the borders -of the counties of Perth, Inverness, and Argyle, are well known: -these consist of the roots and a few scattered trees, which are still -found in situations of difficult access. This forest appears to have -stretched across the country, and to have been connected with the woody -districts of the west of Scotland. The Abernethy forest, in Perthshire, -still furnishes a considerable quantity of timber.</p> - -<p>“At one time,” we quote Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, Bart., “the demand for -it was so trifling, that the Laird of Grant got only twenty pence for -what one man could cut and manufacture in a year. In 1730 a branch of -the York Buildings Company purchased seven thousand pounds’ worth of -timber, and by their improved mode of working it, by saw-mills, &c., -and their new methods of transporting it in floats to the sea, they -introduced the rapid manufacture and removal of it, which afterwards -took place throughout the whole of the sylvan districts. About the -year 1786 the Duke of Gordon sold his Glenmore forest to an English -company for 10,000<em>l.</em> This was supposed to be the finest -fir-wood in Scotland. Numerous trading vessels, some of them above -five hundred tons burden, were built from the timber of this forest, -and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> one frigate, which was called the Glenmore. Many of the trees -felled measured eighteen and twenty feet in girth, and there is still -preserved at Gordon Castle a plank nearly six feet in breadth, which -was presented to the Duke by the Company. But the Rothienmurchus forest -was the most extensive of any in that part of the country; it consisted -of about sixteen square miles. Alas! we must indeed say, it was, for -the high price of timber hastened its destruction. It went on for many -years, however, to make large returns to the proprietor, the profit -being sometimes 20,000<em>l.</em> a year.”</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img014"> - <img src="images/014.jpg" class="w50" alt="Leaves and Male Blossom of Scotch Fir." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption p0">Leaves and Male Blossom of Scotch Fir.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img015"> - <img src="images/015.jpg" class="w50" alt="Cone of Scotch Fir." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center caption p0">Cone of Scotch Fir.</p> - -<p>Besides the forest we have mentioned, there are still in existence -other tracts of land in different parts of Scotland covered with this -timber. The attention which has been drawn to the value of the Scotch -fir has been an inducement to proprietors of land to cause extensive -plantations to be formed on suitable spots; but Nature herself takes -measures to perpetuate her work where the hand of man has carried -destruction; for, after the old trees have been felled and carried off -the ground, young seedlings come up as thick as in the nurseryman’s -seed bed.</p> - -<p>The timber supplied by the Scotch fir is called Red Deal, and the -uses to which it is applied render it necessary that the stem should -be straight, and close planting materially assists in this object, by -preventing the possibility of the trees flinging out their lateral -branches; this, as we have already noticed, disfigures the tree in -the eye of an artist, however<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> much it may delight that of a timber -merchant. The straightest and cleanest-grown trees are selected for -masts, spars, scaffold-poles, &c., while the largest <em>sticks</em> -are sawed into planks for various purposes. Its wood is very durable, -and resists the action of water excellently. The persons employed at -different times in the endeavour to rescue the cargo of the Royal -George, which foundered off Spithead, in the year 1782, discovered -that the fir-planks had suffered little, if any injury, while the -other timbers of the vessel had been much acted upon by the water and -different species of worms.</p> - -<p>In Holland this tree has been used for the purpose of preparing the -foundations of houses in their swampy soil; 13,659 great masts of this -timber were driven into the ground for the purpose of forming the -foundation of the Stadthouse at Amsterdam. But it is not only for its -timber that we are indebted to this tree; those useful articles, tar, -pitch, and turpentine, are all yielded by its sap.</p> - - -<h3>Transport of Timber from the Forests.</h3> - -<p>Probably but few of our readers think of the means by which -<em>timber</em> is conveyed from the forest where it grows, to the spots -where it is to be applied to the purposes of building. And yet it -must be evident that the means of transport form a matter of no small -importance. We know that our timber-yards are plentifully supplied -with the various kinds of wood necessary for building; and that the -timbers are shaped by the axe and the saw. But, in most cases, the -wood which we employ is brought from foreign countries, often many -miles inland. It is conveyed across the ocean in ships; but the mode of -transporting it from the forests where it grows to the ports where it -is to be shipped, is a curious subject, and one well worthy of a little -attention.</p> - -<p>The main circumstance that forms the groundwork of all the plans -adopted for this purpose is, that nearly all kinds of wood are, bulk -for bulk, lighter than water, and will consequently swim on its -surface. Now as all countries are, more or less intersected by rivers, -which flow from the interior into the sea, a very simple and economical -mode of transport for timber is at once attained, by causing it to -float down running streams, either by the mere force of the descending -water, or by the aid of mechanical agents. There is no necessity that -each piece of wood should be floated separately down the stream; for -they may be fastened together and steered down the middle of the river, -in the form of a long and broad raft.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span></p> - -<p>Beckmann says: “It is probable that the most ancient mode of -constructing vessels for the purpose of navigation, gave rise to the -first idea of conveying timber in the like manner; for the earliest -ships or boats were nothing else than rafts, or a collection of beams -and planks bound together, over which were placed deals. By the Greeks -they were called <em>schedai</em>, and by the Latins <em>rates</em>; and -it is known, from the testimony of many writers, that the ancients -ventured out to sea with them, on piratical expeditions, as well as -to carry on commerce; and that after the invention of ships, they -were still retained for the transportation of soldiers, and of heavy -burdens.”</p> - -<p>There are some passages in the Bible which allude to the floating of -wood. 1 Kings v. 9: “My servants shall bring them down from Lebanon -unto the sea; and I will convey them by sea in floats unto the place -that thou shalt appoint me.” 2 Chron. ii. 16: “And we will cut wood out -of Lebanon, as much as thou shalt need: and we will bring it to thee in -floats by sea to Joppa, and thou shalt carry it up to Jerusalem.” These -passages relate to a compact between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre, -by which the latter was to cause cedars for the building of the Temple -to be cut down on the western side of Mount Lebanon, above Tripoli, and -to be floated to Jaffa or Joppa, probably along by the sea shore.</p> - -<p>The Romans transported by water both timber for building and fire-wood. -When, during their wars against the Germans, they became acquainted -with the qualities of the common <em>larch</em>, they caused large -quantities of it to be carried on the river Po, to Ravenna, from the -Alps, particularly the Rhætian, and to be conveyed also to Rome, for -their most important buildings. Vitruvius says, that this timber was so -heavy that the waters could not support it, and that it was necessary -to carry it in ships or on rafts. Could it have been brought to Rome -conveniently, says he, it might have been used with great advantage in -building. It has also been supposed that the Romans procured fire-wood -from Africa, and that it was brought partly in ships and partly on -rafts.</p> - -<p>But it is in Germany that the transportation of timber by means of -floats has been most extensively carried on, partly on account of -its noble forests, and partly through the possession of the river -Rhine. There is evidence of the floating of timber-rafts in Germany so -far back as the year 1410. A letter from the Landgrave of Thuringia -says, that on account of the scarcity of wood that existed in their -territory, the landgraves had so far lessened the toll usually paid -on the river Sale as far as Weissenfels, that a Rhenish florin only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -was demanded for <em>floats</em> brought on that river to Jena, and two -Rhenish stivers for those carried to Weissenfels; but the proprietors -of the floats were bound to be answerable for any injury occasioned to -the bridges.</p> - -<p>In 1438, Hans Munzer, an opulent citizen of Freyberg, with the -assistance of the then burgomasters, put a float of wood upon the river -Mulda, which runs past the city, in order that it might be conveyed -thither for the use of the inhabitants: this seems to imply that -such a practice was not then uncommon. When the town of Aschersleben -was adorned with a new church, in 1495, the timber used for its -construction was transported on the Elbe, from Dresden to Acken, and -from thence on the Achse to the place of its destination. In the year -1561, there was a float-master in Saxony, who was obliged to give -security to the amount of four hundred florins; so that at that time -the business of floating must have been of considerable importance.</p> - -<p>When the citizens of Paris had used all the timber growing near the -city, the enormous expense of land carriage led to the suggestion of -an improved mode of transport. John Rouvel, a citizen and merchant, -in the year 1549, proposed to transport timber, bound together, along -rivers which were not navigable for large vessels. With this view he -made choice of the forests in the woody district of Morvant, which -belonged to the government of Nivernois; and as several small streams -and rivulets had their sources there, he endeavoured to convey into -them as much water as possible. This great undertaking, at first -laughed at, was completed by his successor, René Arnoul, in 1566. The -wood was thrown into the water in single trunks, and suffered to be -driven in that manner by the current to Crevant, a small town on the -river Yonne; where each timber-merchant drew out his own, which he -had previously marked, and after it was dry, formed it into floats -that were transported from the Yonne to the Seine, and thence to the -capital. By this method large quantities of timber were conveyed to the -populous towns.</p> - -<p>A similar mode of transporting timber from the central parts of Germany -to the great towns or to the seaports is practised at the present day. -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Planché, in his <i>Descent of the Danube</i>, says: “Below this -bridge, (at Plattling on the Danube,) the raft-masters of Munich, who -leave that city every Monday for Vienna, unite their rafts before they -enter the Danube. They descend the Isar upon single rafts only; but -upon reaching this point, they lash them together in pairs, and in -fleets of three, four, or six pairs, they set out for Vienna. A voyage -is made pleasantly enough upon these floating islands, as they have -all the <em>agrémens</em>, without the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> confinement of a boat. A very -respectable promenade can be made from one end to the other, and two or -three huts erected upon them afford shelter in bad weather, and repose -at night.”</p> - -<p>But the anonymous author of <i>An Autumn near the Rhine</i> gives a -more detailed account of the timber-rafts of Germany, of which we will -avail ourselves. A little below Andernach, on the banks of the Rhine, -the small village of Namedy appears on the left bank, under a wooded -mountain. The Rhine here forms a little bay, where the pilots are -accustomed to unite together the lesser rafts of timber, floated down -the tributary rivers into the Rhine, and to construct enormous floats, -which are navigated to Dordrecht and sold. These machines have the -appearance of a floating village, composed of twelve or fifteen huts, -on a large platform of oak and deal timber. They are frequently eight -or nine hundred feet long, and sixty or seventy in breadth. The rowers -and workmen sometimes amount to seven or eight hundred, superintended -by pilots and a proprietor, whose habitation is superior in size and -elegance to the rest. The raft is composed of several layers of trees, -placed one on the other, and tied together. A large raft draws not less -than six or seven feet water. Several smaller ones are attached to it, -by way of protection, besides a string of boats, loaded with anchors -and cables, and used for the purpose of sounding the river, and going -on shore. The domestic economy of an East Indiaman is hardly more -complete. Poultry, pigs, and other animals, are to be found on board, -and several butchers are attached to the suite. A well-supplied boiler -is at work night and day in the kitchen. The dinner hour is announced -by a basket stuck on a pole, at which signal the pilot gives the word -of command, and the workmen run from their quarters to receive their -allowances.</p> - -<p>The consumption of provisions in the voyage to Holland is almost -incredible, sometimes amounting to forty or fifty thousand pounds of -bread, eighteen or twenty thousand pounds of fresh meat, a considerable -quantity of salt meat, and butter, vegetables, &c., in proportion. The -expenses are so great, that a capital of three or four hundred thousand -florins is considered necessary to undertake a raft. Their navigation -is a matter of considerable skill, owing to the abrupt windings, the -rocks and shallows of the river; and some years ago the secret was -thought to be monopolized by a boatman of Rudesheim and his son.</p> - -<p>The timber of the spruce firs which grow on the sides of the Alps, is -considered much finer than that which is produced in other situations; -but the inaccessible nature of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> Alpine forests long prevented -those useful trees from being sent in any great quantity to the market. -During our long continental war, however, a bold and skilful plan was -invented, by which this timber was procured in abundance. M. Rupp, an -enterprising foreigner, constructed an immense inclined plane of wood -on the sides of Mount Pilatus, near the Lake Lucerne; its length was -eight miles and a half. Twenty-five thousand large pine trees were -employed in its construction. These were barked and put together very -ingeniously, without the aid of iron. It occupied one hundred and sixty -workmen during eighteen months, and cost nearly a hundred thousand -francs, or 4250<em>l.</em> sterling. It was completed in the year 1812.</p> - -<p>The following description of the slide appeared in a German periodical -shortly after its completion:—“This slide has the form of a trough, -about six foot broad and from three to six foot deep. Its bottom is -formed of three trees, the middle one of which has a groove cut out -in the direction of its length, for receiving small rills of water, -which are conducted into it from various places, for the purpose of -diminishing the friction. The whole of the slide is sustained by about -two thousand supports; and in many places it is attached, in a very -ingenious manner, to the rugged precipices of granite.</p> - -<p>“The direction of the slide is sometimes straight, and sometimes -zig-zag, with an inclination of from 10° to 18°. It is often carried -along the sides of hills and the flanks of precipitous rocks, and -sometimes passes over their summits. Occasionally it goes under ground, -and at other times it is conducted over the deep gorges by scaffoldings -one hundred and twenty feet in height.</p> - -<p>“The boldness which characterizes this work, the sagacity and skill -displayed in all its arrangements, have excited the wonder of every -person who has seen it. Before any step could be taken in its erection, -it was necessary to cut several thousand trees to obtain a passage -through the impenetrable thickets. All these difficulties, however, -were surmounted, and the engineer had at last the satisfaction of -seeing the trees descend from the mountain with the rapidity of -lightning. The larger pines, which were about a hundred feet long, and -ten inches thick at their smaller extremity, ran through the space of -<em>three leagues</em>, or nearly <em>nine miles</em>, <em>in two minutes -and a half</em>, and during their descent, they appeared to be only a -few feet in length. The arrangements for this part of the operation -were extremely simple. From the lower end of the slide to the upper -end, where the trees were introduced, workmen were posted at regular -distances, and as soon as everything was ready, the workman at the -lower end<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> of the slide cried out to the one above him, ‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lachez</i>’ -(Let go.) The cry was repeated from one to another, and reached the -top of the slide in <em>three</em> minutes. The workman at the top or -the slide then cried out to the one below him, ‘<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Il vient</i>’ (It -comes), and the tree was instantly launched down the slide, preceded by -the cry which was repeated from post to post. As soon as the tree had -reached the bottom, and plunged into the lake, the cry of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Lachez</i> -was repeated as before, and a new tree was launched in a similar -manner. By these means a tree descended every five or six minutes, -provided no accident happened to the slide, which sometimes took place, -but which was instantly repaired when it did.</p> - -<p>“In order to show the enormous force which the trees acquired from the -great velocity of their descent, M. Rupp made arrangements for causing -some of the trees to spring from the slide. They penetrated by their -thickest extremities no less than from eighteen to twenty-four feet -into the earth; and one of the trees having by accident struck against -another, it instantly cleft it through its whole length, as if it had -been struck by lightning.</p> - -<p>“After the trees had descended the slide, they were collected into -rafts upon the lake, and conducted to Lucerne. From thence they -descended the Reuss, then the Aar to near Brugg, afterwards to Waldshut -by the Rhine, then to Basle, and even to the sea when it was necessary.</p> - -<p>“It is to be regretted that this magnificent structure no longer -exists, and that scarcely a trace of it is to be seen upon the -flanks of Mount Pilatus. Political circumstances having taken away -the principal source of demand for the timber, and no other market -having been found, the operation of cutting and transporting the trees -necessarily ceased.”<span class="fnanchor" id="fna4"><a href="#fn4">[4]</a></span></p> - -<p>Professor Playfair, who visited this singular work, states, that six -minutes was the usual time occupied in the descent of a tree; but that -in wet weather, it reached the lake in three minutes. He found it quite -impossible to give two successive strokes of his stick to any, even the -largest tree, as it passed him. The logs entered the lake with such -force, that many of them seemed to penetrate its waters to the very -bottom. Much of the timber of Mount Pilatus was thus brought to market; -but the expense attending the process rendered it impossible for the -speculator to undersell the Baltic merchant, when peace had opened a -market for his timber, and so the Slide of Alpnach fell to ruin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p> - - -<h3>Cutting the Norway Deals.</h3> - -<p>When the timber is squared before it is exported, it is effected by -saw-mills; the manner of proceeding may be illustrated by the treatment -of Norway deals. In some cases, the trees are merely roughly-shaped -with the axe; but those which are to be made into deals are floated -down the mountain-streams to a spot where many collect together, -and where a saw-mill is erected. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Clarke thus speaks of one that -he visited:—“The remarkable situation of the sawing-mills, by the -different cataracts, are among the most extraordinary sights a -traveller meets with. The mill here was as rude and picturesque an -object as it is possible to imagine; it was built with the unplaned -trunks of large fir-trees, as if brought down and heaped together -by the force of the river. The saws are fixed in sets parallel to -each other, the spaces between them in each set being adapted to the -intended thickness for the planks. A whole tree is thus divided into -planks, by a simultaneous operation, in the same time that a single -plank would be cut by one of the saws. We found that ten planks, -each ten feet in length, were sawed in five minutes, one set of saws -working through two feet of timber in a single minute.” The deals are -afterwards transported by river or canal to seaports.</p> - - -<h3>The Cutting and Transport of Canadian Timber.</h3> - -<p>The conveyance of timber to market in Canada is a very remarkable -instance of commercial enterprise. While standing in the vast pine -forests the timber-trees are common property: they acquire money-value -only when the axe has been applied to them, and when they have been -brought down to a shipping port.</p> - -<p>The words <em>lumber</em> and <em>lumbering</em>, which convey no very -definite idea to us, have in Canada and the United States a large and -important meaning. <em>Lumber</em> is the general name for all kinds -of timber, not only while growing in the form of stately trees, but -after it is cut down, and even after it has been rudely fashioned into -such pieces as may be convenient for shipment. So, in like measure, -<em>lumbering</em> may be taken as a general name for all the operations -whereby the timber is brought into a marketable state; including the -cutting down of the trees; the conveyance to the saw-mills; the sawing -them into boards, planks, joists, and other pieces; the forming them -into rafts: and the navigating of these rafts down the creeks and -rivers to the seaports. All the persons<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> employed in these operations -are designated <em>lumberers</em>; and they are subdivided into smaller -groups according to the duties they undertake to perform.</p> - -<p>As the practice of lumbering has been carried on for a great number of -years, all the forests in the vicinity of seaports have been denuded -of their trees: and the lumberers have therefore to go far inland to -obtain their supply of timber. This occasions one circle of operations -to last an entire year, from summer to summer. As the lumberers who -dwell in the interior frequently carry on some other occupation, -perhaps an agricultural one, they cut down trees in the forest just -as it suits their convenience, during the summer and autumn. These -trees are either hewn and shaped into balks and beams, or divided into -shorter pieces, according as they are to be exported whole, or sawed up -into boards and scantlings for the American or Canadian markets.</p> - -<p>When a large supply of timber has been thus cut down, and the winter -is so far advanced that snow lies on the ground, preparations are made -for conveying the timber to some stream or river which flows down to -a commercial port. On the banks of such streams saw-mills worked by -water-power are erected, and these are employed for cutting up such of -the “lumber” as is to be sold in the form of planks. The conveyance -to the saw-mills and the operation of sawing occupy together the -entire winter season. When snow is on the ground, a stout pair of oxen -can drag a log from the forest to the saw-mill; and this method of -transport is almost universally adopted, very few horses being employed -in this way. Sometimes the saw-mills are constructed in a small creek -near the forest, but in other cases they are lower down, on the banks -of larger streams; and in this latter case the logs are floated down -the smaller streams till they arrive at the larger one, where a dam -or barrier is placed across the stream to prevent them from floating -beyond the precincts of the saw-mill. The saws are circular in shape. -Many of the mills have but one saw in operation; others have groups -of parallel saws capable of cutting the log into eight or ten planks -at once. Some of the smaller mills are built in so rude and rough a -manner, that their cost does not exceed 30<em>l.</em> or 40<em>l.</em>; but -if the mill lasts as long as the supply of timber in the neighbourhood, -that is deemed sufficient, and a new mill is built when it is found -advantageous to shift the quarters farther inland. A small mill with -one saw, worked for twenty-four hours, will cut up three or four -thousand superficial feet of timber. Men are employed to roll the logs -along the gangways to a platform, and place them in a proper position -to be acted on by the saw.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> - -<p>During the season of these operations the rivers and streams are frozen -up; but in spring, when the melting of the ice renders them navigable, -preparations are made for transporting the timber from the mills to -the shipping ports. If the mill be on the banks of a small stream, the -lumberers make up the logs and planks into rafts, the dimensions of -which are suited to the capacity of the stream, and when these reach -a larger stream into which the smaller one empties itself, the small -rafts are broken up and re-arranged into larger ones; but if the mill -be on the banks of the larger stream, the timber is at once made up -into the rafts which float down to the shipping port—three or four -hundred thousand feet of timber being sometimes conveyed in one raft. -Sometimes the streams are too small to admit the rafts to float down -them: and in such case they often lie aground for months, until an -accidental flooding increases the body of water; or else they have to -be broken up altogether, and other means adopted for conveying them -to market. The rafts are generally put together very slightly, the -value of labour being high, and the lumberers regulating the strength -of the raft only in proportion to the distance which it has to float. -This distance may vary from fifty to three or four hundred miles. -Some one of the lumberers who may happen to be best acquainted with -the stream acts as pilot, all the others following his directions in -the navigation. The raft moves just as fast as the stream will convey -it, be it slow or quick, no acceleration of speed being attempted -by sails or oars; so that the time which elapses before the raft -reaches its destination depends on many different circumstances. In -some instances, where all the circumstances are favourable, the pilot -navigates his cumbrous raft night and day without stopping; but if -there are difficulties, he directs it into some cove or sheltered place -during the night. The men are provided with long poles, by which they -can regulate the position of the raft in the stream, keeping it either -in the middle of the current or near the bank. The men seldom trouble -themselves to make huts or cabins on the rafts: for the weather being -spring, and it being optional to them to go on shore when they please, -they make very few arrangements for their trip except in provisions. -On the <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Lawrence, however, where the French Canadians bring down -timber-rafts to Quebec for shipment, the men erect small huts or -temporary dwellings on the rafts, since the voyage becomes of a more -serious character.</p> - -<p>When the rafts reach their destination, the lumber is sold, and the -men share the proceeds according to the nature of their stake in the -enterprise. This share is one entire year’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> earnings, and the final -disposal of the timber is therefore a matter of importance. The men -then set out on foot to return to the interior, and as the distance -they have to travel is sometimes three or four hundred miles, and -the summer warmth has arrived, the journey is generally a fatiguing -one. The men are not all fellow-labourers in an equal degree, for—as -in almost every other kind of commercial enterprise—there must be -some one to act as a capitalist, to feed the labourers while they are -employed, or others who will supply necessaries in advance. There are -storekeepers who purchase an annual supply of provisions, clothing, -implements, &c., and retail them out to the lumberers on credit, to -be paid for when the sales are effected in the spring, and when the -mill-owner has been enabled to pay the wages of the men who felled, -transported, and sawed the timber. If any unforeseen accident prevents -the raft from reaching the shipping port in a saleable state, or if any -other mishap occurs, the whole community share the loss.</p> - -<p>The lumberers are among the roughest and rudest of the Canadian and -American population: for their occupation takes them so little among -the haunts of commercial or cultivated men, that they are only a few -shades superior to the American Indians—in some points far beneath -them.</p> - - -<h3>Miscellaneous kinds of Timber.</h3> - -<p>Deal so completely takes precedence of all other timber in -house-building, that a very slight notice of other varieties will -suffice.</p> - -<p><em>Beech</em> is partially employed in ship-building for the keel and -timbers near it; but it is not at all employed, in civil architecture. -The principal use made of this wood is in the construction of machines, -mill-work, lock-gates, &c., and for handles to tools; it is also a good -wood for the turner, being of a close grain. It will not, however, bear -alternations of moisture and dryness, and is liable to be attacked by -worms, so that it is not extensively employed.</p> - -<p><em>Chestnut</em> belongs to the same tribe as the beech, but although -a valuable wood, it is now little, if ever, used. Formerly it was -extensively so, and the roofs of several ancient buildings were -constructed of it. From some experiments, indeed, it seems to be as -durable as oak itself.</p> - -<p><em>Ash</em> is the wood for the wheelwright and the maker of -agricultural implements; it is one of the most valuable of all timber -trees, combining great strength with elasticity and lightness; it, -however, splits easily. Ash is not used either by the shipwright or the -common carpenter.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span></p> - -<p><em>Elm</em> is a coarse-grained wood, but strong and durable, it does -not work readily, and is therefore but little used. It is, however, -employed for certain parts of ships, and for making casks, chests, -coffins, posts for mill-work, and a few other purposes.</p> - -<p>Next to oak and fir, the foreign wood <em>Mahogany</em> is by far the -most valuable, and that most extensively used; it is the growth of -the West Indies and South America, and the tree, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Swietenia -mahogani</i>, is, perhaps, the most majestic of all timber trees from -the enormous dimensions to which its trunk attains, its vast height -and size, and its dark beautiful foliage. The mahogany of the island -of Cuba, and that from the bay of Honduras, is first in estimation. -There are two East Indian species, but they are not imported in any -quantities into this country.</p> - -<p>The best mahogany is that which grows in dry, cold, and exposed -situations. Such wood is fine-grained, hard, and dark in colour, -richly variegated, causing it from its beauty to rank among the most -ornamental of fancy woods, while the light, coarse-grained wood, which -grows in warm moist climates, is sufficiently abundant to be used for -ordinary purposes, and yet possesses admirable properties for all, -where no great strength or tenacity is wanted.</p> - -<p>Within the last twenty years the use of this wood has increased -amazingly, and some ships have many of their upper timbers above the -water-line constructed of Honduras mahogany. Its use in furniture and -cabinet-making is well known, and, indeed, it may be said to be the -principal wood used for this purpose, and to have entirely supplanted -our own walnut, which was formerly in universal use for the same -purposes.</p> - -<p>The woods above enumerated are those most extensively or largely used -by the carpenter; but there are several others employed for small -articles, and for particular purposes, which deserve mentioning.</p> - -<p><em>Box</em> is the wood of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Buxus sempervirens</i>, a hardy -evergreen plant, indigenous in all the southern parts of Europe -and Western Asia, and long domesticated in our shrubberies. Box is -especially the wood for turning, it being closer-grained, denser, and -tougher than perhaps all others, except <em>iron-wood</em>, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lignum -Vitæ</i>, and one or two rarer woods. Box is used for rules, scales, -and for small cabinet works; but that which gives it particular -importance is its universal use for wood-engraving.</p> - -<p><em>Lance</em> is the name given to the wood of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Guatteria -virgata</i>, a tree indigenous to Jamaica, and one of the most -important that are so, from the valuable qualities of its timber,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -lance-wood far exceeding our ash in lightness, strength, and -elasticity; hence it is admirably calculated for shafts to carriages, -handles to spears, and for all purposes where straight, light, -flexible, and tough wood is required. It is neither so close-grained -nor so hard as box, but it turns well, and does not split; in colour, -it is lighter than box.</p> - -<p><em>Ebony</em> is the name given to the wood of several different trees, -which agree in being dark-coloured, dense, and durable; it is used for -inlaying and for making rules or scales, as not being liable to warp. -It is an excellent wood for turning; but, except for these purposes, -it is less in request now than formerly, when it was much used in -cabinet-making.</p> - -<p><i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lignum Vitæ</i> is the wood of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Guaiacum officinale</i>, a -large tree indigenous in the West Indies. This wood is the hardest and -heaviest known, and can only be worked in the lathe. It is much used -for making the <em>sheaves</em>, or pulleys of blocks used in shipping, -and for friction-rollers, &c.</p> - -<p>There are various foreign woods which, from their beautiful grain and -varied tints, are used in cabinet-making. But as these woods are too -valuable to be used solid, they are sawed into thin leaves, called -<em>veneers</em>, which are glued down on a backing of ordinary mahogany. -The principal of these fancy woods are—</p> - -<p><em>Rose-wood</em>, which is produced by a tree a native of Brazil. This -wood is much used for furniture, both as a veneer, and solid for legs -of tables, chairs, &c.</p> - -<p><em>King-wood</em> is also the produce of Brazil; it is a dark chocolate -wood, veined with fine black veins.</p> - -<p><em>Beef-wood</em> comes from New Holland; is of a pale-red even tint, -and intensely hard and heavy. It is used for inlaying and bordering.</p> - -<p><em>Tulip-wood</em> is a wood of a clouded red and yellow colour, and -very hard, and used for bordering to larger woods. The tree is unknown -to our botanists.</p> - -<p><em>Zebra-wood</em> is a large-sized tree, and abundant enough to be used -as a veneer in large furniture, like rose-wood: it is more curious than -elegant.</p> - -<p><em>Satin-wood</em> is well known for its glossy yellowish tint, from -which it derives its name; there are two varieties.</p> - -<p><em>Maple</em>, from our own indigenous tree, is a very elegant wood, -of a light colour, or else, near the root, variegated with knots and -twisted grain. It is much used in fancy work.</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span></p> - -<p class="footnote" id="fn4"><a href="#fna4">[4]</a> The Mines of Bolanos, in Mexico, are supplied with timber from -the adjacent mountains by a slide similar to that of Alpnach. It was -constructed by M. Floresi, a gentleman well acquainted with Switzerland.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VI"><span class="smcap">Chapter VI.</span><br />THE WOOD-WORK. CARPENTRY.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>Having thus briefly noticed the principal kinds of timber, and some of -the modes of bringing it to market, we have in the present chapter to -trace the wood through the various processes whereby it becomes part -and parcel of a house.</p> - - -<h3>Sawing Timber.</h3> - -<p>When a timber-tree is felled, the branches, arms, and boughs, are cut -off, and the bark stripped, this being valuable for many purposes. -The trunk is then sawed square, and again cut into <em>planks</em>, -<em>deals</em>, <em>battens</em>, &c., as the different-sized boards into -which it is reduced are called.</p> - -<p>Teak and mahogany are imported into this country in <em>logs</em>, -distinguished from the long beams known technically as <em>timber</em>, -by their width and thickness being considerable in proportion to their -length.</p> - -<p>Timber is sawed in countries producing, or using it, in great -quantities in saw-mills, in which the tools are worked by water or -steam, as described in the last chapter; and it is also sawed into -battens, laths, &c., by circular saws, turned by machinery, like a -lathe; but when timber is sawed by hand, it is done by two men acting -in concert in the following manner:—A pit is generally chosen, round -the margin of which a stout frame is laid. The beam to be sawed is -laid along the centre of this frame, in the direction of the length of -the pit. One man stands on the beam while another is in the pit below -him, and each alternately raises or pulls down a large vertical saw, -with which the beam is cut lengthwise into planks. Wedges of wood are -placed in the fissure as the work proceeds, to keep the cut open, and -thus allow the saw to play freely. This is very hard labour, especially -to the upper man, who has not only to raise the weight of the saw in -the up-stroke, but to guide it correctly along the chalked line on the -beam. This man gets higher wages, and is called the <em>top-sawyer</em>, -a term technically given in jest to any one who is, or fancies himself, -of superior importance.</p> - - -<h3>Scarfing or Joining Timber.</h3> - -<p>When timber is wanted in lengths exceeding those that can be procured -from the tree in one piece, it must be joined by what is called -<em>scarfing</em>; that is, the ends of the two lengths<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> that are to be -united into one, are cut so that a portion of the one may lap over and -fit into a portion of the other, which is cut so as to receive it. The -timber, when united, is thus of the same uniform size. The joined ends -are secured together by bolts or spikes. The following figures show the -more usual modes of scarfing timber for different purposes.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img016"> - <img src="images/016.jpg" class="w50" alt="" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The last is a mode of scarfing invented by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Roberts, of the Royal -Dock Yards.</p> - - -<h3>Trussing or Strengthening.</h3> - -<p>When a beam of timber is long in proportion to its breadth and -thickness, it will bend by its own weight, and will be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> incapable -of supporting much additional load; it may be strengthened by -<em>trussing</em>, in different modes, of which we will only describe -that usually adopted for girders, intended for floors. The beam is -sawed longitudinally into two equal beams, each, of course, half the -thickness of the original: these halves are reversed, end for end, -so that if there were any weak part in the original beam, this may -be divided equally between the ends of the compound beam made up of -the two halves when bolted together. A flat <em>truss</em>, usually of -oak, with iron <em>king-bolts</em> and abutting plates, resembling in -form and principle a timber roof or bridge, is placed between the -two half beams, and let into a shallow groove cut in each half to -receive it; the compound beam, with this truss in the middle, is then -bolted together again by means of iron bolts, with washers and nuts, -and consequently becomes rigid by the construction of the truss. The -truss is not entirely let into the double beam, as the full effect of -strength may be obtained without the necessity for cutting the groove -in each half beam of half the thickness of the oak truss; consequently, -when the girder is completed, there is a slit all along it, through -which the truss is seen lying in its place between the two sides.</p> - -<p>Iron trusses are often used instead of oak, and beams are frequently -strengthened by screwing a thin flat iron truss on one or both sides, -let into the beam for about half the thickness of the metal.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img017"> - <img src="images/017.jpg" class="w50" alt="Strengthening a beam with trusses" /> -</span></p> - -<p>This mode of strengthening a beam by trussing is only adopted in -floors, where it is necessary to limit the depth of the truss to -that of the beam, to obtain a level surface by means of joists laid -across, and supported by, the beam. But it is obvious that much greater -strength may be imparted to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> long beam by making it the base of a -triangular frame, as is done in roofs, in various manners, when the -slanting sides of the triangular frame carry the battens or laths for -supporting the tiles or other covering.</p> - -<p>The annexed is the simplest form of a roof, and will help to explain -the subject of carpentry in other respects. The beam <span class="allsmcap">A</span>, -called the <em>tie-beam</em>, is of such a length as to rest on the side -walls of the house at each of its ends, and is supposed to be of such -dimensions in depth and thickness as would render it inadequate to -support much more than its own weight. The two sloping rafters <span class="allsmcap">B -B</span>, are called <em>principals</em>; they are <em>mortised</em> into -the tie-beam at their ends by a joint, shown in the lower figure, by -which they are provided with a firm abutment, to prevent the ends from -slipping outwards; and in order to prevent the principal from starting -upwards out of the mortise, it is strapped down to the tie-beam by an -iron strap, bolted or screwed to both timbers.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img018"> - <img src="images/018.jpg" class="w50" alt="Beams of a roof" /> -</span></p> - -<p><span class="allsmcap">P</span> is termed a <em>king-post</em>, and is cut out with a head and -foot, the former to receive the upper ends of the principals, which, -being cut square, abut firmly against the sloping face of the head. The -sloping principals hold up the king-post, and the tie-beam is supported -from the latter by a stirrup-shaped strap, that goes under the beam, -and is bolted, or screwed, to the post on each side. To prevent the -principals from bending by the strain, or by the weight of the roof -covering, the struts <span class="allsmcap">C C</span>, are placed, abutting against the -bevelled part of the foot of the king-post, and are strapped to the -principals, or mortised into them.</p> - -<p>The number of tie-beams, with their trusses, &c., of course depends on -the length of the roof, or the material with which it is to be covered. -A longitudinal <em>scantling</em>, or thin beam, called a <em>purline</em>, -<span class="allsmcap">E</span>, is laid lengthwise, resting on the principals over the -ends of the struts, and is secured to the former by a spike, or else -by being notched down on to the principal.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> These purlines support -the common rafters <span class="allsmcap">R</span>, which abut at their feet against a -longitudinal scantling <span class="allsmcap">S</span>, lying on, and <em>halved</em> down on, -the tie-beams; at their upper ends, the rafters <span class="allsmcap">R</span> rest against -a <em>ridge-piece</em>, or thin plank, let edgeways into the head of the -king-post. The rafters are placed about a foot apart, and on to them -are nailed the laths or battens to carry the tiles or slates.</p> - - -<h3>The Mortise and other Joints.</h3> - -<p>In constructing roofs, floors, and other structures of timber, the -various beams are <em>framed</em>, or fastened together, by certain -processes calculated to insure strength and permanence in the framing, -which ought to be understood, and their names remembered.</p> - -<p>The <em>Mortise</em> and <em>Tenon</em> joint is used when one beam is -to be attached to, and supported by, another, without resting on it, -but so that the beams may be in the same plane. The mortise is a hole -cut into, or through, the side of the one beam, into which hole the -end of the other, cut down to fit the form of the hole, is inserted -and fastened. It is obviously necessary to consider two things in -determining the size and form of the mortise and tenon. First, that by -the former the one beam may not be too much weakened, and yet that it -should be large enough to give the tenon that fits into it, sufficient -strength to enable the beam to carry the weight intended.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img019"> - <img src="images/019.jpg" class="w50" alt="Mortise and tenon joint" /> -</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span></p> - -<p>If the one beam is horizontal, and the other to stand perpendicularly -upon it, the tenon need only be large enough to retain the upright -beam in its place. The foregoing figures are the most usual forms of -mortises and tenons, and will explain their use and principle.</p> - -<p>It is obvious that two mortises never should come opposite each other -on the two sides of the same beam.</p> - -<p>When the tenon comes through the beam, it is secured from drawing by a -pin or peg put through it.</p> - -<p>The <em>Dovetail</em> is used to secure one beam into another, when -they have to resist any strain acting so as to draw them asunder, -rather than to carry any weight; it is consequently employed to frame -wall-plates, or the timber laid in walls to carry the ends of beams -of floors, roofs, and so on, which plates tend to bind the walls -together as well as to receive the ends of the beams. The term is -derived from the end of one beam being cut into a shape resembling -the spreading tail of a bird, which is pinned down in a corresponding -wedge-shaped recess cut in the other beam to receive it. It is clear -from this construction that no force, acting in the direction of its -length, could pull the first beam out of the second without breaking -off the dovetail, which the tenacity of wood-fibre renders nearly -impracticable in one of any size. The dovetail is extensively used in -all cabinet-making, and may be seen in almost any mahogany or deal-box.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img020"> - <img src="images/020.jpg" class="w50" alt="Dovetail securing of beams" /> -</span></p> - -<p>When two beams of equal thickness are required to cross one another and -to lie in the same plane, they are <em>halved</em> together; that is, -a notch is cut in each of half the thickness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> of the other, then the -uncut part of each lies in the notch of the other respectively, and the -two are pinned together.</p> - - -<h3>Distinction between Carpentry and Joinery.</h3> - -<p>The smaller and better kind of work executed by the carpenter is called -<em>Joiner’s work</em>, such as the making of doors, windows, stairs, -wainscotting, boxes, tables, &c. &c., which are usually formed of -yellow or Norway deals, wainscot, or mahogany.</p> - -<p>When a large surface is to be of wood, it is not formed of planks fixed -together side by side till the requisite width is attained, but it is -formed of <em>framing</em> and <em>panelling</em>. A frame-work of the area -required to be covered, is formed of narrow planks, with cross-bars -between to strengthen the frame; these are called <em>stiles</em> and -<em>rails</em>, according to the directions in which they run, the -former name being given to the upright planks of the frame, while the -horizontal ones are called rails.</p> - -<p>The rails are mortised into the stiles, and the tenons, since they must -be comparatively thin, are made proportionably wide, nearly as wide -as the rail. The tenons are always pinned into the mortise holes by -one or two wooden pins driven quite through the stiles and through the -inclosed tenon.</p> - -<p>The edges of the stiles and rails are <em>ploughed</em>, that is, a -rectangular furrow is cut in the edge by means of a plane, to receive -the ends and sides of the <em>panels</em>. These panels are formed of -thinner deals than the stiles and rails, and are made by glueing the -edges of two or more boards together to make the proper width of the -panel; the ends and edges of the panel are thinned off to fit into the -groove or furrow in the stiles and rails, or else the ends and sides of -the panel are <em>rebated</em>, that is, worked by a plane into the form -shown in the following figure, the projecting part being received into -the furrow.</p> - -<p>As the panels are thinner than the frame, the former constitute so many -recesses, at least on one side of the framing; and a small moulding is -glued round the edge of the panel to form a finish to the work. Or else -the same object is attained by working the edge of the stiles and rails -with such a moulding, so that when the panel is put in, the moulding -may finish against it. Sometimes the face of the panel is made to lie -in the same plane with the face of the stiles and rails, and the panel -is then said to be <em>flush</em>, and the edges of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> the stiles, &c., are -finished with a small bead, also flush with the panel when finished.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img021"> - <img src="images/021.jpg" class="w50" alt="Joined work" /> -</span></p> - -<p>In joiner’s work the whole surface of the work is made perfectly smooth -by <em>planing</em> the material, and allowance must be made for the -reduction in thickness and width of the wood, produced by this planing, -in the choice of the rough material.</p> - - -<h3>The Tools employed.</h3> - -<p>All mouldings in wood are worked out by planes made of the proper -form, to leave the moulding in the wood when the plane has been passed -over the part. The carpenter and joiner consequently require a vast -variety of planes for these purposes, which constitutes the most -expensive part of the expensive tools used by these workmen. These -planes receive their names from the form they are intended to produce -in the wood, such as <em>rebating</em> planes, O G planes, ovolo-planes, -beading-planes, and so on.</p> - -<p>The next most important tools used by both carpenter and joiner, are -<em>saws</em>, of different sizes, for reducing the rough wood to the -size adapted for the purpose to which it is to be applied. Small, -fine-toothed saws, both long and thin blades, termed spring-saws, -are used for cutting out small holes in wood, and for analogous -purposes, when precision and nicety<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> are required; these spring-saws -are sometimes mounted in a frame on the same principle as that of the -stone-mason’s saw, formerly described; but commonly, the blade of the -saw, of whatever size it may be, is only fixed on a convenient handle, -so that the whole blade of the saw may pass through the fissure it -makes in the material. All saws are made of the best steel, highly -tempered, so as to recover their form if bent by the resistance of the -wood.</p> - -<p>Next to the planes and saws, <em>chisels</em> are the most indispensable -tool to the carpenter. These <em>chisels</em> are of different widths, -adapted to different uses, and are not only used with a hammer or -mallet, as the mason employs them, but also as cutting-tools, used by -hand for finishing the re-entering angles of mortise-holes, or for -finishing the ends of pieces of wood too small to be planed.</p> - -<p>The carpenter employs <em>gimlets</em> for making holes for screws and -nails. The gimlet is a short rod of steel, finished at one end into -a sharp-pointed screw of one or two turns only, which, acting on the -principle of that mechanical power, compels the tool to sink deeper and -deeper into the wood, as the tool is turned round: and to enable the -workman to turn the gimlet, it is fixed into a cross handle, which, -acting as a lever, allows the friction of the tool to be overcome. Just -above the screw point, the rod or shaft of the gimlet is <em>fluted</em> -or hollowed out: the sharp edges of this fluted part cut the hole made -by the screw end larger and smoother, and the hollow receives the chips -or shavings cut off, and prevents them from clogging the hole and -stopping the progress of the tool.</p> - -<p><em>Augers</em> are large tools shaped like a gimlet, and, acting in the -same manner, are employed for making large holes for bolts, spikes, &c. -<em>Centre-bits</em> are steel tools of different shapes made to fit into -a bent handle something like the letter G, which, acting as a lever, -allows of the tool being turned round and round by one hand, while by -the other the workman holds the top of the handle steady and vertically -over the point of the tool. Some of the <em>bits</em> or tools are for -cutting out cylindrical holes, and are shaped at the cutting-edge like -a chisel, with a small point projecting from the centre of the edge, -on which the instrument turns in the wood and acts on the principle -of a lathe. On each side this point, the chisel-edge is bent sideways -in opposite directions, to allow of its <em>ploughing</em> up the wood -before it with greater efficacy than it would do if it were not so -formed.</p> - -<p>The <em>brad-awl</em>, or <em>nail-piercer</em>, is a short steel wire, -sharpened at the point into a flat chisel-edge, and put into a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> plain -turned handle. This edge being pushed into the wood, and the handle -turned round, the tool divides the fibre, and makes its way on the -simple principle of a wedge, and does not cut away or remove any -portion of the material, as the above-described tools do.</p> - -<p>The carpenter uses nails and screws to fasten the different parts of -his work together, and it is necessary to make a hole to receive them -before they are driven in, or else the wood would split by the action -of forcing the nail or screw into the solid material, and, indeed, it -would be impossible to force a screw into the solid wood at all.</p> - -<p>The screw is forced into the wood by being turned round and round by -means of a blunt chisel, called a <em>screw-driver</em>, the edge of -which is inserted into a notch cut in the head of the screw to receive -it.</p> - - -<h3>The Glue employed.</h3> - -<p>Joiners fasten one piece of their work to another by <em>glue</em>, made -by boiling down refuse animal matter containing the animal principle -called <em>gelatine</em> in abundance, such as hoofs, horns, tendons, -skin, gristle, &c.: it is a property of gelatine to dissolve in hot -water, and to harden again when cold, and the water evaporates. -Accordingly the glue, which is only concentrated impure gelatine, is -dissolved by heat in a small quantity of water, and being applied -to the clean faces of the wood to be united, by a coarse brush, -these faces are closely pressed and retained together till the water -evaporates, when such is the tenacity of the glue, that the wood may -be broken in another place as easily as at the glued joint. To enable -glue, however, to act in this manner well, the wood should be clean, -the parts to be glued well warmed before the glue is applied, and the -joint should be close, or the parts accurately brought together.</p> - -<p>Besides the before-mentioned tools and materials, and some others, -such as hammers, axes, &c., which need not be described, carpenters -and joiners use instruments for measuring and setting out their work, -and for drawing on the surface of the material the forms into which -it is to be reduced, or the shape and situations of portions of the -material to be removed for the purposes of framing. The instruments are -compasses, squares, rules, levels, plumb-lines, and so on, common to -all artificers who form their materials into geometrical shapes: and, -like the mason, the carpenter and joiner must be conversant with the -more elementary problems of practical geometry.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span></p> - - -<h3>A Window-sash, as an example of Joiner’s Work.</h3> - -<p>In illustration of the nature of joiner’s work, we may point out the -mode of proceeding in making a window-sash, which is one of the most -delicate operations of the common joiner. The outer part of the sash -is made broader and stronger than the intermediate cross-bars which -receive the panes of glass, in order to give strength and rigidity -to the sash. This outer part is framed together at the four angles -by mortises and tenons, the latter coming quite through the stuff, -and having a small sharp wedge driven into the middle of the tenon -when inserted into the mortise: by means of this wedge, the tenon is -expanded at its end into a wedge-shaped form, by which it fits more -tightly into the mortise, and is retained in its place, the wedge-shape -not allowing the tenon to be withdrawn again. But it may be here -remarked, that, besides this precaution, all small mortises and tenons -are put together with glue, to ensure the stability of the joint.</p> - -<p>The inner edge of this frame is formed by a <em>plane</em> into the half -moulding, of which the cross-bars present the entire section, so that -when the sash is completed, each panel, as it were, which is filled in -with the glass, is surrounded on its sides by a continuous moulding, -and on the other side of the frame each panel presents a <em>rebate</em> -in which the glass lies. The annexed figure of the section of part of -the outer frame and one cross-bar, will make this clear.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img022"> - <img src="images/022.jpg" class="w50" alt="Joined window sash" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The cross-bars are made in lengths out of slips of wood, by a plane, -which first forms the mouldings and rebate on one side, and then by -turning the slip over, the same plane finishes the other with an exact -counterpart of the first. These bars are framed into the outer part of -the sash by delicate mortises and tenons put together in the manner -before described; but it will be seen by reference to the figure,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> that -the moulded part of the bar must unite to that of the outer frame, or -of another bar, by a <em>mitre</em>-joint, that is, by one which allows -of the lines of mouldings returning on the second piece, at right -angles to their direction on the first, without any interruption to the -continuity of the surface.</p> - -<p>This and all analogous mitre-joints are formed by planing the ends -of the wood to form a face, making an angle of 45° with the axis or -length of the stuff, and the joiner is provided with a tool called a -<em>mitre-box</em>, consisting of a stock or frame, in which the stuff -being put, resting against one another’s surface, guides the plane so -as to cut off the end obliquely at the requisite angle. It is clear -that this mitre must be made on both faces of the bar, and therefore -the two mitre faces form a wedge-shaped termination by meeting at a -right angle, as shown in the last figure. Now, as besides the mitre -end, a tenon is to be left to fit into a mortise in the outer frame, it -is clear that the whole must be a very nice piece of workmanship to be -executed on so small a material as the thin bar of a modern sash.</p> - -<p>The bevelled mitred end of the bar is received into a -corresponding-shaped notch cut the depth of the half moulding in the -outer frame to receive it, and at the bottom of this notch is the fine -mortise-hole intended to receive the tenon.</p> - -<p>The bars of the sash can, of course, only be made in one length in one -direction, and the cross-bars which divide the long panels, formed by -these continuous bars, into the sizes of the glass, are made of similar -short pieces with mitred ends; but these ends, where they frame into -the long bars, have no tenon, the thinness of the stuff not admitting -of one, since the cross-bars come, end for end, opposite each other, on -the two sides of the upright bars.</p> - -<p>It is evident that the long bars must be put together with the outside -frame, or else the tenons could not be inserted into the mortises made -in this last.</p> - - -<h3>A second example of Joiner’s Work.</h3> - -<p>In further explanation of joiner’s work, we will briefly describe -the mode of making a drawing-board, requiring to be <em>true</em>, -<em>plane</em>, and <em>square</em>. Suppose the board is intended to be -so wide as to require three boards side by side to make it: these -three boards being sawn out of the right length, their edges are -first planed perfectly straight and smooth, so that when any two are -placed side by side, the edges touching, those edges may touch or fit -together accurately for their whole length; this accuracy of joint is -obtained by testing the edge after each time the plane is applied, by a -straight-edge,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> or rule, known to be <em>true</em>. There are two modes -of proceeding to make these joints firm: one by <em>dowelling</em>, that -is, by inserting short pieces of hard wood, as oak or wainscot, let for -half their length into a mortise cut in the edges of the boards that -are to fit together; these mortises, being, of course, made opposite -each other, these dowels prevent the boards from rising up or starting -from their places when the work is finished. Instead of short dowels, -a strip, the whole length of the boards, is let into each joint, -half the strip lying in a ploughed groove, made in the middle of the -corresponding edges of the two boards. But, besides those precautions, -the joints are well glued up.</p> - -<p>There are two modes by which this board may be strengthened, to prevent -its <em>warping</em> or <em>casting</em> by the drying or shrinking of the -wood. A cross-piece of deal, or better still, of wainscot, is fixed -across the ends of the boards, these ends being double rebated or -<em>tongued</em>, to fit into a groove made in the cross-piece to receive -the tongue; these cross-pieces prevent the long boards from warping, -since the cross-pieces would have no tendency to alter their figure in -the direction of their grain.</p> - -<p>If, however, the board be larger, <em>keying</em> is better than this -clamping. Keying consists in attaching two stout cross-pieces at the -back of the boards, the faces of which pieces are worked so as to fit, -and are glued into a dovetail-shaped groove cut across the direction -of the boards at their back to receive the keys, as will be understood -from the annexed sketch.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img023"> - <img src="images/023.jpg" class="w50" alt="Keying of board" /> -</span></p> - -<p>When the board is made, and the glued joints quite dry, the face is -planed perfectly smooth and level, and the edges made truly square, or -at right angles; if the board be keyed, the back must be planed smooth -before the keys are put in.</p> - -<p>The flooring-boards in the better kinds of houses are often -<em>dowelled</em> in the manner above described, and the ends of the -flooring-boards are tongued and grooved to fit together, to prevent the -boards from starting up from the joists and becoming uneven.</p> - -<p>Beyond this point, it will be not necessary to trace the operations -of the carpenter and joiner; for the sawing, scarfing, trussing, and -joining large beams for the roof, and the minuter details connected -with the window-sash, will illustrate pretty accurately the general -nature of the whole routine of processes.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VII"><span class="smcap">Chapter VII.</span><br />THE FIRE-PLACE.</h2> -</div> - - - - -<p>Perhaps no part of the interior fittings of a house is more -associated with ideas of cheerfulness and domestic comfort than the -<em>fire-place</em>. Our abundant supply of coal has probably induced -Englishmen to prefer the cheerful fire and the “comfortable fire-side” -to any other mode of heating the interior of houses. The steps by -which we have arrived at the use of modern grates and stoves, and the -question how far these are likely to give way to the methods of warming -houses by hot air, by hot water, or by steam, will form an interesting -matter for our consideration; and we shall be indebted to <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott’s -treatise on <em>Warming and Ventilating</em>, for many illustrative -details.</p> - - -<h3>Open Fire-places.</h3> - -<p>The manner in which rude nations kindle a fire in or near their huts, -is one of the most wasteful arrangements in which fuel can be used. -Houseless savages, because they know no better, and soldiers at -bivouac, because they must make a virtue of necessity, kindle a fire in -the open air, and place themselves near it, benefiting by that portion -of the radiant heat which falls on their bodies; but all the rest of -the heat is wastefully dissipated.</p> - -<p>The next step of improvement is, to kindle a fire in a place more or -less inclosed. Under this arrangement, not only will that part of the -radiant heat which falls on the persons be available, but a portion of -the remainder also, which, falling on the walls and warming them, is -partially reflected; and moreover, heat combined with the smoke will be -for a time retained in the place, and thus still further contribute to -the warmth of the interior. By such an arrangement, nearly the whole -of the heat evolved in the combustion is applied to use; but it is -contaminated with the smoke from the fuel. The savages of North America -place fires in the middle of the floor of their huts, and sit around -in the smoke, of which the excess escapes by the one opening in the -hut that serves as a chimney, window, and door. A few of the peasantry -in the remote parts of Ireland and Scotland still place their fires -in the middle of their floors, and leave for the escape of the smoke -only a small opening in the roof, often not directly over the fire. In -Italy and Spain, almost the only fires seen in sitting-rooms are large -dishes of live<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> charcoal, or braziers, placed in the middle, with the -inmates sitting around, having to breathe the noxious carbonic acid gas -which ascends from the fire and mixes with the air of the room: there -is no chimney, and the windows and doors are the only ventilators. The -method of warming with open fires in the middle of the room was adopted -in some of the English Colleges, and some of the London Inns of Court, -down to a comparatively modern period.</p> - -<p>A step further in advance is to have a fire, not only in an inclosed -space as a means of keeping in the heat, but with an aperture over it -to act as a chimney or vent for the smoke. This is the form, under -various modifications, adopted in most English houses; the fire being -kindled in a kind of recess under a chimney. By degrees we have become -accustomed to the adoption of a <em>grate</em>, which keeps the fuel at a -certain height above the ground; but the principle involved is just the -same. In olden times the fire used to be kindled on the hearth under a -huge chimney, or on a very low grate; but the general course of modern -improvement has tended to lessen the size of the chimney, and to raise -the grate higher from the hearth.</p> - -<p>The philosophy of a chimney is well explained by <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott, in his -<i>Elements of Physics</i>. He says: “Chimneys quicken the ascent of -hot air, by keeping a long column of it together. A column of two -feet high rises higher, or is pressed up with twice as much force as -a column of one foot, and so, in proportion, for all other lengths; -just as two or more corks strung together and immersed in water, tend -upwards with proportionally more force than a single cork, or as a -long spear of light wood, allowed to ascend perpendicularly from a -great depth in water acquires a velocity which makes it dart above -the surface, while a short piece under the same circumstances rises -very slowly. In a chimney where one foot in height of the column of -hot air is one ounce lighter than the same bulk of the external cold -air, if the chimney be one hundred feet high, the air or smoke in it -is propelled upwards with the force of one hundred ounces. In all -cases, therefore, the <em>draught</em>, as it is called, of a chimney is -proportioned to its length.”</p> - - -<h3>Defects of Open Fires.</h3> - -<p>This being the general arrangement of a fire in a recess on one side of -the room, and an open chimney above it, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott enumerates a long -list of evils and inconveniences consequent on such an arrangement.</p> - -<p>1. <em>Waste of fuel.</em>—It has been found that in a common<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> open -English fire, seven-eighths of the heat produced from the fuel ascend -the chimney, and are absolutely lost. This lost fuel is thus accounted -for. One half of the heat is carried off in the smoke from the burning -mass; one quarter is carried off by the current of the warmed air of -the room, which is constantly entering the chimney between the fire and -the mantel-piece, and mixing with the smoke; lastly, one eighth part of -the combustible matter is supposed to form the black and visible part -of smoke, in an unburned state. Some writers have even gone so far as -to estimate the loss of heat in an open fire at fourteen-fifteenths -of the whole. 2. <em>Unequal heating at different distances from -the fire.</em>—This forms a remarkable contrast with the uniform -temperature in the air of a summer afternoon. In rooms with a strong -fire, in very cold weather, it is not uncommon for persons to complain -of being “scorched” on one side, and “pierced with cold” on the other; -this is particularly the case in large apartments; for as the intensity -of radiating heat (like light) is only one-fourth as great at a double -distance, the walls of the room farthest from the fire are but little -warmed, and, therefore, reflect but little heat to the backs of persons -grouped round the fire. 3. <em>Cold draughts.</em>—Air being constantly -required to feed the fire, and to supply the chimney-draught, the fresh -air which enters by the crevices and defects in the doors, windows, -floors, &c., is often felt most injuriously as a cold current. “There -is nothing more dangerous to health than to sit near such inlets, as is -proved by the rheumatisms, stiff necks, and catarrhs, not to mention -more serious diseases, which so frequently follow the exposure. There -is an old Spanish proverb, thus translated,</p> - -<p class="poetry p0"> -If cold wind reach you through a hole,<br /> -Go make your will, and mind your soul,<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p0">which is scarcely an exaggeration.” The current of fresh air which -enters to feed the fire becomes very remarkable when doors or windows -are opened, for the chimney can take much more than it otherwise -receives when the doors and windows are shut; and thus the room with -its chimney becomes like an open funnel, rapidly discharging its -warmed air. 4. <em>Cold to the feet.</em>—The fresh air which enters -in any case to supply the fire, being colder and specifically heavier -than the general mass already in the room, lies at the bottom of -this as a distinct layer or stratum, demonstrable by a thermometer, -and forming a dangerous cold-bath for the feet of the inmates, often -compelling delicate persons to keep their feet raised out of it by -footstools, or to use unusual covering to protect them. 5. <em>Bad -ventilation.</em>—Notwithstanding the rapid change of air<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> in the room, -perfect ventilation is not effected. The breath of the inmates does not -tend towards the chimney, but directly to the ceiling; and as it must -therefore again descend to come below the level of the mantel-piece -before it can reach the chimney, the same air may be breathed over -and over again. In a crowded room, with an open fire, the air is for -this reason often highly impure. As another source of impure air in -a house, it may be noticed that the demand of the chimneys, if not -fully supplied by pure air from about the doors and windows, operates -through any other apertures. 6. <em>Smoke and dust.</em>—These are -often unavoidable from an open chimney, much affecting the comfort and -health of the inhabitants of the house, and destroying the furniture. -Householders would make great sacrifices in other respects to be -free from the annoyance of smoke. In large mansions, with many fires -lighted, if the doors and windows fit closely, and sufficiency of air -for so many chimneys cannot therefore enter by them, not only do the -unused chimneys become entrances for air, but often the longest and -most heated of them in use overpower the shorter and less heated, and -cause the shorter chimneys to discharge their smoke into the room. 7. -<em>Loss of time.</em>—During the time every morning while the fires are -being lighted, the rooms cannot be used; and there are, besides, the -annoyances of smell, smoke, dust, and noise, all of which are again -renewed if the fire is allowed to go out and to be relighted in the -course of the day. 8. <em>Danger to person and to property.</em>—How -numerous are the losses of property by carelessness as to fires is well -known to all, while the loss frequent but more distressing loss of life -too well attests the danger to children and to females thinly clad -often consequent on an open fire.</p> - -<p>Such are the principal defects which <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott enumerates as being -inherent in the use of open fires. Many of them have been greatly -lessened by improved arrangements; but others are still without an -appropriate remedy.</p> - -<p>The usual construction of a fire-place is tolerably familiar. In most -cases, the vertical or nearly vertical channel for the chimney is -inclosed within a casing of brick-work, which projects into the room at -one side. The opening for this chimney gradually narrows upwards, until -only large enough to admit the poor little climbing-boy whose task -it was, until within a recent period, to sweep down the unburnt fuel -which our own ill arrangements have wasted; but, happily for humanity -and justice, this system is at an end, and machines are now employed -for the purpose. A hearth of stone is laid whereon to erect the stove -or grate, and this grate is, as we all know, composed mainly of an -iron receptacle for the fuel,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> and of “hobs,” for supporting culinary -vessels. We cause fire to be kindled in the grate, and then suppose -that all will go on well, without troubling ourselves to inquire -whether the arrangements for the supply of cold air, and the exit of -warmed air and smoke, are such as are best fitted for those purposes.</p> - - -<h3>Remedies for some of these Defects.</h3> - -<p>In course of time, as the evils of this plan became one by one known, -attempts were made to remedy some of them, and with an approach towards -success. In a recent treatise on the subject by <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Fyfe, of Edinburgh, -various modes are suggested for remedying many of the evils incident to -open fire-places. These we must briefly notice.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the rooms of a new house are subject to the nuisance of smoky -chimneys simply from deficiency of air. The workmanship of the rooms -being all good, the joints of the flooring-boards and of the wainscot -panels are all true and tight, the more so as the walls, perhaps, not -yet thoroughly dry, preserve a dampness in the air of the room, which -keeps the wood-work swelled and close. The doors and the sashes, too, -work closely and correctly, so that there is no passage left open for -the air to enter except the key-hole, and even this is often closed -over by a little brass cover. Thus, air being denied admission into -the room, there is nothing to feed the fire and to cause a “draught,” -and the smoke cannot ascend the chimney. Instances have been known -of well-built houses being rendered almost untenantable from this -cause, and several hundred pounds being spent in endeavouring to -find a remedy. If, on opening the door or window of a smoky room, it -be generally found that the smoke disappears, this may be taken as -an indication that the close-fitting joints of the wood-work do not -admit air enough for the fire when doors and windows are closed. In -such a case, the opening of the door or window is a poor attempt at -a remedy; for the air proceeds direct to the chimney, and in its way -causes cold to the back and feet of those who may be sitting before -the fire. Numerous methods have been devised for admitting additional -air to the rooms without this inconvenience, among which <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott -recommends tubes leading directly from the outer air to the fire-place, -and provided with what are called “throttle-valves,” for the regulation -of the quantity. The following plan has also been recommended as one of -the most practicable. As the air in the upper part of a room is warmer -than in the lower, it is desirable that the supply should come in that -direction, so as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> be slightly warmed in its progress towards the -fire, and thus produce less chill to those in its immediate vicinity. -This may be done by drawing down the upper sash of the window about an -inch; or, if not moveable, by cutting such a crevice through its frame; -in both which cases, a thin shelf of the length of the opening may be -placed to conceal it, sloping upwards, to direct the air horizontally -along and near the ceiling. In some houses, the air may be admitted in -such a crevice made in the wainscot or cornice near the ceiling, and -over the fire-place; this, if practicable, is the better of the two, -since the cold air in entering will there meet with the warmest rising -air from before the fire, and be soonest tempered by the mixture. -Another contrivance is to take out an upper pane of glass in one of -the sashes, set it in a tin frame, giving it two springing angular -sides, then replacing it, with hinges below, on which it may turn; by -drawing in this pane more or less, the quantity of air admitted may be -regulated, and its position will naturally direct the admitted air up -and along the ceiling. The circular vane or ventilator sometimes fixed -in windows admits cold air in a similar manner, when the supply for the -room and fire would be otherwise deficient.</p> - -<p>The opening or breadth and height of the fire-place, though we may -fancy it leads to the diffusion of more heat into the room, is really a -cause of loss of fuel, and of smoke. The size of the fire-place opening -is often considered in relation to the size of the room, without -regard to the principles on which a fire is maintained in a grate; a -course about as rational (it has been well observed) as to proportion -the step in a staircase to the height of the story, instead of to the -convenience of our legs in mounting them. As the chimneys of different -rooms are unavoidably of different heights, and as the force of the -draught is in proportion to the height of chimney filled with warmed -and rarefied air, it is found that the opening for a tall chimney -may be larger than for a lower one. If the opening be unnecessarily -large, there is room not only for the entrance of fresh air, but also -for the exit of smoke driven down by an opposing current from the -chimney itself; and the air, too, ascends into the chimney in too cold -a state, because the largeness of the opening enables it to enter -without passing very close to the fire. The principal evil attending -the use of a fire-place having too small an opening, is that the fuel -is burned away with unnecessary rapidity. When the opening is found -by experience to be so large as to lead to the descent of smoke into -the room, the easiest remedy is to place moveable boards or sheets of -tin or iron, so as to lower and narrow it gradually. The effect of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -which, by excluding a part of the colder air from the chimney, is to -produce a quicker action, so that the fire begins to roar as if blown -by a bellows. “This means is often used to blow the fire instead of -bellows, or to cure a smoky chimney, by increasing the draught. What is -called a <em>register stove</em> is a kindred contrivance. It has a flap -placed in the throat of the chimney, which serves to widen or contract -the passage at pleasure. Because the flap is generally opened only -enough to allow that air to pass which rises directly from the fire, -the chimney receives only very hot air, and therefore acts well. The -register stove often cures smoky chimneys; and by preventing the too -ready escape of the moderately warmed air of the room, of which so much -is wasted by a common fire-place, it also saves fuel.” There does not -appear to have been any attempt to determine by experiment the proper -opening of the fire-place for a given height of chimney; and, indeed, -there are so many disturbing causes, that it would be scarcely possible -to determine this with precision. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Franklin, however, proposed to -make the fire-place openings in the lower rooms about thirty inches -square and eighteen inches deep; those in the upper, eighteen inches -square, and not quite so deep; and those in the intermediate rooms, of -dimensions between these two extremes.</p> - -<p>In some cases, where other matters are properly attended to, -inconvenience results from the chimney being too low; as, for instance, -in the case of an attic chimney. In this instance the column of heated -and rarified air is not high enough to give a rapid ascensive power -within the chimney, and thus the smoke cannot be carried up. The best -method of cure is to add to the length of chimney, if this can be done, -and if the fire be in a low building near the ground, this may perhaps -be effected; but in an attic, the means of supporting a lofty chimney -would be inefficient. Another recourse is to contract the opening of -the fire-place to the smallest available dimensions, so that all the -entering air may pass through or close to the fire before entering the -chimney, and thus acquire an ascensive power which will counterbalance -the shortness of the vertical column. It has been recommended that in -some cases there may be three chimneys to one room, so that the united -length of the whole may be equal to that of a tall chimney; but it is -not easy to conceive how this can be practically effected, nor how -the desired result would follow, even if the arrangements were made. -In some cases, the chimney of a room is rendered practically shorter -by being bent round and made to enter the chimney of another room; -since, unless there be a fire in this room also, the warm air<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> from -the shorter chimney has often an adverse current to contend against at -the junction with the other chimney. This is one reason why every open -fire-place should have its own chimney independently of others.</p> - -<p>If there be a lofty building or hill near a house, and over-topping -the chimney of one of the rooms, that room is very likely to become -smoky, on account of a current being driven in at the top of the -chimney, and forcing the smoke down with it. Two rival chimneys may -produce a similar effect in a remarkable way. Suppose that there were -two fires in one room, one burning with more force, and therefore -having a more ascensive column of air above it, than the other; if -the doors and windows be shut, the stronger fire will overpower the -weaker, and for its own demand will draw down air from the chimney of -the latter, which air in descending brings down smoke into the room. -The same would be observable in a greater degree if one fire-place had -a fire in it but the other had none, both being at the same time open. -If, instead of being in one room, the chimneys are in two different -rooms communicating by a door, the case is the same whenever that -door is open. In a house where all the openings, such as doors and -windows fitted tightly, a kitchen chimney has been known to overpower -every other chimney in the house, and to draw air and smoke into an -upper room as often as the door communicating with the room was open. -The remedy for this inconvenience lies in the arrangement of the -fire-places, so that each fire shall have exactly enough air for the -consumption of the fuel, without having to borrow from other rooms.</p> - -<p>The arrangement of the door of a room influences materially the proper -action of a fire in the fire-place. When the door and chimney are on -the same side of the room, and if the door be in the corner, and is -made to open against the wall, (an arrangement which is often made -for the sake of convenience,) it follows, that when the door is only -partly opened, a current of air rushes along the wall into and across -the opening of the fire-place, and drives some of the smoke out into -the room. This acts more certainly when the door is being closed, for -then the force of the current is augmented, and becomes an annoyance -to persons who may happen to be situated in its path. When the door -and fire-place of a room have been thus ill-arranged with respect to -each other, the evil may be lessened by placing an intervening screen -between the door and the fire, or by reversing the position of the -hinges on the door, so as to make it open in the opposite direction.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the smoke from a chimney is driven out into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> room, even -when the chimney is not commanded by a superior elevation, it being -driven down by strong winds passing over the top of the chimney. <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> -Franklin mentioned one or two instances of this kind which he had met -with:—“I once lodged at a house in London, which in a little room -had a single chimney and funnel. The opening was very small, yet it -did not keep in the smoke, and all attempts to have a fire in this -room were fruitless. I could not imagine the reason, till at length -observing that the chamber over it, which had no fire-place in it, -was always filled with smoke when a fire was kindled below, and that -the smoke came through the cracks and crevices of the wainscot, I had -the wainscot taken down, and discovered that the funnel which went up -behind it had a crack many feet in length, and wide enough to admit -my arm; a breach very dangerous with regard to fire, and occasioned -probably by an apparent irregular settling of one side of the house.” -This does not at first thought seem to be an illustration of the effect -of wind passing over the top of a chimney; but the explanation is to be -sought for in a similar way; the air, by entering this fractured part -freely, destroyed the drawing-force of the chimney.</p> - -<p>The manner in which the passing of a current of wind over the top of a -chimney may produce a “smoky room” is this:—the warm air which rises -from the fire, in order to obtain a free issue from the chimney, must -repel the air that is hovering over the chimney-pot. In a time of calm -or of little wind, this is done easily; but when a violent current is -passing over the top of the chimney, its particles have such a strong -horizontal velocity, that the heated air in ascending has not power to -displace it, and thus the smoke, not finding a ready exit by that path, -is driven back into the room.</p> - -<p>The following anecdote, told by <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Franklin, will show what accidental -causes will sometimes occasion a fire to fail in its desired office of -yielding heat without smoke:—“Another puzzling case I met with at a -friend’s house near London. His best room had a chimney, in which he -told me he never could have a fire, for all the smoke came out into the -room. I flattered myself I could easily find the cause, and prescribe -the cure. I opened the door, and perceived it was not want of air. I -made a temporary contraction of the opening of the chimney, and found -that it was not its being too large that made the smoke to issue. -I went out and looked up at the top of the chimney: its funnel was -joined in the same stack with others, some of them shorter, that drew -very well, and I saw nothing to prevent its doing the same. In fine, -after every other examination I could think of, I was obliged to own -the insufficiency of my skill. But my friend, who made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> no pretension -to such kind of knowledge, afterwards discovered the cause himself. -He got to the top of the funnel by a ladder, and looking down, found -it filled with twigs and straw, cemented by earth, and lined with -feathers. It seems the house, after being built, had stood empty some -years before he occupied it, and he concluded that some large birds had -taken the advantage of its retired situation to make their nests there. -The rubbish, considerable in quantity, being removed, and the funnel -cleared, the chimney drew well and gave satisfaction.”</p> - -<p>From these details it will at once appear, that that part of the -builder’s art which relates to the arrangement and building of the -fire-place is by no means an unimportant one, since the comfort of the -inmates is seriously affected by want of skill on his part. Hence we -may also observe, that chimney doctors are liable to the same kind of -errors as quack doctors in another sphere; for it is almost as absurd -to attempt to cure all smoky chimneys by one course of proceeding, -as to cure all kinds of diseases by one medicine. There may be a -deficiency of air in the room; the opening of the fire-place maybe -too large; the chimney may not have height enough; one chimney may -overpower another in its draught; the chimney may be overtopped by -higher buildings or by a hill; the door of a room may be badly placed -with respect to the window; or, lastly, as in <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Franklin’s “puzzling -case,” the chimney may be nearly stopped up. All these are sources of -the much-dreaded “smoky chimney,” and all require modes of treatment -adapted to the nature of the evil. Many of these evils have, to a -considerable extent, been remedied by the use of Rumford stoves, and -other forms of stove and grate, in which, although retaining all the -chief characters of an open fire-place, there is yet a great diminution -of the evils to which the latter is liable. There have, however, -been marked extensions recently made in the construction of <em>close -stoves</em>, intended to obviate the ill effects attendant on open -fire-places. These must be briefly noticed.</p> - - -<h3>Close Stoves.</h3> - -<p>In a close stove, no air is admitted but what passes at once through -the fire; and the chimney or funnel is only just large enough to carry -off the sulphurous and other vapours, for there is hardly any smoke -from a close stove, and, therefore, it is not necessary to make a -chimney large enough to admit a climbing-boy.</p> - -<p>A small German stove, suitable for a room twenty-four feet by eighteen, -will give an idea of the general character of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> kind of close -stove. The stove rests on a base about thirty-six inches by fourteen. -The fire-place has a bottom to receive the fuel, but no bars, and is -shut by a door which fits closely to its case. This door has a small -wicket at the bottom, the aperture of which is regulated by a sliding -plate, so as to admit no more air than will suffice for the slow -combustion of the fuel. The flame and heated air ascend to the top of -the fire-place, and pass into two hollow pillars or piers, which rise -to a height of five or six feet, so that the heat is communicated to a -large surface, before the volatilized products of combustion make their -exit by a pipe into the chimney. The stove is supplied with fuel and -with air by the front door. If it is desired to make the fire visible, -and impart some of that cheerfulness which belongs to an open grate, -the door of the stove maybe thrown open, for there is no danger of the -smoke coming out after the current has once warmed the upper part of -the stove. When the stove is of such dimensions that the body of it is -about two feet and a half high, the fire-place may be furnished with -a small grate in the English style. If the door is so hung that it -can not only be thrown back, but also lifted off its hinges, it will -approach still more to the character of a stove-grate.</p> - -<p>A cheap form of “German stove” is often made in this country, and used -in workshops and small manufactories, where the body of the stove is -an upright cylinder, of which the lower part is the ash-pit, closed or -opened by a hinged-door, the middle part the fire-place, where the fuel -rests on bars, and the upper part a vacant space, which becomes filled -with flame, smoke, and heated air, so as to impart great heat to a flat -iron plate at the top. There is a door at which the fuel is introduced, -and a small flue or funnel of iron pipe, which conveys the smoke into a -chimney or into the open air. Many forms of stove have been used more -or less resembling this in principle; but there is one great defect -pertaining to them all. The metal of which the stove is formed becomes -so highly heated near the stove, that it acquires a <em>burnt</em> smell, -owing to the decomposition of animal and vegetable particles which are -at all times floating about in the air. The air, too, in the room, -becomes close and oppressive from another cause; for as only a small -quantity of air is consumed by the stove, the air does not become -renewed in the room so frequently as when an open fire is used, and -thus it is respired over and over again.</p> - -<p>To remedy the evils resulting from burnt air, close stoves are made -with a double case, so that there shall be a body of air between the -fire and the air of the room. It is on this principle, modified in -various ways, that a large number<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> of stoves have been constructed; -of which one, by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Sylvester, may be briefly described. There is a -hollow cast-iron box, on the outside of which are cast several ribs. -Those ribs are about three-quarters of an inch thick, and project three -or four inches beyond the surface of the box; and their object is to -increase the heating surface; for the fire being lighted in the hollow -of the box, the conducting power of the iron causes the whole exterior -case of the box, together with the projecting ribs, to become heated. -The box is placed within an ornamental case, the sides and top of which -are fretted with lattice-work, to allow free access to the air, which -enters through the lattices at the sides and escapes from the top of -the stove, passing in its passage over the ribbed surface of the heated -box. The grating on which the fuel lies is formed of a number of loose -bars fitted together into a frame, and prolonged so as to emit heat -into the room as well as to support the fuel. Everything is so arranged -as to give as much iron surface as possible, so as to communicate heat -to the surrounding air; while at the same time the extent of the heated -surface prevents any one part from being excessively and injuriously -heated.</p> - - -<h3><abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott’s Stove.</h3> - -<p>To describe all the “chunk” stoves, “Vesta” stoves, “Olmsted” stoves, -and other similar contrivances of modern times, would fill a volume -instead of a few pages. We may, however, speak briefly of <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott’s -stoves as a means of showing some of the inconveniences to which close -stoves are liable, if not constructed with care. This stove consists of -an external case of iron, of any ornamental shape. Within this case is -placed a box made of fire-clay, to contain the fuel, having a grating -at the bottom; and there is a space left between the fire-box and the -exterior case, to prevent the communication of too much heat to the -latter. Thee pedestal of the stove forms the ash-pit; and there is no -communication between the stove and the ash-pit, except through the -grating at the bottom of the fire-box. A small external hole in the -ash-pit, covered by a valve, admits the air to the fire; and according -as this valve is more or less open, the vividness of the combustion is -increased or diminished, and thence the greater or less heat produced -by the stove. The quantity of air admitted by this valve is governed by -a self-regulating apparatus, either by the expansion and contraction -of air confined by mercury in a tube, or by the unequal expansion of -different metals. The smoke escapes through a pipe at the back of the -stove; but the fuel employed is such as to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> yield very little smoke. -By adjusting the regulator so as to admit only a small quantity or -air, the temperature of the stove is kept within the required limits; -and owing to the slow-conducting power of the fire-clay, of which the -fire-box is formed, the heat of the fuel is concentrated within the -fire-box, and the fuel burns with less air and less rapidity than it -would otherwise do.</p> - -<p>The construction of <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Arnott’s “thermometer stove” will be better -understood from the following figure, which represents the stove with -one of its sides removed, so as to exhibit its interior arrangements:—</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img024"> - <img src="images/024.jpg" class="w50" alt="Diagram of thermometer stove" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The outlines of the figure, <em>a a a a</em>, represent the case or body -of the stove, which might be formed either of cast or sheet iron. It -is divided into two chambers by the partition, <em>b b</em>; but in such -a way that there may be a free communication at the top and bottom. -<em>c</em> is a small furnace, or, as it is called by the inventor, a -fire-box, made of iron, and lined with fire-bricks. The fire-box is not -in contact with the exterior case of the stove. It communicates at the -bottom with an ash-pit, the door of which is at <em>d</em>,—that of the -stove, by which the fuel is introduced, is at <em>d´</em>. Both these -doors must fit very accurately. Above the door of the ash-pit is a bent -pipe <em>e</em>, by which air gains admittance to the fire.</p> - -<p>A fire being kindled and the doors at <em>d d´</em> shut, the only way in -which air has access to the fuel is by the pipe <em>e</em>; the air so -admitted, passing through the fire before it enters the upper part of -the stove. That portion of the air not required<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> to aid the combustion -of the fuel having reached the main body of the stove, and there -mixing with the smoke and other products, they circulate slowly in the -directions indicated by the arrows, and at length pass into the chimney -by the pipe <em>f</em>.</p> - -<p>The slow movement just mentioned as taking place within the stove may -well be contrasted with what happens in an open fire-place. In one -case the greater part of the heat produced is rapidly carried off by a -current of air ascending the chimney—by the thermometer stove it is -detained until almost the whole of it has been diffused throughout the -apartment.</p> - -<p>The bent tube <em>g</em> terminating in a cup-shaped opening at -<em>g´</em>, is a self-regulating valve. The tube is closed at the end -<em>g</em> within the stove, <em>g´ g´´</em> represents mercury which -occupies the bend of the tube. When the fire in the stove burns too -briskly, the air in the tube occupying the space between <em>g</em> and -<em>g´´</em> is expanded, and by expelling some of the mercury from the -tube at <em>g´´</em> into the cup at <em>g´</em>, it closes the aperture of -the pipe <em>e</em>; thus cutting off the supply of air to the fire. In a -few minutes (the fire in the mean time having abated its energy,) the -air in the tube will return to its former dimensions, and the mercury -subsiding in the cup, air is again permitted to enter the ash-pit.</p> - -<p>The stove, of which we have thus attempted to convey a general -idea, may be made of any required form or size. Instead of the -self-regulating air-valve just described, it is fitted up with others -of a very simple construction, and which admit of being adjusted with -the greatest accuracy by the hand.</p> - -<p>The objections to this form of stove arise chiefly from the formation -of deleterious gases, which are not carried off completely. The slow -combustion of the fuel produces a large quantity of carbonic oxide, -which is liable to escape into the room, and is of an injurious -character. Carburetted hydrogen gas is also formed in these stoves. -Many modifications of form have been suggested for the remedy of these -evils; but the slow combustion, which was one of the merits originally -claimed for the stove, and which it certainly deserves, seems an -unavoidable cause for the production of these gases.</p> - -<p>All the varieties of open fire-place, as adopted in English houses, the -hearth, the recess, and the chimney, are at one side or at one corner -of the room; but in the adoption of close stoves this arrangement -is not necessary; for the stove may be in any part of the middle of -a room, provided the pipe constituting the flue be long enough. In -some cases this pipe is carried upwards to the ceiling, and thence -conveyed to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> some outlet into the open air; in other cases it is turned -downwards and conveyed under the flooring to a proper place of exit; -while in others the pipe is stretched or extended horizontally from the -stove to the regular chimney of the room.</p> - - -<h3>Warming Buildings by Heated Air.</h3> - -<p>Our builders have not yet entered so far into the mechanical -contrivances of the age as to dispense with chimneys altogether; nor -could such a thing be done until a total change is effected in the -opinion of persons concerning the cheerfulness of an “open fire.” -But there are nevertheless three modes, more or less adopted in the -present day, whereby a house is warmed without the necessity for -anything like a fire-place. These methods—in all of which the heating -agent is brought from another room into the one to be warmed—are of -three kinds; heating by <em>hot air</em>, by <em>hot water</em>, and by -<em>steam</em>.</p> - -<p>When we speak of warming an apartment by heated air, it is necessary -to give precision to the meaning of the term. All rooms are, in fact, -warmed by heated air, for the stove or grate must raise the temperature -of the air in the room before we can appreciate the sensation of -warmth. But what is generally meant by the term as here used is the -warming of one apartment by air heated in another. The stoves used in -Russia, though not coming exactly under this description, will serve in -some degree to illustrate the principle.</p> - -<p>The Russian stove is intended as a sort of magazine, in which a great -quantity of heat maybe quickly accumulated, to be afterwards slowly -communicated to the apartment. The stove is therefore made of a massive -size. It is formed of brick-work, clay, glazed tiles, which together -form a great mass of matter to be heated by the fuel; and there is in -every part a considerable thickness of slow-conducting material between -the fuel and the air of the room. The fire is kindled early in the -morning, after which the stove door is shut, and the air aperture below -left open for some time as a means of admitting draught to the fire; -but in the course of a short time the fire-door is opened to check the -draught, so as to prevent the too rapid combustion of the fuel. In -this way the combustion is allowed to go on, and the substance of the -stove becomes warmed, after which the air passages are shut, so as to -prevent any abstraction of heat by the current that would otherwise -be occasioned. The stove thus becomes a great mass of heated matter, -which is gradually pouring warmth into the apartment during the whole -of the day; and as the temperature of the surface never becomes very -high,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span> the impurities in the atmosphere are not decomposed, and it is -consequently free from those offensive effluvia, unavoidable when metal -stoves are used. The fuel is allowed to be nearly burnt out before -the apertures of the stove are closed; and therein the stove differs -greatly from those hitherto considered; the heated air within the stove -being so completely shut in that it can find no outlet, except through -the substance of the brickwork.</p> - -<p>The modifications of the arrangements whereby warmed air is conveyed -from one room to another, may next be noticed. In such cases the air -either escapes from a heated receptacle outside the fire-case, or -else it merely passes over a heated metallic surface. The following -description relates to one variety of the first of these two methods. -In the lower part of a house or building is a cast-metal double stove; -the inner part forming the stove, and the outer one the case or -envelope. The fuel is burned in the inner stove, and the smoke produced -during the process of combustion is carried off by a chimney, which -passes through both stoves or cases, and is conveyed to the outside -of the building. The outer case includes not only the furnace or -inner stove, but also a considerable space occupied by the air of the -atmosphere, which is freely admitted through a number of holes placed -around it; and when any current of warmed air is produced, it passes -off from the space between the outer case and the inner stove, and is -conveyed by tubes to any apartment in the building; so that the rooms -are warmed by the air which has passed between the outer case and the -inner stove.</p> - -<p>In another form of arrangement, having the same end in view by means -of heated air, the air, instead of passing through an enclosed space -between the outer case and the inner stove, passes over a surface of -metal which is heated either by a fire underneath, or, which is better, -by steam or hot water contained in pipes. The temporary House of -Commons, the Reform Club-house, and many other buildings, are warmed in -this way.</p> - -<p>The following simple and cheap form of stove has been erected in the -cottages of Sir Stewart Monteath’s labourers. The accompanying figure -represents a section of the stove, the principle of which will be -understood from the following explanatory notes:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img025"> - <img src="images/025.jpg" class="w50" alt="Section of a stove" /> -</span></p> -<div class="caption blockquot p0"> -<ol> -<li><em>Kitchen fire.</em></li> - -<li><em>Chimney.</em></li> - -<li><em>Hot air Chamber.</em> This is a cast-iron box, which forms the -back of the kitchen grate.</li> - -<li><em>Cold air pipe, or passage</em>; made with brick, or stone, or -iron piping, communicating with the open air for the purpose of -feeding the hot air chamber with an ascending current of fresh air.</li> - -<li><em>Hot air pipe</em>, receives the ascending current of air, which -becomes heated by passing over the back of the fire. At the top this -pipe branches off at right angles, and terminates near the floor in -the two sleeping rooms above.</li> - -<li><em>Gratings</em> to admit the warm air from the hot-air pipe into -the bed-rooms. The addition of sliding valves over the face of the -gratings would serve to cut off the current of warm air during the -summer, and when not otherwise required.</li> - -<li><em>Sitting-room</em>, into which sufficient heat is radiated from -the hot air chamber, not only to warm the apartment, but even to dry -wet linen.</li> -</ol> -</div> - -<p>By means of one common fire in a stove of the above description, a -four-roomed cottage can be comfortably warmed, and kept dry throughout.</p> - - -<h3>Warming Buildings by Steam.</h3> - -<p>The arrangements for warming rooms and buildings by steam are very -different from those in which stoves are employed. They are generally -such as the following. At a convenient part of the building, and as -low as possible, there is placed a close steam-boiler of the ordinary -construction. From this boiler a small steam-pipe is carried to the -parts of the building which are to be warmed; the pipe being wrapped -round with a thick layer of flannel, to prevent the heat from radiating -before it arrives at the destined place. Pipes of a larger size are -laid round the rooms above the floor, or under a perforated floor, or -in any other convenient position. The steam issues into these larger -pipes, from the surface of which heat radiates into the room, and thus -the steam is condensed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</span> into water. Small pipes of lead or tin are -provided for convoying the water back into the boiler, a gentle slope -being given to all the pipes to facilitate this object. This water, -again flowing into the boiler, is again converted into steam, again -ascends to the pipes which surround the apartment, again gives out heat -to the air of those apartments, and again flows back to the boiler in -the form of water. Thus the same supply of water circulates over and -over again through the pipes, carrying heat from the fire below to the -rooms above. In some cases the steam-pipes in the apartments, instead -of being laid round the sides, are grouped together in a compact form, -and have an ornamental character imparted to them.</p> - -<p>Instead of pipes, the steam is sometimes made to circulate between -parallel sheets of copper or iron, in such manner that every sheet of -metal shall have steam on one side of it, and air on the other, the air -in that position receiving heat from the steam through the metal.</p> - - -<h3>Warming Buildings by Hot Water.</h3> - -<p>Lastly we have to notice the method of warming by <em>hot water</em>. -In this method there is usually a boiler communicating by an upper -and lower pipe, with an upright pipe the same height as the boiler. -On the application of heat to the boiler, the column of water becomes -lighter than that in the upright pipe; therefore the pressure on the -water in the lower pipe being less at the end nearest to the boiler -than it is at the other end, a portion of the water in this lower -pipe moves forward towards the boiler, which causes a corresponding -quantity to pass along the upper pipe in a contrary direction. This -motion will necessarily continue as long as the column of water in the -boiler is hotter, and therefore lighter than that in the upright pipe; -and this must be the case so long as the boiler continues to receive -heat from the fire, and the pipes to part with their heat to the air, -and thereby cool the water contained in them. In whatever form the hot -water apparatus is constructed, this difference of pressure of the two -columns of water is the cause of the circulation.</p> - -<p>In this form of apparatus some part or other of the water is open to -the atmosphere, either at the top of the boiler or at the top of one -of the pipes, so that there is no danger from the bursting action of -water heated above the boiling temperature. But, on the other hand, the -water cannot well be conveyed to rooms at different elevations in the -building. To increase the efficacy of the arrangement in this respect, -the following adaptation has been suggested. A pipe is made to dip into -an open boiler, reaching only an inch or two below<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> the surface of the -water, and passing round the room to be warmed, returns again to the -boiler and dips again into the water, descending quite to the bottom of -the boiler. An air-pump is connected with this pipe by a small tube; -and the air in the pipe being exhausted by this means, the water rises -into the pipes above the level of the boiler by atmospheric pressure, -and the circulation then takes place by the hot water ascending through -the pipe at the top of the boiler, and passing through the whole -circuit of the pipe, it returns through the upper end of the pipe which -reaches to the bottom of the boiler.</p> - -<p>In the last-described form of apparatus the water will rise in the -syphon pipe to a height of about thirty feet above the boiler, being -that elevation which is due to the action of the atmosphere on liquid -flowing through a vacuum. But when a whole house or building is warmed -by hot water in all the different floors or heights, a modification of -the system, called the <em>high-pressure system</em>, is adopted.</p> - -<p>The apparatus on this system consists of a spiral coil of small iron -pipe built into a furnace, the pipe being carried from the upper part -of the coil, and entwined round the room intended to be warmed, forming -a continuous pipe when again joined to the bottom of the coil. The size -of the pipe is usually only half an inch in diameter internally, and an -inch externally. A large pipe of about two and a half inches diameter -is connected, either horizontally or vertically, with the small pipe, -and is placed at the highest point of the apparatus. This, which is -called the “expansion pipe,” has an opening near its lower extremity, -by which the apparatus is filled with water, the aperture being -afterwards secured by a strong screw; but the expansion pipe itself -cannot be filled higher than this opening. After the water has been -introduced, the screw is securely fastened, and the apparatus becomes -completely closed in all parts. The expansion pipe, which is thus left -empty, is calculated to hold about one-tenth or one-twelfth as much -water as the whole of the small pipes; this being necessary in order -to allow for the expansion that takes place in the volume of the water -when heated, and which otherwise would inevitably burst the pipes, -however strong they might be.</p> - -<p>In this apparatus the principle of action is different from that in the -low-pressure method. Here the water is raised to so high a temperature -that it wholly overcomes the effect of gravity, and rises to the -highest rooms of a building if required, the circulation through the -system of pipes being more rapid as the heat of the water is greater. -But there are inconveniences attending the method. If the pipes be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> not -very strong, they will be burst by the intense pressure from within; -as they will likewise if the expansion pipe be too small. If, on the -contrary, this latter pipe be too large, it occasions the water to be -driven up into it so violently as to leave the lower part of the coil -of small pipe almost empty, and therefore liable to be burned by the -heat of the fire. And if all these points be properly attended to, -there is still the inconvenience resulting from the decomposition of -the floating particles in the air, by the highly-heated metal of the -pipes. In some cases water, instead of being heated in a coil of small -pipes, passes into and through large flat boxes or chambers, whose -extended surface enables the surrounding air to be heated more rapidly.</p> - -<p>The details of this chapter will enable the reader to perceive, that -that part of the builder’s art which relates to the construction of -the <em>fire-place</em> rests on more scientific principles, and is -more liable to change by successive discoveries and inventions, than -most others. It is not simply to make a square opening by the side of -a room, to have a vertical chimney or flue above that opening, and -a few bars within it; it is not by such means that the object to be -answered by a fire-place can be attained; some knowledge of chemistry, -pneumatics, and hydraulics, is required before we can properly regulate -the combustion of our fuel, the ventilation of our apartments, or -effectually warm them by the ascension of hot air, the circulation of -hot water, or the condensation of steam.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VIII"><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII.</span><br />THE WINDOWS AND LEAD-WORK.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>We must now give to our dwelling-house those conveniences which call -for the services of the glazier and the plumber. These two occupations -are so often combined by the same tradesman, and the two classes of -operations thereby resulting are both so necessary to the finishing of -the <em>exterior</em> of a house, that we may conveniently treat of them -in one chapter.</p> - - -<h3>Introduction of Glass-Windows.</h3> - -<p>Among the features which distinguish modern houses from those existing -in the early ages of English history, few have been more conducive -to comfort than the adoption of <em>Glass-Windows</em>. Before the -employment of that invaluable substance—glass—for this purpose, -windows consisted either of uncovered holes in the wall of a house, -whereby in order to admit light, the cold would also gain admittance; -or else they were holes covered with oiled skin, oiled paper, thin -horn, or some other partially transparent material, which would admit -a dim light, and yet exclude wind and rain. It is only by placing -ourselves in a room thus lighted, that we can form a correct idea of -the increase of comfort resulting from the use of glass instead of -such imperfectly transparent substances. The slow and imperfect modes -of making glass soon after its introduction necessarily gave it a high -value, and it could only be employed by the wealthy; but its price -has gradually so much lessened, and its claim to a place among the -necessaries of life so generally felt and acknowledged, that there -are now but few persons in England, except those moving in the very -humblest ranks of society, who have not a room with a glazed window.</p> - - -<h3>The Manufacture of Window Glass.</h3> - -<p>The glass with which windows are generally glazed, is called -<em>Crown glass</em>. It is formed of different materials in different -manufactories. In some instances the materials consist of fine white -sand, carbonate of lime, carbonate of soda, and clippings or waste -pieces of old glass; while in other cases they consist of white sand, -pearl-ash, saltpetre, borax, and arsenic, in certain proportions. On -this point we shall not dwell, for almost every manufacturer has a -favourite receipt of his own. Whatever substances are employed, they -are intimately mixed before being melted. The melting takes place in -large crucibles or melting pots, made of a particular kind of clay -capable of enduring intense heat.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> Several such crucibles are placed -in a furnace, a little door being situate in the furnace opposite to -each crucible. Through this door the materials are introduced and are -suffered to melt; and as soon as these become melted, other portions of -the materials are added, until the crucible contains a given amount of -melted material. A curious effect is then observable. Although most or -all of the materials are nearly opaque in their separate states, it is -found that when they are all melted together, they form a transparent -liquid, which is <em>glass</em>.</p> - -<p>It requires about forty-eight hours of intense heat to bring the -whole contents of the crucible to a liquid state. During this period, -a quantity of dross or impurity, called <em>sandiver</em> or <em>glass -gall</em>, collects at the surface, and is carefully removed; it is -afterwards sold to refiners of metals, who use it as a flux. The -temperature of the furnace is then gradually lowered, by which means -the glass loses sufficient heat to assume a pasty consistence, which is -more convenient for the workman than if it were perfectly fluid.</p> - -<p>The glass maker then stands before the door of the furnace, exposed -to an intensity of heat such as few persons can adequately conceive, -and dips into the pasty mass of glass the end of a hollow iron tube -about five feet long. On withdrawing the tube, a portion of glass is -found adhering to it, and this is made to equalize itself round the -circumference of the tube by turning the latter rapidly round. The -workman then applies his mouth to the other end, and blows through the -tube, whereby the pasty mass is made to assume a hollow globular form -at the remote end of the tube. This process is continued for some time -and with great dexterity, until the globe has attained a considerable -diameter and a proportionably small thickness. The globe is then -somewhat flattened at the side opposite to the tube by pressing it -upon a hard plane surface; and a solid iron rod, called a <em>punt</em>, -having a small quantity of melted glass at the end, is applied to the -centre of the flattened side opposite to the tube, to which it adheres; -the tube is then removed by wetting the glass near the point of union -with the tube, leaving a small circular hole. During these processes -the glass is repeatedly heated by holding it for a few minutes at the -door of the furnace, in order that it may retain the requisite degree -of softness.</p> - -<p>The <em>punt</em>, with the flattened globe of glass at its end, is then -rapidly whirled round in a manner nearly resembling that in which a mop -is twirled. By this motion, the globe becomes more and more flattened -and extended in diameter, until at length, not being able longer to -retain its shape, it bursts open, and spreads out in the form of a -flat circular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> sheet of glass three or four feet in diameter. There -is perhaps nothing in the whole range of the mechanical arts more -astonishing to a spectator than this process, and there are few that -require, from the workman, more of that dexterity of hand which can -only be acquired by long practice. The workman continues to whirl the -sheet of glass round,—gradually receding from the furnace,—until it -is sufficiently set or solidified to retain its form. The punt is then, -by a dextrous movement, detached from the centre of the sheet, leaving -that bulb which is known as the “bull’s eye,” or the “knot.” The sheet -is placed in an annealing oven, the temperature of which is lowered by -slow degrees until cold; for it is found that glass is less brittle -when it has been allowed to cool gradually than when the cooling has -been rapid. Considerable care is required to regulate the temperature -of the annealing oven; if the heat be too great the softened glass will -bend: if the heat be insufficient the plates are liable to crack, or -they prove so brittle that when they come to be used, the glazier will -not be able to divide the glass so as to suit his purposes. Indeed, -the management of the heat in the manufacture of crown glass requires -so much care and skill that few workmen produce an article of the same -value, even though working at the same furnace; hence crown glass is -known in the market as firsts, seconds, thirds, and fourths; the fourth -quality producing less than one-half of the price of the first.</p> - -<p>We have not interrupted this description, to refer to engravings; but -we may now illustrate it by the following cuts representing the glass -in eight different stages of its formation.</p> - -<p>1st. The melted glass attached to the tube, and worked on a board.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img026"> - <img src="images/026.jpg" class="w75" alt="Working of melted glass on a tube" /> -</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span></p> - -<p>2nd. The workman blowing through the tube, to expand the glass.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img027"> - <img src="images/027.jpg" class="w75" alt="Expanding the glass by blowing" /> -</span></p> - -<p>3rd. Whirling it rapidly at the mouth of the furnace.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img028"> - <img src="images/028.jpg" class="w75" alt="Whirling the glass at the furnace" /> -</span></p> - -<p>4th. Transferring it from the hollow tube to the solid punt.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img029"> - <img src="images/029.jpg" class="w75" alt="Transferring the glass to the solid punt" /> -</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</span></p> - -<p>5th and 6th. Successive stages of expansion, by constant and rapid -rotation.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img030"> - <img src="images/030.jpg" class="w75" alt="expansion of glass by rotation" /> -</span></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img031"> - <img src="images/031.jpg" class="w75" alt="expansion of glass by rotation" /> -</span></p> - -<p>7th. Final expansion into a flat circular sheet.</p> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span></p> -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img032"> - <img src="images/032.jpg" class="w75" alt="final expansion into a flat circular sheet" /> -</span></p> - -<p>8th. The sheet of glass, held on a kind of fork, being placed into the -annealing oven.</p> -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img033"> - <img src="images/033.jpg" class="w75" alt="Sheet of glass on a fork going into annealing oven" /> -</span></p> - -<p>When cold, the sheets of glass are cut into two unequal pieces, one of -which contains the <em>knot</em>, and are packed with straw in wooden -<em>crates</em>, in which they are forwarded to the warehouses, and from -thence to the glaziers.</p> - -<p>As plate glass is sometimes used for windows, a slight notice of it -seems to be necessary in this place, in order that the reader may have -a clear idea of the difference between these two descriptions of window -glass.</p> - -<p>The manufacture of plate glass is confined to very few hands, and -great reluctance is manifested by the proprietors to permit visitors -to inspect their works. The late <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Parkes, however, was permitted to -visit the works of the British Plate Glass Company, at Ravenhead, and -has recorded his observations in one of his valuable chemical essays, -from which the following details are taken.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of plate glass the materials are selected with -greater care than in any other branch of the glass manufacture. The -materials employed are sand of the finest and whitest kind, soda, and -lime. Manganese and oxide of cobalt are also used for the purpose of -destroying colour, which they do by the curious, and at first view, -paradoxical property each has of imparting colour. The manganese has -the effect of a slight tinge of red, the cobalt of blue; while the sand -and alkali produce a slight yellow tinge; and thus these three colours -(being those which naturally produce white light) by proper combination -in the glass neutralise each other, and the result is an almost -perfectly transparent material.</p> - -<p>The process of filling the pots and fusing the materials is similar -to that already described for crown glass. The crucibles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> are of -two kinds; the larger ones wherein the glass is melted, are called -<em>pots</em>, and because these when full of glass are too bulky and -heavy to be moved, smaller ones, called <em>cuvettes</em>, are employed. -These are kept empty in the furnaces, exposed to the full degree of -heat, so that when the glass is ready for casting and is transferred to -them, they may not greatly lower its temperature.</p> - -<p>The subsequent operations are very well described in an abstract of -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Parkes’s essay, given by the writer of the volume on Glass and -Porcelain, in the <i>Cabinet Cyclopædia</i>.</p> - -<p>“When the glass is thoroughly refined, the cuvette—which must be -perfectly clean, and, as already mentioned, of a temperature equal -with that of the glass—is filled in the following manner:—A copper -ladle, ten to twelve inches in diameter, fixed to an iron handle seven -feet long, is plunged into the glass pot, and brought up filled with -melted glass, which is transferred to the cuvette; the ladle during -this transference is supported upon a strong iron rest, placed under -its bottom, and held by two other workmen. This precaution is necessary -to prevent the bending and giving way of the red-hot copper under the -weight of fluid glass which it contains. When by successive ladlings -the cuvette is filled, it is suffered to remain during some hours in -the furnace, that the air bubbles formed by this disturbance may have -time to rise and disperse; an effect which is ascertained to have -ensued by the inspection of samples withdrawn from time to time for the -purpose.</p> - -<p>“Another essential part of the apparatus consists in flat tables -whereon the plates of glass are cast. These tables have perfectly -smooth and level metallic surfaces, of suitable dimensions and -solidity, supported by masonry. At <abbr title="saint">St.</abbr> Gobain, and formerly also at -Ravenhead, these tables were made of copper; the reason assigned -for preferring this metal being, that it does not discolour the hot -melted glass, while the use of iron was thought to be accompanied by -this disadvantage. These copper tables were very costly, both from -the nature of their material, and the labour bestowed in grinding -and polishing their surfaces; and as the sudden access of heat that -accompanied the pouring over them of such a torrent of melted glass -occasioned the metal frequently to crack, the tables were by such an -accident rendered useless. The British Plate Glass Company having -experienced several disasters of this nature, its directors determined -upon making trial of iron; and they accordingly procured a plate to be -cast, fifteen feet long, nine feet wide, and six inches thick, which -has fully answered the intended purpose—having, during several years -of constant use, stood uninjured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span> through all the sudden, and violent -alternations of temperature to which it has been exposed. This table is -so massive, weighing nearly fourteen tons, that it became necessary to -construct a carriage purposely for its conveyance from the iron foundry -to the glasshouse. It is supported on castors, for the convenience of -readily removing it towards the mouths of the different annealing ovens.</p> - -<p>“The foundry at Ravenhead wherein this table is used is said to be -the largest room under one roof that has ever yet been erected in -this kingdom; it is 339 feet long, 155 feet wide, and proportionately -lofty. Westminster Hall, to which the superiority in this respect -is so commonly ascribed, is smaller—its length being 300 and its -breadth only 100 feet. The melting furnaces, which are ranged down the -centre, occupy about one-third of the whole area of this apartment. -The annealing ovens are placed in two rows, one on each side of the -foundry, and occupy the greatest proportion of the side walls. Each -of these ovens is sixteen feet wide and forty feet deep. Their floors -being level with the surface of the casting table, the plates of glass -may be deposited in them immediately after they are cast, with little -difficulty and without delay.</p> - -<p>“When the melted glass in the cuvette is found to be in the exact -state that experience has pointed out as being most favourable for its -flowing readily and equably, this vessel is withdrawn from the furnace -by means of a crane, and is placed upon a low carriage, in order to -its removal to the casting table, which, as it is previously placed -contiguous to the annealing oven that is to be filled, may therefore -be at a considerable distance from the melting furnace. Measures are -then taken for cleaning the exterior of the crucible, and for carefully -removing with a broad copper sabre any scum that may have formed upon -the surface of the glass, as the mixture of any of these foreign -matters would infallibly spoil the beauty of the plate. These done, -the cuvette is wound up to a sufficient height by a crane; and then, -by means of another simple piece of mechanism, is swung over the upper -end of the casting table; and being thrown into an inclined position, -a torrent of melted glass is suddenly poured out on the surface of the -table, which must previously have been heated, and wiped perfectly -clean.</p> - -<p>“The glass is prevented from running off the sides of the table by ribs -of metal, one of which is placed along the whole length of each side, -their depth being the exact measure which it is desired to give to the -thickness of the glass. A similar rib, attached to a cross piece, is -temporarily held, during the casting, at the lower end of the table. -When the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> whole contents of the crucible have been delivered, a large -hollow copper cylinder, which has been made perfectly true and smooth -in a turning lathe, and which extends entirely across the table, -resting on the side ribs, is set in motion; and the glass, during its -progress, is spread out into a sheet of uniform breadth and thickness. -Its length depends upon the quantity of melted glass contained in the -cuvette: should this be more than is needed for the formation of a -plate having the full dimensions of the table, the metal rib is removed -from its lower part, and the surplus glass is received in a vessel of -water placed under the extreme end for the purpose.</p> - -<p>“<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Parkes, in speaking of this operation, remarks—‘The spectacle -of such a vast body of melted glass poured at once from an immense -crucible, on a metallic table of great magnitude, is truly grand; and -the variety of colours which the plate exhibits immediately after the -roller has passed over it, renders this an operation far more splendid -and interesting than can possibly be described.’</p> - -<p>“At least twenty workmen are busily employed during this process of -casting. From the time that the cuvette is removed from the furnace, -to the completion of the casting by the hardening of the glass, the -apartment must be kept as free as possible from disturbance; even -the opening and shutting of a door might, by setting the air in -motion, disturb the surface of the glass, and thus impair the value -of the plate. So soon as it is completely set, the plate is carefully -inspected; and should any flaws or bubbles appear upon any part of its -surface, it is immediately divided by cutting through them.”</p> - -<p>“When the plate of glass thus formed has been sufficiently fixed by -cooling, it is slipped from the table gradually and carefully into one -of the annealing ovens, where it remains in a horizontal position; its -treatment differing in this respect from that pursued with crown and -broad glass, which stand on edge during the annealing process. As each -oven in this manner becomes filled, it is closed up by an iron door, -the crevices of which are carefully stopped with mortar or clay, to -prevent an access of external air to the oven; and thus to provide as -far as possible for the gradual cooling of the plates, the necessity -for which has already been sufficiently explained. When the glass has -remained during about fifteen days in these ovens, they are opened, and -the contents withdrawn.”</p> - -<p>The plates have then to undergo the operations of squaring, grinding, -and polishing, which need not be described in this place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span></p> - -<p>The various kinds of glass manufactured in Great Britain amount every -year to the enormous quantity of 300,000 cwt., which is valued at two -millions sterling.</p> - - -<h3>Glass Cutting.</h3> - -<p>Such, then, being a few details as to the mode of manufacturing glass; -we will next suppose that the glass has reached the hands of the -glazier or glass-cutter; and that the window-frame or sashes are ready -to receive the panes of glass.</p> - -<p>One of the earlier operations of the glazier is to <em>prime</em> the -sash, that is, to give it a coat of thin paint, for the purpose of -making the putty adhere more firmly to the wood. He next takes the -dimensions, in inches and eighths of an inch, of the groove or rebate -in which each square of glass is to be fixed, and then proceeds to cut -squares of those sizes from the semicircular pieces in his crate. This -requires much tact and judgment, since to procure square or rectangular -panes necessarily entails a loss of some of the circular portions. -The circular sheets are made of diameters varying from forty-eight to -sixty-four inches, and these are cut at various distances from the -central knot, so that the glazier is enabled to choose that piece which -experience teaches him will entail least waste: sometimes it is better -to cut the pane from a <em>table</em> (the half which contains the knot), -sometimes from a <em>slab</em> (the remaining portion of the disc).</p> - -<p>In order to cut a table or slab, so as to procure a pane of the proper -size, the straight edge of the table is placed near the glazier, -and he cuts at right angles to it, by means of a diamond, and of an -instrument called a <em>square</em>; and two other cuts, at the proper -distances, are sufficient to give a pane of the required size. With -respect to the power by which a diamond is enabled to cut glass, we may -explain it by saying, that it is a general rule among mineralogists, -lapidaries, and others concerned with stony or crystalline bodies, -that the hardest among a certain number of bodies will <em>cut</em>, -or at least <em>scratch</em>, any of the others:—in fact, tables of -the <em>hardness</em> of different substances are formed from the -determination of what substances will mark or scratch others, that one -being reckoned hardest which will scratch all others, without being -equally affected by them in return. Now the diamond is the hardest body -in nature, and cannot be cut by any substance but its own dust; but it -can cut glass and other bodies, which are not so hard as itself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p> - - -<h3>The Process of Glazing.</h3> - -<p>The glass having been cut to the right size, it is next to be fitted -into the sash; and among the many kinds of cement which might be -suggested for this purpose, <em>oil putty</em> is found to be the most -advantageous, since it is conveniently soft when used, but hardens -afterwards to the consistence of stone. Putty is made of whiting and -linseed oil. The whiting is purchased in lumps, which are well dried, -and then pounded and sifted. The linseed oil is poured into a tub, and -the powdered whiting added to it, and stirred up with a stick. When -some degree of stiffness is attained, the mass is taken out of the tub -and placed upon a board, where more whiting is added, and the whole -mixed up by hand. The mass is then beaten for a long time with a wooden -mallet, until it attains a perfectly smooth and uniform consistency.</p> - -<p>A portion of putty is taken up on a knife, and inserted in the groove -of the window sash. The pane of glass is then laid in the groove, and -gently pressed down in every part, so as to lie on the putty. As the -sheets of glass are never perfectly flat, it is a rule among glaziers -to let the <em>concave</em> side of a pane be within doors and the convex -side without. After the glass is laid in, the edge is carefully coated -with putty, to the extent of about an eighth of an inch: if this be -carefully done, it is sufficient to secure the glass in its place, -without presenting an unsightly appearance from the interior of a room. -The opposite side of the glass now requires a little attention, since -the bed of putty originally laid in the groove has been partially -squeezed out by the pane of glass: a little trimming and finishing are -all that are required in this matter.</p> - -<p>When a broken pane is to be replaced in a window, it is done generally -without taking out the sash; but in the case of glazing the sashes of a -new house, such as we have been supposing, it is done before the sashes -are fitted into their places. If sashes are glazed with <em>plate</em> -instead of <em>crown</em> glass, the only difference in the glazier’s -method of proceeding is, that the pane being heavier, must be fixed in -with greater attention to security. Sometimes a small beading or fillet -of wood is used instead of putty, in which case it is either nailed or -screwed to the sash.</p> - -<p>Where skylights are used instead of windows, a different plan must -be observed, since there are no cross bars to the sashes. In this -case the squares of glass are fixed in somewhat in the way adopted in -slating a roof, that is, the lower pieces are puttied in first, and -the upper ones are lapped over<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> them, so that each pane projects about -three-quarters of an inch over the one next below it. This is to effect -two objects,—to prevent the necessity of puttying the joints, and to -exclude rain.</p> - -<p><em>Ground</em>, <em>fluted</em>, <em>painted</em>, <em>stained</em>, and -<em>embossed</em> glass, are occasionally employed for windows. These -need not be noticed, since the processes by which they are fluted, -stained, &c., would carry us to details of too extensive a nature. So -far as the glazier is concerned, rather more care and delicacy are -required in proportion as the kind of glass employed is more costly or -more ornamental.</p> - -<p>In some of the better kinds of houses, rooms are provided with double -windows, separated a few inches from one another. The object of this -is, to prevent the room from being affected by rigorous cold from -without; for a mass of air <em>when stationary</em>, conducts heat very -slowly; the stratum of air between the two windows, therefore,—being -stationary,—is slow to conduct the cold from without, or, more -correctly, to conduct the warmth from within.</p> - - -<h3>Sheet Lead for Roofs and Cisterns.</h3> - -<p>Whether the glazier precedes the plumber or the plumber the glazier, -or whether the labours of both alternate during the building of a -house, is a question of no great importance to our present object. We -will therefore proceed to notice the kind of material employed by the -plumber.</p> - -<p>The comparative cheapness of lead, its admirable qualities, and the -facility with which it can be cast and rolled into thin sheets, and -drawn into pipes, cause it to be extensively used in building. The -most productive mines of this metal in our own country are situated in -Derbyshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, in Wales, and in the North; in short, -the ore from which lead is generally obtained, called <em>Galena</em>, -or <em>Sulphuret of Lead</em>, is found in all countries where the -primary rocks appear at the surface. The ore greatly resembles the pure -metal in brilliancy; but it is brittle, and not so easily fused. It -frequently contains a sufficient quantity of silver to make it worth -while to adopt a peculiar process in the reduction of it, in order to -separate this more valuable metal. The ore is first broken into small -pieces, and is then <em>roasted</em> in a reverberatory furnace, to drive -off the sulphur. When this object is attained, the heat is increased, -till the metal is fused, and then it is drawn off into moulds, which -give it the form of blocks or slabs, called <em>sows</em> and <em>pigs</em>.</p> - -<p><em>Sheet lead</em> is made thus:—A large furnace is provided, into -which pig-lead is thrown, and heat applied. When<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> the lead is melted, a -valve or cock is opened in the side of the furnace, and the glistening -liquid metal pours forth, and falls on a large table, covered over -with an even surface of fine sand, and having a ledge of an equal -height above the sand all round it. When the melted metal is poured on -the sand, two men, holding each end of a stiff wooden rule, called a -<em>strike</em>, draw it along the table, resting on each side ledge: the -liquid lead is pushed onwards by the strike, till it covers the whole -surface of an even thickness, which of course is governed by the depth -of the ledge round the table.</p> - -<p><em>Milled sheet lead</em> is formed by rolling a cast plate of the metal -between large iron rollers, turned by machinery. These rollers are set -closer and closer together, till the lead is reduced by rolling to the -requisite degree of thinness. By this process, the lead is rendered -more dense and more equally so, than it ever is by simply casting: -milled lead, consequently, is more durable than cast-lead.</p> - -<p>It should be here noticed that lead, when it is used for roofing, or -for lining cisterns and gutters, is always laid on an even boarded -surface, and not on battens or laths, like slate and tiles.</p> - - -<h3>Lead Pipes.</h3> - -<p>Lead pipe is either formed by bending thin sheet lead round a -cylindrical mould, and soldering the joint; or when the pipe is less -than four or five inches in diameter, it is formed by casting a thick -cylinder of lead with a small bore, and about five or six feet long. A -long smooth iron rod, a little larger than the bore of the cylinder, -is forced into this, and then the cylinder is gradually drawn through -a succession of circular holes, decreasing in diameter, in a steel -plate, by means of a powerful draw-mill, worked by a steam-engine. -The lead is by this process extended out over the iron rod, which -preserves the bore of the pipe of an equal diameter, and when the pipe -is sufficiently reduced in thickness, the rod, or <em>triblet</em>, is -forcibly drawn out, and the pipe left with a smooth bore, ready for -use. Attempts have been made to form lead pipes wholly by casting; an -outer mould and an inner core being so adjusted as to leave a space -between them, into which lead might be forced while in a melted state; -but this method has not been practically worked out to any great extent.</p> - - -<h3>The Process of Plumbing.</h3> - -<p>When a roof is to be covered, or a cistern lined, with lead, the -sheet of the metal is unrolled on a level floor, and made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> free from -creases and undulations, by beating them down with a heavy wooden -<em>flogger</em>, formed like a roller with a flattened side, and a -handle to it. The plumber then draws on the lead the form into which it -must be cut to fit the surface it is intended to cover, and afterwards -cuts through the lines described with a strong sharp knife. The piece -is then rolled up again for facility of carriage, and raised by tackle -into its intended situation, it being placed there so that when again -unrolled, it may lie in the proper situation and position on the -boarding. The sheet is then again beat out flat as before.</p> - -<p>The next sheet being put into its place, and so that the edges of -the two may overlap about one and a half or two inches, the workman -proceeds to make the joint, or to solder the two sheets together. The -first step for this purpose is to scrape the two edges or borders of -the sheets that are to come in contact quite clean and bright, with a -tool constructed for this purpose, consisting of a small triangular bit -of steel ground sharp at its edges, and fastened at right angles on -an iron socket, fixed in a handle. When these borders of the lead are -quite clean, they are painted over with black-lead paint, to prevent -their tarnishing, or <em>oxidising</em> again, as the solder will only -adhere to a clean pure metallic surface. The paint also serves as a -flux to cause the solder and lead to melt together, and thus make a -close joint.</p> - -<p>The solder is melted in an iron ladle, on a rude temporary fire-place, -built as near the spot where the solder is wanted as possible. The -plumber having turned back the edge of the upper sheet at the joint, -an assistant carefully pours the solder on the lower edge. The workman -then spreads it evenly along the joint, by means of <em>soldering -irons</em>, which are irregularly-shaped iron bars, swelling at their -ends into rounded forms of different sizes and shapes, according to the -particular purpose for which they are intended. These irons are used in -a red-hot state in order to keep the solder melted.</p> - -<p>As soon as the workman has spread the solder, he presses and hammers -down the upper edge upon the lower, and spreads the solder forced out -of the joint, along the seam. The outermost edge of the lead covering -is nailed down to the boarding or cistern-frame by nails, with their -heads leaded over to prevent the corrosion of the metal, by the -chemical or <em>voltaic</em> action that takes place when two metals in -contact are exposed to moisture. The situation of the soldered joints -depends on the size and form of the surface to be covered over; and a -good workman considers well how he can cut out the lead so as to have -the fewest joints, and these in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> the most favourable situations. If he -has to line a cistern, he will cover the bottom in one piece, cutting -the lead large enough to admit of its turning up for an inch or two at -two of the sides, the joint consequently being made at these angles.</p> - -<p>When a large roof, like that of a church, is covered with lead, this -is laid on in parallel bands as wide as the sheet will admit of, the -edge of one sheet being turned over a wooden roller or fillet, nailed -down on the boarding to receive it, while the edge of the next sheet -is turned over the former lead again; the double thickness being well -<em>flogged</em> down to render the joint water-tight: and in this case -no solder is used.</p> - -<p>The edges of lead gutters that turn up against the inside of the -parapet are either laid as flat against the brick-work as possible, and -secured so by iron <em>holdfasts</em>, so as to prevent rain from getting -in; or to effect the same object, they are in all the better kind of -buildings, turned into a joint, in the brick-work, between two courses.</p> - -<p>When the plumber has to join two lengths of lead pipe into one, he -opens out the end of one length into a funnel-shaped aperture, by -gently driving a wooden cone into it, so as to avoid splitting the -pipe. The end of the other length is then scraped down a little by the -triangular tool before mentioned, not only to obtain a clean surface -for soldering, but to allow of the end fitting into the funnel-shaped -aperture alluded to. The two pipes being thus put together, the workman -holds a thick wadding of old woollen cloth, well greased, under the -joint, while a labourer gently pours melted solder over the joint, -which the plumber smoothes and shapes down by his soldering-iron and -the cloth into a regular smooth rounded swelling, all round the joint, -making this perfectly close and water-tight.</p> - -<p>We observed in the chapter on “Roofs,” that within the last few -years, the metal zinc has been much used instead of lead for all -the purposes of the latter, and many others beside, for which the -admirable qualities of zinc particularly qualify it. This metal is -lighter than lead, and equally durable in the open air. It bears water -almost equally well; but it is not so flexible or manageable, being -neither so fusible nor malleable. Zinc only admits of being rolled or -hammered when it is heated to about two hundred and twenty degrees -of Fahrenheit. When cold it is too brittle to bear much bending; -nevertheless, pipes, gutters, cisterns, chimney-pots, &c., are made out -of sheet zinc; and roofs, &c. covered with it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span></p> - - -<h3>Solder or Cement for Metals.</h3> - -<p>The solder alluded to above, as being the means of joining two pieces -of sheet lead or of lead pipe, is an alloy of lead and tin, in the -proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. This mixed -metal is fusible at a lower temperature than either the tin or the lead -separately; and may therefore be applied in a melting state to tin or -lead, which still remains solid, even at the same temperature: this it -is which constitutes the principle of soldering. The solder is cast -into triangular bars, weighing from thirty to fifty pounds each.</p> - -<p>There has, however, been a method recently introduced which seems -likely to effect considerable changes in the mode of joining pieces of -metal, whether for buildings or for other purposes; and we may here -give some account of it.</p> - -<p>The great object of soldering is of course to form joints or seams in -pipes, and other articles, so perfectly, that they shall be subject to -no leakage or flaw. But this object is not easily obtained by the old -method of soldering; the chances of flaw are numerous, and have been -enumerated thus:—1st, the difference of expansion between the lead and -its alloys with tin, a difference which is particularly experienced -in very cold or very elevated temperatures; 2nd, the electro-chemical -actions which are developed under certain circumstances by the contact -of two different metallic substances;<span class="fnanchor" id="fna5"><a href="#fn5">[5]</a></span> 3rd, the very powerful -reaction which a number of chemical agents exert on alloys of lead and -tin, though not upon lead alone; 4th, the extreme fragility of these -alloys, which, particularly when heated, often break on the slightest -blow; 5th, the difficulty of making the solder adhere to the surface of -the lead;<span class="fnanchor" id="fna6"><a href="#fn6">[6]</a></span> 6th, the use of rosin, which frequently conceals fractures -for a time.</p> - -<p>All of these objections are removed by a new method of soldering, -invented by M. E. Desbassays de Richemont, who has recently obtained, -at the National Exhibition of Arts at Paris, a gold medal for his -invention. The committee on whose recommendation the medal was awarded, -included some of the most distinguished chemists and men of science <span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span>in France; and in their report on the subject, they say:—“We consider -this invention of the highest importance; it is applicable to many -branches of industry, and will render great service to a large number -of manufactures. Its efficacy has not only been proved by experiment, -but is confirmed by the fact, that most of our eminent manufacturers -and tradesmen have taken out licences for the use of it.”</p> - -<p>This invention (which is patented in France, Great Britain, and -Ireland) is called <em>autogenous soldering</em>, and consists of a -method of uniting two pieces of metal without the use of solder. -The parts to be joined are united by the fusion of the metal at the -points or lines of junction; so that the pieces when joined form one -homogeneous mass, no part of which can be distinguished from the rest. -This result is obtained by means of jets of flame, produced by the -combustion of hydrogen gas, mixed with atmospheric air; these jets are -so ingeniously managed, that they can be used and directed with as -much, or even more facility, than the common tools of the solderer.</p> - -<p>The apparatus employed in this new process consists of a peculiarly -constructed vessel for producing hydrogen gas, to which vessel a -variety of tubes and jets can be attached, so as to meet the various -demands of the solderer.</p> - -<p>A section of the gas-producer is shown in <abbr title="figure">fig.</abbr> 1: <em>a</em> is a leaden -tank, for containing dilute sulphuric acid; <em>b</em>, a pipe which -passes from the acid vessel to another similar leaden vessel, <em>c</em>, -which is to contain cuttings of zinc; <em>d</em> is a conical plug, -with a stalk and handle covered with lead, by the opening of which -the acid is allowed to flow through the pipe <em>b</em>, to the zinc -cuttings, and thus hydrogen gas is produced; <em>e</em> is an opening -by which zinc is put into the vessel <em>c</em>. The opening, <em>e</em>, -has a cover furnished with screws and nuts, by which it may be firmly -secured; <em>f</em> is an opening by which acid and water are poured -into the vessel <em>a</em>. When the hydrogen gas is produced, it has to -pass through the safety chamber <em>g</em>; <em>h</em> is a bent tube or -pipe, which conducts the gas from the vessel <em>c</em> to the bottom of -the safety chamber, the mouth of the pipe dipping into an inch or two -of water in the safety chamber. This water is introduced by the pipe -<em>i</em>, which is furnished with a stopple. The cock, <em>k</em>, cuts -off the flow of gas from the vessel <em>c</em>, to the safety chamber, -<em>g</em>. A flexible tube, <em>m</em>, is screwed to the top of the -safety chamber, and conveys the gas to the working instrument, or jet, -in the hands of the solderer.</p> - -<p>As long as the dilute acid is allowed to flow upon the zinc, hydrogen -gas will be produced: the gas will also be formed as long as the -cock is open, which allows the gas to issue as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> it is produced; but -as soon as the cock is shut, a small quantity of gas accumulates, -and interferes with the further action of the liquid on the zinc. -Consequently there is no danger of an explosion, because the production -of the gas is never more than is required for working; and when the -work ceases, the production of the gas ceases also. When the dilute -acid has become saturated with oxide of zinc, and gas ceases to be -produced, the discharging pipe is opened, and the liquid withdrawn. By -spontaneous evaporation, this liquid furnishes sulphate of zinc (white -vitriol), which may be sold at a price which will more than cover the -first and daily cost of the apparatus.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img034"> - <img src="images/034.jpg" class="w75" alt="Section of gas producer" /> -</span></p> - -<p class="caption p0 center"><abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> 1.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img035"> - <img src="images/035.jpg" class="w75" alt="Section of gas apparatus where workman operates" /> -</span></p> - -<p class="caption p0 center"><abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> 2.</p> - -<p>We now proceed to describe the part of the apparatus with which the -workman operates. In <abbr title="figure">fig.</abbr> 2, the flexible tube, <em>m</em>, is attached -to one arm of the forked tube, <em>o</em>; the other arm of <em>o</em> -is attached to a pipe, <em>q</em>, proceeding from a bellows, or other -means for supplying air. The solderer may work a bellows with his -foot to supply his apparatus with air, or the men in a whole factory -may be supplied from a blowing apparatus. A cock, <em>n</em>, regulates -the supply of gas; <em>p</em> is a cock for regulating the supply of -air; <em>r</em> is the pipe or tube in which the gas and air are mixed; -<em>s</em>, the beak or tool, from which issues the jet of flame, -<em>t</em>, with which the workman operates.</p> - -<p>The forked tube, <em>o</em>, is attached to the girdle of the workman, -and the regulating cocks, <em>n</em> and <em>p</em>, are so placed, that by -using one hand, the man can allow the exact proportions of air and gas -to issue. By stopping both cocks, the flame is of course extinguished.</p> - -<p>The beak, <em>s</em>, may be exchanged for others of every variety of -form, so as to produce jets of flame adapted to any kind of work. <abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> -3 is a tool formed like the rosette of a watering-pot, capable of -producing a most intense flame of jets.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img036"> - <img src="images/036.jpg" class="w25" alt="Tool to produce intense flame of jets" /> -</span></p> - -<p class="center caption p0"><abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> 3.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img037"> - <img src="images/037.jpg" class="w75" alt="Allows a length of flame instead of a point to be produced" /> -</span></p> - -<p class="center caption p0"><abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> 4.</p> - -<p><abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> 4 allows a length of flame instead of a point to be produced; -<em>n</em> is the hydrogen gas-pipe and cock; <em>p</em>, the air-pipe and -cock; <em>r</em>, the tube, in which air and gas mingle; <em>u</em>, a pipe -with a longitudinal slit on one side of it; and <em>v</em>, another pipe -covering <em>u</em>, and exactly fitting over it. Gas and air escaping -from the slit, on being ignited, will produce a long strip of flame, -which may be lengthened or shortened by sliding off or on the covering -tube, <em>v</em>, on the slit tube <em>u</em>.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img038"> - <img src="images/038.jpg" class="w25" alt="Soldering tool" /> -</span></p> - -<p class="center caption p0"><abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> 5.</p> - -<p><abbr title="figure">Fig.</abbr> 5 is a soldering tool, to be used where a jet of flame is not -available, as in joining zinc. In this arrangement, the hydrogen and -air flame heats apiece of copper, <em>y</em>, with which the work is -performed. <em>w</em> is the tool, with a hollow handle and stalk; air -being supplied by the pipe <em>p</em>, passes through the hollow handle -and stalk; <em>x</em> is a small tube which passes down the hollow handle -and stalk, <em>w</em>, and conveys gas from the pipe <em>n</em> to the -extremity of <em>w</em>, where it mingles with the issuing air, and, -on being ignited, the flame will heat the piece of copper, <em>y</em>, -(which, of course, may be of the shape of any soldering tool required,) -held by the arms, <em>z</em>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p> - - -<h3>Advantages of the Improved Method of Soldering Metals.</h3> - -<p>One great advantage to the public at large to be derived from the -general introduction of “autogenous soldering,” will be the diminution -of the number of cases of the escape of water and gas, which every day -occasion so much inconvenience and even danger as regards the stability -of buildings, the maintenance of the public thoroughfares, and the -security of life.</p> - -<p>The disuse of charcoal and tin by plumbers will have the important -effect of rendering their trade less unhealthy, the fumes from their -brasiers, and the arsenical vapours emanating from impure tin, being a -very common cause of serious maladies.</p> - -<p>By the old method of soldering, there is great danger of setting fire -to houses and public buildings: the destruction of the corn market of -Paris, and of the Cathedrals of Chartres and of Bruges, by fire, was -partly owing to the negligence of plumbers; a negligence for which -there could be no reason, if the new method of soldering had been -introduced, since it is only necessary to turn a cock in order to -extinguish or rekindle, at any moment, the jet of gas which serves for -the plumber’s tool. By means of the new apparatus, a soldering flame -can be conducted to a distance of several fathoms without the dangerous -necessity of lighting a brasier to heat irons, to melt masses of -solder, and to carry the whole into the midst of complicated carpentry -work.</p> - -<p>The disuse of solder will also greatly reduce the price of plumber’s -work, without, however, diminishing the demand for the services of the -workmen. The disuse of seams or overlapping, which from this new mode -of connecting lengths of lead will almost entirely be given up, will -alone occasion a considerable saving in the quantity of lead employed. -The ease with which lead of from one-thirtieth to one-tenth of an inch -in thickness may be soldered, and defects repaired, will permit of -the substitution of this, in many cases, for thicker lead, and thus -diminish the expense; perhaps, also, it will give rise to the use of -lead for purposes to which it has not yet been applied, or the return -to others, in which from motives of economy it has been superseded by -other metals.</p> - -<p>The plumber will also be indebted to M. de Richemont’s method for -several important improvements. He will be able in future to make -internal joints wherever a jet of flame can be introduced and directed; -to reconstruct on the spot, of pure lead, any portion of a pipe, -a vase, or a statue, that may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> have been removed or destroyed; to -execute in rapid succession any number of solderings; to repair in -a few minutes all dents, cracks, and flaws, in sheets or pipes of -new lead; to remove entirely the enormous edges or knots left by the -old-fashioned joints, and that without weakening them; to give, in -short, to works of lead a precision of execution, and a solidity, -unattainable up to this time.</p> - -<p>Autogenous soldering will also be of great assistance to several -chemical manufactures, where it is so important to have large vessels -of lead without alloy. By uniting a number of sheets into one, vessels -of pure lead of any size may be formed for the process of acidification -and concentration of saline solutions; for the formation of scouring -vats employed by so many artisans who work metals; for vessels of every -kind used to contain liquids which act upon tin solder.</p> - -<p>In the repair of leaden vessels exposed to the action of heat, peculiar -advantages are offered by autogenous soldering. By the old method, the -holes which are so often caused in the bottoms of these vessels, either -by the action of sudden flames, or by deposits that form on their -surface, can be stopped only when they are not of too large dimensions, -by making what are called weldings of pure lead. The cases in which -this mode of repair is available, are very limited, and whenever it is -impracticable, the boilers must be taken down, the lead changed, and -then reset; thus occasioning considerable expense and an interruption -to business. By the new method, nothing is easier than to apply pieces -to the bottom or sides of the vessels, whatever be the size of the -holes, and thus the whole of a boiler may be renewed piecemeal. By -this plan, too, the old lead remains uncontaminated with solder, and -consequently will yield a pure metal to the melting-pot.</p> - -<p>The great ductility of lead, which, in many cases, is one of its most -valuable qualities, is, however, an inconvenience when instruments or -utensils are required of considerable strength. At the same time, there -are circumstances where this metal alone can be employed, on account -of the manner in which it resists chemical action. By constructing -vessels or instruments of iron, zinc, or wood, and covering them with -lead, utensils can be formed that will resist pressure and blows, and -most chemical agents, as well as if they were made of solid lead. -Such vessels are required in the preparation of soda, and other -gaseous waters; in the distillation or evaporation of acid or alkaline -solutions; and for many other purposes.</p> - -<p>Another application that deserves especial notice is that of lining -common barrels with thin sheet-lead. These vessels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span> would be of great -utility in chemical factories, more particularly in the construction of -Woulf’s apparatus, and other pneumatic instruments, to which greater -dimensions could be given by this means; but they could be employed -with singular advantage in the transport of acid and alkaline liquids -by sea and land. Sulphuric and muriatic acids are transported in stone -bottles, or glass carboys placed in baskets, which, however carefully -packed, are liable to be broken, not only with the loss of the acids, -but with danger to surrounding bodies. We are told of two French ships -that perished at sea on a voyage to the colonies, in consequence of the -breaking of some bottles of sulphuric acid.</p> - -<p>In the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the use of ordinary solder is -impracticable, since it would soon be corroded. The following method -was introduced some years ago for forming sulphuric acid chambers, and -the concentration pans. Two edges of lead being placed in contact, -were flattened down into a long wooden groove, and secured in their -situation by a few brass pins driven into the wood. The surfaces -were next brightened by a triangular scraper, rubbed over with -candle-grease, and then covered with a stream of hot melted lead. The -riband of lead thus applied, was finally equalized by being brought -into partial fusion with the plumber’s conical iron, heated to redness; -the contact of air being prevented by sprinkling rosin over the -surface. The autogenous soldering apparatus will greatly simplify the -above method.</p> - -<p>The advantages to be derived from the new process, are by no means -confined to lead: the apparatus may be employed in using for solder -either the common alloys, or pure lead, to unite zinc, and iron, and -lead, with iron, copper, and zinc. It may be substituted also with -advantage for the common blow-pipe and lamp of the enameller in all -their applications to the soldering and joining performed by the aid of -these instruments by jewellers, goldsmiths, tinmen, manufacturers of -plated goods, of buttons, &c.</p> - -<p>The flame produced by the combustion of the gas may be most -economically employed for heating soldering irons. A few seconds -suffice to bring the iron to the desired temperature, and it can be -kept at that temperature for many hours without being liable to burn, -nothing more being necessary than to regulate the flame by means of -cocks, and the workman need not be obliged to change his iron, or even -to leave it for a single moment. Hence there is not only a considerable -saving in manual labour, but also in fuel, which in most cases is of -greater consequence.</p> - -<p>Such are a few only of the advantages of this simple and beautiful -invention, which is now very extensively adopted in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> France, and will -doubtless get into extensive use in this country, when its merits are -more generally known.</p> - -<p>It may be here stated, in justice to some of our own ingenious -countrymen, that after this method had become extensively known, -M. Richemont’s claim to the invention was disputed. We have been -informed, that previously to the year 1833, a <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Mallet had employed -an apparatus constructed on the same principle, and used in a similar -manner, as that already described as the invention of M. de Richemont. -In <span class="smcap">Loudon’s</span> <i>Encyclopædia of Cottage Architecture</i>, -published in 1833, the following passage occurs:—“<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Daniell, of -King’s College, London, has since published the same thing as new, and -of his invention: however, I can establish priority by my laboratory -journal.”</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<p class="footnote" id="fn5"><a href="#fna5">[5]</a> Messrs. Vauquelin and D’Arcet state that they have seen in -soap-works the soldering of vats lined with lead crumble in a few days -to a powder. The same has been remarked of leaden pipes passing through -certain soils.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span></p> - -<p class="footnote" id="fn6"><a href="#fna6">[6]</a> The solder often sticks without uniting and the workman may be -quite ignorant of his imperfect work; and thus gas, water, or dangerous -liquids, may be allowed to escape.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IX"><span class="smcap">Chapter IX.</span><br />THE INTERIOR—PLASTERING AND PAPER-HANGING.</h2> -</div> - - - -<p>As men rise above the rude condition of uncivilized nations, they are -not satisfied with the mere <em>necessaries</em> of life. Their standard -of comfort becomes elevated. Those things which are luxuries to the -lowest class are comforts to the next higher class, and necessaries -to the class which is higher still in the social scale; so that -the interpretation given to the words, “luxuries,” “comforts,” and -“necessaries,” becomes a sort of index whereby to mark the grade which -an individual occupies. A roof to cover the dwelling, a glass window -which may exclude the wind and the rain, while it admits light,—a -fire-place, with appliances for carrying off smoke and the products of -combustion—however far above the standard of the uncivilized man—are -not sufficient for the Englishman of middle station. He must have his -rooms nicely squared and neatly fitted; the roof must be concealed from -view by a smooth white ceiling; the rough brick walls must be covered -not only with plaster, but with an ornamental covering of paper or -paint. Hence arises occupation for many artisans whose sole business is -to make the dwelling agreeable to the eye, after the more necessary and -indispensable parts of the structure have been finished.</p> - - -<h3>Plastering Walls and Ceilings.</h3> - -<p>The occupation of the plasterer is generally united with that of the -bricklayer. The business of the plasterer, as such, is to cover over -the rough walls and ceilings of a building with <em>plaster</em>, which -is the name given to a better kind of mortar, made of lime only. When -this plaster is of the coarser kind for the under or first coating, -cow-hair is mixed with it to make it bind better. When a plain brick -wall is to be plastered, the surface is at once covered with the -plaster, this adhering readily to the rough brick-work: but for -ceilings or partitions, a groundwork of laths is required to receive -the first coating.</p> - -<p>Laths are of different sizes and qualities, according to the various -work for which they are intended. Those used by the plasterer are -termed <em>single</em>, and are about from two to three feet long, an -inch broad, and a quarter of an inch thick. They are split out of a -coarse kind of deal. <em>Double</em> laths are considerably longer and -thicker, and are sawn out:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> they are therefore regular in their size. -They are used for better work in plastering, but chiefly by tilers or -slaters.</p> - -<p>The single laths are nailed up to the joists of the ceiling, or to the -<em>quartering</em> of partitions, with but a small interval between -each, so as entirely to cover the surface. The workmen then proceed to -cover the lathing with coarse plaster, a labourer supplying them with -a small quantity at a time on a square board, held in the plasterer’s -left hand by means of a short thick handle stuck upright into the back -of the board. The man uses a rectangular flat wooden trowel, with a -bridge-shaped handle, to transfer the <em>stuff</em> from the board to -the wall, and to spread it evenly over the surface. When the room of -which the walls are being plastered is of a better description, the -work is <em>floated</em>, that is, a regular surface is obtained by -drawing a long straight-edge over the wet plaster, so as to scrape off -the inequalities and reduce the whole to a plane surface.</p> - -<p>A thinner coating of finer plaster is spread over the first to finish -the plastering, and this is again floated in drawing-rooms, and so on.</p> - - -<h3>Plaster and Papier-Maché Ornaments for Rooms.</h3> - -<p>The mouldings of cornices in rooms are formed by a wooden mould drawn -along a straight-edge to guide the mould, acting like the carpenter’s -plane, when forming analogous mouldings in wood. When such cornices are -of sufficient size and depth to require it, wooden brackets, shaped -something like the profile of the cornice, are fixed up against the -wall, and laths are nailed on these brackets, to serve as a foundation -for the mouldings. By this means the necessity for a heavy mass of -plaster, to get the requisite projection in the cornice is avoided; -which mass would be unwieldly to manage, and liable to fall down by its -weight.</p> - -<p>Foliage and ornamental work in plaster is made by <em>modelling</em> -the ornaments by hand, in a proper kind of clay, worked by steel or -wooden tools, resembling small spatulas in form. To do this requires a -taste and skill in drawing or designing in the workman, which raises -him to the rank of an artist. When the model is finished and dry, the -surface of it is covered with a thin coat of oil, and a mould of fine -plaster is taken from it in separate pieces. To allow of the plaster -mould being taken off the model, the edges of these separate pieces of -the mould are made smooth so as to fit accurately together. From this -mould any number of <em>casts</em> may be taken by pouring fluid plaster -into the mould when it is put together; and as soon as each cast has -<em>set</em>, or become hard,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> the mould is taken off it, to be put -together again for a new cast. There has been recently an improvement -introduced, which leads to a diminution of the use of plaster for -ornaments; this is by the substitution of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">papier-maché</i>. The -material so named is formed chiefly of paper, brought to the state of -a paste, and then compressed in moulds. There is to every ornament so -made a counter-mould, following the general contour of the ornament, so -that the piece is made about equally thick in every part. The resulting -ornament is very much less ponderous than those made of plaster, -and much less liable to fracture. The interior decorations of many -buildings are now made of this material.</p> - - -<h3>Whitewashing and Stuccoing.</h3> - -<p>Old plaster ceilings, walls, &c., are cleaned by being -<em>whitewashed</em>. The plaster is first washed over with clean water, -by means of broad flat brushes, to remove the dirt. All cracks and -defects in the plaster are then <em>stopped</em> by filling them up with -new plaster, and it is frequently necessary to cut away the plaster in -such places to obtain a clean new surface to enable the new plaster to -adhere. When the surface is dry, the whitewash, made of whiting mixed -up in water, is laid on with the same form of brushes, and two or three -times gone over, so as effectually to cover all stains and marks on the -surface. Instead of being whitewashed, walls are frequently coloured by -mixing ochre, of the proper tint, in the water along with the whiting.</p> - -<p>The outside of walls of houses, &c., are now frequently covered with -stucco, a kind of plaster made with a lime that resists the action of -water, when set, and which, if well managed, causes the wall to look as -if built of stone. The mode of stuccoing walls is exactly the same as -that of covering them with common plaster.</p> - - -<h3>Origin of Paper-hangings.</h3> - -<p>In early times, wealthy people were accustomed to have the walls of -their rooms covered with <em>tapestry</em>, which was a combination of -woven cloth and needlework, somewhat mid-way between the <em>sampler</em> -work and the <em>carpet</em> work of our own day. These specimens of -tapestry frequently represented some historical events, and were often -worked by the hands of the lady of the mansion and her maids; but at -other times were the work of men following that line of occupation. -The walls of those rooms which were not thus covered, were usually of -panelled wainscot, or oak.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span></p> - -<p>But when tapestry went out of fashion, and a more lively covering for -a wall than oak was wished for, a custom arose of printing or stamping -certain coloured devices on sheets of paper, and of pasting those -sheets against the wall. We believe that it is in England more than in -any other country that this covering for walls is employed; and since -the removal of the duty which was formerly laid on paper-hangings, -they have become so very cheap as to be almost universally employed in -houses of every class; indeed, it may be regarded as a circumstance not -a little conducive to the comfort and neatness of humble dwellings, -that a yard of printed wall-paper can now be purchased for <em>one -halfpenny</em>. From this trifling price up to five or even ten -shillings per yard, paper-hangings are now manufactured; so great are -the improvements gradually made in the modes of manufacture.</p> - - -<h3>The Manufacture of Paper-hangings.</h3> - -<p>It will be interesting to give a brief description of the mode of -making, or rather printing, paper-hangings, before we speak of the -employment of the paper-hanger; for all that devolves upon him is to -fix up the paper when printed.</p> - -<p>The paper employed is a sort of cartoon or cartridge paper manufactured -for the purpose,—rough, but strong. Until recently, every piece of -such paper was stamped, and the excise duty paid on it, before the -process of printing commenced.</p> - -<p>In general, the paper is printed in “distemper,” that is, in -colours mixed with melted size, but sometimes in varnish. The -pigments or colouring substances employed, are principally -these:—<em>Red</em> or <em>crimson</em>,—lake, vermilion, rose-pink, -and red ochre:—<em>Blue</em>,—Prussian blue, verditer, and -indigo:—<em>Yellow</em>,—Dutch pink, yellow ochre, and chrome -yellow:—<em>Green</em>,—verdigris, and various mixtures of the -blues and yellows just mentioned:—<em>Orange</em>,—vermilion, -or red lake, mixed with Dutch pink:—<em>Purple</em>,—a wash -made of logwood, and various mixtures of lake with Prussian -blue, or with indigo:—<em>Black</em>,—ivory black and lamp -black:—<em>White</em>,—whiting and white lead. There are other -substances occasionally used, according as improvements or discoveries -are made in the manufacture of colours; but various combinations of -those which we have mentioned will yield almost every tint that can be -desired.</p> - -<p>These colours are mixed with water, together with a little size or gum, -by which the colours are made adhesive without being too stiff for -working. If the paper is to be glossy when completed, or if any one -of the colours with which it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span> printed is desired to be glossy, the -pigment for that colour is mixed with oil of turpentine and certain -gums and resins which will give a glossy surface to the paint when -dry. Before the printing commences, the piece of paper (which is about -twelve yards long) is coated all over with that colour which is to -form the <em>ground</em>. Powdered whiting is mixed with melted size -to a proper consistence, and laid on with a large brush, in the same -manner as a ceiling is whitewashed: the piece of paper is then left -to dry. If the ground is to be white, nothing more is required before -the printing; but if it is to be coloured, a second ground is laid on, -made of melted size, and of such colouring substances as will give -the required tint: this, when dry, is the ground which is to receive -the ornamental pattern. If the ground is to be glossy, the colouring -substance is mixed with varnish, gum, resin, &c., instead of size and -water.</p> - -<p>When the ground is thoroughly dried, the device is laid upon it, and -this is, in most cases, done by a process almost exactly corresponding -with wood-cut printing, in the fine arts. An impression is taken from -wooden blocks, which are cut in such a manner that the figure to be -expressed is made to project from the surface, by cutting away all -the other parts. But this raised device only represents that portion -of the whole figure which is to be of <em>one</em> colour; so that if -the pattern is to be ultimately represented in four colours, as is -frequently the case, there must be four differently-carved blocks or -stamps to represent these, and the blocks must be so carefully carved -with reference to one another, that though the sizes of them are all -exactly alike, the devices occupy different parts, and do not interfere -with one another: the whole beauty and correctness of the figures -depend on the accuracy with which the blocks are carved.</p> - -<p>Suppose, now, that the paper is properly painted with the ground -colour, dried and spread out on a flat board,—the carved blocks ready -for use,—and the colours mixed and melted in a warm state,—the -process is then conducted as follows. A piece of leather or of oilskin -is stretched over a flat block, and a boy lays a coating of one of the -colours to be used—say green—on the leather, with a brush. A man -then takes that one of the carved blocks which is to stamp the green -part of the device, and lays it down flat on the wet colour, by which -a coating is transferred to all the raised parts of the block. This -is then stamped down, with a firm and steady pressure, upon the piece -of paper, by which the green device is permanently impressed. As the -carved block is only large enough to stamp a small portion at a time, -an adjoining portion of the long piece of paper is taken,—a fresh<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span> -coating of colour laid on the leather by the boy,—this coating again -transferred to the carved block,—and again from thence to the paper. -This continues until the whole length of the paper is printed with the -green device, care being taken that the different impressions shall -accurately join one another at the proper parts.</p> - -<p>The paper is then laid aside to dry, and preparations are made for -printing the second colour upon it.</p> - -<p>Let us suppose this colour to be <em>pink</em>. The proper ingredients -are mixed with size, and melted, and a coating of this laid on a block -covered with leather, as in the former case. The proper carved block -is then taken, and an impression stamped by its means in precisely -the same manner as before, with the exception of the colour being -pink instead of green. But in laying the wet stamp on the piece of -paper, great care is requisite in adjusting the two colours so that -they shall not interfere with each other:—for instance, if the green -represents leaves and the pink represents flowers, it is important that -the pink should not, by a misadjustment of the second stamp, go over -a part already occupied by green, so as to give a confused mixture of -green leaf and pink flower at the same spot. If we closely examine -the pattern of paper-hangings on the walls of our rooms, particularly -the inferior papers, we shall frequently see instances of the bad -adjustment to which we here allude.</p> - -<p>The pink stamping proceeds from end to end of the piece of paper, until -the whole is done; after which it is laid aside to dry. A process -precisely similar in every respect is followed with all the subsequent -colours, be they few or many. The more complicated the figure is, or -the greater the number of colours it contains, the greater is the -degree of care required in impressing the successive colours on the -papers. In order that no time should be lost, directly the workman -has taken a supply of colour on to his block, the boy lays on another -coating on the leather. Indeed, the whole process very much resembles -the rudest kind of <em>printing</em>, with the exception of the use of -different colours.</p> - -<p>The description we have here given is such as will afford a general -idea of the nature of the process. Various improvements have been from -time to time introduced for facilitating the printing; but it is hardly -necessary to dwell upon them.</p> - - -<h3>Stencil, Washable, and Flock Paper-hangings.</h3> - -<p>In some of the cheaper papers, the preparation of the carved wooden -block, and the time and attention necessary in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> using them, would -be incompatible with the charge made for the finished article: an -alteration is therefore made in the mode of proceeding. The principal -outline is printed on the paper by means of a carved block in the usual -way; but the remaining colours are put in by <em>stencilling</em>. A -stencil, or stencil-plate, is a piece of leather, oil-cloth, or thin -sheet metal, with any required device cut in it. Such a stencil is laid -down flat on the paper, and is covered with the required colour by -means of a brush. This colour of course passes through the holes in the -stencil, and falls on the paper, while the uncut parts of the stencil -prevent the colour from falling on any other part of the paper. A -device is thus painted on the paper in a much easier manner than by the -use of a carved block. But from the nature of the process it is found -that the delicate parts of the pattern cannot be represented by this -means, as it is difficult to ensure the passage of the colour through -small perforations. But for the purposes to which stencilling is -applied—viz., the preparation of cheap paper-hangings, this delicacy -is not required. One or more carved blocks are used with the stencil -plates according to circumstances, the choice between blocks and -stencils depending both on the nature of the pattern, and on the value -of the paper when finished.</p> - -<p>Some of the more costly kinds of paper-hangings have gold as one of -the materials forming the device. This is effected by using a wash of -gold powder, instead of a pigment, on one of the carved blocks. There -are also <em>washable</em> paper-hangings, in which the surface is of -a glossy or varnished nature, by which it may be washed free from -dirt and grease without removing the colours with which the paper is -printed. There is likewise a kind of paper-hangings called <em>flock</em> -paper, which has been much in use, and of which the following -description has been given.</p> - -<p>The flock is woollen cloth reduced to great fineness, and laid on -with varnish. After the coloured portions of the paper are finished, -a carved block representing the device which is to be flocked, is -laid down on a flat place coated with wet varnish, and an impression -of the varnish is transferred to the paper, just as if it had been a -coloured pigment. A quantity of the powdered flock is then strewed over -the whole paper, and pressed on it by a flat board, a roller, or some -other convenient means. The paper is then left to dry, after which the -dry flock is brushed off from those parts where no varnish had been -applied, leaving an appearance much resembling that of coarse woollen -cloth, which our readers may frequently have noticed. The flock is -prepared in various ways. Sometimes pieces of woollen cloth of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> -proper colour are taken, and chopped up by means of a bill or knife; -but this is a rude and imperfect way, now probably out of use. Another -mode is, to place the pieces of cloth in a flat box, and cause a sharp -knife, moved by machinery, to pass rapidly, with a chopping motion in -every direction over the various pieces of cloth. In some cases, also, -the cloth is reduced to flock by a kind of grinding process.</p> - - -<h3>The Process of Paper-hanging.</h3> - -<p>This, then, is an outline of the mode by which paper-hangings are -prepared; and we must next speak of the method of pasting them against -the walls of a room. As the long pieces or strips of paper do not -average more than two feet in width, it is obvious that a great many -joints must be made in covering the side of a room with paper. These -joints proceed not crosswise, but perpendicularly from the ceiling -downwards; and considerable care is necessary to insure the continuance -of the pattern on the two sides of a joint: it is in this that the -principal art of the paper-hanger consists.</p> - -<p>A strip of printed paper twelve yards long is called technically <em>a -piece</em>. This piece has ragged unfinished edges, and the edges -are to be cut away in a straight even line until a proper part of -the pattern is reached; for the blocks are so carved, that one edge -always corresponds exactly with the opposite edge. The wall, which -is generally plastered, is washed or sized, and made fit to receive -the paper. The cement with which the paper is fixed up is thin paste; -and when that paste is ready, the paper-hanger proceeds as follows. -Supposing the height of the papered part of a room to be twelve feet, -he cuts on four yards from his piece of paper, with the two ends -accurately at right angles to the long edges. He then lays it down on -a flat board or bench, face downwards, and coats the whole of the back -of the paper with liquid paste, by means of a brush. He then slightly -folds the paper over, so as to prevent it from dragging on the ground, -and, mounting a ladder or a pair of steps, applies one end of the paper -to the upper part of the wall, close to the cornice: then, by letting -the paper unfold itself, it falls to its full length, and extends down -to the bottom of the room, close to the wall. The workman has now -to judge, by the eye, whether the edges of the paper are perfectly -vertical, for the whole beauty of the work depends in a great measure -on this circumstance. When he has ascertained that the paper hangs -perpendicularly, he proceeds to press it firmly to the wall, by means -of cloths; and the paste has so far softened<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> the paper, that wrinkles -of every kind disappear. This done, he cuts off another piece twelve -feet, or four yards long, and pastes it against the wall in precisely -the same manner. But here great precautions are necessary; for the -workman has to attend to three particulars in fixing the second piece -by the side of the first:—to cause it to hang vertically,—to make -an accurate joining of the pattern,—and to refrain from soiling the -surface of the first piece by the paste of the second. All these are -precautions which can only be properly attended to after considerable -practice.</p> - -<p>When the workman is approaching an angle or corner of the room, he -must cut his paper to such a width as will just reach the corner, for -it is generally difficult to bring the paper round both sides of the -angle. In the case which we have supposed, the height of the room is -just one-third the length of the piece of paper, so that there need be -no joints at any intermediate part of the height. But if the height -were any other amount,—say ten feet—three pieces of that length would -leave a fourth only six feet long; and as such a piece is not likely to -be wasted, it follows that there must be a joint at some intermediate -point between the floor and the ceiling. Such a joint requires especial -care, as the pattern has to be attended to both in a vertical and a -horizontal direction.</p> - -<p>When the side of a room is broken by recesses, projections, &c., a good -workman will so arrange his pieces of paper as to give a symmetrical -appearance to the two sides of a projection of a recess, so that the -same part of the pattern which comes to the right hand edge shall also -be seen at the left hand. In papering a staircase, when the upper and -lower edges are oblique and not horizontal, it is of course necessary -that the ends of the paper should be cut in a corresponding manner, in -order that the long joints should be vertical.</p> - -<p>As it is difficult to bring the ends of the paper precisely to the -cornice at the top and to the skirting-board at the bottom, it is usual -to hide those ends by pasting a narrow strip of paper along the top -and bottom of a room, which gives a neat finish to them. This strip of -paper is printed in colours with some pleasing device; and as a broad -piece is printed as quickly as one two or three inches wide, it is -customary to carve a block with twelve or twenty repetitions of the -same narrow pattern, side by side; so that the whole are printed on one -sheet. The paper-hanger has therefore carefully to cut the strips one -from another, and paste them round the wall at the parts which we have -mentioned, and sometimes up the corners of the room likewise.</p> - -<p>It is sometimes preferred, instead of papering the walls of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> a room, to -<em>stencil</em> them. In this case the plaster of the wall is prepared -in a smooth manner to receive the distemper colour, and the pattern is -stamped or printed on the wall in a manner almost exactly the same as -that which we have described respecting stencilling paper-hangings. -This mode is not susceptible of so much neatness as the use of printed -or stamped paper, and is only employed for common apartments.</p> - -<p>There is occasionally a kind of work which falls into the hands of the -paper-hanger very different from those we have mentioned—viz., fixing -gilt wood mouldings round the top and bottom of a room, instead of -pasting a paper bordering in the same place. What little we shall have -to say on this subject will be contained in the following chapter.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_X"><span class="smcap">Chapter X.</span><br />THE INTERIOR—PAINTING AND GILDING.</h2> -</div> - - - -<h3>Reasons for Painting a House.</h3> - -<p>The love of neatness and elegance which distinguishes the cultivated -from the rude man in the decoration of his dwelling, is not the only -motive for these interior fittings of a modern house. There are in many -instances manifest advantages, in relation to dryness and durability, -resulting from such arrangements. Such is the case with respect to -one of the two processes which will occupy the present chapter. In -noticing the services of the house-painter, it will be found that they -are conducive to something more than our love of colours and tasteful -decoration, for they greatly promote the durability of wood and iron -work. Wood of almost every kind is liable to injury from the effects of -the atmosphere, if left unprotected; but when coated with oil-paint, -its power of resisting those effects is much increased. Cleanliness is -also more easily preserved where paint is employed. If a room door, -for instance, were not painted, it would require the same scouring and -cleaning which an uncarpeted floor so often receives, though perhaps -not so frequently. When we consider, therefore, that durability, -cleanliness, neatness, and pleasing decoration, are all derived from -the judicious employment of oil-paint in a house, we shall conclude -that a painter renders important service in the preparation of a -dwelling-house.</p> - - -<h3>Materials used in House-painting.</h3> - -<p>House-painting, in most cases, consists in laying on several coats -of some mineral substances mixed up to a fluid consistence with -<em>oil</em>. There is no other liquid body which is found to have so -many advantages for this purpose as oil; for although turpentine, milk, -beer, spirit, and other liquids are occasionally employed, oil is -the standard material with which the colouring substances are mixed. -The colouring substances, as well as the oils, employed in painting, -are very numerous; and we can only offer a brief description of the -principal among them.</p> - -<p><em>White lead</em> is the most valuable of all the colouring bodies, -since it enters into the composition of almost every other. It is -made by exposing sheet-lead to the action of vinegar, by which a -white substance is procured. <em>Bougival white</em>, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> <em>Spanish -white</em>, are mineral substances procured from abroad. <em>Chrome -yellow</em>, <em>Turner’s yellow</em>, <em>Massicot</em>, <em>Naples -yellow</em>, <em>King’s yellow</em>, <em>Orpiment</em>, and <em>Ochres</em>, -are various bodies of a yellow colour, some derived from earths, -others from ores, and others from chemical treatment of metals. -<em>Vermilion</em>, <em>Carmine</em>, <em>Cochineal lake</em>, <em>Madder -lake</em>, <em>Red lead</em>, <em>Indian red</em>, <em>Venetian red</em>, &c., -produce various tints of red and crimson; but the materials themselves -are derived from very different sources. Vermilion is a compound of -sulphur and mercury; Carmine and Cochineal lake are prepared from -an animal substance; Madder lake from a vegetable; Red lead is an -oxide of that metal; while the others are derived from various kinds -of earth. For a <em>blue</em> colour, the painter employs <em>Prussian -blue</em>, which is a compound of prussic acid and iron; <em>Indigo</em>, -derived from a plant growing in the East Indies; <em>Blue Verditer</em>, -a nitrate of copper; and some other substances. Most <em>green</em> -paints are made of salts of copper, such as <em>Verdigris</em>, which -is an acetate of copper; <em>Scheele’s green</em>, an arseniate of -copper; <em>Green Verditer</em>, a nitrate of copper, and <em>Brunswick -green</em>, a muriate of copper; together with two or three earths, -such as <em>Italian green</em>, <em>Saxon green</em>, &c. <em>Browns</em> -are generally produced by a mixture of <em>black</em> and <em>red</em>; -but there are several earths which yield a brown colour. These are the -principal colouring materials employed by the house-painter, for almost -every intermediate tint or grade of colour can be produced by mixtures -of two or more of the above-mentioned materials, in certain proportions.</p> - -<p>The liquid principally employed to mix with these dry colours is -<em>Linseed oil</em>. This is obtained by beating, pressing, or heating, -from the seed of the flax plant, the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Linum usitatissimum</i>, which -grows in most parts of Europe. This oil has so much <em>fatness</em> -or unctuousness, that it would dry with extreme slowness were not -some further precautions taken. It is boiled with <em>litharge</em> -and <em>white vitriol</em>, in certain proportions, by which it has -a drying quality imparted to it. <em>Nut oil</em> is sometimes used -in painting: this is procured from the kernels of walnuts, beech -nuts, hazel nuts, and other kinds of nut, by a process similar to -that by which linseed oil is obtained. <em>Oil of turpentine</em>, or -<em>turps</em>, is largely used by painters, as it has a drying quality -which counteracts the fatty nature of linseed oil, in combination with -which it is generally used. It is obtained from a liquid or sap exuding -from a species of pine tree, in North America: the sap is crude, or -common turpentine; and by a process of distillation, the <em>oil of -turpentine</em> is obtained from it, leaving a substance behind which -constitutes yellow resin. <em>Oil of spike</em>, <em>oil of lavender</em>, -and <em>oil of poppies</em>, are sometimes used by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> painter; but -not very frequently, on account of their expense; they are vegetable -preparations. <em>Pilchard oil</em>, (obtained from the fish,) <em>common -tar</em>, <em>coal tar</em>, and <em>oil of tar</em>, are used occasionally -for rough exterior work. <em>Varnish</em>, <em>size</em>, <em>beer</em>, -<em>milk</em>, and one or two other liquids are used to a small extent -in some processes to which the painter has to direct his attention. -Varnishes are mixtures of various resinous bodies with spirit; and size -is a jelly obtained by boiling parchment, leather, parings of hoofs, or -of horn, or some similar animal substance, in water.</p> - - -<h3>Preparing the Paint.</h3> - -<p>Such being the principal materials from which the painter prepares -his paint, we proceed to speak of the mode by which he mixes them. -The colours are mostly purchased in that form which is called <em>dry -colours</em>, that is, in coarse powder or small lumps; and they have -to be reduced to fine powder before they are mixed with the oils, &c. -If they contain gritty particles of sand, &c., the colour is put into -a tub or pan, and water thrown upon it, and mixed up with it. The -gritty particles soon fall to the bottom, and the remainder is poured -into another vessel, where, in a short time, the colouring substance -falls to the bottom, and can be obtained by pouring off the water; -after which the powder is dried. But if the substance is one which will -dissolve in water, or if it is not very gritty, it is ground up to -powder in a dry state.</p> - -<p>When the substance is reduced to fine powder, the painter begins to -incorporate the oil with it. He has a <em>grindstone</em> of marble or -porphyry, on which he places a small quantity of the dry colour, and -moistens it with a little oil. With a large flattened pebble, called -a <em>muller</em>, he then grinds up the powder with the oil, until -both form a perfectly smooth paste. That portion is then removed -by a palette knife, (which is a broad thin knife,) and placed in -an earthen paint-pot. Another small portion of powder and oil is -ground up in a similar manner, and put into the paint-pot; and so on, -until a sufficient quantity has been obtained. When this is done, -the pot contains paint, which is too thick for use; to liquefy it, -therefore, a given quantity, which is determined by experience, of oil -or turpentine, or a mixture of both, is added, until the paint has -acquired a consistence—thick enough to prevent it from running into -drops when laid on the work—and thin enough to make it work with ease.</p> - - -<h3>The Process of Painting.</h3> - -<p>Supposing the carpenter to have left the doors, the windows,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> &c., in a -clean and smooth state, the painter’s first office is <em>knotting</em>. -Knots are round places in a plank, in which the grain of the wood runs -through the thickness of the board, so as to show the ends of the pores -at the surface. These ends absorb a greater quantity of paint than the -other portion of the wood, so that if the same number of coats were -given to all alike, the knots would have an ugly, dead appearance, -in consequence of the absorption. The painter, therefore, gives the -knots more paint than the rest of the wood-work; and the preparatory -coat, which is laid on the knots only, is called the <em>knotting</em>. -The paint used is generally red lead, and boiled oil; or sometimes -red lead and size. When this knotting is dry, the <em>priming</em> is -applied, consisting of a thin coat of white paint. White is used for -the priming under almost every variety of circumstances, whatever the -subsequent colours may be. This white paint is a mixture of white -lead, linseed oil, and oil of turpentine, and is laid on, as are the -subsequent coats, by means of brushes which are too well known to need -a lengthened description. They vary from a quarter of an inch to three -inches in diameter, and are generally made of hog’s bristles bound -round with string, or sometimes with tin.</p> - -<p>When the priming is dry, the painter proceeds to fill up all the nail -holes and other irregularities, with putty. This he does by means -of a pointed knife, with which he works in small portions of putty -wherever they may be needed. It is then ready for the second coat of -paint, which is thicker than the first, generally white, but sometimes -coloured. Painting appears to be a very easy process, but in common -with other trades, it requires considerable practice before skill -can be attained. After having worked the brush over the wood-work in -every direction, so as to completely cover every part with paint, the -“laying-off” is effected by drawing the brush smoothly over every part -in the direction of the grain, particularly at the stiles and panels -of doors. Brushes of various sizes are employed, by means of which the -workman can paint the fine mouldings, beading, &c., as well as the -broader surfaces. The more skilful the workman is in the use of his -tools, the less do the marks of the brush remain visible when the work -is done.</p> - -<p>As each coat of paint dries, another is laid on, until sufficient has -been applied. The number varies from two to seven, according to the -part which is to be painted, and the means of those who have to pay -the painter; but in general, four coats is the average quantity which -new wood-work receives. It is the last two coats only which are of -the colour selected, as those which are preparatory are seldom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> other -than white. On some occasions it is desired to have the last coat -<em>glossy</em>; but in others <em>dead</em>. To effect these differences, -all that is necessary is, to vary the oil with which the colour is -mixed. If a glossy surface is required, linseed oil is principally -used; but if a dead surface, oil of turpentine predominates. It is -frequently seen that the walls of staircases, and other large surfaces, -are, when finished painting, totally without gloss. This is effected -by what is called <em>flatting</em>, that is, a coat of paint mixed -wholly with oil of turpentine: the turpentine soon evaporates, and -leaves the colour without gloss on the walls; whereas, when linseed -oil is employed, the oil dries and hardens, instead of evaporating, -and assumes much of the character of a varnish. If no linseed oil is -employed in flatting, it is called a <em>dead flat</em>; but if a little -is added, in order to produce a faint gloss, it is called a <em>bastard -flat</em>. This part of the work forms one of the most unwholesome in -which the painter is engaged, since the oil of turpentine, which is -constantly evaporating during the process, is found to be extremely -prejudicial to health.</p> - -<p>As we are here speaking of a <em>new</em> house, we need not detail the -process followed in repairing an old one. Nor is it necessary so to -do even in respect of the processes themselves, for they are nearly -the same for old work and new. The principal points of difference -are these:—that in old work, greasy and dirty spots are washed with -pearl-ash and water, or with turpentine; that the old paint is rubbed -smooth with pumice-stone, or, if very rough, burned off; that a smaller -number of new coats of paint will suffice; and that a larger proportion -of turpentine is used than in new work.</p> - - -<h3>Graining and Marbling.</h3> - -<p>We have in the above details confined our attention to that more -general and economical kind of house-painting in which a large surface -is painted of one uniform colour. But the department of house-painting -in which the taste of the workman is more fully developed, is that in -which imitations of various species of wood and marble are attempted; -these processes are called <em>graining</em> and <em>marbling</em>. We may -perhaps call this a humble branch of the <em>fine</em> arts, since the -workman prepares a <em>picture</em> of a piece of wood or of a slab of -marble; but whether this be a correct term or not, it is certain that -skill in this branch depends more on taste and observation than on -fixed rules.</p> - -<p>Graining and marbling are sometimes done in oil-paint, but more -frequently in <em>distemper</em>, that is, with a colour mixed with beer -or some other liquid more limpid than oil;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> in this latter case, as the -graining would not have a durable character, it receives one or more -coats of varnish. We will endeavour to give a general idea of the mode -in which graining and marbling are effected.</p> - -<p>The kind of wood usually imitated in this way is <em>oak</em>, or -<em>wainscot</em>, as it is more generally called. When this is imitated -in oil, the last coat of paint previous to the graining is made of -rotten stone, white lead, and linseed oil, and is of a light oak -colour. On this is laid the graining colour, which painters call the -<em>megilp</em>, and which is a thin paint composed of oil, rotten -stone, sugar of lead, and white wax. When this has set a little, the -painter draws over the surface the teeth of a kind of comb, called -the <em>graining comb</em>, by which an imitation of the grain of oak -is produced; these grained lines, to make the imitation more close, -are drawn in a wavy direction. The workman then wraps a little piece -of leather round the finger, and delicately wipes off the colour from -small spots of various forms, by which the light parts of a piece of -oak are imitated. In this state, the grain and the light parts have -rather a harsh appearance, to remove which, a soft dry brush is worked -over the whole in such a manner as to make the various parts blend with -one another. A little Vandyke brown is then mixed up into a smooth -paint, and with this the dark veins are imitated, by means of a small -brush or pencil.</p> - -<p>But in graining oak in distemper, the graining colour consists of other -materials; many receipts are given, but one is Vandyke brown, burnt -umber, and raw umber, mixed into a paint with beer or ale. This is laid -on with a brush, and the subsequent processes of producing the grain, -the light patches, the dark veins, &c., are much the same as in oil -graining, with this exception, that the grain is produced by <em>veining -brushes</em>, instead of <em>graining combs</em>. When the whole is dry, -it receives one or two coats of varnish, to act as a preservative.</p> - -<p>By processes very similar to that just described, mahogany, rose-wood, -satin-wood, maple, pollard oak, zebra-wood, walnut-wood, elm, and other -species of wood, are imitated. For mahogany, the ground is Venetian red -and white lead, and the graining colour is Sienna, or Vandyke brown, -ground in beer. For rose-wood, the ground is lake, vermilion, and -flake white, and the graining colour Vandyke brown, ground in ale. For -satin-wood, the ground is the same as for light oak, and the graining -colour is Oxford ochre, ground in ale. The other kinds of wood are -imitated by grounds and graining colours more or less resembling those -now mentioned. The manual use of the tools is more difficult for the -variegated woods than for oak. Satin-wood, and some other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span> kinds, have -large spots or patches of a lighter colour than the rest of the wood, -and of a peculiarly soft appearance; these are imitated by letting a -sponge fall on various parts of the wet graining colour, by which some -is wiped off, and the edges of these parts are then softened by means -of a badger-hair brush, called a <em>soft even</em>, which is drawn -lightly across the light and dark parts, whereby the sharp edges are -softened and blended.</p> - -<p>The imitation of marble is effected in a similar manner to that of -wood. For white marble, or rather, that which is slightly marked with -dark veins, the walls are first whitewashed, and then washed with -whiting and milk, to obtain a fine white surface. Lamp black, damp -blue, Indian red, and some other colours, are then laid on with very -fine pencils or brushes, in fine but irregular lines, so as to imitate -the veins of the marble. <em>Sienna marble</em> has a ground of yellow -ochre; <em>Florentine marble</em>, one of white, black, and Indian red; -<em>dove-coloured</em> marble, one of light lead colour; and <em>black</em> -and <em>green</em> marbles have the colours designated by their names. -On these grounds are pencilled the light and delicate veins traversing -the surface in every direction, according to the colour and character -of the veins in the marble to be imitated. There are then various -contrivances made use of, by which a softness is produced in all -the veins; this is of more importance in marbling than in graining, -since much of the beauty which we acknowledge to exist in marble is -undoubtedly due to the exquisite softness with which its colours are -blended. The kind of marble called <em>porphyry</em> is imitated in a -singular manner. This marble is spotted all over in various colours; -and the imitation is therefore spotted. A ground is laid on of the -proper colour, and a brush is dipped into a mixture of vermilion and -white, and after being allowed to drain nearly dry, is struck against -a piece of wood, by which a sprinkling of small spots falls on the -surface. The brush is then dipped into another colour, and a similar -process gives a second sprinkling. This is done a third and sometimes -a fourth time, according to the colours of the spots in the marble to -be imitated. The mica, quartz, and feldspar, in granite, are sometimes -roughly imitated by similar means.</p> - -<p>Whatever be the kind of marble which is imitated, it is varnished after -the marbling is completed, in order both to give it greater durability, -and to imitate the beautiful polish which can be imparted to marble.</p> - - -<h3>Gilding, as an Interior Decoration.</h3> - -<p>Supposing the internal decorations to have proceeded thus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> far, we -may next say a few words about the costly material <em>gold</em>, as -applied in furtherance of these embellishments. This is only of limited -application, and in the better class of houses; but as gilt mouldings -frequently form the finishing part of the papering of a room, and as -the houses of most persons contain some articles which are gilt, we -will give a slight description of the processes followed by the gilder, -but without reference to any particular article of <em>furniture</em>, -since that is a department into which we do not profess to enter.</p> - -<p>A <em>metal gilder</em>, or <em>water gilder</em>, is a different workman -from the <em>carver and gilder</em>, who gilds various articles of wood -or composition. The former lays a thin coating of gold on articles of -metal, by means of mercury and of heat, an employment of an extremely -unhealthy character. The carver and gilder lays a surface of leaf-gold -on ornaments, frames, or mouldings, made of wood, plaster of Paris, -papier-maché, or composition.</p> - -<p>If the gold were laid on the bare material by any sort of gum or -cement, it would not adhere permanently, nor would it have that -brilliancy of appearance which the natural lustre of the metal is -calculated to produce; above all, that dazzling surface, known as -<em>burnished gold</em>, could not be so produced. The gilder, therefore, -lays on a certain thickness of such substances as experience has taught -him will answer the proposed end. There are, doubtless, many substances -which would answer for this purpose; but the course which is actually -adopted we proceed to describe.</p> - - -<h3>The Process of Burnish-Gilding.</h3> - -<p>We will take, as an instance, a long piece of the moulding which the -paper-hanger applies in the way to which we have alluded. This is cut -out to the proper hollow or reeded form by a carpenter, who employs -planes suited for the purpose. The wood which he uses is of a kind -tolerably free from knots and holes: and when the moulding is ready, -it passes into the hands of the gilder. The first thing done is to -wash it with a mixture of whiting and parchment-size, made quite hot, -and almost as limpid as water. The size used for this and for other -purposes required by the gilder, is obtained by boiling cuttings of -parchment in water until a stiff jelly is produced.</p> - -<p>When the moulding is dry from the application of this preparatory -wash, any small holes that may exist are stopped up with putty, and -the moulding is ready to receive five or six coatings of a very thick -mixture of whiting and size.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> Those coatings are laid on moderately -warm, by means of a brush, each coat being thoroughly dried before the -next is applied. By this means the moulding is coated to the thickness -of a sixteenth or twelfth of an inch, by which the fine squares and -hollows produced by the plane (if there happened to be such in the -moulding) would be liable to be stopped up: to prevent this, modelling -tools of various forms are drawn along the wet whiting, so as to -preserve the original pattern in tolerable condition. The whole surface -is then smoothed by small pieces of pumice-stone worked to fit the -various parts of the moulding. The stones and the whiting being kept -constantly wetted, and the former worked steadily over the latter, a -smooth and even surface is attained.</p> - -<p>When the moulding is dry after this smoothing process, it is further -smoothed with sand or glass paper, and is then coated with five or six -layers of <em>burnish gold size</em>. This is a very peculiar composition -of suet, black lead, clay, parchment-size, and other ingredients, mixed -to a stiff consistency. These successive coats or layers are well dried -after each application; and after one or two other processes by which -the gold size is rendered smooth, the moulding is ready to receive the -leaf gold.</p> - -<p>Gold, in the form in which it is thus used, is one of the thinnest -substances which the art of man has ever prepared in a solid form, -since it would require more than a quarter of a million of the small -sheets into which it is beaten, to make a pile <em>one inch</em> in -thickness. A solid piece of gold is rolled into the form of a ribbon by -means of a flatting-mill: and the gold-beater then reduces it to the -thickness—or rather thinness—to which we have alluded, by means of -hammering.</p> - -<p>The gilder receives this leaf gold in the form of sheets or leaves -about three inches square, inclosed between the leaves of a small book. -He blows out some of these leaves on a leather cushion surrounded by a -parchment border on three sides; this border, is to prevent the gold -from being blown away, the fourth side being left open for the future -proceedings of the workman. The gilder supports the cushion on his left -hand, and with a knife in the other, he takes up one of the leaves -of gold, and by dexterous management, spreads it out smoothly on the -cushion. He then considers the width of the moulding, (which is laid -before him,) and determines how he can best cut up the leaf of gold so -as to adapt the pieces to the width of the moulding:—if for instance -a slip one inch in width will cover the width of the moulding, he cuts -the leaf into three equal pieces. He is next provided with a flat -camel-hair brush, called a <em>tip</em>, the hairs of which are from one -to two inches in length, and laid parallel with great regularity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span></p> - -<p>His tools being thus ready, he wets a small portion of the moulding -by means of a camel-hair pencil dipped in water, and, taking the -<em>tip</em> in his right hand, he lays the hairs on one of the slips of -gold, which slightly adheres to it. This slip of gold he transfers to -the moulding, where it instantly adheres by means of the water with -which the latter is wetted. Another portion is wetted in a similar -manner, and another slip of gold laid on, one end of which is made to -lap a little way over the one first laid on. A third slip is now laid -on in a similar manner; and by this time the first leaf of gold is all -used. A second is therefore laid out smooth by means of the knife,—cut -into three pieces,—and laid on the moulding as before. This process -continues until the moulding has been gilt in its whole extent. We may -remark, that the moulding is placed in an inclined position, the higher -end being first gilt: this is done in order that the water should -gradually flow off from beneath the pieces of gold after they are laid -on, to facilitate the drying.</p> - -<p>When the gold—or rather the wetted gold size which is beneath it—has -attained a certain degree of dryness known only by experience, and -which occurs in a time varying from one to twelve hours according to -the state of the atmosphere, the gold is <em>burnished</em> by means of -a burnisher made of flint, agate, or bone. This, if carefully done, -produces a brilliant gloss, but could not be at all attained without -the layers of whiting and gold size under the gold. Sometimes a portion -of the moulding is preferred, for relief and contrast, to be left dead -or <em>matt</em>, as it is termed. In this case the burnisher is not -used; but the gold, after it is dried, is merely secured by a thin -clear cement or varnish of parchment size.</p> - - -<h3>The Process of Oil-Gilding.</h3> - -<p>Sometimes no burnishing at all is required, while a degree of -durability which cannot be conveniently obtained with burnish-gilding -is desired. In this case the moulding is gilt in <em>oil gold</em>, by a -process differing in many respects from that which we have mentioned.</p> - -<p>For oil-gilding a ground of whiting and size is required, as in -burnish-gilding, but not in so great quantity. After the application of -a few coats of whiting and size, the moulding is smoothed in the manner -before described; and in some cases a few coats of burnish gold size -are applied, but not always. The next process is to wash the moulding -with two or three coatings of strong size, by which it acquires a gloss -somewhat similar to that produced by varnish, and which has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> the effect -of preventing the absorption of the substance next employed.</p> - -<p>The moulding is now ready to receive the <em>oil gold size</em>, which -is an exceedingly smooth mixture of ochre and oil. This is laid on in -a stratum as thin and smooth as possible; and after being set aside -for some hours, it acquires a peculiar degree of clamminess between -wet and dry; when it is ready to receive the coating of gold. The gold -is blown into the cushion, spread out, cut into slips, taken up by the -tip, and applied to the work, in the same manner as in burnish-gilding; -but the moulding is not wetted with water, the partially dry oil gold -size serving that purpose. The gold is, in this case, pressed down into -the hollows and crevices of the moulding, by means of a piece of cotton -wool; and when the whole is gilt, a soft brush is lightly applied, -by which the gold is worked into small depressions, which it would -not otherwise have reached, and the superfluous gold is rubbed off. -The gold is now left as it is, or is washed with transparent size, or -receives a coat of varnish. In either case it becomes in a short time -so far hardened as to be susceptible of washing without being rubbed -off.</p> - - -<h3>Gilding Enriched Ornaments.</h3> - -<p>The description which has been given of the process with reference to -the mouldings used by the paper-hanger will also apply to most other -articles with which the gilder is concerned. But in proportion to -the elaborate nature of the article must be the care bestowed by the -gilder. This particularly applies in the case of an elegant carved -looking-glass frame.</p> - -<p>The richly ornamented frames, window-cornices, mouldings, &c., which -form a great part of the work of the gilder, are in general not carved -in wood, but are cast in moulds, and are made of a tough and durable -composition formed principally of glue and whiting. The ornaments, -when cast, are fixed on wood frame-work or foundation, and in that -state pass into the hands of the gilder. His mode of treating them -is somewhat different from that required by a straight plain piece -of moulding:—the material itself does not require so many layers of -whiting and size as those articles which are made wholly of wood; and -the difficulty of smoothing intricate and ornamental surfaces renders -many precautions necessary.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the cornice of a room, or a portion of it, and also the -central ornament of the ceiling, are gilt. This is generally done in -oil gold; and as the material of which they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</span> are made, viz., plaster of -Paris, very much resembles whiting, scarcely any of the last-mentioned -substance is required to be applied by the gilder.</p> - -<p>We may here state, in connexion with what has been said about gilt -mouldings for rooms, that the paper-hanger fixes them to the wall by -means of broken needles, or headless brittle needles made for the -purpose. The pieces of moulding are cut to the required length, and -mitred, so as to join accurately at the corner; after which they are -fastened to the wall by driving in some of the needles at distances of -two or three feet.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XI"><span class="smcap">Chapter XI.</span><br />A MODEL DWELLING-HOUSE.</h2> -</div> - - - -<h3>The late Sir John Robison’s House at Edinburgh.</h3> - -<p>The various contrivances for rendering a dwelling-house complete in all -that respects the comfort of the inmates, could not perhaps be better -illustrated than by taking some actual instance, and showing what -has really been effected. The late Sir John Robison, an enlightened -man of science at Edinburgh, erected a house in the north-west part -of that city, and fitted it up with a care which has been rarely -observed in other places. So much has this house been regarded -as a model, that a full description of it has been given in the -Supplement to <span class="smcap">Loudon’s</span> <i>Encyclopædia of Cottage and Villa -Architecture</i>; and we propose to give an abstract of such portions -of this description as can be understood without the aid of elaborate -drawings.</p> - -<p>The distribution of the internal space of the house is so managed, -that, with the exception of two partitions in the first chamber-floor, -which cross the floors without resting on them, all the internal -walls reach from the foundation to the roof. The two partitions here -mentioned are of stone, and are supported on cast-iron beams isolated -from the floors, the joists of which are supported by wooden beams -placed alongside, but not connected with the iron beam. The movements -of the flooring, therefore, are not communicated to the partitions, and -do not consequently affect them by vibration.</p> - -<p>The arrangement of the rooms, staircases, and passages, has especial -reference to the ventilation of the whole house. While the mass of -air in the rooms and passages is constantly undergoing renewal by the -escape of the vitiated air above, and the admission of large supplies -of fresh air from below, no currents are perceived in the apartments, -which, even when crowded with company, and amply lighted, preserve a -remarkable degree of freshness. Cylindrical flues of earthenware, nine -inches in diameter, are built into the gables, in close proximity to -the smoke flues of each room; and the lower ends of these ventilating -flues open into the spaces between the ceilings of the respective rooms -and the floors of those above them; and there is one or more of these -exit air-flues in each room, according to its size and use. The heated -and vitiated vapours pass upwards through the ceiling by a continuous -opening of about one inch and a half wide (behind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> one of the fillets -of the cornice) all round each room; and having thus passed into the -space between the ceiling and the floor immediately above, they ascend -by the flues in the wall, and are discharged by them into the vacant -space between the ceilings of the attics and the roof, from whence they -find their way through the slates to the open air. The passage for the -air through the cornice is not visible from the floor of any of the -rooms, an ornamental moulding being so arranged as to conceal it. The -air flues are made to terminate above the ceilings of the attics, and -below the roof of the house, rather than at the chimney heads, in order -to prevent the possibility of smoke being over brought down by reverse -currents; and an advantage is likewise gained in protecting the attic -story from the cold which would otherwise be communicated from the roof -during winter.</p> - -<p>The continued supply of fresh air to the lower part of the house, -to replace that which is carried off by the ventilators and by the -chimneys, is brought in from the garden behind the house by a passage, -the sectional area of which is eight square feet. The cold air admitted -by this passage (or by another similar one from the front of the house) -is made to pass over a stove in a lower chamber having a surface of -nearly ninety square feet, so that a temperature of from 64° to 70° -Fahr., can thus be imparted to the air. In very cold weather, 70° -is occasionally given to compensate the cooling effect of the walls -and glass windows, so as to preserve an equable temperature of 60° -throughout the house; but the usual temperature of the air issuing from -the stove is as low as 64°. The whole of this air is discharged into -the well of the staircase, which forms a reservoir from whence the -rooms draw the quantity required to maintain the upward currents in the -chimneys and in the ventilating flues. The air in the staircase finds -its way into the apartments by masked passages, of four or five inches -wide, and four feet long, over the doors, and by openings an inch in -width left under each door. The sectional areas of these passages are -more than equal to the areas of the chimney and ventilating flues; -there is, therefore, no rarefaction of the air within the rooms, nor -any tendency of the external air to enter at chinks of windows or other -irregular apertures. The course of the air, from the great aperture -over the stove, through the staircases, over and under the doors, into -the rooms, thence through the ceilings, and upwards by the escape -flues, forms a continuous series, in which all the air for all the -rooms comes from one central point, and is raised at that centre to the -precise temperature required. The quantity of escape is regulated by -hand, by means of throttle-valves at the mouth of each escape<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> flue; -hence, by opening or shutting each throttle-valve, the rate of the -ventilating current is augmented or diminished.</p> - -<p>The kitchen is ventilated on the same principle as the upper rooms. One -flue proceeds from the ceiling over the fire-place, and another from -over a gas-cooking apparatus. The first of these is built in the gable, -close to the smoke flue; and the second passes up near the back of the -water cistern, so that the constant ascent of the warmed air may by its -vicinity prevent the water in the cistern from freezing in the winter.</p> - -<p>The house is lighted by gas in every part; but no offensive vapour -or inconvenience of any kind appears ever to be felt from it. The -distribution pipes are of greater diameter than are generally employed, -and the pressure or current is thereby so equalized, that no sinkings -or flutterings of the flame are caused by the opening and shutting -of doors. The forms and proportions of the Argand burners and glass -chimneys are also so arranged as to effect nearly a maximum development -of light (of an agreeable hue) from the gas, and to prevent any -disengagement of sooty vapour; and the white and gold ceilings of the -drawing-room are said to attest the complete success with which this -latter object has been attained. The mirrors over the chimney-pieces -have statuary marble frames, and each chimney-piece has two gas lights. -But the use of gas in the kitchen is perhaps the most remarkable. Here -there is a <em>gas-cooking</em> apparatus. In the application of gas for -cooking, the arrangements are generally as follow:—A metallic ring, -pierced on its upper side with a great number of holes of very small -size, is attached to the pipe communicating with the gas main, and is -placed within a double drum or cylinder of iron, raised an inch or two -from the floor on short legs. This double cylinder is so constructed -as to leave a space between the inner and the outer cylinder of about -two inches; and in this space near to the bottom, the pierced ring is -fixed. A stop-cock in the pipe connecting the pierced ring with the -gas main shuts off the supply of gas when the stove is not in use. On -opening the cock, and applying the gas to the pierced ring, a brilliant -ring of flame is immediately produced, which soon heats both cylinders. -The air within the inner cylinder ascends into the room, which it -helps to warm; the outer surface of the outer cylinder also performs a -similar service; while the space between the two cylinders contains the -products of combustion, which are allowed to escape into the room, if -the heating power of the whole is required; but which are carried off -by an inclosed channel, if it be wished to protect the air of the room -from deleterious mixture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span></p> - -<p>In this house, the gas-cooking stoves are eight in number, the mouth of -each being four inches in diameter, a size which experience has shown -to be the most useful. The kitchen fire-place is no larger than is -requisite for roasting; all the other processes being performed either -in the oven, the steaming vessels, or at the gas stoves. These stoves -are placed in the bay of a large window, thus giving the cook the -advantage of a good light above the level of the pans. A close boiler -at the back of the grate affords steam for the cooking utensils and for -a hot closet; it also contains a coil of iron tubing, through which the -water of a bath, placed in a dressing-room on the chamber floor, is -made to circulate when a hot bath is wanted.</p> - -<p>The flues for carrying off heated vapours, &c., are of two kinds. -It has already been stated, that the vitiated air of the rooms is -convoyed by apertures just below the ceiling into pipes which find an -exit at the top of the house. These flues are made of cylinders of red -earthenware, eight or nine inches in diameter. Those by which the smoke -of the fires is carried away, are cylinders of fire-brick clay, from -two to three inches thick, and from seven to ten inches in diameter. -In each fire-place, where the throat of the chimney is contracted over -the grate, there is a valve made of rolled iron plate, which fits into -a cast-iron seat fixed in the brick-work; when this valve is in its -seat, neither soot nor smoke can pass; and when it is thrown back, the -passage to the flue is unobstructed.</p> - -<p>After describing the mortise locks for the doors, and the arrangements -of some French windows for opening into a balcony, both of which -exhibit ingenious and novel features, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon quotes a letter from -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hay, of Edinburgh, the author of a <i>Treatise on Harmonious -Colouring</i>, and who superintended the interior decorations of the -house. The drawing-rooms are first spoken of thus:—The walls have been -prepared with several coats of white lead, grained to imitate morocco -leather; on this a pattern of gilded rosettes has been laid, and the -whole varnished with copal. Another pattern has then been superadded -in flat white, so that the whole has been compared in appearance -to a lace-dress over satin and spangles. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hay says: “There is -nothing very much out of my usual practice in the painting done in -Sir John Robison’s house in Randolph Crescent, except the walls of -the drawing-rooms and staircase. The bed-rooms were done in the usual -way; namely, ceilings sized on two coats of oil paint; walls papered -with a white embossed satin-ground paper, with small brown sprigs; -and the wood-work painted white, and finished with copal varnish. -The dining-room and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span> Sir John’s own room were both done in imitation -of wainscot, with white ceilings, varnished. The staircase ceilings -and cornices painted white and flatted; and the walls and wood-work -painted also white, and varnished with copal. The drawing-rooms and -ante-rooms were all painted white; the ceilings and cornices, as well -as the wood-work, being finished flat, and heightened with gilding. -The walls are, as I have already said, rather peculiar in their -style of painting. The ground work is rendered regularly uneven by -being granulated—by working it over with the point of a dry brush, -immediately applying the two last coats of paint. This is partly -varnished and partly flat, the flat parts forming large rosettes. -Between these rosettes are smaller ones, gilded, not in the base-metal -used upon paper-hangings, but in sterling gold leaf. This style of -decorative painting, from the great body of paint employed in producing -the granulated surface, the copal varnish, and the gold leaf, must -be of the most durable description. I may here mention, that during -the last two or three years, I have painted a very great number of -drawing-rooms in various styles, some with rich borders, others in -my patent imitation of damask, and a few in styles similar to that -employed upon Sir J. Robison’s; and have papered very few. I feel very -sure, that as the advantages of painting over papering, especially -in the public rooms of a mansion, become generally known, the latter -style of decoration will be entirely given up. As to the colouring -of ceilings, that must be left in a great measure to the taste of -the proprietor; as some like pure white, others delicate tints, and -a few go the length of the most intense colours, or polychrome. With -this last class I myself agree; but I am at the same time aware, that -if this be not done with the most strict attention to the laws of -harmonious colouring, the effect must be bad; it would be like a person -unacquainted with the science of music, running his fingers at random -over the keys of a powerful organ. In the one case, white, or a light -tint, is better than colours; and in the other, silence better than -such an attempt at music.”</p> - - -<h3>A Beau-ideal English Villa.</h3> - -<p>The work from which the above has been derived, viz., <span class="smcap">Loudon’s</span> -<i>Encyclopædia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture</i>, -contains a chapter contributed by an anonymous writer, but devoted -to a singular and interesting subject. The object is to lay down -rules for the construction and furnishing of a villa which should be -the <em>beau-ideal</em>—the standard of excellence—of this class of -dwelling-house. He describes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span> the characteristics of the old English -country-house; and, taking that as his model, shows how modern -improvements may be brought to bear on the general arrangements of the -building. The description is too long to be given here in full, even -if it were right so to do; but we will condense into a few paragraphs -those details which relate to the construction and fittings of the -house, omitting all those matters which relate only to furniture.</p> - -<p>The residence here described, or rather imagined, is the country house -of an English gentleman of ample means, but partaking much more of the -<em>manorial</em> than of the palatial character. The term <em>villa</em> -is not perhaps so fixed in meaning as to convey to every one the same -idea of the kind of building alluded to. The word was originally used -by the Romans to denote a farm-house, with the offices requisite for -the accommodation of a husbandman. Afterwards, when luxury increased, -the term <em>villa</em> was applied to the country residence of an -opulent Roman citizen. It is in a somewhat similar style that the word -is here to be used.</p> - -<p>The villa being a place of agreeable retirement, but not one of -seclusion from the world, it should be situated within reach of a -public road, at an easy distance from the metropolis. “I should prefer -a situation removed about a mile from the great public road, and about -ninety miles or a day’s journey from the metropolis. Here I would -inclose a park of 100 or 150 acres; bounded on the north and west sides -by lofty wooded hills; on another side by a road; and elsewhere by the -inclosed country of the district; the surface of the park varied, but -gently inclining to the south, with a rapid stream of water passing -through it at no great distance from the site of the house.”</p> - -<p>A villa (the writer proceeds to say) should always form part of a -village, and be placed if possible on rather higher ground. The old -English style of architecture is preferred; as being more picturesque -and ornamental; as according best with rural scenery; as, by admitting -great irregularity of form, it affords space for the various offices -and conveniences necessary in a country house; and as being better -suited to our climate than the Grecian style, which, by requiring -porticoes, projecting cornices, and windows of rather small size, -tends to intercept the light and make the house gloomy. The old style -also allows more variety of ornament upon the roof, such as the -stacks of chimneys, gables, pinnacles, turrets, and other appendages -to the general effect of a building when seen at a distance; whereas -in the Grecian style, which requires perfect symmetry of form, and -the prevalence of straight lines, these arrangements could not be -admissible.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> For these reasons an old English or “Elizabethan” house -is selected. The front of the house would present a centre and two -projecting wings. The centre would contain the hall and dining-room, -with a gallery and staircase behind them. One wing would be occupied -by the drawing-room and library, with the saloon between them. The -other wing might contain a sitting-room, and superior offices for -servants; the inferior offices being on the basement, or in a separate -building in the kitchen-court. The principal part should be highly -ornamented, and form a symmetrical whole. In the centre would be the -porch of two stories, with its rich gable, small pillars, escutcheons, -&c.; the wall on either side (broken into compartments by pilasters, -or handsome buttresses, and proper string-courses) would contain large -mullioned windows; the whole supporting a battlement or parapet, with -its appropriate ornaments. The ends of the projecting windows would -present each a bay window of two stories, square or semicircular in -form, with balustrade or stone covering above; the gables of the wings -corresponding with that of the porch. The high and steep roof should be -varied by ornamental chimneys of different patterns, placed in their -proper situations; and, rising above them, the tower, containing the -grand staircase, appearing at a short distance behind the porch; its -waving cupola roof terminating in a rich lantern, and supporting a -weathercock or dwarf spire.</p> - -<p>After giving his reasons for thinking that a country residence in the -Elizabethan style should have a kind of rich framework of courts and -gateways, balustraded terraces, and architectural gardens, the writer -proceeds to describe the interior of his supposed edifice, beginning -with the <em>porch</em>. This should be ascended by a flight of stone -steps; it should be floored with stone; and the ceiling, the door, and -the door-way, highly enriched.</p> - -<p>The entrance-hall, which succeeds the porch, would vary in its -character according to the size of the house. In the large old English -mansions it was formerly the dining-room and place of rendezvous for -the servants and retainers; but in a smaller house, such as might be -termed a villa, and especially under the altered habits of English -society, a smaller hall, and one more nearly resembling a mere -entrance, would be fitting. An English hall admits of much picturesque -embellishment, such as a carved oak roof or ceiling, either flat or -semicircular, enriched with highly-wrought bosses or coats of arms; a -music gallery across the end, supported by pillars or a carved screen; -a chimney-piece reaching to the cornice of the roof; and a carved -wainscot covering half the height of the walls.</p> - -<p>Having entered the porch-door, and crossed the lower end<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> of the hall, -entrance would be gained to the <em>gallery</em>, a sort of an in-door -promenade, between the hall and the staircase; having one door leading -to the saloon, another to the billiard-room, and another to the -domestic offices. “The staircase is an important convenience in every -house; and it should always be a striking feature in a mansion of any -elegance. The tower, which I suppose to contain the staircase, would -be square, as high as the ceiling of the upper floor, where it would -take a sort of octagon form; the roof coned, and ending in a lantern: -in the centre of the lantern a boss would support a lamp. In the side, -opposite to the arch by which you enter, would be a tall mullioned -window filled with stained glass. Advancing a few steps, you would -reach the first flight in the middle of the tower, and ascend to the -first landing-place; you would find a flight of stairs on the right -and left leading to the second landing, in the centre of which is the -upper gallery door, immediately over the arch below. As the house is -to be in the old English style, the stairs might be either of oak or -stone; but the balusters must be of oak handsomely carved, and rather -heavy. They might begin at the foot of the stairs with a richly-carved -sort of pedestal, and the same at each corner as they ascend. In old -staircases there was frequently an animal of some sort sculptured in -wood, supporting the family arms, placed on these pedestals, especially -at the foot of the stairs; or the animal had a substitute in a ball or -pine-apple.”</p> - -<p>The chief apartments on the ground floor are described as being the -saloon, the drawing-room, the library, the dining-room, and the study. -The saloon is generally a sort of vestibule to the dining-rooms; and, -supposing it to be such in this case, and of a parallelogram form, its -arrangement is thus sketched:—The entrance door is in the centre of -the side next the gallery; in the centre of the end on the right hand -would be the drawing-room door, and in the centre of the other end the -library door. On the other side should be two windows, with a glass -door between them opening to the terrace and garden. The drawing-room -would be larger than the saloon. On entering from the saloon the -opposite end would present a square or circular bay-window, commanding -a view of the park and the distant country beyond it. On the right side -would be the fire-place, and on the opposite side two windows looking -over the terrace.</p> - -<p>Crossing the saloon from the drawing-room we should arrive at the -library. This would be about the same size as the drawing-room, and -would, like it, have a bay window opposite the entrance, and two other -windows opposite the fire-place. This room, it is supposed, would be -the family<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> sitting-room when there is no company in the house; and -would be the forenoon resort of the gentlemen when guests are stopping -at the house; and hence arises a very minute and curious detail of the -manner in which the library should be fitted up, in order to answer -this double purpose. These, however, we cannot enter upon; but the -following will give an idea of the manner in which this imaginative -house-builder fills up the rooms of his villa:—“As to the smaller -ornaments to be placed around the room, they should be curious and -interesting, and on no account frivolous. Handsome silver inkstands, a -few curious fossils, or models of celebrated buildings; all sorts of -writing-cases and implements, taper stands of silver, boxes of coins, -old china in large jars, and anything of these kinds, with handsome -books, might decorate the tables; and, as nothing gives a room a more -dismal effect than an appearance of idleness, everything should be so -arranged, both here and in the drawing-room, as if the persons using -the rooms had been employed in some way or other. This effect would -be produced by the daily papers, and some periodical works, and open -letters received in the morning, on the principal tables; and, on other -tables, some of the blotting-books might be open; the inkstands not -thoroughly in order, with some unfinished writing and open books or -portfolios, would give at least the appearance of industry. I do not -recommend such foolish tricks, which are, I know, often used by idle -people, who have sense enough to feel the bad taste of indolence; and -in a sensible family, who spent their time rationally, this would be, -in fact, the usual state of the room, at least during the morning.”</p> - -<p>The dining-room of the <em>beau-ideal</em> villa is contiguous to the -hall, whence entrance is obtained by double doors. The walls are -covered with old oak wainscot. The fire-place should be very large, -reaching nearly to the ceiling, and all the fittings and arrangements -of a massive, solid, and handsome kind. The gentleman’s study, or -business room, would be a smaller, plainer, and more strictly private -room, on the same floor, and used for writing, reading, and transacting -business.</p> - -<p>Having disposed of the principal apartments, the writer proceeds -to describe the rooms on the next floor above, occupied chiefly as -bed-rooms. The grand staircase leads up to a second gallery, over -the lower one; and in this gallery are the doors of all the best -sleeping-rooms. The sitting and sleeping nurseries are also on this -floor; as is likewise the governess’s sitting-room, “in a quiet part -of the house.” The bed-rooms for the servants are on the upper floor, -approached by the back staircase.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span></p> - -<p>Then we descend to the basement of the house, where the various -servants’ rooms are situated. The housekeeper’s room should be a -spacious comfortable room, furnished as a respectable parlour; and so -situated that the other offices may be overlooked by the housekeeper. A -door in this room should open into the still-room, which is the common -sitting-room of the under female servants, and where portions of the -ordinary operations are carried on. A store-closet opens conveniently -into the still-room, and has conveniences for arranging the stores -and provisions as they are unpacked. The butler’s pantry, being the -room in which the plate is lodged, should be placed in a part secluded -from the back entrance to the house, and should have strong doors and -window-shutters to prevent depredation. The servants’ hall would be -near the back entrance to the house, and easy of access. Here all the -under servants would dine, and it would be the common sitting-room -for the males. The larders, if the house were large, would be four in -number; the wet larder for undressed meat, the dry larder for cold -meat, the game larder, and the pastry.</p> - -<p>The kitchen, as being one of the most important rooms in a hospitable -mansion, is treated with due importance. The writer describes the -arrangements in the kitchen of a mansion in Warwickshire, as being -fitted to serve as a model. “The kitchen, scullery, larder, &c., formed -a range of building on one side of the kitchen-court, separate from -the house, but there was a covered way between them. The building was -of two stories, the kitchen occupying the centre. It was a large lofty -room, of good proportions, as high as two stories of the building. You -entered it at one end, by large folding-doors, from a passage through -the building; at the opposite end was the fire-place, with the screen -before it; on one side of which was the door to the scullery and -bakehouse, on the other a range of set coppers of different sizes. On -one side of the room were two rows of windows, and under the lower row -a range of charcoal stoves and hot plates: the latter to keep things -warm. The other side had only the upper row of windows, and against the -wall was a dresser, above which the copper cooking utensils, &c., were -ranged in a very ornamental way. A long table was in the centre of the -room, and over the door a dial-clock. The ceiling had a very handsome -cornice, and a boss in the centre, from which hung a brass lamp. -Opposite the entrance door another door admitted you to a passage, on -one side of which were the larders, on the other salting-rooms, &c.; -and at the end a staircase led to the cook’s apartment over. There -was a sort of turret in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> centre of the roof, containing a capital -clock, which struck upon the dinner bell. The other offices were in -the basement of the house, and the kitchen was detached, to prevent -the annoyance of the smell of cooking, which commonly ascends from -a kitchen beneath the house. I thought the arrangement particularly -convenient, and the kitchen was really an elegant apartment. As, in a -large establishment, there is cooking going on through the whole day, -it is of importance to the comfort of the family, to place the kitchen -in such a situation that the smell of cooking, which is particularly -offensive, may not be an annoyance to the principal apartments. A house -with the kitchen in the basement story is generally subject to this -inconvenience, and it is usually avoided by having the kitchen and -offices in a separate building adjoining the house.”</p> - -<p>The writer continues his remarks and descriptions in a similar manner, -treating of all the various parts of the building in succession; then -of the riding-house, the stable-yard, the coach-houses, the harness -and saddle rooms, and the dog-kennel; then of the kitchen garden, -the pleasure garden, the dairy, the farm buildings for a “gentleman -farmer;” and, lastly, of the village and the village church, so far -as regards the relation between them and the mansion. In short, this -writer seems to have proposed to himself this question—“What are the -excellencies to be desired and attained in the mansion of an English -country gentleman?” and he appears to have solved it by putting -together the scattered fragments of his experience in various quarters, -and building up an ideal mansion therefrom.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XII"><span class="allsmcap">CHAPTER XII.</span><br />FIRE-PROOF HOUSES.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The attempts which have been made to render houses fire-proof are so -intimately connected with the construction of dwellings, that it will -be proper to give a few brief details on the subject. There are many -difficulties attending these attempts; for so long as wood forms the -chief inner frame-work of a house, there will always be considerable -liability to destruction by fire. Most of the proposed plans have had -relation to the coating of the wood with some substance which should -render it less inflammable, while others have been directed rather to -the rejection of combustible substances from the list of those used in -house-building.</p> - -<p>So long back as 1775, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hartley made several trials in order to -test the efficacy of a method invented by him for that purpose. Thin -iron plates were nailed to the top of the joists; the edges of the -sides and ends being lapped over, folded close, and hammered together. -Partitions, stairs, and floors were proposed to be defended in the same -manner. The plates were so thin as not to prevent the floor from being -nailed on the joists in the same manner as if the iron were not used; -and the plates were kept from rust by being painted or varnished with -oil and turpentine. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Hartley had a patent for this invention; and -Parliament voted a sum of money towards defraying the expense of his -numerous experiments. It does not, however, appear that the plan was -permanently adopted.</p> - -<p>About the same period, Lord Mahon, afterwards Earl Stanhope, a nobleman -possessing a highly inventive tact in mechanical matters, brought -forward another method having the same object in view. This method -was of a three-fold character, comprising <em>under-flooring</em>, -<em>extra-lathing</em>, and <em>inter-securing</em>.</p> - -<p>The method of under-flooring is either single or double. In single -under-flooring, a common strong lath of oak or fir, about one-fourth -of an inch thick, should be nailed against each side of every joist, -and of every main timber, supporting the floor which is to be secured. -Other similar laths are then to be nailed along the whole length of the -joists, with their ends butting against each other. The top of each of -these laths or fillets ought to be at an inch and a half below the top -of the joists or timbers against which they are nailed; and they will -thus form a sort of small ledge on each side of all the joists. These -fillets are to be well bedded in a rough<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> plaster when they are nailed -on, so that there may be no interval between them and the joists; and -the same plaster ought to be spread with a trowel upon the tops of -all the fillets, and along the sides of that part of the joists which -is between the top of the fillets and the upper edge of the joints. -In order to fill up the intervals between the joists that support the -floor, short pieces of common laths, whose length is equal to the width -of these intervals, should be laid in the contrary direction to the -joists, and close together in a row, so as to touch one another; their -ends must rest upon the fillets, and they ought to be well bedded in -the rough plaster, but are not to be fastened with nails. They must -then be covered with one thick coat of the rough plaster, which is to -be spread over them to the level of the tops of the joists; and, in a -day or two this plaster should be trowelled over, close to the sides of -the joists, without covering the tops of the joists with it.</p> - -<p>In the method of double-flooring, the fillets and short pieces of laths -are applied in the same manner as here noticed; but the coat of rough -plaster ought to be little more than half as thick as that in the -former method. Whilst the rough plaster is being laid on, some more of -the short pieces of laths must be laid in the intervals between the -joists upon the first coat, and be dipped deep in it. They should be -laid as close as possible to each other, and in the same direction with -the first layer of short laths. Over this second layer of short laths -there must be spread another coat of rough plaster, which should be -trowelled level with the tops of the joists, without rising above them. -The rough plaster may be made of coarse lime and hair; or, instead of -hair, hay chopped to about three inches in length may be substituted -with advantage. One measure of common rough sand, two measures of -slaked lime, and three measures of chopped hay, will form in general -a very good proportion, when sufficiently beaten up together in the -manner of common mortar. The hay should be put in after the two other -ingredients are well mixed up together with water. This plaster should -be made stiff; and when the flooring boards are required to be laid -down very soon, a fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder, formed -by dropping a small quantity of water on the limestone shortly before -it is used, and well mixed with this rough plaster, will cause it to -dry quickly. If any cracks appear in the rough plaster work near the -joists, when it is thoroughly dry, they ought to be closed by washing -them over with a brush wet with mortar wash: this wash may be prepared -by putting two measures of quicklime and one of common sand into a -vessel, and stirring the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> mixture with water till the water becomes of -the consistence of a thin jelly.</p> - -<p>Before the flooring boards are laid, a small quantity of very dry -common sand should be strewed over the plaster work, and struck smooth -with a hollow rule moved in the direction of the joists, so that it -may lie rounding between each pair of joists. The plaster work and -sand should be perfectly dry, before the boards are laid, for fear of -the dry rot. The method of under-flooring may be applied to a wooden -staircase, but no sand is to be laid upon the rough plaster work. The -method of extra-lathing maybe applied to ceiling joists, to sloping -roofs, and to wooden partitions. The third method, which is that of -inter-securing, is very similar to that of under-flooring; but no sand -is afterwards to be laid on. Inter-securing is applicable to the parts -of a building as the method of extra-lathing.</p> - -<p>Such is a general outline of the modes proposed by Lord Mahon for -rendering houses fire-proof; in which it will be seen that the -safeguard consists in the use of a non-combustible material, with, and -among, and between the pieces of wood forming the frame-work of a house.</p> - -<p>The more recent attempts to gain the same object by means somewhat -similar have been very numerous; some of which we may here notice as -examples of the whole.</p> - -<p>An American patent was granted in 1837 to a <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Louis Pambœuf, for -the invention of a fire-proof paint. The mode of preparing it is thus -described. A quantity of the best quicklime is selected, and slacked -with water in a covered vessel; when the slacking is complete, water, -or skimmed milk, or a mixture of both, is added to the lime, and -mixed up with it to the consistence of cream. When milk is not used a -solution of rice paste is employed, obtained by boiling eight pounds -of rice to every hundred gallons of paint. When the creamy liquor is -prepared, alum, potash, and common salt are added, in the proportion of -twenty pounds of alum, fifteen pounds of potash, and a bushel of salt, -to every hundred gallons of the paint. If the paint is to be white, six -pounds of prepared plaster of Paris and the same quantity of fine white -clay are added to the above proportions of the other ingredients. All -these ingredients being mingled, the mixture is strained through a fine -sieve, and then ground in a colour-mill.</p> - -<p>When roofs are to be covered, or when crumbling brick walls are to be -coated, fine white sand is mixed with the paint, in the proportion of -one pound to ten gallons of paint; this addition being made with a view -to giving the ingredients a binding or petrifying quality. In applying -this paint,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> except in very warm weather, it is prepared in a hot -state; and in very cold weather precautions are necessary to prevent -it from freezing. Three coats of this paint are deemed in most cases -sufficient.</p> - -<p>In another variety of this paint oil is the chief liquid ingredient. To -prepare it forty gallons of boiled linseed oil are mixed with slacked -lime to the consistence of a paint; and to this are added two pounds -of alum, one pound of potash, and eight pounds of common salt; or good -wood-ashes may be substituted for the potash. This paint is used in the -same manner as other paint; and any colour may be obtained by adding -the usual pigments to the composition.</p> - -<p>The preparation of a kind of paint containing alkalies seems to have -been a favourite measure among inventors of “fire-proof” composition; -for many of the modern projects have had this for its basis. But in -most cases there have not been means for determining the degree of -efficacy possessed by these compositions. There were, however, a few -years ago trials made of rather an interesting character, which were -described in the public journals, and which were of the following -nature.</p> - -<p>In 1838, a company was formed for the sale and use of a composition -of this kind, and an experiment was made in the Clapham Road to show -its efficacy. The house, which was a small one, had been built in the -usual way, with the intention of being fitted up in the ordinary style. -While yet a mere shell, all the boards, timbers, floors, ceilings, -stairs, and wood-work generally, were coated thickly with a greyish or -slate-coloured composition, which dried to a state of great hardness.</p> - -<p>On a particular day the upper floor was covered with shavings in great -abundance, to which a number of deal planks were subsequently added. -The first floor front room was fitted up as a chamber, with bed and -furniture, chairs, tables, &c., as nearly as possible in the usual -style. The shavings and wood on the upper floor were then kindled, as -were also planks and shavings placed on the floor of the furnished -room. The consequence of this was that the two rooms speedily exhibited -a blaze of light: the whole of the furniture (purposely selected of an -inexpensive kind) being ignited. The flames burst from the windows; but -although the entire contents of the room were consumed, the fire did -not communicate to the floor above, nor to that beneath, nor even to -the other room on the same floor. Several small parcels of gunpowder -were introduced between the ceiling of the burning room and the floor -of the room above it; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> they did not ignite; nor were the other -parts of the house injured in any material degree.</p> - -<p>Another trial took place at the White Conduit Gardens; where two close -wooden buildings, of the size and shape of sentry boxes, were placed in -the grounds. One of them was coated on the inside to the thickness of -about an eighth of an inch with the composition, and was also partially -covered on the outside; while the other was left in the plain wood -state. A flooring was placed at about the centre of each of these, and -through the holes in front shavings were put and then ignited. The box -which was not coated with the composition was soon in flames; while -the fire in the other went out without having had any effect upon the -general structure. The building which was in flames was then placed -contiguous to the partially-coated outside of the other, and although -it was not materially injured, the exterior coating peeled off in some -places, and the wood became charred; the interior, however, appeared -perfectly uninjured by the flame.</p> - -<p>If the results of these experiments were really such as the description -would seem to imply, it might excite surprise how it happens that no -practical results have followed. But there are always numerous reasons -why an experiment, which succeeds under circumstances <em>made</em> for -the occasion, should not be available in practice; and it is probable -that some such discordance may exist here. Perhaps the mode in which we -may more consistently look for the practical attainment of the object -in view is by the adoption of some improved mode of building, in which -either wood is not employed at all, or, where sparingly used, measures -are taken to shield it from the action of fire. One such method is -Leconte’s, described as follows.</p> - -<p>This plan consists in the employment of iron frames to receive concrete -matter for forming the walls. The basement story of the building is -constructed according to the ordinary methods up to one foot or more -above the ground. On the basement so constructed is to be erected the -patent wall, formed of frames entirely of cast-iron, in one or more -pieces, or a combination of cast-iron and wrought-iron plates. These -frames are to be set one on the other until the required height is -attained, the necessary stability being obtained by means of steady -pins at the corners of one frame fitting into holes made in the -corners of the frame which is opposed to it. Suitably-shaped frames -are employed for the internal partition walls, and for doorways, -window-frames, &c. The flues of the chimneys are formed of iron or -other metal pipes, placed in the thickness of the walls. When the -required elevation is obtained, a concrete of any suitable material is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> -poured into the framing, and fills up the vacant space, giving firmness -and solidity to the structure; the concrete being made of gravel and -lime. To give steadiness, lead is to be introduced between the joinings -of the iron-work. The doors and window-frames are to be fastened to -the walls by any of the usual known methods. The main beams and cross -beams of floors and roofs may be of cast-iron, or formed of iron and -wood; or they maybe formed of one or more pieces of plate-iron, bent up -into an oval form, and straightened by an iron or wooden bar passing -through them lengthwise, the upper edges of the metal being turned -over to increase the strength. In the interval between the beams there -are to be iron rods running in various directions, and supporting a -metallic wire-work, which forms the foundation for the ceiling. Similar -wire-work is to be employed in lieu of laths for plaster surfaces. All -the iron-work is to be painted over with some suitable composition to -prevent oxidation.</p> - -<p>A plan for the same purpose has been proposed by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Varden as -follows:—“It appears probable that common fir or oak joists with -their lower edges chamfered, and coated over with a mixture of alum, -black lead, clay, and lime, or some similar composition, would (if -closely floored above with earthenware tiles, bedded all round into -the plastering, the joists being made air-tight) resist the action -of flames, at least for a considerable time. Fire could not descend -through such a flooring so as to communicate with the rooms below, till -the tiles used in it had become red-hot; neither could it ascend until -the tiled floor above gave way, from the burning of the joists; which, -if coated as proposed, would not take fire from below till the tiling -over them acquired a sufficient heat to cause the distillation of the -turpentine from the wood. In general, there is not furniture enough of -a combustible nature in any room to do this. The battening against the -outer walls might be of larch, as that wood burns less freely than most -others; but if the walls were brick, or lined with brick, battening of -any kind will be unnecessary. If this plan should be thought likely to -answer the end proposed, houses built in the common manner might be -altered at a moderate expense, by taking up the boarded floors, and -substituting earthenware tiles.”</p> - -<p>Another Plan, proposed by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Frost, consists in forming the floors of -rooms of hollow earthenware tubes embedded in cement, combined so as to -form a sort of flag-stone, covering the whole floor. These hollow tubes -are square in section, about an inch and a half on the side externally, -with a tubular space of an inch and a quarter on the side internally; -they are formed of brick earth, prepared in a superior manner,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> and -pressed through moulds by machinery; and their length is about two -feet. In forming a floor of these tubes, the centering, after being -prepared and fixed in the usual manner, is first covered with a coating -of cement of a quality sufficiently fine to form the ceiling of the -apartment to be floored over; and if it is desired that there should -be mouldings or ornaments in this ceiling or its cornices, moulds for -them can be placed in the centering, so as to form a part of it. One -or two coats of cement having I then been laid over the centering, a -stratum of the square tubes laid side by side, and breaking joint, -is next embedded in fine cement, and the interstices between them -also filled in with that material. One thin coating of cement is then -laid over the whole stratum; and in a week, when this is dry, another -stratum of tubes is laid over the first in a contrary direction, bedded -and filled in with cement as before, and finished by a coating of the -same material. This, when dry, may have a second coating to serve as -the floor of an upper apartment, or the covering of a roof, as the case -might be.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon gives descriptions of two methods, the one for building -houses in general fire-proof, and the other for imparting that -property to houses already built. He considers the two main points -for consideration to be, to have staircases of iron or stone, or both -combined, and to avoid having any hollow partitions or floors. A house -having a stone or iron staircase, and having all the partitions either -of four-inch brick-work, or of brick nogging, in whatever way it might -be set on fire, could hardly be burned down, if ordinary exertions were -made to extinguish the flames. One apartment might be set on fire, but -before the flames could spread to the one under or over it, or to a -staircase adjoining it, the fire might be extinguished. In a house so -constructed, there would be no piece of timber that was not in close -contact with mortar, at least on one side; and all the strong pieces -of timber, such as joists, rafters, quartering in partitions, &c., -would be closely embedded in mortar on two sides. Where the partition -could not be made entirely of brick, the interstices might be filled -up with a mortar prepared of clay with a small proportion of lime. The -same material might be filled in between the joists, and where it was -desired to render the roof fire-proof, the rafters might be made of -iron, or the space between wooden rafters might be filled in with thin -mortar. This mode of proceeding would lengthen the time required for -the drying of a newly-built house, and would also add somewhat to the -expense; but it is conceived that the increased safety would more than -counterbalance these inconveniences.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span></p> - -<p>In respect to the means of giving a fire-proof quality to a house -already built, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Loudon remarks:—“All the interstices between the -floors, in the partitions, and in the roof, where there was a ceiling -formed to the rafters, might perhaps be filled in with earthy matter -in a state of powder. This powder might be clay or loam mixed with -a small proportion of Roman cement; it might be injected into the -vacuities, through small orifices, by some description of forcing-pump -or bellows, which, while it forced in the powder, would permit the -escape of the air; and, while this operation was going forward steam -might be injected at the same time, so as to mix with the mortar and be -condensed by it; by which means the whole mass would be solidified with -a minimum of moisture. In short, in rendering houses fire-proof, the -next important object to using fire-proof materials, is that of having -all the walls and partitions, and even the steps of wooden staircases, -filled in-with such materials as will render them in effect solid. On -examining into the causes of the rapidity of the spread of the flames -in London houses when on fire, it will almost invariably be found, -that whatever may have occasioned the fire to break out, the rapidity -of its progress has been in proportion to the greater or less extent -of the lath and plaster partitions, the hollow wooden floors, and the -wooden staircases. Were the occupiers of houses sufficiently aware of -the danger from lath and plaster partitions, especially when inclosing -staircases, they would never occupy such houses, or, if they did, they -would not give such rents for them, as they would for houses with -brick-nogging partitions. It appears to us to be the duty either of the -general or local government or police to see that no houses whatever -are built without stone or iron staircases; and that no partitions and -floors are made hollow; or, if they are, that the materials should -be iron and tiles, or slates, or stones, or cement, or other earthy -composition.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XIII"><span class="smcap">Chapter XIII.</span><br />MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES.</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The various processes and details which have occupied the preceding -chapters, are for the most part necessary to the production of every -house. There are, however, many articles of iron and a few of brass -employed in the interior and exterior fittings; but were we to enter -into details respecting the iron manufacture, in order to show the -modes of producing these articles, it would be difficult to confine -this volume within reasonable limits. A few miscellaneous processes and -details may, however, be collected in this chapter.</p> - -<p>The principal metallic articles employed in the construction or -permanent fittings of a house, are nails and screws; hinges; locks and -keys; stoves and grates; bells, and the mechanism for hanging them; -iron railings and bars; brass handles, plates, and other decorations; -latches and fastenings, &c.</p> - - -<h3>Nails.</h3> - -<p><em>Nails</em> are made of iron, either <em>cut</em> by means of a -machine into the tapering form which we call <em>cut brads</em>, or -<em>wrought</em> by means of hammers into the various forms of flooring -nails, tacks, &c. <em>Screws</em> are made by forcing a piece of iron -wire into a cavity, the surface of which is cut into a spiral or -screw-like form; this spiral cuts a similar spiral on the surface of -the iron wire, which then becomes a screw; and one end of the wire is -hammered or pressed down so as to form the <em>head</em> of the screw. -<em>Hinges</em> of the commoner kinds are made by two flat pieces of -iron, with a kind of projecting tube at one edge. These tubes are -partially cut away, so that the two pieces may lap into each other; and -a spindle or pin being passed down through both tubes, acts as an axis, -on which both parts of the hinges turn. The more costly hinges require -elaborate workmanship in their construction.</p> - - -<h3>Locks and Keys.</h3> - -<p><em>Locks</em> and <em>Keys</em> form a curious part of the hardware -manufacture. The lock is made of a great many pieces, put together with -screws. One part of it is always a moveable latch or bolt, which is -capable, by tolerable force, of being thrust partially out through a -hole in the side of the lock; and it is this bolt which, catching in a -box or cell fixed to the door-post, secures the door to which the lock -is attached.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> The object of the key is to act as a lever which shall -move the bolt; and the great point of attention in the matter is, that -no key or lever but one of a particular <em>size</em> and <em>shape</em> -shall be able to move the bolt; herein is the security which we feel in -a good lock. Wolverhampton and its neighbourhood is the great seat of -the lock manufacture.</p> - - -<h3>Stoves and Grates.</h3> - -<p><em>Stoves</em> and <em>Grates</em> are made in a variety of forms. -Their employment is obviously greatly dependent on the kind of fuel -employed. In the kitchens of the old baronial residences, large logs -of wood were thrown upon an immense stone or brick hearth, and there -kindled. But when coals became commonly used in London and other great -towns of England, about the year 1400, the use of some kind of stove -or grate began to be felt, since the fuel was too valuable to be -scattered on a wide-spreading hearth. From that time to the present, -one continual series of improvements has taken place, having for their -objects, to add to the elegance and neatness of a room, to facilitate -culinary occupations, and to derive the greatest possible heat from -a given quantity of fuel. It is only within a very few years that -the principles regulating the last-mentioned circumstance have been -at all well understood. Some parts of the metal for a grate or stove -are produced by casting, others by forging, and others by rolling or -pressing; and they are put together principally by rivets. For further -details on this subject we refer to our seventh chapter.</p> - - -<h3>Bells.</h3> - -<p><em>Bells</em> are, generally speaking, made of an alloy of copper and -tin, which possesses more resonant qualities than most others. There is -also a little ball or clapper suspended in the bell, which, by striking -against it, produces the same effect as the hammer which strikes the -outside of a church bell. The bell is generally fixed in a different -part of the house from the handle with which it is rung, and the -connexion between them is made by means of copper wire. As the wire -has to turn round many corners and angles, it is fixed, at each corner -to a <em>crank</em>, which is a kind of hinge or lever, so contrived as -to transfer motion in a new direction at right angles to the former. -Considerable care is required on the part of the bell-hanger, to -prevent the wire from becoming entangled or interrupted in its free -communication from the handle to the bell.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span></p> - - -<h3>Brass Handles, Ornaments, &c.</h3> - -<p>Those are produced by <em>turning</em>, by <em>casting</em>, by -<em>stamping</em>, or by <em>drawing</em>. In the first mode, the article -is placed in a lathe, and turned by tools made of hard steel: in the -second mode, melted brass is poured into moulds formed generally of -sand, by which any desired form is produced: in the third mode, two -stamps, one called a <em>matrass</em> and the other a <em>die</em>, are -cut or moulded to similar figures; a piece of sheet brass is laid on -the matrass or lower stamp, the die or upper stamp is laid on the -brass, and a powerful blow, either from a hammer, or from machinery, -forces the brass to assume the form given to the two stamps. By the -last mode, a slip of thin brass is forcibly drawn between two rollers, -whose surfaces are indented with the requisite device, which device is -thereby impressed on the bars. In one or other of these ways, most of -the brass-work in our houses is made.</p> - -<p><em>Iron railings</em> and <em>bars</em> of various kinds are made either -by forging or casting, and do not call for further notice here.</p> - - -<h3>Preservation of Timber.</h3> - -<p>In our notices of the timber which enters into the construction of a -house, no mention was made of the existing methods of preparing it so -as to resist the action of dry rot and other decomposing agencies. -Timber so prepared is not in very general use in house-building, and -hence the notice of it occupies a more fitting place in the present -chapter.</p> - -<p>Vegetable matter, in common with all organic substances, is subject -to decomposition and decay, as soon as life becomes extinct; and -although the process is comparatively slower in its commencement -and progress in vegetable than in animal matter, it is not, under -ordinary circumstances, the less certain. During the existence of -a plant, its various organs, under the influence of the mysterious -principle of life, perform their respective functions in a manner -similar to that of which we are more readily conscious in the animal -frame. The plant absorbs its food from the soil and the surrounding -air; it digests that food under the influence of respiration, and -prepares rich and nutritive juices which circulate throughout its whole -vegetable frame, and deposit materials of growth wherever they are -wanted; it sheds its leaves in autumn, undergoes a season of torpor, -and again becomes active and vigorous; thus it is clad in fresh leafy -honours in the following spring. All this is the effect, or rather the -result, of vitality. The plant dies, and then its constituent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> parts -gradually assert their individual existence, and resume their original -affinities. Some pass into the air; some form new compounds; and -others, which during the life of the plant ministered to its healthy -action, now work energetically and destructively on each other; so -that the original mass gradually decomposes under the influence of -various causes. The first step to decay is a process of fermentation, -which is more or less rapid in proportion as heat and moisture are -more or less present. In the absence of damp air, even the vegetable -mass will of itself supply moisture; for, according to Count Rumford, -the best-seasoned timber retains one-fourth of its weight of water. A -certain extent of moisture is essential to vegetable fermentation; but -a complete saturation appears inimical to it. A temperature not so low -as to produce freezing, nor so high as to produce rapid evaporation, is -also favourable to it. The humidity of the air in ships, and in houses -built on clay or in moist situations, and the difficulty of obtaining -a free circulation of air, contribute greatly to this fermentative -process.</p> - -<p>The chemical constitution of the vegetable kingdom yields to analysis -only three or four ultimate elements, viz., oxygen, hydrogen, and -carbon, and sometimes nitrogen. The most active agent in the process -of decomposition is the oxygen contained in the dead plant, whether -such decomposition proceed under the rapid influence of fermentation, -or be produced more slowly by the operation of the law which renders -decay the necessary consequence of organization. As soon as the tree -is felled, the oxygen begins to be liberated and to act upon the woody -fibre, combining with its carbon, and producing carbonic acid gas. The -tenacity of the several parts is thus gradually destroyed. After timber -is felled, and during the process of seasoning, a gradual diminution -of strength may be remarked. The effect, however, of seasoning is to -deprive the wood of superabundant moisture, and of those vegetable -juices which would otherwise induce a rapid decomposition.</p> - -<p>In addition to the natural decay of timber, the decomposition is often -accompanied by the apparently spontaneous vegetation of parasitical -fungi, inducing a species of decay to which the term “dry rot” is -applied, probably in consequence of the attendant phenomena; the wood -being converted into a <em>dry</em> friable mass, destitute of fibrous -tenacity. It is uncertain whether the seeds of these fungi exist in -a dormant state in the juices of the timber, and wait only until the -first stages of decomposition furnish them with a nidus favourable to -their growth; or whether they float in the atmosphere and settle in -places favourable to their vegetation. It is found,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span> however, that -badly-seasoned timber is peculiarly subject to this species of decay; -and hereby the former of the two suppositions is favoured.</p> - -<p>From the moment when timber is felled, the process of decay commences, -and although so slowly in many cases that we are not conscious of it, -yet there is a limit to the existence of the most durable articles -of wood, however carefully preserved. Dryness, cleanliness, a free -circulation of air, or the entire exclusion of it, are among the best -checks to vegetable decomposition: while damp accumulations, and a -vitiated atmosphere, rapidly induce it.</p> - -<p>Unseasoned timber should never be used in carpentry, and the -best-seasoned timber should be used only in a dry state. Diseased and -decayed portions of the wood should be cut out, together with the -sap-wood, which, being more soft and porous than the spine, is more -liable to fermentation.</p> - -<p>The iron fastenings used about timber frequently cause its premature -decay. Iron, under the influence of moisture becomes rusty, that is, -oxygen, either from the air or from the wood itself, unites with the -metal, forming an oxide, which, in its turn acts upon the woody fibre, -and gradually destroys its tenacity. The iron is further subject to -attack from the acid juices of the wood; this effect, however, varies -in different woods. Oak contains a smaller proportion of oily or -resinous particles than many other kinds of wood; and, in addition -to the usual vegetable acid common to most woods, oak contains an -acid peculiar to itself, called <em>gallic</em> acid. In teak, on the -contrary, the quantity of acid is not only smaller, but the resinous -particles are very abundant, and these form a sort of protecting -covering to the iron fastenings. Maconochie states, on the authority -of the shipping built in India and used in the India trade, that the -average duration of an iron-fastened teak ship is thirty years; and -that it is a misapplication of expense to use copper fastenings with -teak, as the additional advantage gained is not at all commensurate -with the additional expense. But it is different with oak; the action -of oak on copper is by no means so destructive as on iron, and the -reaction of the metal on the wood is not so destructive.</p> - -<p>The methods which have been from time to time adopted for the -preservation of timber are so numerous, that a slight sketch of them -would probably fill a good-sized volume. We will name a few of the most -successful, and terminate this notice with a description of the method -now in practice.</p> - -<p>Maconochie recommends all the iron fastenings to be provided with -a protecting paint, and to impregnate the timber with some oily -preparation, which he proposes to effect thus:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</span> the wood is to be -placed in a steam-tight chamber, and subjected to the action of steam, -by which the air will be expelled from the timber. Then by condensing -the steam, and repeating the process until all the elastic fluids are -withdrawn from the wood, and its juices converted into vapour, the -wood becomes freed from them, and if plunged into oil, and subjected -to atmospheric pressure, all the internal cavities of the wood will -be filled with oil. In this way, Maconochie had in daily use a -steam-chamber capable of containing twenty or thirty planks of timber -forty feet long, in which, while the planks were steaming, to render -them flexible, they were impregnated with teak oil. He says the oil may -easily be procured from the chips and saw-dust used for the fuel of the -steam-boilers; for it has been ascertained that Malabar teak contains -such a quantity of oleaginous (oily) or terebinthinous (turpentine) -matter, that the chips from the timber and planks of a ship built of -it will yield, by a proper process, a sufficient quantity of tar for -all its own purposes, including the rigging; and that, although oak -timber does not contain so much of these substances, the chips of the -fir alone consumed in the Royal Navy, would be more than sufficient to -supply tar to saturate the oak.</p> - -<p>There have been many other proposals to saturate timber with different -substances; the most successful of which, up to the process of <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -Kyan, was that of M. Pallas, whose plan was to saturate the timber in -a solution of sulphate of iron, and then precipitate the salt by means -of lime-water. About the year 1822, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Bill produced samples of timber -impregnated throughout with a substance resembling asphaltum. These -samples were subjected to a trial of five years in the dry-rot pit -at Woolwich, and withstood the fungus-rot perfectly. Sir John Barrow -recommends kreosote, which he says, “in a vaporous form, penetrates -every part of the largest logs, and renders the wood almost as hard as -iron—so hard as not easily to be worked.”</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Kyan’s plan, now so universally adopted, is to soak the timber in a -solution of bichloride of mercury, commonly called corrosive sublimate.</p> - -<p>“Aware of the established affinity of corrosive sublimate for albumen, -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Kyan applied that substance to solutions of vegetable matter, -both acetous and saccharine, on which he was then operating, and in -which albumen was a constituent, with a view to preserve them in a -quiescent and incorruptible state; and obtaining a confirmation of -his opinions by the fact, that during a period of three years, the -acetous solution, openly exposed to atmospheric air, had not become -putrid, nor had the saccharine decoction yielded to the vinous -or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> acetous stages of fermentation, but were in a high state of -preservation, he concluded that corrosive sublimate, by combination -with albumen, was a protection against the natural changes of -vegetable matter. He conceived, therefore, if albumen made a part of -wood, the latter would be protected by converting that albumen into -a compound of protochloride of mercury and albumen; and he proceeded -to immerse pieces of wood in this solution, and obtained the same -result as that which he had ascertained with regard to the vegetable -decoctions.”—<span class="smcap">Birkbeck.</span></p> - -<p>It having been found that the precipitate caused by the Kyanization -was soluble in salt water, Sir William Burnett has lately substituted -chloride of zinc for corrosive sublimate, and the resulting compound -which this forms with the albuminous portion of the wood, effectually -resists the action of salt water.</p> - - -<h3>Soluble Glass.</h3> - -<p>A remarkable method of preserving wood-work, and rendering it -fire-proof, was invented some years ago by M. Fuchs, in consequence of -his discovery of a kind of glass which could be prepared and kept in a -liquid state, and hardened only on being exposed in a thin layer to the -air.</p> - -<p>Soluble glass is a union of silica and an alkali, which has, in -addition to some of the properties of common glass, the property of -dissolving in boiling water. The preparation of soluble glass does -not greatly differ in its early stages from that of common glass, an -account of the manufacture of which will be found in the eighth chapter.</p> - -<p>When sand and carbonate of potash are heated together, the carbonic -acid is not entirely driven off, unless the sand be in excess, but the -whole of the gas may be expelled by the addition of powdered charcoal -to the mixture.</p> - -<p>Carbonate of potash and pure sand being taken in the proportion of -two to three, four parts of charcoal are added to every ten parts of -potash and fifteen of sand. The charcoal accelerates the fusion of the -glass, and separates from it all the carbonic acid, a small quantity of -which would otherwise remain, and exert an injurious effect. In other -respects the same precautions that are employed in the manufacture -of common glass are to be observed. The materials must first be well -mixed, then fritted, and finally melted at a high heat, until a liquid -and homogeneous mass be obtained. This is removed by means of an iron -ladle, and the glass pot filled with fresh frit.</p> - -<p>The crude glass thus obtained is usually full of bubbles: it is as -hard as common glass: it is of a blackish gray, and more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> or less -transparent at the edges. Sometimes it has a whitish colour, and at -others is yellowish or reddish, indicating thereby that the quantity -of charcoal has been too small. Exposed to the air for several weeks, -it undergoes slight changes, which tend rather to improve than injure -its qualities. It attracts a little moisture from the air, which slowly -penetrates its mass without changing its aggregation or appearance, -except that it cracks, and a slight efflorescence appears at its -surface. If after this it be exposed to heat, it swells up, owing to -the escape of the moisture it has absorbed.</p> - -<p>In order to prepare the glass for solution in water it must be reduced -to powder by stampers. One part of the glass requires from four to five -of water for its solution. The water is first boiled in an open vessel, -the powdered glass is added gradually, and is continually stirred, to -prevent its adhesion to the vessel. The boiling must be continued for -three or four hours, until no more glass is dissolved. If the boiling -be checked before the liquor has thus attained the proper degree of -concentration, carbonic acid will be absorbed by the potash from the -air, and produce an injurious effect. When the solution has acquired -the consistence of syrup, and a density of 1·24, it is fit for use. -It is then allowed to repose, in order that the insoluble parts may -be deposited: while it is cooling a film forms on the surface, which -after some time disappears, or may be dissolved by depressing it in the -liquor.</p> - -<p>Soluble glass being employed only in the liquid state, it is preserved -for use in solution. No particular care is necessary to preserve -the liquid, as, even after a long space of time, it undergoes no -perceptible change, if the solution have been properly prepared. The -only precaution is not to allow too free an access of air to it.</p> - -<p>Soluble glass may be prepared by using carbonate of soda, instead of -that of potash. This glass has the same properties as the other, but is -more valuable in its applications. The solutions of these two kinds of -glass may be mixed in any proportion, and the mixture is sometimes more -useful than either of the solutions separately.</p> - -<p>The solution of soluble glass is viscid, and when concentrated -becomes turbid or opalescent. The solution unites with water in all -proportions. At a density of 1·28 it contains nearly 28 per cent. -of glass, and if the concentration be carried beyond this point, it -becomes so viscid that it may be drawn out in threads like molten -glass. When the solution is applied to other bodies, it dries rapidly -in the air, and forms a coat like a varnish; a property which leads us -to notice<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> some of the numerous and varied applications of this curious -preparation.</p> - -<p>It is well known that all sorts of vegetable matter, such as wood, -cotton, hemp, linen, paper, &c., are combustible, but in order to burn -them, two conditions are necessary,—an elevated temperature, and -free access of air to supply the oxygen necessary to their conversion -into water and carbonic acid. When once inflamed their own combustion -supplies the heat necessary to the chemical action, provided they be in -contact with the air. If deprived of such contact, and made red-hot, -they will yield inflammable volatile products, but the residual carbon -will not burn, because deprived of air; and thus the combustion will -cease of itself. Such is the property of all the fixed fusible salts, -if they be composed of substances incapable of yielding their oxygen -at a low red heat, either to carbon or hydrogen. Such salts melt as -the vegetable matter becomes healed: they form upon it a coating -impermeable by air, and either prevent or limit the combustion. The -phosphate and borate of ammonia have such a character, but they are so -readily soluble in cold water as to be liable to objections which are -not found in soluble glass. This last-named substance forms a solid -and durable coating, which suffers no change by exposure to the air -(since soluble glass possesses the valuable properly of being almost -entirely unaffected by cold water): it does not involve any great -expense, and is easy of application. But in order that it may not fail, -particular care must be taken, both in preparing and employing it. To -cover wood and other bodies with it the solution must be made of a -pure glass, otherwise it would effloresce and fall off. But still a -slight degree of impurity is not injurious, although after a few days a -slight efflorescence will appear: this may be washed off by water, and -will not occur a second time. When a durable coating is to be applied -to wood, the first solution must not be too strong, for if it be it -will not be absorbed: it will not displace the air from the pores, and -consequently will not adhere strongly. A more concentrated solution -may be employed for the after-coats, but each coat must be dry before -another is applied, and the drying, in the most favourable weather, -will occupy at least twenty-four hours. When the glass is made with -potash the coating is liable to crack: this defect does not apply to -glass made with soda.</p> - -<p>Although soluble glass is of itself a good preservative from fire, yet -it fulfils the object better when mixed with incombustible powders, -such as those procured from clay, whiting, calcined bones, powdered -glass, &c. In applying soluble glass to the wood-work of a public -building at Munich, ten<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span> per cent. of yellow clay or yellow earth was -added. After six months the coating had suffered but little change: it -was damaged only in a few places, where it had need of some repair. -This arose from the very short time allowed for the preparation and -application of the glass.</p> - - -<h3>On Veneering.</h3> - -<p>In our notice of the interior fittings of houses of the better class, -it was stated that the process of veneering is sometimes adopted for -wainscoting. This process is most generally used for articles of -furniture, and deserves to be noticed on account of its ingenuity.</p> - -<p>The employment of wood for articles of domestic use or ornament, gives -rise to many departments of mechanical labour, according to the manner -in which the grain of the wood is to be made conspicuous or visible. -In the antique pieces of furniture still existing in old mansions, -the wood employed, such as oak, walnut-wood, mahogany, &c., was -always solid; but in modern times, the desire of making a respectable -appearance, at as small an outlay as possible, has led to the method of -<em>veneering</em>,—that is, making some article of furniture of some -cheap wood,—such as deal,—and then covering it with thin leaves or -sheets of some more expensive and beautiful wood, such as rose-wood, -maple, satin-wood, zebra-wood, pollard oak, &c. So very prevalent has -this custom become, that almost every house now contains some article -of domestic furniture, whose surface is covered with a kind of wood -more valuable than that of which the bulk of the article is made.</p> - -<p>It must be obvious, that the mode of procuring or preparing the thin -leaves of veneer calls for great care and nicety, since they are -seldom thicker than a shilling. When the method of veneering was first -introduced, the sawing was effected by hand, in a manner more rude than -the necessities of the case warranted; but when circular saws became -introduced, they were found very efficacious for cutting veneers. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -Brunel, in 1805, took out a patent for improvements in the machinery -for sawing timber, in which he employed a large circular saw, composed -of several pieces fitted together, and placed in a frame at such an -elevation that the lower edge was a little below the lower side of the -timber. The timber was placed in a carriage, and moved towards the saw -by a rack.</p> - -<p>In such a manner as this veneers are now cut from the timber in this -country. But it is stated that the Russians have devised a very curious -and effective method of cutting veneers, without the use of a saw, -and without making any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</span> waste of material. It is a <em>planing</em> -machine, the action of which is so accurate, that veneers thin enough -for the covering of books, and for lithographic and other engravings, -have been produced; thus serving the place of paper. The operation -is begun by placing the timber from which the leaf is to be cut upon -a square axle, where it is revolved, and made circular by a turner’s -gouge. The blade of a plane of highly-tempered steel, and rather -longer than the cylinder of wood, is fixed at the extremity of a frame -six or seven feet in length, in such a manner as to exert a constant -pressure upon the cylinder, and pare off a sheet of equable thickness, -which folds upon another cylinder like a roll of linen. The frame -to which the blade is attached is moveable at its lower extremity, -and by the action of a weight it depresses in proportion as the mass -diminishes in substance. That this depression may be progressive and -perfectly regular, the inventor has appended a regulator to the machine -consisting of a flat brass plate, preserved in an inclined direction, -upon which the frame descends as the regulator itself is advanced. The -motion is communicated to the cylinder of wood by several cog-wheels, -which are turned by a crank. One hundred feet in length of veneering -may be cut by this machine in the space of three minutes.</p> - -<p>When veneers are produced by the action of circular saws, as is now -almost universally the case in England, it is evident that both -surfaces must be rough, from the marks of the serrated edge of the -cutting instrument; and it is in this rough state that they are -purchased by cabinet-makers or others who employ them in veneering -articles of furniture. The operations which are then to be performed -are, to bring the surface of the veneer to a tolerable level, to fix -the veneer to the article of furniture, and to clean and polish it when -so fixed.</p> - -<p>Supposing the top of a sideboard to be the article which is to be -veneered. The workman cuts out a piece of veneer, a little larger than -is actually required, to allow for waste; and then lays it flat on -his work-bench. With a veneering plane—which is a small-sized plane, -having an iron jagged with notches like the teeth of a very fine -saw—he works steadily over the whole surface of the veneer, carrying -the plane in the direction of the grain of the wood. The action of this -plane-iron removes all the saw marks, which were irregular in their -course, and gives instead of them a series of regular parallel channels -from end to end of the piece of veneer; these channels are but small in -depth, and their object is to retain the glue which is afterwards used -in the process of veneering.</p> - -<p>The surface of the deal or other wood on which the veneer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> is to be -laid, is in like manner planed with these parallel indentations; and -then the process of veneering proceeds. The wood, having been well -warmed before a fire, is coated with warm melted glue; and the piece of -veneer is laid down flat on the veneered surface, and rubbed backwards -and forwards, in order that the glue which is between the veneer and -the under-wood may be pressed into all the little grooves produced by -the plane. When the glue begins to get cool, the veneer can no longer -be pressed to and fro, and is then left. This glueing has the general -effect of making the veneer adhere to the foundation beneath; but there -are parts where, from the accumulation of too much glue in one part, or -from the presence of air which had not been expelled by the pressure -of the hands, the veneer rises up as a kind of blister, convex on the -upper surface. The workman employs a veneering hammer to level these -protuberances. This veneering hammer is a piece of wood three or four -inches long, and an inch in thickness, having a straight strip of iron -plate fixed to one edge. The workman, placing the iron edge down upon -the veneer, presses on the block of wood with his hand, and works all -over the surface of the veneer, expressing all the superfluous glue -from the parts which had formed the protuberances. As this redundant -glue must have some place from whence to escape, the workman begins -rubbing at the centre, and thence proceeds towards the edge, at -which the glue finally exudes. There is a curious plan adopted for -ascertaining whether there are any parts, imperceptible to the eye, -where the veneer does not adhere closely to the foundation—viz., by -sound. The workman strikes the veneer all over with a wooden or other -hammer; and if the sound be distinct and solid, he knows that the -proper degree of adhesion has taken place; but if the sound be hollow -and dull, it indicates the existence of a vacant space between the -veneer and the foundation; and a greater degree of rubbing or pressing -is consequently necessary. If the surface of the piece of veneer be of -large dimensions, two workmen are required to level all parts of the -veneer before the glue gets cold and loses its fluidity.</p> - -<p>But this operation—however good the glue may be, or however well the -veneer may be pressed down—is not sufficient to cause the veneer to -adhere permanently to the foundation, especially at the edges, where -the air is liable to enter, and to cause the veneer to rise. To prevent -this inconvenience, the veneer, at and near the edges, is kept down, -either by the pressure of heavy weights, or, still better, by the -action of screw-presses. These screw-presses consist of two pieces -of wood or clamps, which are brought to any degree of closeness<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span> by -means of two wooden screws, each screw passing through holes in both -clamps, the handles of the two screws being, respectively to each -other, outside the opposite clamps. The clamps are opened, by means of -the screws, to such a width as to admit the edge of the veneered wood -between them; and the screws are then worked up till the clamps grasp -the wood tightly, where they remain till the glue is quite cold, and -the veneer closely adhering to the foundation.</p> - -<p>But even all this care is not in every case sufficient to produce a -firm adhesion of the veneer to the foundation. It frequently happens -that, when the hardened veneered surface is tried with the hammer, a -hollow sound indicates that there is yet a place where the veneer has a -vacancy beneath it. In such a case, the only remedy is one of a curious -kind—viz., to lay a hot iron on the defective part of the veneer, -by which the glue beneath is remelted. A small part of the veneer, -reaching from the defective part to the edge, is also similarly heated, -and the glue beneath remelted. Then, by means of the veneering hammer, -the superfluous glue which had caused the defect is squeezed out, and -pressed to the edges of the veneer through the kind of channel which -had been prepared for it by the heated iron.</p> - -<p>Where the surface of the wood to be veneered is more or less -cylindrical, such as a pillar, the front of a drawer, &c., the piece -of veneer has a curvature given to it, corresponding in some degree to -that of the surface on which it is laid, by the action of hot water, -before the glueing is effected. By sponging one side of the veneer with -hot water, it causes that side to swell, while the other side remains -dry; the consequence of which is, that the wetted surface rises into -a convex form, leaving the other side hollow or concave:—this is, in -fact, an instance of <em>warping</em>, where a thin piece of wood is -either unequally heated or damped on opposite sides. The hollow side is -then laid on the glued foundation.</p> - -<p>When the veneered surface is dry, its edges are trimmed, and its -surface scraped and sand-papered, preparatory to the finishing -processes which the piece of furniture is to undergo.</p> - - -<h3>Manufacture of Glue.</h3> - -<p>The preparation of this useful article forms a curious and important -branch of national industry. The chief use of glue is for binding or -cementing pieces of wood together, as practised by the carpenter and -cabinet-maker, in which trades very large quantities are constantly -employed.</p> - -<p>Glue (which is nothing more than gelatine in a dry state) is obtained -from the hides, hoofs, and horns of animals; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span> refuse of the -leather-dresser, and the offal of the slaughter-house; ears of oxen, -calves, sheep; parings of parchment, old gloves; and, in short, animal -skin and (by a late improvement) bones, are all employed for making -glue.</p> - -<p>The first process in this manufacture is to free the materials from -dirt, blood, and other matters which do not afford glue. For this -purpose they are steeped in lime and water, and then placed in baskets, -and rinsed by the action of a stream of water. They are then removed to -a sloping surface, and allowed to drain, and whatever lime remains is -deprived of its caustic property by the reabsorption of carbonic acid -from the atmosphere, since the presence of lime would prove injurious -in the subsequent processes.</p> - -<p>The gelatine is removed from the animal matter by boiling. This -process is effected in a somewhat shallow boiler, which is provided -with a false bottom, pierced with holes, and elevated a few inches, -thus serving as a support to the animal matter, and preventing it -from burning by the heated bottom of the boiler. The boiler is filled -about two-thirds with soft water, and then the animal substances are -added: these are piled up above the brim of the boiler, because soon -after boiling commences, they sink down below the level of the liquid. -The contents of the boiler are occasionally stirred up and pressed -down, while a steady boiling is maintained throughout this part of the -process.</p> - -<p>As the boiling proceeds, small portions of the gelatine are drawn off -into egg-shells, when, in the course of a few minutes, if the liquid -gelatine becomes, by exposure to the cool air, a clear mass of jelly, -the boiling process is complete,—the fire is smothered up, and the -contents of the boiler left to settle for ten or twenty minutes. The -stop-cock is then turned, and the gelatine flows into a deep vessel, -kept hot by being surrounded with hot water, and thus it remains for -several hours, during which time it deposits any solid impurities. It -is then drawn off into congealing boxes, and prepared as we shall soon -explain.</p> - -<p>The undissolved matter in the boiler is treated with boiling water a -second, and even a third time, and the above process continued until -nothing more can be extracted. The subsequent solutions are often too -weak to be made into glue, but they are economically used with fresh -portions of animal matter.</p> - -<p>A clear idea may be formed of this part of the manufacture by the -annexed illustration, which represents a section of three vessels, on -different levels. The uppermost vessel, which is heated by the waste -heat of the chimney, supplies warm water to the animal matter contained -in the second<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span> vessel: the third vessel receives the liquid gelatine, -and retains it in a fluid state, while the solid impurities are being -deposited.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img039"> - <img src="images/039.jpg" class="w75" alt="Section of three vessels for manufacturing glue" /> -</span></p> - -<p>The gelatine is drawn off from this third vessel into buckets, and -conveyed to the congealing boxes. These boxes are of deal, of a square -form, but somewhat narrower at bottom than at top. The liquid glue is -poured through funnels, provided with filter-cloths, into the boxes -until they are entirely filled. This process is conducted in a very -cool and dry apartment, paved with stone and kept very clean, so that -any glue which may be spilt may be recovered. In twelve or eighteen -hours the liquid glue becomes sufficiently firm for the next process, -which is performed in an upper story, furnished with ventilating -windows, so as to admit air on all sides. The boxes are inverted on a -moistened table, so that the cake of jelly may not adhere to it: this -cake is cut into horizontal layers, by means of a brass wire, stretched -in a frame, and is guided by rulers, so disposed as to regulate the -thickness of the cake of glue. The slices thus formed are carefully -lifted off, and placed on nets stretched in wooden frames. As these -frames are filled they are placed over each other, with an interval of -about three inches between every two frames, so that the air may have -free access. Each frame is so arranged as to slide in and out like a -drawer, to allow the cakes to be turned, which is done two or three -times every day.</p> - -<p>An experienced writer on manufactures thus observes, concerning this -part of the process:—“The drying of the glue<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> is the most precarious -part of the manufacture. The least disturbance of the weather may -injure the glue during the two or three first days of its exposure. -Should the temperature of the air rise considerably, the gelatine -may turn so soft as to become unshapely, and even to run through the -meshes upon the pieces below, or it may get attached to the strings -and surround them, so as not to be separable without plunging the -net into boiling water. If frost supervene, the water may freeze, -and form numerous cracks in the cakes. Such pieces must immediately -be remelted and reformed. A slight fog even produces upon glue newly -exposed a serious deterioration, the damp condensed upon its surface -occasioning a general mouldiness. A thunder-storm sometimes destroys -the coagulating power in the whole laminæ at once, or causes the glue -to <em>turn</em> on the nets, in the language of the manufacturer. A wind -too dry or too hot may cause it to dry so quickly as to prevent it from -contracting to its proper size, without numerous cracks and fissures. -In this predicament the closing of all the flaps of the windows is -the only means of abating the mischief. On these accounts it is of -importance to select the most temperate season of the year, such as -spring and autumn, for the glue manufacture.”</p> - -<p>When the glue is properly dried a gloss is imparted to each cake, by -dipping it in hot water, and passing over it a brush, also wetted -with hot water. The cakes are then placed on a hurdle, dried in the -stove-room, or in the open air, if the weather be sufficiently dry and -warm. It is then packed in casks for sale.</p> - -<p>It has been found by experiment that when two cylinders of dry ash, one -inch and a half in diameter, were glued together, and after twenty-four -hours torn asunder, a force of 1260 pounds was required to produce the -separation, thus making the force of adhesion equal to 715 pounds per -square inch. Another experiment made the force of adhesion to equal -4000 pounds on the square inch.</p> - - -<h3>The House-Decorator of Italy.</h3> - -<p>In an interesting notice, by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Wilson, of the present state of -the arts in Italy, read before the Society of Arts, in Scotland, -in November, 1840, a few details are given of the skill with which -the house-builder converts the commonest materials into tasteful -decorations. The following is an abstract of that part of the notice -which relates to the subject of the present volume:—</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the comparatively small employment afforded to Italian -architects in the present day, yet there<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> can be no question as to the -skill displayed in erecting their designs. The masonry is excellent, -and the ancient Roman brick-work is rivalled by that of the present -generation; houses are built of brick, in which all the exterior -decorations are moulded in that material as perfectly as if executed in -stone. The skill with which the Italian workmen build in brick, may be -exemplified by the Florentine practice of arching over rooms without -centering of any description. Two thin moulds of board, the shape of -the intended arch, alone are used: these are placed at each end of the -apartment which it is intended to cover in, and pieces of string are -stretched from the one to the other, guiding the workman as he advances -in the formation of his arch, which he builds, uniting the bricks by -their thin edges (greatly thinner than those we use), and trusting -entirely to the tenacity and quick-setting of the cement.</p> - -<p>Plastering is also carried to a perfection in Italy, of which we have -very little idea in this country; rooms are so exquisitely finished, -that no additional work in the shape of house-painting is required; but -the polish of the plaster, and its evenness of tint, are such as to -rival those of the finest porcelain. Sometimes the plaster is fluted, -or various designs are executed in <em>intaglio</em> upon it, in the most -beautiful manner. Scagliola, a very fine preparation from gypsum, is -the material chiefly used. An instance of the cheap rate at which this -work is done, is afforded in the new ball-room in the Palazzo Pitti -grand-ducal residence at Florence, which, including mouldings, figures, -bas-reliefs, and ornaments, was executed at a cost of two crowns for -every four square feet.</p> - -<p>A most beautiful art among the Italians, and one which might be -advantageously introduced into this country, is that of making what are -termed Venetian pavements. This method of finishing the floors of rooms -is conducted in the following manner. In the first place a foundation -is made of lime mixed with pozzolana, and small pieces of broken stone; -this is, in fact, a sort of concrete, which must be well beaten and -levelled. When this is perfectly dry, a fine paste, as it is termed -by the Italians, must be made of lime, pozzolana, and sand; a yellow -sand is used which tinges the mixture; this is carefully spread to a -depth of one or two inches, according to circumstances. Over this is -laid a layer of irregularly broken minute pieces of marble of different -colours, and if it is wished these can be arranged in patterns. After -the paste is completely covered with pieces of marble, men proceed to -beat the floor with large and heavy tools made for the purpose; when -the whole has been beaten into a compact mass, and the paste appears -above the pieces of marble, it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> left to harden. It is then rubbed -smooth with fine-grained stones, and is finally brought to a high -polish with emery powder, marble dust, and lastly, with boiled oil -rubbed on with flannel. This makes a durable and very beautiful floor, -which in this country would be well adapted for halls, conservatories, -and other buildings.</p> - -<p>The carpentry of the Italians, as observable in ordinary houses, -displays little skill and indifferent workmanship, but in the roofs -and floors of important buildings, they satisfactorily prove their -knowledge of scientific principles, and several of their designs are -well known to British architects.</p> - -<p>With regard to the working of iron, in comparison with our system, the -Italian is primitive indeed; yet at times he can and does produce very -good specimens of workmanship, but at a heavy cost; consequently they -are generally content with very ordinary productions. A manufactory -of wire, and of driving and screw nails, by means of machinery, now -occupies the villa of Mecænas at Tivoli; the articles produced are -very well made. Copper is extensively used in Italy, and there are -productive mines in the <i>Maremma Toscana</i>. The workmanship of -articles made of this metal is respectable; various utensils are -made of brass in a neat and satisfactory manner, but in the interior -finishing of houses, if much nicety is required, articles of foreign -manufacture are used.</p> - -<p>House-painters may be mentioned in the last place, and these display -much taste and skill; and there is a class of them who greatly excel -those in this country, having more the feeling and taste of artists. -Surrounded by the finest models in this art, the Italian decorator -enjoys every advantage in its study, and he inherits besides from the -best periods of art, or rather from antiquity, taste, and a good system -of workmanship. He is not a mere machine, employed in the use of the -moulds, stamps, and other mechanical contrivances, which too often keep -the decorative arts within such narrow limits.</p> - - -<h3>Fresco Painting.</h3> - -<p>The proposed introduction of Fresco Painting into our public buildings -will, it is hoped and expected, have the effect of employing the artist -in fresco upon the walls of our dwelling-houses. Already have a few of -the mansions of our nobility been thus decorated, and in anticipation -of its general introduction it may not be out of character with this -little work to describe the process in detail.</p> - -<p>Respecting the origin of the term fresco there are two opinions; -according to some the term is said to have been<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span> adopted because the -practice of it is used in the open air. Thus in the Italian language, -<i lang="it" xml:lang="it">andare al fresco</i> signifies “to take the air;” or “to walk abroad -in the air;” but a more probable explanation is to be found in another -meaning of the word fresco, viz., “new,” or “fresh,” as applied to the -state of the plaster in which it is wrought. The artist traces his -design, colours it, and completely finishes in one day so much of his -picture as will occupy the wet plaster ground that has been prepared -for him, so that when the ground is dry, he may not retouch any part -of his work. This is the characteristic distinction of painting in -fresco—a method by which the painting is incorporated with the mortar, -and drying along with it becomes extremely durable, and brightens in -its tones and colours as it dries.</p> - -<p>It will therefore be readily conceived that the artist in fresco has -to encounter difficulties of no ordinary kind; a few of them are thus -noticed by a writer in <span class="smcap">Rees’s</span> <i>Cyclopædia</i>:—“From the -necessity there is in the progress of this style of art, that it should -be executed with rapidity, and from the impossibility of retouching -it without injuring the purity of the work, the artist, unless he be -endowed with very extraordinary powers of imagination and execution -indeed, is obliged to prepare a finished sketch of the subject, wrought -to its proper hue and tone of colour, and so well digested, that there -may be no necessity for making any essential alterations in the design. -This, which is a very useful mode of proceeding in all fine works of -painting, is absolutely indispensable in fresco, to those who are -not determined to give the rein to their ideas, and leave as perfect -whatever may first present itself. There is no beginning in this, by -drawing in the whole of the parts at one time, and correcting them at -leisure, as is the custom with oil-painters, who may therefore proceed -to work without a sketch; here all that is begun in the morning must -be completed in the evening; and that almost without cessation of -labour, while the plaster is wet; and not only completed in form, but -also, a difficult, nay, almost impossible task, without a well-prepared -sketch, must be performed, viz., the part done in this short time must -have so perfect an accordance with what follows, or has preceded, of -the work, that when the whole is finished, it may appear as if it had -been executed at once, or in the usual mode, with sufficient time to -harmonize the various forms and tones of colour. Instead of proceeding -by slow degrees to illuminate the objects, and increase the vividness -of the colours, in a manner somewhat similar to the progress of nature -in the rising day, till at last it shines with all its intended effect, -which is the course of painting in oil,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> the artist working in fresco -must at once rush into broad daylight, at once give all the force in -light, and shade, and colour, which the nature of his subject requires, -and this without the assistance (at least in the commencement) of -contrast to regulate his eye; so that here, as has been said, a well -digested and finished sketch seems indispensably requisite.”</p> - -<p>The custom of decorating walls with paintings is very ancient. Those -discovered by Belzoni, among the royal tombs of Egypt, prove the -existence of the art among the Egyptians many centuries before the -Christian era. There is also abundant evidence that it was practised -by the Etruscans and Romans. But the more common practice up to the -time of Augustus seems to have been to paint the walls of houses of -one single colour, and to relieve this with fantastic ornaments. -According to Pliny, Augustus was the first to suggest the covering -of whole walls with pictures and landscapes. About the same time a -painter named Ludius invented that style of decoration, now called -<em>arabesque</em> or <em>grotesque</em>, many beautiful examples of which -have been discovered at Pompeii and other places. The invention of the -Arabesque style, as its name implies, has been improperly claimed for -the Arabians of Spain; whose religion forbidding the representation of -animals, they employed foliage, stalks, stems, tendrils, flowers, and -fruit, in a variety of forms and combinations, with which they adorned -the surfaces of their buildings. Hence the fanciful combinations of -natural objects occupying a flat surface came to be called Arabesque, -although it differed so much from the Mohammedan compositions as to -contain animals real or fabulous. That the term is badly chosen, -especially as applied to the fanciful enrichments on the walls of -Pompeii, &c., will be seen from the fact that such ornaments were -invented and executed long before the sons of Ishmael had learned to -draw. The term grotesque is less objectionable: it is derived from -the subterranean rooms (grotte) in the baths of Rome, in which those -specimens of ancient art were found, from which Raphael derived the -plan of the beautiful frescos which adorn the piers and pilasters of -the arcaded gallery of the palace of the Vatican, called, in honour of -the artist, “Le Logge di Raffaelle.”</p> - -<p>The practice of Fresco Painting may be conveniently considered under -the following heads:—1. The cartoon. 2. The preparation of the wall. -3. The process of painting. 4. The colours and implements. The methods -as adopted by different artists are of course subject to variation; but -as general principles are not altered by variations in those details -which conduce to the same end, so the following<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span> may be taken as an -accurate exposition of the practice of the art.</p> - -<p>1. <em>The Cartoon.</em> Since the artist cannot without injury retouch -a fresco painting, it is necessary that every part of the design be -decided on by preparatory sketches finished of the full size, from -which the fresco may be transferred, by tracing to the wall. When the -painting is very large, the whole composition of the full size is -sometimes divided into two or more cartoons.</p> - -<p>In the preparation of a cartoon, a strong cloth is stretched on a -frame, as if to be prepared for painting; paper is then firmly glued -on the cloth. When this is dry, a second layer of paper is attached -by glue. The edges of the separate sheets, where they overlap, are -scraped, so as to preserve an even surface. The surface is then -prepared for drawing with size and alum.<span class="fnanchor" id="fna7"><a href="#fn7">[7]</a></span> The drawing is made with -charcoal, and when finished is fixed by wetting the cloth at the -back with cold water, and then steaming the drawing in front. The -steaming is performed with a tea-kettle with two or three spouts, kept -boiling by the flame of a spirit lamp; by this means the charcoal is -incorporated with the melted glue, and a solid surface like that of a -picture is produced.</p> - -<p>From this finished drawing the outline is traced on oiled paper. As -much of this working outline as can be finished in one painting is -then nailed to the wet wall, and the forms are again traced with a -sharp point, whereby an indented outline is produced on the soft -plaster. According to another method, the paper to be applied to the -wall is placed behind and in close contact with the finished cartoon; -the outlines of the latter are then pricked, and a similar pricked -outline is thus produced on the paper behind. This pricked paper is -then made the working drawing: it is fastened to the wall, and dusted -with a little bag filled with black or red dust; this leaves a dotted -outline on the wall. This method is sometimes adopted for small works, -and the advantage of it is that it leaves the surface of the plaster -undisturbed. The first mode is, however, generally preferred; since it -insures the best and most decided outline, and preserves the finished -cartoon uninjured.</p> - -<p>Cartoons prepared for fresco may be seen in the National Gallery: -those at the head of the staircase are by Agostino Caracci. In one of -these (the Triumph of Galatea) the pricked outline is very apparent; -as also in the fragment of the Cartoon by Raphael, (the Murder of the -Innocents,) also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> in the National Gallery. In many celebrated Italian -frescos the indented outline, produced by tracing, is apparent.</p> - -<p>In addition to the cartoon it is desirable to have a coloured sketch of -the whole composition.</p> - -<p>2. <em>The preparation of the Wall.</em> The greatest obstacle to the -permanence of fresco painting is damp: hence, if the wall to be painted -is covered with old mortar, the ingredients of which are unknown, this -coat should be entirely removed until the solid brick or stone is laid -bare. The rough coat then applied is composed of river-sand and lime, -and of such thickness as is generally used in preparing the walls of -dwelling-houses. The surface of this coat should be rough, but not -uneven. Thus prepared, the wall should be suffered to become perfectly -dry and hard; the longer it remains in this state the safer it will be, -especially if the lime used was in the first instance fresh. In that -case two or three years should elapse before the process of painting is -commenced.</p> - -<p>The preparation and seasoning of the lime is one of the essential -conditions of fresco painting. At Munich it is made and kept as -follows:—A pit is filled with clean burnt limestone, which is slaked, -and then stirred continually till it is reduced to an impalpable -consistence. The surface having settled to a level, clean river-sand -is spread over it to the depth of a foot or more, so as to exclude the -air, and, lastly, the whole is covered with earth. It is allowed to -remain thus for at least three years before it is used, either for the -purposes of painting (lime being the white pigment) or for coating the -walls.</p> - -<p>The last preparation for painting on the mortar, is as follows:—The -surface is wetted with pure water, till it ceases to absorb. A thin -coat of plaster is then spread over that portion only which is to -be painted: the surface of this coat should be moderately rough. As -soon as it begins to set (<em>i. e.</em>, in about ten minutes or so, -according to the temperature) a second thin coat is laid on, and the -surfaces are smoothed with a wooden trowel. Some painters like to work -on a perfectly smooth surface, in which case the last coat is polished -by applying a piece of paper on the surface, and passing the trowel -over it. When a small amount of roughness is required, a dry brush, -or a piece of beaver nap attached to the trowel, is passed over the -plaster in all directions.</p> - -<p>3. <em>The process of Painting.</em> The wall being properly prepared, -the outline of the figures is to be traced with a sharp point on the -plaster, as before described. The artist commences his work when the -surface is in such a state that it will barely receive the impression -of the finger, and not so wet as to allow the colours to run or to be -liable to be stirred up<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span> by the brush. If the wall has been previously -well wetted, it will in general not dry too rapidly; but if in warm -weather the surface becomes too hard to imbibe the colour properly, a -small quantity of water is from time to time sprinkled over the surface.</p> - -<p>The colours being ground fine in water, and the most useful tints -abundantly supplied, they are arranged in pots or basins, and several -palettes with raised edges are ready at hand to work from. A few pieces -of tile or some absorbent material are provided to prove the tints -upon, because all colours ground in water become much lighter when dry -than they appear when wet. The brick absorbs the water, and leaves the -colour nearly in the state in which it will appear upon the wall.</p> - -<p>The first tints that are applied sink in and have a faint appearance; -it is therefore necessary to go over the work several times before the -full effect is produced: but after some time the last edition of colour -will not unite with that already applied unless the part be again -wetted.</p> - -<p>At the close of a day’s work, any portion of the prepared plaster which -remains over and above the finished part is to be cut away, care being -taken to make the divisions at a part where drapery, or some object or -its outline, forms a boundary, for if this be not attended to, the work -will appear patchy. The next day, in preparing a new surface, the edges -of the previously painted portion must be carefully wetted so as to -ensure a perfect junction of all the parts of the painted surface.</p> - -<p>At Munich the artists have a contrivance for arresting the drying of -the work should they be unable to finish the day’s allotted portion. -A piece of fine linen is wetted and spread over the fresh plaster and -painting, and pressed to the surface by means of a cushion covered with -waxed cloth.</p> - -<p>Defects are sometimes remedied by cutting out the objectionable -portion, and painting it anew upon a fresh surface of plaster. In the -finished fresco, shadows are sometimes deepened, parts are rounded, -subdued, or softened by hatching in lines of the colour required, mixed -up with vinegar and white of egg. Crayons made of pounded egg-shells -are sometimes used to heighten the lights. But all these additional -amendments are highly objectionable; they impair the durability of the -fresco, and in the open air these retouchings are useless, because the -rain washes them away, whereas it has no influence upon frescos painted -without retouching.</p> - -<p>4. <em>The Colours and Implements.</em> The colours employed in fresco -painting are few and simple. They consist chiefly of earths and a few -metallic oxides variously prepared. No<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> animal and vegetable substances -can be used, because the lime would destroy them. The brushes are of -hog’s hair, but longer than those used in oil painting. Small pencils -of otter hair are also used; no other hair being found to resist the -lime. Pure distilled water ought to be employed in all the operations -of this art.</p> - -<p>Such is the process of fresco painting, the details of which, after the -above statement, will be rendered more intelligible by the following -abridged account of a visit, by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Andrew Wilson, to the royal palace -at Genoa, to see the Signor Pasciano paint a ceiling in fresco:—</p> - -<p>The artist had prepared his tints upon a table with a large slate for -the top: they consisted of terra vert, smalt, vermilion, yellow ochre, -Roman ochre, darker ochre, Venetian red, umber, burnt umber, and black. -These colours were all pure, mixed with water only, and rather stiff. -He mixed each tint as he wanted it, adding to each from a pot of pure -lime, or from one containing a very pale flesh tint. A lump of umber -served to try his colours on. He used a resting-stick with cotton on -the top to prevent injury to the prepared wall, or <em>intonaco</em>, as -the Italians call it. The moment this surface would bear touching, the -artist began to work upon the figure, the outline of which had just -been traced. The head was that of the Virgin. The artist began with a -pale tint of yellow round the head for the glory: he then laid in the -head and neck with a pale flesh colour, and the masses of drapery round -the head and shoulders with a middle tint, and with brown and black -in the shadows. He next, with terra vert and white, threw in the cool -tints of the face; then with a pale tint of umber and white, modelled -in the features, covered with the same tint the part where the hair -was to be seen, and also indicated the folds of the white veil. All -this time he used the colours as thin as we do in water colours; he -touched the intonaco with great tenderness, and allowed ten minutes to -elapse before touching the same spot a second time. He now brought his -coloured study, which stood on an easel near him, and began to model -the features, and to throw in the shades with greater accuracy. He put -colour in the cheeks, and put in the mouth slightly, then shaded the -hair and drapery, deepening always with the same colours, which became -darker and darker every time they were applied, as would be the case -on paper for instance. Having worked for half an hour, he made a halt -for ten minutes, during which time he occupied himself in mixing darker -tints, and then began finishing, loading the lights, and using the -colours much stiffer, and putting down his touches with precision and -firmness: he softened with a brush with a little water in it.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span> Another -rest of ten minutes; but by this time he had nearly finished the head -and shoulders of his figure, which being uniformly wet, looked exactly -like a picture in oil, and the colours seemed blended with equal -facility. Referring again to the oil study, he put in some few light -touches in the hair, again heightened generally in the lights, touched -too into the darks, threw a little white into the yellow round the -head, and this portion of his composition was finished, all in about -an hour and a half. This was rapid work, but it will be noticed that -the artist rested four times, so as to allow the wet to be sufficiently -absorbed into the wall to allow him to repass over his work. He now -required an addition to the intonaco; the tracing was again lifted -up to the ceiling, and the space to be covered being marked by the -painter, the process was repeated, and the body and arms of the figure -were finished.</p> - -<p>On the occasion of a second visit, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Wilson remarked that the -artist had cut away from his tracing or cartoon those parts which -he had finished upon the ceiling: that the tracing was in fact cut -into several portions, but always carefully divided by the outline -of figures, clouds, or other objects. These pieces are nailed to the -plaster, so as to fold inwards or outward for the convenience of -tracing the outlines. The artist was now about to proceed with a group -of figures. Having gone over the outline carefully with a steel point, -he waited till the intonaco became a little harder, and in the mean -time mixed up a few tints; he then commenced with a large brush, and -went over the whole of the flesh; he next worked with a tint which -served for the general mass of shadow, for the hair, and a slight -marking out of the features. He now applied a little colour to the -cheeks, mouth, nose, and hands, and all this time he touched as lightly -as possible. He then paused for ten minutes, examined his oil study, -and watched the absorption of the moisture.</p> - -<p>The intonaco would now bear the gentle pressure of his fingers, and -with the same large brush, but with water only, he began to soften and -unite the colours already laid on. He had not as yet used any tint -thicker than a wash of water-colour, and he continued to darken in the -shadows without increasing the force or depths of colour. The artist -now increased the number of his tints; he made them of a much thicker -consistence, and he now began to paint in the lights with a greater -body of colour, softening them into the shades with a dry brush, or -with one a little wet, as was required. In drying, the water comes to -the surface and actually falls off in drops, but this does no harm, -although, as <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Wilson remarks, it sometimes looks alarming.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span></p> - -<p>The effect of fresco painting is described as being exceedingly -beautiful. It does not require for the production of its general effect -those particular and concealed lights which the shining surface of an -oil-painting renders necessary. Fresco is seen entire in any situation -and by any light, even by artificial light, which perhaps shows it -best. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Severn was much struck by the increased beauty and power -of the Caracci frescos at Rome by artificial light. Even a dim or -diminished light does not destroy their effect.</p> - -<p>“It must have been for this reason that Raphael adopted fresco in -the Vatican, after he had made experiments in oil; for the rooms are -so ill-lighted, that oil pictures could never have been seen at all; -and it is surprising to find such fine works in such a place. Three -sides of the rooms are illuminated merely by the reflected light from -the great wall of the Sistine chapel, yet this beautiful and luminous -material of fresco is so brilliant in itself, that the pictures are -well seen. Nine of them were painted without a ray of real light, and -have always been seen in the same way. I think this is a very important -consideration; for as we have but a diminished light at any time, it is -most necessary to adopt a manner of painting suited to it, which can be -seen at all times.”</p> - -<p>Fresco does not seem to be at all understood in this country; it is -generally confounded with scene painting; it is a common mistake to -suppose that the cartoons of Raphael are the same as his frescos. It -is often confounded with distemper painting, which is done on a dry -ground, and does not admit of richness of colour.</p> - -<p>“This will be clearly understood (writes <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Severn) by those who -have had the good fortune to see Raphael’s and Guido’s frescos at -Rome, which for colour are exquisitely beautiful, and even powerful in -all the fascinations of this part of the art, presenting to us still -greater varieties than oil painting can pretend to; excelling in all -the delicate effects of atmosphere, from the gorgeous daylight, the air -of which you seem to breathe in a fresco picture, down to the silvery -flitting charm of twilight. In these particulars, it reminds us of -English water-colour effects. Then I should mention the magnificence -of fresco landscape, and of landscape backgrounds, particularly by -Domenichino, in which not only the characters, but the movements of -trees, are always rendered in a way which I have rarely seen in oil -colours.... Then I must remind you of the grandeur of colour and effect -in Michael Angelo’s frescos on the ceiling of the Sistine chapel. What -oil could ever have approached such things? When he said ‘that oil -painting was only fit for women and children,’ he meant on account of -the labour and difficulties of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span> material compared with fresco. We -are assured he performed this gigantic labour in twenty months, without -the usual assistance of colour-grinders or plasterers, but alone with -his own hand. There are on this ceiling fourteen figures, of at least -forty feet in stature, and nearly five hundred figures, the least of -which are double the size of life. While we regard this as the most -extraordinary example of individual human power, we must consider that -it was only in the simplicity and ease of the fresco material that -Michael Angelo could have accomplished such a stupendous work. The -preparation of oil colours, varnishes, &c., would alone have occupied -the twenty months.”</p> - -<p>The small cost and great durability of frescos are not the least -of their advantages. It was feared that the smoke of London would -soon destroy our frescos, but Professor Hess stated that “if frescos -were painted in the open air in London, the rain would be the best -picture-cleaner.” Indeed, competent authorities agree that pure water -and a soft sponge are the best means for cleaning frescos from the -effects of smoke. That the change effected by time on the colours -is to increase their effect. The great enemy to fresco is a wall -constitutionally damp, in which lime in too new a state has been -employed, or new timber or imperfectly burnt bricks. The nitre which -sometimes accumulates on walls is also very destructive.</p> - -<p>Nor are frescos such permanent fixtures as is generally imagined. Some -ingenious Italians have succeeded perfectly in removing large frescos -from one wall and applying them securely to another. The colours in -fresco do not penetrate very deep, and the thin layer of pigment and -lime of which the painting consists, may be removed by glueing several -layers of calico to the wall: a slight force is then sufficient to -detach the painting: it is removed to its new bed, and when firmly -attached, the cloths and glue may be removed by warm water.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>We must now leave the Reader in possession of the dwelling-house which -we have endeavoured to build for him. If we have not <em>furnished</em> -it, or described the modes in which the various articles of furniture -are made, it was not because the subject is devoid of interest, far -from it; but because we were anxious not to injure the completeness and -interest of the preceding details by attempting too much within the -limits of this little volume.</p> - - -<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<p class="footnote" id="fn7"><a href="#fna7">[7]</a> The term Cartoon is derived from <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">curtone</i>, the augmentative -of <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">carta</i>, the Italian for <em>paper</em>.</p> - - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center p0 p4"> LONDON:<br /> - SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS,<br /> - CHANDOS STREET. -</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - - -<p>In a few cases, obvious errors in punctuation have been fixed.</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_28">Page 28</a>: “the standstones of which” changed to “the sandstones of which”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_141">Page 141</a>: “the vessel <em>e</em>” changed to “the vessel <em>c</em>”</p> - -<p><a href="#Page_213">Page 213</a>: “upon the cieling” changed to “upon the ceiling”</p> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE USEFUL ARTS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLING HOUSES ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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