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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d380afe --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67626 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67626) diff --git a/old/67626-0.txt b/old/67626-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b0fbe9f..0000000 --- a/old/67626-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,15052 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Twenty Years' Residence among the -People of Turkey, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Twenty Years' Residence among the People of Turkey - Bulgarians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks, and Armenians - -Author: Anonymous - -Editor: Stanley Lane Poole - -Release Date: March 13, 2022 [eBook #67626] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TWENTY YEARS' RESIDENCE AMONG -THE PEOPLE OF TURKEY *** - - - - - - - BOOKSELLERS SUPPLIED WITH TRIMMED OR UNTRIMMED COPIES AS THEY MAY - INDICATE THEIR PREFERENCE. - - [Illustration: FRANKLIN SQUARE LIBRARY.] - - NUMBER 12. PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK. PRICE 15 CTS. - - Copyright, 1878, by HARPER & BROTHERS. - - TWENTY YEARS’ RESIDENCE - AMONG - THE PEOPLE OF TURKEY: - BULGARIANS, GREEKS, ALBANIANS, TURKS, AND ARMENIANS. - - BY - A CONSUL’S DAUGHTER AND WIFE. - EDITED BY STANLEY LANE POOLE. - - DEDICATED (BY PERMISSION) TO - THE MARCHIONESS OF SALISBURY, - BY HER GRATEFUL SERVANT, THE AUTHOR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -No one who has talked with many people on the Eastern Question can have -failed to remark the wide difference of opinion held on things which -ought to be matters of certainty, and on which two opinions ought to be -impossible. This divergence of view is only a very natural consequence -of the want of any book of authority on the subject. How is one to -learn what manner of men these Bulgarians and Greeks of Turkey really -are? Hitherto our information has been chiefly obtained from newspaper -correspondents: and it is hardly necessary to observe that the nature -of their selected information depends upon the tendency of the paper. -There have, of course, been notable exceptions to this common rule of -a party-conscience: the world of journalists is but now lamenting the -untimely death of one of its most distinguished members, with whose name -honor and truth and indefatigable thoroughness must ever be associated. -But granting the honesty and impartiality of a correspondent, allowing -the accuracy of his report of what he has seen, it must be conceded that -his opportunities for observation are short and hurried, that he judges -almost solely from the immediate present, and that by the nature of -his profession he is seldom able to make a very long or intimate study -of a people’s character. One accepts his reports as the evidence of -an eye-witness; but one does not necessarily pledge one’s self to his -deductions. For the former task he has every necessary qualification: for -the latter he may have none, and he probably has not the most important. -Especially unsafe is it to trust to estimates of nations formed hastily -on insufficient experience in the midst of general disorder, such as that -in which many summary verdicts have lately been composed. - -But if newspaper correspondents are placed at some disadvantage, what -can be said for those well-assured travellers who pay a three months’ -visit to Turkey, spend the time pleasantly at Pera, or perhaps at the -country-houses of some Pashas, and then consider themselves qualified -to judge the merits of each class in each nationality of the mixed -inhabitants of the land. It is unpleasant to have to say it; but it is -well known that scarcely a single book upon Turkey is based upon a much -longer experience than of three months. - -In this dearth of trustworthy information, it was with no little interest -that I learnt that an English lady, who had lived for a great part -or her life in various provinces of European and Asiatic Turkey, and -whose linguistic powers perfected by experience enabled her to converse -equally with Greeks, Turks, and Bulgarians as one of themselves, had -formed a collection of notes on the people of Turkey—on their national -characteristics, the way they live, their manners and customs, education, -religion, their aims, and ambitions. In any case the observations of one -who had for more than twenty years enjoyed such exceptional advantages -must be valuable. Of the opportunities of the Author there could be -as little doubt as of her conscientious accuracy in recording her -experience. The only question was not the quality but the quantity of -the information. But in this the manuscript surpassed all expectations. -Every page teemed with details of life and character entirely novel to -all but Eastern travellers. Every subject connected with the people of -Turkey seemed to be exhaustively treated, and it was rarely that any need -for more ample information was felt. - -In editing what, as I have had nothing to do with the matter of it, I -may without vanity call the most valuable work on the people of Turkey -that has yet appeared, I have strictly kept in view the principle laid -down by the Author—that the book was to be a collection of facts, not a -vehicle for party views on the Eastern Question, nor a recipe for the -harmonious arrangement of South-eastern Europe. Politically the book is -entirely colorless. It was felt that thus only could it commend itself -to both, or rather all, the disputing parties on the question, and that -only by delicately avoiding the susceptible points of each party could -the book attain its end—of generally imparting a certain amount of sound -information on the worst-known subject of the day. - -The reader, therefore, must not expect to find here a defence of Turkish -rule nor yet an attack thereon: he will only find an account of how the -Turks do rule, with a few incidental illustrations scattered throughout -the book. Comment is, as a rule, eschewed as superfluous and insulting -to the intelligence of the reader. Still less must he look for any -expression of opinion on the wisdom or folly of the policy of Her -Majesty’s Government. All these things are apart from the aim of the -work. It is wished to provide the data necessary to the formation of any -worthy views on the many subdivisions of the Eastern Question. It is not -wished to point the moral. Once conversant with the actual state of the -people of Turkey, once knowing how they live, what are their virtues and -vices, what their aims and ambitions, and it is easy for any rational -man to draw his conclusions; easy to criticise favorably or otherwise -according to the merits of the case the policy of the British Government -towards Turkey and towards Greece, to decide whether after all the -supposed rising in Bulgaria (about which little is said here, because -everything has already been well said) was ever a rising at all; whether -the Turks are or are not incapable of the amenities which many believe -them then to have indulged in; whether the Bulgarians are friendly to -Russia, or are really the very humble servants of the Porte; in short, -whether half the questions which have for two years been the subject of -perpetual contention admit of debate at all. - -The book has been divided into four parts. In the first, the general -characteristics of the various races of Turkey are sketched. Very little -is said about their history, for it is not the history but the present -state—or rather the state just before the war—of the people that is the -subject of the book. But the Author has tried to bring home to the reader -the social condition and the national character of their different races. -The Bulgarians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks, Armenians, and Jews are in turn -described, and the, for the time, scarcely less important Circassians, -with the Tatars and Gypsies, have their chapter. - -In the second part, the tenure of land in Turkey and the state of the -small peasant farmers are explained, and an account is given of houses -and hovels in Turkey, including that most superb of Turkish houses, the -Seraglio of the Sultan, to which with its inmates a very detailed notice -is devoted; and the part ends with an account of Municipality and Police -in Turkey, together with the kindred subject of Brigandage. - -The third part is occupied with the manners and customs of the races. -Few things give such an insight into the character of a people as a -study of their customs, and it is believed that these chapters on the -extraordinary ceremonies employed in Turkey on the occasion of a birth -or marriage, or a death, the dress, food, amusements, of the Greeks, -Bulgarians, Turks, and Armenians will prove of as much value as interest. -The fact, for example, that in many parts of Bulgaria the weddings take -place not in the church but in the cellar of the bridegroom’s house -speaks volumes on the insecurity of a woman’s person while Turkish -governors rule in Bulgarian towns. The custom of the Bulgarian bridegroom -flinging a halter over his bride’s neck and dragging her into his -house is an interesting relic of capture, and the subsequent knocking -of the bride’s head against the wall as a warning against infidelity -illustrates the general chastity of the people. The indecent exhibitions, -again, at Turkish weddings help to explain the want of refinement and -womanly feeling among Turkish ladies. The ceremonies of the Greeks are -interesting from another point of view, inasmuch as very many of them are -identical with those of the ancient Greeks. - -The last part is devoted to the education, superstition, and religion -of the people of Turkey. It is here that we get to the root of Turkish -manners; for we see how the Turk is brought up, how he learns the vices -that have become identified with the thought of his race, how he remains, -in spite even of a western education, deeply imbued with superstition, -and finally how he loses all the energy of the old Othmanli character by -the operation of the fatal doctrine of Kismet. The chapters on Education -are among the most valuable in the book; whilst those on Religion -will serve to explain some of the difficulties that beset the proper -adjustment of affairs in Southern Europe. - -The study of the facts thus brought together points to a considerable -modification of the views commonly entertained with regard to the -characters of the peoples of Turkey. The Author’s long experience leaves -no doubt of the vast superiority of the Greeks to the other races; yet -there is no people that one is more accustomed to hear spoken of with -distrust and even contempt. The Greeks are commonly charged with a -partiality for sharp practice, with intolerable vanity; their character -is summed up as petty. There is always a grain of truth in a calumny: -when plenty of mud is thrown some of it sticks, not because of the -quantity of the mud, but because there is sure to be an adhesive sympathy -with some part of the object of the attack. The Greeks have in some -degree laid themselves open to these charges. It was very unwise of -them to take the first rank as merchants in the East, and thus arouse -the jealousy of the merchants of all European nations, whom they have -eclipsed by their superior business capacities. Envy will pick holes -anywhere, but it is especially easy to criticise the customs of a -merchant class. Mercantile morality all over the world is a thing of -itself, not generally understanded of the people. But there is nothing to -show that the Greek merchants are less scrupulous than the rest, though -their temptations are infinitely greater. If a little sharp business -is said to be permissible, and even perhaps necessary, at Liverpool, -for instance, it is _à fortiori_ essential in Turkey. It is a perfectly -well-understood principle that in Turkey, where everything is done by -bribery and corruption, a merchant, unless he wishes to be ruined, -must steer a somewhat oblique course. So long as the late Turkish rule -extended over Greek subjects, it was necessary to do in Turkey as the -Turks do. French and English merchants sin as much as the Greeks in this -manner; but the superior commercial ability of the Greeks and their -consequent success have drawn on them the whole evil repute. It is not -that the Greeks cheat more than other commercial nations: it is merely -that they make more money on the same amount of cheating. _Hinc illæ iræ!_ - -The Greeks, again, are certainly conceited, and with excellent reason. -It would be absurd to expect anything else. They are but newly freed; -after centuries of Ottoman tyranny, followed by a generation of Bavarian -despotism, they have at last been allowed to enjoy some fifteen years of -freedom. Even under the stiff court of George, but much more during the -last fifteen years, they have made prodigious progress. Having worked out -their own freedom, they have been making themselves fit for freedom. From -craven slaves of the Turk they have become a liberty-loving people. Their -thoughts have been casting back to the noble ancestry which they claim -as their own, and looking onward to the great future that is in store -for them. They have measured themselves intellectually with the rest of -Europe and have not been worsted. They have spent the last twenty years -in the work of self-education, and so successful have been their efforts -that it is well known that no nation can compare with Greece in the -general education of its people—that to Greece alone can be applied the -ambiguous taunt that she is over-educated. - -All these things are legitimate subjects of pride. It is no wonder that -the Greeks are vain of their adopted ancestors; no marvel that they are -proud of their keen wits and facile intelligence. They have formed a -justly high estimate of their national worth, and are justly proud of the -progress they have already made, and they take no pains to conceal it. -Their faults are only exaggerations of national virtues, the outcome of -the reaction from a long servitude; they are the necessary but temporary -result of the circumstances. A little time for development, a closer -association with the other powers of Europe, and a worthier trust on the -part of these, and the Greeks will lose their blemishes of youth; conceit -will be toned down to a proper pride, and high intelligence will no -longer be called over-cleverness. The nation has marched steadily forward -in the little time it has been free; it has made great steps in educating -itself and in spreading knowledge among its members still subject to the -alien; it has shown itself able to govern itself, even to restrain itself -under terrible provocation when there was much to gain and little that -could be lost. If it is given fair play, the time may yet come when a -seventh Great power shall arise in Europe, when the Greeks shall again -rule in Byzantium, and Europe shall know that the name of Hellenes is -still a sacred name. - -The Author’s account of the Bulgarians differs little from the ordinary -opinion, except on one important point. She describes them as honest -hard-working peasants, rather slow and stupid, but excellent laborers. -But she absolutely denies the ferocious character ascribed to them by -some writers. Every one knows that they exacted a terrible vengeance -from the Turks, and no man of spirit can blame them for it; though it is -much to be regretted that, if the accounts be true, they carried their -revenge to the length of Turkish barbarity. But this was an exceptional -time: it has had its parallel in most nations, as those who remember the -feeling in England at the time of the Indian mutiny can witness. As a -rule the Bulgarian is, on the contrary, rather too tame. He is a very -domestic animal, lives happily with his family, keeps generally sober, -enjoys his dance on the common on feast-days, and goes with perfect -willingness and satisfaction to his daily work in the fields or at the -rose-harvest. He is an admirable agricultural laborer, with a stolidity -more than Teutonic, without the Teuton’s energy. Yet these Bulgarians -seem to have a good deal of sound common sense, and show many of the -qualities necessary in a people that is to govern itself. It has hitherto -submitted with curious tranquillity to the Turkish yoke, and the Sultan -has probably had few less ill-affected servants than the Bulgarians. On -the other hand, it seems that the Bulgarians entertain a very decided -hostility to Russia, an enmity second only to their hatred for the Greeks. - -The third important element in the future of South-East Europe is the -Turks. Of them it is not necessary to say much: most people are fairly -enlightened as to the manners and rule of the Turk, and the Author has -intentionally avoided crowding her pages with Turkish atrocities: they -are all very much alike, and they are not pleasant reading. The official -classes meet with scant respect at her hands; but with most writers she -speaks favorably of the Turkish peasant. The principal vice he has is -his religious fanaticism, which is the result partly of Mohammedanism -itself, and partly of the form and manner in which it is inculcated -in Turkey. Islam may be broad and tolerant enough; but not the rigid -orthodox Islam as taught in the primary schools of the Ottoman Empire. -Islam is an excellent creed by itself; but a ruling Mohammedan minority -in a Christian country is an endless source of trouble. But the religious -question is only one of those which have disturbed the position of the -Porte. The system of administration, as described in these pages, is -enough to overturn any power, and an official class brought up under -vicious home influences, educated in fanatical mosque-schools, living -the self-indulgent indolent life of Stamboul, getting and keeping office -by bribery, administering “justice” to the highest bidder, is a doomed -class. When one sees how a Turkish child is brought up he begins to -wonder how any Turk can help being vicious and dishonest. It is quite -certain that there is no hope for the Turks so long as Turkish women -remain what they are, and home-training is the initiation of vice. So -far as can be judged, the Turk naturally possessed some of the true -elements of greatness; but it is rarely they come to bear fruit: they are -choked by the pernicious social system which destroys the moral force -of the women and thereafter the men of the empire. It is this carefully -inculcated deficiency in all sense of uprightness and justice, and this -trained tendency to everything that is a crime against the community, -that renders the Pasha incapable of governing. It is this fact which -compels one to admit that, whatever the decisions of the Berlin Congress, -it is a clear gain that the war has won for Europe, to be able to speak -of Turkish rule in the past tense. - -With full knowledge of the experience and research of the Author, I must -yet say there are some points—notably the Greek Church of Russia—in -which I cannot bring myself to agree with her; and I must also add that, -owing to the haste with which the book was put through the press, I have -allowed a few misprints to escape me. - - STANLEY LANE POOLE. - -_June 20th, 1878._ - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE BULGARIANS. - - Sketch of Bulgarian History—The Slav Occupation—Bulgar - Conquest—Mixture of the Races—The Bulgarian Kingdom—Contests - with Constantinople—Basil Bulgaroktonos—Bulgaria under - Ottoman Rule—Compulsory Conversion—The Pomaks—Oppressive - Government—Janissary Conscription—Extortion of Officials—Misery - of the People—Improvement under Abdul-Medjid—Fidelity of - the Bulgarians to the Porte—The late Revolt no National - Movement—The Geographical Limits of Bulgaria—Mixture with - Greeks—Life in the House of a Bulgarian Country Gentleman—Daily - Levées of Elders and Peasants—Counsel of the Chorbadji and - Stupidity of the Clients—Instances of Bulgarian Grievances—St. - Panteleemon—A Spiritual Elopement—Dentist’s Fees—Woman’s - Work in Bulgaria—Sobriety—Town Life—A Bulgarian Ball—A - Night in a Bulgarian Hamlet, and the Comfort thereof—Unity - of the Nation—Distrust of Foreigners—Demoralization of the - Bulgarians—The Hope for the Future. - - -The Bulgarians, who were completely crushed by the Ottoman Conquest, -and whose very existence for centuries was almost forgotten, have been -suddenly brought before the world by the late unhappy events in their -country. - -Much has been written by English and foreign authors respecting them, but -few of the writings on the subject appear to agree with regard to the -origin, the history, or the present social and moral condition of this -much injured but deserving people. I have no pretensions to throw a fresh -light on the first two points. The few remarks I shall make are based -upon such authors as are considered most trustworthy, and especially on -the recent researches of Professor Hyrtl, reserving to myself the task of -describing the moral and social condition of the modern Bulgarians, as -fourteen years spent among them enables me to do. - -From the Bulgarian Professor Drinov, who appears to have made the Balkan -peninsula his especial study, we learn that before the arrival of the -Bulgarian tribes into European Turkey, the southern side of the Danube -had been invaded by the Slavs, who during four centuries poured into the -country and, steadily spreading, drove out the previous inhabitants, who -directed their steps towards the sea-coasts and settled in the towns -there. In the beginning of the sixth century the Slavonic element had -become so powerful in its newly-acquired dominions, and its depredatory -incursions into the Byzantine Empire so extensive, that the Emperor -Anastasius found himself forced to build a wall from Selymbria on the Sea -of Marmora to Derkon on the Black Sea in order to repel their attacks. -Procopius, commenting on this, relates that while Justinian was winning -useless victories over the Persians, part of his empire lay exposed to -the ravages of the Slavs, and that not less than 200,000 Byzantines were -annually killed or carried away into slavery. - -The hostile spirit, however, between these two nations was broken by -short intervals of peace and friendly relations, during which the -Slav race supplied some emperors and many distinguished men to the -Byzantines. Many Slavs resorted to Constantinople in order to receive -the education and training their newly-founded kingdom did not afford -them. The migration of the Slavs into Thrace ceased towards the middle -of the seventh century, when they settled down to a more sedentary life, -and, under the civilizing influence of their Byzantine neighbors, betook -themselves to agricultural and pastoral pursuits. According to historical -accounts the Slavs did not long enjoy their acquisitions in peace, for -about the year 679 A.D. a horde of Hunnish warriors, calling themselves -Bulgars (a name derived from their former home on the Volga), crossed -the Danube under the leadership of their Khan, Asparuch, and after some -desperate fighting with the Slavs, finally settled on the land now known -as Bulgaria and founded a kingdom which in its turn lasted about seven -hundred years. - -From the little that is known of the original Bulgarians, we learn that -polygamy was practised among them, that the men shaved their heads and -wore a kind of turban, and the women veiled their faces. These points of -similarity connect the primitive Bulgarians with the Avars, with whom -they came into close contact, as well as with the Tatars, during their -long sojourn between the Volga and Tanais, as witness the marked Tatar -features some of the Bulgarians bear to the present day. The primitive -Bulgarians are said to have subsisted chiefly on the flesh of animals -killed in the chase; and it is further related of them that they burnt -their dead, and when a chieftain died his wives and servants were also -burnt and their ashes buried with those of their master. Schafarik, whose -learned and trustworthy researches on the origin of the Bulgarians can -scarcely be called in question, remarks that the warlike hordes from the -Volga regions, though not numerous, were very brave and well skilled in -war. They attacked with great ferocity the patient plodding Slavs, who -were engaged in cultivating the land and rearing cattle, quickly obtained -the governing power, and after tasting the comforts of a settled life, -gradually adopted to a great extent the manners, customs, and even the -language of the people they had conquered. This amalgamation appears to -have been a slow process, occupying, according to historical evidence, -full two hundred and fifty years. It is during this period that the -Bulgarian language must have gradually been effaced, and the vanquishing -race, like the Normans in England, absorbed by the vanquished. - -This fresh mixture with the Slav element constituted the Bulgarians a -separate race, with no original title to belong to the Slavonic family -beyond that derived from the fusion of blood that followed the long -intercourse of centuries, by which the primitive Bulgarians became -blended with the former inhabitants of the country. It is evident that -they were superior to the Slavs in military science and power, but -inferior as regards civilization, and thus naturally yielded to the -influence of the more advanced and better organized people. By this -influence they created a distinct nation, gave their name to the country, -and consolidated their power by laws and institutions. - -The Bulgarian kingdom, from its very foundation in 679 until its final -overthrow by the Turks in 1396, presents a wearisome tale of battles -with short intervals of peace, in the struggle for supremacy between the -Emperors of Byzantium and the rulers of Bulgaria. The balance of power -alternately inclined from one party to the other; the wars were inhuman -on both sides; on the one hand, we read of hundreds of thousands of -Byzantines yearly sacrificed by the Slavs; on the other, we have equally -horrible spectacles presented to us, like that enacted during the reign -of Basil, surnamed Βουλγαροκτόνος (The Bulgarian-killer), on account of -the great number of Bulgarians killed by his order. This savage, having -on one occasion captured a large number of Bulgarians, separated 15,000 -into companies of 100 each, and ordered ninety-nine out of each of these -companies to be blinded, allowing the remaining hundredth to retain his -sight in order to become the leader of his blind brethren. - -In the midst of such scenes, and at the cost of torrents of blood, -successive kingdoms were constituted in this unhappy land of perpetual -warfare. Raised into momentary eminence by the force of arms, they were -again hurled to the ground by the same merciless instrument. Supreme -power has been alternately wielded by the savage, the Moslem, and -the Christian; each of whom to the present day continues the work of -destruction. - -The condition of Bulgarians did not improve under the Ottoman rule. Their -empire soon disappeared, leaving to posterity nothing but a few ruined -castles and fortresses, and some annals and popular songs illustrating -its past glory. The Turkish conquest was more deeply felt by the -Bulgarians than by their brethren in adversity, the Byzantines and the -neighboring Slav nations. These, owing to the more favorable geographical -position of their countries and other advantages, were able to save some -privileges out of the general wreck, and to retain a shadow of their -national rights. The Byzantines were protected by a certain amount of -influence left in the hands of the clergy, while the Slav nations were -enabled to make certain conditions with their conqueror before their -complete surrender, and were successful in enlisting the sympathies -and protection of friendly powers in their behalf, and in obtaining -through their instrumentality at intervals reforms never vouchsafed to -the Bulgarians. This nation, isolated, ignored, and shut out from the -civilized world, crouched under the despotic rule of the Ottomans, and -submitted to a life of perpetual toil and hardship, uncheered by any -of the pleasures of life, unsupported by the least gleam of hope for a -better future. - -This sad condition has lasted for centuries; and by force of misery the -people became grouped into two classes: the poor, who were constant to -their faith and national feeling, and the wealthy and prosperous, who -adopted Islam in order to escape persecution and save their property. To -this latter class may be added the Pomaks, a predatory tribe inhabiting -a mountainous district between the provinces of Philippopolis and -Serres. They live apart, and pass for Mussulmans because they have some -mosques; but they have no knowledge of the Koran nor follow its laws very -closely. Most of them to this day bear Christian names and speak the Slav -language. The men are a fine race, but utterly ignorant and barbarous. - -Upon the poor and therefore Christian class fell all the weight of -the Ottoman yoke, which made itself felt in their moral and material -condition, and reached even to the dress, which was enforced as a mark of -servility. They were forbidden to build churches, and beyond the ordinary -annual poll-tax imposed by Moslems on infidel subjects, they had to -submit to the many illegal extortions of rapacious governors and cruel -landlords; besides the terrible blood-tax collected every five years to -recruit the ranks of the Janissaries from the finest children of the -province. Nor were the Bulgarian maidens spared: if a girl struck the -fancy of a Mohammedan neighbor or a government official, he always found -means to possess himself of her person without using much ceremony or -fearing much commotion. - -The depressing and demoralizing effect of such a system upon the -Bulgarians may be imagined; it was sufficient to brutalize a people far -more advanced than they were at the time of the conquest. It cowed them, -destroyed their brave and venturous spirit, taught them to cringe, and -weakened their ideas of right and wrong. It is not strange that a people -thus demoralized should, under the pressure of recent troubles, be said -in some instances to have acted treacherously both towards their late -rulers and present protectors; but the vices of rapacity, treachery, -cruelty, and dishonesty could not have been the natural characteristics -of this unhappy people until misery taught them the lesson. - -The laws promulgated in the reign of Sultan Abdul-Medjid with respect to -the amelioration of the condition of the rayahs were gradually introduced -into Bulgaria, and their beneficial influence tended greatly to remove -some of the most crying wrongs that had so long oppressed the people. -These reforms apparently satisfied the Bulgarians—always easily contented -and peacefully disposed. They were thankful for the slight protection -thus thrown over their life and property. They welcomed the reforms with -gratitude as the signs of better days, and, stimulated by written laws, -as well as by the better system of government that had succeeded the old -one and had deprived their Mohammedan neighbors of some of their power of -molesting and injuring them, they redoubled their activity and endeavored -by industry to improve their condition. Such changes can be only gradual -among an oppressed people in the absence of good government and easy -communication with the outer world. - -The Bulgarians, inwardly, perhaps, still dissatisfied, seemed outwardly -content and attached to the Porte in the midst of the revolutionary -movements that alternately convulsed the Servian, Greek, and Albanian -populations. A very small section alone yielded to the influence of the -foreign agents or _comitats_, who were using every means to create a -general rising in Bulgaria, or was at any time in the Bulgarian troubles -enticed to raise its voice against the Ottoman Government and throw off -its allegiance. The late movement is said to have received encouragement -from the Bulgarian clergy acting under Russian influence, and from the -young schoolmasters, whose more advanced ideas naturally led them to -instil notions of independence among the people. But these views were -by no means entertained by the more thoughtful and important members -of the community, and no organized disaffection existed in Bulgaria at -the time the so-called revolt began. The action of a few hot-headed -patriots, followed by some discontented peasants, started the revolt -which, if it had been judiciously dealt with, might have been suppressed -without one drop of blood. The Bulgarians would probably have continued -plodding on as faithful subjects of the Porte, instead of being made—as -will apparently be the case—a portion of the Slav group. Whether this -fresh arrangement will succeed remains to be seen; but according to my -experience of Bulgarian character, there is very little sympathy between -it and the Slav. The Bulgarians have ever kept aloof from their Slavonic -neighbors, and will continue a separate people even when possessed of -independence. - -The limits of Bulgaria, which must be drawn from an ethnological -standpoint, are not very easily determined. The right of conquest and -long possession no doubt entitles the Bulgarians to call their own the -country extending from the Danube to the Balkans. South of that range -and of Mount Scardos, however, _i.e._, in the northern part of Thrace -and Macedonia, their settlement was never permanent, and their capital, -originally established in Lychnidos (the modern Ochrida), had to be -removed north of the Balkans to Tirnova. The colonies they established -were never very important, since they were scattered in the open country -as better adapted to the agricultural and pastoral pursuits of the -nation. These settlements, forming into large and small villages, took -Bulgarian names, but the names of the towns remained Greek. - -The Bulgarians south of the Balkans are a mixed race, neither purely -Greek nor purely Bulgarian; but their manners and customs and physical -features identify them more closely with the Greeks than with the -Bulgarians north of the Balkans. There the Finnish type is clearly marked -by the projecting cheek-bones, the short upturned nose, the small eyes, -and thickly-set but rather small build of the people. - -In Thrace and Macedonia, where Hellenic blood and features predominate, -and Hellenic influence is more strongly felt, the people call themselves -Thracians and Macedonians, rather than Bulgarians; the Greek language, -in schools, churches, and in correspondence, is used by the majority in -preference to the Bulgarian, and even in the late church question in many -places the people showed themselves lukewarm about the separation, and -the bulk remained faithful to the Church of Constantinople. - -The sandjak of Philippopolis, esteemed almost entirely Bulgarian by some -writers, is claimed for the Greeks by others upon the argument that -Stanimacho, with its fifteen villages, is Greek with regard to language -and predilection, and Didymotichon, with its forty-five villages, is a -mixture of Greeks and Bulgarians. As a matter of fact, however, in this -sandjak, in consequence of its proximity to Bulgaria proper, and to its -developed and prosperous condition, the Bulgarian element has taken the -lead. - -The revival of the church question and the educational movement have -stayed and almost nullified Greek influence, which is limited to -certain localities like Stanimacho and other places, where the people -hold as staunchly to their Greek nationality as the Bulgarians of -other localities do to their own. While dispute waxed hot in the town -of Philippopolis between the parties of Greeks and Bulgarians, each -in defence of its rights, no spirit of the kind was ever evinced in -Adrianople, where the population is principally Greek and Turkish, with -a small number of Armenians and Bulgarians. In Macedonia the sandjak of -Salonika, comprising Cassandra, Verria, and Serres, numbering in all -about 250.000 souls, is, with few exceptions, Greek, or so far Hellenized -as to be so to all intents and purposes. The inhabitants of Vodena and -Janitza, and the majority in Doïran and Stromnitza, and a considerable -portion of the population of Avrat Hissar, on the right bank of the -Vardar, claim Greek nationality. The Greeks in this part of the country -have worked with the same tenacity of purpose and consequent success in -Hellenizing the people, as the Bulgarians of the kaza of Philippopolis in -promoting the feeling of Bulgarian nationality there. This mission of the -Greeks here has not been a very difficult one, as the national feeling of -the bulk of the population is naturally Greek. - -Notwithstanding the marked tendency of the people towards Hellenism, the -language in Vodena and other places is Bulgarian; but the features of the -people, together with their ideas, manners, and customs, are essentially -Greek; even the dress of the Bulgarian-speaking peasant is marked by the -absence of the typical _potour_ and the _gougla_ or cap worn in Bulgaria. - -Most of the authors who have written on the populations of these regions -have, either through Panslavistic views or misled by the prevalence of -the Bulgarian language in the rural districts, put down the whole of the -population as Bulgarian, a mistake easily corrected by a summary of the -number of Greeks and Bulgarians conjointly occupying those districts, -separating the purely Greek from the purely Bulgarian element, and taking -into consideration at the same time the number of mixed Greeks and -Bulgarians. - -If the wide geographical limits projected by Russia for Bulgaria be -carried out, there will be a recurrence of all the horrors of the recent -war in a strife between the Greeks and Bulgarians, in consequence of the -encroachment of the future Bulgaria upon territory justly laid claim to -by the Greeks as ethnologically their own and as a heritage from past -ages. The question would be greatly simplified and the danger of future -contests between the two peoples much lessened, if not entirely removed, -by the Bulgarian autonomy being limited to the country north of the -Balkans. - -The Greek Government might not be equal at first to the administration -of their newly-acquired kingdom, but if united in close alliance with -some friendly power and placed under its tutelage, an honest and stable -empire might be established with every probability of soon rising into -a flourishing condition in the hands of a people whose intelligence, -activity, and enterprising spirit give them an incontestable superiority -over the other races of Turkey. - -The Bulgarians south of the Balkans being, as before said, of a mixed -race engrafted upon the Hellenic stock, would not be found to offer any -serious opposition. They are closely incorporated with the Greek element -in some districts; while in others, where Bulgarian feeling predominates, -the people would willingly migrate to Bulgaria proper, as the Hellenized -Bulgarians under such an arrangement would draw nearer to Greece; whilst -in parts of Macedonia, where Hellenism has the ascendancy, very little -difficulty would be met with from the Bulgarian settlements. - -My recollections of Bulgarian social life are to a great extent derived -from a three months’ stay I made under the hospitable roof of a Bulgarian -gentleman, or _Chorbadji_, as he was called by his own people. He was the -most wealthy and influential person in the town of T⸺, where his position -as member of the _Medjeiss_ constituted him the chief guardian and -advocate of the Bulgarian people of the district. I mention this in order -to show the reader that in his house the opportunity of making important -observations and of witnessing national characteristics were not wanting. -These observations embraced the social features I was allowed to study in -the midst of the home and family life both of the educated and thinking -Bulgarians and of the peasants who daily flocked to the house of my -friend from the towns and villages to submit to him their wrongs and -grievances, and, as their national representative, to ask his advice and -assistance before proceeding to the local courts. - -These levées began sometimes as early as six o’clock in the morning, -and lasted until eleven. The _Kodja-bashi_, or headmen, would come in -a body to consult about the affairs of the community, or to represent -some grave case pending before the local court of their respective -towns; or groups of peasants of both sexes, sometimes representing the -population of a whole village, would arrive, at the request of the -authorities, to answer some demand made by them, or plead against an act -of gross injury or injustice. Whatever the cause that brought them daily -under my notice, the picture they presented was extremely curious and -interesting, and the pleasure was completed by the privilege I enjoyed -of afterwards obtaining a detailed account of the causes and grievances -that brought them there. When the interested visitors happened to be -elders of their little communities or towns, they were shown into the -study of my host. After exchanging salutes and shaking hands, they were -offered _slatko_ (preserves) and coffee, and business was at once -entered into. At such moments the Bulgarian does not display the heat and -excitement that characterizes the Greek, nor fall into the uproarious -argument of the Armenians and Jews, nor yet display the finessing wit of -the Turk; but steering a middle course between these different modes of -action, he stands his ground and perseveres in his argument, until he -has either made his case clear or is persuaded to take another view of -it. The subjects that most animated the Bulgarians in these assemblies -were their national affairs and their dissensions with the Greeks; the -secondary ones were the wrongs and grievances they suffered from a bad -administration; and although they justly lamented these, and at times -bitterly complained of the neglect or incapacity of the Porte to right -them in an effective manner and put a stop to acts of injustice committed -by their Mohammedan neighbors and the local courts, I at no time noticed -any tendency to disloyalty or revolutionary notions, or any disposition -to court Russian protection, from which, indeed, the most enlightened and -important portion of the nation at that period made decided efforts to -keep aloof. - -When it was the peasants who gathered at the Chorbadji’s house, their -band was led by its Kodja-Bashi, who, acting as spokesman, first entered -the big gate, followed by a long train of his brethren. Ranged in a line -near the porch, they awaited the coming of the master to explain to him -the cause of their visit. Their distinguished-looking patron, pipe in -hand, shortly made his appearance at the door, when caps were immediately -doffed, and the right hands were laid on the breast and hidden by the -shaggy heads bending over them in a salaam, answered by a kindly “Dobro -deni” (good morning), followed by the demand “Shto sakaty?” (what do -you want?) The peasants, with an embarrassed air, looked at each other, -while the Kodja-Bashi proceeded to explain matters. Should his eloquence -fall short of the task, one or two others would step out of the ranks -and become spokesmen. It was almost painful to see these simple people -endeavoring to give a clear and comprehensive account of their case, -and trying to understand the advice and directions of the Chorbadji. A -half-frightened, surprised look, importing fear or doubt, a shrug of -the shoulders, accompanied by the words “Né znam—Né mozhem” (I do not -know, I cannot do), was generally the first expression in answer to the -eloquence of my friend, who in his repeated efforts to explain matters -frequently lost all patience, and would end by exclaiming, “Né biddy -magari!” (Don’t be donkeys!)—a remark which had no effect upon the band -of rustics further than to send them off, full of gratitude, to do as he -had counselled. - -Perhaps the reader may be curious to know the details of some of the -cases daily brought under my notice. I will mention a few not connected -with Turkish oppression and maladministration; for by this time the -English public has been pretty well enlightened on that subject. My list -will include some rather more original incidents which took place in the -community: disputes between all non-Mussulmans are generally settled by -the temporal or spiritual chiefs, and seldom brought before the Courts of -Justice. - -While Greeks and Bulgarians in the heat of controversy were snatching -churches and monasteries from each other, the priests and monks who -were attached to these sacred foundations found themselves unpleasantly -jostled between the two hostile elements. To be a Greek priest or monk -and be forced to acknowledge the supremacy of an anathematized and -illegal church was a profanation not to be endured; and, on the other -hand, to be a Bulgarian and be forced to pray day by day for a detested -spiritual head rejected by his nation was an insupportable anomaly. -In the midst of the difficulty and confusion at first caused by this -state of affairs, some of the good fathers and monks had to remove their -quarters and betake themselves to a wandering life, visiting their -respective communities and encouraging the people by their exhortations -to hold fast to their church and oppose with all their might the -claims and usurping tendencies of the others. Among these a Bulgarian -monk, more venturous and evidently endowed with a greater amount of -imaginative eloquence than the rest, and rejoicing in the title of Spheti -Panteleemon, regarded himself as the prophet of the Bulgarian people. -This Saint Panteleemon was a man of middle age and middle height, with a -jovial face, a cunning look, and an intelligent but restless eye, by no -means indicative of an ascetic view of life. - -Contrary to the saying that no man is a prophet in his own country, -Spheti Panteleemon was acknowledged as such by a considerable class of -his people, consisting entirely of the gentle sex, and his success among -them was as great as ritualism appears to be in England. - -The preaching of this prophet, intended solely for the Bulgarian women, -became so pronounced in its tenets, so eloquent in its delivery, and -was rendered so impressive by the different means he employed to instil -his precepts into the hearts and minds of his hearers, that their -number soon increased into a vast congregation, which flocked from all -parts of the country to hear the words of their favorite saint. On such -occasions, this false prophet, who had managed to usurp possession of -a small monastery, would stand forth amid thousands of women, who at -his approach would cross themselves and fall down almost to worship -him. Spheti Panteleemon, in acknowledgment of this mark of devotion, -would raise his voice and rehearse his doctrines to the devotees. These -doctrines included strange principles, asserted by their author to be -the best and surest way to Paradise; but they scarcely conduced to -the satisfaction of the husbands. Women, according to this man, were -to be free and independent, and their principal affections were to be -bestowed upon their spiritual guide; their earnestness was to be proved -by depositing their earthly wealth (consisting chiefly of their silver -ornaments) at his feet. The practical Bulgarian husbands, however, were -by no means admirers of this new spiritual director, whose sole object -appeared to be to rob them of the affections of their wives along with -their wealth, and they soon raised their voices against his proceedings. -After holding counsel on the subject, they decided to give notice of his -doings to the local authorities, and by their influence to have him sent -out of the country. The prophet was arrested one fine morning, while -addressing a congregation of 500 women, by a body of police, and brought -to the prison of the town of S⸺, whilst all the women devoutly followed, -weeping, beating their breasts, and clamoring for the release of their -saint. The husbands, on the other hand, pleaded their grievances against -this disorganizer of society, and proved his dishonesty by displaying -to the authorities a quantity of silver trinkets of all descriptions -taken from his dwelling, to the great indignation of his devotees. The -imagination of some of these ignorant and superstitious peasant women had -been so worked upon that they solemnly declared to me that the feet of -their prophet never touched the ground, but remained always a distance -of two feet above it, and that his sole sustenance was grass. While his -fate was still undecided, amidst the wailings of the women, the protests -of the husbands, and the embarrassment of the authorities, the fellow got -out of the difficulty by declaring himself a “Uniate” and a member of the -Church of Rome. This avowal could not fail to excite the interest of the -agents of that body: they claimed the stray sheep as redeemed, took him -under their immediate protection, but (it is to be hoped) deprived him -of his pretended attribute of sanctity and the power of making himself -any longer a central object of attraction to the _beau sexe_. - -Another incident was of a nature less sensational but equally repulsive -to the feelings and notions of the strict portion of the Bulgarian -nation, and had also a monk for its hero. It consisted of an elopement, -and if there is one crime that shocks and horrifies orthodox people more -than another, it is that of a monk who, taking the vows of celibacy, -perjures himself by adopting the respectable life of a married man. Such -events are of very rare occurrence, and when they take place cause a -great commotion. - -This monk, at the time of the disputed church rights, lost his solitary -retreat, and was once more thrown in contact with the world he had -forsworn. Sent adrift, he set out in search of an unknown destiny, -without hope or friends, uncertain where his next meal was to come -from. After a long day’s march, he lay down to rest under a tree in a -cultivated field, and, overcome by fatigue, fell asleep. He was about -twenty-five years of age, tall, with regular features, a startlingly -pale complexion, and coal black eyes, hair, and beard; his whole -appearance, indeed, rather handsome than otherwise. Such, at least, was -the description given of him by the rustic beauty who surprised him while -driving her father’s cattle home. - -A Bulgarian monk in those stirring times was always an object of -interest, even to a less imaginative person than a young maiden. She, -therefore, considered it her duty to watch over his slumbers, and refresh -him with bread and salt on awaking. Quietly seating herself by his side, -she awaited the arousal of the unconscious sleeper. When he awoke, his -eyes met those of the girl, and in that exchange of looks a new light -dawned upon these two beings, who, though they had never met before, were -now to become dearer to each other than life itself. The monk forgot -his vows and poured forth his tale of love to a willing listener, who -immediately vowed to follow his fortunes and become his wife, or end -her days in a convent. This illustrates the definition of love once -given to me by a Bulgarian gentleman: “Chez nous l’amour n’a point de -préliminaires; on va droit au fait.” The adventurous couple forthwith -eloped, and wandered about the country, until the monk was discovered, -in spite of his disguise, by the scandalized Bulgarians, by whom he -was once more sent to a monastery, imprisoned in a dungeon, condemned -to live upon dry bread and to undergo daily corporal chastisement for -his sins. But the adventurous maiden, determined to effect his release, -contrived to make friends with the Kir Agassi, or head of the mounted -police in the district where the monastery was situated, and through -his instrumentality the monk was again set at liberty. The subject -was discussed in all its bearings at the house of my friends, until -the couple wisely adopted Protestantism, and after being married by a -minister of that church settled down to a peaceful life of domestic bliss. - -A third incident illustrates the Bulgarian appreciation of surgical -art. The name of surgeon was unknown in the country villages, and that -of dentist, even in a large town like S⸺, until an adventurous spirit -belonging to the latter profession, in the course of a speculative tour, -established himself there. The inhabitants, on passing his house, used to -stop and gaze in wonder at the sets of teeth displayed under glass cases. -Conjecture ran wild as to how these were made and could be used. Some -imagined them to be abstracted front the jaws of dead persons, salted, -and prepared in some mysterious way for refitting in the mouths of the -living. - -The fame of the dentist’s art began to be noised abroad throughout the -district, and many became desirous, if not of procuring new teeth, at -least of having some troublesome old stumps extracted. Among these was a -well-to-do Bulgarian peasant, who presented himself in the surgery for -this purpose. The dentist relieved him of his tooth with great facility, -to the man’s exceeding astonishment. On leaving he took out his long -knitted money-bag, carefully counted out five piastres (10_d._), and -handed them to the dentist, who returned them, saying that his fee would -be half a lira. “What!” exclaimed the indignant Bulgarian; “do you mean -to say that you will charge me so much, when last week I underwent the -same operation at the hands of my barber, and after a struggle of two -hours over an obstinate tooth, during which I had several times to lie -flat on my back and he and I were both bathed in perspiration until -it finally yielded, I paid him five piastres, with which he was quite -contented; and you, who were only a few minutes over it, demand ten times -that sum! It is simply monstrous, and I shall forthwith lodge a complaint -against you!” - -As good as his word, in a fever of excitement he arrived at the -Chorbadji’s house to denounce the extortionate Frank. When quietly -asked if it were not worth while to pay a larger sum and get rid of his -tooth without loss of time and trouble, instead of spending two hours -of suffering and violent exertion for which he was charged only five -piastres, he admitted that such was the case, and that the Frank was a -far cleverer man than the barber could ever hope to be. - -Social life among the Bulgarians differs little from that of the Greeks, -save in the greater ascendancy the Bulgarian wives of the working classes -have over their husbands. This advantage is probably derived from the -masculine manner in which they share in the hardy toil, working by the -side of their husbands, and by their personal exertions gaining almost -as much as the men do. The care of clothing the family also devolves -entirely upon them, besides which they have to attend to their domestic -duties, which are always performed with care, cleanliness, and activity. -Simple as these tasks may be, they require time, which the housewife -always manages to find. The well-beaten earthen floor is always neatly -swept, the rugs and bedding carefully brushed and folded up, and the -copper cooking utensils well scoured and ranged in their places. The -cookery is simple but very palatable, especially the pastry, which is -excellent; whilst the treacle and other provisions stored away for the -winter are wholesome and good. - -Some uninformed authors have, I believe, stated that not only are the -Bulgarian men seldom to be seen in a state of sobriety, but that the -women also indulge to a great extent in the vice of drunkenness. So far -as I am able to judge, this statement is utterly groundless; for no woman -in the east, whatever her nationality, disgraces herself by drinking to -excess in the shops where spirituous drinks are sold, or is ever seen -in the streets in a state of intoxication. The man certainly likes his -glass, and on occasions freely indulges in it; but excesses are committed -only on feast-days, when the whole village is given up to joviality and -merriment. - -The townspeople seldom indulge in these festivities; but tied down to a -sedentary life, cheered by no view of the open country, nor by fresh air -and the rural pursuits congenial to their nature, they lead a monotonous -existence, divided between their homes and their calling. The women on -their side fare no better, and with the exception of paying and receiving -calls on feast-days, or taking a promenade, keep much within doors, -occupying themselves with needlework and taking an active part in their -domestic affairs. This quiet uniform life is occasionally brightened by -an evening party, or even a ball, if the deficiency in the arrangement -of the rooms, the refreshments, and especially the _sans gêne_ observed -with regard to dress, permit of the name. One of these festive scenes was -illuminated by large home-made tallow candles, supported by candelabra -of Viennese manufacture, further supplemented by another innovation in -the shape of a pair of elegant snuffers, which fortunately obviated the -usual performance with the fingers, by which the ball-rooms are usually -perfumed with the odor of burnt mutton chops. Setting aside minor -details, my attention was much attracted by the queer versatility of the -band, which suddenly changed from the national _hora_ to an old-fashioned -polka which had just been introduced as a great novelty, but was indulged -in only by married couples, or timid brothers and sisters, who held each -other at so respectful a distance that another couple might easily have -passed between them. But the greatest charm of the gathering was the -_coup d’œil_ that embraced dress, deportment, and decorations. The dress -was as varied in shape and material as the forms of the wearers. Double -and triple fur coats, according to age and taste, safely sheltered the -majority of the gentlemen from cold and draughts; well-fitting frock -coats distinguished the few _comme il faut_ officials; while dress coats -of Parisian cut distinguished the quiet and apparently gentlemanlike -youths brought up in Europe, and contrasted with the less elegant -toilettes of their untravelled brethren dressed _à la Bulgare_. - -The variety in the dress of the ladies was equally diverting. Some wore -their fur jackets over rich silk dresses, others, more fashionable, -dispensed with the weight of this unnecessary article; while the heads -of all of them sparkled with jewelry. Crinoline, often heard of under -the name of “Malakoff,” but unseen in the town before 1855, was supposed -to be introduced into the room by a German Jewish lady, an old resident -in the town, and was so proudly displayed by her in all its proportions, -that it attracted the attention of a homely old Bulgarian _gospoyer_, -who, in a simple manner, quietly turned up the hem of her dress and -displayed to a small section of the astonished assembly an ingenious -substitute for the crinoline made of _The Times_ newspaper! - -The chapter on Peasant-holdings treats at some length of the Bulgarian -peasant, of his capacity for work, and the amount of ease and prosperity -he is able to attain in spite of the many drawbacks that surround him. -His prosperity is due to two sources—the modesty of his wants, and the -activity of his whole family. The fruits of such a system are naturally -good when the soil, climate, and other natural advantages favor it. - -But some parts of Bulgaria are far from being the Utopia some newspaper -correspondents have represented it, with vines hanging over every -cottage-door, and milk and honey flowing in the land. Nothing but long -residence and personal experience can enable one to arrive at a true -estimate of such matters. - -Though in some parts I found the scenery delightful, the prosperity of -the inhabitants astonishing, and Moslems and Christians rivalling each -other in hospitable kindness to the traveller, some spots were anything -but romantic or prosperous, and far from happy-looking. Some villages, -in particular, I noticed in the midst of a dreary plain, such as the -traveller may see on the road from Rodosto to Adrianople, where the -soil looks dry and barren, and the pastures grow yellow and parched -before their time, and where flying bands of Circassian thieves and -cut-throats hover about like birds of prey. I was once travelling through -the country, riding the whole of one day on such bad roads that the -mud often reached up to my horse’s knees, and the carriage containing -my maid and the provisions often came to a dead stop, while the rain -poured incessantly. The journey appeared interminable, and as darkness -crept on and several miles of road still separated us from our projected -halting-place, I made up my mind to stop at an isolated village for the -night. So traversing fresh pools of mud we entered the hamlet, and were -met by the Kodja-Bashi, a poorly-clad, miserable-looking individual, -who led our party into his farm-yard. On alighting from my horse I was -ushered into a dark, bare, dismal hovel, without windows, and lighted -only by a hole in the roof, through which escaped some of the smoke from -a few dung-cakes smouldering in a corner. One or two water-jars stood -near the door, and an earthen pot, serving for all culinary purposes, was -placed by the fire, in front of which was spread a tattered mat occupied -by a few three-legged stools. A bundle of uninviting rags and cushions, -the family bedding, was stowed in a corner, and in another were seen a -few pots and pans, the whole “table service” of the occupants. - -This hovel was attached to a similar one opening into it, where I heard -some bustle going on. I was told that a member of the family who occupied -it and was seriously ill was being removed to a neighbor’s house. -Much annoyed at having caused so much trouble and disturbance to the -unfortunate sufferer, I asked my host why he had not placed me in another -cottage. “Well, _gospoyer_,” answered he, with an apologetic gesture, -“poor and wretched as my home is, it is the best the village possesses. -The rest are not fit to kennel your dogs in. As for my daughter, I -could not but remove her, as her cries during the night would prevent -your sleeping.” I inquired her complaint, and was told that she was in -high fever, and suffered from sharp pains all over her body. There was -no doctor to attend her, nor had she any medicine but the decoctions -prepared for her by the old _bulkas_. - -I visited the poor creature and gave what help I could; but, being by no -means reassured as to the nature of her malady, and unwilling to sleep -in the vicinity of an infected room, I ordered the carriage to be placed -under a shed and proposed to pass the night in it. The host, however, on -hearing this, told me that it was quite impracticable, as the village -dogs were so famished that they would be sure to attack the carriage for -the sake of the leather on it. “I have taken the precaution,” he added, -“of removing every part that is liable to be destroyed, but there is no -telling what these animals will do.” I then ordered the hamper to be -brought in and supper to be prepared; but on sitting down on the floor to -partake of it we discovered that our provision of bread was exhausted, -and learnt that not a morsel was procurable in the village. Our host -explained this by saying, “You see, _gospoyer_, our village is so poor -and miserable that we have no drinkable water, and our _bulkas_ have to -fetch it from a distance of three miles. We have no fuel either, for the -village has no forest, and we content ourselves with what you see on the -hearth. As for bread, it is a luxury we seldom enjoy; millet flour mixed -with water into a paste and baked on the ashes is our substitute for it; -it does for us, but would not please you.” - -In the mean time the women and children had gathered round me in the -little room, all looking so poor, fever-stricken, and miserable, and -casting such looks of eager surprise at the exhibition of eatables before -me, that I felt positively sick at heart; all my appetite left me, and -distributing my supper among the hungry crowd, I contented myself with a -cup of tea, and endeavored to forget in sleep the picture of misery I had -witnessed. I was thankful to get away in the morning, and am happy to say -that neither before nor since have I witnessed such poverty and misery as -I saw in that village. - -The marked slowness of perception in the character of the Bulgarian -peasants, and their willingness to allow others to think and act for -them in great matters, is not so apparent when the immediate interests -of the village or community are concerned. Before referring these to -the higher authorities, they meet and quietly discuss their affairs, -and often settle the differences among themselves. The respect the -Bulgarian entertains for the clergy and for the enlightened portion of -his fellow-countrymen is so great that he allows himself to be entirely -guided by them, evincing in small things as well as great the feeling of -harmony and union that binds the whole people together. But the reverse -of this disposition is manifested by the Bulgarians, more especially -the peasants, towards any foreign element, and particularly towards the -Turkish authorities. Obedient and submissive as they have generally shown -themselves under the Ottoman rule, they have inwardly always disliked and -distrusted it, saying that the government with regard to their country, -its richest field of harvest, has only one object in view—that of getting -as much out of it as possible. - -This prevalent idea, not altogether ill-founded, gave to the Bulgarian -character that rapacity and love of gain which, being developed by late -events, in the midst of general ruin and loss of property, tempted him to -try to get what he could of what had been left, without much scruple as -to the means. When unmerited calamities befall a people, and oppression -long weighs heavily upon them, the sense of justice and humanity is -gradually lost and replaced by a spirit of vindictiveness which incites -to ignoble and cruel actions. This ought not to surprise the world in -the case of the Bulgarians, when their national life during the last -two years is taken into consideration; for what is it but a series of -unspeakable outrages by their enemies, and destruction by those who -professed themselves their friends? - -The Bulgarians, however, as I have known them in more peaceful times, -never appeared to possess as national characteristics the vices that -hasty and partial judges arguing from special instances have attributed -to them. On the contrary, they seemed a peace-loving, hard-working -people, possessing many domestic virtues which, if properly developed -under a good government, might make the strength of an honest and -promising state. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE GREEKS OF TURKEY. - - Importance of the Greeks at the Present Moment—Their - Attitude—The Greek Peasant as Contrasted with the - Bulgarian—His Family—Eloquence—Patriotism—Comforts—The - Women—A Greek Girl—Women of the Towns of the Upper Class—Of - the Lower Class—Wives and Husbands—Greek Parties—The - Conservatives and the Progressives—A Conversation on - Greek Go-a-head-ness—Physical Features of the Modern - Greek—Character—General Prejudice—A Prussian Estimate—Greek - Vices—An Adventure with Greek Brigands—Adelphé—Unscrupulousness - in Business—Causes and Precedents—Jews and Greeks—Summary. - - -All eyes are now turned upon the Greek race as one of the most important -factors in the Eastern Question. The future of South-Eastern Europe is -seen to lie in the balance between Greek and Slav, and people’s opinions -incline to one side or the other as dread of Russia or distrust of -“Greek guile” gets the upper hand. I have nothing to say here about the -people of free Hellas: I have only to tell what I have witnessed of the -character and condition of the subject Greeks in Turkey. These, though -they shared in the national effort of 1821-9, reaped little of the -fruits. The Greeks of Macedonia, Thessaly, and Thrace did not gain the -freedom accorded to the people of “Greece Proper,” though their condition -was somewhat improved. But they are only biding their time. They know -that their free countrymen are anxious to share with them the results of -the glorious struggle of 1821. They know that centuries of subjection -and oppression have demoralized and debased the nation; and they have -long been striving with their whole strength to prepare themselves for -freedom. They have employed the time of transition with great moderation -and judgment. Those whom the Porte has appointed to high offices have -filled their posts with conscientiousness, fidelity, and dignity. Taught -worldly wisdom in the school of adversity, they have avoided premature -conspiracy and rebellion, and have directed all their energies to -educating the race for its future. “Improve and wait patiently” is the -motto of the Greeks in Turkey. - -The Greek peasant differs greatly from the Bulgarian. Agriculture is not -all the world to him; his love for the pursuit is decidedly moderate -unless he sees an opening for enterprise and speculation, as in the -growth of some special kind of produce which he can sell in the raw -condition or as manufactured goods. Unlike the Bulgarian, his whole -family is not chained to the soil as the one business of life. When the -paterfamilias can dispense with the services of some of his daughters, -they leave their home in pursuit of occupation, and his sons in the same -manner are allowed to quit the paternal roof in search of some more -lucrative employment elsewhere. It is thus that the Greek is to be found -in every nook and corner of Turkey, established among his own kindred -or with foreigners, and following various professions and callings, as -doctors, lawyers, schoolmasters; whilst, descending to a lower scale, we -find him employed in every town and village as a petty tradesman, mason, -carpenter, shoe-maker, musician, in all which occupations he manages by -dint of energy, perseverance, and address to obtain a modest competence, -or sometimes even to reach prosperity. - -I remember, among other instances of the kind, the case of a Greek -peasant family in the district of B⸺. The father was a respectable man, -who owned a small property in his native village, and whose quiver was -filled with eight children. The eldest remained to assist on the farm; -two others of tender age also remained under the mother’s care; the other -five, including a girl, left their home, and came to the town. One of the -boys and the girl took service with me; a second boy apprenticed himself -to a photographer, another became a painter of church pictures, and the -fourth a cigarette-maker. The salaries these young peasants received -were at first very meagre; but all the same the four boys clubbed their -savings together, and after a time sent for their younger brother to live -in town in order to enjoy the benefit of receiving a good education. -Six years passed, during which the boy and his pretty and intelligent -sister remained in my house; both learned to speak English, the boy -having studied the language grammatically in his leisure moments. They -are now honest, intelligent servants, perfect in the performance of their -duties, and devoted to my family. The three apprentices, through their -steadiness, good conduct, and energy, have become proficient enough in -their different callings to set up for themselves, while the boy at -school is one of the most advanced students of the _Gymnasium_. - -The intellectual position of the Greeks is far superior to that of the -Bulgarians. They are cleverer, and they and their children are more -advanced in education. They display a great interest in passing events, -as well as in politics, a knowledge of which they obtain by means of -the numerous Greek newspapers they receive from Athens, Constantinople, -and all the large towns of Turkey. These journals find their way to the -remotest hamlets, one or two being sufficient to make the round of a -village. They also possess other literature in the shape of the history -of their country, biographies of some of their illustrious ancestors, -and national songs in the vernacular. All these make a deep impression -upon the entire population, who, after the conclusion of the labors of -the day, gather together in the taverns and coffee-houses to discuss -matters, talking excellent sense over the coffee-cup, or waxing hot and -uproarious over their wine and _raki_. - -The Greek peasant displays none of the embarrassment and tonguetiedness -of the Bulgarian. I have often met with instances of this: one especially -struck me which happened in the early part of last summer in the vilayet -of B⸺. Some Bashi-bazouks had entered a village, and committed some of -their usual excesses; but the peasants had found time to send away their -wives and daughters to a place of safety. On the following day a body -of fifty Greeks came to complain to the authorities. In order to render -their claims more effective, they applied for protection at the different -Consulates. I happened to be at luncheon at one of these Consulates, -and the Consul ordered the men to be shown into the dining-room to make -their statements. One at once stepped forward to give an account of the -affair, which he related with so much eloquence and in such pure modern -Greek that the Consul, suspecting him to be some lawyer in disguise, or -a special advocate of Greek grievances, set him aside, and called upon -another to give his version. Several looked questioningly at each other, -but with no sign of embarrassment; on the contrary, the expression on -each face betokened natural self-confidence, and meant in this instance -to say, “We can each tell the tale equally well, but I had better begin -than you.” - -Patriotism is highly developed among the Greek peasants, who are fully -aware of the meaning of the word _patris_, and taught to bear in mind -that half a century ago free Hellas formed part of the Ottoman Empire; -that its inhabitants, like themselves, were a subject people, and owe -the freedom they now enjoy to self-sacrifice and individual exertion. -“They are our elder brothers,” say they, “who have stepped into their -inheritance before us. There is a just God for us as well!” - -The wants of the Greek are more numerous than those of the Bulgarians. -Their dress, for instance, is not limited to a coarse suit of _aba_ and -a sheepskin _gougla_, but is sometimes made of fine cloth and other rich -materials, and includes shoes and stockings. The culinary department -also demands more utensils; besides which, tables, table-linen, knives -and forks are often seen at their meals. The bedding they use is more -complete, and does not consist solely of rugs, as with the Bulgarians. -Their houses are better built, with some regard to comfort and -appearance, frequently with two stories, besides possessing chimneys -and windows (when safe to do so). The village schools are better -organized, and kept under the careful supervision of the Society for -their direction, and the churches are more numerous. The women are less -employed in field work, and consequently more refined in their tastes, -prettier in appearance, and more careful and elegant in their dress. The -Greek peasant girl knows the value of her personal charms, and disdains -to load herself with the tarnished trinkets, gaudy flowers, and other -wonderful productions in which the Bulgarian maiden delights. A skirt of -some bright-colored silk or mixed stuff and a cloth jacket embroidered -with gold form the principal part of her gala costume, covered with a -fur-lined pelisse for out-of-door wear. Her well-combed hair is plaited -in numerous tresses, and surmounted by the small Greek cap, which is -decorated with gold and silver coins like those she wears as a necklace. -She is not to be bought, like the Bulgarian, for a sum of money paid -to her father as an equivalent for her services; but according to her -means is dowered and given in marriage, like the maidens of classical -times. Still the peasant girl is neither lazy nor useless; she takes an -active part in the duties of the household, is early taught to knit and -spin the silk, flax, wool, or cotton which the mother requires for the -different home-made tissues of the family. She leads her father’s flock -to the pasture, and under the title of _Voskopoula_ kindles a flame in -the heart of the village youth and inspires the rustic muse. On Sundays -and feast-days she enters heartily into all the innocent pleasures of -her retired and isolated life. She has more pride than the Bulgarian; -and although in married life she is submissive and docile, she possesses -a greater depth and richness of love. I have known instances of peasant -girls exchanging vows with youths of their village who are leaving their -home in search of fortune, and patiently waiting for them and refusing -all offers in the mean time. In most cases this devotion is requited by -equal constancy on the part of the lover; but should she be deserted, her -grief is so terrible that she not seldom dies from the blow. - -If there is more than one daughter in a family, some from the age of -twelve or fourteen are usually sent to town and placed out as servants, -with the double object of giving them the opportunity of seeing more of -the world and the means of earning something for their own maintenance. -These earnings as they are acquired are converted into gold coins and -strung into necklaces. - -When these girls are honest and good, and fall into proper hands, they -are usually adopted by the family with whom they take service, under the -title of ψυχόπαιδα. On reaching the age of twenty-five or twenty-seven a -trousseau is given to them with a small dowry, and they are married to -some respectable artisan. Those simply hired as servants either marry in -the towns or do so on returning to their native village. - -The Greek peasant women are as a rule clean and industrious, fond mothers -and virtuous wives. The best proof of their morality is in the long -absences many husbands are obliged to make from their homes, which are -attended by no unfaithful results. In some instances for a period of even -twenty years the wife becomes the sole director of the property, which -she manages with care and wisdom, and the only guardian of the children -left in her charge. - -The peasants who still cling to the soil plod away at their daily toil in -very much the same way as the Bulgarians, but show a greater aptitude for -rearing the silkworm and growing olives and grapes. The Greek peasants -are not models of perfection; but as a body they are better than any -other race in Turkey, and under a good government they are certain to -improve and develop much faster than either the Bulgarians or the Turks. - -The Greek women of the towns, according to their station and the amount -of refinement and modern ideas they have been imbued with, display in -their manners and mode of living the virtues and faults inherent in the -Greek character. I must in justice state that the former exceed the -latter; their virtues consist principally in their quality of good honest -wives, and in the simple lives they are usually content to lead in their -homes. The enlightenment and conversational talents of some of the better -class do not fall far short of those of European ladies. Those less -endowed by education and nature have a quiet modest bearing, and evince -a great desire to improve. The most striking faults in the Greek woman’s -character are fondness of dress and display, vanity, and jealousy of the -better circumstances of her neighbors. The spirit of envious rivalry -in dress and outward appearance is often carried to such a pass that -the real comforts of home-life are sacrificed, and many live poorly and -dress meanly on ordinary occasions in order to display a well-furnished -drawing-room and expensive holiday costumes to the public. When living -in the town of N⸺, I was taken into the confidence of the Archbishop’s -niece, who was my neighbor. She confessed to me that on promenade days -she regularly stationed her servant at the end of the street in order to -inspect the toilette of her rival, the wife of the richest _chorbadji_, -so that she might be able to eclipse her. - -Greek ladies are fond and devoted mothers, but they are not systematic in -rearing their children. This has, however, been remedied in many cases by -children of both sexes being placed from a very early age in the care of -governesses, or at school, where the more regular training they receive -cannot fail to have beneficial results. - -The life of women of the working classes is still more homely and -retired, as it is considered an impropriety to be seen much out of -doors, especially in the case of young girls, whom prejudice keeps very -secluded, even to the length of seldom allowing them to go to church. -When abroad, however, their fondness for display is equal to that of -their richer sisters, whose toilettes, however novel or complicated, -in cities like Constantinople and Smyrna, are sure to be copied by the -fishermen’s or washerwomen’s daughters. In provincial towns like Rodosto -and Adrianople, the love of dress finds its satisfaction in bright colors -and wreaths of artificial flowers, especially the much coveted carnation, -when out of season, which is worn by some as a love-trophy; for it must -have been given by some lover on the feast-day. Greek girls are very -clever at needlework and embroidery; but their life is nevertheless -monotonous, and they have little variety of occupation and amusement. -This is owing in part to the exclusion of women of all races in Turkey -from occupations in shops, and to the absence of manufactories, which, -with the exception of some silk factories, do not exist in the country. -Those in the silk-growing districts, however, give employment to a number -of Greek girls, who show great aptitude for this branch of industry, and -often become directresses of establishments in which Armenian and other -women are employed. - -The affection of a Greek wife for her husband is joined to a jealous care -of his interest; she will strive to hide his faults and weaknesses, and -the disinterested devotion with which she will cling to him in prosperity -and adversity is astonishing. A woman belonging to the town of S⸺, on -hearing that her husband had been arrested on a charge of complicity -with brigands, left her home and five children to the care of a blind -grandmother, and set out on foot on a three days’ journey to the town -where he was to be tried. He was condemned to seven years’ imprisonment, -and sent to the prison at A⸺, whither she followed him. Young and pretty, -entirely friendless, and without means of subsistence, she lingered -about the Greek quarter until her sad tale gained her an asylum in a -compassionate family. She toiled hard to gain a small pittance, which she -divided between herself and her unhappy partner shut up in the common -prison. The dreadful news was brought to her that three of her children -were dead, that her house was falling to pieces, and that her aged and -afflicted mother was unable to take care of the two surviving little -ones. Unmoved by these calamities, she refused to quit the town of A⸺ -until, through the instrumentality of some influential persons whose -sympathies she had enlisted, her husband’s period of punishment was -shortened. - -Greek society may be divided into two classes, the conservative -party and the progressive. The former, in the provincial towns, are -jealous of their rights and privileges as elders of the community and -representatives of the nation in the _Medjliss_. In many instances these -side with the authorities in acts of injustice, sometimes from timidity -and sometimes from interested motives. This small retrograde class is -also strongly opposed to the progress of education, and often hinders it -by stint of money and general hostility to all changes. - -The second class consists of the educated members of the community, who -earn their fortunes in much the same way as the rest of the civilized -world, and spend it liberally in comforts and luxuries, and for the -benefit of the nation—an object to which every Greek tries to contribute -in some degree. The motto of this party is _Embros!_ (Forward!) They are -stopped by no difficulties and overcome by no drawbacks, either in their -personal interests or those of the nation. Their success in enterprise -should no longer (as formerly) be attributed to disloyalty, dishonesty, -and intrigue—in these respects there is no reason for believing them -worse than their neighbors—but to the wonderful energy and ability they -show in all their undertakings. I heard a conversation some time ago -between two medical celebrities of Constantinople with reference to the -Greek spirit of enterprise and ambition. One praised their enterprise as -a promising quality, and, to use his own expression, said, “There is an -immense amount of ‘go’ in the Greek.” - -“Go!” repeated the other, waxing hot, “Too much so, I believe: there -is no telling where a Greek’s enterprising spirit may not lead him, or -where his ambition will stop! Listen to my experience on the subject -and judge for yourself. Some years ago I was asked by a good old Greek -I knew very well to take his son, a youth of twenty, into my service. -According to the father’s recommendation, he was a good Greek scholar -and knew a little Latin. I asked the father in what capacity I was to -engage him. ‘Any you like,’ was the reply: ‘let him be your servant—your -slave.’ ‘Very well; but he will have to clean my boots and look after my -clothes!’ ‘πολὺ καλὰ’ was the response, and I engaged his son. - -“On the following day my new valet entered upon his duties. He was a -good-looking, smart, and intelligent fellow, and at first exact and able -in the performance of his functions; but gradually he became lax, absent -in manner, and negligent; although steady and quiet in his conduct. -One day the mystery of this change was revealed on my returning home -unexpectedly, and finding the fellow, instead of cleaning my boots, which -he held in his hand, deeply plunged in one of the medical works on my -table. In my anger at seeing my papers and books meddled with, I brought -my boots into contact with his head, telling him that if ever I caught -him again at that sort of thing, he would be punished more severely. -‘Forgive me,’ said he, in a very penitent manner, and walked demurely -out of the room. He showed, however, no signs of improvement, and -subsequently I discovered him committing no less a piece of impertinence -than copying some prescriptions that lay on my desk. This was too much; -so, as a punishment, I made him take one of the potions; but on the next -day he calmly told me that the _iatrico_ had done him good, having calmed -his blood and cleared his head! Of course, I dismissed the fellow and -replaced him by an Armenian, who answered my purpose better, though he -did dive now and then rather extensively into the larder. For some years -I lost sight of my former valet, and had forgotten his very existence -till it was brought to my recollection in the following unexpected -manner. I one day received a pressing message to go at once to the -house of D⸺ Pasha to see a sick child and hold a consultation with his -new _hekim bashi_ (doctor) on its case. At the appointed hour I went, -and on entering the konak was ushered into the selamlik to await the -arrival of the other doctor who was to lead me into the harem. In a few -minutes my supposed colleague walked in, hat and gold-headed stick in -one hand, while the other was extended to me, with the words ‘καλημέρα, -ἴατρε’(good-morning, doctor). The face and voice transfixed me for a -moment, but the next presented to me the fact that my former valet stood -before me, claiming the right of holding a consultation with me. Whereat -I was on the point of giving vent to my indignation, by seizing him by -the collar and ejecting him from the apartment, when he quietly said, -‘Excuse me, ἴατρε, but I stand before you in right of the diploma I -have obtained from Galata Serai. Allow me to submit it to your learned -and honorable inspection.’ There was no denying the fact; the fellow’s -diploma was in perfect order. My anger cooling, I consented to consult -with him, when he again incensed me by venturing to take a view of the -case opposed to mine. His opposition, however, was only momentary; for, -taking the upper hand, I dictated my directions to him, and he, yielding -with a good grace to my experience, carried out my orders with great -precision. I had subsequently many opportunities of meeting him, and must -in justice say that he turned out one of the best pupils of Galata Serai, -and the most grateful man I have ever known. He is at present attached to -the Red Cross Society, to which he gives the greatest satisfaction.” - -In feature and build the modern Greek still possesses the characteristic -traits of his ancestors. Scientific researches and anatomical -observations made upon the skulls of ancient Greeks are said to prove -that if art had glorified to a slight extent the splendid models of -statues, it could not have strayed very far from the originals. Such -pure and perfect types are constantly met with at the present day in the -modern Greeks, who, as a rule, possess fine open foreheads, straight -noses, and fine eyes full of fire and intelligence, furnished with black -lashes and well-defined eyebrows; the mouths are small or of medium size, -with a short upper lip; the chin rather prominent, but rounded. The -entire physiognomy differs so essentially from the other native types -that it is impossible to mistake it. In stature the Greek is rather tall -than otherwise, well made and well proportioned; the hands and feet are -small in both sexes. The walk is graceful, but has a kind of swagger and -ease in it, which, although it looks natural in the national costume, -seems affected in the European dress. - -The distinct Greek type, so noticeable in certain localities, has in -others suffered from the admixture with foreign elements; but we find -it again in all its perfection in the inhabitants of the coast of Asia -Minor, where the Greeks were at one epoch so crushed and denationalized -as to have lost the use of their mother-tongue. Some of the finest -specimens of the Greek race may be found in Smyrna, Gemlek, and Philadar, -as well as in more inland places, such as Mahalitch, Demirdesh, and -Kellessen. - -The influence and effects of the last and most important change must -be carefully followed and the transformation already wrought upon the -nation taken into consideration before a fair and impartial estimate of -the character of the present Greeks can be arrived at. The nation in its -present scattered condition presents great variety and dissemblance; but -even these points, in my opinion, constitute its force and guarantee -its future prosperity. No person well acquainted with modern Greece can -contest the vast improvement in the national character during the last -half century, the moral development already gained, and the prosperous -condition the little kingdom has now entered upon. The educated and -enlightened _rayah_ follows closely in the footsteps of his liberated -kinsmen, and bids fair some day to catch them up. Until recent times the -real advance in the Greek character seems to have escaped the notice of -European critics, and in obedience to ancient prejudice it is still the -fashion to cry down the future queen of South-East Europe. A charitable -Prussian diplomatist, writing with more zeal than knowledge, gave the -following flattering portrait of the Greeks of Constantinople at the end -of the last century; - -“Le quartier est la demeure de ce qu’on appelle la noblesse grecque, qui -vivent tous aux dépenses des princes de Moldavie et de Valachie. C’est -une université de toutes les scélératesses, et il n’existe pas encore -de langue assez riche pour donner des noms à toutes celles qui s’y -commettent. Le fils y apprend de bonne heure à assassiner adroitement son -père pour quelque argent qu’il ne saurait être poursuivi. Les intrigues, -les cabales, l’hypocrisie, la trahison, la perfidie, surtout l’art -d’extorquer de l’argent de toutes mains, y sont enseignés méthodiquement!” - -An English author of more recent date, but neither more enlightened -nor animated with a greater sense of justice or impartiality, denies -their right to a national history or their possession of an ancestry, -furnishing them instead with one out of his fertile imagination. -According to him several millions of Greeks are nameless, homeless -upstarts, who have invariably made their fortunes by following the trade -of _bakals_, or chandlers, and, with the enormous and illegal profits -of their business, send their sons to Athens to be educated and receive -a European varnish, then to return to Turkey full of pretension and bad -morals, to sow discord and create mischief among their less enlightened -brethren. Such absurd statements carry their own refutation; but they -mislead people who are already prejudiced and ready to believe anything -bad of the Greeks. The general currency such erroneous assertions -receive, even in England, the country of Byron and the seamen of -Navarino, struck me in a remark lately made by an intelligent English -boy of twelve, who, happening to hear the Greeks mentioned at the -luncheon-table, asked his mother if all the Greeks were not cut-throats? - -These fallacies are gradually being cleared away. As a nation the Greeks -possess undeniable virtues and talents, which, properly encouraged and -guided, have in them the making of a strong progressive people—such as -one day the Greeks will assuredly be. Their faults are as distinct and -prominent as their virtues. In the careful and impartial examination a -long residence has enabled me to make of the character of this people, -I discovered a good deal of vanity, bravado, and overweening conceit. -They are vain of their ability, and still more vain of the merits and -capacity of free Hellas, of which they are so enamoured as to consider -this little kingdom, in its way, on a level with the Great Powers. The -spirit of bravado is often shown in animated disputes and controversies, -for which they have a great partiality. They are subtle, extremely -sensitive, fond of gain, but never miserly. Their enthusiastic nature, -given free scope, will lead them into the doing of golden deeds; and, in -the same way, bad influence will make of some the most finished rogues -in creation. No Greek thief of Constantinople will be beaten in daring -or in the art of carrying out a _coup de main_. No assassin will more -recklessly plunge his knife into the heart of an enemy, no seducer be -more enticing, no brigand more dashing and bold. And yet in the worst -of these there is some redeeming quality; a noble action polluted by -many bad ones; crimes often followed by remorse and a return to a steady -and honest life. Gratitude for a good service is always met with among -the Greeks, as among the Albanians. An example of this may be seen in -an adventure that more than twenty years ago happened to an Englishman -in the Government employ, who was travelling in a province infested -by brigands. Armed and accompanied by a good escort, Mr. F. had set -out during the night for the town of L⸺, and following the impulse of -an adventurous spirit, he strayed away from his companions in a dense -forest. The light of a full moon made the path quite distinct, and he -had proceeded some distance, when his bridle was suddenly seized by some -fierce-looking fellows, who appeared by his side as if by magic. Mr. -F.’s surprise was as great as the action was menacing; but he instantly -seized his revolver, and thought on the prudence of using it, when the -“capitan,” a regular _leromenos_,[1] sprang forward, and a struggle -ensued for its possession, in which the weapon was broken. The moment was -critical, the danger imminent, for self-defence was out of the question -with a broken revolver. In this emergency, with the presence of mind -which characterizes him, Mr. F. thought of another means of protection, -and removing the white cover of his official cap, pointed out the crown -on it, and declared himself a servant of the British Government. This -had the desired effect, for the chief released his hold of the bridle, -and retired a short distance with his companions to hold a consultation, -the result of which was his again stepping forward, and inquiring if -the gentleman was the son of the consul of the town of T⸺, and being -answered in the affirmative the “capitan,” with much feeling, declared -he was free to pursue his way, for his father had rendered many good and -noble services to the Greek families of Thessaly and Epirus, and had -saved the lives and property of many others. “Besides,” added he, “we -love and respect the English. But a few miles hence you will fall in with -the camp of old A. Pasha, who, with 800 troops and two guns, intends to -surround yonder mountain, where he expects to entrap and chase us like -wild beasts. The price of your freedom is your word of honor not to -reveal to him your meeting with us until to-morrow; when that is given, -your escort will be allowed to pass unmolested.” Mr. F. then continued -his journey, and a couple of hours brought him to the camp of his -friend the brigand-chasing Pasha, who gave him an excellent supper, and -entertained him with the plan of his next day’s assault on the brigand -band, to which he had patiently to listen, bound as he was by his word -not to reveal what he knew of their whereabouts until the next day. As -the game the Pasha expected to entrap escaped him on the morrow, the -revelation naturally annoyed him; but he was too well aware of the value -an Englishman placed upon his pledged word, even to a brigand, to find -fault with the reticence of his friend on that occasion. - -The Greek aristocracy has almost disappeared, and the nation seems -now eminently democratic, though fond of giving titles to persons of -position, such as “Your Worship,” “Your Honor,” “Your Highness,” etc., -and “Your Holiness” to the clergy. Such terms are smoothly introduced -in epistolary addresses or used in conversation, so long as this is -carried on with calmness and reflection; but directly discussion becomes -animated, and the speaker, whatever his condition, excited, all such -high-flown phrases are discarded and exchanged for that more natural to -the Greek fraternal feeling, the word “Adelphé” (brother), which never -fails to grate upon the ear of Englishmen in the East. - -It certainly had this effect upon one of our old consuls who had rather -a hasty temper and was a strict observer of etiquette. On one occasion -he had to listen to an excited Greek who had a dispute with another, and -heard the title of Adelphé addressed to him by the complainant, who, to -make matters worse, was by no means such a respectable person as could -be wished. The indignant consul exclaimed in Greek, “Brother! I am no -brother of yours!” and was proceeding to render his assurance more -effectual by a vigorous and unexpected movement of his foot, when he lost -his balance and was stretched on the floor. This unforeseen aspect of -affairs appeared so comical to him that he indulged in a hearty peal of -laughter, in which the Greek, though politely asking after his injuries, -joined—in his sleeve. - -The charges raised most frequently against the Greeks are their -want of honesty in their dealings with strangers, and their general -unscrupulousness in business transactions. These accusations, in great -part well founded, are due to the unnatural position in which the rayah -is placed. Every Greek who is truly a Greek in heart (and I have known -few who were not so) must detest and dislike his rulers, and direct his -energies to promoting, openly or secretly, the interest of his nation. -In order to do this, however, he must work in the dark, and strive -to undermine the interests of his masters; consequently the mask of -hypocrisy has to be worn by all in the same way. To cheat the Turks in -small matters when he can, in revenge for grosser injuries he is liable -to receive from them, becomes one of his objects. His is not the only -subject race that evinces a laxity of principle and want of morality in -the transaction of business. He is sharp in its despatch, perhaps sharper -than some others, but no worse than they in the manner in which he -carries on his trade. - -I have often heard this subject discussed in all its bearings, and the -statements of European as well as native merchants appeared to agree on -the main point—that with the corrupt administration, and the perpetual -necessity of having recourse to bribery in order to facilitate the course -of business, honest and straightforward dealing was out of the question. -“We must,” said a wealthy French merchant, “do in Turkey as the Turks -do, or else seek a fortune elsewhere.” The following incident out of -innumerable others will give an idea of how enterprise is encouraged and -business carried on in this country. - -Some Jews in the town of L⸺ had established a soap factory, producing -a bad article and selling it at high prices. Subsequently some Cretan -Greeks set up a rival establishment in the same town. The Cretans enjoyed -a great repute in Turkey for this branch of industry, and offered their -soaps to the public at a lower price than the Jews, who were thrown -into the shade; these therefore had to invent some plan to ruin their -rivals. Both factories imported their own oil from the Greek islands, -and paid the duties in kind or in cash. The Greeks adopted the former -method, and the Jews, aware of the fact, presented themselves at the -custom-house, estimated the oil the Greeks received at double its value, -and transported a portion of it to their premises, thus obliging the -Greeks to pay double duty—a serious matter, which, if not remedied, would -ruin their business. They decided upon offering the Jews privately half -of the extra duty they were called upon by them to pay to the revenue. -But on a second cargo of oil being imported they abstained from paying -that sum to the Jews, who thereupon made them pay double duty a second -time, which so exasperated the Greeks that they resolved to have their -revenge. So, sending a fresh order for oil, they instructed their agent -to have two of the barrels filled with water, and marked with some sign. -This cargo on arriving was left by the Greeks in the custom-house until -the Friday afternoon when they went to clear it. The Jews, made aware of -this fact by their spies, also presented themselves, estimated the oil, -as formerly, at double its value, and offered to purchase the two barrels -left as payment of duty. The Greeks prolonged the affair until there -was only just time for the Jews to take away their purchase, but not to -inspect it without breaking the Sabbath. On the following evening the -Jews discovered the trick that had been played upon them, and exposed it -to the custom-house officials, demanding redress. The Greeks, summoned to -appear and answer the charge, denied that the swindle had been practised -by them, and exposed the dishonest dealings of the Jews towards them, -saying that it must have been they who abstracted the oil and replaced -it with water, with the object of cheating the Customs. The authorities, -unwilling to take further trouble about the matter, sent away both -parties, and would have nothing more to do with the case. The Jews in -the mean time were inconsolable; and when the Cretans thought they had -been sufficiently punished, they confessed the trick, and offered to make -amends by refunding the money they had paid for the casks if they would -go with them to the Rabbi and take an oath to make no more attempts to -injure their business by dishonest means. - -The principal Greek merchants trade under foreign protection, as it -affords them greater security and freedom from the intrigues of the ill -disposed. - -To sum up. The subject Greek of Turkey has his vices: he is -over-ambitious, conceited, too diplomatic and wily; and, in common with -most merchants, European or Eastern, in Turkey, he does his best to cheat -the Turks—and occasionally extends the practice further, not without -excellent precedent. But these are the vices of a race long kept in -servitude and now awaking to the sense of a great ancestry: the servitude -has produced the servile fault of double-dealing and dishonesty; and the -pride of a noble past has engendered the conceit of the present. Such -vices are but passing deformities: they are the sharp angles and bony -length of the girl-form that will in time be perfected in beauty. These -faults will disappear with the spread of education and the restoring of -freedom long withheld. The quick intellect and fine mettle of the Greek, -like his lithe body, descended from a nation of heroes, are destined to -great things. The name alone of Hellenes carries with it the prescriptive -right of speaking and doing nobly; and the modern Hellenes will not -disown their birthright. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE ALBANIANS. - - Albania little known to Travellers—Character of the - Country—Isolation and Neglect—Products—The Landholders—Ali - Bey’s Revolution—Albanian Towns—The Albanian’s House his - Castle In a Literal Sense—Blood Feuds—Villages—Unapproachable - Position—The Defence of Souli—Joannina—Beautiful Site—Ali - Pasha’s Improvements—Greek Enterprise—The Albanians—Separate - Tribes—The Ghegs—The Tosks—Character of the Latter—Superiority - of the Ghegs—Respect for Women—An Adventure with a Brigand - Chief—Gheg Gratitude—A Point of Honor with an Albanian - Servant—Religion among the Albanians—Education among - the Tosks—Warlike Character of the Albanians—Use of the - Gun—The Vendetta—Women to the Rescue—Albanian Women in - General—Female Adornment—Emigration—Mutual Assistance - Abroad—The Albanian Character—Recklessness—Love of - Display—Improvidence—Pride—Hatred of the Turks reciprocated to - the Full. - - -The Albanians, like most of the races of minor importance inhabiting -European Turkey, are little known to the civilized world. Albania, with -its impassable mountains, broken by deep and precipitous ravines, the -footways of torrents, has been visited only by those few travellers who -have had enough courage and adventurous spirit to penetrate into its -fastnesses. This country, occupying the place of the ancient Illyria and -Epirus, was in the middle ages called Arvanasi, and later on Arnaoutlik -by the Turks and Arvanitia by the Greeks; but in the native tongue it -is called Skiperi, or “land of rocks.” It is divided into Upper and -Lower Albania, and forms two vilayets, that of Scutari (comprising the -provinces of Berat, El Bassan, Ochrida, Upper and Lower Dibra, Tirana, -Candia, Duratzo, Cruia, Tessi, Scutari, Dulcigno, and Podgoritza), and -that of Joannina, in Epirus (comprising Joannina, Konitza, Paleopogoyani, -Argyrokastro, Delvino, Parakalanio, Paramythia, Margariti, Leapourie or -Arbar, and Avlona). - -Owing to the mountainous character of the country, and the turbulent -and warlike disposition of its inhabitants, it is still unexplored in -many parts, poorly cultivated in others, and everywhere much neglected -in its rich and fertile valleys. Unfortunately agriculture, still in a -very primitive and neglected condition throughout Turkey, is especially -so in Albania. This neglect, however prejudicial to the well-being of -the inhabitants, rather heightens the wild beauty of the scenery, the -changing grandeur and loveliness of which alternately awes and delights -the traveller. - -Shut out from the civilized world by the want of roads and means of -communication, all the natural advantages the country possesses have -remained stationary, and its beauty and fertility turned to little -account by the wild and semi-savage population that inhabits it. - -The principal productions of Illyrian Albania are horses, sheep, and -oxen, reared in the valleys of the Mousakia; grain is extensively grown -at Tirana; and rye and Indian corn are grown in El Bassan; and in some -parts of Dibra a coarse kind of silk is manufactured into home-spun -tissues, and used for the elaborate embroidery of the picturesque -national costume. A stout felt used for the _capa_, or cloak, is made of -wool. A kind of red leather, and other articles of minor importance, are -also manufactured in these parts. - -Epirus, or Lower Albania, owing to its more favorable situation and the -mildness of its climate, is by far the more fertile and better cultivated -of the two vilayets. In addition to the above-mentioned products, it -grows rice, cotton, olives, tobacco, oranges, citrons, grapes, and -cochineal. Though agriculture is carried on in the same primitive manner, -richer harvests are produced, and, as shown by the yearly returns, there -is a steady increase of the export trade. - -Albania abounds in minerals, but the mines are little known, still less -worked. Hot springs, possessing valuable medicinal qualities, are also to -be found in many places, but the country people are totally ignorant of -their properties, and take the waters indiscriminately for any ailments -they may happen to have, and, in obedience to the old superstitious -reverence for the spirits of the fountains, even drink from several -different sources in the hope of gaining favor with their respective -nymphs. - -The large landowners, both in Upper and Lower Albania, are Mohammedans, -often perverted from Christianity. They still exercise a despotic and -unlimited control over the peasants, and show the convert’s proverbial -spirit of intolerance towards their brethren who hold fast the faith -of their fathers. At the beginning of this century, and before Ali -Pasha had made himself the complete master of Joannina, much of the -landed property in Lower Albania was held by Christians, and many -semi-independent villages, entirely inhabited by Christians, were to be -found scattered all over the country. Their number was sadly diminished -during the revolutionary convulsion that upset the country. The property -of many Christian landholders experienced the same fate. Their estates -were snatched from their lawful owners by the wily, avaricious, and -hypocritical despot, who, employing by turns the three methods of force, -fraud, and nominal compensation, drove away the owners and appropriated -the lands to himself. After his death all these lands passed to the crown -as _Imlak_ property, and were never restored to their former possessors. - -The landed property in both Upper and Lower Albania still retains much of -the characteristics of the species of feudal system which once prevailed -throughout Turkey; but instead of the rule of a few powerful Beys or one -single despot, a legion of petty tyrants hold the people in bondage. Yet -there may be found among the landholders a few, poorer than the rest, who -are respected for their integrity and for their paternal treatment of -the peasants on their estates. - -The general aspect of the towns and villages in Upper Albania differs -very little from that of other towns and villages in Turkey. The -same want of finish and clumsiness of workmanship prevail in all the -Albanian houses, which are usually detached from one another and stand -in court-yards surrounded by high walls. Some of these dwellings -are complete fortresses; but this is not on account of the terrible -never-ending blood-feuds transmitted from generation to generation, which -make each man’s life (out-of-doors) the least secure of his possessions. -In times of peace his house can be left with open gates, and is held -sacred and respected even by the vilest and most desperate characters; -for it is a point of honor with an Albanian never to incur the disgrace -of shedding a man’s blood in his own house; but the moment he crosses the -threshold, he is at the mercy of his foe. - -An Albanian chieftain, who had a deadly quarrel with a neighbor and -consequently was in terror of his life, was compelled to stay within -doors for twelve long years, knowing the risk he ran if the threshold -were crossed. Finally, craving a little liberty, he obtained an armistice -and was allowed perfect freedom for a short space of time. - -In times of open contention the houses are fortified and guarded by armed -bands, who conceal themselves in strongholds attached to some of the -buildings, watch for the approach of the enemy, and open fire upon them -from the loop-holes with which the walls are pierced. - -The furniture of their dwelling-houses is scanty, poor, and comfortless. -Some valuable carpets, a gorgeously embroidered sofa in the -reception-room, and a few indispensable articles, are all they possess. -The streets are narrow and badly paved, and look dismal and deserted. The -bazars and shops are inferior to those of most of the towns of Turkey. -They contain no variety of objects for use or ornament beyond those -absolutely necessary for domestic purposes. - -The villages are far more curious and interesting to the traveller than -the towns. Some of these in Upper Albania, in mountainous districts, are -at a great distance from each other, and are perched up on the summits -of high rocks that tower above each other in successive ranges, in some -places forming a natural and impassable rampart to the village, in others -trodden into steep paths where the goat doubtless delights to climb, but -where man experiences any but agreeable sensations. - -Lower Albania, better known to travellers, is less rugged and wild in -appearance. But here and there we meet with mountainous districts—such as -the far-famed canton of Souli, which in the time of Ali Pasha numbered -eleven villages, some scattered on the peaks of mountains, others -studding their skirts; while the terrible Acheron gloomily wound its way -through the deep gorges that helped to secure the river its victims. - -Souli, defended by its 13,000 inhabitants, withstood the siege of the -dreaded pasha’s armies, held them in check for fifteen years, and -acquired undying fame in the history of the war of Greek independence -for heroism hardly surpassed by the most valiant feats of the ancients, -and with which nothing in modern warfare can compare. Every Souliot, -man, woman, and child, was ready to perish in the defence. The women -and children who had fought so long by the side of their husbands and -fathers, at the last extremity, preferring death to captivity and -dishonor, threw themselves from the rocks into the dark stream below, -while the few that survived the final destruction cut their way through -their enemies, and were scattered over Greece to tell the sad tale of the -fall of Souli. - -The plateau of Joannina is entirely surrounded by wooded mountains, -and is from 1,200 to 1,500 feet above the level of the sea. On -this table-land is a lake about fourteen miles in length and six in -breadth, on the rich borders of which rises the town of Joannina, like -a fairy palace in an enchanted land. This town, which contains 25,000 -inhabitants, became the favorite abode of Ali Pasha, who transformed -and embellished it to a considerable extent, and founded schools and -libraries. - -The edifices erected by him were partly destroyed by his followers, when -his power was supposed to have reached its end, together with the gilded -kiosks and superb palaces built for his own enjoyment. All that Joannina -can boast of at the present day is the exceeding beauty of its situation, -and the activity that Greek enterprise has given to its commerce, and the -excellent schools and syllogæ that have been established and are said to -be doing wonders in improving and educating the new generation of Epirus. - -The Albanians are divided into several distinct races, each presenting -marked features of difference from the other and occupying separate -districts. Those of Upper Albania are called Ghegs, and inhabit that -portion of the country called Ghegueria, which extends from the frontiers -of Bosnia and Montenegro to Berat. - -These men are broad-chested, tall, and robust, have regular features, and -a proud, manly, independent mien. Their personal attractions are not a -little enhanced by their rich and picturesque national costume—a pair of -cloth gaiters; an embroidered jacket with open sleeves; a double-breasted -waistcoat; the Greek fustanella (white calico kilt), surmounted by a -cloth skirt opened in front; a kemer, or leather belt, decorated with -silver ornaments, and holding a pistol, yataghan, and other arms of fine -workmanship. The whole costume is richly worked with gold thread. On the -head is worn a fez, wider at the top than round the head, and ornamented -with a long tassel. - -The Tosks inhabiting Lower Albania, in the sandjaks of Avlona and Berat, -and the Tchames and Liaps of the sandjaks of Delvina and Joannina, -designate their country Tchamouria and Liapouria. These latter are -supposed to be direct descendants of ancient Hellenes, as they speak the -Greek language with greater purity than the rest; and certainly some of -their characteristic features bear a great resemblance to those of the -ancient Greeks. All the Albanians of Epirus use the Greek language, and -are more conversant with it than with Turkish, which in some places is -not spoken at all. - -The Tosks are tall and well built, and extremely agile in all their -movements; their features are regular and intelligent, but like most -Albanians they have a fierce, cruel, and sometimes cunning cast of -countenance, and a swagger in their gait, by which they can easily be -distinguished from the other races, even when divested of their national -costume. They are of a warlike and ferocious disposition, yet they have -noble qualities which atone in some measure for their ferocity and -produce a very mixed impression of the national character. They are a -constant source of dread to strangers, but objects of implicit confidence -and trust to those who have gained their friendship and earned their -gratitude. - -In bravery, trustworthiness, and honor, the Ghegs bear the palm. No -Gheg will scruple to “take to the road” if he is short of money and has -nothing better to do. If any man he may meet on the high-road disregards -his command, “_Des dour_” (stand still), he thinks nothing of cutting -his throat or settling him with a pistol-shot; but if a Gheg has once -tasted your bread and salt or owes you a debt of gratitude or is employed -in your service, all his terrible qualities vanish and he becomes the -most devoted, attached, and faithful of friends and servants. Generally -speaking, the Ghegs are abstemious and not much addicted to the vices of -Asiatics. Women are respected by them and seldom exposed to the attacks -of brigands or libertines. - -These characteristics are so general and so deeply rooted in the -character of the Gheg that consuls, merchants, and others, who need brave -and faithful retainers, employ them in preference to men of any other -race. - -I was once making a journey across country to a watering-place in Albania -and set out for this deserted and isolated spot with a capital escort; -accompanied moreover by a wealthy Christian dignitary of the town in -which I had been staying. During a short halt we made in a mountain gorge -to refresh ourselves with luncheon, near a ruined and deserted _beklemé_, -or guard-house, suddenly a fine but savage-looking Albanian appeared -before us. He was followed by several other sturdy fellows, all armed to -the teeth. My friend turned pale, and the escort, taking to their guns, -stood on the defensive. - -But the feeling of fear soon vanished from my people, as the Albanians -approached them, and instead of uttering the dreaded “_Des dour!_” -gracefully put their hands on their breasts and repeated the much more -agreeable welcome word “_Merhaba!_” The band chatted with my men, whilst -their chieftain approached my travelling companion, and entered into -conversation with him, every now and then giving a glance at me with an -expression of wonder on his face. At last he inquired who I was, and -declared he was astonished at the independent spirit of the _Inglis_ -lady, who, in spite of fatigue and danger, had ventured so far. - -He willingly accepted our offer of luncheon; first dipping a piece of -bread in salt and eating it. My horse was then brought up; the chief -stood by, and gallantly held the stirrup while I mounted. I thanked him, -and we rode off at a gallop. After we had gone some distance on our road, -my friend heaved a deep sigh of relief, and said to me, “Do you know who -has been lunching with us, holding your stirrup, and assisting you to -mount? It is the fiercest and most terrible of Albanian brigand chiefs -in this neighborhood! For the last seven years he and his band have been -the terror of this kaza, in consequence of their robberies and murders, -respecting none but those of your sex,—guided, I presume, in this by -the superstition, or let us say point of honor, some Albanians strictly -observe, that it is cowardly and unlucky to attack women.” - -An adventure that lately happened to a friend of mine will show the -manner in which Ghegs remember a good service rendered them. Some years -ago, a few Albanians, personally known to the gentleman in question, -who owns a large estate in Macedonia, heard that three of their -fellow-countrymen had got into trouble. Through the influence Mr. A. -possessed with the local authorities, their release was obtained. The -incident had almost passed out of his memory when it was unexpectedly -recalled at a critical moment. Some Albanian beys, who had a spite -against Mr. A., in consequence of a disputed portion of land, resolved -to take advantage of the present state of anarchy and disorder in the -country to have him or his son assassinated the next time either of -them should visit the estate. The villanous scheme was intrusted to a -band of Albanian brigands that were known to be lurking in the vicinity -of Mr. A.’s estate. At harvest-time, as he was about to start for the -country, he received a crumpled dirty little epistle, written in the -Greek-Albanian dialect, to this effect:— - - “_Much esteemed Effendi, and venerated benefactor_: - - “Some years ago your most humble servant and his companions - were in difficulties. You saved them from prison and perhaps - from the halter. The service has never been forgotten, and the - debt we owe to you will be shortly redeemed by my informing - you that the robber band of Albanians in the vicinity of your - chiftlik have received instructions and have accepted the task - of shooting you down the first time you come in this direction. - I and my valiant men will be on the look-out to prevent the - event if possible, but we warn you to be on your guard, for - your life is in danger. - - “Kissing your hand respectfully, - - “I sign myself, - - “A MEMBER OF THE VERY BAND!” - -Another friend related to me a strange adventure he had with an Albanian -ex-brigand, who for some time had been in his service. This gentleman was -a millionaire of the town of P., who in his younger days often collected -the tithes of his whole district, and consequently had occasion to travel -far into the interior and bring back with him large sums of money. During -these tours the faithful Albanian never failed to accompany his master. -On one occasion, however, when they had penetrated into the wildest -part of his jurisdiction, his servant walked into the room where he was -seated, and after making his _temenla_, or salute, said, “Chorbadji, I -shall leave you; therefore I have come to say to you _Allah ’semarladu_ -(good-by).” - -“Why,” said the astonished gentleman, “what is to become of me in this -outlandish place without you?” - -“Oh,” was the response, “I leave you because I have consented to attack -and rob you, and as such an act would be cowardly and treacherous while -I eat your bread and salt, I give you notice that I mean to do it on the -highway as you return home, so take what precautions you like, that it -may be fair play between us.” This said, he made a second _temenla_ and -disappeared. - -He was as good as his word; going back to his former profession, he -soon found out and joined a band of brigands, and at their head waylaid -and attacked his former master, who, well aware of the character of the -man he had to deal with and the dangers that awaited him, had taken -measures accordingly and provided himself with an escort strong enough to -overpower the brigands. - -The Albanians before the Turkish conquest professed the Christian -religion, which, however, does not appear to have been very deeply rooted -in the hearts of the people; from time immemorial they were more famous -for their warlike propensities and adventurous exploits than for their -good principles. - -After the conquest, Islam, finding a favorable soil in which to plant -itself, made considerable progress in some districts, where the -inhabitants willingly adopted it in order to escape persecution and -oppression. This progress, however, was not very extensive until the -time of the famous Iskander Beg, or Scanderbeg, who played so prominent -a _rôle_ in the history of his country, and whose desertion of the -Mohammedan and adoption of the Christian religion so exasperated Sultan -Murad that he forthwith ordered that most of the Christian churches -should be converted into mosques, and that all Epirots should be -circumcised under pain of death. - -The second impulse Mohammedanism received in Albania was under the -rule of Ali Pasha, when whole villages were converted to Islam, though -their inhabitants to this day bear Christian names, and in some cases -the mother or wife is allowed to retain the faith of her fathers and -will keep her fasts and feasts and attend her Christian church while -her husband joins the Mussulman congregation. In those parts of Epirus, -however, where the Greek population was in the majority and its ignorant -though devout clergy had influence with the people, they held fast to -their religion as they did to their language. - -The Mirdites were equally steadfast to their faith and purpose, and have -remained among the most faithful and devout followers of the Pope. The -number of Roman Catholic Mirdites is reckoned at about 140,000 souls, -scattered in the different districts of Albania. They have several -bishoprics, and their bishops and priests are sent from Rome or Scutari. -The Mirdites make fine soldiers, and have often been engaged by the -Porte as contingent troops, or employed in active service. They take -readily to commerce and agriculture, and on the whole may be considered -the most advanced and civilized of the Illyrian Albanians. They might, -however, progress much more rapidly if their pastors, to whose guidance -they submit themselves implicitly, would follow the example of the Greeks -in Epirus, and introduce a more liberal course of instruction; for the -education is at present very limited beyond the religious branches. There -can be no doubt that excessive religious teaching among ignorant people, -though a powerful preservative of the faith, tends inevitably to render -them narrow-minded, bigoted, and incapable of self-development. - -The Mohammedanism of the Albanians is not very deeply rooted, nor does -it bear the stamp of the true faith. Followers of the Prophet in Lower -Albania especially may be heard to swear alternately by the _Panaghia_ -(blessed Virgin) and the Prophet, without appearing disposed to follow -too closely the doctrines of either the Bible or the Koran. It is an -undoubted fact that the Moslems of Albania contrast very unfavorably with -the Christians. - -The Tosks are held in ill-repute on account of the difficulty they seem -to experience in defining the difference between treachery and good -faith. They are clever and have made more progress than the Ghegs in the -civilization that Greece is endeavoring to infuse among her neighbors. -Some of their districts are worthy of mention, on account of the taste -for learning displayed by their inhabitants, the earnestness with which -they receive instruction, and the good results that have already crowned -their praiseworthy efforts. - -Zagora, for instance, famous as having afforded shelter to many Greeks -after the conquest of Constantinople, is renowned for the intelligence -and general enlightenment of its inhabitants. The sterile and -unproductive soil induces the men to rely less upon the fruits of their -manual toil than upon their mental labor, consequently most of them -migrate to other countries, seeking their fortune. Some take to commerce, -others to professions, and after realizing a competence they return to -their native land and impart the more advanced ideas their experience has -given them to their compatriots who have not enjoyed the same privileges. - -The women of Zagora are much esteemed for their virtues and -enlightenment. Such facts as these make a refreshing contrast to the -dark cloud of ignorance which, in spite of the pure sky of Albania and -the beauty of the scenery, still hangs thickly on the land, and casts a -shadow where Nature meant all to be sunshine. - -The warlike instincts of the Albanian find more scope for action in -the Mohammedan than in the Christian religion. They gladly accept an -invitation to fight the battles of the Porte or those of any nation -that will pay them. This help must, however, be given in the way most -agreeable to themselves, _i.e._ as paid contingents under the command of -their own chieftains, to whom they show implicit obedience and fidelity. -Under the beloved banner of their Bey, legions will collect, equally -ready to do the irregular work of the Bashi-bazouks or to be placed in -the regular army. - -But, as a rule, the Albanian objects to ordinary conscription, and avoids -it, if possible, by a direct refusal to be enrolled, or else makes his -escape. When on the road to the seat of war, a regiment of Albanians is -a terrible scourge to the country it passes through; like locusts, they -leave nothing but naked stalks and barren ground behind them. - -The principal merits of the Albanian soldier are his rapidity of motion, -steady aim, carelessness of life, and hardy endurance in privation. An -Albanian’s gun is his companion and his means of subsistence in peace or -war. To it he looks for his daily bread more than to any other source, -and he uses it with a skill not easily matched. - -When travelling in Upper Albania we halted one day in a field which -appeared quite uncultivated and waste, and were making arrangements for -our mid-day meal, when an Albanian _bekchi_ (forest-keeper) appeared on -the scene and ordered us to quit the spot, as it was cultivated ground. -Our escort remonstrated with the fellow, saying that it was the only -convenient place near for a halt, and that now we had alighted we should -remain where we were until we had finished our meal. - -The Albanian, entirely regardless of the number of the escort and the -authority of government servants, became more persistent in his commands, -and the guards lost patience and threatened to arrest him and take him -before the Mudir of the town that lay a little further on. “The Mudir,” -scornfully repeated the mountaineer, “and who told you that I recognize -the authority of the Mudir?” Then taking his long gun from his shoulder, -he held it up and said, “This is my authority, and no other can influence -me or acquire any power over me!” - -The social relations of the Albanians are limited to two ideas, -_Vendetta_ and _bessa_ (peace). - -In cases of personal insult or offence the vendetta is settled on the -spot. Both parties stand up, the insulted full of indignation and -thirsting for revenge, the offender repentant, perhaps, or persistent. -The aggrieved person, even in the former case, seldom yields to -persuasion or softens into forgiveness; he draws a brace of pistols and -presents them to his antagonist to make his choice. The little fingers -of their left hands are linked together and they fire simultaneously. -A survivor is rare in such cases, and the feud thus caused between the -relatives of both parties is perpetuated from generation to generation. - -It takes very little to provoke these terrible blood-feuds, and one or -two instances that have come under my direct notice will suffice to give -an idea of their nature and the violence with which real or fancied -insult is avenged. - -One happened while I was at Uskup. The cause was nothing more weighty -than a contention between two Albanian sportsmen, who were disputing the -possession of a hare that each maintained he had shot. The dispute became -so violent that a duel was resorted to as the only way to settle it. -It came off on the common in the presence of the combatants’ relatives -and friends, who joined in the quarrel; and a general battle ensued, in -which the women fought side by side with their husbands and brothers. -A girl of seventeen, a sister of one of the two sportsmen, fought with -the courage of a heroine, and with a success worthy of a better cause. -Fourteen victims fell on that day. The Governor of Uskup, who related -the story to me, said that he despaired of ever seeing these savage -people yield to the influence of their more refined neighbors, or become -entirely submissive to the Sultan’s government. But great changes have -taken place since then with respect to their submission to the Porte. The -Government is now able almost safely to send governors and sub-governors -into Albania to collect taxes from such as choose to pay them, and even -draw a certain number of recruits from the most turbulent and independent -districts. - -Another of these lamentable blood-feuds happened in Upper Dibra, and was -witnessed by one of my friends then living there. - -It originated in two lads at the village fountain throwing stones and -breaking the pitcher of an Albanian girl who had come to fetch water. -This was considered an insult to her maidenhood and was at once made the -cause of a serious quarrel by the friends of the two parties. A fight -ensued in which no less than sixty people lost their lives. Women’s honor -is held in such high esteem in these wild regions that so trivial an -accident suffices to cause a terrible destruction of life. - -Albanian women are generally armed, not for the purpose of -self-defence—no Albanian would attack a woman in his own country—but -rather that they may be able to join in the brawls of their male -relatives, and fight by their side. The respect entertained for women -accounts for a strange custom prevalent among Albanians—that of offering -to strangers who wish to traverse their country the escort of a woman. -Thus accompanied, the traveller may proceed with safety into the most -isolated regions without any chance of harm coming to him. - -The Albanian women are lively and of an independent spirit, but utterly -unlettered. Very few of the Mohammedans in Lower Albania possess any -knowledge of reading or writing. They are, however, proud and dignified, -strict observers of the rules of national etiquette; and they attach -great importance to the antiquity of their families, and regulate their -marriages by the degrees of rank and lineage. - -The natural beauty of the Albanian girl soon disappears after she has -entered upon the married state. She then begins to dye her hair, to which -nature has often given a golden hue, jet black; she besmears her face -with a pernicious white composition, blackens her teeth, and reddens -her hands with henna; the general effect of the process is to make her -ugly during youth, and absolutely hideous in old age. The paint they use -is not only most destructive to the complexion, but also to the teeth, -which decay rapidly from its use. I believe they blacken their teeth -artificially to hide its effects. On my inquiring the reason of this -strange custom of some Albanian ladies, they laughed at my disapproval of -it, and told me that in their opinion it was only the fangs of dogs that -should be white. - -Both Christian and Mohammedan Albanians, dissatisfied with the poverty of -their country and their incapability of developing its natural resources -or profiting by them, often leave it and migrate to other parts of Turkey -in search of employment. Large numbers seek military service in Turkey, -Egypt, and other countries, or situations as guards, herdsmen, etc. Some -of the Christians study and become doctors, lawyers, or schoolmasters. -The lower classes are masons, carters, porters, servants, dairymen, -butchers, etc.; their wives and children seldom accompany them, but -remain at home to look after their belongings, and content themselves -with an occasional visit from the assiduous bread-winner. - -All Albanians call themselves _Arkardash_ (brothers), and when away from -their homes will assist and maintain the _Kapoussis_, or new-comers, -until they obtain employment through the instrumentality of their -compatriots already established in the town. Thus assistance is given in -small towns to the _Kapoussis_ to defray the expenses of his maintenance -and lodging in the Khan. When he obtains a place, he repays the money in -small instalments until the debt is acquitted. - -The Albanian, generally a gay, reckless fellow, is always short of money: -many among the better conditioned carry their fortune on their person in -the shape of rich embroideries on their handsome costumes and valuable -arms. In their belt is contained all the money they possess. When the -fortune-seeker has to wait a long time for the fickle goddess to smile -upon him, and the forbearance or generosity of his friends is exhausted, -and the _kemer_ becomes empty, he sells his fine arms, and the splendid -suit of clothes follows to the same fate. But the Albanian, though -externally transformed, will be by no means crushed in spirit or at all -less conceited in manner, even when a tattered rag has replaced the gaudy -fez, and a coarse _aba_ his _fustanella_ and embroidered jacket. With -shoes trodden down at heel he patiently lounges about under the name of -_Chiplak_ until the expected turn of fortune arrives. Should it be very -long in coming, our Albanian turns the tables upon the goddess, shoulders -his gun, and takes to the high-road. - -The _bessa_, or truce, is the time Albanians allow themselves at -intervals to suspend their blood-feuds; it is arranged by mutual consent -between the contending parties, and is of fixed duration and strictly -observed: the bitterest enemies meet and converse in perfect harmony and -confidence. - -The character of the Albanians is simply the mixed unhewn character of -a barbarous people; they have the rough vices but also the unthinking -virtues of semi-savage races. If they are not civilized enough not to -be cruel, at least civilization has not yet taught them its general -lesson that honor and chivalry are unpractical relics of Middle-Age -superstition, quite unworthy of the business-like man of to-day, whose -eyes are steadily fixed on the main chance. The Albanian, too, can -plunder, but he does it gun in hand and openly on the highway; not behind -a desk or on ’Change. His faults are the faults of an untrained violent -nature, they are never mean; his virtues are those of forgotten days, and -are not intended to pay. He is more often abused than praised, but it is -mostly for want of knowledge; for his faults are on the surface, whilst -his sterling good qualities are seen only by those who know him well, and -know how to treat him. - -The ties that bind this nation to its rulers have never been those of -strict submission, or of sympathy. The Turkish government cannot easily -forget the troubles and loss of life the conquest of Albania occasioned, -nor can it feel satisfied with the manner in which imperial decrees are -received by the more turbulent portion of the inhabitants with regard -to the enrolment of troops and the payment of taxes; nor pass over the -insolence and even danger to which its officials are often exposed. - -The Mohammedan Albanians on their side deeply resent the loss of their -liberty, and the forfeiture of their privileges, and reciprocate to the -full the ill feeling and abusive language of the Turks. The Turk calls -the Albanian _Haidout Arnaout!_ or _Tellak!_[2] - -The Albanian regards the Turk as a doubtful friend and a corrupt and -impotent master; and if this antipathy exists between the Turks and the -Albanian Moslem, it is scarcely necessary to say that it is felt far -more strongly between the Turks and the Albanian Christians of Epirus -and the Mirdites, who, feeling doubly injured by the oppressive rule to -which they are forced to submit, and the loss of their freedom, ill-brook -the authority of the Porte. The Mirdite turns his looks and aspirations -towards the Slavs, while the Albanian hopes finally to share the liberty -of the Greek. - -The Porte, under these circumstances, had a difficult mission to fulfil -in controlling this mixed multitude, and was not unjustified in looking -upon it with distrust and suspicion. It now seems probable, however, that -it may be relieved of the weight of this responsibility. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE TURKS. - - Turkish Peasants—Decrease in Numbers—Taxation - and Recruiting—Relations with the - Christians—Appearance—Amusements—House and - Family—Townspeople—Guilds—Moslems and Christians—The - Turk as an Artisan—Objection to Innovations—Life in the - Town—The Military Class—Government Officials—Pashas—Grand - Vizirs—Receptions—A Turkish Lady’s Life—The Princes—The - Sultan—Mahmoud—His Reforms—Abdul-Medjid—Abdul-Aziz—Character - and Fate—Murad—Abdul-Hamid—Slavery in Turkey. - - -The Turkish peasants inhabiting the rural districts of Bulgaria, -Macedonia, Epirus, and Thessaly, although the best, most industrious, -and useful of the Sultan’s Mohammedan subjects, everywhere evince -signs of poverty, decrease in numbers, and general deterioration. This -fact is evident even to the mere traveller, from the wretchedness and -poverty-stricken appearance of Turkish villages, with their houses mostly -tumbling to pieces. The inhabitants, unable to resist the drain upon them -in time of war when the youngest and most vigorous men are taken away -for military service, often abandon their dwellings and retire to more -populous villages or towns: the property thus abandoned goes to ruin, -and the fields in the same manner become waste. This evil, which has -increased since the more regular enforcement of the conscription, may -be traced to three principal sources: the first is the unequal manner -in which the conscription laws are carried out upon this submissive -portion of the people; the second is the want of laborers, the inevitable -consequence of the recruiting system, whereby the best hands are drawn -away annually at the busiest and most profitable time of the year, to -the great and sometimes irreparable injury of industry; the third is the -irregular and often unjust manner in which the taxes are levied. Under -these unencouraging circumstances the disabled old men, the wild boys, -and the women (who are never trained to work and are consequently unfit -for it), are left behind to continue the labor of the conscripts, and -struggle on as well as indolent habits and natural incapacity for hard -work will allow them. The large villages will soon share the fate of -the small ones and be engulfed in the same ruin, unless radical changes -are introduced for the benefit of the Turkish peasants. Their condition -requires careful and continued attention at the hands of a good and -equitable administration. - -The Turkish peasant is a good, quiet, and submissive subject, who refuses -neither to furnish his Sultan with troops nor to pay his taxes, so far -as in him lies; but he is poor, ignorant, helpless, and improvident to -an almost incredible degree. At the time of recruiting he will complain -bitterly of his hard lot, but go all the same to serve his time; he -groans under the heavy load of taxation, gets imprisoned, and is not -released until he manages to pay his dues. - -He is generally discontented with his government, of which he openly -complains, and still more with its agents, with whom he is brought -into closer contact; but still the idea of rebelling against either, -giving any signs of disaffection, or attempting to resist the law, never -gets any hold upon him. His relations with his Christian neighbors -vary greatly with the locality and the personal character of both. In -some places Christian and Turkish peasants, in times of peace, live in -tolerable harmony, in others a continual warfare of complaints on one -side and acts of oppression on the other is kept up. The only means of -securing peace to both is to separate the two parties, and compel each to -rest solely upon its own exertions and resources, and to prove its worth -in the school of necessity. An English gentleman owning a large estate in -Macedonia used to assert that until the Christian peasant adopts a diet -of beer and beef, nothing will be made of him; in the same manner I think -that until the Turk is cured of his bad habit of employing by hook or by -crook Petcho and Yancho to do his work for him, he will never be able to -do it himself. - -The Turkish peasant is well built and strong, and possesses extraordinary -power of endurance. His mode of living is simple, his habits sober; -unlike the Christians of his class he has no dance, no village feast, and -no music but a kind of drum or tambourine, to vary the monotony of his -life. His cup of coffee and his chibouk contain for him all the sweets of -existence. The coffee is taken before the labors of the day are begun, -and again in the evening at the _cafiné_. His work is often interrupted -in order to enjoy the chibouk, which he smokes crouched under a tree -or wall. His house is clean but badly built, cold in winter and hot in -summer, possessing little in the way of furniture but bedding, mats, -rugs, and kitchen utensils. He is worse clad than the Christian peasant, -and his wife and children still worse; yet the women are content with -their lot, and in their ignorance and helplessness do not try, like the -Christian women, to better their condition by their individual exertions; -they are irreproachable and honest in their conduct, and capable of -enduring great trials. Some are very pretty; they keep much at home, -the young girls seldom gather together for fun and enjoyment except at -a wedding or circumcision ceremony, when they sing and play together, -while the matrons gossip over their private affairs and those of their -neighbors. The girls are married young to peasants of their own or some -neighboring village. Polygamy is rare among Turkish peasants, and they do -not often indulge in the luxury of divorce. - -On the whole the Turkish peasant, though not a model of virtue, is a good -sort of man, and would be much better if he had not the habit in times -of national trouble to take upon him the name of Bashi-Bazouk, and to -transform himself into a ruffian. - -Turks, generally speaking, prefer town to country life; for in towns -they enjoy more frequent opportunities of indulging in that _dolce far -niente_ which has become an integral part of the Turkish character and -has entirely routed his original nomadic disposition. - -The tradespeople of the towns are ranged into _esnafs_, or guilds, and -form separate corporations, some of which include Christians when they -happen to be engaged in the same pursuits. Thus there are the _esnafs_ -of barbers, linen-drapers, greengrocers, grooms, etc. These bodies, -strange to say, in the midst of general disunion and disorganization, are -governed by fixed laws and regulations faithfully observed by Christians -and Turks alike, and the rival worshippers, bound only by the obligation -of good faith and honor towards each other, pull together much better and -show a greater regard for justice and impartiality than is evinced by -any other portion of the community. Every corporation elects one or two -chiefs, who regulate all disputes and settle any difficulties that may -arise among the members. These _Oustas_, or chiefs, are master-workmen in -their different trades. The apprentices are called _Chiraks_, and obtain -promotion, according to their ability, after a certain number of years. -When considered sufficiently advanced in their business, the master, -with the consent and approval of the corporation, admits them into the -fraternity, and gives them the choice of entering into partnership with -him or beginning business on their own account. - -The grooms yearly elect a chief in each town, called _Seis Bashi_, -through whom, for a small fee, grooms may be obtained with greater -security than otherwise for their good behavior and capability. The -meetings, or _lonjas_, of this _esnaf_, are held pretty frequently in -coffee-houses, where the affairs of the corporation are regulated, and -the meeting generally terminates in an orgy; after which the grooms -retire to their stables, much the worse for the wine and _raki_ they have -drunk. - -Once a year each of the associations gives a picnic, either on the -feast of the patron saint or at the promotion of an apprentice. On such -occasions a certain sum is collected from the members, or taken from -the reserve fund which some of the _esnafs_ possess, for the purchase -of all kinds of provisions needed for a substantial and sometimes even -sumptuous meal, to which not only all the members of the guild are -invited, irrespective of creed and nationality, but also all strangers -who may happen to pass the place where the feast is held. The amusements -include music and dancing for the Christians, and a variety of other -entertainments, always harmless and quite within the bounds of decorum, -and joined in with the spirit of joviality that characterizes these -gatherings; disputes are of rare occurrence, and the greatest harmony -is displayed throughout the day between Christian and Mussulman. When -the interests of the Mohammedans are closely connected with those of the -Christians, both willingly forego something of their usual intolerance -in order to further the cause of business. It is strange and regrettable -that this spirit of association among the lower orders should receive so -little encouragement from the Government and the higher classes. - -Though the Mohammedans in certain localities and under such circumstances -as those I have mentioned are just in their dealings with the Christians, -and maintain a friendly feeling towards them; in others, especially in -inland towns, the growing prosperity of the Christians excites a bitter -feeling among their Turkish neighbors, who often offer open hostility and -inflict irreparable injury on their business and property. Many incidents -of this nature have come under my notice, and lead me to the conclusion -that the non-progressiveness of the Turks and the rapid decline of -their empire is partly due to the unfortunate and insurmountable -incongeniality existing between the Turks and Christians. The Turks, as -the dominant race, assumed total ascendancy over the Christians, got -into the habit of using them as tools who acted, worked, and thought for -them in an irresponsible fashion, and thus lost the power of doing for -themselves, together with the sense of seeing the necessity of dealing -with justice, generosity, and impartiality, which alone could have -guaranteed enterprise or secured confidence and sympathy between the two -classes. Unfortunately for the Turks this has brought about a state of -permanent antipathy between the two that can never be corrected; nor can -any reconciliation be arrived at unless these classes become entirely -independent of one another. Any arrangement short of this, as any person -well informed as to the actual relations of Turks and Christians, be they -Greeks or Bulgarians, will admit, must be of short duration, and before -long there could not fail to come a recurrence of outbreaks, revolutions, -and the usual atrocities that accompany disorder among these races. - -The Turks, generally speaking, are not active or intelligent in business, -and do not venture much into speculation or commercial transactions of -any great importance. For example, one never hears of their undertaking -banking, or forming companies for the purpose of working mines, -making railways, or any other enterprise involving risk and requiring -intelligence, activity, system, and honesty to insure success. The first -reason for this strange neglect in a people who possess one of the finest -and most productive countries in the world is a naturally stagnant -and lethargic disposition; another is the want of the support of the -Government, which has never shown itself earnestly desirous of aiding -private enterprise or guaranteeing its success by affording disinterested -protection. Until very recent times no pains have been taken either by -individuals or by the Government to introduce those innovations and -improvements which the times demand. The consequence is that the Turkish -tradespeople gradually find the number of their customers decrease, while -the Greeks, Franks, and others successfully supply the public with the -new articles, or the old ones improved and better fashioned. To give an -instance of this I will repeat an incident related to me by a Turkish bey -of “La Jeune Turquie” as a lamentable proof of the non-progressiveness -of the masses. “When at Stamboul,” said he, “I had during some time to -pass by the shop of a Turkish basket-maker who, with two of his sons, -one grown up and the other a boy, might be seen working at the wicker -hampers and common baskets which have been used in the country from -time immemorial, but are now less used by reason of the superiority of -those brought from Europe or made in the school for mechanical arts in -Stamboul, an institution not much appreciated by the artisans who enjoy -the liberty of going themselves or sending their children to learn the -innovations in their different branches of industry. The basket-maker -and his sons were evidently a steady-going set, representing the honest -Turks of olden time, but seemed to be struggling for a livelihood. -Feeling an interest in them, I one day stopped and asked the old man what -he realized per diem by the sale of his baskets. He heaved a deep sigh, -glanced round his dismal shop, ornamented only with dust-covered baskets, -and said, ‘Very little, from three to six piastres (6_d._ to 1_s._); for -my business, once a thriving one, is now cast into the shade, and few -customers come to buy the old Turkish baskets.’ ‘Why then do you not give -it up and take to something else?’ - -“‘No, it did very well for my father, who at his death recommended me to -continue it and leave it to my sons and grandsons, who should also be -brought up to the trade. I have done so, but it is a hard struggle for -three of us to live by it.’ - -“I then suggested that one or more of his sons should learn the new -method of basket-making, which would improve his business at once. -This idea did not seem to be received favorably by the old man and the -eldest son; but the boy caught at it and asked if he could go and learn. -Encouraged by his evident willingness, I prevailed upon the father to -allow me to place his son in the Industrial School, where I hear he has -made certain progress in his art.” The Turkish mechanic has no power of -invention, and his work lacks finish; but he is capable of imitating with -some success any design shown to him. - -The life led by the Turkish tradespeople is extremely monotonous and -brightened by no intellectual pleasures. The shopkeeper, on leaving -his house at dawn, goes to the coffee-house, takes his small cup of -coffee, smokes his pipe, chats with the _habitués_ of the place, and -then proceeds to his business, which is carried on with Oriental languor -throughout the day. At sunset he again resorts to the coffee-house to -take the same refreshment and enjoy the innovation of having a newspaper -read to him—a novelty now much appreciated by the lower classes. He then -returns to the bosom of his family in time for the evening meal. His -home is clean though very simple; his wife and daughters are ignorant -and never taught a trade by which they might earn anything. Embroidery, -indispensable in a number of useless articles that serve to figure in -the _trousseau_ of every Turkish girl, and latterly coarse needle and -crochet work, fill up part of the time, while the mothers attend to their -household affairs. The young children are sent to the elementary school, -and the boys either go to school or are apprenticed to some trade. - -A considerable proportion of the Turks belong to the army. The officers, -however, unlike those of their class in Europe, do not enjoy the prestige -or rank to which the merits of the profession entitle them. It follows -that the individuality of the officer is not taken into account: if he -possesses any special ability, it is overlooked so long as superiority of -rank does not enforce it and obtain for him proper respect from soldiers -and civilians. A Turkish captain does not receive much more consideration -from his senior officer than does a common private; and in a moment of -anger his colonel or general may strike and use foul and abusive language -to him: a major is barely secure from such treatment. There are certainly -men of merit and education among the officers of the Turkish army, -whose behavior, like that of the soldiers, is much praised by those who -have had the opportunity of seeing the admirable manner in which they -conducted themselves in the late war. Unfortunately it is principally in -individual cases that this can be admitted, and it can by no means apply -to the whole body of officers. - -When not in active service Turkish officers generally have their wives -and families in the towns in which they are stationed. The pay of an -officer under the rank of a general is very inadequate and is irregularly -received—a fact sadly evident in their neglected and disordered -appearance. With boots down at heel and coats minus half the buttons, -they may often be seen purchasing their own food in the market and -carrying it home in their hands. - -The young officers who have pursued their studies in the military schools -present a marked contrast to these. They are well dressed and have an -air of smartness, and in military science they are said to be far more -advanced than those who have preceded them. The training they receive, -however, is by no means a perfect one, and much will be needed before the -Turkish officer can rise to a level with the European. - -Their wives are women from the towns; as they generally follow their -husbands to the different stations allotted to them, they obtain some -knowledge of the world by travelling in various parts of the country, and -are conversable and pleasant to associate with. - -The sons of all good and wealthy families in the capital are either -placed in the military schools or sent to the _Kalem_ (Chancellerie -d’État), where the majority of the upper class Turkish youth are -initiated into official routine and receive different grades as they -proceed, the highest rank accorded corresponding with that of _Serik_ -(general of division). The officials who pass through this school are -generally more polished in manner, more liberal in their ideas, and -superior in many respects to the mean creatures who in former times were -intrusted with offices for which they were quite unfit. This practice of -appointing _Chiboukjis_ (pipe-bearers) and other persons of low origin -as _Mudirs_ (governors of large villages) and _Kaimakams_ (governors of -districts), is now less in force, and is limited to Governors-general, -who sometimes send their servants to occupy these positions. A Mudir -may become a Kaimakam, and a Kaimakam a Pasha, but the top ranks can be -obtained without passing through the lower grades. The inferior official -placed over each village is the _Mukhtar_. He may be Christian or Moslem, -according to the population; in mixed villages two are generally chosen -to represent the respective creeds. These functionaries are intrusted -with the administration of the village; they collect the taxes, and -adjust the differences that arise among the peasants. They are too -insignificant to do much good or much harm, unless they are very vicious. -The Mudirs are at the head of the administration of their villages and -of the medjliss or council, in which members chosen by the people take -part. _Mutessarifs_ are sub-governors of _Kazas_ or large districts, and -_Valis_, Governors-general of vilayets. - -All this body of officials, together with the _Defterdars_ (treasurers), -_Mektebjis_ (secretaries of the Pashalik), _politico memours_ (political -agents), etc., taken as a whole, are seldom fitted for their posts: they -are ignorant and unscrupulous and much more bent upon securing their -personal interests than the welfare of their country. - -It must, however, in justice be said that, owing to the large sums the -higher officials have to disburse in order to obtain their appointments, -the great expense entailed in frequently moving themselves and their -families from one extremity of the empire to the other, and the irregular -and meagre pay the minor officials receive, it is impossible for them to -live without resorting to some illicit means of increasing their incomes. -And it must be admitted that praiseworthy exceptions are to be found here -and there among both the higher and the lower officials. - -The case is very simple. A man has to pay a vast sum of money to various -influential people in order to get a certain post. His pay is nothing -much to speak of. He is liable to be ejected by some one’s caprice at any -moment. If he is to repay his “election expenses” and collect a small -reserve fund, he must give up all idea of honesty. An honest official in -Turkey means a bankrupt. Under the system of favoritism and bribery no -course but that of corruption and extortion is open to the official. _Il -faut bien vivre_; and so long as the old system exists one must do in -Turkey as the rest of the Turks do. It is utterly corrupt; but it must be -reformed from the top downwards. - -People in the East never think of asking what was the origin of pashas or -in what manner they have attained their high station. Genealogical trees -in Turkey are not cultivated; most of the old stems (as explained in Part -II., Chap. I.) were uprooted at the beginning of the present century; -their branches, lopped off and scattered in all directions, have in some -instances taken fresh root and started into a new existence; but they no -longer represent the strength of the ancient trunk. The important body -of beys, pashas, etc., thus abolished, had to be replaced by a new body -selected without much scrutiny from the crowd of adventurers who were -always awaiting some turn of fortune whereby they might be put into some -official position and mend their finances. - -Yusbashi A., one of the chief leaders of the Bashi-Bazouks, who performed -the work of destruction at the beginning of the Bulgarian troubles, -was subsequently sent to Constantinople by the military authorities to -be hung; but being reprieved and pardoned, he was promoted to the rank -of Pasha. He had come, when a boy, to the town of T⸺ as an apprentice -in a miserable barber’s shop; later on he left his master and entered -the service of a native bey. During the Crimean war he joined the -Bashi-Bazouks, and when peace was made returned to the town with the rank -of captain and a certain amount of money, which he invested in land. By -extortion and oppression of every kind exercised upon his peasants, he -soon became a person of consequence in the town. Later on this man found -his way to the Konak, was appointed member of the council, and was placed -upon some commission by which he was enabled, through a series of illegal -proceedings, to double and triple his fortune at the expense of the -Government revenues. The misdeeds of this man and some of his associates -becoming too flagrant to be longer overlooked, the Porte sent a -commission to examine the Government _defters_ or accounts. The captain, -by no means frightened, but determined to avoid further trouble in the -matter, is said to have set fire to the Konak in several places, so that -all the documents that would have compromised him were destroyed and the -Pasha and commission who came to inspect his doings barely escaped with -their lives. Knowing the desperate character of the man they had to deal -with, they were alarmed, and unfeignedly glad to get away and hush the -matter up. - -Thus the illustrious line of Pashas and Grand Vizirs, like the Kiprilis, -was put aside and replaced by a long list of nonentities who, with the -exception of a few such as Ali and Fuad Pashas, cannot be said to have -benefited their country in any remarkable degree, or to have shown any -special qualifications as statesmen. - -The title of Grand Vizir, now nominally abolished, was one of the oldest -and the highest given to a civil functionary. His appointment, being -of a temporal nature, depended entirely upon the will of the Sultan, -who might at his pleasure load the Vizir with honors, or relieve him -of his head. This unpleasant uncertainty as to the future attached -to the Vizir’s office gradually almost disappeared as the Sultans -began to recognize the indispensable services rendered to them by -an able Grand Vizir. They began to appreciate the comfort of having -ministers to think for them, make laws, and scheme reforms in their -name; and this confidence, so agreeable to an indolent Sultan, and -so convenient to an irresponsible minister, was the ruling principle -of the constitution during the reign of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, who -was affable to his ministers, changed them less frequently than his -ancestors did, and loaded them indiscriminately with decorations -and gifts. Not so his wayward and capricious brother and successor -Abdul-Aziz, who scrupled not, on the slightest pretext, to dismiss his -Grand Vizir. A trifling change in his personal appearance, a divergence -of opinion, timidly expressed by the humble minister—who stood with -hands crossed, dervish-fashion, on his shoulders, in the attitude of an -obedient slave—just as much as a more serious fault, such as casting -difficulties in the way of his Imperial Majesty with regard to his -exorbitant demands on the treasury, were sufficient to seal the fate of -the daring _Sadrazam_. But in spite of the difficulties and drawbacks -and humiliations of the post, a Grand Vizir continued to be, after the -Sultan, the most influential person in the country. The gates of his -Konak were at once thrown open, and the other ministers and functionaries -flocked to pay their respects to him. The governors of districts -telegraphed their felicitations, while the ante-chamber and courts of his -house and office were rarely free from the presence of a regular army of -office-hunters, petitioners, dervishes, old women, and beggars, waiting -for an audience or a chance glimpse of the minister on his exit, when -each individual pressed forward to bring his or her claim to his notice. -_Pek aye, bakalum olour_,[3] were the words that generally dropped from -the mouths even of the least amiable Vizirs on such occasions—words of -hope that were eagerly caught by the interested parties, as well as by -the numerous _cortége_ of _kyatibs_, servants, and favorites of the -great man who, according to the importance of the affairs or the station -of the applicant, willingly undertook to be the advocate of the cause, -guaranteeing its success by the counter-guarantee of receiving the -_rushvets_ or bribes needed in all stages of the affair. This method of -transacting business, very general in Turkey, is called _hatir_, or by -favor; its extent is unlimited, and its application varied and undefined; -it can pardon the crime of murder, imprison an innocent person, liberate -a condemned criminal, take away the property of one minister to present -it to another, remove governors from their posts just as you change -places in a quadrille, or simply turn out one set, as in the cotillon, -to make room for another. Anything and everything can in fact be brought -about by this system, except a divorce when the plea is not brought by -the husband. - -I have particularized the Grand Vizir as doing business in this way -merely because it was he who was more appealed to in this manner than -the other ministers, not because the others do not follow closely -in his steps. Their duties are extensive and important, and demand -for their proper and exact performance not only intelligence, but -also high educational qualifications, which, with rare exceptions, -Turkish officials do not possess—a capital defect, which, added to the -uncertainty of the period they are likely to remain in office, and the -systematic practice, pursued by each successive minister, of trying to -undo what his predecessor had done for the country, and of dismissing -most of the civil officials and provincial governors to replace them by -some from his own set, greatly contributes to increase maladministration, -and to create the disorder that has long prevailed in Turkey. - -About honesty I need not speak, for no business of any kind is undertaken -without bribery; even if the minister should be above this, there are -plenty of people surrounding him who would not be so scrupulous. Kibrizli -Mehemet Pasha was one of the few high officials against whom no charge -of the kind could be brought, but his _Kavass-Bashi_ condescended to -take even so small a sum as five piastres as a bribe. This Pasha was a -thorough gentleman, high-minded both in his administrative affairs and -family life. After he lost his position as Grand Vizir, I had occasion -to see a great deal of him; he took the reverses of fortune with great -calmness and _sang-froid_; so do all Turks meet “the slings and arrows of -outrageous fortune.” - -The fall of a minister was generally rumored some time before it took -place, during which period he and those around him tried to make the -most of the opportunities left to them, while the opposition continued -their intrigues until the blow finally fell. When this happened the -_Sadrazam_ remained at home, the gates of his Konak were closed, and the -world, including his best friends, would pass without venturing to enter; -the only visitors would be his banker, doctor, and creditors, who in -prosperity and adversity never neglect this duty. - -During the administration of a Grand Vizir, his harem was also called -upon to play its part and take the lead in the female society of -Stamboul. The _salon_ of the chief wife, like that of her husband, -would be thrown open, and crowds of visitors, including the wives -of the other ministers, would arrive to offer their respects and -felicitations, and demand favors and promotions for their sons or posts -for their husbands. All these visitors, on their arrival, were ushered -into the ante-chamber according to their respective stations, where -they took off their _feridjés_ and refreshed themselves with sweets, -coffee, sherbets, etc. The interval between this and their reception, -sometimes of several hours’ duration, was spent in conversation among -the visitors, in which some of the ladies of the household, or some -visitors staying in the house, would join, until they were requested -to proceed to the drawing-room. When the hostess appeared all would -rise from their seats, walk towards the door, make _temenlas_ and deep -obeisances, and endeavor to kiss her foot or the hem of her garment, -an act of homage which she would accept, but gracefully and with much -dignity try to prevent in those of high rank by saying _Istafourla_ -(Excuse me—don’t do it). The conversation, started afresh, would depend -for subjects upon the disposition and tact of the mistress of the house; -but would chiefly consist in flattery and adulation, carried sometimes -to a ridiculous extent. The manner of the _hanoum effendi_ would be -smooth and friendly towards the partisans of her husband, curt towards -those of the opposition, but patronizing and protecting in its general -tone towards all. Should the Vizir’s lady be of the unprincipled type, -the conversation would bear a different _cachet_. I was told by some -distinguished Turkish ladies that when they paid a visit to the wife of a -short-lived Vizir, the lady, both old and ugly, entertained them with a -recital of the follies and weaknesses of her husband and exposed some of -her own not more select proceedings into the bargain. - -The wife of a Grand Vizir also played a great part with regard to the -changes, appointments, and dismissions which followed each new Vizirate, -by the influence she exercised both over him and also in high quarters, -where she often found means to make herself as influential as at home. - -I have often been asked what a Turkish lady does all day long? Does -she sleep or eat sugar-plums, and is she kept under lock and key by a -Blue-Beard of a husband, who allows her only the liberty of waiting upon -him? A Turkish lady is certainly shut up in a harem, and there can be no -doubt that she is at liberty to indulge in the above-mentioned luxuries, -should she feel so disposed; she has possibly, at times, to submit to -being locked up, but the key is applied to the outer gates, and is left -in the keeping of the friendly eunuch. Besides, woman is said to have a -will of her own, and “where there is a will there is a way” is a proverb -to which Turkish ladies are no strangers. I have seldom met with one who -did not make use of her liberty; in one sense she may not have so much -freedom as Englishwomen have, but in many others she possesses more. -In her home she is perfect mistress of her time and of her property, -which she can dispose of as she thinks proper. Should she have cause of -complaint against any one, she is allowed to be very open spoken, holds -her ground, and fights her own battles with astonishing coolness and -decision. - -Turkish ladies appreciate to the full as much as their husbands the -virtues of the indispensable cup of coffee and cigarette; this is their -first item in the day’s programme. The _hanoums_ may next take a bath; -the young ladies wash at the _abtest_ hours; the slaves when they can -find time. The _hanoum_ will then attend to her husband’s wants, bring -him his pipe and coffee, his slippers and pelisse. While smoking he will -sit on the sofa, whilst his wife occupies a lower position near him, and -the slaves roll up the bedding from the floor. If the gentleman be a -government functionary the official bag will be brought in, and he will -look over his documents, examining some, affixing his seal to others, -saying a few words in the intervals to his wife, who always addresses -him in a ceremonious manner with great deference and respect. The -children will then trot in in their _gedjliks_ with the hair uncombed, -to be caressed, and ask for money with which to buy sweets and cakes. -The custom of giving pence to children daily is so prevalent that it is -practised even by the poor. - -The children, after an irregular breakfast, are sent to school or -allowed to roam about the house; the _effendi_ proceeds to perform his -out-of-door toilet and leaves the _haremlik_, when the female portion of -the establishment, freed from the pleasure or obligation of attending to -his wants, begin the day’s occupation. If this should include any special -or unusual household work, such as preserve-making, washing or ironing, -or general house-cleaning, the lady, be she of the highest position, will -take part in it with the slaves. This is certainly not necessary, for -she has plenty of menials, but is done in order to fill up the day, many -hours of which necessarily hang heavily on her hands when not enlivened -by visiting or being visited. In the capital, however, less of this kind -of employment is indulged in by the fashionable _hanoums_, who are trying -to create a taste for European occupations by learning music, foreign -languages, and fine needlework. The time for dressing is irregular. A -lady may think proper to do her hair and make herself tidy for luncheon, -or she may remain in her _gedjlik_ and slippers all day. This fashion of -receiving visitors _en négligé_ is not considered at all peculiar unless -the visit has been announced beforehand. - -Visiting and promenading, the principal amusements of Turkish ladies, -are both affairs of very great importance. Permission has previously to -be asked from the husband, who, if liberally disposed, freely grants -it; but if jealous and strict, he will disapprove of seeing his family -often out of doors. When a walk or drive is projected the children all -begin to clamor to go with their mother. Scarcely is this question -settled by coaxing or giving them money, than another arises as to which -of the slaves are to be allowed to go. Tears, prayers, and even little -quarrels and disturbances follow, until the mistress finally selects her -party. The details of the toilette are very numerous; the face has to -be blanched, then rouged, the eyebrows and lashes to be blackened with -_surmé_, and a variety of other little coquetries resorted to requiring -time and patience before the final adjustment of the _yashmak_ and -_feridgé_. - -Then comes the scramble for places in the carriage, the _hanoums_ -naturally seat themselves first, the rest squeeze themselves in, and sit -upon each other’s knees. It is wonderful to see how well they manage this -close packing, and how long they can endure the uncomfortable postures in -which they are fixed. - -If the excursion is solely for visiting, the occupants of the carriages -make the best of the time and liberty by coquetting with the grooms and -_agas_ in attendance, should these be young and handsome, and sending -salaams to the passers-by, mingled with laughter and frolic. But when the -excursion has a picnic in prospective, or a long drive into the country, -the gayety and fun indulged in is bewildering; and the _hanoums_ can -only be compared to a flock of strange birds suddenly let loose from -their cages, not knowing what to make of their new freedom. Flirting, -smoking, eating fruits and sweets, walking about, running, or lounging -on the carpets they bring with them, varied by music and singing, fill -the day. They usually set out early and return before sunset in time -to receive their master on his visit to the harem before dinner. When -this meal is over, the company, comfortably dressed in their _négligé_ -costume, indulge in coffee and cigarettes, and the events of the day are -discussed. The ladies then retire to rest at an early hour, and rise the -next day to go through the same routine. - -At the foot of the imperial throne we see the princes, who, like children -at dessert, are to be seen, not heard. They now enjoy a degree of freedom -before unknown, and their wants and caprices are to a certain extent -satisfied by allowances from the Sultan. In childhood and youth they are -masters of their own time, and employ it as they please. On emerging -from boyhood they are furnished with harems; some more distantly related -to the reigning Sultan are allowed to have children; but the others -are denied that privilege. All these members of the imperial family -live a very secluded life. They are not allowed to take any part in the -administrative, hold commissions in the army or navy, or enter the civil -service. The only exception to this rule was the son of the late Sultan -Abdul-Aziz, who, at the age of ten, was, I believe, a captain in the -army, and a few years later was made a general. This is said to have -given the occasion for a reproach made to the prince by his father, who -at the moment of his deposition turned to him and said, “My son, I placed -you in the military school where you remained three years without making -a single friend; see what this has now led to!” - -This reproach of being friendless addressed to any of the princes is -unjust, as they are not allowed to make friendships. Friends for a prince -mean a party, and a party means cabals and conspiracies, so all such -dangerous connections are carefully suppressed, and the prince, under the -influence of the suspicion and espionage by which he is surrounded, is as -little disposed to have any friends among the influential classes and men -of rank as they are to court his friendship or approach him too closely. -A personal friend of the ex-Sultan Murad told me that in early youth that -prince and he had been very much thrown together, and a sincere affection -had sprung up between them, which, however, on Sultan Abdul-Medjid’s -death, had to be entirely given up. Rare meetings between them could only -be arranged when the prince went to Pera on shopping expeditions. Thus -the Ottoman princes, spoilt in childhood, secluded from active public -life, are left to vegetate in their respective homes. - -The Princes of the Blood and all relations of the late Sultan used always -to be cleared out of the way on the accession of a new Padishah; but the -custom has fallen into disuse since the time of Mahmoud II., who found it -necessary to order the strangulation of the deposed Sultan, the drowning -in sacks of 174 of his wives and odalisks, and also the decapitation of a -great number of other persons. This measure, considered needful to insure -the inviolability of his person, as the only remaining representative of -the house of Othman, soon put an end to the rebellion that had occasioned -his ascension to the throne. On the day of his proclamation as Sultan, -thirty-three heads were exposed at the gate of the Seraglio to bear -evidence to the fact. Rebellion, fire, and murder, it was said, could not -be otherwise put down than by counter-violence, and the extreme measures -adopted by the new sovereign ended in the restoration of order in the -capital. - -Notwithstanding this black page in the history of Mahmoud, this Sultan, -to whom history has not yet done justice, was one of the best, most -enlightened, and powerful of Ottoman sovereigns. - -Unlike most of his predecessors, he had not wasted the long years of -captivity in idleness and frivolous occupations, but had seriously -employed them in study. He originated the material changes that have -since been made in the life of seraglio inmates, and also endeavored to -better the condition of his Christian subjects. Whatever progress has -been made by the Turkish Mohammedans in the road of civilization must -also be attributed to his efforts. Amid wars without and revolts within, -the discontent of the Moslems at the attempted innovations, the clamoring -of the Christians for the amelioration of their condition, the Sultan -struggled on for thirty years with a perseverance worthy of the cause, -till death put an end to his work. He was succeeded by his son, the -liberal but weak-minded Abdul-Medjid. - -The young Sultan was well imbued with the ideas of his father, but less -capable of carrying them out; yet he showed himself liberal and sincerely -desirous of improving the degraded condition into which the country had -fallen. - -The security of life and property became greater under his rule. -Executions and confiscation of property became less frequent, and a -general change for the better in the material existence of the people -was decreed; but unfortunately the Sultan could not insure the carrying -out of his decrees. The exchequer, impoverished by the extravagance of -the palace and the corruption of the officials, was on the brink of -bankruptcy, which was only postponed by the foreign loans obtained in the -succeeding reign. - -Had the Sultan’s perseverance in seeing these changes enforced been equal -to his good-will in ordaining them, Turkey might have been spared many of -its present miseries. - -He was beloved by his subjects, who, in the midst of their misery, -forgave his weakness in remembering his gentleness and benevolence to -those who appealed to his mercy. His aversion to bloodshed was so great -that he was never known to decree a single execution. This was, of -course, a serious hindrance to carrying on the judicial arrangements -of the country. In cases of urgent necessity his signature had to be -obtained by subterfuge. - -A lover of pleasure and ease, Abdul-Medjid, on coming to the throne, soon -plunged into that life of self-indulgence, luxury, and excess, which at -once began to tell upon his delicate constitution and by degrees affected -in a most fatal manner his moral and physical faculties; and he died of -exhaustion on June 25th, 1861. - -His successor, Abdul-Aziz, had been the first to profit by the indulgence -and liberality of his brother, who from the beginning to the end of his -reign showed him genuine brotherly affection, allowed him uncontrolled -freedom as heir-apparent, and furnished him with a very liberal income, -making a point of never getting any object of value for himself, without -offering its equivalent to his brother. - -Abdul-Aziz, however, did not make any good use of the liberty he enjoyed -before coming to the throne. Sensual, extravagant, and narrow-minded, -his occupations and pleasures were anything but imperial: his wasteful -habits were ruinous to his country, whilst his want of judgment and -foresight prevented his realizing the fatal effects of his conduct. -This may, however, be accounted for, to a great extent, by the fact -that he was subject at times to _merak_ (aberration of mind). From an -early age he began to give signs of that whimsical, suspicious, and -morose disposition which during the latter part of his reign became the -principal characteristic of his nature. - -Unlike his brother, Abdul-Medjid, he was strongly built, and his personal -appearance was singularly unattractive. His tastes and amusements, very -much in harmony with his exterior, showed themselves in all kinds of -extravagant and odd fancies. Cock-fighting was a spectacle in which he -greatly delighted, by turns decorating or exiling the combatants. - -In his moments of good-humor he often imposed a wrestling match upon his -ministers and favorites, at times taking an active part in the sport. The -celebrated Nevrez Pasha, half knave, half fool, who from the lowest stage -of seraglio functions had been raised to a ministerial position, was the -one generally chosen by the Sultan with whom to measure his strength. - -The corpulent Pasha never failed to be the beaten party; the ludicrous -attitudes into which he fell and his jokes gave him a higher grade -whenever they were called into play, and caused him to say that every -kick he received from the imperial foot was worth to him a _Nishan_ (a -decoration), a konak, or a vizirlik. - -It would, however, be unfair not to acknowledge in this Sultan some good -services rendered to his country. - -One of these is the purchase of the fine fleet of iron-clads the Porte -now possesses; another, his untiring efforts in placing the army on the, -comparatively speaking, improved and high footing on which it stood at -the beginning of the war; and a third, the construction of the railways -now existing in the country. Some will perhaps reckon among his merits -the shrewdness he and his ministers displayed in accomplishing these -undertakings with funds that were not exactly theirs. - -The details of the dethronement, short captivity and death of Sultan -Abdul-Aziz, though extremely curious and interesting, are as yet but -little known to the public. One of the ladies of his seraglio related -some of the incidents connected with these events to me, but she said, -“We cannot now divulge all, for fear of prejudicing the living, but -in course of time, when history reveals unknown facts, all doubts and -mystery on his untimely death will be removed.” Upon which she burst into -tears, and repeatedly uttered the Turkish exclamation of distress, “Aman! -Aman!” - -She then recited to me in Arabic the verse which the unfortunate Sultan, -on entering his prison, traced on the dust that covered the table. The -following is a translation:— - - Man’s destiny is Allah’s will, - Sceptres and power are His alone, - My fate is written on my brow, - Lowly I bend before His Throne. - -Turning towards the window the Sultan noticed that one of his much-prized -iron-clads had been placed in front of the _Yahli_ which served as his -prison, with the guns pointed towards him. But a still more appalling -sight met his gaze. A sailor was seized by a few of his comrades, who, -pointing him out to the Sultan, passed a crimson _kushak_ or girdle -round his neck and led him three times round the deck, signifying to -the unfortunate captive that in three days he would undergo the same -operation. Pointing this out to the Validé Sultana, he exclaimed, -with emotion, “Mother! see to what use the force I have created for -the preservation and aggrandizement of my empire is applied! This is -evidently the death reserved for me.” A belt containing some of the most -valuable crown-jewels, which the Sultan had placed on his person when -leaving the palace, disappeared the day he was found dead, and has never -since been heard of. The Sultan had to ask for food repeatedly before he -was supplied with it, and even then what he obtained was given him on the -_sofra_ of a common soldier. On my further questioning this lady on the -cause of the Sultan’s untimely end, she passed her hand over her lips, -meaning they were sealed, and muttering a “_Turbé Istafourla_,” said, “It -is not in my power to reveal more!—the justification of the dead must be -withheld so long as it endangers the living. The duty of the devoted is -to keep silence until history can divulge secrets that will then harm -none.” - -Soon after the death of Abdul-Aziz, I had occasion to discuss it with a -Turkish general. Expressing his opinion of the equally unfortunate Sultan -Murad, the Pasha, with smiling urbanity, said, “I cannot tell as yet; but -with us, Sultans are now so numerous, that we can afford to sweep them -away successively with a broom, if they do not suit us.” - -Every one is acquainted with the quiet and peaceable manner in which -Sultan Abdul-Aziz was dethroned in 1876, to make room for his nephew -Murad. This unfortunate prince was as little acquainted with the changes -that were being planned as was his uncle, and his sensitive nature, -unprepared for the shock that placed him on the throne, caused him -to receive the messenger who came to inform him of the change in his -position more as the bearer of his sentence to death than the herald of -sovereignty. Taken by surprise at the moment he was about to retire, -the prince hastily put on his coat and met the vizir at the door of the -Mabeyn. Deathly pale, but calm and resigned, he looked in his face, and -said, “What is my offence, and whom have I ever harmed that I should thus -be doomed to an untimely death?” - -Entirely ignorant of the conspiracy that opened a path for him to the -throne, and severely grieved for his uncle’s misfortunes, the news of -his tragical end is said to have given the first shock to the young -sovereign’s intellect, and, followed by the murder of the ministers, with -its equally distressing details, determined the bent of his vacillating -mind. One of the first symptoms of his insanity was a habit he fell -into of spanning with his hand the distance between the wrist and elbow -joint, striking the bend of the arm with his hand, then starting, and -reflecting. I have never heard of his having broken out into acts of -violence, except upon one occasion, when he raised a stick and struck -his brother-in-law. On one occasion he made his escape into the garden, -where he was found sitting on a marble slab, making grimaces at those -who approached him. He is said to have experienced some lucid intervals; -one of these chanced to be at the moment the salutes were being fired -on the occasion of his brother Abdul-Hamid’s ascension to the throne. -Looking at his son, a promising youth of fourteen, he said, “My boy, what -is the reason of this firing?” “Oh!” said the boy, wishing to spare his -father’s feelings, “it is the fête of a foreign monarch.” “No,” said the -unhappy monarch, “it is the proclamation of my own dethronement, and the -accession of thy uncle to the throne; God’s will be done!” Heaving a deep -sigh, he shed a few tears, and, happily for him, under the circumstances, -relapsed into his former state. - -Sultan Murad was said to possess many of the virtues of his father, a -kind and gentle disposition, and intelligence and liberality of ideas. -During his short reign, the affability of his manners, and the desire -he showed to please all parties, irrespective of race or religion, and -to abolish the burdens that weighed upon them, had gained for him the -respect and affection of his subjects, which is evinced even to the -present day by sorrow and sympathy for his misfortunes. - -The present Sultan at first declined the imperial throne, from feelings -of affection and delicacy towards his brother, and could only be -prevailed upon to accept it when all the physicians, called in for -advice, pronounced Murad’s case quite hopeless. Sultan Abdul-Hamid is -much esteemed and highly spoken of by persons who have had the honor -of conversing with his Imperial Majesty. He is, moreover, said to be -qualified for his position, being liberal in his ideas, and possessed -of many of the qualities of a good sovereign, and desirous of carrying -out the reforms that alone can insure the happiness of his people and -restore prosperity to the country. Unfortunately, he came to the throne -at a moment when the best and most gifted of sovereigns could do little -single-handed. When affairs are settled, much will naturally be expected -from him, which his friends and the well-wishers of Turkey feel confident -he will realize. - -I have not yet mentioned an important section of the Turkish -community—the slaves. Slavery in Turkey is now reduced mainly to one -sex. Male slaves, except in the capacity of eunuchs, are now rare, -though every now and then a cargo of them is smuggled into some port -and privately disposed of, since the Government professes to share the -anti-slavery views of England. But female slavery is a necessary part of -the seraglio and of the Turkish harem system. The seraglio is of course -recruited from its numbers; and few Turks can afford to keep more than -one free wife. A second wife insists upon a separate establishment, and -causes endless jealousy to the first wife and trouble to the husband. -But a slave is no cause of jealousy, lives in the same house as the -wife, and costs much less to keep than a free woman. Female slaves, -too, are generally given by fathers to their sons, to avoid the expense -of a marriage; and daughters, on marrying, are always supplied with a -slave as lady’s-maid. Moreover, slaves are in much request as servants, -and do their work excellently, besides presenting many advantages and -conveniences that are not found in free women. - -The condition of slaves in Turkey is not a hard one. The principle is of -course radically wrong, and the initial stage is full of cruelty. But the -women are not often ill-treated; and when an occasional case of violence -and ill-usage occurs, it excites general indignation among the Moslems. -A slave is entitled to her liberty after seven years of bondage, and -she generally gets it, and is dowered and married to a freeman, though -sometimes a bad master will evade the law by selling her before the seven -years have quite expired. But this is a rare case, and the slave system -in Turkey is, as a whole, a widely different thing from American slavery. - -The only class who suffer much are the negresses. When they are freed -and married off it not seldom happens that from their native wildness -or other causes they quarrel with their husbands and are turned off to -earn their own living as best they may. Their condition then becomes very -wretched, and the quarter in which they live is a dismal group of rickety -houses, inhabited by a miserable and ragged set of women and children. -This is by no means the case with the Abyssinians or the half-castes, -who rank higher, and never have to appeal to public charity. But the -negresses are hardly worse off than the disabled slaves. If a woman of -this class by some accident or age becomes unfit for work, she is looked -upon as a burden and very badly cared for. - -Turkish slavery is not so bad as it might be: the system is softened by -many humane laws, and is marked by a kindly paternal character. Yet it is -a blot on the country, and so soon as the harem system and polygamy can -be got rid of, it too must go. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE ARMENIANS AND JEWS IN TURKEY. - - Historical Misfortunes of the Armenians—Refugees in - Turkey, Russia, Persia—Want of Patriotism—Appearance and - Character—Armenian Ladies—American Mission Work—Schools—The - Jews of Turkey—Reputed Origin—Classes—Conservatives and - Progressives—Jewish Trade—Prejudice against Jews—Alliance with - Moslems—Wealth and Indigence—Cause of the Latter—The Jewish - Quarter—Education—“L’Alliance Israélite”—Divorce among the Jews - merely a Question of the Highest Bidder. - - -There are few nations that can compete with the Armenians in historical -misery. Tossed about between Arsacid, Roman, and Sassanian; fought over -by Persian and Byzantine; a common prey to Arabs, Mongols, and Turk, it -is a matter for amazement that the nation still exists at all. Up to the -fourteenth century the Armenians held persistently to their country; but -after its subjection by the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt, the unfortunate -inhabitants, seeing no hope of the restoration of their old independence, -and despairing of relief from the oppression and spoiling to which they -had been exposed for centuries, began to migrate to other countries, to -try whether fortune would everywhere be so unkind to them. Some went to -Anatolia, others to Egypt, or to Constantinople, where they were kindly -received and allowed a Patriarch. Some wandered into Poland, whence -they were soon driven out by the determined hostility of the Jesuits, -and forced to take refuge in Russia, where they were joined by numbers -of their compatriots and formed a colony at Grigoripol. Others went to -the Crimea and Astrachan, and many of the Armenians who had first gone -to Turkey followed in their steps. The Armenians in Russia were treated -with great kindness by Peter the Great and Catherine, and were granted -special rights and privileges. A colony of Armenians was settled at New -Nakhitchevan on the Don. After more persecutions from the Ottomans, -in the sixteenth century, a large number of Armenian refugees set out -for Persia. The Shah received them graciously, and settled them in -Ispahan. Afterwards, during the war between the Shah and the Sultan, a -depopulation of Armenia was attempted, with the view of destroying the -Turkish power there. Twelve thousand families were dragged off to Persia, -most of whom died on the way. The settlers at Ispahan were at first -treated well, but afterwards subjected to such persecution that they -were obliged to seek a home in other lands. The portion of Armenia ceded -by Persia to Russia, thus acquiring for the first time the necessary -conditions of peace and safety, became the refuge of the Armenians who -had not already left their native land, but who now, driven beyond -endurance by the oppressive rule of the Pashas, crossed the frontier and -immediately found themselves possessed of the ordinary privileges of -Russian subjects, and able to carry on commercial pursuits, in which the -nation excels, in peace and confidence. Thus the Armenian race became -scattered over the face of the earth, whilst only a remnant still lives -in the land of its ancestors. The Armenians are to be met with all over -the East. There are large numbers of them at Constantinople and a few -other towns, such as Adrianople, Gallipoli, and Rodosto. In the towns of -the interior, however, their number is small. - -Ages of Asiatic oppression, varied by few glimpses of prosperity, in -the traditional garden of Eden, have obliterated whatever love the -Armenians formerly had for their country, which they willingly deserted -to seek a home wherever they could find one. When the first cravings of -their hearts for peace and security had been satisfied, they settled -down in communities, forgot their country and its past history, and -assimilated their external forms and customs with those of the nations -among whom they lived, with the philosophic _nonchalance_ of the Asiatic. -In Armenia, the people who remain, remembering the terrible sufferings -their country has gone through, have followed the wise policy of burying -in the depths of their hearts any surviving sparks of patriotism or -love of liberty; though these hidden sparks may some day be fanned into -flame by the introduction of education and by the influence Russia is -exerting in the country. So far the Porte may felicitate itself on the -success its foreign policy has met with in Armenia. This policy, with its -consequences of misery and suffering, is safe only so long as ignorance -and stupid docility prevail among the masses; this cannot last forever, -and in the face of present events it will not be surprising to hear of -troubles breaking out in that direction as well as everywhere else. -It is only a question of time. In Turkey, political feeling among the -Armenians is still in its infancy; but there must be thinking men among -the educated young generation who are watchful of the present and hopeful -for the future. - -The Armenians as a race are strong, well built, and hardy. With these -constitutional advantages they readily take to the mechanical arts; -but commerce and banking are their _forte_, and in these they show -great ability and as much honesty as is possible in a country where, -of all difficulties, that of following a straight line of conduct is -the greatest. They are considered crafty, but at the same time exercise -considerable moral influence in the countries they inhabit, especially -at Constantinople, where some of the rich Armenians have been very -closely connected with the high dignities of the empire. Their fancy for -toad-eating is well adapted to please the Turks, who by turns show them -regard and contempt. There is an old saying, that no Turk can be happy in -the evening without having cracked a few jokes with an Armenian during -the day. - -The physiognomy of the Armenians is generally dark. Their heads are -large, with black, coarse, and abundant hair. Their eyes, overshadowed -by long eyelashes and thick eyebrows, meeting over the nose, are black -and almond-shaped, but lack the lustre of Greek eyes. The nose, the worst -feature of the Armenian face, is large and hooked; the mouth large, -with thick lips; the chin prominent. Their bearing would be dignified -but for a certain want of grace. Armenians are divided into two classes -denominated _Kalun_ and _Injé_, or coarse and refined. The latter belong -to the Roman Catholic creed, and are certainly more advanced than the -former, who are far more subservient to the Turks, and keep as much as -possible in the background, devoting themselves to the interests of the -Porte in general and to their own in particular. - -In Armenia the ladies are secluded to the extent of dining and sitting -apart from the men, and are said to be very backward in every respect. -Their costume very nearly resembles that formerly worn by Turkish -women. They display the same disregard to neatness as the latter, -without possessing their redeeming point of cleanliness: their heads -are specially neglected, and abound in live stock of a most migratory -character. My mother once pointed out one of these creatures on the -forehead of an Armenian girl, and reprimanded her for her neglect of her -person; the girl answered that she did not know that any human being -could exist without them! - -The Armenian ladies of Constantinople are renowned for their beauty, -which is supposed to lie particularly in the languid expression of their -eyes. Both in Constantinople and Smyrna there are many Armenians of -both sexes who are well educated, and scarcely to be distinguished from -Europeans in society. I was once invited to an Armenian fancy ball, where -I was the only European present. Everything was arranged as in civilized -society, the stewards were equal to their duties, and the costumes -were _recherchés_ and varied. One slight pretty girl, in particular, -dressed in the old Turkish costume, produced a great sensation, and was -deservingly besieged by partners, for she waltzed to perfection. Many -of the ladies and gentlemen spoke English, and nearly all French, and I -certainly spent a very pleasant evening among them. - -In the privacy of their homes the women, as a rule, are untidy and -slatternly. They are exceedingly fond of dress, and, to the best of -their ability, copy the Parisian fashions; but their natural want of -taste seldom fails to make itself evident in toilettes of glaring and -ill-assorted colors, while their hands, arms, and necks are overloaded -with jewelry. Out of doors they are shod with boots of Parisian -manufacture, on whose high heels they totter along the badly-paved -streets; but they exchange them for slippers down at heel on re-entering -their homes. Even those who have lived in Europe, and no longer consider -themselves Orientals, sit cross-legged on their sofas in the most -careless costumes. - -The Armenians have advanced but a very little way on the road of -education. The most enlightened are certainly those in British India, -whilst those of them who are Russian subjects have of late considerably -improved. Hitherto, the nation has never had a fair chance, but that -it has the possibility of progress in it is shown by the fact that no -sooner are the Armenians placed under a firm and wise government than -they at once begin to go forwards, in every respect. The progress of the -inhabitants of Russian Armenia has begun to work a political revival -among their brethren under Turkish rule. A wish for instruction is -everywhere beginning to be shown, and it has received a strong and most -salutary impulse from the numerous American missionaries now established -throughout Armenia. The untiring efforts of these praiseworthy and -accomplished workers in the cause of civilization and humanity are -beginning to bear fruit, especially since education has become one of -their principal objects. They are working wonders among the uncultivated -inhabitants of this hitherto unhappy country, where mission-schools, -founded in all directions, are doing the double service of instructing -the people by their enlightened moral and religious teaching, and of -stimulating among the wealthy a spirit of rivalry, which leads them to -see their own ignorance and superstitious debasement, and raises a desire -to do for themselves, by the establishment of Armenian schools, what -American philanthropy has so nobly begun to do for them. - -The moral influence that America is now exercising in the East through -the quiet but dignified and determined policy of its Legation at -Constantinople, curiously free from political intrigues and rivalry, -is daily increasing, and has the most salutary effect on the country. -It watches with a jealous care over the rights and safety of the -missionaries, who are loved and respected wherever they settle, and make -their influence felt in the remotest corners of Turkey. Next to Greece, -whose educational efforts are naturally greater throughout the country, -it is America that will be entitled to the gratitude of the Christians -for her ready aid in elevating the ignorant masses to the dignity of -civilized beings. - -In the Armenian schools, the Turkish, Armenian, and French languages -are taught; the two former are generally well mastered by the pupils, -Armenians being considered apt linguists; a very fair knowledge of French -is also common among them. - -Armenians do not show any taste for the arts and sciences. One seldom -hears of an Armenian artist, doctor, or lawyer, and the few that do exist -attain only mediocrity. - -It is difficult to obtain correct statistical information of native -Armenian schools, but I can affirm that of late years they have greatly -increased in number, and are much improved in their organization and -mode of teaching. At Constantinople, Erzeroum, and many other towns -where the Armenian communities are large, excellent schools for girls -have been founded. In towns where these are wanting, many girls are -sent for a few years to the boys’ schools, where religion, reading, and -writing are taught them. Turkish, the language with which the Armenians -are most conversant, is also taught from books written in the Armenian -characters. In all other respects, the education of Armenian girls is -very much neglected; from an early age they fall into a listless, aimless -existence, and are seldom taught to busy themselves with needlework -or any useful or rational employment. Some of the wealthy families at -Constantinople and Smyrna are manifesting a desire for improvement in -this respect, by engaging European governesses or sending their children -to European schools; but it will be long before either sex gets rid of -the ignorance and indolence which circumstances, perhaps, as much as -nature, have forced upon it. - -The Jews dwelling in Turkey are, to a great extent, descendants of -those expelled from Spain by the Inquisition and the edict of 1492; -their language is a corrupt Spanish dialect; but they are conversant -with those of the places they inhabit. Besides these and other native -Jews, there is an influential class of European Jews who are certainly -in the van of progress among their co-religionists in Turkey. They are -educated, liberal-minded men, and, as a rule, a prosperous class. They -are untiring in their efforts to develop education among the native Jews -by establishing schools, assisting the poor, and setting a good example -of conduct by their own higher manner of life. - -The native Jews may be divided into two classes, Conservative and -Progressive. The Conservative Jews are strict, rigid, and intolerant to -their brethren: they keep aloof from the rest of the world, and mix with -it only in business transactions. They are cunning and avaricious, and -although some possess large fortunes, they are seldom known to use them -for the benefit of the community, or for any other good purpose. Strongly -opposed to liberal education, the influence they exercise over their -respective communities is always employed to counteract the action of the -enlightened party. The Progressive Jews, who are becoming pretty numerous -among the upper classes, act in direct opposition to these principles and -endeavor as much as possible to shake off old customs and traditions. - -The chief occupations of the Jewish community are banking and commerce. -They excel in both to such a degree that where a man belonging to another -nationality can only realize a fair competence, the Israelite makes a -fortune; whilst in positions in which other men would starve, the Jew -will manage to keep himself and family in comfort. The secret of this -well-known fact lies in the unusual finesse and ability displayed by -Israelites occupying high positions in the business world, and the -cunning and ingenuity of the lower orders, who with moderate exertion -make the most of their trade, and extort all they can from those with -whom they have dealings. - -With regard to moral and personal qualifications, the Jews of Turkey -are the most backward and debased of any of the races. This degenerate -condition may be attributed to more than one cause. One of the chief -causes, however, is the general feeling of antipathy shown towards Jews -in a semi-civilized country: all kinds of real and fictitious sins are -attributed to them, from the charge of kidnapping children (an absurdity -still credited everywhere in Turkey) to the proverbial accusation -of never transacting business with members of other creeds without -infringing the laws of good faith and honesty. To apply this latter -charge to the whole community would be unjust, for there are honest, -liberal, and straightforward men; but there is no doubt the reputation is -not altogether ill-earned among them. - -The Jews in Turkey have from all times shown a greater liking for their -Moslem neighbors than for the Christians. The Moslems sneer at them -and treat them with disrespect as a nation, but are far more tolerant -and lenient towards them than towards the Christians. The Jews, on -their side, although at heart feeling no disposition to respect their -Mohammedan masters, show great sympathy outwardly for them; and in case -of a dispute between Christians and Mohammedans, unanimously espouse the -cause of the latter. The wealthy Israelites would render every assistance -in their power to remove the difficulties of the Government, while those -of humbler standing tender their service for the performance of anything -that may be required of them, however degrading. - -In few countries is the contrast of wealth and indigence among the Jews -so striking as in Turkey. On one side may be seen wealth so great as -to command respect for its possessors, and give them an influence in -the localities in which they spring up greater than that of all other -nationalities; whilst hard by one sees poverty and wretchedness of the -most sickening nature. The principal cause of this is the limited sphere -of action allotted to, or rather adopted by, the Jewish communities. -They evince a strong repugnance to going beyond the few trades generally -practised by the laboring classes; the rest content themselves with -performing the coarsest and dirtiest work of the town. From generation -to generation the Jews will cling to these callings without allowing -themselves to be tempted beyond them, or raising themselves in the social -scale by taking to agricultural or other pursuits that might insure them -a comfortable home and an honorable living. - -In towns where the Jewish element predominates, it is packed in dingy, -crowded quarters, in hovels, buried in filth. These miserable abodes -contrast strongly with the fine and showy houses of the rich. Both -rich and poor of the native Jews may be seen in their court-yards or -at their doors, the mother rocking the cradle, the children playing in -the mud, and the women and girls washing or engaged in other household -occupations. The men on coming home don their _négligé_ in-door costume -and join the family party, lounging on a sofa, smoking and chatting. This -community is very noisy, the most natural conversation among them being -carried on in the loud tones of lively dispute, all talking at once in -such an elevated key as to be heard at a considerable distance. - -They are certainly lively and cheerful, neither want nor poverty -detaining them at recreation-time from listening to their discordant -national music, which they accompany by a vocal performance of a -deafening nature. - -Some of the women are very pretty, and their beauty is heightened by -their peculiar costume and gay head-dress. They are, however, cold and -rather graceless in demeanor, and are not noted for intelligence. - -Education among the native Jews was completely neglected until very -recently, when the efforts of the European Jews and a few of the liberal -natives finally produced a beneficial reaction, and schools of a superior -order, principally dependencies of “L’Alliance Israélite” formed in -Europe for the benefit of the Eastern Jews, have been established in all -the principal towns, and are said to have greatly benefited the rising -generation, which is wanting neither in intelligence nor aptitude for -study. Before the establishment of these schools the Jews had to send -their children to European or Greek schools, where they received an -indifferent style of education, as the training, owing to the difference -of religion and habits, did not include the complete course. - -The director of the schools established by “L’Alliance Israélite” gave me -most satisfactory accounts of the progress made by the pupils attending -them, and of the increase of morality among them. The Jewish girls -have not equal advantages with the boys with respect to educational -establishments. This unfortunate difference will, it is hoped, be in time -remedied by the schools, founded by the same society and others, in the -principal towns. All these schools owe their origin to the generosity -of wealthy Israelites like Baron Hirsh and others, who have endowed the -establishments with the funds necessary for rendering them useful and of -lasting duration. In Salonika the girls’ school, established some years -ago, has, thanks to the able management and munificence of the Messrs. -Allatini, been placed upon an excellent footing, and, being presided over -by the most intelligent and gifted European ladies of the community, is -doing great and good service. - -Besides these schools, there is one of older standing connected with the -Missionary Society, under the direction of a missionary and three able -and devoted Scottish ladies, who receive a large class of day pupils and -give them the benefit of sound education for a trifling fee. This part -of missionary work is in reality the best and most beneficial to the -community, and far more so than the efforts made at proselytism—efforts -which, so far as I can ascertain, have nowhere met with success. - -Polygamy is prohibited among the Jews; but their divorce laws are very -lenient; and a separation is the easiest thing in the world—for the -husband. A wife cannot get a separation without her husband’s consent. -Practically, however, this is seldom refused if a sum of money is -offered. A gentleman, aware of this Jewish weakness, and falling in love -with a Syrian beauty who was married to a Jew, bought her divorce for -2,000_l._ In some towns the morality of the community is closely watched. -In Adrianople, for instance, a faithless wife is led for three successive -days round the Jewish quarter, and compelled to stop before every door to -be spat upon and abused. At Salonika, where the Jews are very numerous, -it is quite otherwise. Among the wealthy and liberal many of the old -customs have been set aside, intermarriage with European Jewish families -is of frequent occurrence, and many modifications permitted which do not -seem strictly conformed to the Mosaic law. - -The affairs of the Jewish communities, like those of the Christians, are -managed by elders. The chief Rabbi has control over all matters regarding -the religious and social interests, and is in direct communication with -his superior at Constantinople. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE CIRCASSIANS, TATARS, AND GYPSIES OF TURKEY. - - _The Circassians._—Their Immigration into Turkey - in 1864—Their Camp—Chiefs and Slaves—Origin of - the Charge of Cannibalism—Assistance of the - Government and the Peasantry—Bulgarian Views of - the New-comers—A Cherkess Girl—Sale of Circassian - Women—Depredations—Cattle-lifting—Circassian Fellow-travellers - in a Steamer—Appearance and Character—Scheme of Philanthropy - respectfully offered to Russia. - - _The Tatars._—Their Arrival in the Dobrudcha with a Good - Character, which they have since maintained—Their Excellent - Qualities as Artisans—Religion—Women—Dirtiness—Tallow their - Specialty—Rivalry of Jewish and Tatar Hawkers. - - _The Gypsies._—Legend of the Origin of the Name - Chenguin—Abhorrence of them by the Turks—Religion and - Superstitious Customs—Nomad Life—Two Classes—Physical - Characteristics—Reported Witches—Indiscriminate Pilfering—A - Case of Horse-stealing—Gypsy Cunning in the Market—Gypsy - Avocations—Character—Gypsy Soldiers—Town Gypsies—Agricultural - Gypsies. - - -In 1864 Russia, the present champion of the subject races of Turkey, was -busy in her own vast dominions giving the _coup de grâce_ to the unruly -and only half-subjugated Circassians. These people, during a period of -eighty years, resisted Russian aggression, defending their homes and -liberties at the point of the sword, until the consequences of war, -famine, and misery compelled them to yield to the superior power of the -Czar. They were offered the choice of migrating to the lower steppes of -that land, where Russian discipline alone could tame them, or of quitting -the country. Some accepted the former alternative, while a large portion, -consisting of about 300,000 souls, preferred to accept the hospitality of -Turkey. Before leaving the shores of their beloved native land, collected -on the beach like a herd of wild animals caught in a storm, they raised -their voices and cried aloud against the injustice and cruelty they, with -their wives and children, had received at the hands of the Muscovites. -That voice reached Turkey, who, whatever her sins are, has never been -known to refuse shelter and assistance to the homeless and the refugee. A -proof of this may be found in the harbor offered within my recollection -to the exiled Prince of Persia, Kouli Mirza, subsequently a pensioner -of Great Britain; the famous Syrian chieftain, the Emir Beshir and his -party; the Polish, Wallachian, and Hungarian refugees, and Abdul Kadir; -the Algerine captive chief, who obtained permission from Napoleon to -reside in Turkey. All these with their followers were received with -hospitality, treated with kindness, and, in some cases, allowed pensions -while they remained in the country. - -This gift of Russia to Turkey was, as far as the female portion of it was -concerned, as irresistible as the beauteous Pandora is said to have been -to Epimetheus; and the Circassian ladies certainly brought with them the -equivalent for Pandora’s famous box, in the shape of their kith and kin, -who dispersed themselves all over the country, and, from that moment, -have never ceased to do mischief, and justify Russia’s treatment of them. -I have had opportunities of seeing these people since their arrival in -Turkey, of watching them in the different stages through which they have -passed, and noting the irreparable harm they have done to the country -that offered them an asylum. On landing, about 2000 were quartered in a -little wood. Emaciated by the long sufferings of the journey, covered -with vermin, and half famished, they encamped on the damp soil in the -early spring, some sheltering themselves under the trees, others under -such tattered tents as they possessed, all closely packed together, the -sick lying face to face with the dead, and the living moving, gaunt and -ghostlike, among them, careless of everything except, getting money. As -we neared the infected camp, bands of men and women came forward, holding -their children by the hand and offering to sell them to any who would -buy. The little wretches themselves seemed anxious to be separated from -their unnatural parents, in the hope of getting food and better shelter. -These Circassians were divided into two classes, the chieftains and the -slaves. Each regarded the other with distrust; the one expecting from -his slave the abject obedience he had been accustomed to receive in his -native land; the other, aware of the change in his condition, ready to -dispute this right with his former master. - -Rations and clothes were distributed by the Turkish authorities, but the -master took his slave’s portion and sold it for profit. The slave, on -his side, stole what he could, and stripped even the dead of his last -covering, leaving the corpse to be devoured by dogs. The sight of these -bodies by the townspeople and others originated the idea that these -people were cannibals, and this reputation preceding the Circassians, -on their march further into the country, caused a panic on their route. -Children ran away on their approach, and even the peasants themselves, -instinctively aware of the pernicious nature of the element introduced -among them, did their best to avoid giving them offence in refusing -assistance. - -The majority of the Circassians distributed in European Turkey are -settled in the Dobrudcha; the rest were allotted patches of ground in -all parts of Bulgaria and in other provinces, where the peasants were -called upon to supplement the Government in providing them with cattle, -grain, and all other requisites necessary to start them as settlers. The -Bulgarian peasants stoically made it a point of duty to render every -assistance in their power to the destitute and helpless creatures so -strangely brought among them, and Circassian settlements soon started up -like weeds by the side of the peaceful and thriving villages. - -Four years later I had again occasion to pass through these settlements, -and was much surprised at the transformation in the appearance of the -Circassians. The men, dressed in their picturesque costume, wearing their -arms, some of which were curious and rich pieces of Eastern workmanship, -were lazily lounging about the commons of their villages; while the -women, arrayed in their dress of red silk braided with gold, presided -over their household duties. Some well-conditioned cattle, driven by -Circassian youths, were grazing in the surrounding meadows. I stopped -at a Bulgarian village opposite one of these settlements. It was a -_prasnik_, or feast-day, and the Bulgarian youth and beauty, dressed in -their best, were dancing the _hora_. As our party approached, the dance -stopped, and the women, saluting me with a cheerful smile, regarded me -with great curiosity. The headman of the village came forward, and, -with a hearty welcome, offered me hospitality for the night. I had a -long and interesting conversation with him and the elders of the little -community upon the Circassian settlements. The Bulgarian peasants even -at that early date had a long list of grievances against their new -neighbors. Pointing to the opposite village, they assured me that its -very foundation and prosperity was due to Bulgarian labor and money. -“The Circassians,” said they, “lounge about the whole day, as you see -them doing now. Their industry does not extend beyond the sowing of -a few bushels of millet for the use of their families. Their cattle, -as well as most of their belongings, are not for work, but are stolen -property that they are freely allowed to appropriate to themselves to the -prejudice of the peasants.” The poor men seemed much concerned at this -new evil that had befallen them. “We never get redress for the wrongs -done by our neighbors,” said they; “and if the Government functionaries -continue to disregard our complaints, and to allow the depredations of -these marauders to go unpunished as they have hitherto done, not only our -property but our lives will be at their mercy.” - -A Circassian girl from the village on seeing me came forward, and with -tears in her eyes implored me to take her with me and keep her in my -service. She was about eighteen years of age, a beautiful creature, dark -complexioned, with sparkling eyes, which overflowed when I refused her -request. “I am perishing with _ennui_ here,” she said, “in this dreadful -outlandish place, without a hope or chance of getting away by being sold -or rescued by some charitable person who might take me to Stamboul!” -Surprised at her statement, I asked why she did not do as others of her -nation, and insist upon being sold. With a look of hopeless despondency -she replied: “None now dares to buy the _Cherkess_ girls belonging to -the emigrants.” She would give me no further information, but through -subsequent inquiry I learnt that the Turkish Government, among the laws -it had made relating to the Circassians, had deprived them of the right -of selling their children as they formerly did in their native country, -and had also decreed the liberation of the slaves held by them. But this -law, like many others, was disregarded, and the chieftains continued -to treat their subjects as slaves, a cause of constant quarrelling and -bloodshed among them. Some broke out into open rebellion and refused -to obey their master as such, while the chiefs, strong in the close -alliance that existed among them, could at all times, notwithstanding the -interference of the authorities, bring their subjects to terms by taking -the law into their own hands. - -With regard to selling their children, it was neither the law prohibiting -the practice nor the want of purchasers that put a stop to it, but -the abuse made of it by the Circassians themselves. For instance, two -brothers would agree to sell a sister to some Mohammedan, who, after -having paid the money and obtained possession of the girl, was suddenly -called before the local courts to answer the charge brought by her -father, without whose consent it was pretended the daughter had been -ravished and illegally sold. The purchaser thus losing his prize without -receiving back the money he had paid to the dishonest Circassians, -and being condemned for the proceeding by the law, made known the -undesirability of such purchases among his friends, and deprived them of -any wish to participate in such troublesome business. - -The depredations of the Circassians became so extensive that from one -farm alone in the district of Adrianople three hundred and fifty head of -cattle were stolen and never recovered. - -A systematic company of cattle-stealers was established all over -Bulgaria; the stolen animals taken from the villages found their way -to Rodosto and Gallipoli, where they were shipped to Asia Minor and -exchanged with stolen cattle from that coast. The dexterity with which a -Circassian, introducing himself into a stud, takes possession of the best -horse is the terror and wonder of the farmer. He uses a kind of lasso -which, cast over the head of the animal, enables him to mount it and -stick to it as if horse and rider were one. The wildest animal is soon -cowed under the iron sway of the rider, and disappears, to be seen no -more. - -A gentleman, wishing to procure a good horse from a Circassian, asked the -owner if the animal was a good trotter. The Circassian, with a malicious -smile, answered, “Sir, he will take you to the world’s end, so long as -you are careful not to turn his head in the direction of Philippopolis, -but in that case I do not guarantee him!” - -Another incident, illustrative of the thievish propensities of these -people, was related to me of a carter who, driving his wagon from town, -fell asleep in it, and was met by a band of Circassians, who thought the -prize too tempting to be allowed to escape. Some of the party, therefore, -took to unharnessing the oxen, and two of them, taking the place of the -captured animals, kept the cart going while the others went off with the -oxen. When these were at a fair distance, their substitutes gave the -cart a strong jerk to arouse the poor unsuspecting driver, and heartily -saluting him, disappeared across country. - -So long as Circassian marauding was limited to incidents of this nature -the peasants put up with it, and in many cases abstained even from -complaining to the authorities; but gradually the proceedings of this -dangerous race assumed a character the gravity of which only escaped -public notice because of the general disorganization that followed. - -Becoming prosperous and wealthy through their continual depredations -and robberies, the youthful portion of the community that had escaped -sickness on first landing formed a lawless hostile faction in the land, -having as little respect for the authority of the Porte as for the life -and property of the natives. When the Government tried some years ago to -bring a portion of them under military discipline, they rebelled and gave -much trouble to the authorities in the capital itself, where it was found -necessary to seize, exile, and otherwise punish some of the chiefs for -insubordination. - -I happened to be travelling in a Turkish steamer with thirty of these -rebellious subjects. Their chief was said to have been an influential -person, holding the rank of aide-de-camp to a member of the Imperial -family, perhaps the famous Cherkess Hasan, who nearly two years ago -murdered the Ministers. The Turkish officer who had charge of these -troublesome prisoners told me that for two months he and his men had -given chase to this band, who had escaped into Asia Minor, where they -had continued their depredations, and were only secured at last by being -surrounded in a forest. They appeared a dreadful set of cut-throats—not -at all pleasant fellow-passengers—and their guards had to keep good watch -over them. This officer further stated that the Sultan, out of kindness, -had invited them into his dominions, giving them land, and every -opportunity of settling down and becoming useful members of society; -but it was a sad mistake, for they would neither work nor yield to -discipline, neither would they make any efforts to requite the Government -for the benefit they had received, but in every instance proved their -reputation for lawlessness and depredation. It is an important fact that -before the Bulgarian troubles the peasants of the districts where the -Circassians were in force dared no longer circulate except in companies -of fifty or sixty, and that murderous attacks had become every-day -occurrences. - -Although protected in some high quarters in consequence of their close -connection through family ties, the Circassians are generally disliked -and distrusted, especially by the people, who have no such strong reasons -for protecting them. In physical features they often present splendid -specimens of the famed Circassian type, though not unfrequently bearing a -great resemblance to the Mongolian. In manner they are haughty and even -insulting, with an air of disdain and braggadocio such as no really brave -man assumes. In character the Cherkess is undoubtedly cowardly, cruel, -and false. Education he has none, so that all the evil passions of his -nature, unchecked by any notion of moral, religious, or civil obligation, -have developed themselves with irresistible force, and prompted him -to acts that during the last two years have placed the name of the -Circassian below that of the gypsy. - -It is said that they are to be expelled from European Turkey. If this -is the case, the unfortunate population of Asia Minor, both Mohammedan -and Christian, among whom they will be quartered, are most deeply to be -pitied, as well as the Government, whose duty it will be to re-establish -and discipline these ruffians now rendered desperate and doubly hardened -by the crimes and horrors of every description into which they have -lately plunged with impunity. - -The best and wisest plan would be to request Russia, if she really and -earnestly desires the welfare of the Christians in Turkey, to take the -Circassians back and reinstate them in their native land. Should this -be impracticable, the Turkish Government would do well to send them to -colonize some of the fertile but waste lands in the heart of Asia Minor, -in the vicinity of half-savage tribes like themselves, in whom they might -find their match, and cease to become a perpetual source of trouble and -injury both to the Government and its peaceful subjects. - - * * * * * - -The migration of the Tatars into Turkey preceded that of the Circassians -by half a century. When their country passed into the hands of Russia, -the Tatars, unwilling to remain under her dominion, removed, at a great -sacrifice of life and property, into Bessarabia, where, scarcely had -they begun to feel settled and to forget their wrongs and sufferings, -than the Muscovite eagle again clouded the horizon, and the emigrants, -fluttering at its approach like a flock of frightened birds, collected -their families and belongings, and took to flight. Weary and exhausted, -they alighted on the Ottoman soil, and settled in the Dobrudcha. They -were a quiet and industrious people, and before long, through toil and -exertion, they made themselves homes, and peopled the Dobrudcha with -their increasing numbers. Some of the Tatar princes migrated with their -subjects, and took up their abode in the vicinity of Zaghra, where they -retained their title of _Sultanlar_, or “the princes.” They became in -time wealthy landowners, but, unlike their less exalted brethren, they -were hard, unjust, and oppressive masters to the Bulgarian peasants, and -by their cruel treatment of these people were among the causes of their -being cited as rebels before the authorities. - -A second emigration of Tatars took place after the Crimean War, when -these unfortunate people, in a similar plight to the Circassians, came to -join their kinsmen in the Dobrudcha and other parts of European Turkey. -They were poor, and for the most part destitute of every requisite of -life. The Turkish Government did its best to help them by giving grants -of land, etc., but those who settled as agriculturists were unfortunate, -for a series of bad seasons crushed their first efforts, and, unassisted -by further relief, they remained in a stationary condition of poverty, -notwithstanding many praiseworthy efforts to better their condition. -Those who settled in towns fared better; all who were acquainted with -some handicraft at once set to work and executed their different branches -of industry with so much activity, neatness, and honesty that they soon -reached prosperity and comfort. - -Their religion is Mohammedan, but they are by no means strict or -fanatical. Their women do not cover their faces when among their own -community, but when abroad are veiled like the Turkish women. They are -very thrifty in their habits, and some are pretty and sweet-looking, but -as a rule they are the dirtiest subjects in the Sultan’s dominions. Their -uncleanliness with regard to dress, dwellings, and food is so great as to -shock and horrify the Turks, who certainly have that virtue which is said -to come next to godliness. - -The principal ingredient in their cookery seems to be tallow; as -candle-makers they are greatly superior to the natives, and the -preference given to this article of their manufacture has induced them to -take the principal portion of this branch of industry into their hands. - -When a colony settled in the town of A⸺, one of my friends took a great -interest in the efforts made by these estimable artisans to earn a -livelihood as shoe-makers, tailors, tallow-chandlers, etc. Some opened -small shops for the sale of different articles, while those who had -no distinct calling or possessed no capital became wood-cutters, or -hawkers of vegetables, fruits, etc. In this business, however, they met -with shrewd and knowing professionals—the Jews, who were far more able -and practised hands at it, and at first gave very little chance to the -poor Tatars. It became a race between Jew and Tatar who should get up -earliest in the morning and go furthest to meet the peasants bringing -their produce to market. In this the Tatar was most successful, as he was -the better walker of the two, and less afraid than the Jew of venturing -some distance from the town; but the latter contented himself with the -reflection that there are many roads that lead to the same goal, and many -ways of making profit which are not dreamt of in Tatar philosophy. - - * * * * * - -The Gypsies in Turkey, numbering about 200,000 souls, profess outwardly -Mohammedanism, but keep so few of its tenets that the true believers, -holding them in execration, deny their right to worship in the mosques -or bury their dead in the same cemetery. Although not persecuted, the -antipathy and disdain felt for them evinces itself in many ways, and -appears to be founded upon a strange legend current in the country. This -legend says that when the gypsy nation were driven out of their country -and arrived at Mekran, they constructed a wonderful machine, to which a -wheel was attached. Nobody appeared able to turn this wheel till, in the -midst of their vain efforts, some evil spirit presented himself under the -disguise of a sage and informed the chief (whose name was Chen) that the -wheel would be made to turn only when he had married his sister Guin. -The chief accepted the advice, the wheel turned round, and the name of -the tribe after this incident became that of the combined names of the -brother and sister, _Chenguin_, the appellation of all the gypsies of -Turkey at the present day. - -This unnatural marriage, coming to the knowledge of one of the Moslem -saints, was forthwith, together with the whole tribe, soundly cursed; -they were placed beyond the pale of mankind, and sent out of the country -under the following malediction: “May you never more enter or belong to -the seventy-seven and a half races that people the earth, but as outcasts -be scattered to the four corners of the earth, homeless, wretched, and -poor; ever wandering and toiling, never realizing wealth, enjoying the -fruits of your labor, or acquiring the esteem of mankind!”[4] - -I have related this legend because it represents in a very striking -manner the condition of the gypsies of Turkey as well as the belief -placed in it by people of all creeds, who not only put them beyond -the pale of humankind, but also deny to them what would be granted to -animals—their alms. Last year during the Ramazan, a popular Hodja, -preaching on charity to a large congregation of Mohammedans, thus -addressed them—“O true believers, open your purses every one of you, -and give largely to the poor and needy! Refuse not charity either to -Mohammedans or Christians, for they are separated from us only by the -thickness of the skin of an onion, but give none to the Chenguins, lest -part of the curse that rests upon their heads should fall upon yours!” - -Mohammedanism and the Christian rites also practised by a few of the -gypsies can only be a mask to hide the heathen superstition handed down -among them from generation to generation, together with their native -language, and some other observances, such as keeping a fire continually -burning in their camp. On the first of May all go in a body to the -sea-coast or the banks of a river, where they throw water three times on -their temples, invoking the invisible _genii loci_ to grant their special -wishes. - -Another custom, observed with equal constancy, is that of annually -drinking some potion, the secret of whose preparation is known only to -the oldest and wisest of the tribe. This draught is partaken of by the -whole community as a charm or preventive against snake-bites. It is -certain that, owing to some agency, the gypsies can catch snakes and -handle them with the greatest impunity, but are never known to kill or -hurt these animals. - -The habits of these people are essentially nomadic. Sultan Murad IV. -tried to check their roving disposition by ordering that they should be -permanently settled in the vicinity of the Balkans, and obliged to live -a regular life; but disregarding the imperial decree, they dispersed -all over the country, now pitching their tents in one place and now in -another, like evil spirits bent on mischief, or birds of prey ready to -pounce upon any game that offers itself. Their pilfering propensities are -entirely directed to supplying the common wants of nature; they never -grow rich on their plunder. - -The tribe is divided into two classes—those who live in the towns for -short periods, and those, the wildest and vilest, who wander about -all the year round; during the summer pitching their tents in the -open country or on the roadside, men, women, and children all huddled -together under the tattered rags that form their only shelter. The men -and women are miserably clad, and the children walk about in their -original nakedness. The Chenguins are muscular, thin, and of middle -size; with dark skins, bright sparkling eyes, low undeveloped brows, -and well-defined nose, wide at the nostril; the lower part of the face -is ill-formed and sensual. When quite young, some of the women are very -pretty and much appreciated by the Turkish community as dancing girls, -in which calling their utter want of decency and morality makes them -adepts. When the gypsy woman is advanced in years she becomes perfectly -hideous; her brown skin shrivels up through privation and exposure, her -body gets thin and emaciated, and her uncombed elf locks, half concealing -her features, give her the appearance of a witch. The cunning creature, -aware of the effect she produces, makes capital out of it, by impressing -the credulous with a belief in her uncanny powers of predicting the -future, casting or removing the evil eye, or other magic spells, invoking -benefits or bringing evil upon those who refuse charity or provoke her -anger; thus extorting from fear the alms that pity refused. - -In winter they quarter themselves in the vicinity of towns or villages, -where they have a better chance of carrying on their trade of petty -thieving. The nuisance they become to a neighborhood is increased by -the hopelessness of obtaining any recovery of property stolen by them. -The gypsy is by no means particular as to the nature of the object he -covets, but will condescendingly possess himself of an old horse found -conveniently in his neighborhood, or venture further and lay hands on -anything from a useful article of dress to a stray ox. - -The following incidents that came under my personal observation were -attributed to an encampment of gypsies in the vicinity of the town of -M⸺, and will give an idea how these people, called by the peasants -_Taoukjis_, set about business, and the precautions they take to avoid -detection and escape punishment. - -In our stable were three fine and valuable horses, much admired in the -town, which had evidently awakened the cupidity of some gypsies encamped -opposite the house on the other side of the river. On one occasion, when -the two best were away from home together with the groom, the third horse -disappeared during the night. In the morning I sent to give notice of the -occurrence to the sub-governor and request his aid in discovering the -thief or thieves. This functionary, a kind and civil man, at once called -upon me and gave me the assurance that the horse would be recovered, as -none but the gypsies encamped opposite could have stolen it. The police -were sent to the camp to request about a dozen to come to the Konak to -answer for the robbery. - -On arriving, the gypsies were placed under close examination by the -Kaimakam and Medjliss; they naturally denied all knowledge of the -robbery and protested against the accusation. Finding them obstinate, -the Kaimakam ordered them to be placed under the pressure of the whip, -but this appearing to produce no effect, made the governor suspect -that some trick had been resorted to, in order to prevent the culprits -feeling the smart of the punishment they had anticipated. They were -ordered to undress, upon which, looking very crestfallen, they began to -pray for mercy, but their prayers were soon drowned in the sounds of -general hilarity that followed the discovery of the successive layers -of sheepskin in which they had taken the precaution of enveloping their -bodies. The first few blows that fell upon their now unprotected backs, -drew forth screams of “Aman, Effendi!” followed by sundry revelations on -the disappearance of the horse. “Last night,” said one, “it came quite -unexpectedly into our camp; we tried to secure it but it escaped again, -we will endeavor to find and bring it back, but, oh, Aman! Effendi! beat -us no more! we will pay the value of the horse for the honor of the -Chenguin tribe!” When these proceedings came to my knowledge, I begged -the Kaimakam not to be too hard on the poor rogues, but set them free -after the severe punishment they had received. I may add that the horse -was never found. - -On the shapeless, ill-paved, mud-pooled space which usually occupies -the centre of small Turkish towns, the peasants collect from all parts -of the surrounding country with their carts and beasts of burden, laden -with goods for sale or barter. On one occasion an industrious Bulgarian -cloth-weaver took up his habitual post at the corner of a narrow street, -where he exhibited his stock of goods and invited purchasers. Shortly -afterwards, a ragged, thievish-looking Chenguin, with a couple of sieves -of his own manufacture, came and seated himself opposite, apparently -with the object of selling his stock in trade. No customer appeared, -and the gypsy began to show signs of weariness and sleepiness; he -yawned desperately, stretched his limbs, looked at his neighbor, yawned -again and again, until he succeeded in infecting him with a sympathetic -drowsiness. Gradually passing into the second stage of somnolence, -he closed his eyes and nodded. The Bulgarian, following his example, -was soon fast asleep, and the gypsy, quickly springing to his feet, -seized a fine piece of _shayak_, and walked away with it. The Bulgarian -unsuspectingly slept on until roused by his head coming in contact with -the wall, against which he was leaning; his bewildered gaze instinctively -turned to the spot which the other slumberer had occupied, and, finding -that it was empty, he looked at his merchandise and discovered that -his best piece of cloth had disappeared also. Much troubled, he packed -up the rest of his goods, and proceeded to the house of the Chorbadji, -who advised him to find the gypsy, and point him out to the police, who -might succeed in recovering his property. To this he responded, “All the -gypsies have the same wild, tattered, and cunning appearance, and follow -the trade of _taoukjis_; if I call the attention of the police to my -case, I shall be made responsible for the imprisonment of the whole band, -and incur expenses greater than the value of my cloth. I must therefore -forego it; but never again shall this stupid ‘Bulgarski glava’ be outdone -by gypsy cunning!” - -The other callings followed by the Chenguins are those of tinkers, -blacksmiths, leaders of bears and monkeys, and musicians of a primitive -kind. The women keep up the _Nautch_ dance of the East with an -excruciating kind of accompaniment, consisting of a drum, bagpipe, -tambourine, and pipe, with which they make the round of the towns and -villages on feast-days, when they are hired by the people, and dance and -shout to their hearts’ content. - -The gypsies are idle, false, and treacherous. They have none of the manly -virtues; and on account of their known cowardice, they were never pressed -into military service by the Turks until last year, when a certain number -of those settled in towns and villages were sent off as recruits. It was -a picture worth seeing, when a band of these wild creatures was embarked -at the town of S⸺. Guarded by a detachment of soldiers headed by a drum -and clarionet, and followed by the whole tribe of old men, women, and -children, screaming, crying, and dragging their rags after them, these -doubtful warriors marched through the town. I asked an old crone how it -was that the Chenguins had to go to war. “God knows,” was her reply; “it -is the Sultan’s command and must be obeyed.” - -The hatred shown by the Turks to the invaders of their country was so -great, and their patriotism and bravery in defending her so conspicuous, -that even this degenerate race became infected with a certain degree of -the same devotion, and evinced a desire to go and fight for Allah and -the Sultan, although at the last moment their natural cowardice proved -too strong for them. Some mutilated their hands, others feigned sickness -or insanity as an excuse for remaining behind, whilst those who actually -reached the seat of war gave great trouble to their officers, did no -service whatever, and deserted whenever a chance presented itself. - -The class of gypsies living in towns is slightly better and more -respectable as a community. They generally occupy hovels built round a -court, in which they take shelter during the night; but during the day, -in winter or summer, they live out of doors. A great part of their time -is spent lounging about the court, hammering at their forges, smoking -or quarrelling, while the girls listlessly parade the streets, and the -children beg or fall into any mischief that presents itself. They are -never sent to school, and I do not think there is a single person of -either sex who is able to write a word of any language. - -The gypsies settled in the villages take to field work as far as their -roving habits and thievish propensities allow them. These are either -_chiftjis_, who work regularly, or _ailikjis_, who do odd jobs. They -present a strong contrast to the rest of the rural population in their -thriftlessness and want of care for the morrow. They are so careless of -health that an aged gypsy is rarely met with. As laborers they are very -unsatisfactory, and require much supervision from their employers. No -gypsy ever becomes wealthy or respectable; as a class they are always in -debt. - -The whole tribe is a curious mixture of the human and the animal: it is -endowed with the scent of the dog, the cunning of the monkey, and the -form and vices, but none of the virtues apparently, of mankind. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -TENURE OF LAND. - - Three Classes of Lands in Turkey—_Vakouf_ Lands, their - Origin and Growth—Turkish Equivalent of Mortmain—Privileges - of Tenants on _Vakouf_ Land—Maladministration—Corruption of - Charity Agents and Government Inspectors—General System of - Embezzlement—Sultan Mahmoud’s Attempted Reform—Insufficiency - of _Vakouf_ Revenues as administered; Supplemented by - State—General Decay of _Vakouf_ Property, Mosques, Medressés, - and Imarets—Misapplication of _Vakouf_ Funds intended for - the Support of the Public Water-supply—_Mirié_ Lands, - Government Grants, Military Proprietors, Growth of a Feudal - System—Miserable Condition of the Rayahs—Anxiety of the - Porte—Destruction of the Feudal System by Mahmoud and - Abdul-Medjid—Reduction of the Bosnian and Albanian Beys—Present - Condition of the Country Beys—_Mirié_ Lands reclaimed from - the Waste—Title-Inspectors—A Waste-Land Abuse—Similar - Difficulties in Connection with Ordinary _Mirié_ Tenure—_Mulk_ - or Freehold Lands—Their Small Extent—Difficulty of Establishing - Safe Titles—Descent and Transfer of Land—Tenure of Land by - Christians and by Foreign Subjects—Commons and Forests—The - Inspectors of the Forest Department. - - -Regarded from a conveyancer’s point of view, land in Turkey is of three -kinds: _mevkoufé_ (or _vakouf_), “church” property; _mirié_, crown -property; and _mulk_ or _memlouké_, freehold. - -1. _Vakouf_ lands are those set aside for the support of the religious -establishments, the mosques, _medressés_ (or mosque-colleges) and -other religious schools, and the _imarets_, or institutions for public -almsgiving. The appropriation of a just part of a man’s wealth for -purposes of religion and charity is one of the most constantly reiterated -principles of Islam, and, to the credit of Moslems be it said, it is -a principle very regularly reduced to practice. It is not surprising, -therefore, that on the conquest of European Turkey a large share of land -was set apart “for God.” But this original grant was not the only source -of the present large extent of vakouf lands. Private munificence has -constantly added to the original foundation. The piety of some Moslems -and the vain-glory of others has ever been displayed in the erection and -endowment of mosques, with their attendant medressés and imarets. In the -one case it was a sure key to heaven; in the other, it was the best way -to get the praises of men of one’s own generation and the admiration of -posterity. Formerly ordinary people used frequently to indulge in this -architectural luxury; but, during the present century, only Sultans and -Grand Vizirs have found the practice convenient. - -Besides the original grant and the private additions which each century -contributed, vakouf lands have been greatly increased from a third -source. The people of Turkey seem to have duly appreciated those -privileges against which our own mortmain laws were directed. The -parallel is not indeed strictly accurate, but there are strong points of -resemblance. A Moslem (or, for that matter, a Christian) sells his land -to a mosque for about one-tenth of its real value. The land is now the -property of the mosque, but the seller has the right of lease, and may -retain his tenancy on payment of a fixed rent. During his life he may -sell the lease, or at his death it passes on to his heirs; but in default -of direct descendants the lease reverts absolutely to the mosque.[5] By -this transaction both parties are the gainers, and only the Government -and its corrupt officials the losers. - -The mosque receives a large interest for a comparatively trifling -expenditure of capital; and has besides the reversion in the event of -default of heirs. The tenant, though he has to pay a rent where formerly -he paid none, is not burdened by this slight charge, and sets against -it the immense privileges he has acquired; for, as a tenant on vakouf -land—that is, holding direct of Allah—he pays no taxes; he is safe -from confiscation by the Government, extortion from its officials, and -persecution from private creditors. It is the most profitable and secure -tenure to be met with in Turkey, and it is a matter of congratulation -that the mosque authorities place so high a value upon money that they -are willing to accept it even from dogs of Christians who wish to avail -themselves of the protection afforded by vakouf leasehold. - -No official report of the extent of the vakouf lands has, so far as I can -learn, been published; but it is easy to understand that their extent -and value must be very great. It is even estimated at two-thirds of the -whole land of Turkey. It is therefore remarkable that the revenues -derived from them do not nearly suffice for the purposes for which they -were intended. The expense of maintaining the services of the mosques -and of keeping up the extremely economical system of religious education -would not seem to be excessive, though the charitable imarets would of -course require considerable support. But these are not the real reasons -why these rich revenues are not sufficient. One reason is, that they are -expected to maintain a large class of Ulema, whose numbers are altogether -disproportionate to the educational results they produce. The other and -far more disastrous cause is that the revenues are corruptly administered. - -At first the management of the funds lay in the hands of agents appointed -by the pious founders. When an agent died, his successor was named by -the Roumeli Kadisi (or Anadoli Kadisi if in Asiatic Turkey). The agents -were under the supervision of inspectors, whose business it was to -verify the mosque accounts. These inspectorships were generally given to -high functionaries of the Porte, and so lucrative were they that they -excited keen competition (in the Turkish sense), and eventually came to -be regarded as the fixed appendages of certain offices. It may easily be -imagined that between the agents and the inspectors there was not much -of the vakouf revenues left for the right purposes. As a matter of fact, -most of the money found its way into the pockets of the inspectors of the -Sublime Porte. - -Among the many schemes that engaged the attention of the Reformer-Sultan -Mahmoud there was of course a place for vakouf reform. He wished to -amalgamate the vakouf lands with the mirié or crown lands, but had not -the boldness necessary to the carrying out of so revolutionary a measure. -He contented himself with clearing away some of the more obvious abuses -of the administration of vakoufs, and appointed a director, with the rank -of Minister, to see to the proper management of the property. Still, -however, the revenues did not prove sufficient. The annual budget of -vakouf returns reached a total of 20,000,000 piastres; yet in 1863 it had -to be supplemented by another 20,000,000 piastres from the Treasury, and -is ever in need of similar assistance. The funds are still misapplied; -and, as the result, the mosques and medressés have fallen more and more -into ruin and decay; the imarets are become instruments of a merely -nominal almsgiving; and every charitable or religious intention of the -pious founders is daily trodden under foot. - -Among the minor objects of vakouf endowments are the construction and -maintenance in repair of aqueducts and road fountains. I have often -witnessed with regret the manner in which the trust is abused by its -holders. In most towns the principal water supply is endowed by vakoufs, -the revenues of which were intended to defray all expenses connected with -keeping the channels and fountains in repair. In three cases out of four -these funds are misapplied. At Salonika, for instance, the water supply -is richly endowed, and the town ought clearly to be well furnished with -water. Instead of this, a great number of the fountains are dried up, and -a serious waste of water is caused by the neglect of the water-pipes. -It is painful to see the crowd of miserable Jewish children waiting for -hours round the dribbling fountain under a burning summer sun, or pierced -with the biting winter winds, till they get a chance of filling their -pitchers—too often only to get them broken in the battle that immediately -ensues. In summer, when the want of water is most severely felt, many -people do not scruple to dig down to the water pipes in some deserted -street, stop the current that leads to the fountain, and thus obtain the -supply they need. In former times fountains were erected on all the -main roads and in every town and village; but most of them are now dried -up or fallen to ruin. Some of those that remain are of solid marble, -with a carved frontage inscribed with the name of the donor, the date of -erection, and some verses from the Koran. Some are in the form of basins, -with jets playing in them, sheltered sometimes by little kiosks, and -always shaded by fine old trees. The thirsty traveller and his beast are -all the more grateful when they do find a fountain with water running, -because the chances are so overwhelmingly against such good luck—thanks -to the vakouf administrators, who from this point of view deserve credit -for intensifying the virtue of gratitude. - -2. The _Mirié_, or crown-lands, include the private demesnes of the -Sultan and the royal family, the lands reserved for the partial support -of the administration, the waste lands, together with an enormous extent -of land originally granted on condition of military service to the most -zealous supporters of the Sultan, with a view to retaining their fidelity -and assuring the supremacy of the Government over the native princes. -The country was thus given over to the power and license of an army of -occupation. It was divided into sandjaks governed by Pashas, Beys, and -Beglerbeys. Those last-named were the administrators of the sandjaks. -Their duty it was to collect the taxes and furnish the contingents of -troops to the Imperial army. The favored officers of the Porte received -immense grants of land in return for their zeal; they were exempt from -taxation, and only required to find soldiers for the wars of the Porte. -Excluding vakouf lands, the greater part of Turkey was thus placed on a -sort of feudal tenure, the proprietor holding of the crown by military -service. All the evil effects of the system soon developed themselves. - -The lands of these military proprietors were of course chiefly tilled -by the rayahs, who had formerly held them in freehold. Although these -underholdings were supposed, like all mirié lands, to be registered, -and thus to enjoy the advantage of a legally fixed rent, they were yet -subject to the endless extortions invariably associated with the notion -of Turkish officials. Especially heavily did this system press upon the -Christian tenants of the military landowners. In principle the conduct of -the Turks to their Christian subjects was not greatly blamable; it was in -practice, as usual, that the grievances arose. The Christian communities -were managed by their Kodja-Bashi, or headman, who had to collect the -tribute, proportioning it to the means of each individual; and to -gather the kharadj, or poll-tax, and other impositions. A community was -allowed to compound for each or all its taxes by a fixed sum. Thus far -all appears surprisingly satisfactory. But when the actual condition of -the Christian tenants is looked into, a very different impression is -produced. Their landlords were ever devising some new extortion; the -taxes were levied with ruinous irregularity; fresh impositions were -constantly being added; and, in fine, their state became so intolerable -that large numbers of them deserted their faith (of which they are -generally highly tenacious in spite of ignorance and persecution), and -became Moslems, and were at once placed in possession of the privileges -of the dominant race. A curious instance of this conversion by necessity -was that of the Krichovalis, a lawless race of mountaineers about -Vodena. About the beginning of this century they found themselves unable -longer to endure the disabilities of their condition. They met in solemn -assembly in their old church on a great feast-day, and swore the sacred -oath upon the Bible that they became Mohammedans under protest, being -compelled to abandon their faith in order to escape the intolerable -trammels of their bondage. The Bible on which they swore, containing the -signatures of the chief men, still exists, I am told, in the keeping of -the Greek priest. - -The evils of military tenure bore upon the Porte as well as upon the -rayahs. The Sultans were not slow to note with alarm the growing power -of the great feudatories. They endeavored to curtail their privileges -and to strengthen the hands of the rayahs and attach this class to -themselves. But for a long time the efforts of the central government -were unavailing. The military landowners made common cause with the -Beglerbeys, who had by degrees acquired the supreme control of their -sandjaks; and these two united in defying the authority of the sovereign. -A great landed aristocracy had grown up, like the baronage of England in -Angevin times, and threatened the very extinction of the supremacy of the -Porte over its subjects. A great blow must be struck at the country Beys; -and Mahmoud II. resolved to strike. He was completely successful, and -left to his successor Abdul-Medjid only the task of bringing some of the -rebellious chieftains to punishment. Some were beheaded, other banished, -and all had their property confiscated. Inoffensive tenants by military -service received compensation; but the system was rooted out, and has now -ceased to exist. - -How the great feudal landowners were crushed will be understood from -a few examples. A short time ago I made the acquaintance of one of -the dervish sheikhs who followed Ali Pasha when he was dispatched by -Abdul-Medjid to reduce the Bosnian rebels. I asked how the reduction -was effected; and this was his account: Ali Pasha, with a small but -well-organized army of Nizams, on approaching the country, asked -permission of the Bosnians to cross into the Austrian territory. The -Bosnians unsuspectingly granted leave, and we marched into the country -and pitched our camp in its very heart. After a few days the Pasha -produced the Iradé of the Sultan, containing a demand for 60,000 recruits -from the Bosnians. They refused to furnish them, and began to assemble -and arm. The Pasha did not insist upon the enforcement of the Imperial -order, but opened negotiations. He was a wily man and knew his business. -He managed with soft words and fair promises to entice all the Bosnian -grandees into the camp, under the pretext of holding a general council. -Having thus collected all the influential persons of the country, he put -them under arrest and proceeded to try them. Some were beheaded, and Ali -Pasha with his own hand struck down the leading chief. The rest after -some further parley were brought to terms, and were then exiled and their -goods confiscated. The 60,000 recruits were soon raised, and the general -marched triumphantly back to Constantinople at their head. - -The Albanian chieftains were dealt with in the same way: when forced -failed, treachery prevailed. Their two leaders, Veli-bey and Arslan-bey, -were enticed by a friendly invitation to Monastir, where they were -received with every mark of consideration and kindness. A few days -afterwards they and their friends were invited to a great feast by Reshid -Mehemet Pasha. This was to take place in a kiosk outside the town near -the head-quarters of the regular troops. - -On the appointed day Veli-bey and Arslan-bey proceeded to the rendezvous -accompanied by nearly all their beys and retinue; in all about 400 men. -The kiosk was hidden from view by a turn in the road till they had almost -reached it, and it was only on entering the space in front that they -perceived the troops ranged in order of battle. A suspicion crossed the -mind of Arslan-bey, who said to his companion in Eastern phrase, “We have -eaten dirt!” Veli-bey replied, “It is the regular way of paying honor.” -“At all events,” said Arslan-bey, with doubtful friendship, “let us -change sides.” This was done, and Arslan-bey found himself screened from -view by the imposing figure of Veli-bey and his horse. They had reached -the centre of the line, when an order issued from the window of the -kiosk, the soldiers raised their pieces, and a murderous fire was opened -on the ranks of the Albanians, followed by a bayonet charge. Veli-bey -and his horse fell pierced with nineteen balls, but Arslan-bey was -unhurt. Followed by those who had escaped the first discharge, he turned -his horse and took to flight; but a second fire reached their flank. -Arslan-bey again miraculously escaped, and owing to the speed of his -horse soon left the place of carnage at a distance. But his flight had -been observed from the kiosk from which the Grand Vizir had directed the -massacre, and he was pursued; but putting spurs to his horse, he urged it -up the precipitous side of the hill, making for the summit with furious -speed. The top was almost reached when a shower of balls brought down man -and horse; and they rolled down the steep hillside to join the bodies of -their fellow-victims below. Such were the last fatal blows aimed at the -expiring feudal system; exile and confiscation did the rest. - -The once powerful Beys, when thoroughly crushed and impoverished, were -allowed a small income, and after many years of expatriation were finally -permitted to return to their native districts. Their power is completely -gone, although their personal influence is still considerable over the -populations among whom they live, and in the local courts in which they -sit. It is however of a mutinous nature, and seldom employed either -in facilitating the introduction of the new measures attempted by the -Government for the improvement of the administration, or in promoting the -general welfare of the country. - -Some beys in the interior still possess considerable landed property, but -with few exceptions their estates are dilapidated and heavily mortgaged; -while their owners are so deeply in debt to the Government that if called -to a reckoning under a well-regulated administration they would be ruined -men. A few, however, whose estates are in better condition are more -enlightened, and take a real interest in the welfare of their country. - -The country contains extensive areas of mirié kinds reclaimed from the -waste, for which of late years there has been a great demand made by the -peasants, who reclaim portions of them by paying a small fee of about -1_s._ an acre. They cultivate or build upon them, and after paying tithes -for the space of twenty years get the _Tapou_, or title-deed, from the -Porte constituting them legal owners. But although subjected to special -laws and restrictions and under government supervision, it is a dangerous -speculation, often involving litigation, and liable to usurpation. - -Great abuses are occasioned by the corruption of the _Tapou Memours_, -or inspectors, who within the last seven years have been intrusted -with the supervision and legislation of such lands, and regulate them -(irrespective of the rights of Christian or Turkish landholders) in -favor of the highest bidder. The consequences are that many persons have -been dispossessed of their property, others have had to pay high prices -to retain it by obtaining _Tapous_, whilst many are daily being driven -out of their lands. An example of this kind presented itself the other -day in the local court of the town of L⸺. The claimant was a Turkish -_Hanoum_; the disputants, Turkish and Christian peasants. The lady, a -widow, had inherited an estate bordering on some waste land upon which -these peasants had built a village. The _Hanoum_ in the mean time married -an influential person at Constantinople, through whose authority and -assistance, she managed to obtain a _Tapou_, including the village of -the settlers on the waste land within her own property. The villagers -indignantly protested against this act of usurpation, and refused to -acknowledge the authority of the lady, who, however, returned, furnished -with powerful _Emirnamés_ from the Porte to the town of L⸺ to enforce -her claims. The complaints of the peasants were disregarded, and they -themselves were seized as criminals and brought to the Konak, driven -into it by blows that fractured the skull of one and occasioned severe -injuries to others, and then imprisoned. - -Disputed claims like this on commons, forests, etc., are innumerable. -The estates sold by the crown also labor under the same disadvantages. -Among many cases I may relate one in which the purchaser was an English -gentleman who bought a large estate in Upper Macedonia, comprising one -of the most beautiful lakes in the country. It was an ancient fief, sold -for the sum of 2000_l._ The speculation promised to be a splendid one, -and a fortune was expected to be realized. One day, however, as the owner -was walking over his grounds, an old Turkish peasant presented himself, -and with much natural eloquence, and perhaps some truth, explained to the -English bey that the former owner had usurped part of his fields which -were comprised in the estate. The proprietor, either convinced of the -man’s rights, or out of kindness, ordered that the contested lands should -be restored; but the one individual thus righted soon developed into -a legion, all presenting equal claims. Subsequently the legion became -a band of armed and menacing Albanians, who by their hostile attitude -stopped all attempts at culture, and threatened to shoot the tenants -and the steward, burn the crops, etc. A long litigation followed, and -the affair terminated, after much loss of time and damages amounting to -several thousand pounds, in the gentleman re-selling the estate for the -amount he had paid for it. - -Besides the above-mentioned drawbacks, the holders of mirié lands cannot -sell, transfer, or mortgage them without a license from the authorities, -nor can they make them _Vakouf_ property without a special _Firman_ from -the Sultan. - -3. The _Memlouké_ or _Mulk_ lands are the freehold property of their -owner, who can do with them whatsoever pleaseth him well. They do not -form a large proportion of the lands of Turkey, and a reason for this -is the prejudice entertained against this form of tenure on account of -the difficulties encountered in establishing titles. It is unfortunately -no unusual thing in Turkey for title-deeds to be forged, substituted, -destroyed, and otherwise interfered with. - -The descent and division of Mirié and Vakouf lands are regulated by -imperial firmans and the special ordinances of the Vakouf laws; but -Memlouké land comes under the regulation of the _Mehkemé_ or court of -the town Kadi. The laws of Moslem inheritance are too complicated to -be recorded here, and their complexity is aggravated by the mixture of -Christians and the different ways of holding land. In the absence of -heirs, mirié and memlouké lands revert to the state; vakouf, as already -mentioned, to the administration of pious foundations. - -Memlouké land is transferred legally by conveyance; vakouf and mirié by -conveyance together with registration. The duty on the sale of memlouké -land is five per cent, and the succession duty two and a half per cent; -on mirié, five per cent on sale, and the same on succession; on vakouf -land, five per cent on sale, and the same on succession. A difference, -however, is made if the land is built over. - -The division of property among all the children and the reduction of its -value by these duties tend constantly to the diminution and deterioration -of Turkish estates and lead generally to mortgage. Mortgage on landed -property is at an average interest of eighteen per cent. The result is -easily imagined. Freehold lands may be legally mortgaged before two -witnesses without any further precaution; but crown and “church” lands to -be mortgaged must be registered by the registrar of title-deeds, or the -directors of vakouf property, for the fee of (nominally) one per cent. - -A great number of large estates can be purchased in all parts of Turkey -for very small sums. The wealthy native Christians would gladly purchase -these, but for the complications that surround the possession of landed -property that is not vakouf, and the difficulties and opposition to which -a Christian land-holder is exposed. Turks seldom look favorably upon -the passing of such estates into Christian hands. Those who purchase -them are generally foreign subjects; the rayahs who venture to do so can -never enjoy their acquisitions in the same peace and security. Among many -instances of encroachment on such estates by hostile beys, Circassians, -and other neighbors, I may mention two that have come under my personal -observation. The first refers to a wealthy Bulgarian gentleman, whose -acquaintance I made ten years ago at R⸺. He was a man of great influence, -and a member of the Medjliss, or town council. A large estate owned by -him, not far from the town, was twice set on fire by his Mohammedan -neighbors, and a large mill he had constructed was pulled down. Neither -his influence in the district, nor his wealth, nor his position as member -of the council, could protect his estate, which he was finally obliged to -abandon. - -The second case was that of a wealthy Greek at Baba Eski, a pretty -village between Constantinople and Adrianople. Some years ago I passed -a night in the house of this Chorbadji. When I talked to him about his -property he complained bitterly of the hostility he experienced from -his Turkish neighbors, and of the encroachments of the Circassians. The -former had attempted to set fire to his mill, and the latter had stolen -in the course of one year three hundred and fifty head of cattle from -him. “Wealth and prosperity,” said he, “are the sure recompense of every -man’s labor in a fine country like this, but it is hard work to keep -them when acquired.” Last year I met the unfortunate man at C⸺; he was a -complete beggar in appearance, and, with tears in his eyes, told me how -the Circassians and other enemies, profiting by the troubles in Bulgaria, -had completely destroyed his property. He had come to the town to obtain -redress, but I thought that his efforts would be fruitless. - -Many gentlemen in Macedonia are owners of large estates. Some of them are -Greeks by birth, and all foreign subjects; for foreign subjects are now -permitted to hold land in Turkey on the same conditions as the subjects -of the Porte. Having capital at their command, and being more intelligent -than the Turks, they improve their property, and realize from seven to -ten per cent profit; but even their estates are not quite free from -the attacks and depredations of brigands, who often prevent them from -visiting their farms freely, or introducing all the improvements they -are desirous of making. Out of four of these, three sent their sons to -Europe, where they were educated for the profession of agriculturists, -a proceeding quite unknown among the Turkish proprietors. _Bonâ-fide_ -Europeans are more respected and feared, and consequently are not exposed -to the hostilities to which native Christians are subjected. Some English -gentlemen possessing farms in Macedonia have had no occasion to complain, -even in these disordered times, when perfect anarchy prevails; their -property has been respected, and every assistance is afforded them by the -local authorities. - -Estates can also be rented for a mere trifle, and when restored to good -condition are said to yield lucrative returns. Here again, however, -great care has to be taken to ascertain that they are not disputed -property, and, in the case of their belonging to several individuals of -one family, that all are of age, and sign the title-deeds. A case was -related to me by a member of the civil court of A⸺ of a rayah who had -rented an estate from a Turkish family, consisting of a widow and her -three sons, all of whom were of age and had signed the contract together -with their mother. The tenant, who was a man of moderate means, set to -work to improve the property, and spent £1000 upon it; but just as he was -beginning to realize the profits of his toil and outlay, a fourth son of -the widow came of age and disputed the validity of the contract. The case -was tried before the local civil court, and the rayah was declared to -have justice on his side; but as the case was one of heritage, the Turk -had the right to transfer it to the Mehkemé, or religious court of the -Kadi, which decided it in his favor. The result was that the tenant was -driven out of his estate, and lost all the money he had spent upon it. - -Almost every village in Roumelia and Macedonia, and in fact all over -Turkey, had once its own common and forest, in which the peasant -proprietors, under certain laws and regulations, had the right to burn -charcoal, cut wood, and let the pasturage in spring to the herdsmen, who -brought down their sheep and cattle and kept them there the greater part -of summer. This was a great resource for the rural population, who, in -bad years, could always make some profit out of it. - -After the organization of the vilayet system this privilege was -curtailed, and the forests and grazing grounds were placed under -government supervision. A Forest Department was established at -Constantinople, and a chief inspector appointed in every district, -together with agents to superintend the pasturages. The laws that were to -regulate these were said to be excellent, and, whilst equitable towards -the peasants, promised at the same time to yield considerable revenues to -the state. One of these regulations set forth that a portion of forest -and pasturage land should be left to the use of each village, securing -its provision of fuel and pasturage for its cattle. None of these laws -were, however, observed in the interior, and nothing definite was decided -with respect to either of these rights. - -The beys, through bribery and favoritism, continued to enjoy their -ancient privileges over the forests and grazing lands, while the forest -inspectors are said to have realized such immense profits that every -official was desirous of becoming connected with the Forest Department. -The Government at the beginning, no doubt, derived some good receipts -from this new source, but the great expense inseparable from it, the -robberies that took place, and the destruction of property allowed, could -not fail, in the long-run, to be injurious to its interests. The abuses, -partiality, and waste that mark the proceedings of this branch of the -administration are most prejudicial to the rural population. - -But the agents of pasture lands and the forest keepers are still more -tyrannical. - -The extent of these grounds in the government possession was never -defined, nor has a limit ever been drawn. The beys rented the commons to -the herdmasters; the contracts were made with the cognizance of the local -authorities, and on stamped paper. Some of the villages that possessed -pasturage let it to the Wallachian sheep-owners, who, in the early part -of spring, migrate annually into Macedonia to pasture their flocks on the -commons. - -Some herdsmen had made contracts for bringing down 300,000 sheep into -the plains, paid the fees for the contract, and the stipulated sum to -the peasants. All the arrangements seemed in perfect order until the -arrival of the flocks upon the different grazing grounds, when they were -driven off with violence and brutality by the forest-keepers and their -subordinates, who declared that they had no right to the pasturage -unless they paid the rent. The poor people produced their contract to -show that they had paid the money, and refused to do so a second time; -justly observing that, if any illegal action existed in the renting of -the pasturage, it regarded the Government and the villagers, and not -them, and that the Government should reclaim the money from the peasants. -This dispute lasted a week; some of the Wallachians referred it to the -local authorities, while others in their distress applied to any person -from whom assistance could be expected. Day after day these men, women, -and children might be seen in the streets of the town with desponding, -careworn faces, anxiously looking out for some of their people who might -tell them how the case was prospering. When I saw them no more about -the town, I asked one of the principal officials how the affair had -terminated; he replied, “Madame, malheureusement le gouvernement n’a pas -su encore mettre toutes ces choses en ordre, et il nous arrive souvent de -ces cas tristes; mais ça vient d’être arrangé.” He would not enlighten me -further on the subject, but I subsequently learnt that a great amount of -bakhshish had settled the matter in favor of the Wallachians. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -PEASANT HOLDINGS. - - Small Proprietors _South of the Balkans_—Flourishing - State of the Country a few Years ago—A Rose-Harvest at - Kezanlik—Bulgarian Villages—Oppressive and Corrupt System - of Taxation and of Petty Government—The Disadvantages - counterbalanced by the Industry and Perseverance of the - Bulgarian Peasant—The Lending Fund in Bulgaria—Its Short - Duration—Bulgarian Peasant often unavoidably in Debt—Bulgarian - Cottages—Food and Clothing—Excellent Reports of German and - Italian Engineers on the Conduct and Working Power of Bulgarian - Laborers—Turkish Peasants—Turkish Villages—Comparative Merits - of Turkish and Bulgarian Peasants—Land _in Macedonia_—Chiefly - Large Estates—_Chiftliks_—The _Konak_, or Residence of - the Owner—Country Life of the Bey and his Family—His - Tenants (_Yeradjis_)—Character of the Yeradji—His Wretched - Condition—The Metayer System Unfairly Worked—The _Yeradji_ - generally in Debt—Virtually a Serf bound to the Soil—Difficulty - of getting Peasants to become _Yeradjis_—Statute - Labor—Cultivation and Crops. - - -The land south of the Balkans, from the Black Sea to the frontier of -Macedonia, is divided into small holdings, which belong to and are farmed -by a peasant population of an essentially agricultural nature. Before -the late destruction of property in Bulgaria, almost every peasant in -those districts was a proprietor of from five to forty acres, which he -farmed himself. The larger estates, of which there were a considerable -number, were superintended by the proprietors themselves, but farmed -by hired laborers. The following figures will give an idea of the -average extent of the holdings in those districts: Out of a thousand -farms, three had five hundred acres; thirty had between one hundred and -five hundred; three hundred between fifty and a hundred; four hundred -between ten and fifty; and two hundred and sixty-seven under ten acres. -All these lands were well cultivated and yielded rich returns. I was -astonished at the beauty and flourishing condition of the country during -a journey I made some years ago from Adrianople to Servia. It appeared -like a vast and fruitful garden. The peace-loving and toiling Bulgarian -was seen everywhere steadily going through his daily work, while his -equally active and industrious wife and daughters were cheerfully -working by his side. _En route_, I stopped a few days in the lovely -town of Kezanlik, and was most kindly received by its well-to-do and -intelligent inhabitants, who pressed their hospitality upon me with a -genuine kindness never to be forgotten. I visited the schools, in which -the people prided themselves as much as in the astonishing progress -the pupils were making in their studies. I was also taken on a round -of visits into well-built clean houses where European furniture was -beginning to find a place, and contrasted pleasantly with the well-made -native tissues that covered sofas and floors. At dawn next morning -a tap at my door announced that it was time to rise and witness the -rose-gathering, which I wished to see. The roses begin to be collected -before sunrise, in order to keep in them all the richness of their -perfume. It requires expedition and many hands; so large bands of young -men and maidens, adding pleasure to toil whilst gathering the roses, -amuse themselves by carrying on their innocent little flirtations and -love-makings. - -The large garden to which I was conducted belonged to the wealthy -Chorbadji in whose house I was staying. It was at some distance from the -town, and by the time we reached it the bright rays of a lovely spring -morning were fast spreading over the horizon. The field was thickly -planted with rose-bushes, with their rich harvest of half-open dew-laden -buds. The nightingales, in flights, hovered over them, disputing their -possession with the light-hearted Bulgarian harvesters, and chorusing -with their rich notes the gay songs of the scattered company, who, -dressed in their _Prasnik_ (feast-day) clothes,—the youths in snow-white -shirts and gaudy sleeveless vests, the girls in their picturesque -costume, the colored kerchiefs on their heads floating in the breeze,—had -the appearance of a host of butterflies flitting over the flowers. The -girls were actively and cheerfully employed in stripping off the buds and -throwing them into the baskets slung on their arms. The youths helped -them in the task, and were rewarded each with a bud from his sweetheart, -which he placed in his cap. The children ran to and fro emptying the -baskets into larger receptacles presided over by the matrons, who sat -under the shade of the trees and sorted the roses. The whole picture -was so bright and happy, in such harmony with the luxuriant beauty -surrounding it, that I was perfectly fascinated by it, and felt almost -envious of those happy beings (as I then thought them), the careless -simple children of nature. Their happiness was not for long. - -It is not a week since my attention was attracted by an article in one -of our papers describing the destruction of Kezanlik and the horrors the -writer had witnessed. The once smiling and fruitful district was become -the valley of the shadow of death. - -The general appearance of the villages in Bulgaria was very pleasing. -Those in the plains were not so well built or so picturesque as those -nestled among the hills, where the abundance and cheapness of the -material needed for building afforded greater facilities for more solid -and more artistic construction. Some of these villages had increased to -such an extent as to look like small towns. This was owing to the more -equal division of land among the people and the large number of landed -proprietors that cultivated it. In the midst of the difficulties that -surrounded them, such as an irregular and unequal system of taxation and -the encroachment and tyrannies of petty government officials, Zaptiehs, -Circassians, and sometimes native beys—the Bulgarian peasant, by his -steady and persevering habits of industry, managed to get on, and in -some places, when favored by circumstances, even to become wealthy. A -species of lending fund was organized (since the introduction of the -vilayet system) by the provincial government, chiefly for the benefit -of the peasant class of proprietors. The capital of this fund was -derived from an annual tax of two bushels of wheat (or their equivalent -in money) levied on every yoke of oxen owned by the farmers, and of -money contributed by those not engaged in agriculture, to the value of -one-tenth of their income-tax. The agricultural interest of the country -derived great advantage from this institution. It helped the small -farmers to borrow the sum needed for the cultivation of their crops and -the purchase of stock at a reasonable rate of interest, and enabled -those who had large estates to improve them without mortgaging; while -others were enabled to free their estates from the mortgages which -already burdened them. I believe that this excellent institution did not -long continue in working order, and that latterly it was beyond the reach -of those who really needed the money and might have benefited both their -farms and the State by its use. - -As a general rule, the Bulgarian peasant is not wealthy. There are -many villages that were so deeply in debt that for years they had not -been able to pay their taxes. A rising was occasioned in one of the -villages of the district of Sofia on this account. The Pasha of Sofia -had been pressed by the Porte to send some money to Constantinople; he, -on his part, had to collect it from the people. Calling up a Chaoush -of Zaptiehs, he told him to make the round of the villages, and, under -pain of instant dismissal, not to return empty-handed. The Zaptieh was a -bandit, like many of his brethren who have represented the police corps -since the diminution of pay and abolition of the excellent body that had -been organized by the wise policy of Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha. He marched -with his band into one of the villages and demanded that £400 should at -once be paid to him. The men were absent from the village, and the women, -not authorized to act in such matters, could not accede to his demand. -The Zaptiehs then seized some and locked them up in a barn, and, after -subjecting them to gross ill-treatment, left the village. The unfortunate -peasants, thus pressed by the authorities for taxes they could not pay, -and subjected to foul and violent treatment, revolted. - -A Bulgarian cottage is neither neat nor regular in construction. A number -of poles are stuck in the ground, secured to each other by wattles, -plastered within and without with clay and cow-dung mixed with straw. -The walls are generally whitewashed, and the roof raised to a dome -covered with tiles or thatch. The interior, divided into three rooms, is -neat and clean. One of the apartments is used as the living-room of the -family, another as sleeping-room, while the third is reserved for storing -provisions and such-like domestic purposes. These rooms are of tolerable -height, and from fifteen to twenty feet long and ten to fifteen wide. The -earthen floor is hardened and covered with coarse matting and woollen -rugs, the handiwork of the inmates. The furniture consists principally of -the thick woven tissues used for bedding and carpeting. - -Pictures of the saints and relics from Mount Athos adorn the walls; a -night-lamp may be seen suspended before the most venerated of these -objects, serving the double purpose of _veilleuse_ and mark of regard to -the saint. The shelves round the walls contain the crockery and shining -copper pans, a pair of pistols, and various other articles. The bedding, -neatly rolled up, is piled in one corner, while near the door stand -the jars of fresh water. Attached to these cottages are sheds for the -farm stock; and a cow-house, pig-sty, and poultry-house, an oven, and -sometimes a well, are inclosed in the yard, which is surrounded by walls -or fences, and guarded by dogs. - -In the hilly districts, the cottages of both Mohammedans and Christians -are constructed with considerable solidity. The peasants throughout -European Turkey are economical and frugal; their wants are few, and they -are content with very little. They seldom taste fresh meat, and generally -live on rye bread and maize porridge, or beans seasoned with vinegar and -pepper. The dairy produce is consumed at home, and on great occasions -a young pig or lamb serves as a _pièce de résistance_, washed down by -home-made wine. For pastry they have a cake called _Banitza_, much -relished by all. - -The clothing of the peasants is warm and comfortable. It is chiefly -composed of woollen stuffs, coarse linen, or cotton cloth. Every single -article of wearing apparel is woven, embroidered, and made up by the -hands of the women, who are at the same time spinners, weavers, and -tailors. When coming to town, and on _Prasnik_ days, coarse socks and -sandals are worn; these are also home-made, and their use on other -occasions is dispensed with. - -The Bulgarian peasant is strong and healthy in appearance. Both in -Bulgaria and Macedonia he is a diligent worker. He may not have the -smartness and activity of the English laborer, but I have often been -assured that, notwithstanding the numerous feast-days he keeps, at the -end of the year he is found to have completed almost as much work, for -the simple reason that he makes his working-day much longer, and his -whole family turn out to assist him; for the women of these districts -are as industrious as the men: no sooner are their household tasks -accomplished than they join the paterfamilias in the field. - -The German and Italian engineers who undertook the construction of the -railways in Macedonia repeatedly asserted that the labor of the natives -was equal to that of Europeans. In Macedonia, the Italian company, on -commencing operations, brought out five hundred Italian navvies to work -on the line; but on discovering that the natives, when well paid, well -treated, and shown how to set about it, did the work better than the -Italians, the latter were sent away. These gentlemen were most warm in -their praises of the steadiness of the men and of the excellence of their -work; but I must add that they did not omit to study the character of the -people and treat them with the kindness and consideration that, in the -long-run, never fail to improve and elevate even the most debased. - -The Turkish peasants, who are in the minority both in Bulgaria and -Macedonia, have also a healthy appearance, added in the former place to -a look of audacity, and in the latter to a look of ferocity. The Greek -peasant is tall and rather slim, with an intelligent look and a hardy and -self-reliant expression. - -All the rural population is sober. Greek and Bulgarian peasants have, -it is true, every now and then, an orgy; but there is no systematic -drunkenness. All the well-to-do farmers and peasants keep a provision -of wine and _raki_, or spirit, but their daily portion is moderate, and -excesses are only indulged in on feast-days, and even these are not of a -very serious nature. - -All the villages, both Greek and Bulgarian, have their _Kodja-Bashis_, -who see to the administration of the village, proportion the taxes, -settle petty disputes, attend to the arrival and reception of guests, -Zaptiehs and troops, and other wants or necessities of the community. - -The Turkish villages bear a more impoverished appearance and look more -neglected and decaying than the Christian. This is partly owing to the -seclusion of the women, who are little seen about, and, unlike the -Christian, never sit working at their doors. They are helpless; do no -field work, and very little weaving; and occupy themselves solely about -their in-door duties, and as these are not very heavy, they consequently -spend much of their time idly. The men are laborious, but not so active -and energetic as the Christians. They spend a good deal of time smoking -in the coffee-houses of the village, and are much poorer than the -Christians. This is due partly to their character and to the absence of -all help from their wives, but also in great part to the conscription, -which takes many valuable years of labor from the working-man. -Drunkenness is rare among Turks of this class, but when chance cases -occur they are of the most vicious and incurable kind. - -In Macedonia landed property is more unequally divided than in Bulgaria. -Great portions of it are united in large estates held by native beys, or -by pashas and officials at Constantinople. Some of these estates comprise -an immense area, of which only a part is cultivated. They are called -_Chiftliks_; the house, or _Konak_, on the estate, is the residence of -the owner when he visits it, for he seldom resides on his property, but -is represented by a _Soubashi_, or agent. The elegance, dimensions, -and comfort of the Konak depend, of course, upon the means and habits -of the owner. Some of the more ancient of these edifices are large and -spacious, built in the style of the old Konaks at Stamboul; but they -present a still more dilapidated and neglected appearance. Others of more -recent erection are smaller, but neither more comfortable nor more tidy -in appearance. Some, again, are in the form of turrets, which, if not -elegant, have at least the merit of being as strong as small fortresses. -A large court-yard contains, beside the house, the usual farm buildings. -On entering the yard of the best regulated _Chiftlik_, the first thing -that attracts the attention is the air of complete disorder and dirt -that pervades the premises. In one or two corners may be seen heaps of -refuse, in others broken carts and farm implements standing in the midst -of mud-pools and filth of every description, including a collection of -old brooms that could never have been worn out in sweeping the place. -Among these, children, fowls, geese, ducks, and dogs roam in freedom. The -interior of the Konak is usually divided into Haremlik and Selamlik, if -sufficiently large. One or two rooms in each department may be furnished -with a few hard sofas and dingy calico curtains. The room reserved for -the master sometimes presents a somewhat better appearance, its walls -decorated with fire-arms, sometimes of beautiful workmanship, and its -furniture boasting a deal table and a few chairs. When the Bey intends -paying a long visit to his estate and is accompanied by his family, -the bedding and other household necessaries are brought from town. It -is astonishing to see how little luggage a Turkish family travels with -on such an occasion. Each person will have a _boghcha_,[6] containing -his or her wearing apparel; the articles for general use comprise a few -candlesticks, petroleum lamps, perhaps two _Leyen_[7] and _Ibrik_[8] for -ablutions, which in the morning and at meal times make the round of the -house; kitchen utensils and a few tumblers, plates, etc., are all that is -needed for the _Villeggiatura_ of a Turkish family. - -The way in which the Bey spends his time on his estate is also regulated -by the means and tastes of the individual. If he be a sportsman, he -will have a battue on his lands and enjoy the pleasures of the chase. -Should he be addicted to drinking and debauchery, he has every means -of indulging his taste. His duties as landlord consist in regulating -accounts with his agent, hearing the cases that need his interference, -giving general instructions for future operations, and, above all, -realizing the profits. As to improving his estate, ameliorating the -condition of the tenants, beautifying the property by planting trees and -laying out gardens, such things are never thought of or known to have -been practised by any large land-owner in Macedonia. - -The harem, on their side, bring friends to stay with them; and the days -are spent in roaming out barefooted in the most _négligés_ costumes, -eating fruit, and helping to make the winter provisions, such as -_Tarhana Kouskous_, _Youfka_,[9] _Petmaiz_,[10] _Rechel_,[11] and -_Nichesteh_.[12] No needlework is brought to fill up the leisure hours of -country life; the only amusements are the indecent conversation and the -practical jokes of the parasites who never fail to accompany such parties. - -The villages owned by the bey are made up of the dwellings of the -tenants. These for the most part present a pitiable appearance of poverty -and misery, though their interiors are as clean as circumstances will -allow. They are constructed of mud and wattle, and divided into two -or three rooms, with small openings for windows, and open chimneys. A -fence incloses the house, together with the granary and cattle-shed. The -tenants are, with few exceptions, Christians, and are called _Yeradjis_. -They are poor, and look dejected and depressed, a demeanor I have -often heard superficial observers attribute to laziness and natural -worthlessness. This judgment may be just in some instances, but can by -no means be taken as generally correct; the people are as willing to -work and gain an honest living as those of any other land, but they -labor under certain disadvantages which merit attention, and which, when -carefully examined, will go far to justify their failings. - -A Yeradji’s house costs from £30 to £50; sometimes it is built by the -landlord, sometimes by the tenant himself. This may happen for instance -when the Yeradji has a son to marry and the landlord refuses to build -a house for him, in which case he has to build it at his own expense, -and should he leave the estate, receives no compensation for it. These -_Chiftliks_ are cultivated on the Metayer system as it is understood -and practised in Macedonia: the landlord provides the seed in the first -instance, the Yeradji finds his own yoke of oxen or buffaloes and -implements, tills the ground, sows the grain, reaps it, threshes and -winnows it, and when the seed for the next year and the tithes have been -deducted, shares the produce with the landlord. The Metayer system on -a luxuriant soil like that of Macedonia would not only pay, but would -also contribute to increase the wealth of the estate and improve the -wretched condition of the Yeradji if it were only properly and equitably -administered. But it is not difficult to point out capital failings in -the working of the system. When the grain is cut, a certain number of -sheaves, forty for instance, of the finest and heaviest, are set aside as -samples. These are threshed separately, and the seed for the next year, -the tithes, and the landlord’s share deducted according to this standard, -which leaves the Yeradji an iniquitously small proportion of the produce. -Under this unfair arrangement the Yeradji has to give for every head of -cattle he possesses six Constantinople kilés of barley and six of wheat -to the _Soubashi_ of his bey. - -In addition to these the Yeradji has to defray the heavy burden of his -own taxes, and the quartering of troops and Zaptiehs upon him, besides -other burdens, among which must be reckoned the wasted time of the -numerous feast-days, that deprive him of so much work in the year. Toil -as hard as he may, he can never become an independent and prosperous man. - -When these estates are transferred by sale or other causes, the Yeradji, -should he be in debt to the estate, goes with it into a sort of bondage -terminable under certain conditions, viz.: his industry and activity -and the honesty of the landlord and his agent. If on one hand the -superabundance of feast-days is to be looked upon as a hindrance to the -Yeradji freeing himself from debt, the unscrupulous manner in which -his master or the Soubashi reckons accounts opposes fresh obstacles to -the breaking of the chain that binds him to the soil. Farm accounts -are generally kept by means of _chetolas_, or notched sticks, a very -primitive mode, leading to many errors being committed, wittingly or -unwittingly. The consequence is that all tenants are more or less in debt -to their landlords in the same manner as all Turkish landlords are in -debt to the Government or to private individuals. - -The scarcity of Yeradjis and their disqualifications as tenants are now -a general complaint throughout Macedonia. It is not, however, surprising -that the better class of peasants should refuse to become Yeradjis, and -that the inferior classes, employed in their absence, should be found -fault with and be always in debt. - -Of late years some of these estates have passed into the hands of -Christians, by purchase or mortgage. These proprietors, as a rule, do not -reside on their estates, which are left in the charge of an agent, but -content themselves with an occasional visit. When this property is well -situated, and (as seldom happens) free from litigation, it is said to be -a good investment. - -Besides these Yeradji villages, there are the _Kephalochoria_, or -head-villages, composed of petty landholders, some of whom were formerly -wealthy, and might have continued so but for the injury done to them by -the forest regulations and the heavy impositions laid upon them by the -Government since the commencement of the war. - -One of the principal grievances peasants labor under is the _angaria_, -or statute-labor, into which man, beast, and cart are impressed at the -command of a mere Zaptieh, causing a loss of time, and injury to property -and cattle, which is often fatal to an otherwise well-to-do village. -A village on a main road is never free from all kinds of vexatious -impositions and the quartering of Zaptiehs and troops, who, whether they -pay or not for what they have consumed, extort sums of money from their -hosts, and are always careful to take away with them a declaration from -the _Kodja-Bashi_ that all accounts have been settled. - -The Angaria work lately exacted from the inhabitants of Cavalla for the -transport of flour for the use of the army was very nearly occasioning -troubles of a nature likely to prove fatal to the whole town. The -affair originated in the townspeople being required to carry on Sunday -loads which they willingly carried on Saturday. They refused, and shut -themselves up in their houses; whereupon an excess of zeal was displayed -by the police in trying to force them out by breaking into some of the -dwellings. This led to a slight disturbance which encouraged some noted -bad characters belonging to the Moslem population to take a menacing -attitude, and conspire to break into the offices of some of the principal -merchants of the town, ransack them, and then proceed to follow the -precedent with the rest of the town, threatening the Christians with -massacre. Panic soon spread, and the people shut themselves in their -churches. Men-of-war were telegraphed for, but luckily the local -authorities were able to put down the tumult, and order was restored -without loss of life. The incident is instructive in showing the -difficulties and dangers under which the Macedonian peasant carries on -his work. It is no wonder that the land is ill-cultivated. - -Among the peasant farmers of Roumelia there is no regular system of -rotation of crops observed; but with the occupants of large estates the -ordinary rule for rich lands is two wheat crops and one of oats, then -fallow one or more years, wheat, and then sesame. In Macedonia, where -arable land is more abundant, one year’s rest is allowed to some lands. -The only manure some of these lands obtain is from the treading of the -sheep on the land in early spring and after the harvest is reaped, and -yet the soil is naturally so rich that a generally bad harvest is of -rare occurrence. The mode of cultivation is very primitive, employing -much hand labor and involving much waste. Tillage is performed with the -native plough, on an average depth of four inches to the furrow. The -instrument used for the purpose is very rude and has only one handle. -The number of buffaloes used varies from two to five. In Roumelia some -large estate owners attempted introducing agricultural implements from -Europe, but threshing-machines alone met with any success. In Macedonia -even these proved a failure, as their management is not understood, and -fuel is difficult to procure in the interior. In some parts the grain is -scattered over the stubble and then ploughed in. Much of the harvest is -done by young women and girls in Roumelia and Macedonia. They and the -male harvesters hire themselves for the June harvest. On the 21st August -the harvest-home is celebrated. Decked in their holiday costumes, crowned -with garlands, and carrying bouquets composed of ears of corn, the -reapers proceed to the nearest town to dance and sing before the doors of -the principal houses and in the market-place. - -Threshing is performed in the most antique manner imaginable. The -instrument used for the purpose consists of two pieces of wood curved at -one end, fastened together, and studded with a number of flints. This -is attached at the curved end to a team of three or four horses. A girl -stands on this sledge and drives the team rapidly over the corn thrown -in bundles on the ground, which has been hardened and prepared for the -purpose. This process breaks the straw into very small lengths, making it -very palatable food for the cattle. The corn is winnowed by being thrown -up in the air with wooden shovels, the breeze carrying away the chaff. In -some parts of Macedonia the process is even more simple. A team of horses -is driven over the bundles of corn, treading out the grain. The women and -children also sit on the ground and help in the operation by beating it -with sticks. - -The principal crops raised in Roumelia are wheat, barley, maize, rye, -oats, sesame, and canary-seed. A considerable quantity of rice is grown -in some parts. In the south, towards Adrianople, the vine reaches some -degree of perfection, and excellent wine is made, which, when kept for -some years, resembles sherry in taste and color. The mulberry grows -abundantly, and before the silkworm disease appeared in those districts -formed a very profitable branch of industry. The mulberry gardens -sometimes comprise several acres of land; when they are near towns or -large villages, the silkworm nurseries are placed in them. The rearing -process begins in early spring, with the budding of the leaves, and lasts -over two months. It is a very tedious and laborious work, requiring great -neatness and attention, and is generally undertaken by the women. When -the crop succeeds and is free from disease, it is an interesting process -to watch. In Macedonia the same crops are grown, with the addition of a -large supply of excellent tobacco. The best comes from Drama and Cavalla. - -The cattle in Turkey, though small, are hardy and very serviceable. -Little attention has hitherto been paid by the Government towards -improving the breed. The sheep, too, are small, and their wool is of an -inferior quality. Those in Asiatic Turkey are mostly of the Karamanian, -or broad-tailed, breed. Their fat is much used by the natives for -cookery, and their milk made into cheese. Sheep-farming is carried on -to a great extent both in European and Asiatic Turkey. Buffaloes for -draft purposes and ploughing, and camels as beasts of burden, are very -numerous, especially in Asia Minor. Great numbers of goats are also kept; -their milk is much used for making cheese. The Angora goats are (I need -hardly say) much prized for their fleece. Their introduction into other -parts of the country has been attempted several times, but has invariably -failed. They do not thrive away from their native mountains. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -TURKISH HOUSES. - - The Turkish Quarter—A _Konak_—Haremlik and Selamlik—Arrangement - of Rooms—Furniture—The _Tandour_—Turkish Clemency towards - Vermin—Bordofska—An Albanian _Konak_—The Pasha and his Harem—A - Turkish _Bas-bleu_—Ruins of _Konaks_ outside Uskup—The Last of - the Albanian Deri-Beys—A _Konak_ at Bazardjik—The Widow of the - Deri-Bey—_Kiosks_—_Koulas_—A _Koula_ near Salonika—Christian - Quarters—_Khans_—Furniture—Turkish Baths, Public and - Private—Cafés. - - -Bright sunshine, fresh air, ample space, and pure water are indispensable -to the felicity of a Turk. Both in the capital and in provincial towns -the Turkish quarter is invariably situated in the most healthy and -elevated parts, and occupies, on account of the gardens belonging to -almost every Turkish house, double the ground of the Christian and Jewish -quarters. These gardens are all more or less cultivated, but, except in -the capital, where horticulture has obtained some degree of perfection, -they seldom display either taste or order. A few fine mulberry or other -fruit trees may be seen here and there overshadowing patches of ground -bordered with box or tiles, and planted with roses, lettuces, and garlic; -and in the gardens of the better class of houses one may often see pretty -fountains. - -The streets of the Turkish quarter are narrow and irregular, and, except -in the principal thoroughfares, look solitary and deserted; they are, -however, cleaner than those of the Christian and Jewish quarters, and -this for three good reasons: they are little frequented; they are not -encumbered with rubbish, owing to the space the Turks possess in their -court-yards and gardens, where they can heap up most of the refuse that -the Christians have to throw into the streets; and they are better -patrolled by the street dogs, for these famous scavengers, being under -the special protection of the Mussulman, are more numerous in the Turkish -than in the other quarters, and eat up all the animal and vegetable -refuse. - -A Turkish _konak_, or mansion, is a large building, very irregular in -construction, and without the slightest approach to European ideas -of comfort or convenience. This building is divided into two parts, -the _haremlik_ and the _selamlik_; the former and larger part is -allotted to the women, the latter is occupied by the men and is used -for the transaction of business, the purposes of hospitality, and -formal receptions. The stables are attached to it, forming part of the -ground-floor, and rendering some of the upper rooms rather unpleasant -quarters. A narrow passage leading from the _mabeyn_ (or neutral ground) -to the _haremlik_ joins the two establishments. The materials used for -building are wood, lime, mud, and stone for the foundations. A Konak -generally consists of two stories, one as nearly as possible resembling -the other, with abundant provision for the entrance of light and air. -A large hall, called the _devankhané_, forms the entrance into the -Haremlik; it is surrounded by a number of rooms of various sizes. To -the right, the largest serves as a sort of ante-chamber, the rest are -sleeping apartments for the slaves, with the exception of one called -_kahvé-agak_, where an old woman is always found sitting over a charcoal -brazier, ready to boil coffee for every visitor. A large double staircase -leads to the upper story, on one side of which is the _kiler_, or -store-room, and on the other the lavatories. The floors are of deal, -kept scrupulously clean and white, and in the rooms generally covered -with mats and rugs. The furniture is exceedingly poor and scanty; a hard -uncomfortable sofa runs along two and sometimes three sides of the room; -a _shelté_, or small square mattress, occupies each corner, surmounted -by a number of cushions piled one upon the other in regular order. The -corner of the sofa is the seat of the Hanoum, and by the side of the -cushions are placed her mirror and _chekmegé_. - -A small European sofa, a few chairs placed stiffly against the wall, a -console supporting a mirror and decorated with two lamps or candlesticks, -together with a few goblets and a small table standing in the centre with -cigarettes and tiny ash-trays, complete the furniture of the grandest -provincial _Buyukoda_. Though some Turks possess many rare and curious -objects, such as ancient armor and china, which, if displayed, would -greatly add to the elegance and cheerfulness of their apartments, these -are always kept packed away in boxes. - -Windows are the great inconvenience in Turkish houses; they pierce the -walls on every side, with hardly the space of a foot between them. The -curtains are usually of coarse printed calico, short and scanty, with the -edges pinked out, so that when washed they present a miserably ragged -appearance. The innumerable windows render the houses ill-adapted either -for hot or cold weather; the burning rays of the sun pour in all day in -summer, and the frames are so badly constructed that the cold wind enters -in all directions in winter. - -Bedsteads are not used by the Turks; mattresses are nightly spread on -the floor, and removed in the morning into large cupboards, built into -the walls of every room. These walls, being whitewashed and roughly -furnished, increase the uncomfortable appearance of the rooms, which at -night are dimly lighted by one or two sperm candles or a petroleum lamp, -the successors of the ancient tallow candle. The halls and passages are -left in obscurity, and the servants find their way about as well as they -can. - -The _mangals_, or braziers, are the warming apparatus generally used by -the Turks in their houses. These are made of different metal; some fixed -in wooden frames, others in frames of wrought brass of very elegant and -costly workmanship. The fuel consists of a quantity of wood ashes in -which burning charcoal is half buried. - -The _tandour_, now nearly fallen into disuse, is also worthy of notice. -It consists of a square deal table with a foot-board covered with tin, -on which a brazier stands; the whole is covered with a thick quilted -counterpane which falls in heavy folds on a sofa running round it, -covering the loungers up to the chin, and giving one the idea of a -company of people huddled together in bed. The tandour is still very much -used in Smyrna, and round it the Levantine ladies love to sit during -the winter months. More than one English traveller, newly arrived in -the country, when ushered into a drawing-room, is said to have rushed -frantically out again under the impression that he had surprised the -family in bed. - -The furniture of the _selamlik_ is similar to that of the Haremlik. -A family often removes from one set of apartments to another; this -propensity is doubtless stimulated by the desire to escape from the -assaults of the fleas and other vermin that swarm in the rooms. When once -these insects obtain a footing in a house, it is difficult to get rid -of them, partly on account of the unwillingness of the Turks to destroy -animal life of any description, and partly because these insects take up -their abode between the badly joined planks under the mats and rugs. - -I was once visiting at the house of a Pasha lately arrived at Adrianople. -The Hanoum, a charming woman, was complaining bitterly to me of her rest -having been much disturbed the previous night by the abundance of these -creatures in her apartment. One of the slaves modestly remarked that she -had occupied herself all the morning in scalding the floor of the room -her mistress had slept in, and expressed a hope that she would not be -longer troubled in that respect. A general outcry against this slave’s -want of humanity was raised by all the women present, and a chorus of -“Yuzuk! Gunah!” (Pity! Sin!) was heard. It is curious that they raised -no such outcry when they heard of the frightful destruction of human -life that took place a few years later among their Christian neighbors in -Bulgaria, but a few miles from their own secure homes! - -When in the interior I had the opportunity of visiting some Konaks worthy -of note; one of these called Bordofska, situated in the heart of Albania, -some leagues from Uskup, had been built as a country residence by the -famous Hevni Pasha. It was an immense building, solidly constructed of -stone at the expense and with the forced labor of the people, who were -pressed into the work. It occupied the middle of a large garden that -must have been beautiful in its time, and being surrounded by high walls -bore a strong resemblance to a feudal castle. This fine old building -had become the property of Osman Pasha, a venerable Turk of the old -school; all the furniture was European, and of a very rich and elegant -description, but looked worn and neglected. The aged Pasha received me -with the politeness and hospitality his nation knows so well how to show -when it pleases. - -After an interchange of civilities, and having partaken of coffee, I was -invited to visit the harem. A hideous black monster, the chief of the -eunuchs, led the way through a long dark passage lined with forty of his -brethren, not more pleasant-looking than himself, who salaamed to me as I -passed. - -My then limited experiences of the customs of harems made me regard this -gloomy passage and its black occupants with feelings of curiosity, not -unmingled with dread. The chief wife of Osman Pasha (for I believe he had -six others, besides slaves) was a very fat, elderly person, who showed -little disposition to give me the hearty and civil reception I had just -received from her husband, and I soon discovered that she belonged to -that peculiar class of Turkish women called _Soffous_—the _bas-bleus_ -of Mohammedanism, bigoted zealots of the straitest sect of the Moslem -Pharisees. - -On entering the room I found the Hanoum seated in her sofa corner, from -which she did not rise but merely gave a bend of the head, with a cold -“Né yaparsen?”[13] in response to my deep Oriental obeisance. She spoke -very little, and the few words she was obliged to utter were intermingled -with _Duvas_ she muttered; perhaps asking forgiveness for the sin she -was committing in holding direct intercourse with a _Giaour_. The -other wives, who were all pretty and gay, tried to make amends for the -ill-humor of their _doyenne_, and were as kind and amiable as etiquette -would allow in her presence. - -Four other Konaks of the same description may still be seen outside the -town of Uskup, standing alongside in melancholy decay. The first and -largest was intended for the residence of the once powerful Hevni Pasha -himself; the second for his son, and the two others for his daughters. I -was deeply impressed by the sight of these imposing ruins, and visited -them with the double object of satisfying my curiosity and ascertaining -the possibility of lodging myself in some habitable corner of one of -them during my stay in the neighborhood. The interior was well worth -seeing, and comprised splendid apartments, the walls and ceilings being -decorated with gildings and elaborate carvings in walnut wood. The baths -of sculptured marble could still be taken as models of that luxurious -and indispensable appendage to a Turkish house. A wing of one of these -buildings was habitable; but when I proposed to install myself in it, -some natives who had accompanied our party objected, saying the houses -were _hursous_ and _nahletli_, having been cursed by the people at whose -expense, and by whose unrequited labor, they had been erected. Even -the beasts, they said, that had carried the heavy loads of building -material were seen to look up to heaven and groan under the pressure of -their burdens; and a prophet of the place had foretold the downfall of -the owner on the day of the completion of the work. This prophecy was -fulfilled to the letter, for on the day the Pasha was to have entered his -new abode, the Turkish Government, suspicious of his growing power and -wealth, managed to lay hands upon him. - -This Deri-Bey[14] is said to have been a wonderfully intelligent man, -counterbalancing many of his tyrannical actions by the zealous care he -showed in promoting the individual safety of his people and in increasing -their prosperity. Though entirely uneducated, his natural talents were -great enough to enable him to comprehend the advantages of modern -civilization, and to lead him to introduce some recent inventions into -the country; he also attempted to render the river Vardar (the ancient -Axius) navigable. - -Hevni Pasha and his _voïvodes_, or captains, twenty-five or thirty years -ago, may be looked upon as the last representatives of the chiefs of the -wild Albanian clans, who at that time still refused to recognize the -authority of the Porte, and when pressed to do so broke out into open -rebellion. Badjuksis Ahmet Pasha, then a mere colonel, marched with his -regiment upon Uskup, one of the principal strongholds of the Albanians, -and, partly by stratagem and partly by threats, managed to penetrate into -the town and take possession of the fortress. In the meantime, Frank -Omar Pasha, the field-marshal, came with some regular troops to his -assistance, having previously defeated the Albanians in battle at Kaplan, -and dispersed them into the plains. He surrounded the town, and invited -Hevni Pasha with his captains and the principal beys of the town into the -fortress to hear the Imperial Firman read. This ceremony being concluded -without disturbance, Hevni Pasha and such of his party as were likely -to continue their resistance to the orders of the Porte were requested -by the military authorities to mount at once the horses that had been -surreptitiously prepared for them, and were conveyed under escort to -Constantinople, whence they were sent into exile, their families being -sent after them, and their goods confiscated. Notice was next given to -the rest of the native beys that, should any of them be found in direct -or indirect communication with the scattered bands of Albanians, or -sending provisions to them, the guns of the fortress would be turned upon -the town, which would be razed to the ground. This was a master-stroke -on the part of the Government; the Albanians, after a few vain attempts -at Monastir, Vrania, Philippopolis, and other places, to resist the -authority of the Sultan, partially submitted and returned to their -impregnable mountain fastnesses; not, however, without having committed -some barbarities similar to those recently enacted in Bulgaria. - -During my trip to Bazardjik, I visited another konak: it belonged to -Kavanos Oglou, another of the too famous Deri-Beys, who had acquired -complete control over his part of the country, and who was similarly -seized by the Porte, despoiled of his possessions, and sent into exile. -This konak was an immense quadrangular building, inclosing a court-yard -with a veranda running round it supported on massive wooden pillars. Upon -this veranda a hundred rooms opened. The house was low and clumsy in -appearance, but timber of remarkable size and solidity had been used in -its construction. - -At the time of my visit it was abandoned; the doors and windows had -disappeared, giving to the edifice an appearance of solitude and -emptiness, rendered still more dismal by the presence of innumerable -bats and owls, its only occupants. The old dungeon, with its cruel -associations, could still be traced in a low building, about thirty -feet long and twenty wide, surrounded by a wall of immense thickness -and strongly roofed. For windows nothing was seen but a few slits. The -interior on one side was occupied by a double wall, with just enough -space between to admit a person in a standing position; in this the -offenders against the laws, and the victims of vendetta, were squeezed, -secured by heavy chains that hung at equal distances from iron rings. -A well, now filled up, occupied the centre, into which the heads of -decapitated prisoners were thrown, to disappear in the dismal darkness of -its depths. - -I was not sorry to leave this cheerless scene of former despotism and -present decay, and to turn my steps towards a gate on the opposite -side of the garden leading into a kiosk more modern in appearance than -the house, though bearing traces of decay. This last refuge of a once -powerful family was occupied by Azizié Hanoum Effendi, the much-respected -widow of the tyrant. Her two sons, who occupied inferior positions under -Government, were absent. The descendants of Kavanos Oglou continue to -be much respected in the country in spite of their downfall and the -confiscation of their property. The venerable lady into whose presence I -was ushered bore, notwithstanding her advanced age, traces of a beauty -that must have been perfect in its bloom. She was a fine tall blonde -of the Circassian type, of a commanding appearance, softened by the -sweet dignity of fallen sovereignty, before whom I felt I could bow the -knee and kiss the hand she graciously extended to me. I had a long and -interesting conversation with her on the state of the country, which -she described as having been more flourishing under the rule of her -husband than at this time. “But,” said she, with a sigh, “God ordains all -things, casting some into misfortunes and raising others into prosperity, -according as Kismet has prepared for all. _Allah Kerim!_” - - * * * * * - -Every one has heard or read of a _kiosk_, the indispensable pleasure-seat -of a Turk. The imperial and other kiosks on the Bosphorus are miniature -palaces, luxuriously furnished, whose elegance and beauty are only -equalled by the incomparable advantages of their situation on the richest -of soils and beneath the sunniest of skies. Kiosks may be situated -anywhere, and may comprise a suite of apartments or be limited to one; -they are light and airy in style, generally commanding a fine prospect, -often floored with marble, and containing a _shadravan_, or sculptured -fountain, playing in the midst; a range of sofas runs all round the -walls, on which the Turk loves to sit for hours together lost in -meditation, and in the fumes of his inseparable companion the _nargilé_. - -The interiors of old kiosks and konaks used to be ornamented with a -peculiar open woodwork of arabesque design decorating the walls and -ceilings, but this is now completely out of fashion. The ceiling of a -house I formerly inhabited was decorated with this work, and attracted -the attention of all travellers. One, an Englishman, was so much struck -with it on entering the room, that hardly had he bowed to the company -before he asked permission to make a sketch of it. We were so accustomed -to similar displays of originality in British tourists that the request -was at once granted. - -A _koula_ is a high turret found on every large _chiftlik_, or farm, and -used as a refuge in case of assault by brigands; it is a quadrangular -edifice, from three to four stories high; the lowest is used as a granary -and for storing seeds and other valuable property belonging to the farm; -the others, light and airy, are reserved for the habitation of the owner -of the chiftliks during his occasional visits to his property. - -The last stronghold of this description I visited was the property of a -British subject in the district of Salonika. It was solidly constructed, -with massive iron doors and shutters, and some years ago resisted the -assault of a band of brigands who besieged it for three days, till the -arrival of a corps of Zaptiehs occasioned their hasty disappearance. The -marks of their bullets may still be seen on the doors and shutters, but -no further damage was done. - -There is no very marked difference between the quarters of the town -occupied by Christians and those occupied by Turks. The Christians’ -houses are built very much in the same style, though they are not so -large, and open directly on the street, with shops in their lower stories -in the principal thoroughfares. The windows are free from the lattices -invariably seen in a Turkish _haremlik_. There is much more life and -animation in a Christian or Jewish quarter, partly in consequence of one -house being occupied by several families. This is especially the case -among the lower orders of Jews, where one may count as many families as -there are rooms in a house. - -In most Eastern towns the Jewish quarters, containing the fish, meat, -and vegetable markets, are the most unclean, and consequently the most -unhealthy. Few sanitary regulations exist, and little attention is paid -to them or to the laws of hygiene. The streets are frequently nearly -impassable, and some of the dwellings of the poor are pestilential, the -hotbeds of every epidemic that visits the country. - -Most of the ancient khans, warehouses, and bazars at Stamboul, and in -large provincial towns, are fine solidly constructed edifices. The bazars -are of a peculiarly Oriental style of architecture, and appear well -adapted to the use for which they were designed—the display and sale of -goods. In the interior, however, many of these bazars are neglected, and -some left to decay have been by degrees abandoned by the tenants of the -innumerable shops they once contained. - -The _charshi_, or market-place, consists of an incongruous assemblage of -shops, huddled together without any attempt at architecture or regard -to appearances; for the most part protected only by large shutters that -are raised in the morning and lowered at night. A low platform of boards -occupies the greater part of the interior, in the front corner of which -the shopkeeper sits on a little carpet, cross-legged, with a wooden safe -by his side and his account-book and pipe within easy reach, ever ready -to attend to the wants of his customers. Rows of shelves, constructed in -recesses in the walls, serve as receptacles for his goods. - -The _khans_, or warehouses, in towns are used as deposits for merchandise -and for the transaction of business by merchants and bankers who -have offices in them. A series of hostelries of all descriptions and -dimensions, also called khans, some built of stone and others of timber, -exist in large numbers in all parts of the country, serving as hotels -to travellers and store-rooms for merchandise during transit. The ruins -of the most ancient of these, built by the Turks at the time of the -conquest, and used by them as blockhouses, still exist on the main roads -and in some of the principal towns. By the side of these substantial -stone buildings have arisen a number of miserable edifices dignified with -the name of khan, with whose discomforts the weary traveller too often -makes sad acquaintance. - -The furniture of wealthy Greek houses in Constantinople is European; -in those of Jews and Armenians of high position it is a compromise -between European and Turkish. All Orientals are fond of display; they -like to build large houses and ornament their reception rooms in a gaudy -manner; but the _ensemble_ lacks finish and comfort. At A⸺ I had fixed -upon an old Turkish konak as my residence; but on coming to inhabit it -I discovered that extensive alterations and improvements must be made -before it approached in the remotest degree to my idea of an English -home. Some officious person, at a loss to understand the object of -these changes, gave notice to the proprietor that his tenant was fast -demolishing his house, upon which the good old Turk asked if she were -building it up again, and being answered in the affirmative, quietly -said, “_Brak yupsen!_” (_laissez faire!_) - -The furniture found in the dwellings of all the lower classes is much -the same throughout the country; a Turkish sofa, a few deal chairs, and -a table serving for every purpose. The bedding is placed on the floor at -night and removed in the morning. But if furniture is scanty, there is no -lack of carpets and copper kitchen utensils, both being considered good -investments by the poor. - -Before concluding this chapter I must not forget to describe one of the -most necessary adjuncts to a Turkish house—the bath. In a large house, -or konak, this is by far the best fitted and most useful part of the -whole establishment. A Turkish bath comprises a suite of three rooms; the -first—the _hammam_—is a square apartment chiefly constructed of marble, -and terminating in a kind of cupola studded with a number of glass bells, -through which the light enters. A deep reservoir, attached to the outer -wall, with an opening into the bath, contains the water, half of which -is heated by a furnace built under it. A number of pipes, attached to -the furnace, circulate through the walls of the bath and throw great -heat into it. One or two graceful fountains conduct the water from the -reservoir, and on each side of the fountain is a low wooden platform -which serves as a seat for the bather, who sits cross-legged, and -undergoes a long and complicated process of washing and scrubbing, with a -variety of other toilet arrangements too numerous to mention. - -The second room, called the _saouklouk_, is constructed very much in -the same style as the first, but is smaller, and has no furniture but a -marble platform upon which mattresses and cushions are placed for the -use of those who wish to repose between intervals of bathing, or do not -wish to face the cooler temperature of the _hammam oda_. This room is -furnished with sofas, on which the bathers rest and dress after quitting -the bath. - -Turkish women are very fond of their bath, and are capable of remaining -for hours together in that hot and depressing atmosphere. They smoke -cigarettes, eat fruits and sweets, and drink sherbet, and finally, after -all the blood has rushed to their heads, and their faces are crimson, -they wrap themselves in soft burnouses, and pass into the third or outer -chamber, where they repose on a luxurious couch until their system -shakes off part of the heat and languor that the abuse of these baths -invariably produces. A bath being an indispensable appendage to every -house, one is to be found in even the poorest Turkish dwelling. Some -more or less resemble a regular _hammam_, others are of a very simple -form—often a tiny cabinet attached to one of the rooms, containing a -bottomless jar buried in the ground, through which the water runs. I -consider these little baths, which are neither expensive nor require much -space, excellent institutions in the houses of the poor as instruments -of cleanliness. The constant and careful ablutions of the Turk are -the principal preventives to many diseases, from which they are, -comparatively speaking, freer than most nations. - -The public baths, resorted to by all classes, are to be found in numbers -in every town. They are fine buildings, exact copies of the old Roman -baths, many of which are still in existence, defying the march of -centuries and the work of decay. Like the home baths, they consist of -three spacious apartments. The outer bath-room is a large stone building -lighted by a cupola, with wooden platforms running all round, upon which -small mattresses and couches are spread for the men; but the women, not -having the same privilege, are obliged to bring their own rugs, upon -which they deposit their clothes, tied up in bundles, when they enter, -and repose and dress upon them on coming out of the bath. A fountain of -cold water is considered indispensable in this apartment, and in the -basin surrounding it may be seen water-melons floating about, placed -there to cool while their owners are in the inner bath. - -The bath itself contains a number of small rooms, each of which can be -separately engaged by a party, or used in common with the other bathers. -It is needless to say that the baths used by men are either separate or -are open at different hours. - -Turkish women, independently of their home baths, must resort at least -once a month to the public _hammam_. They like it for many reasons, but -principally because it is the only place where they can meet to chat over -the news of the day and their family affairs. - -Some of these baths, especially the mineral ones at Broussa, are of the -finest description. Gurgutly, containing the sulphureous springs, is -renowned for the remarkable efficacy of its waters, its immense size, -and the elegant and curious style of its architecture. It comprises -two very large apartments, one for the use of the bathers previous to -their entering the bath, the other the bath itself. This is an immense -room, with niches all round containing fountains in the form of shells, -which receive part of the running stream; in front of these are wooden -platforms, on which the bathers collect for the purpose of washing their -heads and scrubbing their bodies. On the left, as you enter, stands an -immense marble basin, seven feet in length and three in width, into which -the mother stream gushes with impetuous force. From this it runs into a -large round basin about ten feet in depth, in which dozens of women and -children may be seen swimming, an exhausting process, owing to the high -temperature of the water and its sulphureous qualities. This wonderful -basin is in the shape of a reversed dome, sunk into the marble floor, -which is supported underneath by massive columns. - -Coffee-houses are to be met with everywhere, and are very numerous in -the towns. The Turks resort to them when they leave their homes early in -the morning, to take a cup of coffee and smoke a nargilé before going to -business. In the evening, too, they step in to have a chat with their -neighbors and hear the news of the day. Turkish newspapers have become -pretty common of late in these quiet rendezvous, and are to be found -in the most unpretending ones. Few of these establishments possess an -inviting exterior or can boast any arrangements with regard to comfort -or accommodation; a few mats placed upon benches, and a number of -common osier-seated chairs and stools, are the seats afforded in them. -Small gardens may be found attached to some, while others atone for the -deficiencies of their interiors by the lovely situations they occupy in -this picturesque and luxurious land. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE SERAGLIO. - - The Chain of Palaces along the Bosphorus—_Eski Serai_, the - oldest of the Seraglios—Its Site and Appearance—Beauty - of its Gardens—Contrasts—Its Destruction—_Dolma-Bagché_ - and _Begler-Bey_—Enormous Expenditure of Abdul-Medjid and - Abdul-Aziz on Seraglios—_Yahlis_, or Villas—_Begler-Bey_ - furnished for Illustrious Guests—Delicate Attentions of the - Sultan—Furniture of Seraglios—Mania of Abdul-Aziz—Everything - Inflammable thrown into the Bosphorus—Pleasure - Grounds—Interior Divisions of the Seraglio—The _Mabeyn_—The - Padishah _en négligé_—Imperial Expenditure—Servants, - etc.—Food—Wages—Stables—Fine Art—Origin of the Inmates of - the Seraglio—Their Training—Adjemis—A Training-School for - the Seraglio—Ranks in the Seraglio—The _Bash Kadin Effendi_ - and other Wives—_Hanoums_, or Odalisks—Favorites—Equal - Chances of Good Fortune—Ceremonies attending the Sultan’s - Selection of an Odalisk—A Slave seldom sees the Sultan - more than once—Consequent Loss of Dignity and Misery for - the rest of her Life—Precarious Position of Imperial - Favorites—Intrigues and Cabals in the Seraglio—Good - Fortune of the Odalisk who bears a Child—Fashions in - Beauty—Golden Hair—The _Validé Sultana_—The _Hasnadar - Ousta_—Ignorance and Vice of the Seraglio Women—The Better - Class—The Consumptive Class—The “Wild Serailis”—Amusements - of the Seraglio—Theatre—Ballet—Shopping—Garden Parties in - Abdul-Medjid’s Time—Imperial Children—Foster-Brothers—Bad - Training and Deficient Education of Turkish Princes and - Princesses. - - -There are more than twenty Imperial Palaces, variously named, according -to their size and character, seraglios, yahlis, and kiosks, scattered -about Constantinople, some on the Bosphorus, others inland, but all -equally to be admired as striking spectacles of Eastern magnificence. -Dolma-Bagché and Beshiktash, linked with other mansions and kiosks, -mingling European architecture with Oriental decoration, form a chain of -splendid palaces such as can be seen nowhere but on the historic shores -of the Bosphorus. - -The most renowned of the Ottoman palaces was Eski Serai, on the point of -land where the Bosphorus enters the Sea of Marmora. Built on the site of -old Byzantium by Mehemet II., this celebrated palace was enlarged and -beautified according to the wants and caprices of each successive sultan. -It presented to the eye a crowded pile of vast irregular buildings, -crowned by gilded cupolas and girt with shaded gardens. Beautiful -mosques, varied with hospitals and other charitable foundations, were -scattered about in detached groups, amid clusters of stately cypresses -and the burial-grounds of kings. Here might be seen a gorgeous pavilion, -there a cool jet, here again a mysterious building with high impenetrable -walls and latticed windows, the monotonous dwelling-place of bright -young creatures who, once engaged, were rarely permitted to regain their -freedom. And there, dwarfing all else, rose the tall white minarets, -accenting their clear outlines against the tender sky of the East. In -this irregular confusion the artist saw one of the choicest sights of -the capital; and a closer view offered to the curious a clear and minute -conception of the palace of an Eastern despot. - -All was there: the gorgeous and the squalid, the refined and the -loathsome, the splendid state rooms of the Vicar of God, beside the -gloomy cages of those unhappy princes, who, cursed by their royal blood, -were left to pine in solitude until death came to settle accounts -between them and the tyrants who had doomed them to their chains. There -were the charitable establishments whence the poor never turned away -unrefreshed,—and there the dungeon where the powerful were left to starve -and die. There was the gilded kiosk where the Padishah smoked his chibouk -and issued his decrees,—whose terrible ordinances were carried out in -the adjoining chamber-of-blood. Beyond were the mausoleums of his race, -lifting up their rich adornment in the chill beauty of the city of the -dead—severed by a little space from the scarcely more splendid dwellings -of the living. There lay those doomed princes to whom a life without -liberty and ofttimes a cruel death were ill balanced by the useless -splendor of their tombs. “What is the use of thy getting children,” once -with a mother’s bitterness said a Circassian slave who had borne a son to -one of the sultans, “when they are only destined to people the tombs?” - -In later times Eski Serai was abandoned to the use of the harems of -deceased sultans, who were sometimes shut up there for life. Its last -occupants, the multitudes of wives, slaves, and odalisks belonging once -to Sultan Abdul-Medjid, unable any longer to endure its dismal solitude, -are reported to have set it on fire in the hope of obtaining a dwelling -more congenial to the habits of comparative liberty they had acquired. At -all events the palace was destroyed, and a vast number of valuable and -rare objects perished with it. The site is now occupied by gardens, and -a railroad runs across it; the gem of the Golden Horn has vanished. - -Dolma-Bagché, built by Sultan Mahmoud II., was a large wooden edifice. -This and Begler-Bey became the usual winter and summer residences -of the imperial family. Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on coming to power, -rebuilt Dolma-Bagché and several other kiosks and seraglios. Gentle, -sensitive, refined, and loth to shed blood, he is said to have evinced -a superstitious aversion to the old imperial palaces whose splendor was -tainted by the memory of the crimes of his ancestors. He, and still more -his brother Adbul-Aziz, spent incalculable sums in the erection and -decoration of seraglios. The latter’s yearly expenses on this alone were -reckoned to have exceeded £580,000—one of the items which ran away with -the money which trusting or speculative capitalists of Europe had been -foolish enough to supply for the future benefit and improvement of Turkey -(not, of course, forgetting a slice in the pie for themselves), but which -has fallen somewhat short of the end for which it was designed: Turkish -bondholders do not seem to consider themselves of all men the most -fortunate, and Turkey itself has not gained by loading its exchequer with -a mountain of debt for the sake of the reckless extravagance of imperial -luxury. - -Holding a middle place between the great palaces and the kiosks, the -sultans of Turkey possess _yahlis_, or villas, not less beautiful than -the mansions of greater pretensions. These villas often rise on the -shores of the Bosphorus from a bed of verdure. Generally they are closed -and silent, with a solitary guard standing sentinel at the gate; but -every now and then one of them may be seen lighted up, as by magic, and -teeming with life, with the rumbling of carriages to and fro, and the -clashing of arms. At the sound of the trumpet a strain of sweet music -strikes up, and the approach of a water-procession of caïques swiftly -gliding towards the gates announces the arrival of the august master. - -Sometimes the sultan goes alone to spend a few hours of _dolce far -niente_; at others he makes an appointment with some special favorite -to meet him there. Abdul-Medjid’s known partiality for Bessimé Sultana, -the most worthless but most beloved of his wives, induced him on one -occasion, while on a visit to his Yahli at the sweet waters of Asia, -to send his own yacht for her in the dead of night, alarming the whole -seraglio by its unexpected appearance at so unusual an hour. - -One of the three palaces most renowned for beauty of architecture -and magnificence of furniture is Begler-Bey. It is worthy of the use -for which it has been selected, of being the palace offered for the -occupation of illustrious foreign visitors. The arrangements made in it -for one imperial guest were presided over by Sultan Abdul-Aziz in person, -and the private apartments of the illustrious lady were perfect copies of -those in her own palace. The fastidiousness of the host on this occasion -was so great, that on discovering that the tints on the walls and -furniture slightly differed from those he had seen when on his European -tour, he ordered that everything should be removed and new ones brought -from Paris. The fair visitor is said to have been equally surprised -and flattered by the delicate attention that had not omitted even the -smallest object of her toilette table. The Sultan, in truly Oriental -fashion, caused a new pair of magnificent slippers, embroidered with -pearls and precious stones, to be placed before her bed every morning. - -Since the time of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, the furniture of the imperial -palaces and kiosks has been made to order in Europe. It is of so costly -a description as to be equal in value to the edifices themselves. On -entering Tcheragan, and some of the other serails, the eye is dazzled -by the gilt decorations, gold and silver brocades, splendid mirrors -and chandeliers, and carved and inlaid furniture they contain. In -Abdul-Medjid’s time, clocks and china vases were the only ornaments -of the apartments. The absence of pictures, books, and the thousand -different objects with which Europeans fill their houses gave the rooms, -even when inhabited, a comfortless and unused appearance. - -Some years ago, when visiting the private apartments of this Sultan, I -noticed a splendid antique vase. Lately, on speaking of this priceless -object to a seraglio lady, I was informed that it had been thrown into -the Bosphorus by order of its owner. This act of imperial extravagance -was caused by the supposition that the vase had been handled by some -person afflicted with consumption. - -Sultan Abdul-Aziz, a year or two before his dethronement, possessed -with a nervous terror of fire, caused all inflammable articles to be -taken out of the palaces, and replace them by articles manufactured of -iron. The stores of fuel were cast into the Bosphorus, and the lights -of the Sultan’s apartments were placed in basins of water. The houses -in the neighborhood of the Seraglio were purchased by the Sultan, their -occupants forced to quit at a very short notice, their furniture turned -out, and the buildings pulled down at once. These tyrannical precautions -served to heighten the general discontent of the capital against the -Padishah especially among the poor, who justly complained that they might -have benefited by what had been wasted; while some of the wealthy, though -not more contented, profited by the freak, and carried off many of the -rich objects taken out of the palace. - -The vast pleasure-grounds attached to the seraglios are laid out with -a tasteful care, which, added to the beauty of the position and the -fertility of the soil, goes far to justify the renown of the gardens of -the Bosphorus. The hills, valleys, and gorges that surround them are -covered with woods; here orchards and vineyards, weighed down with their -rich burdens, lend color to the scene; there the slopes are laid out -in terraces, whose perpendicular sides are clothed with the contrasted -shades of the sombre ivy-leaf and the bright foliage of the Virginian -creeper. Banks of flowers carry the thoughts back to the hanging gardens -of Babylon. Nature and art have ornamented these delightful spots with -lakes, fountains, cascades, aviaries, menageries, and pavilions. “Here -in cool grot” every opportunity is offered for love-making, and if this -one is already engaged, there are highly romantic nooks, concealed by -overhanging boughs, that will answer the purpose as well. Trees and -plants seem to rejoice in the bright sunshine; the birds’ songs mingle -strangely with the roar of the wild beasts from which the Sultan is -perhaps trying to learn a lesson of humanity; and gorgeous butterflies -hover round, kissing the sweet blossoms that fill the air with their -fragrance. Here the ladies of the harem, when permitted to escape for -a time from their cages, roam at liberty like a troop of school-girls -during recreation hours, some making for the orchards, others dispersing -in the vineyards, with screams of laughter and wild frolic that would -astonish considerably any European garden party. The conservatories and -flower beds suffer terribly during these incursions, and great is the -despair of the head-gardener.[15] - -A Seraglio, like all Moslem dwellings, is divided into Haremlik and -Selamlik. The former is reserved for the family life of the Sultan and -his women; the latter is accessible to officials who come to transact -state business with his Highness. The Mabeyn consists of a number of -rooms between the two great divisions, and may be considered the private -home of the Sultan. It is here that the Padishah resorts between nine -and ten in the morning, attired in his _gedjlik_, or morning négligé; -consisting of a _tekké_, or white skull-cap; a bright-colored _intari_ -(dressing-gown) and _eichdon_ (trousers) of similar material; a pair -of roomy _terliks_ (slippers), a _kirka_ (quilted jacket), or a _kirk_ -(pelisse lined with fur), according to the season. - -Thus attired, he resorts to his study and gives his attention to -state affairs, or to any other occupations that suit his tastes and -inclinations. Close by are the apartments where the gentlemen of the -household, the private secretaries, and other functionaries, await their -Imperial Master from sunrise. - -An account I recently saw of the Imperial expenditure estimated -the annual outlay of Sultan Abdul-Aziz at £2,000,000. The Palace -contained 5500 servants of both sexes. The kitchens alone required 300 -functionaries, and the stables 400. There were also about 400 caïkjis, -or boatmen, 400 musicians, and 200 attendants who had the charge of the -menageries and aviaries. Three hundred guards were employed for the -various palaces and kiosks, and about 100 porters. The harem, besides -this, contained 1200 female slaves. - -In the Selamik might be counted from 1000 to 1500 servants of different -kinds. The Sultan had twenty-five “aides-de-camp,” seven chamberlains, -six secretaries, and at least 150 other functionaries, divided into -classes, each having its special employment. - -One is intrusted with the care of the Imperial wardrobe, another with the -pantry, a third with the making and serving of the coffee, and a fourth -with the pipes and cigarettes. - -There were also numberless attendants who carried either a torch, or a -jug of perfumed water for ablutions after a repast. There is a chief -barber, a superior attendant who has special charge of the games of -backgammon and draughts, another superintends the braziers, and there -are at least fifty kavasses, and one hundred eunuchs; and the harem has -also at its service a hundred servants for going on errands and doing -commissions in Stamboul and Pera. - -Altogether, the total number of the employés of the Palace is about 5500. -But this is not all; these servants employ also other persons beneath -them, so that every day 7000 persons are fed at the expense of the -Palace. So great is the disorder in the organization that the contractors -claim five francs per diem for the food of each of these 7000 persons, -which amounts to £511,000 per annum for the employés only. - -The various items comprise £1120 for wood, £1040 for rice, and £16,000 -for sugar. - -The wages of employés included in the civil list amounted to a total of -£200,000, exclusive of the salaries of aides-de-camp, doctors, musicians, -etc., which were paid by the minister of war. - -The stables of the Palace contained 600 horses, whose provender, -according to the estimates of the most reasonable contractors, cost three -Turkish liras per month, making a total of about £20,000. - -More than 200 carriages of every description were kept in the palace. -These were for the most part presents from the Viceroy of Egypt, but the -expenses of the 150 coachmen and footmen with their rich liveries are -paid by a civil list, also the harness-maker’s accounts, and other items -of this department. - -The annual expenditure for pictures, porcelain, etc., was never less than -£140,000, and in one year Sultan Abdul-Aziz spent £120,000 for pictures -only. As for jewels, the purchases attained the annual sum of £100,000, -and the expenses of the harem for presents, dresses, etc., absorbed -£160,000 per annum. - -Besides these items, the allowances to the mother and sisters of the -Sultan, to his nephews and nieces, and to the heir-apparent, amounted to -£181,760. This gives a total of at least £1,300,000 annually. To this -must be added £80,000 for keeping in repair the existing Imperial kiosks -and palaces, and £580,000 for the construction of new ones. The Imperial -revenue in the civil list was £1,280,000. The expenditure was really over -£2,000,000. - -I am unable to give an estimate of the expenses of the seraglio of -the present Sultan, but I have been informed on good authority that -his Majesty personally superintends the management of the palace, and -regulates its expenditure with great wisdom and economy; it will take -some time, however, to put an end to the disorder, corruption, and -irregularity that have become so rooted in the whole system, and caused -the extravagance and waste that prevailed in the households of former -sultans. A Turkish proverb says, “Baluk bashtan kokar,” “The fish begins -to decompose at the head;” accordingly, if the head be sound there is -every hope that the body will also keep fresh. - -The haremlik of the Seraglio contains from 1000 to 1500 women, divided -among the Sultan’s household; that of his mother, the Validé Sultana; and -those of the princes. - -This vast host of women of all ranks, ages, and conditions are, without -exception, of slave extraction, originating from the cargoes of slaves -that yearly find their way to Turkey from Circassia, Georgia, Abyssinia, -and Arabia, in spite of the prohibition of the slave-trade. These -slaves are sold in their native land by unnatural relations, or torn -from their homes by hostile tribes, to be subsequently handed over to -the slave-dealers, and brought by them into the capital and other large -towns. All these women are the offspring of semi-barbarous parents, who -seldom scruple to sell their own flesh and blood. Born in the hovel of -the peasant or the hut of the fierce chieftain, their first condition -is one of extreme ignorance and barbarism. Possessed with the knowledge -of no written language, with a confused idea of religion mixed up with -the superstitious practices that ignorance engenders; poorly clad, -portionless, and unprotected, they are drawn into the seraglio by chains -of bondage, and go under the denomination of _Adjemis_ (rustics). No -matter how low had been their starting-point, their future career -depends solely upon their own good fortune. Their training in the -seraglio is regulated by the vocations for which they are destined; those -chosen to fulfil domestic positions, such as negresses and others not -highly favored by nature, are put under the direction of _kalfas_, or -head-servants, and taught their respective duties. - -The training they receive depends upon the career to which their age, -personal attractions, and color entitle them. The young and beautiful, -whose lot has a great chance of being connected with that of his Imperial -Majesty, or some high dignitary to whom she may be presented by the -Validé or the Sultan as odalisk or wife, receives a veneer composed of -the formalities of Turkish etiquette, elegance of deportment, the art -of beautifying the person, dancing, singing, or playing on some musical -instrument. To the young and willing, instruction in the rudiments of the -Turkish language is given; they are also initiated in the simpler forms -of Mohammedanism taught to women, such as the _Namaz_ and other prayers -and the observance of the fasts and feasts. Most of them are, however, -left to pick up the language as best they can, and for this they display -great aptitude, and often succeed in speaking Turkish with a certain -amount of eloquence, although their native accent is never lost, and -the extraction of a seraili can always be discovered by her particular -accent. Many of these women possess great natural talent, and if favored -with some education, and endowed with a natural elegance, become very -tolerable specimens of the fair sex. - -All the seraglio inmates, on their entrance to the imperial abode, do -not belong to this class of _Adjemis_; many of them have been previously -purchased by Turkish hanoums of high station, who, from speculative or -other motives, give them the training described, and when sufficiently -polished sell them at high prices, or present them to the seraglio with -the view to some object. - -An ex-seraili of my acquaintance had herself undertaken this task and had -offered as many as fourteen young girls to the seraglio of Abdul-Aziz, -after having reared each for the duties that would probably devolve -upon her. This lady said to me, “What other gift from a humble creature -like myself could be acceptable to so great a personage as his Imperial -Majesty?” At the time this conversation took place she had a fresh batch -of young slaves in hand. They were all smart-looking girls, designated -by fancy names such as Amore, Fidèle, Rossignole, Beauté, etc. Their -dress was rich, but ludicrous in the extreme, being composed of cast-off -seraglio finery of all the colors of the rainbow; some children were -even dressed in the Turkish military uniform, which contrasted strangely -with the plaits of their long thick hair tied up with cotton rags. Their -politeness, half saucy, half obsequious, was very amusing; on entering -the room they all stood in a row at the lower end, and when some jocose -observations were made to them by their mistress, a ready and half -impudent reply was never wanting. The youngest, about eight years of age, -was dressed in a miniature colonel’s full uniform; on being addressed by -her owner by the name of “_Pich_,”[16] and asked, “Will you have this -lady’s little son for your husband? I mean to marry him to you when you -grow up!” the little miss laughed, and seemed perfectly well acquainted -with the meaning of the proposal, and by no means abashed at it. - -The treatment these girls received seemed to be very kind, but sadly -wanting in decency, morality, and good principle. - -On the accession of a new Sultan to the throne, it was customary to make -a clearance of most of the inmates of the seraglio, and replenish it -with fresh ones, such as those that already belonged to the household -of the new sovereign, and others further to augment the number. Ottoman -sultans, with two exceptions, have never been known to marry; the mates -of the Sultan, chosen from among the ranks of slaves already mentioned, -or from among those that are presented to him, can only be admitted to -the honorable title of wife when they have borne children. The first wife -is called Bash Kadin Effendi, the second Ikinji Kadin Effendi, and so on -in numerical order up to the seventh wife (should there be so many), who -would be called Yedinji Kadin Effendi.[17] - -The slaves that have borne children beyond this number bear the title of -Hanoums, and rank after the Kadin Effendis; their children are considered -legitimate, and rank with the other princes and princesses. To these two -classes must be added a third, that of favorites, who having no right -to the title of Kadin Effendi or Hanoum, are dependent solely upon the -caprice of their master or the influence they may have acquired over him -for the position they hold in the imperial household. - -Under this system every slave in the seraglio, from the scullery-maid -to the fair and delicate beauty purchased for her personal charms, may -aspire to attaining the rank of wife, _odalisk_, or favorite. The mother -of the late Sultan Abdul-Aziz is said to have performed the most menial -offices in the establishment. When thus engaged one day she happened to -attract the attention of her imperial master, Sultan Mahmoud II., who -distinguished her with every mark of attention, and raised her to the -rank of Bash Kadin. Generally speaking, however, the wives of sultans are -select beauties who are offered to him yearly by the nation on the feast -of Kandil Ghedjessi, others are gifts of the Validé and other persons -wishing to make an offering to the Sultan. - -When one of these odalisks has succeeded in gaining the good graces of -the Sultan, and attracted his attention, he calls up the Ikinji Hasnadar -Ousta,[18] and notifies to her his desire of receiving the favored -beauty into his apartment. The slave, being informed of this, is bathed, -dressed with great care and elegance, and introduced in the evening to -the imperial presence. Should she be so fortunate as to find favor in the -eyes of her lord and master, she is on the next morning admitted into a -separate room reserved for slaves of this category, which she occupies -during the time needful for ascertaining what rank she is in future to -take in the seraglio. Should the arrival of a child raise her to that of -Kadin Effendi or hanoum, a _Dairé_, or special apartment, is set apart -for her. Those who are admitted to the Sultan’s presence, and have no -claims to the rights of maternity, do not present themselves a second -time unless requested to do so, nor can they lay claim to any further -attention, although their persons, like those of the Kadin Effendi and -hanoums, become sacred, and the contraction of marriage with another -person is unlawful. The distinction between the favored and the discarded -favorite is made known by her abstaining from going to the _hammam_. -The lot of these discarded favorites is naturally not an enviable one. -Accidentally noticed by the Sultan, or entertained by him as the object -of a mere passing caprice, they seldom have the good fortune to occupy a -sufficient ascendency over the mind or heart of the sovereign to enable -them to prolong or consolidate their influence. - -A seraglio inmate, who had herself enjoyed Imperial favor of this -description, told me that it was very seldom that a slave enjoyed more -than once the passing notice of the Sultan, a disappointment naturally -very deeply felt by those who after being suddenly raised to the height -of favor find themselves quickly consigned again to oblivion, in which -their future is passed. There are many among the rejected favorites who -have sensitive natures and are capable of a serious attachment, and in -consequence of the sarcasms the more favored fail not to heap upon them, -the disappointment they have experienced, or the devouring jealousy that -unrequited love occasions, are said to become broken-hearted or die of -consumption. “Nor,” continued my informant, “was the condition of those -more closely connected with the Sultan such as insured to them perfect -happiness, mental unconcern, or security.” - -They are obliged to have recourse to every art to preserve their beauty, -fight hard against the attacks and intrigues of rivals, and carefully to -watch over themselves and their offspring. - -Bessimé Sultana, one of the few who obtained a right to that title by -marriage, was an emancipated slave, adopted by the lady who had brought -her up, and consequently could not be possessed by Sultan Abdul-Medjid -unless through _Nekyah_, or legal marriage. - -In relating her strange and adventurous life, as one of the Kadin -Effendis, to a personal friend of mine, she said, Nothing can give a -clear idea of the intrigues and cabals perpetually carried on within -the walls of the seraglio. The power and happiness of some contrast -strangely with the trials and sufferings of those who are in the power -of the influential and malicious. Every crime that has a chance of being -silently passed over can be committed by these. - -The slave who, by her interesting position, becomes entitled to the use -of separate apartments, receives a pension, has her own slaves, her -eunuchs, her doctors, banker, carriages, and caïques, and is supplied -with apparel, jewels, and all other requisites suited to her rank. She -dines in her own rooms, receives her friends, and goes out when allowed -to do so. On attaining this rank a new world, dazzling with gold, luxury, -and every refinement belonging to the favored and elevated is opened to -her, raising her far above her former companions in toil and frolic, who -in future, setting aside all familiarity, stand before her with folded -arms, kiss the hem of her garment, and obey her orders with profound -respect. - -The favored beauty fulfils the duties of her new position with the -elegance, dignity, and _savoir faire_ of an enchanted being, who, -accustomed to the distant perspective of the fairy-land which has been -the one object of her dreams, suddenly attains it, and feels at home. Her -single aim in life is now to preserve those charms which have caused her -elevation. - -In Sultan Abdul-Medjid’s time, blue-eyed, delicate beauties with golden -hair were the most admired by the Sultan; fair beauties consequently -became extremely _recherchées_, and the grand ladies of the capital -vied with each other in their assiduity in finding out and educating -them, in order to present them to the seraglio. By degrees the taste for -_Laypisca_, or golden locks, became so general in Turkish society as to -make the fortune of many a Pera perruquier, who sold for a guinea the -tiny bottle of fluid that changed the dusky hair into golden tresses, -whilst the ladies paid the penalty of its abuse in the injury done to -their eyes and the nervous maladies contracted by its use. Besides this, -all the seraglio ladies indulged to a great extent in paint, rouge, and -_rastuk_ (antimony) for the eyes and eyebrows. - -A French proverb says, “La femme est un animal qui s’habille, babille -et se barbouille.” If this can be applied to any particular class of -womankind, it is surely to the inhabitants of the fairy-land I have -attempted to describe. - -The Validé Sultana, or mother of the Sultan, ranks first in the seraglio; -one of the wings of the palace nearest to that occupied by her son is set -apart for her use. She possesses state apartments, has an innumerable -train of slaves, and every mark of attention is paid her not only by -the Sultan, but also by all the high functionaries of the Porte, who at -times have more to dread from her influence and interference than from -the Sultan himself. The other members of the Imperial family rank next -by courtesy, but these are all under the direct control of the Hasnadar -Ousta, or superintendent, who, with her assistant, the second Hasnadar -Ousta, attends to all the wants of each department, regulates their -internal administration, and acts as go-between of the Sultan and his -wives when they have any request to make to him, or when he has orders to -give respecting them; she also regulates the receptions and ceremonies -as well as the expenses. Some of her duties are of the most delicate, -difficult, and responsible nature, and require a great amount of judgment -and experience. The person appointed to this important post is generally -the favorite slave of the Validé. - -Very few of the seraglio inmates, except young princesses and other -children that are brought up from their infancy in it, possess any -knowledge of writing, or have had the advantage of regular training. -All started in life from the same condition: chance alone settles the -difference between the wife, odalisk, favorite, and Imperial mother, and -draws a line between them and their luckless sisters left to the exercise -of menial functions. - -Education, much neglected as yet among Turkish women, has made very -little progress in the seraglio, where it would prove an invaluable aid -to those destined to hold the responsible positions of wives and mothers -of Sultans. If the former, instead of being chosen as they are from a -host of human beings chained to the service of a single individual, -with the sole object of amusing his leisure hours, attending to his -wants, and giving him the progeny that is to succeed him on the throne, -were selected, as in other countries, from among educated ladies, and -their number fixed (or reduced to one) by the laws of religion and -civilization, how different would seraglio life be! Dignity and esteem -would replace humiliation; woman, elevated to her true sphere, would -exercise her influence for high and noble objects, instead of the -unworthy purposes which she effects through the only channel left open to -her. - -Under such a system it will not be surprising to hear of vice and -corruption prevailing in a centre where virtue is crushed, and the -benefits of sound education are neither acquired nor appreciated. The -correctness of this statement, which may appear severe, can only be -understood and appreciated by those who have come in contact with inmates -of the seraglio, and are well acquainted with the language, manners, and -customs of the Turks. Such persons would have no hesitation in admitting -that exceptions are to be found in the seraglio, as well as in the -rest of Turkish society. The class which is in the minority consists -of those naturally gifted natures, to be met with in this country as -elsewhere, who possess virtues that yield not to the influences of -temptation and vice, and become ladies in the true sense of the word. -The real Turkish Hanoum, or lady, is a dignified, quiet person, elegant, -sensible, and often naturally eloquent, condescending and kind to those -who gain her good-will, proud and reserved to those who do not merit -her esteem. Her conversational resources are certainly limited, but the -sweetness and poetry of the language she uses, the pretty manner in -which her expressions are worded, and the spirited repartee that she -can command have a charm that atones for her limited knowledge. Her -manners, principles, and choice of language offer a pleasant contrast to -those prevalent among the generality, and render her society extremely -agreeable. - -There is another class of serailis who present a not less interesting -study. Sensitive and refined, fragile and dreamy in appearance, gifted -perhaps with virtues they have no occasion to exercise, or with strong -and passionate feelings that in a seraglio can never find vent in -a solid and healthy affection, they become languid and spiritless, -verging towards decline, to which they fall victims, unless released (as -occasionally happens) by being set free and married. - -Another class of serailis is the independent set, who are denominated -Deli Serailis, or wild serailis, famous for their extravagant ideas, -disorderly conduct, and unruly disposition; endowed with the bump of -cunning and mischief, joined to a fair amount of energy and vivacity, -they carry out, in spite of high walls and the watchful surveillance of -more than a hundred eunuchs, all the wicked plans and mad freaks their -disorderly minds and impulsive natures suggest to them; their language, -manners, and actions are such as no pen can describe. In the reign of -Sultan Abdul-Medjid, the misconduct and extravagance of this set had -reached its climax, and attracted the attention even of that indulgent -sovereign, who was induced to order the expulsion of the most notorious. -A few of them were exiled, others given in marriage, by Imperial order, -to some dependants of the palace, who received official appointments -or were sent into the interior. These unfortunate men, burdened with -their uncongenial helpmates, were but inadequately compensated by the -rich gifts they received at the same time. During a long residence in -the interior of Turkey, I became personally acquainted with a number -of these ladies. One of them, a stout, coarse-looking woman, would not -even deign to show that outward appearance of respect required from every -Turkish woman towards her husband. She was the wife of a sub-governor, -in whose house I passed a day and night; she was gay and of a sociable -disposition, but evidently not much attached to her husband, whom she -designated as _Bezim Kambour_ (my hen-pecked one), and to whom she -addressed invectives of a very violent nature, accompanied, as I was -subsequently informed, by corporal chastisement. - -A second seraili, worthy of mention, was a thin Circassian brunette, -married to a governor-general of high rank. She had a propensity, rather -unusual amongst Turkish women, to an abuse of strong drinks, and she and -her boon companions indulged in this excess to such a degree as to shock -and scandalize the Mohammedan portion of the inhabitants wherever she -went. - -The other serailis of this class were so strange and extravagant in their -manners, and their actions had made them so notorious, that details of -their freaks would be as unedifying to the public as painful to me to -describe. - -Generally speaking, I frequented this class of serailis as little as the -_convenances_ of society permitted, but, on the other hand, experienced -great pleasure in associating with the serailis that belonged to the -respectable class, in whose society, conversing upon seraglio life, I -have spent many a pleasant hour. - -The amusements in the Imperial palace depend very much upon the tastes -and disposition of the reigning sovereign, whose pleasure in such -matters is naturally first consulted. In the days of Sultan Abdul-Medjid -these amusements daily received some increase in the shape of European -innovations. A theatre of great beauty was built in one of the palaces, -by order of the Sultan, and a European company of actors played -pieces, which the ladies were allowed to witness from behind lattices. -Ballet-dancing, for which the Sultan evinced great partiality; conjurors -of European celebrity; the Turkish Kara Guez, or Marionettes; _al fresco_ -entertainments, etc., were among the entertainments. Shopping in the -streets of Pera was not the least appreciated of their amusements. The -French shopkeeper himself played as prominent a part in the matter as the -perfumes and finery he displayed and sold. There were also delightful -garden-parties, when the seraglio grounds would be lighted up with -variegated lanterns and fireworks, and all that the Palace contained of -youth and beauty turned out; some, dressed as young pages, would act -the part of Lovelace, and make love to their equally fair companions, -dressed in light fancy costumes; others, grouped together, would perform -on musical instruments or execute different dances; others, again, seated -in light caïques, with costumes so transparent and airy as to show every -muscle of their bodies, and with flowing hair to preserve their white -necks from the evening dew, would race on the still waters of the lakes. - -The Sultanas and hanoums, seated on carpets, beguiling the time by -drinking sherbets, eating fruits and ices, and smoking cigarettes, would -gaze on the scene, while strains of music and the notes of the Shaiki -(songs) would be heard in all directions. All, however, both slaves and -ladies, were similarly occupied with one sole object—that of rendering -the scene pleasant and beauteous to the lord and master for whom it was -designed. All would redouble their life and animation as the Sultan -listlessly approached each group, acknowledging its presence with a -sweet smile, a gentle word, or a passing caress, which he never withheld -even when all the faculties of enjoyment were destroyed, and his earthly -paradise of houris had become an object of indifference. - -During the reign of his successor the tone of the seraglio became more -serious and the life of its inmates more constrained; there was less -European amusement and more Turkish; such as a Turkish theatre, whose -actors and actresses, Turkish and Armenian, performed Turkish pieces, -with a certain amount of success, such as the _Meydan Oyoun_, a coarse -kind of comedy, and other representations of a similar character. - -A child born in the seraglio is allowed to remain under the care of its -mother, who, with the assistance of a wet-nurse and several under-nurses, -has charge of its infantile wants up to the age of seven. The wet-nurse -is generally sent for from Circassia. On entering upon her duties as -foster-mother, she is entitled to special attention, and exercises great -influence over her charge. Her own child is received as _Sut Kardash_, or -foster-brother, of the Imperial offspring, and enjoys the privilege of -becoming his playmate and companion. The two children, as they grow up -together, never lose sight of one another, the fortune of the one being -assured in right of the privilege of having drawn its nourishment from -the same source as the other. - -I obtained these details from a Pasha of high rank, who had himself the -honor of being foster-brother to one of the Sultans: he said, “Before I -saw the light, my mother was sent for from Circassia, and my birth, which -took place in the seraglio, preceded that of his Imperial Majesty by a -few weeks. As I grew up, the prosperity of my family, due to Imperial -bounty, was not limited to my mother and myself, but extended to my -father and the rest of my relatives, who were brought to Constantinople, -and enriched with grants of wealth, rank, and position.” The results, -however, of these ties are not always so favorable to the Imperial prince -as to those who owe their all to his generosity. These persons, being -of humble origin, on finding themselves suddenly raised to a higher -sphere, do not possess the necessary qualification for making a good and -judicious use of the influence they thus acquire. The foster-mother of -Sultan Abdul-Aziz was notorious for her rapacity and spirit of intrigue; -she had, by degrees, acquired such ascendency in the seraglio as to have -it in her power to appoint or dismiss, at her will, governors-general -and other important personages. One of her special protégés, on -being informed that he was about to be transferred from his post as -Governor-General of a vilayet of R⸺, smiled calmly, and said to me, “So -long as the Sultan’s foster-mother is there to protect my interests, I am -in no danger of that! The attempt made to remove me will cost a little -money, that is all!” - -The training of the Imperial child is not free from the many drawbacks -that attend other Turkish children. From its earliest infancy, left -in the hands of fond but weak and uneducated women, the child becomes -wayward, capricious, and difficult to please. - -This lenient treatment of the infant is continued in the more advanced -stages of its life, and seriously retards its education. At this period -Imperial princes and princesses command absolute attention, obedience, -and respect from the legion of menials that surround them, who, anxious -to lay the foundations of future favoritism, refuse nothing in their -power, and pamper their vanity and precocious ideas to such an extent as -to destroy in great part the effects of the teaching they receive, often -rendering profitless the instruction given them in morality and good -principle. - -The knowledge generally acquired by Turkish princes was formerly limited -to the study of Arabic, and the Persian, Turkish, and French languages, -with other branches of the general Turkish education, but the harem -indolence, and the maternal and paternal indulgence, sadly interrupt -the course of their lessons, which are gone through in a most negligent -manner, and fail to have their due effect upon the young mind that -pursues them with little assiduity. - -The education of the young princesses is still more deficient, both in -the substance of the teaching and in the manner and time in which it is -undertaken. An elementary knowledge of their native language, of music, -and needlework, given at leisure and received at pleasure, is considered -quite sufficient. These girls, on attaining the age of fifteen or -sixteen, are richly portioned, receive the gift of a splendid trousseau, -jewelry, and a palace, and are married to some court favorite. In -consequence of their high birth, and the precedence they have over their -husbands, these princesses are very independent, and absolute mistresses -in their households. - -Few of the married princesses in the reigns of the more recent Sultans -enjoyed good reputations, or acquired public esteem, or even the -affection of their husbands. Wayward and extravagant in their habits, -tyrannical, and often cruel, their treatment of their little-to-be-envied -spouses furnished cause for endless gossip to the society of -Stamboul. The few princesses who formed exceptions to this rule are -still remembered with affection by the numerous dependants of their -establishments. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -MUNICIPALITY, POLICE, AND BRIGANDAGE. - - _Municipality._—Improvement at Constantinople—No Improvement in - Country Towns—Sanitary Negligence. - - _Police._—The Corruption of the old Police—Formation of the new - Corps—Its various Classes—Economical Reductions—The Corruption - of the new Police—Voluntary Guards the connecting Link between - Police and Brigandage. - - _Brigandage._—Ancient and Modern Brigands—Great Diminution - of Numbers—Constant Outrages, however—Albanians the - born Brigands—Systematic Attacks—Uselessness of the - Police—My Brigand Guides—Usual Manner of Attack—Danger to - _Kheradjis_—Brigands at Vodena repulsed by a Chorbadji and his - Wife—Impotence of the Authorities—Outrage at Caterina—Modern - Greek Klephts. - - -The sanitary and protective laws of Turkey are in their application -still very primitive, although of late years they have been revised and -reorganized, and a municipality and district police corps have been -formed. The carrying out of these new laws was intrusted to a regular -administration, having its chief seat at Constantinople, with branches -in all the provincial towns, and it has done good service in the capital -itself, for many of the improvements that have been made there are due to -the efforts of the municipality. - -In other towns, however, its good influence, though well paid for by the -inhabitants has hitherto been little felt. The streets continue to be -ill-paved, and but dimly lighted with petroleum; sanitary measures are -neglected; immense heaps of refuse are piled upon pieces of waste ground -and stray spots, and are left to decompose by the action of the air, be -devoured by unclean animals, or float away on some small stream of water. -Enough, however, remains in the streets and in the vicinity of towns and -villages to pollute the air and cause intermittent fever. Fortunately -the climate is naturally salubrious, and the public health, taken on an -average, is good. Some districts are considered very unhealthy, but the -fault lies with the municipality of the place, who, when they become more -intelligent and active, may perhaps attend less to their own interests -and more to those of the public. Besides the above-mentioned innovations -of the _Beledié_, or municipality, small portions of pavement, two or -three feet in length, are now and then constructed, professing to be the -commencement of a magnificent pavement that is to traverse the town; but -alas! after a few weeks the work is abandoned, and these short lengths of -footpath are left isolated in the midst of pools of mud and water, which -can only be crossed by using the boulders scattered here and there as -stepping-stones. - -Sometimes a number of scavengers may be seen doing duty in the streets, -or carting away the rubbish collected in the town; but they only convey -it to the quay, where it is left for the ragged Jews and other beggars to -explore. - -The defects of the police were far more serious and more deeply felt -throughout Turkey than those of the municipality. The police were -insufficient as a protective force. They were badly organized, and they -showed an utter want of principle, honesty, and morality. The deplorable -condition of this corps, and the oppressive and illegal influence it -exerted over the people, gave rise to great public indignation, and -induced the people to complain loudly against it. - -Ali and Fuad Pashas, well aware of the grievance, were the first to -attempt a thorough police reform. By their united efforts a regular corps -was formed, more numerous, better conditioned, better paid, clad in -uniform, and classified as follows: - -(1.) The _Kavasses_, doing duty in the capital and attached to embassies -and other foreign offices. - -(2.) The _Seymen_, doing police duty at Constantinople. - -(3.) The _Zaptiehs_, foot police for the service of the district -administration. - -(4.) The _Soubaris_, mounted police, charged with the superintendence -of public safety; with the office of receiving the taxes from the -villages and transmitting them to the authorities; and with the duty of -accompanying overland mails, travellers, etc. - -(5.) The _Bekchis_, or rural police, placed at the Beklemés or -guard-houses on all the main roads. - -(6.) The _Teftish_, or detectives. - -The uniform worn by the Kavasses consists of a black cloth coat and -trousers, braided with gold, a belt, and a formidable-looking Turkish -sword and pistol. That of the detectives is similar, but they carry -no arms. The rest of the police wear a uniform similar to that of the -Zouaves, of dark blue _shayak_, braided and turned up with red, a black -leather belt and a cutlass. The Soubaris have long guns, and all wear the -fez. The officers’ uniform is similar to that of the officers’ in the -army. The arms are supplied by the Government, and a new suit of clothes -allowed every year. - -When this body was first organized, some attention was paid to -enrolling in it men of respectable character. The increase of pay and -the regularity of the pay-days gave it for some time a better name -than the old force; but, unfortunately, hardly had the people begun to -feel the benefit of the changes created during the reform fever, than -these were set aside to make room for the economical mania that took -possession of the administration on the formation of a new ministry. -This latest epidemic, of the many that have attacked Turkey, was fatal -to the provincial administration in general, and affected the police -in particular. Their numbers were reduced, and pay diminished, and -irregularly distributed. The guard-houses on the highways, which had -been established at the distance of four miles from each other, and -intrusted to _Bekchis_, who were held responsible for the security of -their districts, were abandoned and fell into ruin, or were occupied by -worthless fellows who undertook the duty for a small recompense, which -proving difficult to obtain, these so-called “guards” were compelled to -make up their financial deficits as best they could. - -I heard of a fellow of this kind who had taken the post of Bekchi in a -mountain pass as a chiplak, or tattered Albanian, but who after a year -had passed was the owner of 700 goats and a fine house, and was dressed -in all the glory of his national costume. - -How did he obtain it? is a question not easily answered if put to a -great many of his class. I do not, myself, find the problem difficult -of solution. These amateur guards would seem to be the connecting link -between the police and the brigands; if, indeed, any such link were -needed. - -Conversing, some time ago, with some highly educated Bulgarians, well -versed in the affairs of their country, I was told that the chief causes -of the discontent of their nation were the increase of the taxes, the -harshness with which the payment was enforced upon them by the district -officials, the extortion of the police, and the robberies and crimes -committed by the Circassians. The people complained most bitterly of -the insolent arrogance of the police, which they declared drove them -to desperation, and made them ready to listen to any one who promised -release, rather than continue to submit longer to such evils. There are, -of course, some honest men in the police force who are ready to do their -duty, but the generality are unquestionably immoral and unscrupulous, -and, even if they were honest, their number is too small for the -protection of the millions who depend upon them for their safety. - -From time immemorial brigandage has played so prominent a part in both -the political and social condition of Turkey that a description of life -in this country would be incomplete without a few words about this -lucrative profession. - -I shall pass over the time, which may still be remembered by some of the -oldest inhabitants, when brigands, mustering in overwhelming forces, -composed of degenerate janissaries and malcontents from all the provinces -of European Turkey, gathered under chieftains like Passvan Oglou and -Ali Pasha of Joannina, defied the authority of the Porte, ravaged and -devastated whole provinces, besieged towns, spread terror and bloodshed -on every side, and left behind them nothing but misery and tears. The -Greek Klephts were not more renowned for their bravery and patriotism -than for the ravages and crimes they committed during and after the war -of Greek independence. - -Since that time great changes have taken place in Turkey, and brigandage -lost its ancient power. The thousands that filled its ranks have, in our -day, been reduced to tens. But the evil though deprived of its force, -and even entirely eradicated in some parts of the country, has not been -wholly suppressed. - -Of late years, in Turkey, brigandage has ceased to clothe itself in the -garb of politics; it is now represented merely by bands of cut-throats -belonging to all creeds and nationalities. The chiefs, however, and the -backbone of these bands, are Albanians. The number is made up by Greeks, -Turks, and Bulgarians. The Mussulman Albanian takes to brigandage because -he likes it, and willingly makes a profession of it; the others join in -order to evade justice, or to avoid want and misery, or simply to respond -to the dictates of a vicious and criminal disposition. It is generally in -early spring, when the trees have lost their nakedness and the hedges are -covered with green leaves and sweet-smelling blossoms, that this element -of infamy and destruction makes its appearance, taking to the highway -or lurking for its prey among the hills and valleys, and polluting with -its blood-stained feet the freshness and purity of resurgent nature. Its -victims may often be found lying dead on a bed of violets or lilies, -gazed upon by the wild rose that hangs its head and seems to blush for -man’s outrage. Such sights are of every-day occurrence. - -The brigands have associates living in the towns with every appearance -of respectability, who furnish them with timely notice when and where a -good piece of business can be done. They have spies who give them warning -when danger is at hand, and they often find protectors in high places to -help them to escape the arm of the law. As for food, the flocks of the -terror-stricken Christian shepherds are at their mercy, and the peasant, -trembling for the safety of his home, dares not refuse to satisfy them -with bread and wine. He dares not give notice to the authorities of -the presence of those marauders, as that would expose him to their -vengeance, and he would pay for his temerity with his life. But should -the authorities suspect a countryman of having furnished provision or -other necessaries to the brigands, he is forthwith prosecuted and cast -into prison as their associate and a participator in their spoils. These -are the causes that breed and rear brigandage in Turkey in defiance -of laws and of the power of the authorities. The police regulations, -theoretically excellent, are practically useless, and may be looked upon -as one of the principal reasons of the continuance of brigandage, a -scourge on the inhabitants and a disgrace to the administration. - -When a band of brigands has taken up its quarters in a district, the -country round is continually kept on the _qui vive_ by its repeated -crimes and depredations. A force of _Soubaris_ (mounted police) is sent -in chase, but the laxity with which their duty is generally discharged, -the neglect of proper precautions to insure success, and the usual futile -termination of such expeditions, are often caused by unwillingness to -risk a dangerous encounter, or by interested motives for letting off the -brigands. - -The inhabitants, on the other hand, suffer in any case by the pursuit, -for, when it proves fruitless, it does not save them from danger, and -only aggravates the enemy; and when the chase is successful, the expenses -of having these armed men and their horses quartered upon them, besides -the suspicions and injuries to which they are often exposed under the -pretence of having direct or indirect communication with the brigands, -are so great as to render the remedy almost worse than the evil, and -induce them to petition the authorities to withdraw the Soubaris sent for -their protection. - -If these policemen are headed by an honest and courageous chief, as -occasionally happens, and he sets to work earnestly to do his duty, -success is almost certain, and the brigands are either captured, -destroyed, or dispersed. Those who are caught are disarmed, handcuffed, -and, if numerous and of a desperate character, chained in couples and -marched off to prison. Still the hardy freebooters are not dispirited, -for if they are wealthy, or the proofs of their crime are not -transparently clear, their chances of escape, especially in the interior, -are not small, and bribery affords them a ready means of regaining their -liberty. - -When brigands disperse or retire in winter from the field of action, they -find shelter in a well-protected refuge. Such places are easily found -in the country _chiftliks_ of influential beys, who, from motives of -self-preservation or ignorance of their guests’ antecedents, allow their -Albanian guards to harbor the malefactors who venture to seek shelter -under their roof. - -The severe laws formerly existing in Turkey for the punishment of crime, -whereby mutilation was ordained in certain cases, are no longer in use. -Crime, according to its extent and the circumstances that surround it, -is punishable by imprisonment for a certain period, or condemnation to -death; the sentence, however, is seldom put into execution except in very -bad cases, or when the authorities are desirous of making an example -of severity in the town. When a long and careful procedure has taken -place before both the civil and religious courts, the Kadi decrees the -sentence, which must be presented to the Sultan for his sanction before -it can be carried out. The culprit is strung up to some shop-front in the -most frequented part of the bazar, or decapitated, and his head exposed, -sometimes for three days, in the market-place. - -I have heard many stories of the outrages of brigands during my long -residence in remote and semi-barbarous parts of the country. I have even -been in close contact with some, and on a friendly footing, and once -escaped from their pursuit only thanks to the swiftness of a powerful -horse. On two other occasions, yielding to necessity and in the interests -of self-preservation, I accepted the services of two or three Albanians -who were suspected of being cut-throats, instead of the Government escort. - -They were fine, hardy fellows, with deep scars on their faces, that -attested the lease upon which they held their life and the manner in -which they had disputed it with others. They were reputed to be as -venturesome in crime as they were ready to sacrifice their lives, if need -were, for the preservation of those intrusted to their care. I penetrated -into deep gorges with these men, and stopped in isolated and ill-reputed -khans, and throughout the night slept as securely as if I had been in -my own home. The worst of men, like the wildest of beasts, has his good -side; the secret of finding this out lies in striking the right chord; -put the Albanian on his honor, and he will never desert you or betray -your trust. - -The attacks made by brigands vary according to the locality, the nature -of the enterprise, and the result desired. Should the attack be upon a -caravan of peasants returning home from market or elsewhere, they are -waylaid, stripped of all they possess, cruelly beaten, wounded, and -sometimes killed. When the assault is directed against a person that has -been singled out for them either for his wealth or other purposes, the -assault made upon him and his escort is always of a murderous nature, -terminating in the inflictions of cruel wounds or death. - -The long gun of the Albanian or the yataghans of his equally dreaded -companions are ever suspended over the heads or the wealthy Chorbadjis: -when the slightest opportunity is afforded they assault the villages, -rob, murder, and carry off hostages in the persons of young men or -boys—the sons of people who are sufficiently wealthy to redeem them by -the payment of large ransoms. - -Such attacks are of not unfrequent occurrence, especially in troubled -times, when the ends of justice are rarely attained in the punishment of -the criminals or the recovery of lost property. - -_Kheradjis_, the brave and trustworthy fellows who undertake to convey -the goods of the merchants from town to town on the backs of their horses -and mules, and the Tatar couriers, who are intrusted with the transport -of sums of money, are great temptations to brigands. The last attack on a -Kheradji I heard of took place last summer when he and his companion, an -Albanian Mohammedan, had quitted one of the smaller towns in the Vilayet -of Salonika, conveying a considerable sum of money concealed in the -sacks of corn with which his animals were laden. While on the road, and -a short distance from their destination, they were suddenly attacked by -two brigands, who wounded the Christian Kheradji, and, after a struggle, -succeeded in disarming the Mohammedan. They then searched the persons of -the two men, and not finding the expected booty proceeded to cut open -the sacks and abstract the money, after which they made off, leaving the -unfortunate Kheradjis to find their way back to the town they had left, -and to which both were strangers. - -Next morning the Albanian presented himself before the Medjliss, or -local court, to deposit his complaint; on looking round he started, and -pointing to one of the members of the Bench exclaimed, “By Allah and -Mohammed, I swear that here is one of the two brigands, that attacked us -yesterday! If any one doubts my word let this man’s house be searched, -and a jacket with a torn sleeve will be found, to attest the truth of -my accusation!” The culprit, in the midst of the general surprise and -confusion, made his escape. Search was made in his house, and the jacket -described by the Kheradji found, but the owner has not since been heard -of. - -Another robbery of a far more daring and serious nature was attempted -by a gang of Albanians in the autumn of 1876 in the town of Vodena. -The assailants, seven in number, had been frequently noticed lurking -in the woods and gardens that lie in the beautiful plain by which this -picturesque town is surrounded. The brigands had marked out the house of -one of the wealthy Chorbadjis as the object of their attack. This man -possessed a certain amount of education, and had taken the precaution of -building a house sufficiently solid to protect himself and family and -to secure his treasure. The building was not large but well protected, -and surrounded by a large court-yard with high walls and a strong gate. -The house-door was very solid, and furnished with triple bolts; and the -windows, opening on a veranda, were well barred. The robbers, having -planned their attack and posted a sentinel at the only open end of the -street, proceeded to attack the gate. Finding it impossible to break it -open, they undermined it, and entered the yard. The first barrier thus -passed, and persuaded that an attempt on the house-door would prove -fruitless, they placed a ladder which they found against the veranda, -supposing that where the Chorbadji and his wife slumbered there would -their treasure be. They set to work at the window of this chamber, -attempting to demolish the iron bars. - -The night was dark and stormy and the rain fell heavily, but the -unconscious slumberers were not awakened for some time. At length -the wife of the Chorbadji, startled by the unaccustomed noise at the -window, aroused her husband and acquainted him with what was going on. -His coolness and courage were quite equal to the occasion, and after a -short consultation with his wife he decided upon using the fire-arms -that hung against the wall. It was a terrible moment for both. Standing -a little on one side, and protected by the darkness of the room, they -could see several men trying to force the bars. To face these men openly -was certain death, and it was hard to get a good aim at them. He decided -finally to attempt a shot, first calling out in a determined voice, “Who -goes there? Let him leave the spot, or he is a dead man!” - -This appeal, however, instead of having the desired effect, stimulated -the energy of the brigands, who, forming into two bands, now attacked the -door of the house as well, and were making strenuous efforts to open it. -The Chorbadji, cautiously advancing towards the side of the window, and -screened by the projecting walls, fired his pistol and shot one of the -Albanians dead who stood on the ladder; another mounted, and a second -shot stretched him wounded on the floor of the veranda. The rest, whose -shots into the room proved ineffective, abandoned the window and went to -the door, at which they continued pounding with the fury of fiends, but -as yet to no effect. - -In the mean time the brave couple, freed from the immediate vicinity of -their enemies, struck a light, and while the husband was pouring his fire -upon them the wife loaded his pistols. A girl who slept in the next room -opened her window and called loudly for help, but was nearly paying for -her rashness with her life, as one of the brigands in the yard fired at -her, and the ball struck the iron bar against which her head was pressed, -but glanced off. - -The Albanians, after some further efforts, began to fear the consequences -of the alarm the affray was beginning to excite in the neighborhood, and -bethought themselves of making good their retreat. But previously to -doing so they cut off the head of their dead comrade to avoid detection, -and carried it away with them, together with their wounded. A few weeks -subsequently the assault was renewed, but the owner was well prepared to -receive and repel it, without, however, being able to obtain definite -peace and security for his home. - -The Albanians, doubly incensed against him for the loss of their comrade -and their disappointment at not having been able to effect their purpose, -sent threatening messages to the Chorbadji, and claimed 160_l._ for the -widow and children of the slain brigand, or in lieu thereof himself to -pay the debt with his life. The poor man, being hard pressed, appealed -to the Kaimakam, or sub-governor of the town, for protection; but this -dignitary, being an Albanian, old and void of energy, and incapable of -bringing the culprits to justice, offered his services as peacemaker -between the two parties, and proposed a compromise for half that sum. -The Chorbadji refused to pay anything, and the Albanians renewed their -threats. The persecuted man in the mean time had to remain in-doors on -the pretext of ill-health, and only expects to be able to regain his -liberty when affairs settle and better times come. - -Among the many sad cases of children and youths being carried off from -the villages, which have become so prevalent during these disordered -times, I may relate one which happened last year, in the district -of Caterina, at the foot of Mount Olympus. The victim was a fine -promising young Greek of two-and-twenty, an only son, doted upon by a -grief-stricken mother, whose husband had been killed by brigands. This -youth was suddenly attacked as he was returning home, carried off, and -never more heard of. The unfortunate mother, distracted with grief, and -prompted by mingled hope and despair, wandered up to the mountains, and -for days was seen by the shepherds roaming about and calling for her son. -It was thought that he had been put to death in consequence of his father -having killed one of the brigands that had attacked him. - -I have not included the Circassians as members of this general fraternity -of brigands, because they form a distinct set, who, ever since their -arrival in this country, have been notorious for theft and crime and -outrage. - -Although political brigandage has ceased to exercise its former influence -in the country, it has in a small degree again made its appearance as an -inseparable incident of war and internal trouble. A few bands, mustering -from thirty to fifty men, have lately made their appearance in different -parts of European Turkey. They are composed of Greek desperadoes, -supposed to be the agents of an Ἑταιρεία, or secret society of violent -Greek patriots holding extreme views. Their object in maintaining these -_Klephts_ in different localities is that of having them in readiness -in case of an insurrection among the discontented peasantry. One or two -of these bands have been stationed since last spring in the district -of Caterina. They have not been known to molest any one; but their -presence somewhat kept in check the Albanian brigands and prevented them -devastating the Greek villages. The Klephts obtained their provisions -from the peasants, for which they regularly and scrupulously paid. The -_Eteria_ that supports these individuals is disapproved of by the Greek -authorities, who consider it an element of disorder and trouble. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -CEREMONIES OF BIRTH AND INFANCY. - - The Birth of a Turkish Child—Midwives—Mummification of the - Baby—Amulets—The State Bedstead—Naming the Child—Invalid - Diet—Reception of Friends and Strangers—Treatment of the - Baby—Evil Eye, and Remedies thereagainst—Bathing of Mother - and Child—Daubing of the Mother and Refreshment of the - Guests—The Cradle—Opiates given to Children—Treatment - of Baby Illnesses—Food—Deaths from Over-eating—Late - weaning—Circumcision—Procession—Rejoicings—Hospitality—The - Diseases of Childhood and their Treatment in - Turkey—Fosterage—Attempted Census—Frequent Deaths of - Mothers—Births among the Jews—Armenian Birth Ceremonies—Births - among the Greeks—Remains of Ancient Customs—The - Christening—Triple Immersion—Dedication of Hair—Confirmation - by Anointing—Conscientious Performance of the Duties of - Sponsors—Hardiness of Bulgarian Women—Their Indifference to - Lying-in—Their Sorrows—Survival only of the Fittest—A Bulgarian - and her Cow—Doctoring Children. - - -The birth of a Turkish child is left very much to nature, slightly aided -by the unscientific assistance of the _Ebé Kadin_ or midwives, who are -very numerous in the country, recruited from the lower strata of society, -and belonging to all creeds. They are ignorant, uneducated, and possess -not the most rudimentary knowledge of medicine or of the surgical art. -Some of these women, however, from long experience and natural _savoir -faire_, acquire a certain repute for ability, well justified by the -success they sometimes obtain in difficult cases. All _Ebés_ who have -attained this height of superiority are much esteemed in Turkish society; -they are admitted into elevated circles, and are entitled to special -marks of honor and attention. - -As soon as a Turkish child is born it is enveloped in a tiny chemise -and _Libardé_, or quilted jacket of many colors, bound with a swathe; -its limbs are pulled straight down, and then imprisoned in a number of -quilted wrappers and tightly bandaged all over by another swathe, giving -the unfortunate mummified being the appearance of a Bologna sausage. A -red silk cap is placed on the head, ornamented with a pearl tassel, one -or two fine gold coins, and a number of amulets and charms against the -evil eye. - -These objects consist of a head of garlic, a piece of alum, a copy of -one or two verses of the Koran plaited in little triangles and sewn in -bits of blue cloth, and a number of blue glass ornaments in the shape -of hands, horseshoes, etc. The baby, thus decked out, is next placed in -a fine square quilted covering, one corner of which forms a hood, the -other three being crossed over its body; a red gauze veil, thrown over -the whole, completing its toilette. After the child’s birth a state -couch is prepared on a bedstead used for the occasion, decorated with -the richest silks, the heaviest gold embroideries, and the finest gauzes -of the East. The bed is first covered with a gauze sheet, worked with -gold threads; five or six long pillows of various colored silks, covered -with richly-embroidered pillow-cases, open at the ends, occupy the head -and one side of the couch; one or two _yorgans_, or quilted coverlets, -heavily laden with gold embroidery, occasionally mixed with pearls and -precious stones and the under-sides lined with gauze sheets, are thrown -over it. On this bed of state the happy mother is placed, at no small -sacrifice of ease and comfort. Her head is encircled with a red _Fotoz_, -or scarf, ornamented with a bunch of charms similar to that placed on the -head of the child, the garlic insinuating its head through the red veil -that falls on the temples. A stick, surmounted by an onion, is placed in -one corner of the room, against the wall. - -When these preliminary arrangements have been made, the husband is -admitted, who, after felicitating his wife on the happy event, has his -offspring put into his arms; he at once carries it behind the door, and -after muttering a short prayer, shouts three times into the baby’s ear -the name chosen for it. He then gives back the infant to its mother, and -quits the room.[19] - -For several days (the exact time depending upon the mother’s health) -water, either for drinking or ablutionary purposes, is not comprised -in the régime imposed upon the invalid, whose lips may be parched with -thirst, but not a drop of water is given to her. Sherbet, made from a -kind of candied sugar and spices, varied by a tisane extracted from the -maidenhair fern, is the only drink administered. Turkish ladies, after -confinement, get little rest; the moment the event is known, relations, -friends, and neighbors crowd in, and are at once permitted to enter the -chamber and partake of sherbet, sweets, and coffee, not even abstaining -from their inveterate habit of smoking cigarettes. - -On the second day a great quantity of this sherbet is prepared, and -bottles of it sent to friends and acquaintances by _Musdadjis_,[20] -also an invitation to the _Djemiet_, or reception held on the third -day. The house on this occasion is thrown open to visitors, invited or -uninvited. Dinner is served to the former, and sherbet to the latter. -Bands of music are in attendance to receive and accompany upstairs the -most distinguished guests, who arrive in groups, preceded by servants -bearing baskets of sweets prettily got up with flowers and gilt paper and -enveloped in gauze tied up with ribbons. - -The guests are first conducted into an ante-chamber, where they are -divested of their _Yashmaks_ and _Feridjés_ (veils and cloaks) previously -to being introduced to the presence of the invalid. The latter kisses the -hands of all the elderly _hanoums_, who say to her, “Mashallah, ermuli -kadunli olsoun.”[21] Very little notice is taken of the baby, and even -then only disparaging remarks are made about it, both by relatives and -guests, such as _Murdar_ (dirty), _Chirkin_ (ugly), _Yaramaz_ (naughty). -If looked at it is immediately spat upon, and then left to slumber in -innocent unconsciousness of the undeserved abuse it has received. Abusive -and false epithets are employed by Turkish women under all circumstances -worthy of inviting praise or admiration, in order to counteract the -supposition of ill-feeling or malice underlying the honeyed words of the -speaker, which are sure to be turned against her in case of any accident -or evil happening to the subject of the conversation. - -As soon as the visitors have departed a few cloves are thrown into the -brazier, to test whether any ill effects of the evil eye have been left -behind. Should the cloves happen to burst in burning, the inference is -drawn that the evil eye has exerted its influence; the consequences of -which can only be averted by some hair from the heads of the mother and -child being cut off and burnt with the view of fumigating the unfortunate -victims with the noxious vapor. Prayers and sundry incantations, -intermingled with blowings and spittings, are made over the heads of -the stricken creatures, and only desisted from when a fit of yawning -proclaims that the ill effects of the _Nazar_ (evil eye) have been -finally banished. - -The party suspected of having given the Nazar is next surreptitiously -visited by some old woman, who manages to possess herself of a scrap of -some part of the suspected person’s dress, with which a second fumigation -is made. - -Among the lower orders, coffee, sugar, and other provisions frequently -replace the baskets of sweets; and if the father of the child is an -official, his superior and subordinates may accompany these with gifts of -value. The poor, who cannot afford to give dinners, content themselves -with offering sherbet and coffee to their visitors. With the poor the -third, and with the rich the eighth, day is appointed for the bathing of -the mother and child. There is a curious but deeply-rooted superstition, -accepted by all Turkish women, which imposes upon them the necessity of -never leaving the mother and child alone, for fear they should become -_Albalghan mish_, possessed by the Peris. The red scarves and veils are, -I believe, also used as preservatives against this imaginary evil. When a -poor person is unavoidably left alone, a broom is placed by the bedside -to mount guard over her and her child. - -If the ceremony of the bath takes place in the house, the _Ebé Kadin_ -and a number of friends are invited to join the bathers and partake of -luncheon or some other refreshment. When the ceremony is carried out -at the public bath, the company march there in procession, headed by -the _Ebé Kadin_ carrying the baby. Each family sends a carpet and the -bathing linen tied up in a bundle, covered with embroidery and pearls -sometimes amounting in value to 30_l._ or 40_l._ The mother and child are -naturally the chief objects of attention. The former, divested of her -clothing, is wrapped in her silk scarf offered to her by the _Hammamji -Hanoum_ (mistress of the bath), puts on a pair of high pattens worked -with silver, and is led into the inner bath, supported on one side by -the Hammamji and on the other by some friend, the baby in the charge of -the _Ebé Kadin_ bringing up the rear. Hot water is thrown over it, and -it is rubbed and scrubbed, keeping the company alive with its screams of -distress. This concluded, the infant is carried out, and its mother taken -in hand by her _Ebé Kadin_, who, before commencing operations, throws -a bunch of keys into the basin, muttering some prayers, and then blows -three times into it. A few pails of water are thrown over the bather, -and after the washing of the head and sundry manipulations have been -performed she is led to the centre platform, where she is placed in a -reclining position, with her head resting on a silver bowl. A mixture -of honey, spices, and aromatics, forming a brownish mess, is thickly -besmeared all over her body, and allowed to remain about an hour. Her -friends surround her during this tedious process, and amuse her with -songs and lively conversation, every now and then transferring some of -this composition from her body to their mouths with their fingers. The -spicy coating thus fingered gives to the lady a singular zebra like -appearance; but, though not becoming, it is believed to possess very -strengthening and reviving powers, and it is considered a good augury -even to get only a taste of it. What remains of this mixture after the -friends have been sufficiently regaled is washed off. - -The lady, no doubt greatly benefited by this application, is then wrapped -in her bathing dress, the borders of which are worked with gold, and is -ready to leave the bath. Previous to doing so, she must make a round of -the baths, and kiss the hands of all the elderly ladies, who say to her -in return “_shifalou olsoun_.”[22] Refreshments are offered in abundance -to the guests during the ceremony, which lasts the greater part of the -day. These formalities are only _de rigueur_ at the birth of the first -child; at other times they are optional. - -The cradle (_beshik_) plays a great part in the first stage of baby -existence. It is a very strange arrangement, and, like many Turkish -things and customs, not very easy to describe. It is a long, narrow, -wooden box fixed upon two rockers, the ends of which rise a foot and a -half above the sides, and are connected at their summits by a strong -rail, which serves as a support to the nurse when giving nourishment to -the child. The mattress is hard and no pillow is allowed. The baby lies -on its back with its arms straight down by its sides, its legs drawn -down, and toes turned in. - -It is kept in this position by a swathe, which bandages the child all -over to the cradle. A small cushion is placed on the chest, and another -on the knees of the child, to keep it in position and prevent the bandage -from hurting it. The infant thus secured becomes a perfect fixture, -the head being the only member allowed the liberty of moving from side -to side. This strange contrivance (called the _kundak_) has a very -distorting effect, and is one of the principal causes of the want of -symmetry in the lower limbs of the Turks and of the Armenians (who are -reared in the same fashion), who are, as a rule, bow-legged and turn -their toes in. I believe the _kundak_ system is going out of fashion -among the higher classes, but it is still resorted to by the lower, who -find it extremely convenient on account of the leisure it affords to -the mother. The child, thus disposed of, is left in the cradle for five -or six hours at a time; it is occasionally nursed, and in the intervals -sucks an _emsik_ composed of masticated bread and sugar, or some Rahat -lakoum (Turkish delight), tied up in a piece of muslin. - -All Turkish mothers and many Armenians of the lower orders administer -strong sleeping draughts, generally of opium, poppy-head, or theriac, -to their infants; some carry the abuse of these to such an extent that -the children appear always in a drowsy state, the countenance pale, the -eyelids half closed, the pupils of the eyes contracted, the lips parched -and dry, and a peculiar hazy expression fixed upon the face; all the -movements are lethargic, in marked contrast to the sprightly motion of a -healthy European child. The natural baby-cry is replaced by a low moan, -and no eagerness is shown for the mother’s milk, only an inclination to -remain listless and inactive. I have known mothers give as many as five -opium pills to a restless child in one night. Besides the stupefying -effect of these opiates on the brain, they are highly injurious to the -digestive organs, occasioning constipation, which, treated under the -designation of _sangyu_ (colics), is increased by frequent employment -of heating medicines, such as spirits of mint, camomile, or aniseed. A -Turkish mother never thinks of giving her child an aperient; almond oil -is the nearest approach to a remedy of this kind. - -Sleeplessness, uneasiness, or slight indisposition in babies is generally -put down to the effects of the evil eye. Any old woman, whose _nefs_, -or breath, is considered most efficacious, is called in. She takes hold -of the child, mutters prayers over it, exercising a sort of mesmeric -influence, and blowing it at intervals, a remedy that results in soothing -the child to sleep for a while. Should her breathing powers prove -inefficacious, the _Sheikh_ (whose _nefs_ is held in the highest esteem) -is called in. The magnetizing powers of the latter are increased by the -addition of a _muska_ (amulet) hung round the neck of the child, for -which a shilling is paid. When all these remedies prove unavailing, the -doctor is applied to, but his advice, generally little understood and -less credited, is never thoroughly carried out. The Turks have no faith -in medicine or doctors—“kismet” overrides all such human efforts. - -No régime is followed with regard to the food of a child. It is allowed -to eat whatever it can get hold of, and digest it as best it can. The -excesses into which children are liable to fall by the indulgence of -sweets and other unwholesome food often lead to serious consequences. -I have seen a splendid child two years old die, after an illness of -seven hours, from indigestion caused by eating an undue quantity of -boiled Indian corn, a favorite dish among Turkish children. I have also -witnessed two other similarly painful cases; one of a girl nine years of -age, who, after consuming a large quantity of heavy pastry, was found -dead, crouched up in a corner of a room; the other of a boy seven years -old, whose partiality for pickles brought on inflammation of the bowels, -from which, after forty days, he died. - -Turkish children are nursed up to the age of eighteen months, and even -to three years. Some foolish mothers will nurse their children as long -as Nature supplies them with the necessary nourishment. I knew a boy -of five years of age who was still being nursed. The strangest part of -this case was that his foster-mother, a woman with whom I was personally -acquainted, had never had a child of her own, but, determining to -participate in part in the sweets of maternity, had adopted a baby, which -she perseveringly nursed till Nature by some strange freak provided her -with milk! - -Weaning is perhaps the most critical period of babyhood. A little basket -is provided by the tender parents, into which all kinds of fruits and -sweets are heaped, and left at the child’s disposal to eat as much as -it likes. The consequence of this injurious custom is the complete -derangement and distension of the stomach, the effects of which are -often noticeable in after-life. Rice and starch, boiled in water, are -the ingredients Turkish women sometimes use for baby-food, feeding them -invariably with their fingers; but it is impossible to say what they do -or do not feed them with, for there is no notion in Turkey of a regular -system for bringing up children. - -A rite of childhood which must not be passed over, since it is -accompanied by curious ceremonies, is circumcision. The obligatory -duty of parents in this matter falls heavily on the middle classes and -entails great expense upon the budget of the wealthy. When a Turk of -some standing is expected to have a _Sunnet Duhun_, the coming event is -watched for by a number of persons who cannot afford individually to -undertake the responsibility of the outlay the ceremony would involve. -All such individuals send in the names of their children, begging that -they might be allowed to participate in the ceremonial rite. The grandee -appealed to fixes the number of these according to his means or his -generosity. When the ceremony takes place in the imperial palace, the -Sultans have not the liberty of limiting the number of applicants, which -sometimes amounts to thousands, and occasions a very heavy drain upon the -treasury. - -The _Sunnet Duhun_ begins on a Monday and lasts a whole week. The ages -of the candidates range from four to ten years. The boys are sent to the -bath, where the uncropped tufts of hair left on the crown of their heads -are plaited with gold threads allowed to hang down their backs up to the -moment of initiation. The chief candidate is provided with a suit of -clothes richly worked with gold and ornamented on the breast with jewels -in the shape of a shield; his fez is also entirely covered with jewels. -The number of precious ornaments necessary for the ceremony is so great -that they have in part to be borrowed from relatives and friends, who are -in duty bound to lend them. The caps and coats of all the minor aspirants -are equally studded with gems. They are provided with complete suits of -clothes by the family in whose house the _Sunnet Duhun_ is held, by whom -also all other expenses connected with the ceremony are defrayed. - -On the Monday, the youths decked out in their parade costumes, and led -by some old ladies, make a round of calls at the harems and invite -their friends for the coming event; Monday and Tuesday being dedicated -to a series of entertainments given in the Selamlik, where hospitality -is largely extended to the poor as well as the rich. Wednesday and -Thursday are reserved to the Haremlik, where great rejoicings take place, -enlivened by bands of music and dancing girls. On the morning of the -latter day the ladies busy themselves in arranging the state bed, as well -as a number of others of more modest appearance. The boys, in the mean -time, mounted upon richly-caparisoned steeds and accompanied by their -Hodjas, the family barber, and some friends, and preceded by music, pass -in procession through the town. On returning home the party is received -at the door by the parents of the boys. The father of the principal -candidate takes the lead and stands by the side of the stepping-block, -the barber and Hodja taking their places by his side. The horse of the -young bey is brought round, and the hand of the father, extended to -help him to dismount, is stayed for a moment by that of the Hodja, who -solemnly asks him, “With what gift hast thou endowed thy son?” The -parent then declares the present intended for his son, which may consist -of landed property or any object of value according to his means, and -then assists him to dismount. The other boys follow, each claiming and -receiving a gift from his father or nearest of kin. Should any of the -boys be destitute of relatives, the owner of the house takes the father’s -place and portions him. - -The children are then taken to the Haremlik, where they remain until -evening, when they return to the Selamlik and do not again see their -mothers till the morning of the completion of the ceremony, when they are -carried to the Haremlik and placed upon the beds prepared for them. The -entertainments this day are carried on in both departments. The children -are visited by all their friends and relations, who offer them money and -other presents; the ladies every now and then disappearing in order to -allow the gentlemen to enter and bring their offerings. The money and -gifts collected on these occasions sometimes amount to considerable sums. -The Hodja and barber are equally favored. The _Musdadji_ receives a gold -piece from the mother on announcing to her the completion of the sacred -rite. - -Every effort is made in the harem to amuse and please the children, and -beguile the time for them till evening, when the fatigue and feverish -excitement of the day begin to tell upon them, and they show signs of -weariness, the signal for the break-up of the party. On the next day -the boys are taken home by their relatives, but the entertainments are -continued in the principal house till the following Monday. - -The Turks, hospitable on all occasions, are particularly so on this, and -consider it a religious duty to show special regard and attention to the -poor and destitute. - -It is difficult to give a definite idea of the expense incurred by this -ceremony among the rich. The lowest estimate among the middle classes, -who limit it to one day, would be from 10_l._ to 12_l._, while the poor -are enriched by it to the extent of 2_l._ or 3_l._ - -Turkish children are subject to much the same diseases as those of -other nations. The most terrible of these used to be small-pox, which -committed fearful ravages, carrying off great numbers, and leaving its -mark in blindness or some other organic defect in those who survived it. -Its ravages, however, have greatly diminished since the introduction -of vaccination, now pretty generally adopted throughout the country. -Teething, measles, whooping-cough, scarlatina, and low intermittent -fevers are the principal maladies prevalent among Turkish children. A -doctor is rarely called in; the treatment of the invalid is left to the -mother’s instincts, aided by some old woman’s doubtful pharmacopœia and -the saintly influence of _Hodjas_, whose superstitious rites are firmly -believed in by the applicants. Diphtheria, unknown in the country until -the arrival of the Circassian immigrants, may also be classed among -the prevalent infantile maladies; fortunately it has seldom been known -to rage as an epidemic, otherwise its ravages would be incalculable by -reason of the entire disregard of quarantine laws. - -Mortality, however, among Turkish children is considerable, and one of -the causes why large families are so rarely to be met with. A bey of -Serres, for instance, possessed of a goodly number of wives, who had -borne him about fifty children, saw only seven of them live to attain -manhood. - -In wealthy families a wet-nurse is engaged, called _Sut nana_ -(foster-mother), who enjoys great privileges, both during the time -she serves and afterwards. Her own child becomes the _Sut kardash_ -(foster-brother) of her nursling, a bond of relationship recognized -through life, and allowing the foster-children, if of different sexes, -to set aside, if they choose, the law of _Namekhram_, and see each -other freely. Besides the foster-mother, a _Dadi_, or nursemaid, is at -once appointed to attend upon a child of rank. She has the care of its -wardrobe, and upon her devolves the duty of sleeping near the cradle. - -Correct statistical information of births cannot be obtained, as -no registration exists. Census regulations were for the first time -introduced into the country by Sultan Mahmoud, and they have been but -imperfectly carried out by his successors. During Sultan Abdul-Medjid’s -lifetime a census of the population (excluding women) was made, but -the Mohammedans, fearing the consequences in the conscription laws, -tried as much as possible to avoid giving correct information; many -people were represented as dead, others put down far above or below -their actual ages. Every seven or eight years this census is taken and -each time more strictly enforced, but the absence of birth-registration -greatly facilitates the frustration of the Government’s desire for exact -statements. The number of children in a Turkish family, notwithstanding -the system of polygamy, is never great, ranging between two and eight. If -the first children happen to be females, the mother is still ambitious -of possessing a male child, but should the latter come first she is -satisfied, and resorts to every means in her power to prevent further -additions to her family. A Turkish mother may practically, with impunity, -destroy her offspring if she chooses at any stage of her pregnancy; and -this cruel and immoral custom is resorted to by all classes of society, -often resulting in dangerous accidents, occasioning injuries felt through -life, and sometimes having fatal results. Strong opiates are also -resorted to for the same purpose, as well as a number of extraordinary -means passing description. Many dangerous medicines used with this -object, which in Europe are disposed of with difficulty, or of which the -sale is even prohibited, are every year shipped for Turkey, where they -find numerous purchasers. During a short visit I made to Philippopolis I -stayed at the house of the Mudir of Haskia; his newly-married wife was -very young, extremely pretty, and delicate. She was very much depressed -at the idea of becoming a mother, before becoming rather plumper; for -_embonpoint_ is a great object of ambition with Turkish ladies. When, on -my return to Haskia, I stopped at the same house, the delicate beauty -was dead, and her place already filled by a robust young rustic, who -bustled about, trying with awkward efforts to accustom her untrained -nature to the duties of her new position. On making inquiries about the -previous wife in whom I was interested, I was quietly told that she had -succumbed about two months previously to some violent measures she had -used in order to procure abortion, and had been found dead in her bath. -Her untimely end was due to the instrumentality of a Jewish quack, who, -though having evidently caused the death of the poor woman, never lost -any social position from what was simply considered as a misadventure. - -I have heard from a trustworthy Turkish source that in Constantinople -alone not less that 4000 instances of abortion are procured annually -with the assistance of a class of women known as Kaulii Ebé, who earn -considerable sums by their nefarious practice. This statement has been -confirmed by the “Djeridé i Havadis” newspaper, and in an article which -appeared in the Bassuret newspaper on the serious decrease of the -population. The writer (a Turk) says this decrease is owing, first, to -the conscription; secondly, to polygamy; thirdly, to the prevalence of -artificial abortion; fourthly, to the absence of all sanitary precautions -in domestic economy. - -The births among other Eastern nations have all their peculiar -ceremonies; some originating in national traditions, others being copied -from the customs of the dominant nation. Jewesses pride themselves -greatly when nature has made them prolific mothers; even the poorest -rejoice over successive births, particularly when the children are -males. On all such occasions, friends and relatives gather round the -expectant mother, giving much of their time to her company, and making -every effort to amuse her and make her less sensitive to the pains and -anxieties of maternity. In some towns, Adrianople for instance, regular -_réunions_ take place round the sick-couch (including visitors of both -sexes), enlivened by music and dancing. If the child be a girl, its name -is given to it; if a boy, it is circumcised. A Rabbi is called in, and a -godfather and godmother chosen. The latter carries the baby to the door -of the room and delivers it to the former, who holds the infant during -the initiation; it is then returned to the mother, and a feast is given -on the occasion. - -The Armenians have conformed more to the Turkish customs than any other -race in the country. An Armenian confinement is assisted by a midwife, -herself an Armenian, and as ignorant as her Turkish colleague; only in -difficult cases is a doctor resorted to. The ceremonies at an Armenian -birth are scarcely less superstitious than the Turkish rites. They are of -a more vague and indefinite character. If possible, a mother and child -should not be left alone the first few days; but the broom is replaced -by the venerated image of the Holy Virgin or some saint, put on guard -over the bed. Garlic is not resorted to as a safeguard against the evil -eye, but holy water is nightly sprinkled over child and mother, who are -also fumigated with the holy olive-branch. The company received on these -occasions is quiet, and only part of the Turkish show and pageantry is -displayed in the adornment of the bed. The child has the same Bologna -sausage appearance, modified by a European baby’s cap. A neighbor of mine -once brought her child to me in great distress, saying it had not ceased -crying for three days and nights, without her being able to guess the -reason. I made her at once unbandage the baby, and soon discovered the -cause. A long hair had in some inexplicable manner wound itself round the -child’s thumb, which was swollen to a disproportionate size through the -stoppage of the circulation, and was nearly severed from the little hand. - -About the ninth day the bath ceremony takes place; but instead of the -mother’s body providing food for her guests by the honeyed plaster of -the Turkish woman, all sit down to a substantial luncheon in which the -_Yahlan dolma_ and the _lakana turshou_ (Sauerkraut) play a prominent -part, and which is brought into the bath on this occasion. - -As the christening takes place within eight days, it cannot on that -account be witnessed by the mother, who is unable to attend the -church services before the fortieth day, when she goes to receive the -benediction of purification. Part of the water used for the christening -is presumably brought from the river Jordan, and the child is also rubbed -with holy oil. The service concluded, the party walk home in procession, -headed by the midwife carrying the baby. Refreshments are offered to the -company, who soon afterwards retire. A gift of a gold cross or a fine -gold coin is made to the child by the sponsors. - -No system of diet is followed in the rearing of Armenian children, nor -are their bodies refreshed by a daily bath. Few people in the East bathe -their children, like Europeans, for a general idea prevails that it is an -injurious custom and a fertile cause of sickness. Kept neither clean nor -neat, they are allowed to struggle through infancy in a very irregular -manner. Yet in spite of this they are strong and healthy. - -The customs among the higher classes of Greeks and Bulgarians are very -much alike. The latter, though now more backward, were till lately pretty -faithful copies of the former. Their usages differ according to the -district, and depend upon the degree of progress civilization has made -among the people. At Constantinople, for instance, everything takes place -just as in Europe; but in district towns, such as Adrianople, Salonika, -Vodena, Serres, many of the superstitions of the ancient Greeks may -still be found in connection with the birth of a child. At Serres, for -example, the event is awaited in silence by the midwife and a few elderly -relatives; when the little stranger arrives, the good news is taken to -the anxious father, and then circulated through the family, who soon -collect round the maternal couch and offer their hearty felicitations, -saying, “Νἀ πολυχρονήση.” The infant in its turn receives the same good -wishes, and after being bathed in salt and water is wrapped up (but not -mummified) and laid by the side of the mother, who can press its little -hand and watch its tiny feet moving about under their coverings. The -couch is kept for three days, when the accouchée is made to rise from it, -walking in a stream of water poured by the _mammê_ (accoucheuse) from a -bottle along her path. This custom must be connected with the conception -of water as the emblem of purity, and must be intended to remind the -mother that her strength must ever rest upon her chastity. On this night -a woof and some gold and silver coins are placed under the pillow, as a -hint to the Moeræ, or fates, who are supposed to visit the slumbering -infant, that they may include riches and industry in the benefits they -bestow upon it. - -The christening, as a rule, takes place within eight days after the -birth. The _Koumbáros_ and the _Koumbára_ (also called _Nono_ and -_Nona_) stand as godfather and godmother to the child, who is carried -to the church by the _mammê_ followed by the sponsors, the relatives, -and friends invited to the ceremony. The cost of the baptismal robe, the -bonbons, liqueurs, and all other expenses connected with the rite are -defrayed by the Nono. The lowest estimate of the cost is 2_l._ 10_s._, -and, though a great outlay for a poor family, they are never known to be -omitted. - -The child, held by the godfather, is met at the church door by the -officiating priests, who read over it part of the service, the Nono -responding to the questions. - -The priest then holds the child in an erect attitude, and standing on the -steps of the church makes the sign of the cross with it. It is then taken -by the godfather and placed for a moment before the shrine of Christ or -the Virgin, according to its sex, while the priests, proceeding to the -font, pour in the hot water and some of the oil brought by the sponsor -and consecrated in the church. The infant is taken from his hands, and in -its original nakedness plunged three times into the font. Three pieces -of hair are cut from its head in the form of crosses and thrown into the -water, which is poured into a consecrated well in the church. The cutting -off of these locks of hair probably had its origin in a custom observed -by the ancient Greeks, who dedicated their hair to the water deities; now -it signifies the dedication of the infants to Christ at their baptism. - -The sign of the cross is made on the head and parts of the body with holy -oil, signifying confirmation. The child is then delivered into the hands -of the godmother, who carries it three times round the font while prayers -are being read; it is then taken to the holy gates, where the communion -is administered in both hands with a spoon, so that the three sacraments, -baptism, confirmation, and the Eucharist, are all given to the child -while an unconscious infant. - -The service concluded, the party return to the house to partake of -bonbons, liqueurs, etc., and to be decorated with small crosses attached -to favors given as mementoes of the event. - -The members of the orthodox church are perhaps the only people who do -not content themselves with making solemn promises for the child, but -conscientiously fulfil them to the best of their ability. The Nono and -Nona, in consequence of the responsibilities they assume, become so -closely connected with their godchildren that marriage between these and -their own children is not permitted. - -While the Bulgarian lady in town is setting aside many of the usages -and superstitions attached to the rearing of children, a word or two -about her hardy sister in the rural districts may not be out of place -here. While staying at Bulgarian villages it was very pleasant to me to -watch the simplicity, activity, and wonderful physical strength of the -peasantry. - -The Bulgarian women are rather small but thickly set, their chests well -developed, their limbs powerful through constant exercise, and their -whole frames admirably adapted for bearing children. They do not, as a -rule, bear many, as they seldom marry young, and their life of constant -toil and hardship makes them sterile before the natural time. - -The delicate touch of refinement has not yet reached these strong -natures, whose systems, kept free from special care and anxiety, remain -proof against shocks that would kill many an apparently strong woman -whose physical training had not been the same. Providence is the sole -guardian that watches over these peasants, and nature the only fountain -from which they derive their support. I remember the ease of a Bulgarian -_bulka_, the wife of a tenant attached to the farm at which I was -staying. She was a fine young woman, bright-looking, clean, and well -dressed; her bare feet were small and well shaped, her mien erect and -free, although she appeared far advanced in pregnancy. Daily I used to -watch her walk out of the yard, with her two large copper pails slung on -a rod gracefully poised on her shoulder, and go to the fountain to fetch -water. One evening I saw her return later than usual; her step seemed -lighter although her pails were full, and her pretty apron, the ends of -which were tucked into her sash, contained something I could not well -discern at a distance, but which, as she approached, I was surprised to -see was a new-born baby, with its tiny feet peeping out on one side. -Passing the door of a neighbor, she smilingly beckoned to her, pointing -to the infant in her apron, and asked for her assistance. I followed -shortly after, curious to see how fared this prodigy of nature. I found -her quietly reposing on the bed that had been hastily prepared for her on -the floor, while her companion was washing the infant. The latter, after -its bath, was thoroughly salted, wrapped in its clothes, and laid by the -side of the mother; but the miseries of the little being did not end -there; a pan was produced, some oil poured into it and set to boil; in -this three eggs were broken and cooked into an omelette. This was placed -on a cloth with a quantity of black pepper sifted over it, and applied to -the head of the unfortunate infant, who began at once to scream in great -distress. I naturally inquired the benefit to be derived in salting and -poulticing the new-born child, and was told that if not salted, its feet -or some other part of its body would exhale offensive odors, and that the -application of the poultice was to solidify the skull and render it proof -against sunstroke. The next morning the mother was up going through the -usual routine of her household work. She assured me that in a few days -she would resume her field labor, carrying her suckling with her, which, -she added, “now fanned by the evening breeze, now scorched by the burning -rays of the sun, would all the same brave the adverse elements: _Ako ema -strabi jive_ (if it has life to live).” - -Struck by the fatalistic meaning of her words, I asked how could a weak -or delicate child stand such a trial. “Stand it!” she repeated, “who -said it did? With us a delicate child does not outlive the year.” The -Archangel would silently come upon it one day as it slumbered under the -shade of some spreading tree and snatch away its innocent soul while -the mother was toiling in the field to gain her daily bread and put by -something for those left behind. “Happy they!” she went on, while hot -tears ran down her cheeks. “Let the little souls depart in peace, and -await in heaven the souls of their unfortunate mothers whom God and -man seem to have abandoned to cruel adversity, heart-rending sorrows, -distress, and despair.” I was deeply affected by this genuine outburst of -grief, and did all in my power to console her. - -_Du sublime au ridicule il n’y a qu’un pas!_ Next morning, on a tour I -made round the village, I stepped into a cottage that teemed with little -children, and here I unexpectedly met with my second heroine, who, -although a Spartan in body, was not specially vigorous as to mind. My -other Bulgarian _bulka_ was a fat, jolly little woman verging towards -middle age, the mother of ten children, most of whom had come by twins in -rapid succession. The two youngest, born the day before, were just now -reposing in kneading-troughs, violently rocked by their elder sisters, -while the mother, surrounded by this happy family, was occupied in -kneading bread. - -As she saw me come in she advanced and welcomed me with the usual -salutation. I questioned her about her children, and how she managed to -bring up and feed such a number, often having the care of two infants -at a time. “Oh,” said she, “it is no trouble. I and my cow, being two, -manage between us to set the little mites on their legs. Yesterday, two -hours after the arrival of my two children,” pointing to the troughs, “my -cow poked her head in at the door lowing for me and for her calf. What -could I do? I got up and milked her as usual, and sent her to her young -one, while I fed my numerous family with her milk. We peasants who till -the ground have not much time to think about ourselves or to give to -our children, who cannot begin too early to accustom themselves to the -hardships that await them through life. When the troubles of maternity -are greater than usual, the oldest shepherd of the village is called in -and performs for us the services of a doctor, and when any one among us -is ailing, frictions and aromatic potions will cure him.” - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -FOOD. - - A Turkish Kitchen—Turkish Meals—Dinner—Coffee—European - Innovations—Turkish Cookery—The Sultan’s Kitchen—Turkish - Gourmets—Economy of Food—Hospitality—Greek and Bulgarian - Food—Lent Dishes—European Manners among the Greeks—Armenian - Gluttony—Marriages with Cooks—Jewish Food—A Bulgarian - Ménage—Experiences of a Dinner in the Opium Country—Refreshment - to Visitors—Tatlou—Sherbet—Coffee—Wine and Spirits—Recipe for - Making Coffee _à la Turca_—Milk—Cheese—Sour Cream—A Diplomatic - Coup—Cook-shops. - - -A Turkish kitchen is a spacious building, roughly constructed, and, -in the dwellings of the rich, generally detached from the rest of the -house. A deep arched opening made in the wall facing the door forms the -foundation of the cooking-range, which is raised about three feet from -the ground and consists of a row of _Ogaks_—holes with grates in them -over a sort of ash-bed, where the _Kebab_, or roast, is cooked and the -smaller dishes kept warm. A sink of a primitive description occupies one -side of the kitchen, and a plate-rack, containing the cooking utensils, -another. The side facing the house is of open lattice-work; the floor -is invariably of stone. Great attention is paid to keeping the culinary -utensils, which are all of copper, clean and bright; but order and -neatness in other respects are entirely disregarded, and there are few -of those arrangements that render an English kitchen such a pleasant -and interesting apartment. A tin lamp, such as has been used from time -immemorial, is hung at one side of the chimney, and gives but a very dim -light. - -The kitchen is generally included in the department of the Haremlik, -and is presided over by one or two negresses, who make very good cooks. -The fresh provisions are purchased daily by the _Ayvas_, or purveyor, -generally an Armenian, and passed in through the _Dulap_, a revolving -cupboard in the wall between the Haremlik and Selamlik, used for most -communications between the two departments; a loud knock on either side -being answered by a servant who comes to hear what is wanted. - -The Turks have two meals a day; one, _kahvalto_, between ten and eleven, -and the other, _yemek_, at sunset. One or two cups of black coffee -is all they lake in the early morning. The dinner is brought into -the dining-room of the Haremlik on a large circular copper tray, and -deposited on the floor; a similar tray is placed on a stool and covered -with a common calico cloth. On this are placed a number of saucers -containing _hors d’œuvres_, a salt-cellar, a pepper-box, and a portion of -bread for each person. A leather pad occupies the centre, on which the -dishes are placed in succession, and the company sit cross-legged round -the tray. Dinner is announced by a slave—the hostess leads the way into -the _Yemek oda_, or dining-room. Servants approach and pour water over -the hands from _Ibriks_, or curious ewers, holding _Leyens_, or basins, -to catch it as it falls; others offer towels as napkins to use during -the meal. As many as eight or ten persons can sit round these trays. The -hostess, if she be of higher rank than her guests, is the first to dip -her spoon into the soup-tureen, politely inviting them to do the same; if -her rank be inferior to that of any one of her guests, they are invited -to take precedence. - -Turkish soups resemble very thick broth, and are altogether unlike those -found on European tables. After the soup has been sparingly partaken of, -it is removed on a sign from the hostess and replaced by the other dishes -in succession. The sweets are eaten between the courses. The left hand -is used to convey the food to the mouth, the thumb and two first fingers -doing the duty of forks. - -It is considered a mark of great attention on the part of the hostess to -pick up the daintiest bit of food, and place it in the mouth of any of -her guests. _Pilaf_, the national dish, composed principally of rice, and -_Hochaf_ (stewed fruits, iced), are the last dishes placed on the table. -Pure water is the only drink allowed in the _Haremlik_, and is handed, -when required, in tumblers held by slaves standing behind the company. -Before leaving the _Yemek oda_, the _Ibriks_ and _Leyens_ are again -resorted to. On re-entering the drawing-room, coffee and cigarettes are -immediately handed round. The way in which coffee is served is one of the -prettiest of the old Turkish customs. All the slaves and attendants enter -the rooms and stand at the lower end with folded arms. The coffee-pot -and cup-stands of gold or silver are placed on a tray held by the -_Kalfa_, or head-servant; attached to the tray is an oval crimson cloth, -richly worked with gold. The coffee is poured out, and the cups offered -separately by the other servants, who again retire to the lower end of -the room till they are required to take the empty cups. - -On my last visit to the capital I found many changes, and noticed that -many European customs had been adopted in some of the principal houses, -tables and chairs having replaced the dinner-trays in most of them, and -even a complete European dinner-service might in some houses be found -in use. I happened to visit a Pasha’s harem, and was invited to stay -to luncheon; on being ushered into the dining room, I was agreeably -surprised to find myself in a spacious apartment, furnished in the -European style, and surrounded on three sides by a lovely garden where -the rose, the jasmine, and the orange blossomed in profusion, breathing -their delicious perfume into the room through the open windows. Three -tables, richly laid, stood in the room; a large one, occupying the -centre, and two smaller ones in corners. The centre one was reserved -for the _Hanoum_ and such of her guests as were entitled by their rank -to be admitted to her table, the second for her daughter and her young -companions, and the third for guests of an inferior degree. The luncheon -went off very well, although one or two of the company appeared little -accustomed to the use of knives and forks, which they held, indeed, in -their hands, but, forgetful of the fact, conveyed the food to their -mouths with their fingers, and consequently made a few scratches on their -noses. This _maladresse_ occasioning some merriment to the others, these -offenders against European customs laid down the dangerous implements -and took to their own method of eating, a very good one of its kind and -demanding much more skill than the European manner. There is a neatness -in the Turkish way of manipulating the food that can only be acquired -by care and long practice; the thumb and two fingers alone must touch -the meat, the rest of the hand remaining perfectly clean and free from -contact with it. - -Another incident of an amusing nature would have tended to increase our -merriment had not Turkish equanimity imposed upon us the necessity of -ignoring it. Mustard, an unusual condiment on a Turkish table, was handed -round, perhaps in honor of my presence. An old lady, not knowing what -it was, took a spoonful, and before any one had time to interfere, had -swallowed it. Her face became crimson, tears ran down her cheeks, she -sneezed and appeared choking; but at last, with a supreme effort, she -regained her composure, and looked as pleasant as circumstances would -allow. - -The use of knives and forks, though fast becoming general among the -higher classes at Stamboul, is not yet much introduced into the interior. -During my residence in one of the provincial towns of European Turkey, -these articles were occasionally borrowed from me by a rich bey for his -grand entertainments. The forks I lent were electro-plate; but when they -were returned I found silver ones among them, and discovered that, some -of mine having been stolen or lost, the bey had them copied by native -workmen. - -The most refined Turkish cookery is not costly; the materials consist -of mutton, fowl, fish, flour, rice, milk, honey, sugar, vegetables, and -fruit. All the dishes are cooked in clarified butter in a simple manner, -and fat or oil is seldom used. The average number of dishes sent to table -in a wealthy house is nine at each meal. The meat is always over-cooked -and badly served, except the lamb roasted whole, stuffed with rice and -pistachios, and the _Kebab_. The latter consists of small pieces of meat -cooked on skewers, and served on a _Peta_, a species of batter pudding. -Another favorite dish is the _Imam Baildi_, or “The Imam fainted;” it is -composed of aubergines and onions cooked in oil, and has the following -rather vapid little history attached to it. An Imam stole some oil from -the mosque in his care, the whole of which his ingenious wife used in -cooking a dish she had just invented. This was being partaken of with -much relish by the Imam till he was informed that all the oil had been -consumed in its preparation, when he immediately fainted. Some of these -dishes are excellent, and are relished even by Europeans. - -Two _Sofras_, or tables, are furnished by the cook at each meal; one for -the _Haremlik_ and the other for the _Selamlik_. After the master and -mistress have left the tables the servants take the vacant seats. The -supply is unlimited, and much waste and extravagance ensue, owing to the -number of guests of high and low degree that are always expected to drop -in to dinner. - -During Abdul-Medjid’s reign I visited the imperial kitchen, an immense -establishment, giving employment to 500 cooks and scullions. Among some -curious details I learnt respecting this department, one referring to the -functions of the head-cook may not be uninteresting. This unfortunate -individual was chained to the stove by being obliged to provide an hourly -meal for the Sultan, whose repasts depended upon his caprice, and who -required that food should be ready for him at any moment. - -Abdul-Aziz was an enormous eater, and a great gourmet; he was often known -to empty a dish of six eggs cooked in butter, with _Pastourmah_, a kind -of dried meat, in a few minutes. - -It was one of his peculiarities to throw his food at the heads of his -ministers when displeased with them, and this favorite dish often -experienced that fate. During the latter part of his reign his meals were -prepared in the harem, under the superintendence of the Validé Sultana, -who enveloped every dish in crape, and tied and sealed it with her own -seal before sending it into the Selamlik. - -Another illustrious man, A⸺ K⸺ Pasha, surpassed his august sovereign in -gluttony; while in Albania, I was assured by more than one eye-witness -that he frequently consumed the whole of a stuffed lamb at a meal. - -Bread forms the fundamental part of a poor man’s food; with it he eats -_kattuk_, which comprises cheese, treacle, halva, fruit, onions, garlic, -etc., etc. Fruit is extremely cheap and good, and is largely consumed by -all classes. Poor families can subsist upon from a shilling to one and -sixpence a day. - -In the Turkish quarter, where the rich live side by side with the poor, -the latter have often the opportunity of eating a good dinner; they -have only to drop in at the rich man’s door, and hospitality is at once -extended to them. This kind of charity, however, is greatly on the -decrease, owing, no doubt, to the financial embarrassment generally felt -throughout the country. - -The kitchen department, both in Greek and Bulgarian families, is -superintended by the mistress of the house, who orders dinner, and daily -or weekly regulates the expenses. - -The food of the middle classes of the Christians differs only from that -of the Turks in the addition of the Lent dishes. During this period the -poorer orders consume more garlic, onions, olives, and dried fish. - -The Greeks appear to have been the first of the natives of this country -to adopt the custom of eating with knives and forks and making their -meals at a table. Except in wealthy houses in the capital, their table -arrangements are very deficient and inelegant; till very recently the -napkins and table-cloths were either home-woven or made of unbleached -calico. The knives and forks were of steel and iron, clumsy productions -from Austria and Bohemia, and the glass and crockery from the same -countries were of uncouth forms, sold at high prices. The competition in -the sale of these articles that France and England have of late years -established in the country has not only created a marked improvement in -the quality of these necessaries, but has also reduced their prices and -brought them within the reach of all. Most families are possessed of a -certain amount of table silver, in the shape of forks, spoons, etc.; -these are, however, being replaced by electro-plate, now abundantly -introduced. - -The Jews and Armenians have many strange and interesting customs in the -matter of eating. The Armenians are renowned for their gluttony and -extreme fondness for good things. Until lately they took their meals -in a manner very similar to the Turks. They would use their knives and -forks to a certain extent, but their fingers much more. The lower orders -still sit on the floor round a table about eight inches high. Their -dishes, with the addition of a few national ones, resemble those of -the Turks, and they are famous for the manufacture of very rich sweets -of various kinds. The kitchen, being the most important department in -an Armenian house, demands the daily supervision of both master and -mistress; the former has the supreme voice in selecting the dishes, and -the latter often takes an active part in their preparation. I knew a -wealthy Armenian who married the daughter of his cook in order to secure -the permanent services of the mother. He assured me of the perfect bliss -the alliance had brought him in the possession of a pretty wife and the -daily enjoyment of the _dolmas_ made by his mother-in-law. Some time -ago a well-known and wealthy Englishman fell in love with and married -a worthless Armenian girl, having seen her, from a neighboring house, -preparing the same dish. He had, however, reason to repent thus making -his appetite his only consideration; life became no longer endurable with -such an unsympathetic helpmate, and he absconded and returned to his -native land, it is to be hoped a wiser man. - -The Jews in the East observe, with the greatest strictness, all the -outward forms of their religion, and particularly those relating to food, -whose preparation is regulated by a great many strange and complicated -laws. - -All flesh is _Tourfa_, or unclean, unless the animal has been killed -in the presence of a Rabbi, who hands to the butcher a special knife -(after having examined the animal in order to ascertain if it be clean -or unclean) with which he must sever the windpipe at a single stroke; -should he fail to do so the animal is considered unclean and cannot be -eaten. Even in case of success, parts of the flesh only are acceptable to -them, and all the fat adhering to the muscles must be removed before it -is cooked. Cheese, wine, and sundry other provisions are not considered -clean unless made by Israelites; butter is seldom bought, and only when -sold in skins with the hairy side turned inwards. Six hours must elapse -before a Hebrew can touch cheese, milk, or butter after having partaken -of meat, though he is at liberty to eat meat directly after these. The -dishes are cooked in sesame oil, an ingredient that renders them quite -distasteful to any but Jewish palates; this oil is also used for making -pastry, which is very heavy and indigestible. In fact, their cookery -is so peculiar and unpalatable that when a Jew entertains Gentiles he -generally resorts to foreign dishes. When a Turk or Christian wishes to -extend his hospitality to an Israelite, he is obliged to have most of the -food prepared by a cook of the Hebrew faith. - -A duty on all that is _Tourfa_ is imposed by the Rabbi of each community; -this tax, amounting to a considerable sum, is set apart for charitable -purposes, and for the support of schools for the poor. It is, on the -whole, a strange kind of charity, for after all it is only taking the -money out of the pockets of the poor in one form to give it back to them -in another, and the tax falls heavily on the Jewish communities, since -they are principally composed of poor people. Several attempts have been -made by them, especially in Salonika, to have it removed, but hitherto -their efforts have been fruitless. - -The hospitality of the Jews is, with a few exceptions, limited to members -of their own race, and even then not very largely practised. The customs -of the Israelites who have received a European education differ very -little from those of the Franks. - -During the numerous journeys I have had occasion to make in Turkey I have -always found genuine and hearty hospitality offered to me both by Turks -and Christians. I generally accepted that of the latter, as it is more -in unison with our own customs and habits. Every effort was made on the -part of my entertainers to please me and anticipate my wants, and I have -often been both delighted and surprised to find in the heart of barbarous -little towns such comforts as a bedstead, basin, and table service, -besides other articles, the use of which did not always appear quite -clear to their possessors. In one Bulgarian house, for instance, I was -offered wine in a feeding-bottle, which was handed in turn to the rest of -the company. This ludicrous utensil would probably have been refused if -fate had not ordained me to be the first baby to drink from it. - -As a contrast to this incident I must not forget to mention one of a -far superior order. Passing through Sofia, I put up at the house of a -wealthy Bulgarian Chorbadji; it was a large building, pretty comfortably -furnished, and very neat and clean in appearance. Scarcely had I rested -the needful time after my journey and partaken of _Slatko_, or preserved -fruit, and coffee, when my hostess came to ask if I were not desirous -of taking a bath of milk and rose-water. This proposal, denoting such -a high standard of luxury, took me by surprise, and my desire to know -its origin exceeded the wish of taking immediate advantage of it. The -question had to be solved, and I thought the best way of explaining it -would be to ask my hostess if this was an indispensable part of the -toilet of the _élite_. It was now her turn to look surprised. “Oh, dear -no, _Gospoyer_,” she exclaimed, “I made the offer believing it to be -one of your own customs, as two English maidens who lodged in my house -some time ago daily made use of what they called ‘a most refreshing and -indispensable luxury.’ Oh, dear no, Gospoyer,” she repeated, “we are -too thrifty a people to think of wasting a quantity of good milk that -could be converted into so much cheese and butter; but you Franks are an -extravagant race.” There was a good deal of truth in what she said, so, -making a compromise in these good things, I willingly accepted the offer -of the rose-water, which is plentiful in the town, as Sofia is not far -from the principal rose-growing districts. - -_Autre pays, autres mœurs._ During a flying visit I paid to Kara Hissar, -in Asia Minor, I took up my quarters at the house of an opium-growing -grandee. The dinner offered to me was good, and even refined, but for -a slight but peculiar flavor to which I was unaccustomed; I partook of -it heartily, and afterwards, in order to please my hostess, accepted -a cigarette. Presently I felt a strange languor creeping over me, my -head whirled, my ears began to tingle, my eyesight dimmed, and, my -eyelids heavily closing, I soon found myself in the fool’s paradise -of opium-eaters. All sorts of sweet dreams took possession of my -imagination, crossed by the most ludicrous thoughts and desires. I -imagined that trains were running down my arms; next my travelling-boots, -which I had exchanged for slippers, attracted my attention, and although -not very large, they took to my deluded vision the proportions of a -grotto, towards which I made a desperate rush, and soon felt exhausted -with the efforts I made to enter it. My hostess took the form of a rat, -from whose presence I vainly tried to escape; I went towards the open -window, where the pure night-air somewhat refreshed me, and the twinkle -of the myriad bright stars raised my mind to higher thoughts, and -sensations of an indescribably delicious character took possession of -me. I became poetical, and surprised my entertainers by my declamations -which, needless to say, were quite unintelligible to them. I finally -retired to rest, and sleep overtaking me consigned all to oblivion. On -awaking next morning, I felt very uncomfortable; in fact, I was ill. The -meal of which I had partaken had been cooked in poppy-oil, always used -for the purpose in that part of the country, and said not to have any -effect on the inhabitants, who are accustomed to it from childhood. -The cigarette, it appeared, was also strongly impregnated with the -same narcotic. Let my experience be a warning to travellers in the -opium-growing country. - -It is the custom throughout Turkey to offer as refreshment the _Tatlou_, -a rich kind of preserve made from fruits, or flowers such as roses, -lilies, violets, and orange-blossoms. It is brought in soon after the -entrance of a visitor. The service used for the purpose may be of the -most costly or of the simplest description; that used in Turkish harems -is always of some precious metal, and comprises a salver, two preserve -basins, a double spoon-basket, and a number of goblets and spoons. The -edge of the salver, like that used for the coffee, is surrounded by a -gold-embroidered cloth; the slave who offers it does so on bended knee. - -In addition to the _Tatlou_, in Turkish Konaks, sherbet, immediately -followed by coffee, is offered to visitors when about to leave or when -the hostess is desirous of being relieved of their company. This beverage -is made from the juices of fruits, cooled with ice; it is brought in on -a tray in goblets. A number of slaves holding richly embroidered napkins -(on one end of which the goblet is placed, resting on the palm of the -hand), offer the cup to the guests, who wipe their lips on the other end. -A fermented drink, called _Boza_, made from millet seed, is very largely -consumed by the lower orders; it is of two kinds, _tatlou_ and _ekshi_, -sweet and sour. The latter, possessing intoxicating properties, is thick -and muddy, and has a peculiar earthy taste. - -Wine, both good and abundant, is consumed in moderation by Jews, -Christians, and Europeans, and of late years “La Jeune Turquie” has -manifested a decided partiality for it. Turks generally dine in the -Selamlik, where those who are addicted to drink (a custom prevalent -among the higher orders) begin some hours before the evening meal to -partake freely of _mezzeliks_, which they wash down with copious draughts -of _raki_. It is not rare to find Turks who have never tasted wine or -spirits in their lives; but one seldom hears of a Turk once addicted to -their use who does not nightly make a gross abuse of them, a habit which -tends greatly to increase the vices of Turkish society. It is repugnant -to point out the many evils that result from such orgies, and would be -still more so to illustrate them with the many incidents that have come -under my notice. - -A true follower of the Prophet will refrain from wine, as prohibited -by the Koran. The popular belief about the cause of the prohibition is -that Mohammed when on his way to the mosque one day saw a band of his -followers, whose happy looks and gay laughter made a pleasant impression -upon him. He inquired the cause, and was told that they were lively -through having partaken of wine; he approvingly smiled and passed on. -On his return the scene of merriment was changed to one of strife and -bloodshed, and he was informed that it was the result of drunkenness. He -then laid a curse upon the liquor that had occasioned the disaster, and -upon all who should thenceforth indulge in it. - -Coffee in Turkey is prepared in a manner far superior to that of any -other country. I will give the recipe for its preparation for the benefit -of any who may like to try it. Water is placed in a peculiarly-shaped -coffee-pot with a long handle and a beak-shaped spout. This is pushed -sideways against a charcoal fire, and when the water has arrived at the -boiling point it is withdrawn, a small quantity of its contents poured -into a cup and a few spoonfuls of finely-pulverized coffee (according to -the number of cups required) is mixed in the coffee-pot, which is again -placed against the fire and the contents gently shaken up once or twice -while a thick scum rises on the surface. Before it has time to boil up -again it is again withdrawn and the water that had been poured out is -put back. It is then replaced on the fire, and when finally withdrawn is -gently knocked once or twice, and after standing a few moments is poured -out and served. - -Sugar, not taken by the Turks, may be added before or after boiling. -There is some little art required in the making, but the quality of the -coffee and the manner in which it is roasted are the most important -points. The roasting must be done to a turn, leaving the coffee, when -ground, a rich golden brown. - -Milk, very plentiful in the country, is made into very indifferent -cheese, excellent clotted cream, called _Kaymak_, and sour cream, -called _Yaourt_. The latter, being very cheap and good, forms a great -part of the nourishment of the people; it is prepared and sold in large -dairy-pans, which the vendors carry on their heads. One of these pans -served some years ago in a practical joke that the gay _jeunesse_ of -our Embassy played in the Prince’s Islands on an Armenian tutor, who -mentor-like followed three young ladies in their walks, evidently to the -dislike of the lively ladies and the scheming young diplomatists, who had -made up their minds to steal a kiss from the cheeks of the young beauties -should occasion offer. During a meeting of the parties, a _Yaourtji_ -passing by at the moment seemed admirably suited for their purpose; one -of the gentlemen, famous for his freaks, seized the basin, and poured -its contents over the head of the unfortunate tutor, who, blinded by the -cream running down his face, was unable to notice what passed. - -_Ashji Dukyan_, or cook-shops, are numerous in all the bazars of Eastern -towns. Those at Stamboul have a great reputation, especially the -_Kebabjis_, where _Kebab_ and fruit only are sold. The food is served on -copper dishes, and the customers sit on stools round little tables in -neat gardens attached to the establishments. - -The _Ashji dukyan_ contain on one side a long range for cooking, upon -which are placed bright copper pans, whence issues the steam from a -number of savory dishes. The other side is occupied by a platform, upon -which the customers sit cross-legged round low _Sofras_, to partake of -the dishes of their choice plentifully placed before them, accompanied by -bread and water _ad libitum_. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -DRESS. - - The Old Turkish Dress—European Innovations—Present Dress of - Upper Class of Turks—Peasant Dress—Dress of Ulema—Ladies’ - In-door Costume in Old Times—Out-door Dress—_Yashmaks_ - and _Feridjés_—Green—The Spinach Field of Broussa—Women’s - Dress of the Lower Orders—Children—The Dress of Turkish - Ladies in the Present Day—Ludicrous Use of European - Garments—Conservatism in Dress among the Peasants—Dress of the - Rayahs—Macedonia—Thessaly—Epirus—Bulgaria—Inappropriateness - of Dress to Different Occasions—Turkish Négligé—An - Armenian Wedding Conversation—Eastern Notions of European - Manners—Amusements in Turkey—Disappearance of the Old - Exercises—Hunting—Battues—Wrestling Matches—Musicians - and Story-Tellers—Kara Guez and Hadji Eyvat—Dancing - Girls—Clowns—Farces—Performing Bears—Pipe and - Coffee—Cafés—Amusements of the Rayahs—Greek and Bulgarian - Dances—Pleasure Excursions—Saints’ Days. - - -On visiting the East the first thing that attracts the attention of the -traveller is the variety of costume he meets at every step, especially -among the Mohammedan population. - -The dress of the first Ottomans was simple. Othman, the founder of the -Empire, is represented as seated on a square throne, similar to that of -the Shahs of Persia, ornamented with inlaid mother of pearl. He wore on -his head a red cloth cap half buried in a Tatar turban, and called _Burki -Khorasani_; wide trousers, and a bright-colored jacket descending to -his knees. A splendid yataghan was fastened in his belt, and a flowing -_kaftan_, surmounted by a red collar, enveloped the whole. The boots or -shoes were of bright scarlet or yellow. - -Sultan Orkhan and his Grand Vizir devoted much time to the regulation -of the forms and colors of garments and head-dresses. These measures -subsequently embraced all the details of the fashion, material, linings, -and borders of the kaftans, dolmans, and pelisses of honor worn by -the different functionaries at state ceremonies. Costume became the -distinguishing mark of rank among the ruling race, and the token of creed -among the subject nations. - -It was, however, the head covering that was at all times the part of -oriental dress that received the greatest attention. At the time of the -conquest the Greeks wore embroidered or gilt caps, the Turcomans caps of -red felt, and the Ottomans, as a distinction, adopted white felt caps to -be worn by the military and civil servants. Their shape and the color of -the turbans that encircled them depended upon the rank and profession of -the wearer; they were of varied form and color, bright and picturesque, -and harmonized well with the equally variegated and rich pelisses and -kaftans of the Mohammedans. The garments worn by these dignitaries -were of rich tissues and fine cloths, and consisted of wide and long -_shalvars_, or trousers, vests, rich shawls, girdles, and jackets of -different shapes. - -By degrees, however, great changes were introduced into the national -dress, which became extremely rich and costly, abounding in gold and -embroidery. Among the most striking of these costumes was that of the -sailors and officers of the navy, which was of scarlet cloth richly -worked with gold. - -The gradual abandonment of all these gorgeous costumes by the Ottomans -dates from the time the state began to feel the weight of the immense -expense they caused, at the beginning of the present century. The -uniforms of the army and navy were changed, and the European style began -to be adopted by the Sultan and by the civil employés; and the fashion -was gradually introduced among the townspeople of all nationalities. - -The present costume of the upper class of Turks is a European frock-coat -buttoned up to the throat, European trousers, and the fez—sole relic -of the old dress. The uniforms of government officers, according to -their rank, are richly embroidered, and on great occasions covered with -decorations and precious stones. - -The Ottomans illustrate their love of display and wealth by a -proverb which says: “_Akli Frengistan, Mali Hindustan, Saltanat Ali -Osman_,”—“Mind is the gift of the European, wealth that of the Hindoo, -and pomp that of the Osmanli.” - -The peasants and poorer orders of the Turks have to a great extent -adhered to their primitive costume, which is principally composed of -coarse woollen and linen stuffs; those among the well-to-do, who still -adhere to this style of dress, make a great display of gold and silk -embroidery; the turban, however, has for the most part been abandoned in -the towns, and replaced by the fez, worn by all classes. - -The dress of the majority of the Ulema and Softas has changed only -with respect to the turban, which has been reduced and made of uniform -size, and to the materials of the dress, which are now less costly than -formerly and of European manufacture. Those members of these orders who -belong to “La jeune Turquie” have modified their dress by the adoption -of European articles of apparel which they wear under their _jubbé_, or -pelisse. - -The ancient in-door costume worn by ladies of rank consisted of a gown -of cloth or damask silk, embroidered with bouquets of flowers wrought in -silk, with a border of similar workmanship. Opening upon the breast, it -displayed a handsome silk gauze shirt, the sleeves of which hung loosely -at the wrists, surmounted by a velvet jacket, richly worked with gold -thread. The round, flat cap worn on the head was covered with pearls -and precious stones; the shoes or slippers were equally adorned with -embroidery and jewels. - -The garments that served to shelter the form of the Turkish lady from the -public gaze when walking or riding abroad consisted first of a piece of -white muslin placed over the head and coming down to the eyes; another -and larger piece was placed over the mouth, covering the lower part of -the nose, and secured at the back of the head. This covered the neck and -chest, and hung some distance down the back. A cloak of cloth, silk, -merino, or some lighter fabric, covered the whole person; a rectangular -piece, which hung from the shoulders and reached nearly to the ground, -completely hid the form of the wearer. The trousers, drawn up a little -above the ankle, did not appear. The yellow morocco boot was worn under a -golosh of the same color. - -In some parts of Asia Minor a black shade, made of horsehair, covers the -eyes, and the head is thickly enveloped in calico coverings, no part of -the face being visible. The _Mahrama_ is also frequently seen in all -parts of Turkey. This consists of a large piece of colored stuff fastened -at the waist and brought over the head; the face is covered with a -colored silk handkerchief. - -The _yashmak_ (veil) and _feridjé_ (cloak) are universally worn by -Turkish women of all classes out of doors. The former varies, according -to the rank and place of residence of the wearers, from ordinary calico -to the finest tarlatan, while the latter may be of almost any material -or color. Green, the color of the Prophet’s garments, is sacred to the -Mohammedans, and only a certain branch of the Turkish family is entitled -to wear it on their heads. Those of both sexes that enjoy this privilege -are called _Mollahs_. Green _feridjés_ can, however, be indiscriminately -used by Mohammedan women, and the preference for this color is so -strongly marked in some localities that cloaks of other hues are seldom -seen. In the town of Broussa, for instance, many years ago, the dark -green _feridjé_, with a square veil of coarse linen enveloping the head, -and tied under the chin over another piece covering the mouth, was the -favorite out-of-door costume of all classes. During a visit that Sultan -Abdul-Medjid paid to this town, the whole population turned out and -lined the sides of the road during his entry. The mass of Turkish women, -distinguishable from a certain distance, presented a peculiar spectacle, -which drew from the Sultan the following unromantic remark on the veiled -beauties who were impatiently waiting to gaze upon the Padishah: “The -hanoums of Broussa may be famous for their personal charms and beauty; -but thus equipped and grouped their Padishah has seen little in them, and -can only compare them to a field of spinach dotted with snowflakes!” - -The clothing of the women of the lower class is generally of coarse -printed calico, of which they make quilted jackets and undergarments, but -as a rule they appear very thinly clad, and their apparel is made of such -poor material that it seems almost transparent. The children usually wear -long quilted cotton jackets fastened round the waist by a _chevré_, or -worked handkerchief, but strings and buttons seem to be almost unknown. -Men’s garments are generally made in the public shops, and both cut out -and sewed by men. The shirt and drawers are perfectly loose, and would -fit equally well almost anybody. The trousers consist of a long piece of -cloth folded, with the ends sewed together, as well as one side, with -the exception of two openings left at the corners for introducing the -feet; it is in fact a bag, pure and simple, with two holes at the bottom -corners, and open at the top. The vests of the men are made of striped -cloth and have long tight sleeves; the girdle is a shawl bound tightly -round the waist. The jacket has various forms. It is short, with sleeves -coming down only to the elbows; or these extend to, or even beyond, the -hand, and are close, or slit open from the shoulder down; they may be -buttoned, left to hang loosely, or tied in a knot behind the back. In -every case Oriental clothing lies in folds about the person, but easy -locomotion, or the free use of the limbs, is impossible. - -The transformations in dress among Turkish ladies, both with regard to -material and fashion, are most disadvantageous. Among the higher orders -the European dress has been adopted for in-door wear, resulting in -extravagance, bad taste, and incongruity. The description of one or two -of the least striking of these toilettes will suffice to give some idea -of the manner in which Parisian fashions are generally understood and -worn by Turkish ladies. Last year, when paying a visit to the wife of -the Governor-General of P⸺, I found that lady with her hair uncombed, -wearing a red cotton dressing gown made in the _princesse_ style. Over -this was a yellow satin jacket, secured round the waist by a gold belt. -Round her neck was a _collier_ of the rarest pink coral of most perfect -workmanship. When this lady returned my call, a very large quantity of -fine jewellery was displayed on her person, but her dress was so badly -made and ill-assorted as to make her pretty little person bear a great -resemblance to that of a polichinelle. Madame F. Pasha, who succeeded her -shortly afterwards, offered a still more grotesque and ludicrous picture, -both in her own person and in those of the suite of slaves and companions -that accompanied her. She was very plain and of a certain age; her -costume consisted of a skirt of common crimson silk with yellow velvet -trimmings, surmounted by a blue jacket braided with violet. Round her -neck was a scarlet tie, and on her head an orange-colored _bashbagh_, or -turban, with diamonds and brilliants enough to represent all the bright -luminaries of heaven. - -Her little daughter, a child of seven, wore a red cotton skirt, with a -quilted jacket of violet silk, and a European hat, in which pink and -white satin ribbons predominated. Some of her ladies-in-waiting wore -tarlatan dresses over dirty tumbled skirts which had been washed at -some remote date and all the tucks ironed the wrong way. The wife of -another pasha, after taking off her feridjé, as is usual on paying calls, -disclosed a wrapper made of common chintz, of a gaudy pattern, such as -is commonly used for furniture-covers. The length of this robe, however, -was insufficient to conceal an exceedingly dirty though most elaborate -cambric petticoat of Parisian make. - -The _chaussure_ of Turkish ladies, be it of the last French fashion, -or of the oriental make and covered with gems and embroidery, never -fits well, nor is properly worn. Their stockings are never darned, and -are used till they fall to pieces; as to the manner in which they are -secured the less said the better; it is very improbable that this part -of a Turkish beauty’s raiment will ever have the chance of instituting -a second Order of the Garter. After contemplating this disparaging but -true picture of a modern Turkish lady’s dress, the readers will doubtless -agree with me in preferring the elegant costume of the old-fashioned -class, or the white _gedjlik_, still a popular négligé costume, with -the bare white feet half hidden by a pretty oriental slipper. These, -together with the characteristic _shalvar_, _intari_, and _koushak_, and -the graceful _fotoz_ that surmounted the abundant locks which fell in -multitudinous tresses over the shoulders of the Turkish lady of other -days, gave her a _cachet_ of distinction entirely lost in the present day. - -After the conquest strict laws were issued as to the form of the -head-coverings to be worn by the rayahs, determining their shape and -color, and the form of the shoes and _kaftans_ in particular. The -_kalpak_, or hat, was black, and in the shape of an immense pumpkin or -miniature balloon. The _kaftan_ also differed in form and color from that -worn by Mussulmans; and the shoes were black, or of a dark plum-color. No -exterior sign of luxury or wealth was allowed out of doors. - -As fashion and custom changed, these regulations fell into disregard, -and each race in towns may now dress as it chooses, and adopt its -national costume or European garments without exciting either surprise -or disapproval. Generally speaking, it is the use of the latter raiment -that has acquired ascendency among townspeople, and the national costume -is more peculiar to the peasantry, and varies according to nationality in -elegance and comfort, but never changes its original form. - -The Turkish peasant adheres to his extensive turban, and seldom exchanges -it for the more simple fez; the Greek continues to wear his wide _vrakiá_ -and blue _servéta_; and the Bulgarian his _potour_ and _gougla_ (black -sheepskin cap). The Armenian is still attired in his long _jubbé_, -or loose coat and blue turban, and the Jew in his floating robes of -immemorial form. Some years ago a Turkish peasant from one of the towns -of the interior visited the capital. On his return I asked him what he -had seen there to strike his fancy. “What did I see?” replied the good -old fellow, stroking his beard in dismay. “I was astonished to see the -deformity of human nature in that great city; the women now have two -heads, one planted on the top of the other, and the hump, which we in our -village consider a terrible calamity, seems to be a general affliction, -but has descended much below the shoulders! May Allah have mercy upon us; -but such preposterous changes as these must to a certainty be the signs -of bad times!” The sensible man alluded to the enormous chignons and -tournures then in fashion, and perhaps he was not far wrong in his ideas. - -Fashions, like coins, will penetrate everywhere and find currency among -the most savage, who are glad to purchase finery at any cost. Eighteen -years ago, when I first visited the town of N⸺ in Upper Albania, I was -honored by visits from the wives of all the dignitaries of the town. The -first batch of callers consisted of about twenty ladies, whose arrival -was announced to me at six o’clock in the morning, and who could with -difficulty be persuaded by my people that the Franks were always in -their beds at that time, and received at a much later hour of the day. -“Well, if that is the _Inglis moda_, we too must adopt it!” said the most -enlightened lady. By the time they again appeared I was quite ready to -receive them, and not a little curious to see what kind of birds these -were that had flocked together so early to visit me. In the mean time, -as a great admirer and reader of the works of Lord Byron, I had formed -all kinds of conjectures with regard to the lovely faces and picturesque -costumes I was going to see. The fair maid of Athens, and numberless -other beauties, flitted before my imagination when a heavy tramp of feet -(not at all fairy-like) up the stairs, preceded by the announcement that -the ladies of the Chorbadjis had arrived, brought me back to reality, and -I advanced to receive my guests. And now, what was the spectacle that met -my gaze and deprived me of all control over my risible propensities? A -display of Parisian articles of dress applied in the most indiscriminate -manner, without any regard to the use for which they were manufactured -and the sex of the persons for whom they were designed! Stiff black -satin stocks encircled the fair necks of some of the ladies, assorting -queerly with their graceful and rich national costume, and making an -ugly separation between their head-dresses and the fine white crape -chemisettes that veiled so much of their necks as was left uncovered -by elaborately embroidered vests. Below this vest were the graceful -floating scarlet trousers, that should have fallen to the ground like a -skirt, secured only round the ankle by an embroidered cuff; but all the -beauty and grace of this garment were lost in the expansion caused by a -monstrous cage crinoline introduced within it, which gave the otherwise -sylph-like figures of the wearers the appearance of a shapeless balloon -supported on large pairs of gentlemen’s patent-leather boots, proudly -displayed! - -The costumes worn in the towns of Thessaly, Epirus, and part of Macedonia -are half Greek and half Albanian. They comprise a variety of forms, all -more or less original and picturesque. The headgear of the men is usually -the small Turkish fez, surmounted by a blue tassel; the wider and longer -Greek fez is also worn, falling with its long tassel on one side of the -head. The tight braided vest and jacket with hanging sleeves over a white -linen shirt form the upper part of the dress; the lower comprises the -_fustanella_, or white kilt, or the wide and long _vrakiá_, descending -to the ankle, or only covering the knee, terminated by tight gaiters of -braided cloth. The _servéta_, or silk girdle, is generally of a bright -color, and often richly embroidered with gold and silk thread. Those worn -by the peasantry are frequently of gray tweed worked with darker braid, -and the _fustanella_ is replaced by a linen blouse worn over a pair of -short trousers; gaiters and pointed shoes or sandals complete the dress. - -The costume worn by the women varies according to the locality, but is -always very graceful and pretty. The head-dress consists of a flat cloth -or felt cap encircled by embroidered velvet, rows of coins, or other -ornaments, or by a thick braid of hair. The centre is often occupied by a -large pearl ornament. This cap is worn on one side, and the hair under it -is parted in the centre and smoothly brushed over the ears, plaited, or -allowed to hang loose. - -The upper part of the body is inclosed in a tight short-waisted bodice, -open in front, down to the middle of the chest, over a fine gauze -chemisette crossed over the bosom; a short and full skirt, or shalvar, -and belt of various patterns and materials are worn in the house. Out of -doors a long jacket is worn, fitting tightly to the figure and reaching -nearly to the feet; it is generally made of fine cloth, plain, or richly -embroidered with gold, and invariably lined with fur; a colored kerchief, -carelessly thrown over the head, completes the costume. The tissues used -for these garments are of silk, cotton, and wool, enlivened by silken and -other embroidery. - -The dress of the peasants is very similar, except that it is made of -coarser materials, is plainer, and comprises a great variety of bright -colors. - -The dress of the Bulgarian women varies according to the locality. -North of the Balkans it is entirely national, and has a picturesque -appearance, but is heavy and incommodious to the wearer, while that of -the men, though more simple and convenient, is by no means elegant; the -only part of it to which some attention is paid in the rural districts -is the blouse, which is carefully and elaborately embroidered round the -collar and wide sleeves. In Macedonia this attention is extended to the -white turban, which replaces the _gougla_. This is a long towel, the -ends embroidered in tapestry stitch, which is twisted round the red fez, -and one end allowed to fall on the collar, hiding in part the long and -dishevelled hair allowed to grow at the back of the head. This tuft of -hair is sometimes plaited, and bears a great resemblance to the Chinese -coiffure. On feast-days a flower is placed in the turban. The Bulgarians -of the towns have adopted a more Europeanized costume made of _shayak_, -a thick native cloth. These home-woven fabrics are very substantial, -and sometimes the gray and white are beautiful, but the rest are ugly, -especially the shot and striped ones, on account of the colors being -badly assorted. The Bulgarian townspeople generally choose these stuffs -for their garments, and add to their unbecomingness by the uncouth shapes -in which they cut them, the trousers being always either too short or -too loose, and the coats and vests most shapeless and slovenly. This -description does not of course include the higher classes, who pay great -attention to their toilettes. - -What is principally wanting in these national costumes is the being -adapted to the occasions on which they are worn. For example, for -every-day wear both sexes choose their plainest suits, and keep them on -from morning till night, whether in the field or in the house. The gala -costumes are of fine cloth, or still more delicate material, and are -donned on feast-days and other great occasions, and once put on are worn -all day long, getting covered with dust out of doors, and yet serving for -the soirée and the dance. - -This incongruity also extends to season. The uniform long jackets lined -with fur are worn by the women in winter and in the heat of a long -summer’s day. - -There is no evening dress comprised in the wardrobe of an Oriental. The -refinements of society have prescribed none but that which his easy-going -and indolent life claims from him, viz., his gedjlik, or dressing-gown. -The Turk, the Armenian, and the native Jew alike put on this no doubt -delightfully comfortable, but by no means elegant, garment immediately on -re-entering the bosom of their families after the labors of the day are -concluded. This custom is so prevalent among the Turks that as soon as -the return of the _bey_ or _effendi_ is announced the wife unfolds the -wrapper and holds it ready for him to put on. This attire is sometimes -rendered still more négligé by a complete exchange of the day dress for -that commonly appropriate for use at night. The bey or pasha may return -to the Selamlik so attired, and receive his visitors there, should they -be of equal or inferior rank to himself; but if of higher rank he must -receive them in his day costume. - -The adoption of the European dress has everywhere created a display of -bad taste. On first changing their costume, the natives proudly profess -a great partiality for it, and call themselves followers of the “à la -Franca,” or Frank fashions. Those few who possess some education alone -make the change without grievously shocking the taste of their European -neighbors. - -A few instances of the manner in which “Frank” dress and etiquette are -understood by the majority will give the reader a better idea than any -explanation on the subject. - -I was present at an Armenian wedding, when the house was crowded by a -large company composed of both sexes. The ladies, however, had almost -monopolized the drawing-room, which was furnished with long Turkish sofas -running round the walls on three sides, occupied by three rows of ladies. -The first row were seated on the cushions, the second sat cross-legged in -front, and the third contented themselves with the extreme edge, while -some other ladies and a few of the other sex were favored with chairs, or -walked about the room. I had prudently possessed myself of a chair, and -placed it in a position to have a good _coup d’œil_ of the scene, and be -near enough to the sofa to hear and join in the conversation of some of -its occupants. It was by no means an uninteresting sight; there was the -bride, the queen of the fête, seated on a pile of cushions in the corner -reserved for her, surrounded by the triple line of ladies representing -all ages, types, and fashions. The dark and unassuming attire of the -aged pleasingly contrasted with the gay dresses of the young and pretty, -radiant with the glitter of jewelry and the sparkle of many pairs of -bright black eyes that frequently met and questioned each other; a not -unpleasant way of making up for the oriental laconism generally observed -in large assemblies, when conversation is carried on in low tones, and -generally consists only of a passing joke or criticism on the appearance -of others of the company. Some of these remarks I found very amusing; for -instance, a thin, yellow brunette said to her neighbor, “Doudou, do you -notice how stiff and stately Mariemme Hanoum sits in her new polka? Her -husband, Baron Carabet,[23] who has just returned from Constantinople, -has brought her a machine made of whalebone and steel, in which the -Franks cage their wives in order to fill up what is missing and tone -down what is superfluous.” “Chok shay!”[24] exclaimed her companion, -an exceedingly stout lady, casting a hasty glance over her voluminous -person. “I wonder if the like is to be found in the _charshi_ (bazar), so -many articles of dress have lately been brought from Europe by one of the -shopkeepers!” - -This conversation was brought to an abrupt termination by the exclamation -of “Ouff! Aman!” from a third lady who was sitting cross-legged, and -evidently in an uncomfortable position. “Ouff! Aman!” she repeated, -stretching out her feet as far as possible, and then proceeded to pull -off her socks, quietly folded them up, and put them in her pocket. She -was an elderly lady, evidently of the old school, for her proceedings -shocked one much younger than herself seated near, and provoked from her -some remark on the impropriety she had committed. The old lady, however, -could not be prevailed upon to see it, and replied very quietly: - -“Kesim, what does it matter? all now is ‘à la Franca,’ and we may do as -we please!” - -Incidents of European fashions, completely distorted into alarming -caricatures, are still very frequent, and, what is more serious, are -often accompanied by so great an absence of all knowledge of the rules of -good breeding that everything out of the common, however free or strange -it may be, is put down to the “à la Franca,” or European liberty. Only -two years ago, at a ball given by one of my friends, a functionary of -the Porte, Armenian by birth, coolly entered the boudoir, pulled off his -boots, which were, it appears, too tight for him, and seated himself on -a sofa smoking his cigarette. This gentleman was requested by the host -to resume his chaussure and withdraw from the house; and yet civilized -notions had so far penetrated the somewhat dull imagination of this -_Effendi_ as to have induced him to use visiting-cards upon which was -engraved, together with his name, his title of “Membre perpétuel de la -Justice,” surmounted by a gilt pair of scales. - -Dress and amusement are thought by many to denote the degree of -refinement and mental development of nations. There is certainly some -truth in this theory, and I have often allowed my opinion of a people and -my belief in its prosperity and progress to be guided in some degree by -their apparently most trivial characteristics. - -To seek through these means, however, to arrive at an estimate of the -Turkish character is a somewhat difficult task. The national costume -is disappearing, and is being replaced by a counterfeit or borrowed -attire. With regard to amusement the difficulty becomes still greater, -for all the games that were characteristic of the East, such as that of -the _Djerid_, or throwing the lance on horseback when galloping at full -speed, have fallen into disuse; together with the now forgotten races and -target-practising in which the youth of the two towns used to display -their splendid arms and prove their capacity for manly and warlike -pursuits. The grand hunting parties, in which the grandees and even the -Sultans loved to take part, now only take place occasionally, headed by -some fine old governor-general of the ancient type. In such instances -the chase becomes most enjoyable and delightful. Many years ago, while -residing in a country town, I had several times the pleasure of taking -part in these animated coursing parties organized by the governor of the -town, and headed by him in person. The company would sometimes consist of -twenty cavaliers, with an equal number of mounted attendants leading the -_capon_, or fine greyhounds peculiar to Albania. Proceeding at first in a -compact body across the hills, down on the fertile plains on the borders -of the Maritza, as we neared the open country and descended the slopes, -the cavalcade dispersed, the fiery horses could scarcely be controlled, -and the dogs, trembling with excitement, strove to break from the -leashes. The sportsmen in their variegated costumes, stimulated by their -surroundings, lost their air of lassitude and torpor, and appeared like -the traditional Osmanli of old. The scattered band of cavaliers would -explore the ground until the frightened and startled animals, driven out -of their haunts, would after a few bounds come to a dead stop, and then -flee, pursued by the hounds and followed by the hunters. - -There was something so animating in the whole scene that even a timid -woman might have disregarded the danger of fracturing her collar-bone and -willingly taken part in it. - -The other excursions, carried on with equal spirit, consist of battues -of large and small game, which take place on the estates of the beys, -who issue invitations to their friends, throw open the gates of their -chiftliks or farms, and receive visitors with every mark of hospitality. -At dawn the whole party assembles at the appointed place, previously -surrounded by the tenants and laborers belonging to the property, who -beat in the game. - -These parties, I am assured, are much appreciated by European sportsmen, -who enjoy the wildness of the scenery, as well as the shyness of the -birds, which, unlike their preserved kinsfolk in England, are complete -strangers to contact with man in their unfrequented forests and plains. - -An interest is still evinced by all classes in the wrestling matches -which are usually held on the commons outside the towns. On these -occasions the greater part of the population turns out and seats -itself in a closely-packed circle. The combatants, stripped to the -waist, enter the ring, encouraged by the crowd; closely watching each -other’s movements, each awaits a favorable opportunity for seizing his -antagonist, whom, by a dexterous catch, he hopes to throw. No animosity -is displayed by any of the rivals, be they Turks, Christians, or gypsies. -The spectators take a deep interest in these contests, but seldom express -their approbation or disapproval in a very marked manner. - -Minstrels still play a prominent part among all classes of the Turkish -population. These are professional artists, well versed in improvisation, -and skilful players on musical instruments, especially the _Kanoun_, a -species of zither, for which a great partiality is displayed. Whatever -their nationality, they are as welcome in the Konaks of the highest -dignitaries as among the crowds that flock on Fridays and other holidays -to some _café_, where, seated in a prominent place, the bard pours forth -his strains or relates his _massal_ (story), which generally turns -upon love, and, though wanting neither in interest nor brilliancy, is -accompanied by unpleasant gesticulation, and is hardly meet either for -the ears or the eyes of the young. - -When I was in Albania, the Mushir of Roumelia, with his _corps d’armée_, -passed through the town, and as a mark of civility sent his minstrel to -my house to enliven me with his performance. Oriental music, however, -has not as a rule an enlivening effect upon Europeans. But there is a -pensiveness and a sadness in it that to me have an irresistible charm. - -Another amusement is that of the Kara Guez and Hadji Eyvat, a kind of -Punch and Judy. This is a most indecent representation, and the language -that accompanies it is quite in harmony with the scenes; but it greatly -delights the Turkish ladies, for whose diversion it is frequently -introduced into the harems. To this class of recreation may be added the -obscene _Kucheks_, or dancing women and boys; the _Mukkalits_, or clowns, -who amuse the company with their jests; the _Meydan Oyoun_, or comic -plays held in the open air; the performing monkeys and bears, trained by -hardy Pomaks or gypsies, who lead these creatures from town to town, and -force them to display the accomplishments they have learned under the -discipline of the lash. - -What a Turk heartily enjoys is his pipe and coffee, sitting by the -side of a running stream or in some spot commanding a fine view. This -quiescent pleasure he calls “taking _Kaif_.” On the whole, his capacity -for enjoyment is rather of a passive than an active kind. - -Clubs, reading-rooms, or other resorts for social and intellectual -improvement are quite unknown among the Turks. Their place is, however, -filled to some extent by the old-fashioned _café_ for the Osmanli of -mature age, and by the Casinos and other places of the same doubtful -character for “La jeune Turquie,” who _faute de mieux_ resort thither -to enjoy the delights of taking their _raki_, or sometimes ruining -themselves by indulging in _rouge et noir_ or other games of chance which -they do not understand, and, to do them justice, do not as a rule largely -indulge in. - -The amusements of the Rayahs are neither very brilliant nor very varied, -but they are part of a more healthy social life, and serve as a point -of union between the sexes, increasing the joys and pleasures of home -existence, whose monotony they do not often interrupt. The great delight -of these people is the national dances of the Greeks, Bulgarians, -Armenians, and Jews, always gladly indulged in when a chance offers. Such -opportunities are generally weddings and great feast-days, and carnival -time. With the Jews and Armenians it is an insipid formality, and the -similarity of the costume of the women, who alone indulge in it, the want -of variety in the step, and the dull and graceless manner in which it is -performed, deprive it of any claim to be called an amusement. But with -the Greeks and Bulgarians it is quite a different matter; both enter into -it with a zest and animation delightful to witness. The Greeks collect in -a ring to dance the _surto_ of immemorial date. Holding each other by the -hand, and led by the most agile youth and maiden, who hold the corners of -a handkerchief, they perform a variety of measured steps and evolutions, -while the surrounding ring execute a step to the sound of the music that -accompanies the dance. All the movements are graceful, and performed with -precision, at some times becoming more animated, and at others falling -back into a slow measured step. The ring breaks at intervals and allows -those wishing to retire to do so, or receives fresh additions from the -outsiders. - -The Bulgarian _hora_ is performed to the sound of the _gaida_, or -bagpipe. The sounds of this instrument act like magic upon these gay and -pleasure-loving people, who no sooner hear its discordant groans than, -forming into a circle and holding each other by the belt, they begin -to stamp and turn round in an earnest and excited manner, appearing -thoroughly absorbed in the performance. - -There is a second kind of dance in which the Bulgarians take great -pleasure, that known as the “bear dance.” It is performed by a man -dressed in a bearskin, who presents himself to the company, led by a -pretty girl, who makes him perform all kinds of pranks and buffooneries, -greatly to the enjoyment of the spectators, who occasionally join in the -dance and give chase to the bear. I do not think it is possible to find a -people who can enjoy more heartily the wild music of the _gaida_ than the -Bulgarian, or enter more enthusiastically into the dance than he does. -With the Greeks, dancing is reserved for appointed times and seasons, but -the Bulgarian, be he in the field or resting on the common on a Prasnik -day, will come forward and indulge in it as his greatest delight. - -After the dance come the small pleasure parties, for which families -club together and go to spend a few days in some picturesque village -or hospitable monastery, or to some wild watering-place, where they -can enjoy the baths to their hearts’ content. The mineral springs are -encircled by the remains of magnificent old Roman baths, roofless for the -most part, but evidently indestructible so far as the splendid marble -basins that receive the water are concerned. - -Every saint seems, by some ubiquitous means, to possess a shrine in -every town, village, or monastery. To these all the people resort on -their anniversaries, attired in their best, to see and to be seen, and -any person, be it man, woman, or child, bearing the name of the saint, -is visited by all its friends and relatives during the day; generally -speaking, a party is given in the evening, where, if instrumental music -and dancing do not form part of the entertainment, a variety of round -games, cards, vocal music, and other similar diversions, are had recourse -to. Divers refreshments, in the form of excellent native wine, fruit, -and cakes, are offered during the evening after the formal handing round -of _glico_ and coffee. These gatherings, often kept up to a late hour, -always conclude peacefully, and cases of disorder and drunkenness are -unheard of, and indeed are of rare occurrence at any time, excepting at a -late hour at the place where a fair is held, when a few _mauvais sujets_ -may remain behind in a disorderly frame of mind. - -This description refers only to the working classes and tradespeople. -Among the better educated classes music, conversation, theatricals, and -in fact almost everything that belongs to European society is included, -although, as may be supposed, deficiencies as to dress, etiquette, and -other details are to be remarked in the provinces; but a marked desire -for improvement, especially among the Greeks, is everywhere noticeable. -Each community, however, keeps within its own circle, a drawback that -renders the society limited and prevents the sociable feeling that should -prevail among them. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -TURKISH WEDDINGS. - - Early Marriage—Betrothal—Divorce—Love Matches—The - Trousseau—Wedding Ceremonies—Marital Discipline in - Macedonia—Monday: Arrangement of Trousseau in Bridegroom’s - House—Tuesday: Bathing the Bride—Wednesday: Visit of the - Bridegroom’s Party to Bride’s House—Great Festivities—The - Kena—Thursday: The Girding of the Bride—The Bridegroom goes to - the Mosque—Final Amenities of Friendship—Interested Marriages. - - -The Turks generally marry early, from seventeen for the men, and from -eleven for the girls—who all marry, so that an old maid, like many other -European institutions, is absolutely unknown in Turkey. This custom of -early marriages is encouraged by parents as a check upon their sons -contracting wild habits. It may in this respect have the desired effect, -but must be very injurious in every other. How can a youth of seventeen -or twenty, whose studies, if he by chance has pursued any, are not -finished, whose career in life is yet to begin, assume the weight of a -family without morally and physically suffering for it? Ambition, the -mainspring of a young man’s exertions, damped by the early contraction -of sedentary habits, soon degenerates into listless indifference. The -intellectual faculties, crossed in the pursuit of knowledge by a current -of ideas and responsibilities totally foreign to them, are checked before -they have had their due course; while, physically speaking, harem life, -bad at all the stages of the life of a Turk among the higher orders, must -be incalculably worse when entered upon so early. - -The _Nekyah_, or betrothal, comprises the fiançailles as well as the -matrimonial contract. The preliminaries of the engagement are undertaken -by the parents of the contracting parties. The mother or some near -relative of the young man, in company with a few of her friends and the -_Koulavouz_, starts on a tour of inspection, visiting families known -to possess marriageable daughters. The object of the visit being made -known, they are admitted, and the eldest girl presents herself, offers -coffee, kisses hands all round, waits to take the empty cups, and then -disappears, her inspectors having to content themselves with the short -view they have thus had of her. Should this prove satisfactory, they at -once enter into negotiations, make inquiries as to the age and dowry -of the girl, answer counter-inquiries on the condition of the youth, -and say that, if it be agreeable to both parties and it is _Kismet_ -that the marriage should take place, they will come again and make the -final arrangements. On the mother’s return home, she gives a faithful -description of the maiden’s appearance to her son, and should this meet -with his approval, the intermediaries are commissioned to settle all -preliminaries. - -The dowry is, of course, among Muslims given by the bridegroom; the only -dowry Turkish brides are bound to bring consists in a rich _trousseau_. -Should the lady possess any property the husband cannot assume any -right over it, nor over any of the rest of her belongings. The wisdom -and generosity of this law cannot be too highly commended; it is an -indispensable clause in the canons of polygamy. So easy is it for a Turk -to divorce his wife that he has only to say to her in a moment of anger, -“Cover thy face, thy _nekyah_ is in thy hands,” and she ceases to be his -wife, and must at once leave his abode, carrying with her, luckily for -her, “bag and baggage.” - -The privileges of divorce thus indulgently permitted to a man are -entirely beyond the reach of a woman, whom no human power can release -from her _nekyah_ vows without her husband’s free consent. And even -if she gain her husband’s consent to a divorce, she thereby loses her -dowry and _trousseau_, which she would retain if divorced not of her own -motion. This unfair restriction gives rise to many unhappy disputes, -issuing in litigation which ever proves vain and fruitless against the -obstinacy of the husband or, even worse, his helplessness, should he -become insane; for a lunatic’s word of divorce cannot count before the -law. - -The following sad history of a bride I knew is a good illustration of the -latter case. The heroine was a fine brunette, the daughter of Yousuf Bey, -a rich and influential personage in the town of B⸺. A _nekyah_ had been -contracted between her and a young man rather queer and strange in his -manners, but very wealthy—a consideration which more than counterbalanced -his failings in the estimation of her avaricious father. - -The _Duhun_, or wedding-day, fixed upon, the festivities began according -to the routine of pomp and display usual among the wealthy. As the -wedding-day approached the bridegroom became more and more strange; now -falling into fits of deep melancholy, now into merriment. - -His friends, noticing this, suggested that it was _jahilik_, or -childishness, occasioned by the prospect of his approaching happiness, -crossed by the thought that he had no father to participate in it, and -no mother to second him in his duties by welcoming his bride to her -future home. - -Be this as it may, the _Duhun_ went on all the same; the bride, decked -in her splendid array, arrived at the bridegroom’s house, and was met, -according to custom, by the bridegroom, who, under the direction of the -_Koulavouz_, was waiting to conduct her to her apartment. The emotion -of the moment was too much for his vacillating mind. He fixed his gaze -for a moment upon his bride with a vacant stare; her face was unknown to -him. The tinsel, the bridal veil, the crowd of _hanoums_ surrounding her, -failed to impress him with the solemnity of the event his mind no longer -comprehended. - -In vain the shrill voice of the _Koulavouz_ strove to make him understand -her repeated suggestion that he should conduct his bride upstairs. -Her words, confusedly caught, and mingled with some flickering notion -of what he ought to do, at length urged him to action. He seized the -_Koulavouz_, a frightful old witch, passed her arm through his, and -with the determination and obstinacy of the madman led her upstairs and -placed her in the bridal bower. A miserable scene of confusion ensued. -The poor bride, faint and sick at heart, re-entered her coach and hurried -back to the paternal roof, while the _hanoums_ made a rush towards their -_yashmaks_ and _feridjés_, dismayed at the misfortune and alarmed by the -screams of the old _Koulavouz_, who was making frantic efforts to release -herself from the tight embrace of the maniac. Help from the Selamlik soon -arrived, and the madman was secured. - -Seven years have elapsed, the unhappy bride is still pining over her -misfortunes and the loss of the liberty which all efforts have thus far -proved unable to restore to her. - -A Turkish husband has the power of divorcing his wife and taking her -back twice; but should he send her away for the third time, she must be -married to another man before she can again return to her first husband. -This strange and disgusting law is meant as a check upon people disposed -to abuse too often the privilege of divorce. The person asked to fulfil -this strange position of intermediary husband must be advanced in years, -generally belongs to the poorer class, and receives a sum of money for -his services. The conditions are that he should enter the abode of the -lady for one night only, with every right over her of a legal husband, -and quit it the next morning, telling her, “Thy liberty is in thy -hands, thou art no longer my wife.” Cases have been known when the old -gentleman, finding his position pleasant, has refused to give the lady -up, and if this should happen the first husband is wholly without remedy, -and must forego his desire of reunion with his former wife. - -An incident of the kind happened at Adrianople, affording much merriment -to my Turkish friends. The couple concerned were very fond of each other, -and lived happily together except at times, when the husband, under the -influence of _raki_, would become quarrelsome. The wife, a fine spirited -woman, would retort, and violent disputes followed, ending in alternate -divorce and reconciliation. This happening once too often, the husband, -unable to repossess himself of his spouse, had recourse to an old -_effendi_ who had seen better days, and promised £20 for his services. -The _effendi_, according to custom, went to the bath, dressed himself in -a new suit of clothes, and being presented at the appointed time, the -_nekyah_ ceremony was gone through. The old gentleman walked into the -harem, seated himself upon the lady’s sofa, and began to enjoy, through -the fumes of his nargilé, the sweet vision of his unlooked-for happiness; -while the lady, whose dreams did not exactly harmonize with his, after -offering the acquaintance-cup of coffee, generally shared by the wife on -such an occasion, preferred standing at a respectful distance. The old -effendi, however, would not be balked in the prospect he had formed for -the re-enjoyment of his former happier days. Why should he not prolong -the tenure of the rights thus unexpectedly devolving upon him? Nothing -hindered but his pledged word to renounce them on the following morning. -His conscience easily reconciled to this breach of faith, he decided upon -remaining master of the situation, leaving the poor husband to lament the -loss of his wife and his £20, and quite regardless of the useless burden -he would become to the doubly-injured lady. Such events, however, are not -of frequent occurrence. - -It is customary for the bridegroom to furnish the wedding-dress and -sundry other accessories, as well as to promise the _nekyah_ money -settled upon the wife in case of divorce. These, including the _Kaftan_ -(outer wedding dress) are sent with great pomp eight days before the -_Duhun_. The Hodja, priest of the parish in which the parents of the girl -reside, is requested to give a declaration that the young lady is free -to contract matrimony. This, taken to the Kadi, obtains the marriage -license, for which a small fee is paid. A piece of red silk and some -sugar-plums are taken by the bridegroom’s mother to the house of the -bride. The red silk, which later on is made into an under-garment, is -spread on this occasion on the floor; upon it the young lady steps to -kiss the hand of her future mother-in-law and receive the gift with her -blessing. - -Half of one of these sugar-plums, bitten in two by her pearly teeth, is -taken to the bridegroom as the first love token; literal sweetness in -this case making up for any fault in the sentiment. These preliminaries -are sealed by the formality performed by the Imam in the presence of -witnesses who are called to the door of the Haremlik, behind which the -maiden and her friends stand. The Imam asks the bride if she consents -to accept the youth proposed (giving his name) for her husband. The -question is repeated three times, the bride answering each time in the -affirmative. The Hodja has to declare the amount of the _nekyah_ money -promised, and calls three times upon the bystanders to bear witness -before God to the contract; a short prayer follows, and the ceremony is -concluded. The felicitations are conveyed in the poetical expression -of “May Allah grant harmony between their two stars!” The contract, -religious as well as civil, is made verbally, and though no other -ceremony of importance follows it, the bride and bridegroom do not see -each other till the _Duhun_, or wedding festivities, have been held. The -length of this period may be from a few weeks to a few years, and is a -blank which potential love is at liberty to fill with fantastic pictures -of coming happiness. No sweet messages, letters, or communications of -any kind are allowed during the interval to pave the way towards the -future binding together of two beings whose common lot is cast, without -regard to personal sympathy, into the vague abyss of destiny. Kismet, -the supreme ruler of all Turkish events, is left to decide the degree of -misery or indifference that marriage contracted under such unfavorable -circumstances may bring, instead of the looked-for happiness. - -Romance, ending in marriage, however, is not unknown between Turkish -youths and maidens, and the parents seldom refuse their consent in such -cases. Young love, even Turkish love, is sometimes strong enough to break -through the barriers of harem restraint and reach its object in spite -of every obstacle with which the organization of centuries of jealous -guardianship has surrounded Turkish women. - -At Adrianople, a young beauty of sixteen suddenly began to pine and -sicken. The color faded from her cheeks, she became thoughtful, sad, -and listless; a low fever set in, greatly alarming the anxious parents, -who were at a loss to divine the cause. As usual, all the learned Hodjas -were resorted to, but their _Muskas_, prayers, and blessings failed -to revive the sinking health and spirits of the maiden. One day I -happened to visit this family; the girl was seated at the corner window, -overlooking the street, dreamily gazing out from behind the lattice. Her -little brother was playing by her side, while the mother was describing -to me the symptoms of her daughter’s indisposition. The little fellow -suddenly jumped up, saying, “_Ishdé_ Ali Bey. I want to go to him!” His -sister started up, her cheeks suffused with blushes, and left the room in -confusion. Both the mother and I noticed the incident, though no remark -was made about it at the time by either of us; but I was at no loss then -to understand the reason of the girl’s failing health and depression of -spirits. A short time after I heard of her engagement to this young man, -whom it appears she had loved as a child. This love later on becoming -a hidden passion was shared by the youth and stealthily interpreted -between them by the language of flowers, fruits, and scents, the mediums -generally resorted to by Turks in such cases. The lover, handsome and -intelligent, was a mere _Kyatib_, who deemed his limited means an -obstacle to his aspiring to the hand of one of the wealthiest young -hanoums of the town. I was present at the marriage festivities of this -lovely creature, and saw her a year later a blooming wife and mother. - -The trousseau comprises bedding, sometimes to the amount of fifty sets, -each composed of two mattresses, two quilted coverlets, and three cotton -bolsters; kitchen utensils, all of copper, very numerous, consisting of -two or three immense cauldrons, several large jugs and pans, and a great -number of dinner-trays, with the services belonging to them; among the -wealthy one of these would be of silver. It also comprises furniture -for two rooms of some rich material embroidered with gold, a handsome -_mangal_ (brazier), curtains, and a few carpets and rugs, besides the -house linen. The wardrobe contains several expensive fur jackets, a shawl -or two, some _feridjés_, and a number of suits of apparel, consisting -of under-gowns and jackets. The _gelinlik_, or wedding-dress, ranging -in value from sixty to hundreds of pounds, is embroidered with gold and -pearls. The rest are less rich in material, and are of silk and woollen -stuffs, and less expensive materials down to print _gedjliks_. The other -articles are chemises, a few pairs of stockings, boots, and slippers, -some dozens of worked handkerchiefs, head-ties, and _yashmaks_, together -with a number of European odds and ends, such as petticoats, gloves, and -parasols. - -The _Duhun_, like the circumcision ceremony, lasts a whole week, -occasioning great expense to the parents, who, however, cannot possibly -avoid it, and often incur debts for its celebration that hang heavily -upon them through life. - -The customs connected with weddings differ according to the district -in which they take place. In Macedonia I was highly amused to see the -manner in which the bride was introduced into her new home. As soon as -her feet had crossed the threshold, a halter was thrown round her neck -and she was dragged in by her husband, to teach her an early lesson of -gentle four-footed obedience; on passing the first hearth-stone her head -was brought into violent contact with the wall, as a warning of the -chastisement she may expect in case of misconduct. - -Her face is a mask of gold-dust and gum worked on the cheeks, forehead, -and chin with spangles. The eyebrows are thickly painted and meet over -the nose, and the teeth are blackened. This hideous disguisement is worn -till evening, when the bridegroom, on his first visit to the bride, pours -out the water with which she washes it away in order to give the nuptial -kiss. - -The wedding festivities begin on the Monday. A number of friends and -relatives collect at the home of the bride to superintend the final -arrangement and expedition of the trousseau to the bridegroom’s house. -This luggage is carried by _Hammals_, who, on arrival at the house, are -entitled beside their fee to a _chevré_, or marked handkerchief offered -by the mother. They are preceded on their march by the _Koulavouz_, who -delivers their burdens into the charge of the mother-in-law or some -responsible person. Shortly afterwards, the bride’s party follows, who -after partaking of coffee and bonbons are shown by the _hanoum_ into the -apartments destined for the occupation of the bride. - -It is customary for Turkish youths who have homes to take their wives -to them on marrying. Should the Konak be too small to accommodate all -the married sons, extra wings are added to it. The guests, left to -themselves, at once set to work to decorate the bridal chamber, some -stretching strings along the walls on which to hang the larger articles -of dress, such as furred and embroidered jackets, _feridjés_, cloaks, -and _intaris_, all of bright colors, and richly worked and trimmed. The -shawls, prayer carpet, and bridal _boghcha_, all objects of value, occupy -the centre of these rows, which are successively surmounted by others, -consisting of the linen, kerchiefs, towels, head scarves, and other -adjuncts of the toilet, all arranged with great taste. Along the top of -the walls runs a garland of crape flowers. The bride’s corner is richly -decorated with these and other artificial flowers, arranged in the form -of a bower. This promiscuous exhibition of silk gauze and various stuffs, -intermingled with embroidery in variegated silks, gold, and silver, -is most striking in effect, and forms, with the bridal bower, a sight -peculiarly Oriental and gorgeous. The alcove is reserved for the display -of jewels and other precious objects placed under glass shades. - -When this adornment (which takes up the whole night) is completed, -the party goes to the next room and arranges the furniture sent for -it, thence proceeding to the hall and unpacking the bedding, which, -placed against the walls upon the empty cases, forms a huge mass of -colored strata of silk, embroidery, and bright cotton print. One or two -little stools of walnut wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, support the -candelabra, and the _hochaf_ tray with its prettily cut crystal bowl and -ivory spoons would be placed in front, together with the brooms, dustpan -of walnut wood inlaid with silver, both patterns of the same materials, -and the kitchen utensils, _mangals_, and all other belongings of the -bride. - -On Tuesday the bride is taken to the bath with great ceremony, the -expenses on this occasion being defrayed by the bridegroom. Before -leaving the bath the bride is led three times round the centre platform, -kisses hands all round, and goes out to be dressed. The clothes she wears -on this occasion must not belong to her. - -On Wednesday, the bridegroom’s party of lady friends go in a body to -the home of the bride, preceded by the _Koulavouz_, who announces their -arrival with an air of great importance. Violent confusion ensues; the -mother, followed by her friends, descends the staircase. They form a -double row, each couple conducting a visitor between them, beginning -with the bridegroom’s mother, and proceed upstairs into apartments -specially reserved for the friends of the bridegroom, who do not mix with -the bride’s party on this occasion. When their veils and cloaks have -been removed they seat themselves round the room and partake of bitter -coffee and cigarettes, followed half an hour later by sweet coffee. The -bride is led into the room by two hanoums who have only been married -once, and kisses the hands of all present, beginning with her future -mother-in-law, and terminating with the youngest child in the room. She -is then seated on a chair near her _Kayn Validé_, who is allowed on this -occasion to take her by her side for a few minutes only, during which -masticated sugar is exchanged between them as a token of future harmony. -The bride is then taken away, excused by some insipid remarks on the -expiring rights of maternal possession over her. - -The dancing girls and musicians are now called in and perform before the -company, receiving money from each person as they leave the room in order -to entertain the other party of guests. When the bridegroom’s friends -are about to leave they throw small coins over the head of the bride, -who is led down to the door for the purpose. The scramble that ensues -among the hawkers of sweets, fruits, etc., assembled in the court, the -children, the beggars, and innumerable parasites crowding houses during -the celebration of a wedding, is beyond description. - -Before departure an invitation is given for the evening to take part in -the _Kena_, an entertainment more especially designed for the bride and -her maiden friends. When the company is assembled, tapers are handed to -each, and a procession formed, headed by the bride, and accompanied by -the dancing girls and music. They descend the staircase into the garden, -and wind among the flower-beds and groves of trees. The lights, the gay -dresses, flashing jewels, and floating hair of the girls, the bright -castanets, and the wild songs and weird music of the accompanyists, -combine to form a glimpse of fairy-land, or a dream of “The Thousand and -One Nights.” - -The ceremony of the _Kena_ consists in the application of the henna -mixture, which is prepared towards morning. The bride, after being -divested of her wedding finery, enters the presence of her mother-in-law, -shading her eyes with her left arm, while she seats herself in the middle -of the room. A silk bath scarf is thrown over her outstretched right -hand, and is then thickly plastered over with the henna, upon which her -mother-in-law sticks a gold coin, her example being followed by the rest -of her company. This hand placed in a silk bag relieves the other in -covering her eyes, and the left hand is in its turn extended and gifted -in like manner by the bride’s mother and _her_ friends; the feet are -also stained with the henna. This is followed by the last dance, called -the _Sakusum_, performed by the _Chingis_, accompanied by a song and -gestures of the most unrestrained and immodest nature, terminating in -these dancers taking extraordinary positions before each guest, sometimes -even sitting on their knees to receive their reward, which consists of a -small gold coin, damped in the mouth, and deposited on their unblushing -foreheads. In these proceedings, the modesty and innocence of the young -girls present is never thought about. - -The bride reposes long enough for the henna to impart its crimson dye, -but not to turn black, which would be considered a bad augury. - -The only touching scene in the whole course of the wedding ceremonies, -the girding of the bride by her father, takes place in the presence of -her mother and sisters just before she leaves the home of her childhood. -The father enters the room appearing deeply affected, and sometimes even -joining his tears to the weeping of his wife and daughters. The bride, -also weeping, falls at his feet, kisses them, and kisses his hands, while -he presses her to his breast and girds her with the bridal girdle, giving -at the same time some good advice and his blessing. - -In some district towns the bridegroom’s male friends arrive at dawn with -torches to take away the bride. She is not, however, seen by her husband -until evening, when he is taken to the mosque, and accompanied to the -door of his dwelling by the Imam. A short prayer is offered, the company -joining in the refrain of _Amin, Amin_, at the conclusion of which the -happy man is pushed into the house, a shower of blows falling on his -back; they then partake of sherbet standing, and disperse. The bridegroom -proceeding upstairs comes upon a bowl of water, which he upsets with his -foot, scattering the contents in all directions. The Koulavouz meets -and conducts him to the nuptial apartment, where the bride, shy and -trembling, awaits the introduction of the complete stranger, in whose -hands her destiny for good or for evil is now placed. - -She rises as he enters and kisses his hand; her bridal veil removed by -the Koulavouz is spread on the floor and knelt on by the bridegroom, -who offers a solemn prayer, the bride all the time standing on its edge -behind him. The couple then sit side by side; the old lady approaching -their heads together while she shows them the reflection of their united -images in a mirror, and expresses her wishes for the continuation of -their present harmonious union. - -Masticated sugar is exchanged between them as a token of the sweetness -that must henceforth flow from their lips. Coffee follows, after which -the Koulavouz retires till her services are again required for bringing -in the supper, which consists of sweets and eggs, meat being excluded on -the ground that to indulge in it on so solemn an occasion would lead to -future bickerings between them. - -The supper hour depends upon the shyness, obstinacy, or good-will of the -bride, over whom her husband can have no control until he has succeeded -in making her respond to his questions. Brides are recommended by -experienced matrons to remain mute as long as possible, and the husband -is sometimes obliged to resort to a stratagem in order to accomplish -this. The anxiously looked-for speech is at once echoed by the relieved -husband by a knock on the wall, which is the signal for supper. This -partaken of, the bride is divested of her finery and the paint and -flowers washed off by the Koulavouz, and left to repose after the fatigue -and excitement of five successive days of festivity, still to be extended -for two days longer. On the morrow she is again decked in her wedding -apparel to receive the crowd of hanoums, invited and uninvited, that -flock to the house to gaze upon her. - -I have said nothing about the bakhshish, or presents, for the reason -that the givers and receivers are legion; nor of the kind of amusement -resorted to during these days, since they consist principally in -feasting, drinking sherbet, smoking, and chatting, enlivened only by the -monotonous music and the spectacle of dancing girls. This part of the -entertainment is so disgusting to behold, and so repulsive to describe, -that the less I say about them the better; their immodesty can only be -matched by the obscene conversations held by the numerous parasites -specially introduced for the amusement of the company. - -Entertainments of a similar nature take place at the same time in the -Selamliks of both houses. - -At Constantinople the bride is taken on the Thursday morning from the -paternal roof, and conveyed in a carriage to her new home, followed by a -train of other carriages, preceded by music and surrounded by buffoons, -performing absurd mummeries for the amusement of the party, besides a -numerous company of unruly youths, some mounted and others on foot, most -of whom get intoxicated and noisy on the occasion. The bride is received -by her husband at the door; he offers his arm and conducts her upstairs -through the crowd of _hanoums_, who are not very careful about hiding -their faces, on the plea that the bridegroom being otherwise occupied -will not look at them. He leads his wife to the bower prepared for her, -but before taking her seat a scuffle ensues between them for precedence, -each trying to step upon the foot of the other, the successful person -being supposed to acquire the right of future supremacy. - -A Turkish wedding, as shown by this description, in its frivolous forms -and the absence of the sanctity of a religious ordinance, fails to -impress one with the solemnity of the Christian rite. The whole ceremony -contains many ridiculous superstitions and much that is worse than absurd. - -Polygamy was no invention of Mohammed’s: he found it already firmly -rooted in Arabia. To abolish it was an idea that could never have entered -his mind. We must only be grateful to him for having to some extent -set bounds to its evils. But those bounds are thoroughly inadequate. -Four wives and perfect facility of divorce are bad enough, without -reckoning the permission to keep as many concubines as a man pleases. -But the wretched necessities of polygamy and divorce are wrapped up -with the harem system. The latter absolutely demands the former; and -though cases of true love do exist in Turkey where a man resigns the -so-called pleasures of polygamy and of possessing odalisks; yet it may be -confidently asserted that until the harem system, and with it polygamy, -are finally abolished, the condition of Mohammedan women can never be -anything but degraded. - -Interested marriages are often contracted by young Turks, to whom -ambition or gratitude recommends as partners some faded court beauties -called _Serailis_, or the ugly and deformed daughter of the patron -to whom they owe their position and upon whom they depend for future -promotion. The number of vizirs and pashas that have attained such high -rank solely through the interest and influence of their wives is very -great; a fact which, if better known by Europeans, would disabuse them of -the idea that a Turkish wife of every rank is the slave of her husband. I -have seen innumerable cases denoting the reverse. The fraternity of meek, -submissive, and hen-pecked husbands is, I suppose, like the gypsies, -to be found all over the world. Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on being informed -that his favorite wife had concealed one of her lovers in a cupboard, -had a scene with her, during which he received a sound box on the ear. -At last the tyranny of this much-loved beauty passed all endurance, and -the Sultan decided upon putting her away and sending her into exile. -His Grand Vizir Reshid Pasha, was charged with the task of visiting the -Sultana and enforcing upon her the Imperial order. She received him, -heard her fate unmoved, and, still confident in the supreme power she -possessed over her lord and master, quietly collared his Grand Vizir and -walked him out of the room. - -O⸺ Pasha, in his young days, contracted a marriage of this kind with the -daughter of an influential minister. She was humpbacked, with a face so -distorted as to render a disinterested marriage hopeless. I made her -acquaintance at Uskup, as she passed through on her way to the interior -of Albania, where her husband had been appointed Governor-General. She -told me that she had made a great sacrifice in leaving her beautiful -_Yahli_ on the Bosphorus and undertaking a journey the perils and -hardships of which were nearly killing her, but that she thought it -her duty to be near her husband lest he, yielding to the temptation -occasioned by the absence of her surveillance, should form new ties that -might rob her of her rights. “Do you Franks,” she asked, “trust your -husbands out of your sight?” - -A week after her departure, another fussy arrival of harems put Uskup -into commotion. On my inquiring whose they were, I was told that they -were the beautiful Circassian Odalisks of O⸺ Pasha, who were following -the steps of his wife, entirely unknown to her. On arriving at their -destination I learnt that they had been carefully smuggled by their -owner into a house which he visited under the pretext of the long -_teptil_, or night watches, he had to make in the town in order to see -that all was right among his unruly Arnaouts. It is true the story -cuts two ways: it not only shows that the husband dared not be openly -unfaithful to his wife, but also that her suspicious surveillance was -entirely ineffectual. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -CHRISTIAN WEDDINGS—GREEK, BULGARIAN, AND ARMENIAN. - - _Greek Weddings._—The _Arravón_—Dowry—The Bridegroom’s Call - of Ceremony—The Wedding Festivities—Monday: the Sifting of - the Grain—Wednesday: the Making of the Wedding Cakes—Friday: - Bridal Presents—Saturday: Invitations; Dressing of the Bride’s - Hair and Shaving of the Bridegroom—Sunday: the Wedding; - Kissing of the Bridegroom—The Second _Arravón_—Duties of Best - Man—At the Church—Ceremonies on re-entering the House—The - final Dance—Monday: Feeding of the Bride—Offering at the - Well—Separation and Divorce among the Greeks. - - _Bulgarian Weddings._—Betrothal—Never Broken—Preparatory - Ceremonies—The Wedding—Procession to the Cellar—Christian - Marriage Service mixed with Dionysian Rites—Offering to - the Water Deities—Punishment of Unchastity—Turkish Raids - upon Brides—Bulgarian Trousseau—Marriage among the Wealthy - Bulgarians of the Towns—Ladies from Abroad. - - _Armenian Weddings._—The Offer—Wedding Ceremonies—Friday: - the Bath—Saturday: the Maidens’ Feast—Sunday: Feast of - Young Men and Girls—Caging of the Bride—The Bridegroom’s - Toilette—The Barber—Procession to the Bride—“Half-Service”—To - the Church—Multiple Marriage—Rite—Return to the House—Scramble - for Stockings—The Virgin Guard—Wednesday: Conclusion of - Marriage—Etiquette of Conversation. - - -Greek weddings vary in form and custom according to the country in which -they are celebrated and to the degree of modification ancient customs -have experienced under the influence of modern ideas. One of the most -interesting forms is that practised at Vodena (Edessa, the ancient -capital of Macedonia), as comprising in its forms many of the customs and -usages of the ancient Greeks. The preliminary ceremony is the ἀρραβών, or -troth, which, though it is not a religious rite, is considered binding, -and cannot lightly be set aside. An incident that happened at Broussa -will show how strong is the bond of this mere verbal engagement. A -young Greek girl, who had been talked about in the town, was portioned -by her influential protector, and engaged to a young peasant who was -unacquainted with her and ignorant of her antecedents and was induced to -pledge his word to marry her. All had been prepared for the ceremony. -The young man was hurried to church, where he and his friends became -acquainted with the bride. Her appearance did not satisfy the bridegroom, -and he refused to fulfil his promise. The officiating priest insisted -on the completion of the ceremony, in right of the bridegroom’s pledged -word. A scuffle ensued, and the active peasant, helped by his friends, -effected his escape from the church, leaving his _fez_ in the hands of -one of his antagonists; and, later on, obtained his release by legal -proceedings. - -Contrary to European custom, the young men are sought in marriage by the -parents of the girl, or through the intermediary, in imitation of their -ancestors, who employed such persons in this service. - -The usual age for the men is twenty-five, and for the girls eighteen. The -dowry is settled in the presence of witnesses, who bear testimony to the -right of inheritance of the children, and the _arravón_ is considered -concluded when the bridegroom declares himself satisfied with the amount -of the promised dowry. This belongs unconditionally to the husband, -except in case of divorce, when it is returned, in accordance with a law -identical with that of the ancient Athenians. The modern Greeks appear to -attach as much importance to the dowry as the ancient, although it is no -longer meant to denote the difference between the γυνή and the παλλακή, -which was marked by the wife bringing a dowry whilst the concubine -brought none. - -The _trousseau_ is being prepared long before it is required by the -careful parents, who by degrees buy all the materials for it, the girl -herself having no other concern than to give her help towards making up -the various articles of dress. - -No Greek of the present day would refuse to co-operate with his father -in portioning his sisters. He will renounce to himself the privilege of -taking a wife while any of his sisters remain unmarried. - -As soon as the engagement is made public, the συνδεδεμένος, in company -with his relatives and friends, pays his respects to the house of his -future wife, who presents herself in an extremely bashful attitude, her -eyes cast down, her hands crossed on her breast, and her mien on the -whole that of one who tries to conceal pride and joy under a stiff and -conceited exterior.[25] Receiving the felicitations of those present, -she bows three times, and then retires. Gilt βασιλικός (basil) is -offered as a memento of the event, a relic of the ancients, who used -herbs and flowers in connection with the affairs of marriage. As the -company retire, the ἀρραβωνιαστική (bride), standing at the head of -the staircase, kisses the hands of her future husband and his friends, -receiving in return gifts of gold coins. This custom of kissing hands on -the part of the woman is a humiliating, but in the East a common, mark of -submission, which our western ideas have happily reversed. - -It is customary for the bridegroom to send occasional presents to the -bride in the interval—of varying length—between the betrothal and the -wedding. The document containing the conditions of the ἀρραβών is -delivered to the bridegroom on the Sunday previous to the wedding, and -its receipt is acknowledged by a present of bonbons, henna, hair-dye, -rouge, and soap, together with a double flask containing wine. - -On Monday, the bride and her maiden friends collect, and, as in olden -time, sift the grain, which, on its return from the mill, will be -converted by them into bridal cakes. Very bright are the faces and very -merry the voices of these young maidens thus busily employed; the room -resounds with their gay laughter and joyous songs. On Wednesday the gay -company again assembles, increased in number by friends and relatives, -who arrive in the evening to assist in kneading the dough. The trough is -brought in and filled with a snowy pile of flour, which the Macedonian -maidens delight in converting into savory cakes that none could disdain -to partake of; and, especially on this occasion, they do their utmost -to make them worthy emblems of what their ancestors intended them to -represent. The trough is occupied at one end by a saddle mounted by a -boy girded with a sword; on the other by a girl, whose tiny hands must -be the first to mix the dough and lose in it the ring and coins. These -children must be bright and happy, their lives unclouded by the death -of even a distant relation. This custom, having survived the march of -centuries, is left as an inheritance to the Macedonians, pointing out to -the γαμβρός (bridegroom) the duties of the husband, the care and defence -of his home,—together with his out-door labors,—while it signifies to -the Macedonian maiden that she cannot begin too early to attend to her -household affairs. The kneading is continued by more experienced hands, -and the dough left till the morrow, when it is divided into portions and -handed round to the company, who all hopefully look for the hidden ring, -for which the lucky finder receives a present when returning it to the -bridegroom. The paste, re-collected, is mixed with the rest of the dough, -from which the _propkasto_ (wedding cake) and a variety of other cakes -are made. On Thursday the _propkasto_ is placed over a bowl of water, -round which, after the merry mid-day meal, the happy youths and maidens -dance three times, singing a song suited to the occasion. The cake is -then taken up, broken in pieces, and, together with figs and other -fruits, thrown over the heads of the couple; the children, scrambling for -these, are covered with a blanket, another surviving custom of ancient -Greece, figs and cakes denoting plenty, rendered doubly significant by -the scrambling children covered with the blanket, emblematic of the -future fruitfulness of the union itself. - -Friday is reserved for the interchange of presents between the bride -and bridegroom, each awaiting with loving curiosity the expected gift -of the other; the right of the first surprise belongs to the bride, -whose beating heart responds to the distant sounds of music that herald -the approach of the bearers, who, on arrival, after having been thanked -and refreshed, are intrusted with the presents destined by her for her -betrothed. - -On Saturday, invitations are issued, a formality extended to the bride -and bridegroom who invite one another, enlivened, as regards the -_Koumbáros_ and _Koumbára_,[26] with bands of music, which, accompanying -the invitation, lead these distinguished visitors back to partake of the -festivities of the day. - -In the evening the young girls for the last time rally round their -comrade, who, on the next day, is to leave their ranks; and, amid songs, -tears, and vows of unalterable friendship, the bride abandons her -youthful locks, dyed black, into the hands of her friends, who dress it -in a number of plaits in readiness for the next day. The bridegroom on -his part, accompanied by his friends and cheered by the sounds of lively -music, submits to the operation of shaving; during which operation an ode -to the razor is sung. - -Sunday, looked upon as the most propitious day, is fixed for the -celebration of the nuptials; relatives and friends collect at the abode -of the bridegroom, kiss the happy man, offering him felicitations and -presents, and conduct him to the home of the bride, preceded by the -mother, who, on leaving the house, empties a jar of water at the gate, -and places on the ground a belt, over which her son steps. The procession -stops on its way to take the _koumbáros_ and the _koumbára_. On arriving -at their destination, the formality of exchanging the documents -containing the marriage contracts is gone through; these are presented -by the priest to the respective parties, the dowry in cash is delivered -and sent to the bridegroom’s home. The second ἀρραβών then takes place in -the following manner, and in accordance with the customs of the ancient -Greeks. The bride’s father, or nearest of kin, presents himself to the -father, or nearest of kin, of the bridegroom, and offers him in a plate -some basil, saying, “Accept the engagement of my daughter to your son,” -repeating his request three times; this ceremony is repeated on the -bridegroom’s side, and followed by the presentation of a glass of wine, -a ring-shaped cake, and a spoon to the bridegroom, who partakes of the -wine, and drops money into the glass, in acknowledgment to the bride of -this attention; he keeps half the cake, giving the other half and the -spoon into the charge of the best man, who feeds the bride with it next -morning. This messenger is followed by another, who comes to gird the -bridegroom, lifting him up at the same time, which latter task is made as -difficult as possible by the person operated upon, in order to gain more -consideration. More kisses are now showered upon him by the relatives of -the bride, after which he is left in peace for a time; while the bride, -in another room, has her own trials to go through, those trials of the -heart which belong to the supreme moment when the maiden is about to tear -herself away from the thousand dear associations of home, to bid farewell -to mother and brother and sister, and then to enter upon new duties, new -ties and affections. - -Like all things, this soon comes to an end; it is the best man’s duty -to conclude it, in a strictly unsentimental manner, by putting on the -bride’s boots, a gift from her future husband. The bride, veiled, is led -to the church, followed by the rest of the company; bonbons are thrown -over her head and water spilt, this time by her mother, on her march as -she passes the gate. The clear rhythm of a triumphal march, accompanied -by a bridal chorus, rules the slow steps of the procession. At length -it reaches the church; but before entering it, the bridegroom’s mother -asks the maiden three times, “Bride, hast thou the shoes?” The couple -then enter the church, holding richly-decorated tapers, and proceed to -the altar, where they stand side by side, the bride on the left of the -bridegroom. The priest, after reading part of the ritual, makes the -sign of the cross three times with the rings over the heads of their -respective owners, and places them on their hands, saying, Ἀρραβωνίζετε -ὁ δοῦλος τοῦ θεοῦ (giving the name of the man), τὴν δούλην τοῦ θεοῦ (the -name of the woman), in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, -three times; leaving to the _koumbáros_ the duty of exchanging them. -This terminates the third ἀρραβών, and the marriage service begins by -the priest taking the wedding wreaths, placing them on the heads of the -bride and the bridegroom, saying, Στέφετε ὁ δοῦλος τοῦ θεοὑ (giving the -name of the bridegroom), τὴν δούλην τοῦ θεοῦ (the name of the woman), -in the name of the Father, etc., exchanging them three times. A glass -of wine, consecrated by the priest, is offered first to the bridegroom, -then to the bride, and finally to the _koumbáros_ standing behind the -couple holding the wreaths. The priest then joins their hands, and leads -them three times round the altar; the _koumbáros_ follows. The priest -then removes the bridegroom’s crown, saying, Μεγαλύνθητι Νυμφίε ὡς ὁ -Ἀβραὰμ καὶ εὐλογήθητι ὡς ὁ Ἰσαὰκ καὶ πληθύνθητι ὡς ὁ Ἰακώβ, and that of -the bride, saying, Καὶ σὺ, νύμφη, μεγλιζε ὡς ἡ Σαῤῥὰ καὶ εὐφράνθητι ὠς ἡ -Ῥεβεχὰ, κ. τ. λ. - -The ceremony concluded, the _koumbáros_ followed by the relations, -kisses the bride and bridegroom, while the friends in offering their -congratulations kiss the bridegroom and the wreath of the bride. On -returning, the bride’s mother welcomes the couple by placing two loaves -on their heads, while a fresh shower of comfits is being thrown over -them. They are finally conducted to the nuptial chamber, and not spared -the ordeal of sweetmeat-eating. The quince of the ancients is replaced by -sugar-plums. - -The manner in which this is given and taken is curious. The couple bend -on one knee, placing a few sugar-plums on the other, which each strives -to pick up with the lips, the most expeditious having the right first -to resume liberty of posture. I have not been able to ascertain if this -particular custom is meant to predict supreme power to the lord and -master in case of success, or his subjection to petticoat government in -case of failure. - -Towards evening, the bride, led by her father-in-law, or husband’s -nearest of kin, proceeds to the common outside the town or village, -and opens a round dance, called the _surto_. This dance consists of a -quick step, accompanied by music and chanting; after its performance the -company disperse, the nearest relations leading the couple home. - -On Monday morning the sleepers are wakened by songs, and the _koumbáros_, -invited to partake of the frugal morning meal, feeds the bride with the -remaining half of the cake, and offers her the spoon with which she eats -the first mouthful of food that day. - -Breakfast over, the bride is the first to leave the table, and goes to -the well accompanied by her friends, round which she walks three times, -dropping an _obol_ into it from her lips, a sacred attention of the -ancients to the water deities, and still in vogue among the moderns. On -returning home, the bride, desirous of making her husband share in the -benefits of her dedication, pours some water over his hands, offering at -the same time the towel on which to dry them, and receiving in return a -present from him. - -The rejoicings continue throughout the day, the bride’s father, or -nearest of kin, having this time the right of opening the dance with her. - -On the following Friday evening, the young matron proudly returns in -company with her husband, to the paternal roof, under which they remain -till Saturday night. - -Five days afterwards the bride again returns to visit her mother, taking -with her a bottle of _raki_, which she exchanges, taking a fresh supply -back with her. The Saturday following, a great feast is given by the -bride’s father, inviting all the relatives to a cordial but sober meal. -In the evening the bride is accompanied home by the party, when she is -left in peace to enter upon the duties of her new home. - -The modern Greeks fully deserve the praise they receive for the virtues -that distinguish their family life, the harmony of which is seldom -disturbed by the troubles and dissensions caused by illegal connections, -acts of cruelty, or other disorders. Incompatibility of feeling in -unhappy unions is wisely settled by separation. In more serious cases a -divorce is appealed for to the bishop of the diocese, who submits it to -the council of the _demogerontia_, which, according to the merits of the -case, gives a decision, or refers it to the Patriarch at Constantinople. -Thus the scandal of an open court of law is avoided, and the offspring, -innocent of all participation in the crime (should there be any) are not -made to suffer from its unjust stigma. - - -MARRIAGE AMONG THE BULGARIANS. - -Fourteen years spent among Bulgarians afforded me the opportunity of -witnessing many marriage ceremonies, which were very peculiar and -interesting. Especially curious are those of Upper Macedonia, as -presenting remarkable traces of Dionysian worship. - -The matrimonial negotiations are carried on by the _stroinichitsita_ and -_stroinitcote_, persons commissioned by the parents to find a suitable -_parti_ for their marriageable daughters; the proposal, among the -peasants, being addressed by the man to the parents of the girl, who -accept it on the promise of a sum of money, ranging from £50 to £300, -according to his means. The sum is offered as purchase-money for the -labor of the hardy maiden, whose substantial assistance in field and -other work to the _paterfamilias_ ceases on the marriage day, when her -services pass to her husband. - -Wednesday or Thursday evenings are considered most propitious for the -betrothal, which takes place in the presence of witnesses, and consists -in the exchange of marriage contracts, certifying on one side the -promised sum of money, and on the other stating the quantity and quality -of the _trousseau_ the bride will bring. The interchange of contracts is -followed by that of rings between the affianced, offered to them by the -priest who asks each person if the proposal of the other is accepted. A -short blessing follows, and this simple betrothal is concluded by the -bride kissing the hands of her affianced husband and of the rest of the -company. - -These engagements, never known to be broken, are often prolonged for -years by selfish parents, who are unwilling to part with the services -of a daughter who is valued as an efficient laborer. This unjust delay -gives rise to clandestine associations, tolerated, but not acknowledged, -by the parents, and finally ending in matrimony. Runaway marriages are -also of frequent occurrence in cases when there is difficulty about the -payment of the portion. The young couple elope on an appointed day, and -ride to the nearest church, where they are at once united. On returning -home the bride usually hides herself in the house of some relative, until -friends intervening obtain her father’s forgiveness. - -The principles of good faith and honor are sacredly kept among these -simple people, who are never known to break their pledged word under any -circumstances. - -How curious would an English girl think the preliminary customs that -a virgin in this fine, but now neglected, country must observe before -entering upon the state of holy matrimony. And yet, rude and primitive -as these customs are, they well deserve our attention as having once -belonged, in part at least, to a wonderful civilization, now lost, but -never to be forgotten. - -Preparing the house for the coming festivity, washing with ceremony -the bride’s head, exhibiting the _trousseau_ for the inspection of the -matrons, who do not spare their criticism on its merits or demerits, -while the young and thoughtless are busy putting a last stitch here and -there amid gay songs and cheerful talk; the ornamentation of cakes sent -round to friends and relatives in lieu of invitation cards,—all these are -old customs which ring in unison with the peaceful and industrious habits -of a people whose life in happier times reminded one of the Arcadias of -the poets. - -Nor is the marriage ceremony itself void of interest. I was present at -one of these while staying at a large Bulgarian settlement in Upper -Macedonia. The village, buried in a picturesque glen, looked bright -and cheery. Its pretty white church and neat school-house stood in the -midst; around were the farm-houses and cottages, roofed with stone slabs, -standing in large farmyards, where the golden hay and corn-stacks, the -green trees, and small flower-beds disputed the ground with a roving -company of children, pigs, and fowls. - -The wedding took place in the house of a rich Chorbadji, who was giving -his daughter in marriage to a young Bulgarian from a village on the -opposite side of the glen. The festivities began on a Monday and lasted -through the week, each day bringing its duties and pleasures, its -songs, music, and dancing,—indispensable parts of a Bulgarian peasant’s -existence. - -On the eve of the wedding-day the virgin meal took place, each maiden -arriving with her offering of sweets in her hands. It was a pretty sight -to look at all those bright young faces, for the time free from care and -lighted up with smiles of content and joy. It takes so little to amuse -innocent peasant girls, for whom a day of rest is a boon in itself, well -appreciated and generally turned to good account. - -On Sunday, in the early forenoon, the company once more assembled. The -children, washed and dressed, played about the yard, filling the air with -their joyous voices. The matrons led their daughters in their bright -costumes, covered with silver ornaments, their heads and waists garlanded -with flowers. The young men also, decked out in their best, and equally -decorated with flowers, stood to see them pass by, and to exchange -significant smiles and looks. - -On entering the house, I was politely offered a seat in the room where -the bride, in her wedding dress, a tight mantelet closely studded with -silver coins, and hung about with strings of coins intertwined with -flowers, sat awaiting the arrival of the bridegroom’s company, who were -to lead her to her new home. The sound of distant music soon announced -their approach, and was the signal for the touching scene of _adieux_. -All the bride’s smiles died away, and tears stood in every eye. Kissing -hands all round, and being kissed in return, she was led by her father -to the gate, and mounted upon a horse that awaited her; the rest of -the company followed her, all mounted also. The scene changed, and as -we rode along the mountain paths I felt myself transported into the -mythological age in the midst of a company of Thyiades, garlanded with -flowers and vine-leaves, proceeding to the celebration of their festival. -The procession, headed by a standard-bearer carrying a banner surmounted -by an apple, and followed by a band of music, wended its way along the -mountain paths. The wild strains of the minstrels were echoed by the -shouts and songs of the company, excitedly careering among the flowery -intricacies of the mountain passes, like a wild chorus of Bacchantes. On -entering the village, the procession was completed by the addition of the -_Nunco_ (best man) with the _Stardever_, who, like the Kanephoroi in the -Dionysia, carried baskets of fruit, cakes, the bridal crowns, and the -flasks of wine, and led the sacrificial goat with its gilded horns, all -gifts of the _Nunco_. - -On arriving at the gate of the bridegroom’s house, the standard-bearer -marched in and planted his banner in the middle of the court. The bride, -following, stayed her horse before it, and, after a verse had been sung -by the company,[27] she bowed three times, and was assisted to dismount -by her father-in-law. On parting with her horse she kissed his head three -times, and then, holding one end of a handkerchief extended to her by her -father-in-law, was led into a kind of huge cellar, dimly lighted by the -few rays that found their way through narrow slits high up in the walls. -In the midst stood a wine-barrel crowned with the bridal cake, on which -was placed a glass of wine. The scene here deepened in interest; the -priests, in their gorgeous sacerdotal robes and high black hats, holding -crosses in their hands, stood over this Bacchanalian altar awaiting the -bride and bridegroom, who, garlanded with vine-leaves and also holding -tapers, advanced solemnly, when the sacred Christian marriage rite, thus -imbued with the mysteries of the Dionysian festivals, was performed. -After having tasted the wine contained in the glass, and while walking -hand-in-hand three times round the barrel, a shower of fruits, cakes, -and sugar-plums was thrown over the couple. The ceremony ended by the -customary kissing, as observed among the Greeks. The company then sat -down to a hearty meal. The feasting on such occasions lasts till morning; -dancing, drinking, and singing continue till dawn, without, however, any -excess. - -The next day, the banner crowned with the apple, still keeping its place, -proclaims to the guests who come to lead the bride to the village well -to throw in her _obol_, that she has virtuously acquired the rights of a -wife. Should the reverse be the case, the bride receives severe corporal -punishment, and mounted on a donkey, with her face turned towards its -tail, which she holds in her hands, is led back to her father’s house—a -barbarous custom which must be set aside after the disorders lately -committed in this country. - -The custom of marrying in the most retired part of the house, instead -of the church, among the peasants, is, according to my information, the -result of the dread they had in times of oppression of giving unnecessary -publicity to their gatherings, and thus inviting the cupidity of some -savage band of their oppressors, who scrupled not when they had a chance -to fall upon and rob and injure them. This state of things was brought -back during late events. - -Some months ago, a marriage was taking place in the village of B⸺, in -Macedonia. The bridal procession had just returned from church, when a -band of ferocious Turks fell upon the house where the festivities were -being held, robbing and beating right and left, until they arrived at -the unfortunate bride, whom, after divesting of all her belongings, they -dishonored and left to bewail her misfortunes in never-ending misery. -The distracted husband, barely escaping with his life, rushed into the -street, loudly calling upon his Christian brethren to shoot him down, and -thus relieve him of the life whose burden he could not bear. - -The _trousseau_ of a Bulgarian peasant girl consists of the following -articles: A long shirt, embroidered with fine tapestry work in worsted -or colored silks round the collar, sleeves, and skirt; a sleeveless -coat (_sutna_), tightly fitting the figure, made of home-spun woollen -tissue, also richly embroidered; a sash (_poyous_), made of plaited wool, -half an inch wide and about eighty yards long, with which they gird -themselves; an overcoat, also embroidered; an apron, completely covered -with embroidery; embroidered woollen socks, garters, and red shoes. The -head-dress varies according to the district. In Bulgaria proper a sort of -high coif is worn, not unlike the pointed cap of English ladies in the -Middle Ages. In Macedonia, to the hair, cut short upon the forehead and -plaited behind in a number of braids, is added a long fringe of black -wool, braided, fastened round the head and falling below the knees; the -crown of the head being covered with a richly embroidered white cloth, -fastened on with innumerable silver ornaments and strings of coins. -The whole wardrobe, made of strong, durable materials, is home-spun -and home-made, and being elaborately embroidered forms an _ensemble_ -extremely picturesque, very durable, and well adapted to the mode of -life of the wearers. One of these dresses often requires three months’ -constant work to accomplish its embroidery; but I may as well add that it -will take a lifetime to wear it out. - -In addition to these articles of dress, whose number varies according to -the condition of the person for whom they are intended, carpets, rugs, -towels, and a few sheets are added, together with a number of silver -ornaments, such as belts, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets, some of -which are extremely pretty. - -The Bulgarian _trousseaux_, needing so much time and work, are in course -of preparation while the children for whom they are intended are still in -their infancy, and as each article is woven, it is packed away in a long, -bolster-shaped bag, in unison with their careful custom of exposing their -belongings to observation as little as possible. - -I shall not dwell long upon the marriage of the wealthy in large towns -like Philippopolis. The religious service used is that of the orthodox -Greek Church, since there is no doctrinal difference between the creeds -of the Greeks and the Bulgarians. - -The festivities, both among rich and poor, are continued for a week; the -former still adhering to some of the old usages for form’s sake. In the -town of Philippopolis the native customs have been in part set aside and -replaced by the European. At the last marriage I witnessed there the -bride was a shy little beauty, well versed in her own language, with a -pretty good knowledge of modern Greek and a smattering of French. Her -_trousseau_, like those of many of her rank, had been received from -Vienna, as well as the bridal dress, veil, and wreaths, presents from -the bridegroom. Some years ago dowries were not demanded, but a good -amount of fine jewelry, much appreciated by Bulgarian ladies, formed an -indispensable appendage to the _trousseau_. - -Besides the European apparel given to brides, a large amount of native -home-made articles of dress and house linen are added. Some of these -are of exquisite taste and workmanship, such as _crêpe_ chemises, made -of mixed raw and floss silk; embroidered towels and sheets, worked with -an art and taste that can well vie with the finest French and English -embroideries; besides tissues in home-woven silk and cotton for bedding, -and other articles of native manufacture that would be well appreciated -if they could find their way into the wardrobes of fashionable Europeans. - -The Bulgarian _élite_ follow the custom of being asked in marriage on the -lady’s side. - -A number of Bulgarians are now educated in foreign countries, and attain -distinction and great success in the professions they exercise. When a -sufficient competence for life has been acquired, they return to their -homes in order to marry on their native soil, to which they are devotedly -attached. - -Great is the commotion that the return of one of these absentees -occasions. Each member of the tribe of _Stroinicotes_, busily working in -the interest he or she represents, tries to outdo the others, until the -coveted prize is obtained. In the mean time the newcomer is feasted in -every direction, the mothers doing their utmost to be amiable and the -daughters to look their best; while the fathers are calculating whether -the new custom of giving dowries to their daughters is likely to be one -of the conditions of the hopeful match. Great is the glee of a parent on -hearing the welcome words of _Né kem pari; sa kumchupa_ (I ask no money; -I want the maiden), upon which the match is soon concluded by the usual -routine of betrothal, exchange of contracts, and presents. The lover is -free to visit his _fiancée_, and instill into her mind the ideas and -feelings that must elevate her to his own standard; a praiseworthy duty, -often crowned with success when the husband undertakes it in earnest. -Some of my most esteemed friends in Bulgaria were the wives of highly -educated men. The knowledge they possessed was limited; but they were -gentle, virtuous, ladylike, and admirable housewives, devoting all their -efforts to the education and improvement of their children, in whom they -try to develop those talents and qualities that in their own youth had -been left untrained. The Bulgarians after marriage are attached to their -home, husband and wife uniting their efforts to make it comfortable and -happy. - - -ARMENIAN WEDDINGS. - -The Armenian _fiançailles_, although contracted in a very simple fashion, -are not easily annulled, and can only be set aside for very serious -reasons. - -A priest, commissioned by the friends of the aspirant, makes the -proposals of marriage to the young lady’s parents. Should the offer be -accepted, he is again sent, accompanied by another priest, to present to -the _fiancée_ a small gold cross bought by her betrothed for the benefit -of the Church, and of a price proportioned to the means of the family.[28] - -Girls are given in marriage at a very early age, some when they are but -twelve years old; but men seldom marry before they are twenty-two. - -The wedding ceremony, as I remember seeing it in my childhood, and as -it still takes place in Armenia, where customs _à la Franca_ have not -yet penetrated among the primitive, semi-civilized people, is a truly -curious proceeding. Like the Turkish wedding, it takes place on a Monday. -A priest is sent by the bride’s parents to inform those of the bridegroom -that all is ready and the _Duhun_ may begin. On the Friday, invitations -are issued and the bride is taken to the bath with great ceremony. On the -Saturday, musicians are called in, and all the young maidens assemble -to partake of a feast intended especially for them, and extended to the -poor, who come in flocks to share in the good things. - -Next day this festivity is repeated; the dinner is served at three, -and the young men are allowed to wait upon the girls—a rare privilege, -equally pleasing to either sex, at other times excluded from each other’s -society—and it is needless to say that they now make the most of their -opportunities. - -As soon as this repast is over, the married people sit down to the -wedding dinner in a patriarchal fashion, husband and wife side by side, -while the young men are the last to partake of the bridal repast. In -the evening, they are again admitted to the company of the ladies, on -the plea of handing refreshments to them. About ten o’clock the bride -is taken into another room by her friends, who place upon her head a -curious silver plate, over which a long piece of scarlet silk is thrown, -falling to her feet, secured at the sides by ribbons, enveloping her in -a complete bag, drawn tight at the top of her head, under the silver -plate; two extraordinary-looking wings called _sorgooch_, made of stiff -card-board, covered with feathers, are fastened on each side of the head. -When this disguise is complete, the bride, blindfolded by her veil, is -led forth from the apartment, and conducted by her father or nearest male -relative to open a round dance, during the performance of which money is -showered over her. She is then led to a corner, where she sits awaiting -the arrival of the bridegroom in the solitude of her crimson cage. - -The bridegroom’s toilette begins early in the afternoon: he is seated in -the middle of the room surrounded by a joyous company of friends; the -_gingahar_, or best man, and a host of boys arrive, accompanied by the -band of music sent in search of them. - -The barber, an all-important functionary, must not be overlooked: razor -in hand, girded with his silk scarf, his towel over one shoulder, and -a species of leather strap over the other, he commences operations, -prolonged during an indefinite period, much enlivened by his gossip and -_bon mots_, and turned to his advantage by the presents he receives -from the assembled company, who, one by one, suspend their gifts on a -cord, stretched by him for the purpose across the room. These gifts -consist chiefly of towels, pieces of cloth, scarves, etc. When the gossip -considers the generosity of the company exhausted, he gives the signal -for the production of the wedding garments, which, brought in state -together with the bridegroom’s presents to his bride, must receive the -benediction of the priest before they can be used. - -After the evening meal has been partaken of, the gifts, accompanied by -the musicians, are conveyed to the bride, the company following with the -bridegroom, who walks between two torches, and is met at the door by -another band of music. - -On entering the presence of his future mother-in-law and her nearest -relatives, he receives a gift from her and respectfully kisses her hand. -Allowed a few moments’ rest, he is seated on a chair between two flaring -torches, after which he is led into the presence of his veiled bride, -to whom he extends his hand, which she takes, extricating her own with -difficulty from under her _duvak_, and is assisted to descend from her -sofa corner, and stands facing her betrothed with her forehead reclining -against his. A short prayer, called the “half service,” is read over the -couple; their hands, locked together, must not be loosed till they arrive -at the street door, when two bridesmaids supporting the bride on each -side lead her at a slow pace to the church. - -The procession is headed by the bridegroom and his men, followed by the -bride and the ladies; no person is allowed to cross the road between the -two parties. On entering the sacred edifice, the couple, making the -sign of the cross three times, offer a prayer, believing that whatever -they ask at this moment will be granted them; they then approach the -altar steps and stand side by side. An Armenian superstition considers -some days more propitious than others for the celebration of weddings, -consequently a number of bridal couples generally collect on the same -day, and at the same hour. I was present on one occasion when the church -at Broussa, although a vast building, scarcely sufficed to accommodate -the friends of the sixty couples waiting to get married. The brides, all -similarly dressed, were pushed forward by the dense crowd of relatives, -friends, and spectators towards the altar, where the sixty bridegrooms -awaited them, standing in a line. Two brides, alike in stature, changed -places, in the hurry and confusion of the moment. One was a pretty -peasant girl, whose only dower was her beauty, destined to become the -wife of a blacksmith; the other was the ugly daughter of a wealthy -Armenian, about to be united to a man of her own station. The mistake was -noticed, but the nuptial knot being already tied, it was too late to be -rectified, no divorce for such a cause being allowed among Armenians. - -The bridegroom who could only complain in a pecuniary point of view made -the best of it,—doubtless consoled by the adage that beauty unadorned -is adorned the most; while the blacksmith, greatly benefited by this -unexpected good turn from Dame Fortune, had probably pleasant dreams of -abandoning the hammer and anvil and passing the rest of his days in ease, -affluence, and plenty, and was ready to admit that riches, like fine -garments, may hide a multitude of defects. - -But let us return to the marriage ceremony. The first part of the -service is read by the priest, standing on the altar steps; the couples, -placed in a row before him, with the best men and boys behind him. He -asks each couple separately, first the bridegroom, and then the bride, -the following question:—“_Chiorus topalus cabullus?_”[29] To which the -parties answer in the affirmative. Should either person object to the -union, the objection is accepted, and the marriage cannot be proceeded -with; but incidents of this kind are rare: only one ever came under my -notice. - -After the formalities of the acceptance have been gone through, the -couple stand facing each other, with their heads touching, and a small -gold cross is tied with a red silken string on the forehead of each, -and the symbol of the Holy Ghost pressed against them. The ceremony -terminates by the partaking of wine; after which, the married pair walk -hand-in-hand to the door of the church; but from the church to her home -the bride is once more supported by the bridesmaids. The moment they are -about to cross the threshold, a sheep is sacrificed, over whose blood -they step into the house. - -When husband and wife are seated side by side, the guests come one by -one, kiss the crosses on their foreheads, and drop coins into a tray, for -the benefit of the officiating priest. - -The bride is now once more led to her solitary corner; the veil, which -she has been wearing all the time of the ceremony, is momentarily lifted -from her face, and she is refreshed with a cup of coffee, into which she -drops money as she gives it back; a male child is then placed on her -knees for a short time. This formality is followed by a regular scramble -for her stockings by a flock of children, who make a great rush towards -her feet, pull off her boots and stockings, which they shake, in order to -find the money previously placed in them. - -The bride and bridegroom soon after open a round dance, and during its -performance money is again thrown over their heads. - -The bride is again led back to her corner, where she remains a mute and -veiled image; sleeping at night with that awful plate on her head, and -guarded by her maiden friends, who do not desert her until Wednesday -evening, when the bridegroom is finally allowed to dine _tête-à-tête_ -with the bride. The only guests admitted that day to the family dinner -are the priest and his wife; the latter passes the night in the house, -and is commissioned the next morning to carry the tidings to the bride’s -mother that her daughter has happily entered upon the duties of married -life. - -At noon a luncheon is given to the relatives and friends, who collect to -offer their congratulations. - -On Saturday, the ceremony of kissing the hands of her mother and -father-in-law is again gone through; the bridal veil on this occasion -is replaced by one of crimson _crêpe_, which she wears until her -father-in-law gives her a present and allows her to remove it. Brides are -not allowed to utter a word in the presence of a near relative of their -husband until permitted to do so by his father. This permission, however, -is sometimes not easily obtained, and years may elapse before it is -given. Many a young wife has gone to her grave without having spoken to -her father- and mother-in-law. - -Though the Armenians are sensual and despotic, they generally make -good husbands; but the standard of morality is getting lax among the -emancipated followers of the customs _à la Franca_, who, being entirely -ignorant of the rules of true breeding, often abuse the freedom of -European manners. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -FUNERAL CEREMONIES. - - _Moslem Funerals._—Fatalism—Ceremonies before Burial—Testimony - of the Guests—Procession to the Grave—The Imam’s - Questioning—Funerals of Women—Effects of Rapid Burial—Sorrow - for the Dead—Mourning—Prayers for the Dead—Funeral of a Dervish - Sheikh. - - _Greek Funerals._—Remains of Ancient Greek - Rites—Myriologia—The Obol for Charon—The Funeral Service—The - Interment—Mourning—Second Marriage—Masses for the Souls of the - Departed—Wheat Offerings—Opening of the Tomb and Collecting of - the Bones—Bulgarian Ceremonies—Messages to the Other World. - - -Few people in the world view the approach of death with such -indifference, or receive its fatal blow with such calmness and -resignation, as the Moslems. - -According to some verses taken from the Koran, earthly existence is but a -fleeting shadow, seen for a moment, then lost sight of forever; its joys -and pleasures all delusion; itself a mere stepping-stone to the celestial -life awaiting the true believer. - -“Know that this life is but a sport—a pastime—a show—a cause of -vain-glory among you! And the multiplying of riches and children is -like the (plants which spring up after) rain; whose growth rejoices the -husbandman; then they wither away and thou seest them all yellow; then -they become stubble.”[30] - -Kismet (destiny) and Edjel (the appointed time of death) are decreed by -Allah. Every one of his creatures has these traced on his forehead in -invisible letters. Kismet, disposing of his earthly career; Edjel, fixing -its duration and the nature of its end. “To an appointed time doth he -respite them.”[31] - -Seen from this fatalistic point of view, the terrors of death impress -Moslems mostly when viewed from a distance; and its name, softened by -some poetical expression, is never uttered in refined society without the -preface of _Sis den irak olsoun_, “Far be it from you;” and the common -people invariably spit before uttering it. - -At the approach of death, the moribund appears resigned to his fate, and -his friends reconciled to the thought of his approaching end. No Imam or -servant of God is called in to soothe the departing spirit or speed its -flight by the administration of sacraments. The friends and relatives -collected round the couch weep in silence, and if the departing one is -able to speak, _helal_ (forgiveness) is requested and given. Prayers are -repeated by the pious, to keep away the evil spirits that are supposed to -collect in greater force at such moments. Charitable donations are made, -and other acts of generosity performed at death-beds; and frequently at -such times slaves are set free by their owners; for it is written: “They -who give alms by night and by day, in private and in public, shall have -their reward with their Lord; no fear shall come upon them, neither shall -they grieve.”[32] - -The moment the soul is believed to have quitted the body, the women begin -to utter wailings. Some tear their hair, others beat their breasts, in -an outburst of genuine sorrow. A lull soon follows, and, without loss -of time, preparations are made for performing the last duties to the -corpse; for the Turks do not keep their dead unburied any longer than is -necessary for the completion of these preliminaries. - -If the death be that of a person of consequence, the Muëzzin chants the -special cry from the minaret; and invitations are issued to friends and -acquaintances for the funeral. Directly after death the eyelids are -pressed down and the chin bandaged; the body is undressed and laid on a -bed called _rahat yatak_ (“couch of comfort”) with the hands stretched -by the side, the feet tied together, and the head turned towards the -_Kibla_. A veil is then laid over the body. While the company is -gathering in the Selamlik, or in the street, performing the ablution -(_abtest_), and preparing for the prayer (_namaz_), the corpse, if it -be that of a man, is taken into the court-yard on the stretcher, and an -Imam, with two subordinates, proceeds to wash it. - -The formalities connected with this observance are of strictly religious -character, and consequently carried out to the letter. The first -condition to be observed is to keep the lower part of the body covered, -the next to handle it with great gentleness and attention, lest those -engaged in the performance of that duty draw upon them the curse of the -dead. Seven small portions of cotton are rolled up in seven small pieces -of calico; each of these is successively passed between the limbs by -the Imam, while some hot water is poured over the bundles, which are -then cast away one after the other. After the rest of the body has been -washed, the _abtest_, or formal religious ablution, is administered to -it. This consists in washing the hands, and in bringing water in the hand -three times to the nose, three times to the lips, and three times from -the crown of the head to the temples; from behind the ears to the neck; -from the palm of the hand to the elbow, and then to the feet, first to -the right and then to the left. This strange ceremony is performed twice. -The _tabout_ (coffin) is then brought in and placed by the side of the -stretcher, both of coarse deal, put together with the rudest workmanship. -Before laying the body in the coffin, a piece of new calico, double its -size, is brought. A strip about two inches in width is torn off the edge, -and divided into three pieces, which are placed upon three long scarves -laid across the shell. The calico, serving as a shroud, is next stretched -in the coffin, and a thousand and one drachms of cotton, with which to -envelope the corpse, are placed upon it. Some of this cotton is used to -stop the issues of the body, and is placed under the armpits and between -the fingers and toes. - -The body is then dressed in a sleeveless shirt, called _kaflet_, and is -gently placed in the coffin. Pepper is sifted on the eyes, and a saline -powder on the face, to preserve from untimely decay; rose-water is then -sprinkled on the face, which is finally enveloped in the remainder of -the cotton. The shroud is then drawn over and secured by the three strips -of calico, one tied round the head, the other round the waist and the -third round the feet, and the coffin is closed down. - -When all is ready, the guests are admitted; and the Imam, turning round, -asks the crowd: “O congregation! What do you consider the life of this -man to have been?” “Good,” is the invariable response. “Then give _helal_ -to him.” - -The coffin, covered with shawls and carrying at the head the turban or -fez of the deceased hung on a peg, is then borne on the shoulders of -four or more individuals who are constantly relieved by others; and the -funeral procession, composed exclusively of men, headed by the Imam -and Hodjas, slowly winds its way in silence through the streets until -it arrives at the mosque where the funeral service is to be read. The -coffin is deposited on a slab of marble, and a short Namaz, called _Mihit -Namaz_, is performed by the congregation standing. This concluded, the -procession resumes its way to the burial-ground, where the coffin is -deposited by the side of the grave, which, for a man, is dug up to the -height of a man’s waist, for a woman, up to her shoulder. - -A small clod of earth, left at one end of the excavation, in the -direction of the _Kibla_, takes the place of a pillow. The coffin is then -uncovered, and the body gently lifted out of it by the ends of the three -scarves, previously placed under it (one supporting the head, another the -middle of the body, and the third the feet), and lowered into its last -resting-place. A short prayer is then recited, a plank or two laid at a -little distance above the body, and the grave is filled up. - -At this stage, all the congregation withdraw, and the Imam is left alone -by the side of the grave, where he is believed to enter into mysterious -communications with the spirit of the departed, who is supposed to -answer all the questions on his creed which his priest puts to him. He -is prompted in these answers by two spirits, one good and one evil, who -are believed to take their places by his side. Should he have been an -indifferent follower of the Prophet, and forbidden to enter Paradise, the -evil spirit forces him to deny the only true God, and make a profession -unto himself. A terrible battle is supposed to ensue in the darkness -of the grave between the good and evil spirits called _Vanqueur_ and -_Veniqueur_.[33] The good angel spares not his blows upon the corpse and -the evil spirit, until the latter, beaten and disabled, abandons his -prey, who by Allah’s mercy is finally accepted within the fold of the -true believers. - -This scene, however, is revealed to none by the Imam, and remains a -secret between Allah, the departed, and himself. I have questioned -several Mohammedans of different classes about this superstition, and -they all appear to believe in it implicitly. Most credulous are the -women, who embellish the tale with Oriental exaggeration and wonderful -fancies that pass description. - -The funeral ceremonies of the women are similar to those of the men, with -the exceptions, that the washing is done by women screened from view, -and that when the body is laid upon the “couch of comfort,” the face, as -well as the body, is half covered, instead of the body only. During the -procession the only apparent difference is that, instead of the fez on -the peg at the head of the coffin, one sees the _chimber_, or coif. - -The necessity of immediate burial in hot climates where Islam had its -birth and passed its childhood must have been the cause of the adoption -of the custom in Turkey. It has the disadvantage, that in the time of an -epidemic, such as cholera, a great number of people are falsely taken for -dead and buried alive; but when accident reveals the disturbed condition -of these unfortunate beings to the living, instead of exciting the horror -of relations, the disturbance is universally attributed to struggles -with evil spirits after burial. Few invalids receive regular medical -attendance, and post-mortem examinations are unheard of. - -It is considered sinful for parents to manifest extreme sorrow for -the loss of their children; for it is believed that the children of -over-mourning parents are driven out of Paradise and made to wander about -in darkness and solitude, weeping and wailing as their parents do on -earth. But it is the reverse with the case of children bereaved of their -parents; they are expected never to cease sorrowing, and are required to -pray night and day for their parents’ forgiveness and acceptance into -Paradise. - -Part of the personal effects of the deceased is given to the poor, and -charity distributed, according to the means of the family. On the third -day after the funeral, _loukmas_ (doughnuts), covered with sifted sugar, -are distributed to the friends of the family and to the poor, for the -benefit of the soul of the departed. The ceremony is repeated on the -seventh and the fortieth days, when bread is also distributed. These -acts of charity are supposed to excite the gratitude of the departed, if -already in Paradise, and if in “another place” to occasion him a moment -of rest and comfort. - -External marks of mourning are not in usage among the Turks. Nothing -is changed in the dress or routine of life in consequence of a death -in a family. Visits of condolence are, however, paid by friends, who, -on entering, express their sympathy by the saying, _Sis sagh oloun -evlatlarounouz sagh olsoun_ (“May you live, and may your children live”), -with other expressions of a similar nature. Friends and relatives say -prayers at stated times for the soul of the departed. On my mentioning -to a Turkish lady that I was about to visit a common friend who a year -before had lost a beautiful daughter of fourteen years, she begged -me to say that her two girls, friends of the child, never failed to -offer prayers for the departed soul every day at noon. After the first -outbreak of grief, both men and women become calm and quite collected -in appearance, and speak of the event as one that could not have been -averted by human help. - -When a dervish sheikh of repute dies, his remains are followed to the -grave by all the members of his brotherhood, by dervishes of the other -orders, and a large concourse of the population. It is a most impressive -and interesting sight: the long procession slowly winding through the -narrow streets, the variety of costumes presented by the numerous orders -of the dervishes, some with flowing robes and high sugar-loaf hats, -others with white felt caps and green or white turbans; all with bowed -heads and looks of deep humility, uttering at intervals the sacred word -_Allah_! On passing a mosque or _tekké_, the coffin is deposited in -front of the gate, and a service is chanted, the congregation joining -in the refrain of _Amin! Amin!_ when the body is again taken up and the -procession resumed. - -The long survival of ancient customs is a continual subject of surprise -and interest; but nowhere is their seeming immortality more remarkable -than among the subject races of Turkey. The Greeks, whether residents -of Greece, Macedonia, Epirus, or other parts of south-east Europe, have -in many respects become assimilated to the different races among whom -they live; but nowhere do they appear to have lost in any marked degree -the characteristic features of their nationality—their language or their -ancient customs. Christianity and other causes have modified many of the -ancient ceremonies, but a rich heritage still remains to certify their -origin and bear testimony to the antiquity of their descent. Among the -most striking of these heirlooms are the funeral rites, in which the -modern Greeks closely preserve the traditions of their ancestors. The -fundamental points in these ceremonies are the same among Greeks wherever -they may be, and are everywhere observed by them with religious care. - -The following is a description of the funeral ceremonies observed in -Macedonia and in other parts of European Turkey. - -At the approach of death a priest is sent for to administer the sacrament -to the sick man. The family gather round the couch, give the dying -person the kiss of farewell, and press down his eyelids when his soul -has departed. His couch and linen are changed, and after being anointed -with oil and wine, and sprinkled with earth, he is dressed in his most -gorgeous apparel upon a table covered with a linen cloth, with the -feet pointing towards the door, with hands crossed on the breast, and -limbs stretched out to their full extent. A stone is placed in the room -and left there for three days. Friends watch round the body, chanting -Myriologia,[34] or dirges, lamenting his loss and illustrating his life -and the cause of his death. Tapers are kept burning all night round -the body, which is decorated with flowers and green branches. A cup is -placed on the body and buried with it; after the expiration of three -years it is taken out and treasured in the family. Should a person suffer -from the effects of fright, water is given to him in this cup without -his knowledge, which is supposed to prevent any ill consequences. The -interment usually takes place on the day following the death. Invited -friends assemble at the house of mourning, the priests arrive, and the -coffin, uncovered, is wreathed with flowers. The _obol_ of the ancients, -the ναῦλον for Charon, is not forgotten; a small coin is placed between -the lips, and a cake, soaked in wine, is eaten by the company, who say, -Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει τόν. After the preliminary prayers have been offered, -the funeral procession proceeds to the church. Crosses are carried by the -clergy and lighted tapers by others. The coffin is borne on the shoulders -of men, and black streamers, ταινια, attached to it are held by the -elders of the community or the persons of greatest importance present. - -Prayers are chanted as the funeral train slowly proceeds to the church, -where the body is placed in the nave. When the prayers and funeral mass -are concluded, the priest tells the relatives and intimate friends of the -deceased to give him the farewell kiss. On arriving at the cemetery, the -bier is placed by the side of the grave, the last prayers are offered, -the coffin-lid is nailed down, and the body is lowered into the earth. -After the priest has thrown in a spadeful of gravel in the form of a -cross, the spade is passed to the relatives, who do the same in turn, -with the words Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει τὴν ψυχὴν τοῦ (“God rest his soul”). The -bier is then again covered with the pall, and the grave is filled up. On -returning to the house of sorrow, water and towels are offered to the -guests for washing their hands. They then sit down to a repast, at which -fish, eggs, and vegetables alone are eaten. - -The mourning worn by Greeks is similar to that of other European nations; -all ornaments, jewelry, and colored apparel are set aside, and both sexes -dress in plain black, and in some instances dress their furniture in -covers of the same mournful hue. The men often let their beards grow as -a sign of sorrow, and women frequently cut off their hair at the death -of their husbands, and bury it with them; I have known many instances of -this custom. In Epirus and Thessaly a widow would lose respect if she -contracted a second marriage, and in other parts it would be strictly -prohibited by custom. - -On the evenings of the third, ninth, twentieth, and fortieth days, masses -are said for the soul of the departed. These are called _kolyva_. On the -fortieth _kolyva_, two sacks of flour are made into bread, and a loaf -sent to every family of friends as an invitation to the service held in -the church. Boiled wheat is placed on a tray, and ornamented, if for a -young person, with red and white sugar; if for an elderly person, with -white only. This is sent to the church previously, prayers are read over -it, and every person takes a handful, saying Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει τόν, and a -small bottle of wine is presented to the priests. - -On the following morning the friends assemble at the house of mourning, -and take more boiled wheat to church. On returning, they sit down to a -meal, after again saying Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει τόν. This concluded, they -proceed to the grave, accompanied by the priest, and erect a tombstone. A -feast is subsequently given to the poor. - -Tapers are kept burning in the house for forty days. On the last of these -a list of the ancestors of the deceased is read, and prayers are offered -for their souls. These ceremonies are repeated at intervals during the -space of three years, at the expiration of which the tomb is opened, and -if the body is sufficiently decomposed, the bones are collected in a -cloth, placed in a basket, dressed in fine raiment, adorned with flowers, -and taken to church, where they are left for nine days. Every evening -the relatives go to say prayers, and take boiled wheat to the church. -If the person had been of some standing, twelve priests and a bishop -perform mass. The bones are then put in a box, surmounted by a cross, and -replaced in the tomb. - -Should the body not be sufficiently decomposed at the end of the three -years, it is supposed to be possessed, and for three years longer the -same prayers and ceremonies are repeated. - -The funeral ceremonies of the Bulgarians differ from those of the Greeks -only in their preliminary usages. The religious service is very similar. -The sacrament is administered to the dying person, and his last hours are -cheered by the presence of relatives and friends. - -After death he is laid upon a double mattress between sheets, and -completely dressed in his gala costume, with new shoes and stockings. A -pillow of home-spun is filled with handfuls of earth by all the persons -present, and placed under the head. - -A curious idea prevails that messages can be conveyed by the departing -soul to other lost friends by means of flowers and candles, which are -deposited on a plate placed on the breast of the corpse. - -An hour after death a priest comes to read prayers for the dead, tapers -are lighted, and dirges chanted until the following morning, when the -clergy again arrive to accompany the body to its last resting-place. Mass -is performed in the church, and when the procession reaches the grave a -barrel of wine is opened, and boiled wheat, with loaves, are distributed -to all present, who say _Bogda prosti_ (“God have mercy on his soul”). -The gay costume is taken off, and libations of oil and wine poured on -the body; the shroud is drawn over the face, the coffin nailed down and -lowered into the grave. - -Returning to the house of mourning, the company wash their hands over the -fire, and three days afterwards everything in the house is washed. The -objects that cannot be washed are sprinkled with water and exposed to the -air for three days, given to the poor, or sold. - -The ceremonies of the _kolyva_ are the same as among the Greeks, and -the bones are disinterred at the end of three years, with the same -observances. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -EDUCATION AMONG THE MOSLEMS. - - _Home Education._—Influence of the Mother—Disrespect of - Children—Toys—No Bath nor any Exercise—Bad Influence of Servants—No - Discipline—Dirtiness—Dress—Food—Conversation—Tutors—Nurses—Immoral - Influence of the Dadi—The Lala—Turkish Girls and Education—An - Exceptional Family—Turks “educated” at Paris—Religious Shackles. - - _Moslem Schools._—_Mektebs_, or National Schools—Dogmatic - Theology taught—Reforms—_Rushdiyés_—_Idadiyés_—Teachers’ - School—Reforms of Ali and Fouad Pasha—The Schools of - Salonika—State of Education in these Schools—Moslem View of - Natural Science—The Dulmé Girls’ School—The Turkish Girls’ - School—The _Lyceum_: its Design, Temporary Success, and - Present Abandonment—The _Medressés_—Education of the Upper - Classes—Official Ignorance. - - -The absence of any approach to sound education of the most rudimentary -kind throughout the country is among the prime causes of the present -degraded condition of the Turks. Both at home and at school the Moslem -learns almost nothing that will serve him in good stead in after life. -Worse than this, in those early years spent at home, when the child ought -to have instilled into him some germ of those principles of conduct by -which men must walk in the world if they are to hold up their heads among -civilized nations, the Turkish child is only taught the first steps -towards those vicious habits of mind and body which have made his race -what it is. The root of the evil is partly found in the harem system. So -long as that system keeps Turkish women in their present degraded state, -so long will Turkish boys and girls be vicious and ignorant. - -Turkish mothers have not the slightest control over their children. They -are left to do very much as they like, become wayward, disobedient, and -unbearably tyrannical. I have often noticed young children, especially -boys, strike, abuse, and even curse their mothers, who, helpless to -restrain them, either respond by a torrent of foul invective, or, in -their maternal weakness, indulgently put up with it, saying, “_Jahil -chojuk, né belir?_” (“Innocent child! what does it know?”) - -I was once visiting at a Pasha’s house, where, among the numerous company -present, a shrivelled-up old lady made herself painfully conspicuous by -the amount of rouge on her cheeks. The son of my hostess, an impudent -little scamp of ten years, independently marched in, and, roughly pulling -his mother by her skirt, demanded a _beshlik_ (shilling); she attempted -a compromise, and offered half the sum, when the young rascal, casting -side glances at the painted old lady, said, “A whole _beshlik_, or I will -out with all you said about that _hanoum_ and her rouged cheeks, as well -as that other one’s big nose!” My friend, exceedingly embarrassed, under -this pressure, acceded to her son’s demand, the only way she could see of -getting rid of his troublesome company. - -As a general rule the manner in which children use their mothers among -the lower classes is still worse, and quite painful to witness. When -these youngsters are not at school they may be seen playing in the -street, paddling in the water near some fountain, making mud-pies, or -playing with walnuts and stones, at times varying their amusements, in -some retired quarter, by annoying Christian passers-by, calling out -_Giaour gepek!_ (“Infidel dog”), and throwing stones at them. Under -the parental roof they express their desires in an authoritative tone, -calling out disrespectful exclamations to their mothers. - -Should their requests meet with the slightest resistance, they will -sit stamping with their feet, pounding with their hands, clamoring and -screaming, till they obtain the desired object. The mothers, who have as -little control over themselves as over their children, quickly lose their -temper, and begin vituperating their children in language of which a very -mild but general form is, _Yerin dibiné batasen!_ (“May you sink under -the earth!”)[35] - -Turkish children are not favored with the possession of any of the -instructive books, toy-tools, games, etc., that European ingenuity -has invented for the amusement of children, and which may be obtained -at Constantinople and other cities of Turkey; the only playthings -they possess are rattles, trumpets, a rude species of doll (made of -rag-bundles), cradles, and a kind of _polichinello_, fashioned, in the -most primitive manner, of wood, and decorated with a coarse daub of -bright-colored paint, applied without any regard to artistic effect. -These are sometimes sold in the chandlers’ shops, but are only exposed -for sale in large quantities during the Bairams, when they make their -appearance, piled in heaps on a mat, in the thoroughfares nearest the -mosques. - -A Turkish child is never known to take a cold bath in the morning; is -never made to take a constitutional walk, or to have his limbs developed -by the healthy exercise of gymnastics. No children’s libraries exist, -to stimulate the desire for study—for which, it is true, little taste -is displayed. Among the higher classes an unnaturally sedate deportment -is expected from children when in the presence of their father and his -guests, before whom they present themselves with the serious look and -demeanor of old men, make a deep salaam, and sit at the end of the -room with folded hands, answering with extreme deference the questions -addressed to them. Out of sight, and in the company of menials, they have -no restraint placed upon them, use the most licentious language, and play -nasty practical jokes; or indulge in teasing the women of the harem to -any extent; receiving all the time the most indecent encouragement, both -by word and action, from the parasites, slaves, and dependants hanging -about the house. No regular hours are kept for getting up and going to -bed. The children, even when sleepy, obstinately refuse to go to their -beds, and prefer to stretch themselves on a sofa, whence they are carried -fast asleep. On rising, no systematic attention is paid either to their -food, ablutions, or dressing. A wash is given to their faces and hands; -but their heads, not regularly or daily combed, generally afford shelter -to creeping guests, that can only be partially dislodged at the _Hammam_. - -Their dress, much neglected, is baggy and slovenly at all times; but it -becomes a ridiculous caricature when copied from the European fashion; -shoes and stockings are not much used in the house, but when worn, the -former are unfastened, and the latter kept up by rags hanging down -their legs. A _gedjlik_ (night-dress) of printed calico, an _intari_ -(dressing-gown), _ayak-kab_ (trousers), and a _libardé_ (quilted jacket), -worn in the house, do duty both by night and day. - -Children are allowed to breakfast on anything they find in the larder or -buy from the hawkers of cakes in the streets. - -No person exercising the functions of governess, nursery governess, or -head nurse, exists in harems. There is no reserve of language observed -before young girls, who are allowed to listen to conversations in which -spades are very decidedly called spades. The absence of refined subjects -naturally leads the tone of these conversations, at times, to so low -a level as to render its sense quite unintelligible to the European -listener, though it is perfectly understanded of the Turkish maiden. - -Turks sometimes have _hodjas_ as tutors for their sons; but these are -not always professional instructors of youth, and their supervision over -their pupils seldom extends beyond the hours of study. The _hodjas_, -belonging to religious orders, are grave, sanctimonious persons; having -little in common with their pupils, who find it difficult to exchange -ideas with them, and thus to benefit in a general way by their teaching. -Poor _effendis_ or _kyatibs_ are sometimes engaged to fill the office -of tutors, but their inferior position in the house deprives them of -any serious control over their charges. The _dadi_, appointed to attend -upon the child from its earliest infancy, plays a great part during its -youthful career; her charge, seldom separated from her, will, if she be -good and respectable, benefit by her care; but if she be the reverse, -her influence cannot be anything but prejudicial, especially to boys, -whose moral education, entirely neglected at this stage, receives a -vicious impulse from this associate. The fact that the _dadi’s_ being -the property of his parents gives him certain rights over her is early -understood and often abused by the boy. - -I have seen an instance of the results of these boyish connections in the -house of a Pasha, who, as a child, had formed a strong attachment for his -_dadi_, and, yielding to her influence, had later been induced to marry -her, although at the time she must have been more than double his age. -When I made her acquaintance she was an old woman, superseded by four -young companions, whose lives she made as uncomfortable as she could by -way of retaliation for the pain her husband’s neglect was causing her. -The fourth and youngest of these wives, naturally the favorite, nearly -paid with her life for the affection she was supposed to have diverted -from the _Bash Kadin_ (first wife); for the quondam _dadi_, taking -advantage of her rival’s unconsciousness whilst indulging in a siesta, -tried to pour quicksilver into her ears. The fair slumberer fortunately -awoke in time; and the attempted crime was passed over in consideration -of the culprit’s past maternal services, and of the position she then -held. - -Next to the important functions of _dadi_ those of _lala_ must be -mentioned. He is a male slave into whose care the children of both sexes -are intrusted when out of the harem. He has to amuse them, take them out -walking, and to school and back. His rank, however, does not separate -him from his fellow servants, with whom he still lives in common; and -when the children come to him, he takes them generally first to their -father’s apartment, and then into the servants’ hall, where they are -allowed to witness the most obscene practical jokes, often played upon -the children themselves; and to listen to conversations of the most -revolting nature, only to be matched I should think in western Europe -among the most degraded inhabitants of the lowest slums. This is one of -those evil customs that cannot be other than ruinous to the morality of -Turkish children, who thus from an early age get initiated into subjects -and learn language of which they should for years be entirely ignorant. - -The girls are allowed free access into the _selamlik_ up to the time -they are considered old enough to wear the veil; which, once adopted, -must exclude a female from further intercourse with the men’s side of -the house. The shameful neglect girls experience during childhood leaves -them alone to follow their own instincts; alternately spoiled and rudely -chastened by uneducated mothers, they grow up in hopeless ignorance of -every branch of study that might develop their mental or moral faculties -and fit them to fulfil the duties that must in time devolve upon them. - -I am glad to say that, in this respect, a change for the better is taking -place at Constantinople: the education of the girls among the higher -classes is much improved; elementary teaching, besides instruction in -music and needlework, is given to them; and a few are even so highly -favored as to have European governesses, who find their pupils wanting -neither in intelligence nor in good-will to profit by their instruction. -I have known Turkish girls speak foreign languages, but the number of -such accomplished young ladies is limited, owing partly to the dislike -which even the most enlightened Turks feel to allowing their daughters -any rational independence; for the girls, they say, are destined to -a life of harem restraint with which they would hardly feel better -satisfied if they had once tasted of liberty; their life would only be -less happy, instead of happier; ignorance in their case being bliss, it -would be folly to make them wise!—If true, only another argument for the -overthrow of the system. - -Some time ago, when at Constantinople, I visited an old friend, a -Christian by birth, but the wife of a Pasha. This lady, little known to -the _beau monde_ of Stamboul, a most ladylike, sweet woman, was married -when her husband was a student in Europe and she a school-girl. She has -held fast to her religion, and her enlightened husband has never denied -her the rights of her European liberty; though, when in the capital, she -wears the _yashmak_, out of _convenance_. Her children are Mohammedans. -The daughter, now a young lady of eighteen, a most charming, accomplished -girl, is justly named “The Budding Rose of the Bosphorus.” Some Turkish -ladies acquainted with this family spoke of it to me as an example of -perfection worthy of study and imitation. A truly poetical attachment -binds the mother and daughter together, and finding no congeniality in -their Mohammedan acquaintances, in the simplicity of their retired life -they have become all in all to each other, and are doted upon by the -father and brother. It was very pleasant to look upon the harmony that -existed in this family, notwithstanding the wide differences in the -customs and religions of its members. For many years I had lost sight of -my friends, and at length found them caged up in one of the lovely villas -on the Bosphorus; the mother now a woman of forty, the daughter a slim, -bright fairy. - -After the surprise caused by my visit and the friendly greetings were -over, Madame B⸺, full of delight and happiness, related to me the -engagement of her daughter to one of the wealthiest and most promising -grandees of _La Jeune Turquie_, who, having just completed his studies -in Paris, was expected in a few days to come and claim her as his bride. -She was to dwell beneath the paternal roof, and I was taken to visit the -apartments that had been prepared for the young couple. They were most -exquisitely furnished, with draperies of straw-colored satin, richly -embroidered by the deft fingers of the ladies. The mother, her face -beaming with joy, said to me, “Am I not happy in marrying my daughter to -an enlightened young Turk, who, there is every reason to expect, will -prove as good and affectionate a husband to her as mine has been to me?” - -The young lady had known her affianced before his departure for Paris; -full of faith and hope, she nourished a deep love for him, and, in the -innocent purity of her heart, felt sure he responded to it. - -I have not seen these ladies since, but a short time after my visit I was -deeply grieved to hear that this seemingly well-adapted match was broken -off in consequence of the young Bey having returned accompanied by a -French ballet-dancer, whom he declared he did not intend to give up. - -I have heard that, generally speaking, Paris is not the most profitable -school for young Turks. Attracted by the immense amount of pleasure and -amusement there afforded to strangers, they become negligent students, -waste their time and money in profitless pursuits, keep company of the -most doubtful kind, are led to contract some of the worst Parisian -habits, and return to their country, having acquired little more than a -superficial varnish of European manners. These they proudly display; but -at heart they profoundly despise the nation whose virtues they failed -to acquire, whilst they plunged freely into those vices which were more -congenial to their habits and nature. - -Those who are acquainted with Stamboul life may remember the sensation -caused in 1873 by a band of young Turkish ruffians, who bore the name of -_Tussun_, whose declared object was to initiate the youth of both sexes -into those dark practices of the Asiatics still so prevalent among the -upper classes. This abominable society was so strong that the police -were, for a time, powerless against it. The chief of these vagabonds -was stated to be the son of a member of the Sultan’s household, and the -other young men were connected with some high Turkish families. It was -only by the most active interference of the minister of justice that this -fraternity was finally put down. - -One of the great drawbacks the progress of education meets with among the -Turks is the insurmountable repulsion Mohammedans feel to freeing this -movement from the fetters of religion. The most enlightened of Turks will -be found wanting in good-will and assistance when the question is that -of promoting the current of liberal ideas at the cost of the religious -dogmas which regulate all his social habits; and these retrograde notions -cannot be openly repudiated even by those who profess no belief in the -religion upon which they are supposed to be founded. These sceptical -Turks, possessing no distinct conception of any philosophical school -whose aim should be to replace prejudice and superstition by the -propagation of free thought, based upon morality and scientific research, -merely become reckless and unprincipled, but are of no more use than -the bigoted party in helping forward an undenominational movement in -education. - -Until quite recent times the only public institutions for the education -of the Turkish youth were those common to all Moslem countries, -the _Mahallé Mektebs_, or primary schools, and the _Medressés_, or -Mosque-Colleges. The _Mektebs_ are to Turkey, though in a still more -inefficient way, what the old National Schools were to England. They -are the universal, and till recently the only existing, instruments of -rudimentary education for the children of both sexes of all classes. -Like the old-fashioned National Schools, religion is the main thing -taught; only in the Turkish Mektebs religion is pretty nearly the one -thing taught. The little Turkish boys and girls are sent to these -schools at a very early age, and pay for their instruction the nominal -fee of one piastre (2¼_d._) a month. Great ceremony attends the child’s -first entrance. Its hands are dyed with henna; its head decorated with -jewels; and it is furnished with a new suit of clothes, and an expensive -bag called _Soupara_, in which the _Mus-haf_, or copy of the Koran, -is carried. The father of the child leads it to the Mekteb, where it -recites the Moslem creed to the Hodja, kisses his hand, and joins the -class. The other children, after the recital of prayers, lead the novice -home, headed by the Hodja, who chants prayers all the way along, the -children joining in the response of _Amin! Amin!_ Refreshments and ten -paras (a halfpenny) are offered to each child by the parents of the new -scholar, on receipt of which they make a rush into the street and throng -round the trays of the numerous hawkers who collect round the door on -such occasions. This ceremony is repeated on the first examination, for -which the Hodja receives £1 and a suit of linen. The teaching in these -schools was, until recently, strictly limited to lessons from the Koran. -The scholars, amounting in number sometimes to one or two hundred, -are closely packed together in a school-room which is generally the -dependence of the Mosque. Kneeling in rows, divided into tens by monitors -who superintend their lessons, they learn partly from the book and -partly by rote, all reading out the lesson at the same time, and swaying -their bodies backwards and forwards. An old Hodja, with his assistant, -sits cross-legged on a mat at one end of the room, before the chest -which serves the double purpose of desk and bookcase. With the cane of -discipline in one hand, a pipe in the other, and the Koran before him, -the old pedagogue listens to and directs the proceedings of the pupils. -Unruly children are subjected to the punishment of the cane and the -_Falakka_, a kind of wooden hobble passed over the ankle of the culprit, -who sometimes has to return home wearing this mark of disgrace. The Koran -lessons, delivered in Arabic, are gibberish to the children, unless -explained by the master; and the characters used in Koran writing are not -well adapted for teaching ordinary Turkish handwriting. - -It is easily seen what ample room for improvement there is in these -establishments, where Moslems spend the best part of their childhood. -Religion, taught in every-day language, simplified and adapted to the -understanding of children, together with the rudiments of ordinary -knowledge, would lay the foundation of a wiser and more profitable system -of education than all these many years lost in poring over theological -abstractions, comprehensible glimpses of which can only be conveyed to -such young minds by the explanations of the Hodja, who is sure to dwell -upon the most dogmatic and consequently the most intolerant points of -Islam, and thus sows among the children ready-made ideas, the pernicious -seed of that fanaticism which finds its early utterance in the words -_Kafir_ and _Giaour_ (infidel), and prompts the little baby to measure -himself with his gray-bearded Christian neighbor, and in the assurance -of superior election raise his hand to cast the stone of ineradicable -contempt. - -The finished scholars from these institutions may become Hodjas -themselves, acquiring, if they choose, a knowledge of writing. Such is -the system of primary education which has existed in Turkey ever since -the Conquest. Happily this century has seen some improvements, not so -much in the Mektebs as in the introduction among them of Government (so -to say, Board) Schools on improved principles. - -No era of the Ottoman history presents a more dismal picture of ignorance -and incapacity than the close of the last century. The country appeared -to be crumbling to pieces; and the nation seemed lost in the two extremes -of apathy and fanaticism. Sultan Mahmoud’s sagacious mind saw wherein -the evil lay, and attempted to remedy it by establishing schools more -after the European model, and by this means spreading among his people -the liberal ideas that alone could civilize and regenerate them. The -difficulties he encountered in his praiseworthy and untiring efforts to -bring about this change were great and varied. Nevertheless, he succeeded -in establishing a few schools in the capital, which have served as bases -to those that were instituted by his son and successor Abdul-Medjid. -These latter consisted first of _Rushdiyés_, or preparatory schools, -where boys of all classes are admitted on leaving the Mektebs, and are -gratuitously taught Turkish, elementary arithmetic, the history of their -country, and geography. - -Next to these establishments come the _Idadiyés_, or more advanced -preparatory schools, where boys are also admitted gratuitously, and -remain from three to five years; they are instructed in the studies -adapted to the careers they are destined to follow in the finishing -medical, military, marine, and artillery schools to which they gain -admittance on leaving the Idadiyés. - -Besides these schools the capital contains some others of equal -importance, such as a school for forming professors for the Rushdiyés, a -school teaching foreign languages to some of the _employés_ of the Porte, -a forest school, and one for mechanics. - -The original organization of all these institutions is said to be good, -but unfortunately the regulations are not carried out. The absence of a -proper system of control and strict discipline, a want of attention on -the part of the students, and of competence on that of the professors, -are the chief characteristics of most of them. - -In addition to the educational establishments of the capital, Rushdiyés -have also been opened in all large country towns, and in some even -Idadiyés. It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to state that there are no -schools of any kind in country villages; the three R’s are there regarded -as wholly superfluous luxuries. - -Had the Turks followed up more systematically the movement thus happily -begun; had it become general throughout the country, and been marked by -proper care and perseverance, many of the evils which now beset Turkey -might perhaps have been avoided. The contempt for the Christian generally -displayed by the Moslem, engendered through ignorance and fanaticism, -might have been softened into tolerance, and a more friendly feeling -might have been created between them. - -Education, however, received another impetus during the administration of -Ali and Fouad Pashas, who by their united efforts succeeded in creating -new schools and slightly improving those already existing. - -Most of these institutions, excepting the medical college, were formerly -open to Christian children only in name; under Ali and Fouad they became -open in reality to a few, who took their places by the side of the -Mohammedan boys. - -The following is a list of the Turkish schools in the town of Salonika, -which contains about 15,000 Mohammedan inhabitants, including 2500 -_Dulmés_, or Jews converted to the faith of the Prophet:—seven _Mahallé -Mektebs_, or “National” schools; one _Mekteb Rushdiyé_, or Government -school; one small private school for Turkish girls, established about -twelve mouths ago; and two special schools for the Dulmés, one for -girls and another for boys. The _Mekteb Rushdiyé_ is supported by the -Government, and has one superintendent and two masters, and is attended -by 219 children, all day pupils. Teaching is divided into four classes; -the first comprises poetry, the Turkish, Arabic, and Persian languages; -the second, logic, mathematics, elementary arithmetic, and the rudiments -of geography; the third, cosmography, Ottoman and universal history, -writing; the fourth, preparatory lessons for beginners. - -The mathematical and historical teaching is very deficient, and the -whole system of instruction needs much improvement. Students on leaving -this school may enter the Harbiyé, or military school, at Monastir, -or continue their studies at the _Medressé_, where the Softas and -Ulema graduate, or may attach themselves to some Government office as -unsalaried Kyatibs, or scribes, called _Chaouch_, until a vacancy or some -other chance helps them to a lucrative post. - -The Dulmés, who are found in large numbers only at Salonika, have of late -years shown a great desire to promote education among both sexes of their -small but thriving community. The course of study followed in their boys’ -school is similar to that of the _Rushdiyé_, and, of course, includes the -very elementary curriculum of the National schools. It has four classes, -subdivided each into three forms; three masters, aided by monitors, -superintend the studies. I visited this school, and found a great -lack of order and discipline. First-class boys, seated on benches and -before desks, were mixed up with the little ones, who, I was told, were -placed there in order to be broken in to the school routine—a strange -arrangement, unlikely to benefit either; at least it had been better for -these mere infants to be placed in a class where lessons and exercises -suited to their years were taught. Some of the big boys were examined, -and, as far as I was able to judge, seemed well advanced in writing and -in the knowledge of the Turkish language, but they did not appear equally -well versed in mathematics or the scientific branches of study, which -were evidently taught in a very elementary form, if one might judge by -the simple questions put by the masters. This examination was concluded -by the senior boys chanting in chorus the names of the days of the week -and the months of the year! It must be borne in mind, however, that this -establishment, which is said to be the best in the town, was opened only -eighteen months ago. - -With regard to the higher branches of study, I was far more edified -during an examination of the _Rushdiyé_ and _Harbiyé_ schools at -Adrianople, where some of the pupils had produced well-executed maps -and drawings, and had also distinguished themselves in mathematics; -the schools of that town seemed to be of a higher standard than those -of Salonika, although, like all Turkish schools, they left much to be -desired in good principles, refinement, and general enlightenment, to all -of which a marked disregard is universally displayed. The comparative -progress made in the above-mentioned subjects should not, however, -be considered a criterion of the cultivation of art and science in -general. In spite of the simplicity with which these various branches of -science and of art may now be taught, they are not likely to make much -advancement among the Mohammedans. These people display an astonishing -apathy and a total absence of the spirit of inquiry and research with -regard to everything. They confide the secrets of nature, to the supreme -care of Allah, and deem it superfluous to trouble themselves with such -subjects beyond the extent required for their common wants. All mental -effort is in direct opposition to the listless habits of the Turk, and, -since he is not the man to run against the will of Providence, who -fashioned his disposition, is therefore seldom attempted. Professional -men are rare among them, and such as there are can only be ranged in the -class of imitative mediocrities, who have not the genius to improve or -develop any useful branch of science. - -The Dulmé girls’ school of Salonika was held in a house containing a -number of small rooms, in which the pupils were huddled together. One -of these rooms was fitted up with desks and benches that might have -accommodated about thirty children; when I entered all the pupils -were doing needlework; Shemshi Effendi, the director, a young man of -some enterprise and capacity and a good deal of intelligence, led the -way and ordered all to stand up and salaam; a lesson I hope they will -condescendingly bear in mind and practise later on in life in their -intercourse with Christians. They were learning plain sewing, crochet, -tapestry, and other ornamental work, taught by a neat-looking Greek -schoolmistress. A good many of the pupils were grown-up girls, who sat -with veils on. The master pointed them out to me, saying that most of -those young ladies were engaged to be married; “I have not, therefore, -attempted to teach them reading or writing, as they are too old to learn, -and their time here is very short, but with the little ones I hope in -time to do more.” Some of the latter were examined before me in reading, -writing, and arithmetic, in which they seemed to have got on very fairly -considering the short time they had attended the school and the utter -want of order and system prevailing in it. - -The general appearance of the girls was that of negligent untidiness; -their hair was uncombed, and most of them were seated on the ground -working, with a total absence of that good breeding which was to be -expected in a well-regulated school for girls of their age and condition. - -Defective as this establishment is, it is deserving of praise and -encouragement as a first attempt which may lead to a higher standard -of education among Turkish women. Perhaps some of the institutions at -Stamboul, though now greatly improved, had no higher origin. Conversing -lately about these with an intelligent Turk, I was assured that some -of the young Turkish girls had so much profited by the education -afforded in them as to have made great progress in composition and even -novel-writing, an unprecedented event in the lives of the ladies of this -nation! Some have devoted themselves to the study of French, and have -translated one or two little French works into Turkish. One of these -institutions has now become a training college for teachers, who are sent -as mistresses into other schools. - -The Turkish girls’ school of Salonika is attended by forty-eight pupils, -superintended by one master, and a Greek schoolmistress for needlework. -It is hardly necessary to say that the instruction afforded is very -defective, and can be of little practical use to young girls who often, -after a few years of childhood, leave when they attain the age of ten -or eleven, just when their young minds are beginning to take in what is -taught them. However, a little is always better than nothing, and it is -to be hoped that the Salonika girls’ schools will pave the way to more -effective means of teaching. - -Excepting one or two schools founded by Midhat Pasha, in the vilayet -of the Danube, no other Moslem girls’ schools but these at Stamboul -and Salonika exist in Turkey. It must be the vegetating existence of -these few establishments that has caused the flowing pen of one writer -on Bulgaria to scatter girls’ schools profusely all over the country, -placing one even in the remotest village of the Balkans; in all these -schools, according to him, girls are everywhere taught to read and write! -The statement is, unfortunately, only another proof of the accuracy of -the saying, that a thing may be too good to be true. - -The foundation of the _Lyceum_ at Constantinople, decided upon in 1868, -was due to Ali and Fouad Pashas. The object of this institute was to -spread knowledge and education throughout the country, irrespective -of creed and nationality, and thus to attempt to break through the -mischievous routine of separate education, and to bring together all the -youth of Turkey with the view to establishing better relations between -the different races, creeds, and parties. The task was not an easy one. -The history of the opposition encountered by the director and professors -at the opening of the college will give a slight idea of the difficulties -and obstacles the Government itself meets with in the management of its -subjects. - -One hundred and fifty purses were voted for the Lyceum, to be expended -for the benefit of all Ottoman subjects, whether Moslems, Catholic or -Gregorian Armenians, Roman Catholics, Greeks, Bulgarians, or Jews. -Foreign subjects were only admitted on the payment of fees. - -It was intended to establish branches of the Lyceum in the principal -towns, but this project was soon given up. The administration, as well as -the direction of the greater part of the studies, was confided to French -functionaries, chosen by the Minister of Public Instruction in France, -subject to the approval of the Turkish Minister of the same department. -The lessons were to be given in French, and comprised literature, -history, geography, elementary mathematics, and physical science. The -Arabic, Persian, and Turkish languages were to be taught by Turkish -professors. Greek and Latin were to be taught, partly to facilitate the -acquisition of a knowledge of scientific terms, and partly because Greek -was of daily utility to the greater part of the students. - -The Mohammedan religious instruction was confided to an _Imam_, but -the spirit of tolerance had gained sufficient ground in the customs -of the establishment to allow its members to practise their different -creeds at will amidst their comrades, and it is said to have been a most -interesting sight to witness their devotions. - -In spite of (or rather on account of) the liberality and tolerance of -the original bases of this institute, and the constant endeavor of the -directors to accommodate these bases as much as possible to the habits -and ideas of the members of the different races there represented, none -seemed to feel the satisfaction and content that was expected. The -Mohammedans naturally demanded that the Koran laws and its exhortations -regarding prayer, ablutions, the fasting of Ramazan by day and the -feasting by night, should be respected. The Jews, rigid observers of -their traditions, rebelled against the idea of their children being -placed in an institute directed by Christians, and of their partaking -in common of food that was Tourfa, or unlawful. The Greeks followed, -complaining that their language was not sufficiently admitted into the -course of studies; and the well-to-do members of that community abstained -from sending their children there. The Roman Catholics had religious -scruples caused by a special prohibition of the Pope, and were under pain -of deprivation of the sacraments if they placed their children in an -infidel institution. Armenian pretension required that special attention -should be paid to the children belonging to that community, and the -Bulgarians demanded that a strict line should be drawn between their -children and those of the Greeks. - -Next to this came the difficulty about the Day of Rest: the Turks -claiming Friday, the Jews Saturday, and the Christians Sunday; allied -to this point of dispute was that of the observance of the religious -and national festivals, all falling on different days. Even the masters -themselves, Turks, Armenians, English and French men, Greeks and -Italians, by the variety of nationalities they represented, still further -complicated the matter. - -On the other hand, in a country where education is so expensive and -so difficult to obtain as it is in Turkey, there were not wanting -liberal-minded people who were willing to pass over these niceties for -the sake or the counterbalancing advantages; and at the opening of the -Lyceum, 147 Mohammedan, 48 Gregorian Armenian, 86 Greek, 34 Jew, 34 -Bulgarian, 23 Roman Catholic, and 19 Armenian Catholic students applied -for admission, forming a total of 341. - -At the end of two years their numbers were almost doubled, for as long -as Ali and Fouad Pashas had the direction the institution continued to -prosper and to give satisfaction to those who had placed their children -in it; but after the death of these true benefactors of Turkey everything -changed for the worse. - -The French director, disgusted with the intrigues that surrounded him and -the interference he then met with in the performance of his functions, -sent in his resignation and returned to Villa Franca; and within a month -109 pupils were withdrawn. - -The post of director was successively filled by men whose mismanagement -provoked so much discontent as to cause the still greater reduction in -the number of students from 640 to 382. - -The following extract from an article by M. de Salve in the _Revue des -Deux Mondes_, 15th Oct., 1874, contains a pretty correct estimate of the -talent, capacity, and general good conduct of the pupils that attended -the Lyceum: - -“After three years in the month of June, 1871, eight pupils of the Lyceum -received the French decree of _Bachelier des Sciences_ before a French -Commission, and in the following years similar results were obtained. - -“When the starting-point is considered and the progress made reflected -upon, it will be admitted that it was impossible to foresee, or hardly to -hope, for success. The degree that was attained bears testimony to the -value and devotion of the masters as much as to the persevering industry -and good-will of the pupils. In general, the progress made in the various -branches of study, and particularly in that of the French language, and -in the imitative art, has surpassed all our hopes, and in this struggle -of emulation between pupils of such varied extractions, the most laudable -results have been accomplished. - -“We should then be wrong in looking upon the Eastern races as having -become incapable of receiving a serious intellectual culture, and -condemning them to final and fatal inaction. It may be interesting -to know which nationalities have produced the most intelligent and -best-conducted pupils. In these respects the Bulgarians have always held -the first rank, and after them the Armenians, then the Turks and Jews, -and lastly, I regret to say, the Roman Catholics. The Greeks, in addition -to some good characters, presented a great many bad ones.” - -The supremacy of the Bulgarians is a fine augury for the coming state of -things; and that the Greeks and Roman Catholics should not have greatly -distinguished themselves need not surprise us; for all the children of -the better classes of these communities are educated in schools kept by -professors of their own persuasion. One of the reasons why the Lyceum -has been abandoned by the majority of the Christian pupils is its -removal to Stamboul, which made it very difficult for their children to -attend, together with the radical changes which have taken place in its -administration and in the tone, which has now become quite Turkish. - -In describing the improvements effected by Ali and Fouad Pashas upon -the old Moslem Mekteb, we have been led away from the other primeval -Moslem institution, the _Medressé_, or Mosque College. These Medressés, -supported by the funds of the mosques to which they are attached, are -the universities where the Softas and Ulema, and lower down the Imams -and Kyatibs, study, and, so to speak, graduate. The subjects taught are -much the same as in the Medressés of other Mohammedan countries. Language -and theology are the main things in the eye of the Ulema (or Dons) of a -Medressé. Language means grammar, rhetoric, poetry, calligraphy, and what -not, in Arabic, and (though less essentially) in Persian and Turkish. -Theology includes the interpretation of the Koran and traditions; and -when we have said that we have said enough for one lifetime, as every -one knows who knows anything of Arab commentators and traditionists and -recommentators and traditionists commentated. Theology, it should however -be added, of course includes Moslem law, since both are bound together -in the Koran and the traditions of Mohammed. It may easily be conceived -that the instruction in these Medressés was and is always of a stiff -conservative sort, not likely to advance in any great degree the cause -of general enlightenment in Turkey. Still, since all the scholars and -statesmen of the country were, until quite lately, invariably educated at -the Medressés, it cannot be denied that they have done service in their -time. Whatever historians, poets, or literary men Turkey can boast of -more than a generation back, to the Medressés be the credit! In the case -of statesmen the result of this training has not always been very happy. -It is not satisfactory to know that in quite recent times a Minister of -Public Instruction (of the old school), sitting upon a commission for -looking into the state of the schools of Turkey, on being shown some maps -and some mathematical problems executed by the pupils, appeared entirely -ignorant of their meaning, and exclaimed, “Life of me! Mathematics, -geography, this, that, and the other, what use is such rubbish to us?” - -Now, however, the highest classes send their sons to Paris and elsewhere -to be educated. The effect of this training upon La Jeune Turquie I have -already noticed. In some cases it must, nevertheless, be admitted that -the Turk educated in Europe has really made good use of his time, and has -raised himself, as near as his nature permits, to the level of the more -civilized nations he has associated with. - -Such is the general state of education in Turkey. Brought up, first by an -ignorant mother, then by the little less ignorant Hodja of the Mekteb, -or, in rarer cases, by the well-meaning but still incompetent masters of -the Government schools, it is not surprising that the ordinary Turk is -crafty, ignorant, and correspondingly fanatical. Yet dark as the present -position is, it is better than it was a few years ago. The efforts of -Ali and Fouad Pashas have certainly given education a forward impulse. -The advance has been slow, but it has been forward, not backward. In -this advance the Turks have shared far less than the subject races. -Were things as they were two years ago, this could hardly be taken as a -hopeful sign; but, looking at it from the opposite point of view, that -the Bulgarians and Greeks have advanced more than the Turks, it must be -admitted, in the new arrangement of the provinces now negotiating, that -the fact carries a bright ray of hope. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -EDUCATION AMONG THE GREEKS AND BULGARIANS. - - The Turkish Conquest and Greek Schools—Monasteries - almost the sole Preservers of Letters—Movement of - the last Half-Century—Athenian Teaching and Its - Influence on Turkey—Education of the Greeks at - Constantinople—Μνημόσυνα—Salonika Girls’ Schools—Boys’ - Schools—A Greek School based upon Mr. Herbert Spencer—The Past - and the Present of the Greeks—_Bulgarian_ Ignorance—Birth - of a Desire for Knowledge—A Report from a Bulgarian Young - Lady—The First Bulgarian Book—Bulgarian Authors—Schools—Church - Supervision—Loyalty to the Sultan—Bulgarian - Language—Schoolmasters and their Reforming Influence—Bulgarian - Intelligence—American Missionaries. - - -It was not to be expected that the immense progress made by Greece -during the past half century in education would exercise no influence -upon the Greeks in Turkey. The people of the kingdom of Greece, secure -of their own freedom, released from that servile condition to which -centuries of oppressive misrule had reduced them, and become citizens of -a liberty-loving country, have for the past twenty years been using every -effort to promote the cause of liberty by the spread of education among -their brethren still in subjection to the Porte. When the Turks conquered -the Greek provinces, they did their best to extinguish education among -their Christian subjects: the Greek schools were suppressed, new ones -prohibited, and the Greek children had to be taught during the night.[36] -But the monasteries, nests of ignorance and vice as they were, were the -principal refuges of letters. Scattered all over the empire, they enjoyed -the privileges drawn from the special liberty and favor granted by the -wise Sultan to the Greek clergy. This was done by the Sultan with the -view of acquiring unlimited control over the Greek rayahs, by giving -a just sufficient amount of power to a small but influential body of -men, to induce them to support his designs. Mount Athos, one of these -privileged asylums, became a famous resort of the retired clergy. A -college of some merit was also established on this monastic spot for -affording secular instruction to Greek youths. At Phanar, the secluded -refuge of the Greek noblesse, in right of their privileges, education -among the higher classes was promoted. For a long time this was the only -place Constantinople could boast as supplying men of letters, some of -whom, being conversant with foreign languages, were employed in European -embassies as interpreters. Within the last fifty years the educational -movement among the Greeks of Turkey has altered its course. Some schools -established in the country afforded elementary instruction to the -children, but, for the most part, they were now sent to Athens and Syra -to complete their studies, where numerous schools and colleges afforded -them the means of acquiring a perfect knowledge of their own language -and a tolerably good general education. This migration, perseveringly -continued for nearly thirty years, increased the number of these Athenian -and Syraote establishments, and the pecuniary benefit they derived from -it enabled them to perfect their organization. Politics and learning -were two essential elements of education, which the modern Greeks uphold -with a tenacity worthy of final success. The young Greek rayah, sent -to Athens, returns to his home a scholar and a staunch Philhellene, -burning with an all-absorbing desire to instil his ideas and feelings -into the minds of his fellow rayahs. Such currents flow slowly but surely -among a population that, debased as it may be by a foreign yoke, has a -history and literature of its own to look back to. The first students -returning from Greece were the pioneers of the immense progress that -education has lately made among the Greeks in Turkey. None can realize -and testify to this better than those who have watched its introduction -and development in the interior. As I stated in another part of this -work, even the élite of the Greek society of Broussa thirty years ago -had lost the use of their mother-tongue, replacing it by broken Turkish. -Since then, the introduction of schools has been the means of restoring -the use of their own language to the great majority of the people, though -one portion of the town is still ignorant of it, in consequence of the -profitable occupation the silk factories afford to girls, who are sent -there from a very early age, instead of going to school. The inhabitants -of the surrounding villages, in all of which Greek schools have now been -established, have learnt their national language—a proof that although -the general attention of the Greeks has naturally first been directed to -promoting education in Thessaly, Macedonia, and Epirus, the scattered -colonies left on the Asiatic side have not been altogether forgotten or -neglected; they have now good colleges in Smyrna, and schools in less -important towns and villages. - -The Greek village of Demerdesh, between Broussa and the seaport Moudania, -merits special praise for the wonderful progress, both mental and -material, it has made. It is refreshing to see the intelligent features -of the inhabitants of this village, and their independent and patriotic -disposition. One thinks involuntarily of some of the ancient Greek -colonies that from small beginnings rose to great power and created for -themselves a noble history. - -At Constantinople the Greeks possess several rapidly improving -educational establishments for both sexes. The Syllogus, too, a literary -association for the promotion of learning, has been lately instituted -in all the large towns of Turkey. Some years ago I was travelling with -the head mistress of the girls’ school at Epibatæ, in the district -of Silivri, near Constantinople—an institution which owes its origin -and maintenance to the generosity and philanthropy of Doctor Sarente -Archegenes, a native of the place, who, having acquired just reputation -and wealth in the capital, did not forget his native village, but -furnished the means for building and maintaining a school for girls in -1796. This mistress was a clever and well-educated lady from Athens, and -she described to me her pleasure at the quickness displayed by these -peasant girls in their studies. The only drawback, she remarked, to this -work of progress is the absence of a similar establishment for the boys, -who, all charcoal-burners by trade, ignorant and uncouth, are rejected -as husbands by the more privileged sex. I believe since then the evil -has been removed by the establishment of a boys’ school. How much more -beneficial to humanity was the establishment of these institutions than -that of the one founded by Mehemet Ali Pasha of Egypt at Cavalla, his -native place. Desiring to benefit his country with some of the wealth -acquired in Egypt, he requested the people of Cavalla to choose between a -school and a charitable establishment or _Imaret_: the former was meant -to impart light and civilization among them, the latter to furnish an -abode for fanatical Softas, and daily rations of pilaf and bread for -three hundred individuals. The Cavalla Turks did not hesitate between the -mental and material food; and shortly after a substantial edifice was -erected, its perpetual income helping to maintain a number of indolent -persons within its walls, and feed the refuse of the population that -lazily lounged about outside, waiting for the ready food that rendered -labor unnecessary. - -The wealthy Greek families at Constantinople are now giving special -attention to the education of their children; the girls appear, more -especially, to have profited by it, for the Greek ladies, as a class, -are clever, well-informed, and good linguists, well bred and extremely -pleasant in the intimacy of their social circles. Most of them are -musicians, as the phrase is, some even attaining to excellence. A French -lady told me she had heard a French ambassador state as his opinion that -the best and most enlightened society in the capital was the Greek; but -it was so exclusive that an easy admission into it was a privilege not to -be enjoyed even by an ambassador. I may state that my personal experience -allows me to coincide with this view. The men, absorbed in business, and -perhaps still bearing the _cachet_ of some of those faults that prejudice -is ever ready to seize upon and exaggerate, are less refined and -agreeable in society than the women. Gifted men, however, and men of a -high standard of moral integrity and good faith, are not rare among them; -and the munificence of such men as Messrs Zarifi, Christaki, Zographo, -Baron Sina, and many others, in encouraging the advancement of education, -and helping in the relief of the poor in time of want and distress, has -entitled them to the gratitude of their nation. - -Some time ago I was invited to attend the μνημόσυνα, an anniversary at -the girls’ school at Salonika, in remembrance of its chief benefactress -Kyria Castrio. A large cake, iced and decorated with various devices, -was placed on a table facing the portrait of this lady, which, garlanded -with flowers, appeared to look on smilingly and contentedly, encircled -by a ring of young girls. The room was densely crowded with guests and -the relatives of the children. Presently a great bustle was heard, and -the crowd opened to give passage to the dignified, intellectual-looking -Bishop, accompanied by his clergy, who quietly walked up to the cake, -and read mass over it for the benefit of the soul of the departed lady. -This ceremony concluded, he amiably shook hands with some of the company -nearest to him, and took his seat at the rostrum used for lectures. It -was now the turn of the young girls to express their gratitude to the -memory of her to whose kind thought and generosity they owed in great -part the education they were receiving. This was conveyed in a hymn -composed for the occasion, and rendered with much feeling and expression, -under the able direction of a young German master, who, for the love -of the art in general, and the Greek nation in particular, had kindly -undertaken to give free lessons in vocal music to the girls. Some of the -elder girls looked very pretty, and all seemed bright and intelligent. -The little ones, mustering in a company of two hundred, were next marched -up in a double row, clasping each other round the waist. It was a pretty -sight to see these little mites assembled round the chair of the paternal -Bishop, keeping time with their feet to the tune, and singing their -little hymn. This interesting ceremony was concluded by a long lecture, -from one of the masters of the establishment, delivered in Greek. The -profound attention with which all listened to it was a proof that it was -understood and appreciated. These Mnemosyné are held annually in many -towns, and even in secluded villages, in memory of charitable persons who -have founded or largely endowed their schools. - -While on the subject of the Salonika girls’ school, I may as well go on -with it, and describe its organization, the course of studies followed -in it, and the immense benefit it has proved to the community. Tedious -as such a description is, it may be useful in giving an idea of the -many other similar institutions scattered throughout the country. The -building, formerly I believe a Turkish Konak, is in itself rather -dilapidated: it consists of two spacious halls, into which open a number -of class-rooms. - -I inspected the classes, and was much pleased to find that the teachers -ably and conscientiously fulfilled their duties, and that the pupils -apparently did them great credit. The following is a list of the subjects -taught by a lady principal and two professors: - - UPPER DIVISION. - - I. Greek.—Translations of ancient Greek authors and poets, with - explanations, grammatical analysis, and composition. - - II. Catechism, with due theological instruction. - - III. History of Greece. - - IV. Mathematics, including mathematical and geometrical - geography. - - V. Psychology. - - VI. Παιδαγωγία. - - VII. Plain and fancy needlework. - - VIII. Vocal music. - - IX. Physics. - - MIDDLE DIVISION. - - (Taught by lady principal, one mistress, and one professor.) - - I. Greek and Greek writers. - - II. Sacred history, and explanations of the Gospels. - - III. Mathematics. - - IV. Natural history. - - V. Political and physical geography. - - VI. Universal history. - - VII. Calligraphy. - - VIII. Needlework and vocal music. - - LOWER DIVISION. - - (Taught by six mistresses and four pupil teachers.) - - I. Greek.—Reading, writing, modern Greek grammar, with - explanations of modern Greek authors. - - II. Sacred history and catechism. - - III. Greek history. - - IV. Arithmetic. - - V. Natural history. - - VI. Political geography, needlework, and calligraphy. - -The infant schools contained two hundred scholars, who were seated on a -gallery; four pupil teachers, two on each side, were keeping order, and -the mistress was giving the lesson of the day, illustrating it by one -of the many colored pictures that decorated the walls of the apartment. -The lesson, explained by the teacher, is repeated by the children in -chorus, who are afterwards questioned. The system followed in this school -appears to me the most successful and appropriate way of teaching young -children, whose minds, impressed by the object-lessons, and diverted by -the variety of the exercises they are made to perform, are better able to -understand and retain the knowledge imparted to them. A lady, recently -arrived from Europe, who takes a great interest in schools, told me that -few establishments of this kind in Europe could boast of better success. - -The rudiments of the following lessons are taught: Reading; elementary -geography; history; moral lessons; object-lessons; infantile songs and -games. - -During our visit to the girls’ school we stopped before each class, -and a few girls were called out and examined by the master or mistress -presiding over their studies. All these girls were intelligent in -appearance, seemed well conversant with the subject in question, and were -ready with their answers. Arithmetic and mathematics generally were the -only branches of study in which they appeared deficient; but on the whole -the instruction (unfortunately limited to the Greek language for want of -funds) is excellent. The needlework, both plain and ornamental, is copied -from models brought from Paris, and the girls show as much skill in this -department as they do aptitude for study in others. - -I questioned the directress on the general conduct and morality of -the girls, and she gave me the best account of both. No distinction -is made between the rich and poor; they sit side by side in the same -class, a custom which, in countries where education is more developed, -would be intolerable, but which, for the present, in a place where -class distinctions are not so great, tends to improve the manners of -the lower without prejudice to those of the upper. The opinion of the -schoolmistress was, that the girls of Salonika, whilst more docile and -more easily managed, were not less intelligent than the Athenian girls, -whose more independent spirit often occasioned trouble in the schools. - -From this establishment has been formed a training school for girls -who wish to become school-mistresses; six professors instruct in the -following subjects: - - I. Greek. - - II. Universal history. - - III. Mathematics (including arithmetic and geometry). - - IV. Physics, geology, and anthropology. - - V. Philosophy, psychology, παιδαγωγία. - - VI. Vocal, instrumental, and theoretical music. - - VII. Gymnastics and calligraphy. - - VIII. Explanations of the Gospels. - -Seven female students obtained their diplomas this year (1877), and were -sent into the interior, where in their turn they will be called upon to -impart light and knowledge to the girls of some little town or village. - -During my travels I have often come across these provincial schools, -and found much pleasure in conversing with the ladylike, modest young -Athenian women, who had left home and country to give their teaching -and example to their less-favored sisters in Turkey. I remember feeling -a special interest in two of these, whom I found established in a -flourishing Greek village in a mountainous district of Macedonia. - -I was invited into their little parlor, adjoining the school. It was -plain but very neat, and the scantiness of the furniture was more than -atoned for by the quantity of flowers and the many specimens of their -clever handiwork. The Chorbadji’s wives, some of them wealthy, doted upon -these girls, who were generally looked up to and called Kyria (lady); -each wife vying with the other in copying the dresses and manners of -these phenomenal beings transplanted into their mountain soil. The -children, too, seemed devoted to their teachers, and delighted in the -instruction given them, while the men of the village showed them all -respect, and seemed to pride themselves on the future benefit their -daughters and sisters would derive from the teachings and good influence -of these ladies. - -Having sufficiently enlarged upon the education of the girls of Salonika, -I will now pass on to that of the boys, which is far more advanced. - -The highest school for boys is called the Gymnasium. It contains four -classes, in which six professors teach the following subjects: - - I. Greek: translation of Greek poetry and prose, with analysis - and commentary, grammatical and geographical, historical, - archæological, etc. - - II. Latin: translations from Latin authors and poets, with - analysis. - - III. Scripture lessons: catechism, with theological analysis - and explanations. - - IV. Mathematics: theoretical arithmetic, geometry, algebra, and - trigonometry. - - V. Natural science, comprising the study of geology, - anthropology, physiology, and cosmography. - - VI. History: universal, and more especially Greek. - - VII. Philosophy, psychology, and logic. - - VIII. French grammar, exercises and translations from the best - French authors. - -The next Greek school contains three classes, in which three masters -teach the following lessons: - - I. Greek, in all its branches. - - II. Sacred lessons, history, and catechism. - - III. Mathematics, practical arithmetic, and geometry. - - IV. Natural history. - - V. Political geography. - - VI. Universal history. - -In the middle school of this same town there are four classes, each -subdivided into two; five masters teach the following lessons: - - I. Greek: reading, writing, modern Greek grammar; and - explanations of modern Greek authors. - - II. Sacred history and catechism. - - III. History of Greece. - - IV. Mathematics and practical arithmetic. - - V. Natural history. - - VI. Political geography. - - VII. Vocal music and gymnastics. - -How often, when witnessing the perseverance and energy displayed in -promoting education among the Greeks and Bulgarians, have I heartily -wished that some more of the funds given by our philanthropists for the -purposes of conversion could find their way into the educational channel, -and help to stimulate its progress! - -Conversing on this subject with an intelligent American missionary, -settled amongst the Bulgarians, I was told that the missionaries found -it hard to work upon the ignorant and prejudiced, who distrust them and -do not listen willingly to their teaching. The schoolmasters, the most -enlightened among the people, alone comprehend and appreciate their -object. He said, “Could we help these people to help themselves through -their own schools by contributing to their support, our work would -prosper far better. Education, destroying prejudice and superstition, -would pave the way to a simpler form of worship; and those who really -wish to benefit ignorant humanity in a sensible and effective manner -ought to direct their efforts towards the propagation of education, -which would finally lead to the end they have in view.” - -I also visited another Greek school at Salonika, which was under the -direction of a Greek gentleman educated in Germany, who has designed a -new educational system which, having had a fair trial, will eventually be -adopted in all the educational establishments of the Greeks. The origin -of this institution does not date further back than two years, and of -all the schools I have visited here and elsewhere, this certainly struck -me as being the best and the most perfect of its kind. The children -were divided into classes, each of which was examined by the master, -the result of which greatly surprised myself and some friends who were -present. The director, who justly took great pride in his work, assured -us that all these boys under his care (whose ages did not exceed eleven) -in consequence of the quickness, facility, and ability with which they -received his instructions, had learnt in one year what he had been unable -to teach in double that space of time to children in Germany. He added -that he was constantly called upon to answer a shower of questions and -remarks made by the pupils upon the theme of the lesson, which, having -explained, he allows them time and liberty to discuss the difficult -points, until they had quite mastered them. On their first entrance -they appear listless and uninterested, but as the love of knowledge is -developed and grows upon them, they often, when school time is up, beg -permission to remain an hour longer in class. - -The youngest were first examined in reading. They read fluently from -Homer, and translated into modern Greek from chance pages left for -us to choose. While the director was dwelling on some meteorological -subject, one little mite of six lifted up its finger and said, “I noticed -that the sky was very cloudy yesterday, and yet it did not rain, may I -explain why?” Permission was at once given, and he enlightened us on the -subject. All the questions put to the senior boys in mathematics and -natural science were responded to with great promptitude and with a clear -knowledge of what they referred to. The dog was the subject chosen for -the lesson on zoology. The answers to the questions put on the variety of -the species, and the different characteristics that distinguished them, -were given with an exactness that showed how well the subject had been -explained and understood. Scenes from Greek mythology, orally taught, had -been learnt by heart, and were well retained by the pupils, who are said -to display great interest in the classic selections, which they act in -an admirable manner; the piece chosen for recital in our presence was a -selection from the Iphigenia in Tauris of Euripides. - -In answer to our inquiries on the conduct and natural disposition of his -pupils, the master said both were good, although not free from faults, -which he however felt confident would in time be eradicated by proper -care and attention. When they first come they are apt to be untruthful: -a vice I suppose they acquire, together with other bad habits, in the -streets, where they are unfortunately allowed to associate with children -who have received no education. Very much pleased with all I had seen and -heard in this establishment, I begged the director to let me have one -of the class-books containing the routine of teaching. He replied that -he had no special work on the subject to abide by, and that the routine -of the lessons, left to his own judgment, had been combined by him -partly from the system he had studied in Germany, and partly from ideas -suggested to him by reading the philosophical works of Herbert Spencer, -for which he appeared to have a great admiration. - -Few subjects, I think, are more worthy of attention than the march of -progress among nations which, perhaps from causes beyond their own -control, have long remained stationary. I asked a Greek gentleman, a -short time since, what was the difference between the present and the -last generation; what were the distinguishing characteristics of each, -and what the advantages of the actual over the two preceding it. He -replied that the first was ignorant and despotic; fortune, rather than -merit, establishing the personal influence of the individual. When -this influence was due to official favoritism, it was seldom honestly -acquired, and rarely beneficial to others. The fortunes, too, if made in -the country, would not stand very close inspection, for the system of -money-making in Turkey is of so elastic a nature that it has to be pulled -many ways, drawn and quartered, before the honest capitalist can call -the money his own. The ladies of the past generation, though good and -matronly, had received no education, and consequently could not afford -to their children the moral support that the children of the present day -are beginning to enjoy. The mothers taught their daughters to be pious -and honest, and instructed them in household management and needlework, -giving them at the same time a very limited supply of elementary -teaching; any further education, up to a recent date, was considered -a superfluous accomplishment for girls. The fathers had begun to pay -more attention to the education of their sons, but this education was -of a peculiar character; some of these boys, when even sent to foreign -colleges to complete their studies, on returning home, were allowed -neither the liberty of action nor the freedom of thought that they were -entitled to by their superior education. - -When these studies opened no particular career to them, the youths were -generally called upon to follow the father’s trade or profession in a -monotonous routine often distasteful to the more spirited young men, -who could not break through the restraint without rebelling against the -paternal authority. This check often led to disobedience and desertion. -The independent youth would seek elsewhere a calling more adapted to his -taste; many of these young men, starting with no resources but their -brains, have been known to realize great fortunes. The rest of them, -married to wives generally chosen for them by their parents, continue to -live docilely under the paternal roof, showing every mark of deference to -their father’s will,—the absolute law of the house. - -All that is now changed; the present generation is far more active and -free-thinking. Those who have had the advantages of education are no -longer the dreaded despots of their homes, but the companions of their -wives and the friends of their children, who, thanks to the privileges -they enjoy in this respect, find their way to a free exchange of ideas -and feelings with their parents. Many openings are now afforded to -youths, who are consulted on the subject, and are free to follow the -career they may choose. Should this be commercial, they are no longer, as -formerly, the employés of their fathers, but partners with them, sharing -the responsibilities and the profits of the business. - -Good principles and morality are said to have made great progress among -the rising generation, which in all respects is considered by careful -observers to be far superior to, and promising to wipe away some of the -faults of, their ancestors in modern times. Dishonesty is one of the -evils generally attributed to the Greek character. Considering the long -experience I have had of this country, the close contact into which I -have been brought with all degrees of the Greek community, I cannot in -justice admit this to be the rule. In my dealings with tradespeople, -I have never found them worse than their neighbors belonging to other -nationalities, nor can I say that I have often detected dishonesty in -Greek servants, whilst to their devotion and good services I owe much of -the comfort of a well-served house. - -The nation of the Greeks is earnestly taken up with remodelling itself -through the salutary means of education; it has made great progress, and -cannot fail to fit itself for the prominent part it has to play in the -destinies of South-eastern Europe. - -At no epoch of the history of the Bulgarians does their dormant intellect -appear to have produced any works of art or genius. This conclusion -is arrived at by the absence of any proof of an anterior Bulgarian -civilization in the form of literature or monuments. Without personal -traditions, they know nothing of their past; and to learn something -of it, are forced to consult the Byzantine and Slavonic authors. What -civilization they possessed was also borrowed from the Slavs and -Byzantines, with whom they lived in close contact. In comparing the -national songs, their only literature, with those of the above-mentioned -nations, we are led to conclude that the Bulgarians remained equally -impervious to the softer and more elevating influence of the Greeks, -and to the warlike and independent spirit of the Servians and other -Slav populations, by whom they were surrounded. Having imbibed only to -a slight extent the civilization of their time, they must, after the -Ottoman conquest, through oppression and neglect, have forgotten the -little they once possessed, and submitted to the life of perpetual toil -and hardship which they have for centuries endured. - -These peacefully disposed and hard-working peasants, however, though -devoid of learning, deprived of national history, and cut off from the -means of improvement, lack neither intelligence, perseverance, nor -desire for instruction. We find the indications of this tendency in some -of their somewhat disconnected and often uncouth national songs and -ballads, which breathe a true love of country life, and illustrate the -slow progress of their art, by eulogizing the slight innovations in their -agricultural implements. Many of their ballads set forth the brave deeds -of their few heroes, illustrate the past glory of their kingdom, lament -its downfall, or endeavor to account for its misfortunes.[37] - -These timid utterances of an undeveloped people are simple narratives -of past incidents, whose relation is heightened neither by the spirit -of revenge for wrongs, nor yet by hope for a brighter future. These, -the only heritage of their ancestors, the Bulgarians treasure in their -hearts, and at moments of joy and exhilaration or suffering, chant them -to the accompaniment of the _guzla_, an instrument of three chords, whose -monotonous sounds harmonize well with the shrill or plaintive airs in -which utterance is given to their sentiments. - -The blow aimed at the Bulgarian Church a little more than a century ago -fell with equal weight upon the schools, which, though neither numerous -nor effective, were nevertheless most valuable to the people, as the last -depositories of their national tongue. These establishments, though the -use of the Bulgarian language was formally abolished in them by the Greek -Patriarch, still remained scattered all over Bulgaria, and, directed by -the priests, enabled the Bulgarians, during the revival of the Church -question, to make use of them as foundations for the more important -and solid erections that have subsequently risen over them. The sudden -manifestation of a desire for instruction and national improvement in -Bulgaria is one of the most extraordinary phenomena I have had occasion -to notice in the East. - -Education at the time of the commencement of this movement was a -privilege possessed by the very small section of the nation who were able -to seek it in foreign countries. The townspeople studied but little, -and the teaching in their schools comprised the Greek language, together -with a few general notions: while the bulk of the population in the rural -districts were left in entire ignorance. Those who wished for a more -complete education, without leaving their country, had recourse to the -higher Greek schools, in spite of the antipathy that existed between the -two races. - -I had written to a Bulgarian gentleman requesting some information upon -the state of education in his country, but, unfortunately, the time -at which I made this request did not allow him to meet my demand, and -his daughter, a clever and accomplished young lady, undertook the task -instead. The following is part of her first letter on the subject: - - “CHÈRE MADAME: Mon père m’a dit que vous désiriez avoir - quelques renseignements relativement à l’instruction en - Bulgarie: une statistique des écoles, je crois. Comme il est - très-occupé dans ce moment, il m’a chargé de vous fournir le - peu de renseignements que nous possédons à ce sujet. J’ai - donc recueilli tout ce qui a été publié jusqu’à présent par - rapport aux écoles; mais malheureusement tout cela n’est que - fort incomplet. Je me suis donc adressée aux evêques, espérant - obtenir d’eux des informations plus exactes, et surtout plus - complètes, et quelques uns d’eux m’ont promis de m’envoyer des - statistiques des écoles dans leurs éparchies. Quant à l’origine - de ce mouvement de la nation Bulgare vers la lumière, on n’en - sait pas grand’chose. Tout ce que je pourrais vous dire à ce - sujet n’est que les premières manifestations, faisant présager - le reveil de cette nation à la vie, datent du commencement de - ce siècle. Déjà en 1806 apparait le premier livre publié en - langue Bulgare; l’année 1819 on voit paraître deux autres, et - depuis ce temps chaque année apporte son contingent, quoique - bien maigre encore, à ce petit trésor, qui s’amasse goutte - à goutte. Quel rêve avait fait tressaillir ce peuple dans - cette torpeur où il était plongé et qui avait toutes les - apparences d’une léthargie devant durer éternellement? Etait-ce - un souvenir instantané du passé? Une espérance subite d’un - avenir moins sombre? Car, l’époque est assez loin encore où - cette agglomeration de peuples, dont il fait partie, va venir - en contact avec l’Europe civilisée et en subir l’influence. - Quelque intéressante que serait l’explication de ce phénomène, - on est obligé néanmoins de se contenter de conjectures. La - tâche de l’historien qui essayerait d’élaircir ce point est - tout aussi difficile que celle du philosophe qui cherche à - de décrire le travail operé dans l’âme de l’enfant avançant - progressivement à la lumière des nouvelles notions. Dans tous - les deux cas, l’individu, dans lequel s’opére ce travail et - qui pourtant est le plus à même d’en observer la marche, - est, par sa faiblesse même, incapable d’en juger; il subit - passivement, et c’est tout. Cependant cette période si obscure - de notre vie nationale nous a légué trois noms bien brillants. - Je veux parler du père Paisiy, qui, vers la fin du dernier - siècle écrivait une histoire de la Bulgarie et quelques - autres ouvrages; de Stoiko Vladislavoff (1739-1815), plus - tard connu sous le nom de Sofraniy, qui écrivit près d’une - vingtaine d’ouvrages dont quelques uns n’existent plus; et - enfin de Néophite Bogvely, dont un des ouvrages, intitulé ‘Mati - Bolgaria’ (Mère Bulgarie), est d’une actualité si frappante - qu’on le croirait écrit hier. C’est un dialogue entre une mère - et son fils dans lequel ils déplorent l’état de la patrie et - recherchent les causes de ses malheurs. La mère se demande - comment, malgré les immunités accordées aux Chrétiens et la - promulgation de tant de bonnes lois, le sort de ces derniers - ne se trouve pas amélioré; alors le fils la fait attention à - la manière dont les lois sont appliquées. On ne parlerait pas - autrement aujourd’hui! Observons en outre que tous les trois - parlent du joug phanariote comme d’une des principales causes - des malheurs de la Bulgarie. Ceci montre que reveil de l’esprit - national chez les Bulgares n’est point, comme quelques uns - aiment à le faire croire, un mouvèment factice dû à quelques - individus. C’est dans l’histoire de ces trois hommes, qui, dans - des circonstances plus favorables auraient infailliblement été - de veritables flambeaux pour leur nation et peut-être pour - l’humanité—c’est dans leur histoire, dis-je, qu’il faudrait - chercher une partie des causes de la régénération de la nation - Bulgare. - - “Vous voudriez savoir l’époque à laquelle la première école - fut fondée en Bulgarie. Il semble que de tout temps de petites - aient existé où le prêtre enseignait aux enfants à lui, et - où la limite suprême de la science était atteinte quand on - parvenait à griffoner son nom. Mais la première école un peu - plus digne de ce nom a été fondée à Gabrova vers l’an 1835. - Kopriochtitza, Kalofer, Bazardjik, Sopote, suivirent bientôt - cet exemple. La première école Bulgare à Philippopolis fut - fondée en 1867. Je pourrais vous envoyer avec les statistiques - les programmes de quelques unes des principales écoles....” - -I regret to say that subsequent events unfortunately prevented my -obtaining all the hoped-for information on this subject. I can therefore -only present an incomplete description of the work of education in -Bulgaria. - -The schools opened at Gabrova, Kalofer, Sapote, and subsequently at -Philippopolis, were the precursors of those that by degrees spread -in all directions, entering every nook where a Bulgarian settlement -existed; ten years were sufficient to augment the small number of -original establishments to the following number that existed in Bulgaria -previously to the desolation that befell that unfortunate country. - -In the province of Philippopolis there were 305 primary schools, 15 -superior schools, with 356 teachers and 12,400 scholars; 27 girls’ -schools, with 37 teachers and 2265 pupils. The Tuna vilayet, equally -endowed, was also in a fair way of improvement, and the Bulgarian youth -there, though less advanced than in the district of Philippopolis, were -beginning to rival their brethren on the other side of the Balkans. - -The lessons taught in the gymnasium at Philippopolis comprise the -Turkish, Greek, and French languages, elementary mathematics, geography, -Bulgarian and Turkish history, mental and moral philosophy, religious and -moral instruction, and church music. - -All these larger establishments, most of which I visited, were fine -spacious edifices; some of them were formerly large old mansions, others -were specially erected for schools. - -Up to the year 1860 the schools in Bulgaria owed their creation and -maintenance to voluntary subscriptions and to funds bequeathed by -charitable individuals. But these funds were small compared with the -demand made by the people for the extension and development of their -educational institutions. At the separation of their Church from that of -Constantinople, they reappropriated the revenues, which were placed under -the direction of a number of men chosen from each district, and a part -of them was set aside for the purposes of education. These first steps -towards a systematic organization of the Church and schools were followed -by the appointment of a mixed commission of clerical and lay members, -annually elected in each district, charged with the immediate direction -of the local ecclesiastical department. Each commission acts separately -and independently of the other, but is answerable to the community at -large for the supervision and advancement of public instruction. A -further innovation in the shape of supplying funds for the increasing -demand for schools of a higher class was made by the Bulgarians of -Philippopolis by contriving to persuade the authorities of that place -to allow a tax to be levied on each male Bulgarian of 52 paras (about -2½_d._), by means of which they are enabled to improve and maintain -their excellent _gymnasium_. When I visited these establishments, most -of them were in their infancy. Bulgarian fathers, with genuine pride and -joy, gladly led their sons to the new national schools, telling them to -become good men, remain devoted to their nation, and pray for the Sultan. -Exaggerated and unnatural as this feeling may appear in the face of -late events, it was nevertheless genuine among the Bulgarians in those -days. Russian influence had not made itself felt at that time, nor were -the intellects of the poor ignorant Bulgarians sufficiently developed -to enable them to entertain revolutionary notions or plot in the dark -to raise the standard of rebellion. Entirely absorbed at that moment in -the idea of obtaining the independence of their Church and promoting -education, they were grateful to their masters for the liberty allowed -them to do more than they had presumed to expect. - -During the reign of Sultan Abdul-Aziz the sentiment of loyalty of the -subject races towards their ruler diverged into two widely distinct -paths. Among the Bulgarians this devotion originated in the intense -ignorance and debasement to which centuries of bondage had reduced them: -with the Greeks, after the creation of free Hellas, there existed a -well-grounded confidence in themselves, a clear insight into the future, -and the patience to keep quiet and wait for their opportunity. The -Bulgarians were loyal because they knew no better; the Greeks because -their time was not yet come. They knew the truth, “Tout vient à point à -qui sait attendre.” If the minds of the Bulgarians subsequently became -more alive to their actual situation and they listened to revolutionary -suggestions, it was due to the teaching they had obtained from their -schools and from the national ideas instilled into their minds by the -priests and schoolmasters. This teaching was not always derived from -books, for these were rare and precious objects not easy to obtain. -Moreover, the difference between the written and spoken language is so -great that the former can scarcely be understood by the bulk of the -population. The original Hunnish tongue, absorbed by the Slavonic dialect -that succeeded it, has preserved but little of the primitive unwritten -idiom; and even the adopted one that replaced it gradually took in so -great a number of Turkish, Greek, Servian, and other foreign words as to -make the Bulgarian vernacular scarcely analogous with the more polished -language now taught in the schools. Even in Philippopolis some years -ago the Bulgarian ladies had great difficulty in understanding the -conversation of the ladies belonging to the American mission, who had -learnt the written language and spoke it with great purity. The modern -Bulgarian is based upon the Slav, and although differing considerably -from the Russian Slav language, the two nations have no great difficulty, -after a little practice, in comprehending each other. No less than seven -Bulgarian grammars are in existence, all written during the last fifteen -years; but they agree neither in the general principles nor in the -details. Some entirely disregard the popular idiom, and impose the rules -of modern Russian or Servian on the language. Others attempt to reduce to -rules the vernacular, which is variable, vague, and imperfect. - -The schoolmasters are, generally speaking, young, ardent, and -enthusiastic; if educated abroad, they are fully versed in all the usual -branches of study, earnest in their work, as if pressed forwards by the -impetus of their desire for inculcating into the minds of their ignorant -but by no means unintelligent brethren all the views and sentiments that -engross their own. The priests of the towns and villages become their -confidants and co-workers; and thus the two bodies that had obtained -self-existence at the same time, and had the same object in view, -served later on as organs for instilling into the people some notions of -personal independence and the wish for national liberty. - -As a rule the Bulgarian is neither bright nor intelligent in appearance. -His timid look, reserved and awkward manner, and his obstinate doggedness -when he cannot or will not understand, give the peasant an air of -impenetrability often amounting to brute stupidity. But those who have -well studied the capacity and disposition of the Bulgarian consider this -due rather to an incapability of comprehending at the first glance the -object or subject presented to his attention, and a dogged obstinacy that -will not allow him to yield readily to the proofs offered him. - -This defect is so prominent in the Bulgarians that they have received -from the Greeks the cognomen of χονδροκεφάλους (thick-heads), and a -Turk, wishing to denote a person of an obstinate character, will use -the expression of “Bulgar Kaphalu,” while the Bulgarian himself makes a -joke of it, and, striking his head, or that of his neighbor, exclaims, -“Bulgarski glava” (Bulgarian head). These heads, however, when put to the -proof, by their capacity for study, their patience, and perseverance, -gain complete mastery of the subject they interest themselves in, giving -evidence of intelligence, which requires only time and opportunity to -develop into maturity. - -The rivalry between this nation and the Greeks is also doing much to -promote education. But another and more friendly and effective stimulant -exists in the untiring efforts of the American missionaries who have -chosen this promising field of labor. Their civilizing influence has -taken an unassuming but well-rooted foundation in all the places in which -they have established themselves, and gradually develops and makes itself -evident in more than one way. Indefatigable in their work of promoting -religious enlightenment and education, these missionaries went about in -their respective districts, preaching the Gospel and distributing tracts -and Bibles among the people, who, in some places, received them gladly -with kindness and confidence, while in others they were regarded with -distrust. Frequently, however, a stray sheep or two would be found, in -even the most ignorant and benighted parts, willing to be led away from -his natural shepherd, ready to listen to and accept the teaching that -spoke to his better feelings and his judgment. If wholesale conversion to -Protestantism (of which I am no advocate, unless it be based upon real -intellectual progress and moral development) does not follow, much good -is done in promoting a spirit of inquiry, which can be satisfied by the -cheap and excellent religious books furnished by the Bible societies. -The purity and devotion that characterize the lives of these worthy -people, who abandon a home in their own land to undertake a toilsome -occupation among an ignorant and often hostile population, form another -moral argument which cannot fail in the end to tell upon the people. -Nor has their work of charity amidst death, cold, and starvation, after -the massacres, often at the risk of their own lives, tended to lessen -the general esteem and regard in which they are held by all classes and -creeds of the population by which they are surrounded. - -The Bulgarian student, whether in his own national schools or in those -of foreign nations, is hard-working and steady; grave and temperate by -disposition, he seldom exposes himself to correction or to the infliction -of punishment. The scarcity of teachers was at first a great hindrance -to the propagation of knowledge; this difficulty was by degrees removed -by sending youths to study in foreign countries, who, on their return, -fulfilled the functions of schoolmasters. In former times Russia was a -great resort for these students, but lately, notwithstanding the great -facilities, financial and otherwise, afforded them in that country, they -now prefer the schools of France and Germany, together with the College -of the American Mission at Bebek, and the training schools that have been -lately established in the country, which are now capable of supplying -the teachers necessary for the village schools. Recent events have, to a -great extent, disorganized this excellent system: had it been allowed ten -years longer to work, a transformed Bulgarian nation might have occupied -the world’s attention. - -The girls’ schools, also formed by the active American ladies, deserve -our attention. Their principal object is to bestow sound Christian -instruction upon the rising female population, and their efforts have met -with deserved yet unexpected success, not only in developing knowledge -among their own people, but in stimulating the Bulgarian communities -to display a greater interest in the education of their daughters and -found schools of a similar character. These establishments have produced -a number of excellent scholars, who have done honor to them by their -attainments and general good character. - -The agents of the Roman Catholic Propaganda have schools in the -principal towns, and are actively employed; but their efforts are more -particularly directed to proselytism than to instruction, and their -work has consequently met with less success than that of the Protestant -missionaries. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -SUPERSTITION. - - Superstitious Character of the Dwellers in - Turkey—Olympus—Klephtic Legends—The Vrykolakas—Local Spirits—A - Vampire at Adrianople—Spirits of the Springs—Miraculous - Cures—Magic—Influence upon Bulgarians—An Historiette—Antidotes - for Spells—The _Meras Tas_—Universal Belief in Magic, and - the Consequences—_Buyu Boghchas_—The _Buyu Boghchas_ of - Abdul-Medjid and Aziz—Quack Astrologers—A Superstitious - Pasha—The Evil Eye—Remedies thereagainst—Spring - Bleeding—Vipers—Means of expelling Vermin—Remedial - Properties of Hebrew Beards—Dreams—Omens—Sultan Mahmoud’s - Omen—Predictions—The Bloody Khan: Buried Treasure. - - -There are few people so superstitious as the people of Turkey. All -nations have their traditions and fancies, and we find educated -Englishmen who dislike walking under a ladder on superstitious grounds; -but in Turkey every action, every ceremony, every relation, is hedged -round with fears and omens and forebodings. Whatever happens to you -is the work of supernatural agencies, and can only be remedied by the -_nostrums_ of some disreputable hag or some equally suspicious quack -diviner. If you lose anything, it is the evil eye of some kind friend -that has done it. If you look fixedly at anybody or anything, it is you -who are trying to cast the evil eye. In short, nothing happens in Turkey -unsupernaturally: there is always some spirit or magician or evil eye at -the bottom of it. And this belief is not confined to the Turks: Greeks, -Bulgarians, and even a good many Franks, are equally superstitious. Nor -is this superstition, like the many harmless customs still observed in -England, a mere luxury—an affectation: it is a matter of life and death. -Not a few young girls have died from the belief that they were bewitched, -or from some other superstitious shock; not a few homes have been made -miserable by the meddlesome prophecies of a suborned astrologist. - -A great centre of superstition is Mount Olympus. Since the gods -deserted it the popular imagination has peopled it with spirits of -every denomination, and Klephtic legend has added to the host. The -Greek peasants have a superstitious horror of approaching the ruined -villages at the foot of the mountain; making the sign of the cross, they -take a circuitous by-path sooner than follow the deserted road that -would lead them past the desecrated church, the neglected graveyards, -the blackened ruins of the cottages, now believed to be haunted by -the restless spirits of dead Klephts, who roam about in the silence of -night, bemoaning their fate, and crying vengeance on the oppressors of -their race. It is only on the anniversary of the patron saint of this -deserted region that the surviving inhabitants of these once prosperous -hamlets, bringing their descendants and carrying the aged and infirm -as well as the youngest babes, set out on a pilgrimage to these spots -hallowed by unforgotten wrongs, to pray for the souls of the dead and -offer _mnemosyné_ to calm their restless spirits; and to inculcate in -their children the sacred duty of vengeance on the tyrants who inflicted -upon their ancestors those speechless injuries whose memory it is the -object of these pilgrimages to preserve fresh and vengeful. The Turks, -ever ready to accept their neighbors’ superstitions, dread these ruined -villages no less than the Greeks. Peopled, as he believes them, by Peris -and Edjinlis, no Turk will come near them, for fear of coming under some -malign influence. - -The Klephtic legends are full of the most terrible of all ghosts, the -_Vrykolakas_, or vampire. Many popular songs tell of this fearful -spectre, who is the spirit of some traitor or other evil-doer who cannot -be at peace in his grave, but is ever haunting the scene of his crime. -One ghastly poem records the visit of a traitorous Klepht chieftain, -Thanásê Vagía, as a vampire, to his widow. This man had betrayed -his comrades to Ali Pasha, and their souls, heralded by the ghostly -Kukuvagia, or owl of ill-omen, come and drag him from his grave and hurry -him to Gardiki, where his deed of treachery was done. Suddenly they find -the soul of the tyrant Ali Pasha, and, forgotten in the rush, Thanásê -Vagía takes refuge with his widow. The dialogue between them is full -of dramatic power; the horror of the wife at the livid apparition that -seeks to embrace her, and the vampire’s terror in his miserable doom, -are vividly told. At last the spectre is driven away by the touch of the -cross, which he uncovers on his wife’s bosom. It is a striking poem, and -brings home to one the living reality of this horrible superstition to -the Greeks. As we have seen, they make periodical visits to the graves of -their dead to discover whether the soul is at peace. If the body is not -fully decomposed at the end of the year, they believe that their relation -has become a Vrykolakas, and use every means to lay the spirit. - -But the Vrykolakas, though the most ghastly of spirits, is not alone. -There are invisible influences everywhere in Turkey. If the Vrykolakas -haunts the graveyards, old Konaks have their _edjinlis_, fountains their -_peris_, public baths their peculiar genii. - -All these imaginary beings, whose existence is implicitly believed in, -are expected to be encountered by the persons upon whom they may choose -to cast their baneful or good influence. Their dreaded hostility is -combated by the Christians by religious faith, such as an earnest appeal -to Christ and the Virgin, by repeatedly crossing themselves in the name -of both, or by taking hold of any sacred amulet they may have on their -persons. These amulets consist of small portions of the “true cross” -enshrined in crosses of silver, a crucifix, or an image of the Virgin, -which, trustingly held and shown to the apparitions, have the effect -of rendering them impotent and causing them to vanish. The Turks have -recourse to the repetition of a certain form of prayer, and to their -_muskas_ or amulets, in which they place as much faith as the Christians -do in theirs. - -In 1872 the whole town of Adrianople was put in commotion by the nightly -apparition of a spectre that showed itself at Kyik, a fine elevated -part of the town, inhabited both by Christians and Mussulmans. This -imaginary being, believed to be a Vrykolakas, was represented to me, by -eye-witnesses of both creeds, who swore they had seen it listening about -their houses in the twilight, as a long, slim, ugly-looking figure, with -a cadaverous bearded face, clad in a winding-sheet; one of those restless -spirits, in fact, who, not being allowed the privilege of peaceful -decomposition in their tombs, still haunt the homes of the living, -tapping at their doors, making strange noises, and casting their evil -influence upon them. This comedy lasted a fortnight, during which in vain -did the Mussulman _Hodjas_ and the Christian priests endeavor, by their -prayers and incantations, to free the people from their alarming visitor. -At last, it was rumored that the only human being possessing the power of -doing so was a Turkish _Djindji_, or sorcerer, famous for his power over -evil spirits, who lived in a town at some distance, but who could only be -prevailed upon to come by payment of seven _liras_ by the Kyik people. On -the arrival of this man at Adrianople the supposed spirit disappeared. -The belief of the inhabitants in the existence of the vampire was too -deeply rooted to allow me to ascertain who was the charlatan that had -benefited by this imposition on public credulity. I questioned a Greek -woman who had seen it. She crossed herself, and said she would rather -dispense with talking on the subject. On asking a Turk his opinion on -the apparition, he said, “It must have been the spirit of some corrupt -bribe-eating Kadi, forbidden the repose due to the remains of an honest -man, and come back to trouble us with his presence after he has lost the -power of fleecing us of our money!” - -The spirits that have their abodes in mineral baths are specially courted -by the sick, who are taken to the establishments and left under the -beneficent care of these beings. The mineral bath of Kainadjah, near -Broussa, is a dark dungeon-like place, extremely old, and much famed in -the district for its healing powers. Its waters, strongly impregnated -with sulphur, are boiling hot, rendering the atmosphere of the bath -intolerable to any but the credulous, who, I suppose, support it, by -virtue of the faith they place in the good to be derived from the trial. -A crippled Turkish woman was taken to this bath at nightfall, with a -written petition in her hand to the genii, and, according to the usual -routine, was left alone in utter darkness in the inner bath till morning. -The spirits of the place, if well disposed towards her and pleased with -the sacrifice promised to them, would be expected to come in the course -of the night and attend upon her. A copper bowl, left by the side of the -patient, and knocked against the marble slabs in case assistance was -required, was the only means of communication between the patient and her -friends waiting outside. - -This woman, for many years deprived of the use of her legs, had been -brought from a distant part of the country. I had a chat with her before -she underwent the treatment. She appeared fully sensible of the dangers -it presented, but at the same time confident in the benefits expected to -be derived, which the bath-women represented to her as being unfailing, -owing to the supernatural aid the spirits would be sure to accord her. -This cure, of a nature so exhausting to the system, and so telling upon -the imagination, requires a great amount of moral courage and no small -degree of physical strength to carry out. - -This subject was one of deep interest to me, and my first care next -morning was to visit the patient, and see what the waters, not the -_Peris_, had done for her. I found her sitting in the outer chamber of -the bath, looking very tired and exhausted; but, as I approached, her -face lighted with smiles, and she actually stretched out her feet and -attempted to stand upon them. I could scarcely believe my eyesight or -conceal my surprise at this sudden change in her condition. Her friends -cried out in chorus, “Spit upon her, and say _Mashallah_!” while the -bath-women ceased not to sound the praises and boast of the power -and good-will of the _Peris_ of their establishment who had wrought -this wonderful cure, leaving all the time no doubt in my mind that the -beneficent spirits were no other than the _Hammamjis_ themselves. - -The following is the account the patient gave of what she underwent when -left alone in her vapory dungeon: - -“At first I felt a suffocating sensation, then by degrees a weakness -crept over me, my eyes closed, and I fainted away. I do not know how long -I remained in that condition, but on recovering consciousness I felt -myself handled by invisible beings, who silently pulled and rubbed my -afflicted limbs. My terror at this stage was as great as my helplessness -to combat it. I began to tremble and wished to call for help; when on the -point of doing so, I suddenly found myself under the reviving influence -of a pail of cold water suddenly thrown over me. The shock, together -with my terror, was so great that I actually made a supreme effort to -stand upon my feet, when, to my awe and astonishment, I discovered that -I had the power of doing so; I even took a few steps forwards, but in -the darkness I could proceed no further, and, finding my voice, began to -call for help with all my might. The gentle bang of the door for a moment -made me hope that my friends were within reach; but no! it was only the -spirits, who, unwilling to be seen by mortal eyes, were taking their -departure. Their exit was followed by the arrival of my friends, who, -alarmed by my screams, were rushing to my aid. I was taken out by the -advice of the good _Hammamji Hanoum_ (bath mistress), and left to repose -in the outer chamber till morning. I have already ordered the sacrifice -of the sheep I promised to the spirits, should they relieve me of the -infliction that has crippled me so many years, and am willing to submit -to the same ordeal twice more, according to the recommendation of the -_Hammamji Hanoum_, in order to afford the _Peris_ the full time needed -for the accomplishment of their task.” - -Cases of a similar nature have often been the theme of wonder among -those who frequented the baths of Broussa, whose efficacious waters used -annually, and employed by civilized patients who resort to them from all -parts of the Empire, are found salutary enough without the services of -the _Peris_. - -Magic plays a great part in Turkish affairs. Christians and Moslems, -Greeks and Bulgarians, Turks and Albanians, implicitly believe in the -power possessed by evil-minded persons of casting spells upon their -enemies or rivals, and extraordinary means are resorted to with a view to -removing the baneful influence. Among my Uskup reminiscences, which are -none of the most pleasant, I remember one particularly interesting case, -which not only illustrates the general belief of an ignorant population -in the power of spells, but also presents a fair picture of the way the -peasants are treated by their masters. This instance of the rape of a -Bulgarian girl by a brigand chief is no isolated case. Such things are -the daily occupation of Turks in authority and of Albanian chiefs who -have forgotten their national traditions and have condescended to ape -Turkish manners. - -The heroine of my story was a young Bulgarian girl belonging to the town -of Uskup. She was a strong healthy maiden, but not the less beautiful:—a -brunette, with bright black eyes full of expression, a small, well-shaped -mouth, fine teeth, a forehead rather low, but broad and determined, -and a nose in which high spirit and character were strongly marked. -Her oval face would have been perfect but for the slight prominence of -the cheek-bones. Her jet-black hair fell in a number of braids on her -well-shaped shoulders, in fine contrast to the rich embroidery of her -_Sutna_. On working days she was seen laboring in the fields with her -brothers, where her cheerful voice would enliven the monotonous sound of -the spade; while on feast-days she was ever the first to reach the common -and lead the _Hora_ to the sound of the _Gaida_. Her natural gayety made -her welcome everywhere; she was called “The Lark” by her friends, and was -the life and soul of every gathering. She had the happy assured look of -the girl who loves well and is loved well again. - -One feast-day, riding by the common, I reined in my horse, and stopped -to admire this pretty creature by the side of her handsome and -intelligent-looking lover, gracefully leading the dance. They both looked -pleased and happy, as though their earthly Paradise had as yet known -no shadow. But the sun that set so brightly on the festivities of the -day was darkened on the morrow. The poor girl was going at dawn to the -harvest field, with her bright sickle in her hand, when she was waylaid -by a band of Albanian ruffians, who suddenly appeared from behind a -hedge where they had been concealed, and tried to seize and carry her -off. The danger was sudden, but the stout-hearted girl lost neither -courage nor presence of mind; holding her sickle, she stood her ground, -bravely defended herself and kept her ravishers at bay. The Albanians, -who make it a point of honor not to strike a woman, changed their plan, -and pointing their guns at her brothers, who stood helpless by her side, -shouted, “Yield, Bulka, or both your brothers are dead!” A look of -despair flashed for a moment across her face; then folding her arms she -declared her readiness to follow her persecutors, saying, “You have power -over my person, take it, and do your worst; but what is within here” -(pointing to her head and heart) “none shall have save the Great Bogha -and my Tashko.” - -Mehemet Bey, a brigand chief, was the instigator of the abduction. -Assisted by two subordinates, he placed her behind him on his horse and -galloped off across the plain of the Vardar to his village. The brothers, -dismayed by the misfortune that had so unexpectedly befallen their -sister, ran back to the town and gave notice to the venerable bishop, -who at once proceeded to the Konak and acquainted the Kaimakam with -the details, and demanded that the girl should be reclaimed and given -up to him. The salutary custom then practised in cases of both willing -and compulsory conversion was that the neophytes should be placed under -the keeping of the bishop in the _Metropolis_, where they were allowed -to remain three days, enjoying the benefits of religious advice and -the good influence of their friends. This excellent custom, since done -away, had the best results. The prevailing custom, which has superseded -this, is to send the neophyte to the house of the Kadi or governor -of the town, where a very different influence, seldom of a salutary -nature, is exerted during three days, when the presumed convert, often -yielding to erroneous arguments and false promises, is led before the -Court to declare his or her adoption of the Moslem faith. This pressure -was brought to bear upon Rayna, our heroine, and she was treated by the -Albanian chief and his friends by turns to threats of vengeance and -every kind of flattery and glittering promise. But the brave girl was -deaf to both, and by the instrumentality of the Kaimakam the captive was -finally brought to the Metropolis, where she strongly protested against -the calumnious accusations brought against her by her enemies of having -tacitly consented to her abduction, and demanded to be led before the -Court without delay to make her final declaration. - -Her captivity had naturally been a terrible blow to her betrothed, and -the joy of her release was sadly darkened by horrible suspicions of the -dishonor to which she might have been subjected. The young man accepted -all the same his chosen bride, whom he had so narrowly escaped losing, -and the wedding-day was fixed. - -The bridegroom’s home was so situated, that from the windows of my room -I could see into it. The family consisted of an aged Bulgarian woman -and her son, a furrier by trade. A week before the ceremony took place, -the old lady might be seen working away at the preparations for the -coming event. The house was thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed; the -copper pots, pans, and dishes, and the china and glass, indispensable -decorations of the shelves that adorn the walls of every well-to-do -Bulgarian tradesman’s house, were in their turn brought down, made bright -and shining, and then returned to their places. All the carpets were then -produced, in extraordinary quantity, and of all colors, dimensions, and -qualities. These were stretched on mattresses, sofas, on the floors of -the rooms and on the veranda. The cellar was next visited, and no small -quantity of its fluid contents brought forth. Uskup is the only town -in Turkey in which I have noticed a tendency on the part of the female -population to indulge in drink; they do not, however, practise this vice -in public, nor is an inebriated woman ever seen in the country. Finally -the provisions, consisting of an abundant supply of flour, rice, butter, -honey, and fruits were collected, and all seemed in readiness. The future -bridegroom, however, who appeared ill and dispirited, took no very active -part in the arrangements, and I frequently observed him sitting on the -veranda silent and dull, smoking cigarette after cigarette; his mother -occasionally whisking round and reprimanding him in strong Bulgarian -language, to which he would sometimes respond by a few words and at -others would heave a deep sigh and leave the house. - -I went to see the bride on the day she was brought to her new home. She -looked very pretty in her bright bridal costume, but her fine eyes had -lost something of their lustre and her cheeks much of their wonted bloom. -She looked serious and concerned; her husband, dull and dispirited. As -they stood up to make the first formal round of the dance, I noticed the -difference in their step, formerly so light, now heavy and sorrowful. -As they turned round, slowly measuring their steps to the music of the -_gaida_, not a smile parted their lips, not a cheerful word was heard -from the rest of the company. The poor bride noticed this, and a few -tears dropped from her eyes; but her cup of sorrow was not yet full. A -suspicious-looking woman, famous for her deep knowledge of witchcraft, -entered; taking aside the bridegroom, she whispered something in his ear -which seemed to impress him deeply. This bird of ill omen left behind -her a chill which all seemed to feel. When the week’s feasting was at an -end, the gossips began to chat over the event, all agreeing that a duller -wedding had never taken place in their town, and prophesying all sorts of -misfortunes to the young couple. I frequently saw them from my windows, -and noticed that they did indeed seem far from happy. The husband looked -morose, was seldom at home, and during those intervals was always in bad -humor and disputing with his mother, and quarrelling with his wife, who -was oftener crying than laughing. - -The gossiping tongues of the neighbors were once more loosed, and the -report was spread that the bridegroom was laboring under the influence -of a magical spell cast upon him by his disappointed rival, the Albanian -chieftain, and that he was consequently _zaverza_. This spell cast -upon men is, among other devices, operated by means of the locking of -a padlock by a sorcerer, who casts the lock into one well and the key -into another. This is supposed actually to lock up every feeling and -faculty of the individual against whom it is directed, and to render him -insensible to the impressions of love. This spell, implicitly believed -in and much feared by all the ignorant people of the country, requires -the assistance of a professional to remove its malignant effects. The -unhappy couple, after many miserable months, resolved to have recourse -to the sorceress before mentioned, and after the husband had undergone -the remedies prescribed by her everything went well, and my heroine once -again became happy. Such is the force of imagination. - -The antidotes employed in these cases consist of quicksilver and other -minerals, placed with water in a basin, called the _Meras Tas_, or -Heritage-Bowl, a very rare vessel, highly prized for its virtues, and -engraved with forty-one padlocks. The water is poured from this bowl -over the head of the afflicted person during the seven weeks following -Easter. At Monastir, this ablutionary performance is held in a ruined -mill called Egri Deirmen, where every Thursday during this period may be -seen a heterogeneous gathering of Turks, Jews, Bulgarians, Wallachians, -Albanians, and Greeks, young and old, male and female, who resort to the -spot, and for the modest payment of a copper coin receive the benefits -of an anti-magical wash. Every one who has been to the place will attest -the beneficial effect of this rite, and so deeply rooted is the belief in -the influence of magic in the minds of these people that even those who -may have wished to free themselves from what they almost admit to be a -superstition, say that they are led back by the incontrovertible evidence -they see of its effects on the persons against whom it is employed. - -Most of the spells cast upon persons are aimed at life, beauty, wealth, -and the affections. They are much dreaded, and the events connected with -this subject that daily occur are often of a fatal character. A Turkish -lady, however high her position, invariably attributes to the influence -of magic the neglect she experiences from her husband, or the bestowal -of his favor on other wives. Every Hanoum I have known would go down to -the laundry regularly and rinse with her own hands her husband’s clothes -after the wash, fearing that if any of her slaves performed this duty she -would have the power of casting spells to supplant her in her husband’s -good graces. Worried and tormented by these fears, she is never allowed -the comfort of enjoying in peace that conjugal happiness which mutual -confidence alone can give. A _buyu boghcha_ (or magic bundle) may at any -time be cast upon her, cooling her affection for her husband, or turning -his love away from her. The blow may come from an envious mother-in-law, -a scheming rival, or from the very slaves of whose services the couple -stand daily in need. A relative of Sultan Abdul-Medjid assured me that -on the death of that gentle and harmless Padishah no fewer than fifty -_buyu boghchas_ were found hidden in the recesses of his sofa. All these -were cast upon the unfortunate sovereign by the beauties who, appreciated -for a short time and then superseded by fresh favorites, tried each to -perpetuate her dominion over him. - -During a conversation I recently had with a Turkish lady of high -position, who had spent seventeen years of her life in the seraglio of -Sultan Abdul-Aziz, I happened to refer to the eccentricities occasionally -displayed by that Sultan. She looked reproachfully at me and exclaimed, -“How can you accuse the memory of our saintly master of eccentricity -when every one knows it was the effect of magic?” and, adding action to -her words, she began to enumerate on the tips of her fingers all the -persons who had a special interest in having recourse to this practice -in order to bewilder the mind of the Sultan. “The first schemer,” said -she, “is the Validé Sultana, desirous of perpetuating her influence over -the mind of her son. The next is the Grand Vizir, in the hope of further -ingratiating himself with his master. Then comes the Kislar Aga, chief -of the eunuchs, with a host of women, all disputing with each other the -affection of the Sultan. If ten out of twelve of these fail in their -attempt the machinations of two will be sure to succeed, and these two -suffice to bewilder the mind of any man. When our lamented master was -driven out of his palace, and the furniture removed from his chamber, -_buyu boghchas_ were found even under the mats on the floor. These, taken -up by some good women that still venerated his memory, were thrown into -the sea or consumed by fire.” - -The _buyu boghcha_ is composed of a number of incongruous objects, such -as human bones, hair, charcoal, earth, besides a portion of the intended -victim’s garment, etc., tied up in a rag. When it is aimed at the life -of a person, it is supposed to represent his heart, and is studded with -forty-one needles, intended to act in a direct manner and finally cause -his death. Two of these bundles, of a less destructive nature, were -thrown into my house; on another occasion two hedgehogs, also considered -instruments of magic and forerunners of evil, were cast in. All these -dreaded machinations had, however, no other effect on me beyond exciting -my curiosity to know their perpetrator; but they occasioned great fear to -my native servants, who were continually expecting some fatal calamity to -happen in consequence. - -The advice of magicians, fortune-tellers, dream-expounders, and quack -astrologers is always consulted by persons desirous of being enlightened -upon any subject. Stolen property is believed to be recoverable through -their instrumentality, and the same faith is placed in them as a European -victim of some wrong would put in the intelligence and experience of -a clever detective. Some of these individuals are extremely acute in -arriving at the right solution of the mystery. Their power, dreaded by -the suspected parties as sure to result in some unforeseen calamity, -is a moral pressure which, when set to work upon the superstitious, -succeeds beyond expectation. The following is an example of the hold -that superstition has over the minds of the most enlightened Turks. A -Pasha, who had been ambassador at Paris, and whose wit, liberal ideas, -and pleasant manners were highly appreciated in European circles, was -appointed in his more mature years Governor-General of Broussa during the -reign of Abdul-Medjid. During his travels he had collected a splendid -library, the finest ornament of his house. These books gave umbrage to -an old sheikh, who possessed unlimited influence over the Pasha. The -old fanatic had mentally vowed the destruction of these writings of the -infidel, and by means of his eloquence and by prophetic promises he so -worked upon the governor’s superstitious feelings as to induce him to -sacrifice his library, which was brought down into the court-yard and -made into a bonfire. The recompense for this act of abnegation, according -to the sheikh, was to be the possession of the much-coveted post of Grand -Vizir. Strange to say, a short time afterwards the Pasha was called -to occupy that position; but its glory and advantages were enjoyed by -him for the short period of three days only—a poor recompense for his -sacrifice. - -Belief in the evil eye is perhaps more deeply rooted in the mind of the -Turk than in that of any other nation, though Christians, Jews, and -even some Franks regard it as a real misfortune. It is supposed to be -cast by some envious or malicious person, and sickness, death, and loss -of beauty, affection, and wealth are ascribed to it. Often when paying -visits of condolence to Turkish harems, I have heard them attribute -the loss they have sustained to the _Nazar_. I knew a beautiful girl, -who was entirely blinded and disfigured by small-pox, attribute her -misfortune to one of her rivals, who, envying in her the charms she did -not herself possess, used to look at her with the peculiar _fena guz_ -(bad expression) so much dreaded by Turkish women. When the misfortune -happened, the ignorant mother, instead of reproaching herself for her -neglect in not having had her daughter vaccinated, lamented her want of -foresight in having omitted to supply her with the charms and amulets -that would have averted the calamity. - -A lady who had lost a beautiful and valuable ring that had attracted -the attention of an envious acquaintance, when relating to me the -circumstance with great pathos, attributed her loss solely to the evil -eye cast upon it by her friend. - -I knew a lady at Broussa whose eye was so dreaded as to induce her -friends to fumigate their houses after she had paid them a visit. She -happened to call upon my mother one evening when we were sitting under a -splendid weeping willow-tree in the garden. She looked up and observed -that she had never seen a finer tree of its kind. My old nurse standing -by heard her observation, and no sooner had our visitor departed than she -suggested that some garlic should at once be hung upon it or it would -surely come to grief. We all naturally ridiculed the idea, but, as chance -would have it, that very night a storm uprooted the willow. After this -catastrophe the old woman took to hanging garlic everywhere, and would -have ornamented me with it had I not rebelled. - -At Uskup the finest horse in the town was my Arab, which was said to -excite the admiration and envy of the Albanians, whose love for fine -horses is well known. Often after having been out he was pronounced -_Nazarlu_ by our faithful kavass and the groom, and was at once taken to -a sheikh of great repute in the town, who read prayers over it, pulled -its ears, and after breaking an egg on its forehead, sent it back with -every assurance that it was _Savmash_ (cured). Finding that my pet was -none the worse for this strange treatment (for which I was never allowed -to pay by my excellent friend the old sheikh), and seeing that it -afforded gratification to my people, I allowed them to take it as often -as they liked. - -Visiting one day the nursery of a friend, we found the baby, six months -old, divested of its clothing and stretched on a square of red cloth, -while the old Greek nurse, much concerned about the ailing condition of -her charge, which she attributed to the effects of the evil eye, was -presiding over the following operation performed by an old hag of the -same nation in order to free the infant from the supposed influence. -Little heaps of hemp, occupying the four corners of the cloth, were -smoking like miniature altars; their fumes, mingling with the breathings -and incantations of the old enchantress, offered a strange contrast to -the repeated signs of the cross made by her on the baby’s body, ending in -a series of gymnastic contortions of its limbs. The child soon recovered -his wonted liveliness, and seemed to enjoy the process, crowing and -smiling all the time. - -Should you happen to fix your gaze on a person or object in the presence -of ill-disposed Turks, you are liable to receive rude remarks from them -under the idea that you are casting the evil eye. Some months ago two -Turkish boys, belonging to one of the principal families of the town of -R⸺, attracted the attention of some Christian children who stood by, and -who were forthwith violently assaulted by the servants of the little -boys, who called out, “You little giaours! how dare you look in this -manner at our young masters and give them the evil eye?” The cries of the -children brought some shopkeepers to the spot, who with some difficulty -rescued them from this unprovoked attack. - -The preservatives employed against the power of this evil are as numerous -as the means used to dissipate its effects. The principal preventives -and antidotes are garlic, cheriot, wild thyme, boar’s tusks, hares’ -heads, terebinth, alum, blue glass, turquoise, pearls, the bloodstone, -carnelian, eggs (principally those of the ostrich), a gland extracted -from the neck of the ass, written amulets, and a thousand other objects. -The upper classes of the Christians try to avert its effect by sprinkling -the afflicted persons with holy water, fumigating them with the burning -branches of the palms used on Palm Sunday, and by hanging amulets round -their necks: as preservatives, coral, blue glass ornaments, and crosses -are worn. The common people of all denominations resort to other means in -addition to these. The Bulgarians, for instance, take six grains of salt, -place them on each eye of the afflicted person, and then cast them into -the fire with a malediction against the person supposed to have caused -the evil. They also take three pieces of burning charcoal, place them in -a green dish, and making the sign of the cross pour water over them. Part -of this liquid is drunk by the victim, who also washes his face and hands -in it and then throws the remainder on the ground outside the house. - -On the last day of February (old style), they take the heads of forty -small fish, and string and hang them up to dry. When a child is found -ailing from the supposed effects of the evil eye, the heads are soaked -in water, and the horrible liquid given to it to drink. It is considered -a good test of the presence of the evil eye to place cloves on burning -coals and carry them round the room. Should many of these explode, some -malicious person is supposed to have left the mischievous effects of the -_Nazar_ behind him. - -Blue or gray eyes are more dreaded than dark ones, and red-haired -persons are particularly suspected. Great circumspection is observed in -expressing approbation, admiration or praise, of anything or anybody, as -all Orientals live in a continual state of dread of the effects of the -_fena guz_. - -Besides the belief in spirits, magic, and other supernatural powers, -public credulity in the East is apt to accept as facts a variety of -matters not less absurd and often more injurious. In spring, for -instance, a popular idea prevails that blood in some manner or other -must be drawn from the body in order to cool the system and render -it healthy for the summer. Part of the population will appeal to the -barber, part to professed phlebotomists, others to the application of -leeches. Superstition requires that vipers should be medicinally used in -spring; the gypsies undertake to collect these and sell them alive to -the inhabitants of towns. I remember seeing one of these reptile-hunters -carry a bagful of them on his back against a sheepskin-coat. A passer-by -being attracted by their movements, visible through the bag, took hold of -it, but no sooner had he done so than he paid dearly for his curiosity -by being severely bitten by one of them. Freshly killed animals, such as -frogs, birds, etc., are often applied to suffering members of the body. - -Croup is cured by amulets procured from the Hodjas and hung round the -neck of the child. Turkish women have often assured me that this remedy -is never known to fail, and consequently they resort to no other. -Square pieces of paper, bearing written inscriptions, are given for a -few piastres by learned Hodjas to persons whose dwellings are infested -with vermin. These are nailed on the four walls of an apartment, and -are believed to have the power of clearing it of its obnoxious tenants. -Going into the room of one of my servants one day at Adrianople, I -found a cucumber-boat occupying each corner. On inquiring why they were -placed there, an old servant answered that, being inconvenienced by the -too plentiful visitation of vermin, she had appealed to a person at -Kyik, whose magical influence, conveyed in cucumbers, was stated to be -infallible in driving the creatures away. I tried to analyze the contents -of these receptacles, but finding them a mess composed of charcoal, -bones, bits of written paper, hair, etc., I soon desisted, hoping that -it would prove more efficacious than it promised. - -The Bulgarian remedy for this pest, although simpler in form, can hardly -be more effective. It consists of a few of these insects being caught on -the 1st of March, inclosed in a reed, and taken to the butcher, their -credentials being couched in the following terms: “Here is flesh, here is -blood for you to deal with; take them away and give us something better -in exchange.” - -Another means of getting rid of serpents, venomous insects, and vermin, -is made use of by the Bulgarians on the last day of February; it consists -in beating copper pans all over the houses, calling out at the same time, -“Out with you, serpents, scorpions, fleas, bugs, and flies!” A pan held -by a pair of tongs is put outside in the court-yard. - -Mohammedans execrate the Christian faith, and Christians the Mohammedan -faith, but both in cases of incurable diseases have recourse reciprocally -to each other’s Ἁγιάσματα (holy wells), the sacred tombs of the saints, -and to the prayers of the clergy of both creeds. I have often seen -sick Turkish children taken to the Armenian church at Broussa, and -heard prayers read over them by Armenian priests. I have also seen -Christian children taken to Hodjas to be blown and spat upon, or have -the visitation of intermittent fever tied up by means of a piece of -cotton-thread twisted round the wrist. - -I happened one day to be making some purchases from a Jew pedler at the -gate, when a Turkish woman passing by came quietly up to the old man, and -before he could prevent her, made a snatch at his beard and pulled out -a handful. The unfortunate Hebrew, smarting under the pain and insult, -asked the reason for her cruelty. “Oh,” she answered, “I did not intend -to insult or hurt you; but my daughter has had fever for a long time, and -as all remedies that I have tried have proved vain, I was assured that -some hairs snatched from the beard of an Israelite and used to fumigate -her with would be sure to cure her.” She then tied up her stolen treasure -in her handkerchief and walked away with it. - -Dreams play a great part in Eastern life. The young girl, early taught -to believe in them, hopes to perceive in these transient visions a -glimpse of the realities that are awaiting her; the married woman seeks, -in their shadowy illusions, the promise of the continuation of the -poetry of life, and firmly believes in the coming realities they are -supposed to foreshadow; while the ambitious man tries to expound them -in favor of his hopes and prospects, often guiding his actions by some -indistinct suggestion they convey to his mind. When a Greek woman has -had a remarkable dream, she will consult her Ὄνειρο, or book of dreams, -the Bulgarian will gossip over it with her neighbors, often accepting -their interpretation, and the Turkish woman will do the same, but if -not satisfied with the explanations given, she has the alternative of -consulting the Hodja, who will find a better meaning in his “learned -books.” - -A projected contract of marriage is often arrested by the unfavorable -interpretation of a dream, or a marriage that had not previously been -imagined is entered into under the same influence. The vocations of a man -may be changed by a dream, and the destinies of a family trusted to its -guidance. Dreams are often used as a medium of discovering truth, and are -efficacious instruments in the hands of those who know how to use them. -A Turkish servant was suspected by one of my friends of having stolen a -sum of money which she missed from her safe. The lady called in the woman -and said to her, “Nasibeh, I dreamed last night that while I was out the -other day you walked into my room and took the money that was there.” The -culprit, taken by surprise, exclaimed, with too much earnestness, “I -did not take it!” My friend responded, “I have not accused you of having -taken it, but since you deny it so earnestly you are open to suspicion. -If the money is not there you must have taken it.” After a little -pressure the woman confessed that, tempted by the _Sheytan_, she had -done so, but that she would give it back, promising to be honest for the -future. She was retained in her situation, and, be it said to her credit, -was never again found guilty. - -The most trivial circumstances connected with the birth of a child are -considered of good or bad omen according to the interpretation given -to them. Trifling accidents happening on a wedding-day have also their -signification; so have the breaking of a looking-glass, the accidental -spilling of oil, sweeping the house after the master has left it to go -on a journey, the meeting of a funeral or of a priest, a hare crossing -the path, and a thousand other every-day occurrences. The Turks, after -cutting their nails, will never throw away the parings, but carefully -keep them in cracks of the walls or the boards, where they are not likely -to be scattered about. This is based on the idea that at the resurrection -day they will be needed for the formation of new ones. - -Sultan Mahmoud, the grandfather of the present Sultan, was in his bath -when the news of the birth of his son Abdul-Aziz was announced to him. -The tidings are said to have made him look sad and thoughtful; he heaved -a deep sigh, and expressed his regret at having been informed of the -event when divested of his clothing, saying it was a bad omen, and his -son was likely to leave his people as naked as the news of his birth had -found his father. Unfortunately for the nation, this prediction was but -too exactly realized. - -Predictions have great influence over the Mohammedan mind. On the eve -of great battles, or on the occasion of any great political change, -prophecies are consulted and astrologers appealed to, to prognosticate -the issue of the coming event. Many of these individuals have paid with -their heads for the non-fulfilment of their prophecies. - -The last prediction in circulation at Stamboul, uttered since the death -of Sultan Abdul-Aziz, says that seven sultans must succeed each other, -most of them dying violent deaths, before the Empire will be secure. - -While living at a farm near Broussa, situated a few miles from the -town, not far from the ruins of a fine old hostelry called the “Bloody -Khan,” my mother was one moonlight night accosted by an old Turk while -we were out walking. He was a stranger in the place, tall and handsome, -with a snowy beard falling upon his slightly bent chest. A peculiar, -restless look about the eyes, and the numerous scars that covered his -bare breast and face were evident indications that whatever his present -calling might be, his past life must have been a stormy and adventurous -one. He walked quietly towards us, and stopping before my mother, with -a certain amount of respect mingled with paternal familiarity, said to -her, “_Kuzim, gel!_ (Daughter, come!) I have a secret to reveal to you.” -My mother followed him, and half amused and wholly incredulous listened -to the following recital. Pointing to the “Bloody Khan,” which, being -situated upon the principal road leading into the interior, had once -been occupied by a band of forty robbers, he said, “I was the chief of -the band of brigands that occupied that Khan. You must know its story. -Forty years have passed during which my faithful followers have been -caught, killed, or dispersed, leaving me the sole representative of the -band. A timely repentance of my evil ways led me to make a _Tubé_ vow -and renounce the old trade. I have since lived in peace with Allah and -with men. I have sworn to lay violent hands on no man’s property more; -but my conscience does not rebel against attempting to recover what I -had buried beneath yonder wall. I want your powerful concurrence to dig -out this buried treasure, the greater part of which will be yours.” My -mother naturally refused to have anything to do with the affair. Seeing -her unwillingness, the old man tried all his powers of persuasion to -induce her to take part in his plan, saying, “On me, my daughter, be the -sin. I will rest content with a small portion of what will be recovered, -all the rest I abandon to you!” Finding this last inducement had no more -effect than his previous promises, he turned away, saying, “Since you -refuse I must seek somebody else.” Among the few Mohammedan inhabitants -of the small village his choice fell upon the _Imam_, whose enterprising -face promised the old man better success. The cunning Imam, on hearing -the brigand’s tale, being persuaded of its veracity, at once promised his -assistance, mentally deciding, however, that he would be the only one to -profit by the hidden treasure. He at once began to make use of the usual -stratagem of superstition, which could alone secure the success of his -plan. Telling the old man that according to his books ill-gained wealth -must be in the possession of evil spirits, and that in order to guard -themselves against their influences during their digging enterprise, and -to prevent the treasure from turning into charcoal, a peculiar process of -appeasing and soothing incantations would be needed; but that he would at -once proceed to perform these, and at the first crowing of the cock all -would be ready, and they would proceed together to the spot and unearth -the treasure. The credulous old chief stroked his beard, and said that -with Allah’s help and the good-will of the _Peris_ by the next day they -would be rich men. In the course of the night, as arranged, the two, -spade in hand, leading the Imam’s horse bearing saddle bags, proceeded -to the spot. The Imam commenced operations by surrounding himself and -his companion with as many magical observances as he could invent. -Telling him to remove the first spadeful of earth, they went on digging -alternately until a hollow sound told the sharp ear of the Imam that the -distance between them and the coveted wealth was not great. He threw down -his spade, and again resorting to magical mummeries declared that the -danger was imminent, as the spell foretold resistance on the part of the -spirits, and a refusal to yield possession unless a goat were at once -sacrificed to them. “Go,” said he, earnestly, “back to the mosque, and -in the small chamber you will find three goats; take the milk-white one -and bring it here. Do not hurry it much, but lead it gently, as becomes -the virtue of the offering.” The old man, nothing doubting, with Turkish -nonchalance went quietly back to the village, which lay about three miles -distant. The Imam once rid of him, and when in no danger of being seen -or heard, set actively to work, got out the treasure, placed it in his -saddle-bags, mounted, and rode off, and was never seen or heard of in -the village again. The old man returned in due time, accompanied by the -goat, to find nothing but his spades, the pile of earth, and the gaping -hole. Disgusted, disappointed, and enraged, he came back to the village, -and early next morning made his appearance at the farm. Inquiring for my -mother, he acquainted her with the pitiable results of his attempt. This -time the curiosity of the whole family was roused, and we all proceeded -in a body to the spot. The old man’s assertions proved to be perfectly -correct, and my brother, upsetting part of the upturned earth, discovered -a handsome silver dish and cup, which we took home with us as trophies of -the strange adventure. - -The following strange incident happened at Broussa when I was a child. -Incredible as it may appear, its authenticity cannot be disputed, and a -statement of the fact may be found in the Consular Reports made at the -time to the Foreign Office: - -The monotonous life of the inhabitants of this romantic old city, which -a French _improvisateur_ justly designated as _un tombeau couvert de -roses_, was one morning startled by the arrival of a band of fifty or -sixty wild-looking people—men, women, and a few children. None knew -whence they came or what they wanted. Some of them, dressed as Fakirs, -spoke bad Turkish; the rest used a guttural dialect unintelligible to -any but themselves. Their costume, composed of a sheet or wrapper, left -their arms, legs, and tattooed breasts bare; white turbans, from under -which a quantity of matted hair hung, covered the heads of the men. The -women, whose arms and breasts were bare, wore brass and bead ornaments, -large rings in their ears, and a sheet over their heads. They were fine, -strongly-built people, with regular features and bronzed skins. This -nomad band, which was conjectured to have come from some distant part -of Central Asia, took up its quarters at Bournabashi, a beautiful spot -outside the walls of the town, where a grove of cypress trees shelter -a fine mausoleum containing the saintly remains of one of the first -chieftains who accompanied Sultan Orkhan and settled in the city after -the conquest. His shrine, much venerated by the Mohammedans, is a resort -for pilgrims, who may often be seen performing their ablutions at the -cool fountains by the side of the vale, or devoutly bending to say their -_namaz_ under the shade of the imposing trees, having lighted tapers on -the tomb. - -It must have been some mysterious legend connected with the life and -deeds of this reputed saint, mixed up, as most Oriental legends are, with -the supernatural, that, finding its way back to his native land, and -discovered or expounded centuries later by his savage kindred, led them -to undertake this long journey and do homage at the tomb of the Emir. -Their actions seem, however, to have been prompted partly by interested -motives, for their legend seems mysteriously to have stated that great -riches had been buried with him, whose possession was only attainable by -human sacrifice. The easy consciences of the fanatics do not appear to -have felt any scruples with regard to the means they were to use, and in -their zeal, stimulated by their greed for gain and by superstition, they -undertook the long journey that, after perhaps months of hardship and -toil, led them to their goal. - -The day after their arrival they were seen in twos and threes scouring -the town, crossing and recrossing all its streets under the pretext -of begging, but, as subsequently discovered, with the real object of -kidnapping children. According to their confession, forty was the number -needed, whose fat boiled down was to be moulded into tapers, which, -burning day and night on the tomb of the Emir, were to soften the spirits -into complaisance and induce them to give up the treasure they guarded -in its original state, and not in charcoal, as would be the case if -this all-important part of the operation were omitted by the searchers. -The news of the appearance of the kidnappers, with some inkling of -their object, soon spread through the town and began to terrorize the -inhabitants of the Christian quarters, where they were principally seen -loitering, when palpable evidence of their operations was brought before -the English Consul by the timely rescue of two Armenian children, who -had been half strangled, one being brought in insensible and the other -having on its throat the deep and bleeding nail-marks of the two ruffians -from whose hands the children had been rescued by some passers-by, who -interrupted the murderous work as it was being executed in the sombre -archway of a ruined old Roman bridge crossing the ravine that intersects -the town. The Consul at once proceeded to the Governor and requested -that the case should at once be looked into. But the sacred character of -Fakir protecting some of these men made public investigation difficult, -and the authorities hushed up the matter, and only signified to the band -that they must renounce their project and leave the country. They did so, -expressing their deep regret at the want of faith of the authorities, and -bitterly reproaching them with their refusal to co-operate tacitly with -their desire. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -ISLAM IN TURKEY. - - Religious Parties—The Ulema and Softas—Conservatism—Imams, - Muftis, and Kadis or Mollahs—Corruption—The Dervishes—Their - Influence over the People—A Dervish Fanatic in Bulgaria—Various - Orders of Dervishes—Revolving and Howling Dervishes—The - Bektashis—A Frank Sheikh—Ceremonies of Islam—Friday at the - Mosque—The Prayers—Ramazan—A Night in Ramazan—Pilgrimage—Kismet. - - -The religion of the Turks is properly the orthodox or _Sunni_ form of -Islam, the doctrines of which are too well known to require description -here. But the subject is complicated by the fact that there is a -considerable opposition between the popular and the “respectable” -religion. The Established Church, so to speak, of Turkey is governed by -the Ulema, or learned men trained in the mosques, often supported by -pious endowments. The popular faith, on the other hand, is led by the -various sects of dervishes, between whom and the Ulema there exists an -unconquerable rivalry. Some account of these two parties is essential to -any description of the people of Turkey. - -The Ulema are the hereditary expounders of the Koran, to the traditional -interpretation of which they rigidly adhere. They have nothing to say to -the many innovations that time has shown to be needful in the religion of -Mohammed, and they brand as heretics all who differ a hair’s-breadth from -the old established line. The result of this uncompromising orthodoxy has -been that the Ulema, together with their subordinates the Softas (a sort -of Moslem undergraduates), have managed to preserve an _esprit de corps_ -and a firm collected line of action that is without a parallel in Turkish -parties. - -Midhat Pasha and his party perceived this, and made use of the Ulema -as tools to effect their purpose; but as soon as the _coup d’état_ was -completed, Midhat Pasha’s first care was to free himself as much as -possible from further obligations towards them, and to break up their -power by exile, imprisonment, and general persecution. He understood that -if left to acquire further ascendency in public affairs, great mischief -would ensue. The Ulema were clamoring loudly for reforms; but the reforms -they demanded were those of the ancient Osmanlis and the execution of the -Sheriat or Koran laws, which, equitable as they are among Mohammedans, -would not improve the condition of the rayah. Herein lies the chief -reason why reforms in Turkey remain for the most part a dead letter. The -Koran has no conception of the possibility of Christian subjects enjoying -the same rights as their Moslem neighbors. No judge, therefore, likes to -go against this spirit; and no good Mohammedan can ever bring himself to -a level with a caste marked by his Prophet with the brand of inferiority. -Midhat Pasha, thoroughly cognizant of this fact, could not enter into -a pact with the Ulema, the strictest observers of the Koran law, and -at the same time satisfy the urgent demands of Europe in favor of the -Christian subjects of the Porte. He did the best he knew in the midst of -these difficulties, and produced his constitution. This was construed in -one light to the Mohammedans, and in another to the Christians; whilst -it was intended to pacify Europe by insuring, nominally at least, the -reforms demanded by her for the rayahs. Nobody, however, believed in the -Constitution. The Mohammedans never meant to carry it into execution; and -Europe, in its divided opinions on the subject, had the satisfaction of -seeing it submerged in the vortex of succeeding events. - -The order of Ulema is divided into three classes: the _Imams_, or -ministers of religion; the _Muftis_, doctors of the law; and the _Kadis_ -or _Mollahs_, judges. Each of these classes is subdivided into a number -of others, according to the rank and functions of those that compose it. - -The _imams_, after passing an examination, are appointed by the Sheikh ul -Islam to the office of priests in the mosques. The fixed pay they receive -is small, about 6_l._ or 7_l._ per annum. Some mosques have several -imams. Their functions are to pronounce the prayer aloud and guide the -ceremonies. The chief imam has precedence over the other imams, the -muezzins (callers to prayer), the khatibs, hodjas, and other servants of -the mosque. - -In small mosques, however, all these functions are performed by the -imam and the muezzin. Imams are allowed to marry, and their title is -hereditary. Should the son be unlettered, he appoints a deputy who -performs his duties. Imams, generally speaking, are coarse and ignorant, -and belong to the lower-middle class of Turkish society. Their influence -in the parish is not great, and the services they fulfil among their -communities consist in assisting in the parish schools, giving licenses, -and performing the ceremonies of circumcision, marriage, and of washing -and burying the dead. They live rent free, often deriving annuities from -church property. The communities pay no fixed fees, but remuneration is -given every time the services of the imam are required by a family. No -Mohammedan house can be entered by the police unless the imam of the -parish takes the lead and is the first to knock at the door and cross -the threshold. Should the search be for a criminal in cases of adultery, -and the charge be brought by the imam himself certifying the entrance of -the individual into the house, and the search prove fruitless, the imam -is liable to three months’ imprisonment. A case of the kind happened -a few years ago to a highly respectable imam in Stamboul, who, having -for some time noticed the disorderly conduct of a hanoum of his parish, -gave evidence, supported by his two mukhtars, or parish officers, of -having seen some strangers enter the house. The search leading to no -discovery, the hanoum demanded reparation for her wounded honor, and the -three functionaries were cast into prison. The imam, on being released, -cut his throat, unable to survive the indignation he felt at seeing the -evidence of three respectable persons slighted and set aside before the -protestations of false virtue, backed by bribes. - -This is one of the strange licenses of Turkish law. Crime is not punished -unless its actual commission is certified by eye-witnesses; this is the -reason that evidence of crime committed during the night is not admitted -as valid by the laws of the country. The imams, under the pressure of -this law, think twice before they give evidence; nor do they much like -the unpleasant duty of accompanying police inspections, from which they -generally excuse themselves. - -The _muftis_, or doctors of the law, rank next: seated in the courts of -justice, they receive the pleas, examine into the cases, and explain them -to the mollah, according to their merits or the turn they may wish to -give to them. There is very general complaint against the corruption of -these men, in whose hands lies the power of misconstruing the law. - -The _mollahs_ or _kadis_ form the next grade in the Ulema hierarchy. They -are appointed by the Sheikh ul Islam, and are assisted in their functions -by the muftis and other officials. - -The avarice and venality of this body of men are among the worst -features of Turkish legislature. Few judges are free from the reproach -of partiality and corruption. Their verdicts, delivered nominally in -accordance with Koranic law, are often gross misinterpretations of the -law, and the _fetvahs_ or sentences in which they are expressed are -given in a sense that complicates matters to such a degree as to render -a revisal of the case useless, and redress hopeless, unless the pleader -is well backed by powerful protectors, or can afford to spend vast sums -in bribes—when, perhaps, he may sometimes, after much trouble and delay, -obtain justice. - -The Kadi Asker of Roumelia and the Kadi Asker of Anatolia come next in -rank as supreme judges; the former of Turkey in Europe, and the latter of -Turkey in Asia; they sit in the same court of justice as the Sheikh ul -Islam. - -This Sheikh ul Islam, or Grand Mufti of the capital, is the spiritual -chief of Islam and the head of the legislature. He is appointed by the -Sultan, who installs him in his functions with a long pelisse of sable. -The Sultan can deprive him of his office, but not of life so long as he -holds his title, nor can he confiscate his property when in disgrace. - -The chief function of the Grand Mufti is to interpret the Koran in all -important cases. His decisions are laconic, often consisting of “Yes” -or “No.” His opinions, delivered in accordance with the Koran, are not -backed by motive. - -In instances of uncertainty he has a way of getting out of the difficulty -by adding “God is the best judge.” His decrees are called _fetvahs_, and -he signs himself, in the common formula, “the poor servant of God.” He -is assisted in his functions by a secretary called the _fetvah eminé_, -who in cases of minor importance directs the pleas and presents them all -ready for the affixing of the mufti’s seal. - -The influence of the Sheikh ul Islam is great, and powerful for good -or harm to the nation, according to his character, and the amount of -justice and honesty he may display in his capacity of Head of Islam and -supreme judge. This influence, however, being strictly Mohammedan, and -based on rigid religious dogmas, cannot be expected to carry with it that -spirit of tolerance and liberality which a well regulated government -must possess in all branches of the administrative and executive power. -Instances, however, in which Sheikhs ul Islam have shown strict honesty, -justice, and even a certain amount of enlightened tolerance, have not -been unfrequent in the annals of Turkey, in the settlement of disputes -between Mussulmans and non-Mussulmans. - -I have heard several curious stories about the Grand Muftis of this -century. Whilst Lord Stratford was ambassador at Constantinople, one of -the secretaries had an audience with the Sheikh ul Islam, who at the -moment of his visitor’s entrance was engaged in the performance of his -_namaz_. The secretary sat down while the devotee finished his prayers, -which were ended by an invocation to Allah to forgive a suppliant true -believer the sin of holding direct intercourse with a Giaour. His -conscience thus relieved, the old mufti rose from his knees and smilingly -welcomed his guest. But this guest, who was a great original, in his turn -begged permission to perform his devotions. He gravely went through an -Arabic formula, and ended by begging Allah to forgive a good Christian -the crime of visiting a “faithless dog of an infidel.” The astonished old -mufti was nettled, but with true Oriental imperturbability he bore the -insult. - -A late Grand Mufti was greatly respected, and appealed to from all -directions for the settlement of new and old lawsuits, which he is said -to have wound up with strict impartiality and justice; but at the same -time he always urged upon the disputants the advantages of coming to an -amicable arrangement. - -One of his friends, observing that this advice systematically -accompanied the winding-up of the case, asked the dignitary why, being -sure of having delivered a just sentence, he recommended this friendly -arrangement? “Because,” said the mufti, “the world nowadays is so -corrupt, and the use of false witnesses so common, that I believe in the -honesty of none; and my conscience is free when I have obtained something -in favor of the loser as well as the winner.” - -From the time of the annexation of Egypt and Syria by Selim the -Inflexible, the title of Khalif, or Vicar of God, was assumed by the -Turkish Sultan; but although this title gives him the power of a complete -autocrat, no Sultan can be invested with the Imperial dignity unless -the Mollah of Konia, a descendant of the Osmanjiks, and by right of his -descent considered holy, comes to Constantinople, and girds the future -sovereign with the sword of Othman; on the other hand, a Sultan cannot be -deposed unless a Fetvah of the Sheikh ul Islam decrees his deposition, -or, if by consent of the nation, his death. - -Such, then, are the Ulema—the clergy, so to speak, of the Established -Church of Islam in Turkey. They are the ultra-conservative party in the -nation in things political as well as things religious. “Let things -be,” is the motto of the Sheikh ul Islam and his most insignificant -Kadi. It is not surprising that this should be so. Trained in the meagre -curriculum of the Medressé, among the dry bones of traditional Moslem -theology, it would be astonishing if these men were aught but narrow, -ignorant, bigoted; and chained in the unvarying circle of the Ulema world -they have no chance of forgetting the teaching of their youth. But this -does not explain the fact that nine out of ten Moslem judges are daily -guilty of injustice and the taking of bribes. - -The Ulema entertain a cordial hatred for the dervishes, whose orthodoxy -they deny, and whose influence over the State and the people alike they -dread. The dervish’s title to reverence does not, like his rival’s, rest -upon his learning and his ability to misinterpret the Koran; it rests -on his supposed inspiration. On this ground, as well as on account of -his reputed power of working miracles, and the general eccentricity -of his life, he is regarded by the people with extreme veneration. -His sympathies, moreover, are with the masses; ofttimes he spends his -life in succoring them; whilst his scorn for the wealthy and reputable -knows no bounds. Hence the people believe in the dervishes in spite of -the ridicule and persecution of the Ulema; and even the higher classes -become infected with this partly superstitious veneration, and seek to -gain the dervish’s blessing and to avoid his curse; and often a high -dignitary has turned pale at the stern denunciation of the wild-looking -visionary who does not fear to say his say before the great ones of the -land. Sultan Mahmoud was once crossing the bridge of Galata when he was -stopped by a dervish called “the hairy sheikh.” “Giaour Padishah,” he -cried, in a voice shaken with fury, seizing the Sultan’s bridle, “art -thou not yet content with abomination? Thou wilt answer to God for all -thy godlessness! Thou art destroying the institutions of thy brethren; -thou revilest Islam and drawest the vengeance of the Prophet upon thyself -and us.” The Sultan called to his guards to clear “the fool” out of the -way. “I a fool!” screamed the dervish. “It is thou and thy worthless -counsellors who have lost your senses! To the rescue, Moslems! The Spirit -of God, who hath anointed me, and whom I serve, urges me to proclaim the -truth, with the promise of the reward of the saints.” The next day the -visionary was put to death; but it was declared that the following night -a soft light was shed over his tomb, which is still venerated as that of -a saint. - -But it needed a bold man like the reformer-Sultan to put a noisy fanatic -to death; and even in his case the wisdom, as well as the humanity, of -the act may be questioned. Most grandees would think twice before they -offended a dervish. For popular credulity accords to these strange men -extraordinary powers—the gift of foreknowledge, the power of working -miracles, and of enduring privations and sufferings beyond the limits of -ordinary human endurance; and, not least, these enthusiasts are believed -to have the power of giving people good or evil wishes, which never fail -to come to pass, and which no human action can resist. - -In spite of this apparently fanatical and charlatan character, there -is much that is liberal and undogmatical about the dervishes. I have -certainly met with many broad-minded, tolerant men among the sheikhs of -their orders, and have been struck by the charm of their conversation no -less than their enlightened views and their genuine good-will towards -mankind. - -On the other hand, though asceticism is part of the dervish’s creed, -and though there be among them really honest and great men, it must be -admitted that a good many dervishes entertain not the faintest scruples -about intoxication and a good many other pleasures which do not seem very -strictly in accordance with their vows. Among the wandering dervishes -many savage and thoroughly bad characters are to be met with. They roam -from country to country; climate, privation, hardships of all kinds, -deter them not; they come from all lands and they go to all lands, but -those of Persia and Bokhara surpass the rest in cunning, fanaticism, and -brutality. There is no vice into which some of them do not plunge; and -all the time they display a revolting excess of religious zeal, couched -in the foulest and most abusive vocabulary their language affords. - -One of these wretches once stopped my carriage under the windows of the -Governor’s house at Monastir, and before the kavass had time to interfere -he had jumped in and was vociferating “Giaour” and a host of other -invectives in my face. It was lucky the guard was near and prompt in -arresting him. Next day he was packed out of the town for the fourth time. - -Notwithstanding their vices, nothing can exceed the veneration in -which the dervishes are held by the public, over whom they exercise an -irresistible influence. This influence is especially made use of in time -of war, when a motley company of sheikhs and fanatical dervishes join -the army, and encourage the officers and men by rehearsing the benefits -promised by the Prophet to all who fight or die for the true faith. The -voices of these excited devotees may be heard crying, “O ye victorious!” -“O ye martyrs!” or “Yallah!” Some of these men are fearful fanatics, -who endeavor by every means in their power to stimulate the religious -zeal of the troops and of the nation. Every word they utter is poison to -public peace. Among the numerous gangs of infatuated zealots that spread -themselves over the country just before the outbreak of the troubles in -Bulgaria, there was one wandering dervish who specially distinguished -himself by the pernicious influence his prophecies and adjurations -obtained over the minds of the Mohammedan population, exciting them -against their Christian neighbors, who were completely “terrorized” by -his denunciations. - -The venerable Bishop of the town of L⸺ related to me the visit he had -received from this dangerous individual, and assured me that this fanatic -was in some measure the cause of the lamentable events that followed. - -He first appeared in the town of X⸺, where, after preaching his death -mission among the Mohammedans a few days before the Greek Easter, he -walked up to the quarter of the town occupied by some of the principal -Christian families, and knocking at each door entered and announced to -the inmates that Allah had revealed to him His pleasure and His decrees -for the destruction of the infidels within the third day of Easter. On -reaching the dwelling of the Bishop he requested a personal interview, -and made the same declaration to him. - -The Bishop, with some of the leading inhabitants, alarmed at this -threatening speech, proceeded at once to the Governor-General, and -related the incident to him. The dervish was sent for, and, in the -presence of the Bishop and his companions, asked if he had said what was -reported of him, and what he meant by such an assertion. The dervish -merely shrugged his shoulders, and said that he was in his _hal_, or -ecstatic state, and could not therefore be answerable for what he talked -about. The Pasha sent him under escort to the town of A⸺, with a letter -to the governor of that place requesting his exile to Broussa; but the -wily ascetic soon managed to escape the surveillance of the police of A⸺, -and continued his mission in other parts of Bulgaria. - -It is impossible here to enter into details as to the constitution of -the various dervish orders (of which there are many), or the tenets held -by them, or the ceremonies of initiation and of worship. Still, a few -words are necessary about the two or three leading orders of dervishes -in Turkey. The most graceful are the Mevlevi, or revolving dervishes, -with their sugar-loaf hats, long skirts, and loose _jubbés_. Once or -twice a week public service is performed at the Mevlevi Khané, to which -spectators are admitted. The devotions begin by the recital of the usual -_namaz_, after which the sheikh proceeds to his _pistiki_, or sheepskin -mat, and raising his hands offers with great earnestness the prayer to -the _Pir_, or spirit of the founder of the order, asking his intercession -with God on behalf of the order. He then steps off his _pistiki_ and bows -his head with deep humility towards it, as if it were now occupied by his -_Pir_; then, in slow and measured step, he walks three times round the -Semar Khané, bowing to the right and left with crossed toes as he passes -his seat, his subordinates following and doing the same. This part of -the ceremony (called the Sultan Veled Devri) over, the sheikh stands on -the _pistiki_ with bowed head, while the brethren in the _mutrib_, or -orchestra, chant a hymn in honor of the Prophet, followed by a sweet and -harmonious performance on the flute. - -The Semar Zan, director of the performance, proceeds to the sheikh, who -stands on the edge of his _pistiki_, and, after making a deep obeisance, -walks to the centre of the hall, and gives a signal to the other -brethren, who let fall their _tennouris_, take off their _jubbés_, and -proceed in single file with folded arms to the sheikh, kiss his hand, -receive in return a kiss on their hats, and there begin whirling round, -using the left foot as a pivot while they push themselves round with the -right. Gradually the arms are raised upwards and then extended outwards, -the palm of the right hand being turned up and the left bent towards the -floor. With closed eyes and heads reclining towards the right shoulder -they continue turning, muttering the inaudible _zikr_, saying, “Allah, -Allah!” to the sound of the orchestra and the chant that accompanies it, -ending with the exclamation, “O friend!” when the dancers suddenly cease -to turn. The sheikh, still standing, again receives the obeisance of the -brethren as they pass his _pistiki_, and the dance is renewed. When it is -over, they resume their seats on the floor, and are covered with their -_jubbés_. The service ends with a prayer for the Sultan. - -The whole of the ceremony is extremely harmonious and interesting: the -bright and variegated colors of the dresses, the expert and graceful way -in which the dervishes spin round, bearing on their faces at the same -time a look of deep humility and devotion, together with the dignified -attitude and movements of the sheikh, combine to form a most impressive -sight. - -Equally curious are the Rifa’i, or howling dervishes. They wear a mantle -edged with green, a belt in which are lodged one or three big stones, to -compress the hunger to which a dervish is liable, and a white felt hat -marked with eight grooves (_terks_), each denoting the renunciation of -a cardinal sin. In their devotions they become strangely excited, their -limbs become frightfully contorted, their faces deadly pale; then they -dance in the most grotesque manner, howling meanwhile; cut themselves -with knives, swallow fire and swords, burn their bodies, pierce their -ears, and finally swoon. A sacred word whispered by two elders of the -order brings the unconscious men round, and their wounds are healed by -the touch of the sheikh’s hand, moistened from his mouth. It is strange -and horrible to witness the ceremonies of this order; but in these -barbarous performances the devout recognize the working of the Divine -Spirit. - -But the order which is admitted to be the most numerous and important in -Turkey is that of the _Bektashis_. Like all dervish orders, they consider -themselves the first and greatest religious sect in the universe; and for -this they have the following excellent reason. One day their founder, -Hadji Bektash, and some of his followers were sitting on a wall, when -they saw a rival dervish approaching them, mounted upon a roaring lion, -which he chastised by means of a serpent which he held in his hand as a -whip. The disciples marvelling at this, Hadji Bektash said: “My brothers, -there is no merit in riding a lion; but there is merit in making the wall -on which we are sitting advance towards the lion, and stop the way of the -lion and its rider.” Whereupon the wall marched slowly upon the enemy, -carrying Hadji Bektash and his followers against the lion-rider, who saw -nothing for it but to acknowledge the supremacy of the rival sheikh. - -The Bektashis are followers of the Khalif Ali, and attribute to him and -his descendants all the extravagant qualities which the Alides have from -time to time invented. These dervishes have also many superstitious -beliefs connected with their girdle, cap, and cloak. One ceremony with -the stone worn in the girdle is rather striking. The sheikh puts it in -and out seven times, saying, “I tie up greediness and unbind generosity. -I tie up anger and unbind meekness. I tie up ignorance and unbind the -fear of God. I tie up passion and unbind the love of God. I tie up the -devilish and unbind the divine.” - -The special veneration of the Khalif Ali by this order renders it -particularly hateful to the orthodox Mussulmans; and yet, strange to say, -it acquired great popularity in the Ottoman Empire, especially among the -Janissaries, who when first formed into a corps were blessed by Hadji -Bektash in person. The new troops are said to have been led by Sultan -Orkhan into the presence of the sheikh near Amassia, when the Sultan -implored his benediction, and the gift of a standard and a flag for his -new force. The sheikh, stretching out one of his arms over the head of -a soldier, with the end of the sleeve hanging down behind, blessed the -corps, calling it _yenicheri_, the “new troop,” prophesying at the same -time that “its figure shall be fair and shining, its arm redoubtable, -its sword cutting, and its arrows steeled. It shall be victorious in -all battles, and only return triumphant.” A pendant representing the -sleeve of the sheikh was added to the felt cap of the Janissaries -in commemoration of the benediction of Hadji Bektash. Most of the -Janissaries were incorporated into the order of Bektashis, and formed -that formidable body of men, who, adding the profession of the monk to -the chivalrous spirit of the warrior, may be considered the Knights -Templars of Islam. - -During the reign of Sultan Mahmoud II. the destruction of the Janissaries -was followed by the persecution of the Bektashis, for whom the orthodox -Mohammedans of the present day entertain a sovereign contempt. - -The votaries of the Bektashi order in European Turkey are most numerous -among the Albanians, where they are said to number over 80,000. A few -years ago they were subjected to persecutions, which seem to have been -caused by the little regard they displayed for the forms of orthodox -Islam, from which they widely deviate. The point that gives special -offence to the Turk is the little attention paid by the wives of these -sectarians to the Mussulman laws of _namekhram_ (concealment), with which -they all dispense when the husband gives them permission to appear before -his friends. Polygamy is only practised among Albanian Bektashis when the -first wife has some defect or infirmity. - -There is much that is virtuous and liberal in the tenets of this order, -but very little of it is put into practice. This neglect is proved by -the disordered and unscrupulous lives often led by Bektashis, and is -accounted for by the existence of two distinct paths they feel equally -authorized to follow: one leading to the performance of all the duties -and virtues prescribed, and the other in which they lay these aside and -follow the bent of their own natural inclinations. - -Some of the principal monasteries of the Bektashis are to be found -in Asia Minor in the vilayet of Broussa. A Greek gentleman of my -acquaintance had strange adventures in one of their settlements at M⸺, -where his roving disposition had led him to purchase an estate. After -living for some years among this half-savage set, he became a great -favorite, was received into their order, and finally elected as their -chief, when he was presented with the emblematic stones of the order, -which he wore on his person. One day, however, he narrowly escaped paying -dearly for the honor. - -A herd of pigs belonging to him escaped from the farm, and took the -road to the _Tekké_, into which they rushed, while the congregation -were assembled for their devotions. The excited animals, grunting and -squealing, mingled wildly with the devotees, profaning the sacred edifice -and its occupants by their detested presence. The Bektashis sprang to -their feet, and with one accord cried out to the owner of the unclean -animals to ask if, in consequence of his infidel origin, he had played -this trick upon them, and declaring that if it were so he should pay the -forfeit with his life. The Bektashi sheikh displayed remarkable presence -of mind at this critical moment. Rising to his feet, he looked round, -assumed an attitude and expression of deep devotion, and in an inspired -voice exclaimed, “Oh, ye ignorant and benighted brethren, see ye not -that these swine, enlightened from on high, are impelled to confess the -true faith and to join us in our worship? Let them pass through the -ordeal, and tax not a creature of Allah with the effecting of an event -for which He alone is responsible.” Strange to say, this explanation -satisfied the devotees. It illustrates curiously the peculiar character -of the dervishes, their faith in their sheikhs, and their belief in -extraordinary inspiration. - -The ceremonies of Islam are observed in Turkey in much the same way as -in other Moslem countries. On Friday all good, and most indifferent, -Mohammedans go to the mosque for the public prayer; but of course there -is no touch of Sabbatarianism among the Turks any more than among any -other followers of Mohammed. In most mosques women are admitted to a -retired part of the edifice; but it is only elderly ladies who go. In -some mosques at Stamboul, where the women’s department is partitioned -off, the attendance is larger, especially during Ramazan. Last year -I went dressed as a Turkish lady to the evening prayer during the -fast. It was a strange sight to me, and the excitement was increased -by the knowledge of the unpleasant consequences that would follow the -penetration of my disguise. The Turkish women seemed out of place there: -their levity contrasted markedly with the grave bearing of the men on the -other side of the partition. The view I thus obtained of the beautiful -mosque of Sultan Ahmet was singularly impressive. The Ulema, in their -green and white turbans and graceful robes, absorbed in the performance -of their religious duties; officers in bright uniforms, and civilians in -red fez and black coat, side by side with wild-looking dervishes and the -common people in the varied and picturesque costumes of the different -nations, all knelt in rows upon the soft carpets, or went through the -various postures of that religion before which all men are equal. Not -a whisper disturbed the clear melodious voice of the old Hodja as he -pronounced the Terravi prayers, which the congregation took up in chorus, -now prostrating their faces on the ground, now slowly rising: you could -fancy it a green corn-field, studded with poppies, billowing under the -breeze. Above were the numberless lamps that shone in the stately dome. - -You can give no higher praise to a Turk than saying that he performs -his five prayers a-day. In right of this qualification young men of no -position and as little merit are often chosen as sons-in-law by pious -people. A Turk of the old school is proud of his religion, and is never -ashamed of letting you see it. So long as he can turn his face towards -Mekka, he will say his prayers anywhere. The Turks like to say their -_namaz_ in public, that they may have praise of men; and it is to be -feared that a good deal of hypocrisy goes on in this matter. This, -however, is on the decrease, because fewer Turks in all classes say their -prayers or observe the outward forms of religion than formerly. This is -no doubt partly due to the influence of “Young Turkey,” though other -causes are also at work. - -But the orthodox Turk must do more than observe the prayers. The fast -of Ramazan is a very important part of his religious routine. Every one -knows this terrible month of day-fasting and night-feasting. It tells -most severely on the poor, who keep it strictly, and are compelled to -work during the day exactly as when not fasting. Women also of all -classes observe the fast religiously. But there are very few among the -higher officials, or the gentlemen who have enrolled themselves under -the banner of _La Jeune Turquie_, who take any notice of it, except in -public, where they are obliged to show outward respect to the prejudices -of the people. - -This fast-month is a sort of revival-time to the Moslems. They are -supposed to devote more time to the careful study of the Koran and to the -minute practice of its ordinances. Charity, peacefulness, hospitality, -almsgiving, are among the virtues which they specially cultivate at this -time; and though the theory is not put in practice to the letter, and -hospitality not carried out as originally intended—the rich man standing -at his door at sunset, bringing in and setting at his table all the poor -that happened to pass by, and sending them away with presents of money—it -is still very largely practised. - -I have often partaken of an _Iftar_, or Ramazan dinner. It is very -curious to observe the physiognomy of the _Terriakis_, or great smokers -and coffee-drinkers, who, as the moment of indulgence approaches, become -restless and cross, now sighing for the firing of the gun that proclaims -the fast at an end, now indulging in bad language to the people who -gather round and tease them. As the sun approaches the horizon, a tray -is brought in laden with all sorts of sweets, salads, salt fish, Ramazan -cakes, fruit and olives, contained in the tiniest coffee-saucers, -together with goblets of delicious iced sherbet. When the gun is fired -every one utters a _Bismillah_ and takes an olive, that fruit being -considered five times more blessed than water to break the fast with. -After the contents of the tray have been sparingly partaken of, dinner -is announced, and all gather round the _sofra_; few, however, eat with -appetite, or relish the dinner half so much as they do the cup of coffee -and cigarettes that follow. - -During Ramazan night is turned into day, and the streets then remind one -of carnival time in Catholic countries. The wealthy sit up all night, -receiving and returning calls, giving evening parties, spending the time -in a round of feasts and entertainments. At Stamboul, when the prayer -of the _Terravi_—which is recited two hours after sunset—is over in -the mosque, all the people betake themselves to the esplanade of the -Sulimanieh, and hundreds of elegant carriages containing Turkish beauties -may be seen cutting their way through the dense crowd of promenaders. -The bazars are illuminated, and all the fruit and refreshment shops -are open. Eating, drinking sherbet, and smoking, is the order of the -evening, besides a great amount of flirtation. I cannot say that there is -much taste or refinement in this unusual but tacitly recognized passing -intercourse. The ladies all appear in high spirits, and tolerate, and -even seem amused by, the acts of gross impertinence to which they are -subjected by male passers-by. Some of the fast men and _mauvais sujets_ -indulge in acts and language that would certainly obtain the interference -of the police in an orderly society. - -I accompanied some friends, the family of one of the ministers, to this -evening entertainment. We had six servants round the carriage, but they -were no protection against the heaps of rubbish in the shape of lighted -cigarette ends, parched peas, capsicums, and fruit of all kinds thrown -into it, not to speak of the licentious little speeches addressed to us -by passing beaux. My friends advised me to be on my guard, as action -is often added to word, and the arms and hands of the occupants of -the vehicles made to smart from the liberties taken with them. Thus -forewarned, I took care to shut the window on my side of the carriage; -a little scream from my companions every now and then, when we found -ourselves in the densest part of the crowd, followed by a shower of abuse -from the negress sitting opposite us, showed that my precaution had not -been needless. The little respect paid to women in this indiscriminate -_mêlée_, where the dignity of the Sultana was no more regarded than the -modesty of the lowly pedestrian, struck me forcibly. It made the greater -impression upon me as it contrasted strongly with the respect paid to her -under other circumstances. In steam-boats, for example, an unattended -Turkish woman is seldom known to be insulted, even when her conduct gives -provocation. - -Three hours before dawn, drums are beaten and verses sung through the -streets to warn the people to prepare for the _sahor_, or supper, after -which an hour’s leisure is accorded for smoking and coffee-drinking, -when the firing of a gun announces the moment for rinsing the mouth and -sealing it against food till sunset. All business is put off by the -wealthy during the day, which is filled up by sleep; while the poor go -through the day’s work unrefreshed. - -Pilgrimages, though less practised now than formerly in Turkey, are -still considered the holiest actions of a Mohammedan’s life. The most -perfect is the one embracing the visit to the four sacred spots of -Islam—Damascus, Jerusalem, Mekka, and Medina; but the long journey that -this would entail, the dangers and difficulties that surround it, are -checks upon all but the most zealous of pilgrims, and only a few hardy -and enterprising individuals perform the duty in full. The pilgrims, -collected from all parts of the country, leave Constantinople in a body -fifteen days before the fast of Ramazan. The Government facilitates -this departure by giving free passages and other grants. Those pilgrims -that go _viâ_ Damascus are the bearers of the Imperial presents to the -holy shrines. Every Hadji on returning from Mekka bears a token of -his pilgrimage in a tattoo mark on his arm and between his thumb and -forefinger. - -I cannot close a chapter on Islam in Turkey without referring to a belief -which, though but vaguely introduced into the original faith of Mohammed, -has come to mean everything to the Turk. I mean _Kismet_. It is not, -of course, the belief in an inevitable destiny that is remarkable: all -nations have their share in that, and modern Christianity has sometimes -carefully formulated the doctrine of the fatalist. It is rather the -intensity of the Turk’s belief, and his dogged insistance on its logical -results, that make it so extraordinary. Many people besides Turks believe -in destiny, but their belief does not prevent them from consulting their -doctor or avoiding infection. With the Turk all such precautions are -vain: if it is kismet that a thing shall happen, happen it will, and -what then is the good of trying to avert it? Everything in Turkey is -controlled by kismet. If a man suffers some trifling loss, it is kismet; -if he die, it is also kismet. He marries by kismet, and shortly divorces -his wife by the same influence. He succeeds in life, or he fails: it is -kismet. Sultans succeed one another—again kismet. Armies go forth to -conquer or to be conquered—Fate rules the event. It is useless to fight -against the decrees of kismet. That Fate helps him who helps himself is -a doctrine incomprehensible to the Turk. He lies passive in the hand of -destiny: it would be impious to rebel. - -The effects of this doctrine lie on the surface. Not only are lives -constantly sacrificed, and wealth and happiness lost by this fatal -principle of passivity, but the whole character of the nation is -enfeebled. The Turk has no rightful ambition: if it is kismet he should -succeed, well and good; but if not, no efforts of his own can avail him. -Hence he smokes his chibouk and makes no efforts at all. Something might -be done with him if he would only show some energy of character; but this -doctrine has sapped that energy at the root, and there is no vitality -left. - -This is the main disastrous result of fatalism: it has destroyed the -vigor of a once powerful nation. But every day brings forth instances -of lesser evils flowing from the same source. It is hardly necessary to -point out in how many ways a fatalist injures himself and all belonging -to him. One or two common cases will be enough. I have already referred -to the neglect of all sanitary precautions as one of the results of the -belief in kismet. This neglect is shown in a thousand ways; but one or -two instances that I remember may point the moral. Turkey is especially -liable to epidemics, and of course the havoc they create is terrible -among a passive population. In all district towns the Turks manifest the -greatest possible dislike and opposition to every species of quarantine: -they regard quarantine regulations as profane interference with the -decrees of God, and systematically disregard them. The doctor of the -first quarantine establishment at Broussa was assaulted in the street by -several hundred Turkish women, who beat him nearly to death, from which -he was only saved by the police. Small-pox is among the most fatal of -the scourges that invade the people, and Turkish children are frequently -victims to it; yet it is with the utmost difficulty that a Turk can be -induced to vaccinate his child, though, happily, the precaution is now -more practised than it used to be. - -Separation in sickness is another of the measures Turks can never be -made to take. A short time ago a girl of fourteen, the daughter of our -_kavass_, was seized with an attack of quinsy. As soon as I heard of it -I begged our doctor to accompany me to the Mohammedan quarter and visit -the invalid. We found her lying on a clean _shelté_, or mattress, on the -floor, which was equally occupied by her young brothers and sisters, -who were playing round and trying to amuse her. The doctor’s first care -was to send away the children, and recommend that they should on no -account be allowed to come near her, as her throat was in a most terrible -condition. Both parents declared that it would be impossible to keep them -away; besides, if it was their kismet to be also visited by the disease, -nothing could avert it. The room occupied by the sick girl was clean and -tidy; the doors and windows, facing the sea, fronted by a veranda, were -open, and the house being situated in the highest part of the town, under -the ruins of the old walls, the sharp April air was allowed free access -to the chamber most injuriously to the invalid. On the attention of the -parents being drawn to the fact, they simply answered that the feverish -state of the child needed the cool air to such an extent that twice -during the preceding night she had left her room and gone down to the -yard to repose upon the cold stone slabs in order to cool herself! - -In spite of every effort to save her, she died on the third night from -exhaustion caused by her refusal to take the medicines and nourishment -provided for her, and to be kept in her chamber, which she had abandoned, -taking up her quarters on the balcony, where we saw her on the last -day. On visiting the family after the sad event, we found the unhappy -parents distracted with sorrow, but still accepting it with fatalistic -resignation, saying that “her _edjel_ had come to call her away from -among the living.” - -Our attention was next attracted by three of the children. The youngest, -a baby, appeared choking from the effects of the same complaint, and -died the same night. The other two, a boy and girl, also attacked, -were playing about, although in high fever and with dreadfully swollen -throats. The doctor begged that they should be sent to bed, to which they -both refused to submit, while the parents phlegmatically said that it -would be a useless measure, as they could not be kept there, and that if -it should be their kismet to recover they would do so. I am glad to say -they did recover, though I am afraid their recovery did not convert the -doctor and me to a belief in kismet. - -Owing to this fatal and general way of treating sickness, the -prescriptions of physicians, neither believed in nor carried out, are -useless; besides, they are always interfered with and disputed by quacks -and old women, and the muskas, prayers, and blowings of saintly Hodjas. - -When the patient survives this extraordinary combination of nursing, it -is simply stated that his _edjel_ or death-summons has not yet arrived. - -If a man die away from his home and country, his kismet is supposed to -have summoned him to die on the spot that received his body. - -Kismet thus being the main fountain whence the Mohammedan draws with -equanimity both the good and the evil it may please Providence to pour -forth upon him, he receives both with the stoicism of the born-and-bred -fatalist, who looks upon every effort of his own to change the decrees -of destiny as vain and futile. Hence he becomes _Moslem_, or “resigned,” -in the most literal sense. His character gains that quality of inertness -which we associate with the Oriental, and his nation becomes, what a -nation cannot become and live—stagnant. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -CHRISTIANITY IN TURKEY. - - The Greek or Holy Orthodox Church—Its Character under Ottoman - Rule—Its Service to the Greek Nation—Superstitious Doctrines - and Rites—Improvement—Revenues—Bishops—Patriarchs—The Higher - Clergy—Schools—Parish Priests—Fatal Influence of Connection - with the State—Monasteries—Mount Athos—The Five Categories - of Monks—Government of the “Holy Mountain”—Pilgrims—The - Bulgarian Church—Popular Interest in the Church Question—Sketch - of the History of the Schism—The Armenian Church—St. - Gregory—Creed—Church Polity—influence of Russia—Contest between - the Czar and the Catholicos—Ritual—Clergy. - - -It has long been the custom to fling a good deal of contumely on the Holy -Orthodox or Greek Church. Judging from the descriptions of trustworthy -writers, from conversations I have often held with persons of authority -on the subject, and from personal observation, I feel convinced that -if part of the abuse heaped upon the Greek Church is well founded, -the greater portion is due to the rivalry and hatred of the Western -Church, and to the antipathy felt by the Reformed Church towards her -superstitions and formalities; but a still stronger reason may be found -in the errors the church still harbors, and in the ignorance in which -her clergy remained so long plunged. Taking this as a general rule, and -lamenting its consequences, we should on the other hand bear in mind the -great antiquity of the church and its early services to Christianity. -Some of its rites and ceremonies are certainly superstitious and -superfluous, but there is none of the intolerance of the Romish Church, -nor are religious persecutions to be laid to its charge. Its clergy, -stigmatized as venal and ignorant tools in the hands of the Turks, have -nevertheless had their virtues and redeeming points counterbalancing -their evil repute. The rivalry of the upper clergy originated principally -in the corrupt system of bribery pursued by them in their relations -with the Porte for the grant of _berats_ or diplomas installing the -Patriarchs in their respective seats, and the practice indulged in by -the Patriarchs of selling bishoprics at a price in proportion to the -wealth of the diocese. Yet in the midst of this darkness there were still -found men to carry on the work of culture and uphold the dignity of the -church. Nor have the Greek clergy always been the cringing servants -of the Porte, or the go-betweens of the Turks and the rayahs; in the -list of the Patriarchs we find many who, in the midst of difficulties -inevitable in serving a government foreign to their church and hostile -to the hopes and aspirations of their people, hesitated not in moments -of supreme need to sacrifice position, fortune, and even life, under -most horrible circumstances, for the sake of the church. With memories -of such martyrdoms ever present in the minds of a dependent clergy, it -is not surprising to find this section of the Greek nation apparently so -subservient to their rulers. The past, however, with all its blots, is -rapidly passing away; the rules now followed by the Patriarchate in fixed -salaries and written regulations with regard to certain contributions -have put an end to many former abuses. The theological schools, rapidly -increasing in number and importance in Turkey as well as in Greece, -have also a beneficial effect on the training of the clergy, who daily -attaining a higher standard in morality, mental development, and social -position, have of late years been enabled not only to maintain a more -determined and independent attitude before the civil authorities, but -also largely to increase their influence in promoting the education of -their flocks. The old class of clergy is dying out, and gradually a new -and different set of men is coming forward. - -The commonest charge that is brought against the Greek Church is its -accumulation of superstitions. But the people are beginning to drop the -more absurd ceremonies and treat the more preposterous superstitions -with indifference. It is true that the church itself is not yet taking -the lead in this matter, as how should it? I have often talked on this -subject with ecclesiastics of the Eastern faith, and they admit both the -absurdity of many of the rites practised and the beliefs inculcated, and -also the tendency of the people to neglect these rites and to disbelieve -these superstitions; but they say that any action on the part of the -church would lead to the serious injury both of itself and the Greek -nation; for a general synod would have to be held to deliberate on the -necessary reforms; schisms would at once arise, and the Greek Church, and -hence the Greek nation, would be disintegrated. However, I believe there -are too many sensible men among the Greek clergy for this weak position -to be maintained long. The church must reform if it is to remain the -church of the Greeks. - -At present, however, the priests are afraid to move. They dare not -admit the falsity of parts of their doctrine and the absurdity of their -practices, for fear of wider consequences. For example, a miraculous fire -is supposed to spring from the supposed tomb of Christ on Easter Sunday. -The Greek clergy do not actually assert it to be a miracle—at least not -to Westerns—but if questioned about it they invariably give an evasive -answer; and the priest still continues solemnly to light his taper from -the tomb and present it to the congregation saying, “Take, then, the -flame from the Eternal Light, and praise Christ who is risen from the -dead.”[38] A similar ceremony is observed on a small scale in every Greek -church at Easter, when the congregation light their tapers from the altar -and the same formula is used. - -It is needless to say anything here about the doctrines of the Greek -Church: every one knows the insignificant differences which separate -it from the Church of Rome. The rites are less generally known; but -unfortunately they are too numerous and various to be described here. The -general impression produced by a Greek service is gorgeousness. The rites -are essentially Oriental, and have been little changed since the early -days of the Eastern Empire. The ceremonies are endless; fast and feast -days, with their distinctive rites, are always occurring, and though -generally disregarded by the upper classes are scrupulously observed by -the peasantry, to whom the fasts (on which they work as usual) cause -actual physical injury, and the feasts sometimes produce almost equally -disastrous effects. Some parts of the service are very beautiful and -impressive; but the prayers are generally intoned in a hurried and -irreverent manner, which renders them hard to be understood. These -things, however, are mending: the lower clergy pay more attention to the -ordinary rules of decorum in the conduct of the services, and bishops are -now not consecrated unless they are somewhat educated. Formerly the lives -of the saints were the topics of sermons, now they are becoming more -practical and exhortatory; but political subjects are strictly excluded. - -Since the conquest the Greek Church and its clergy in the Ottoman Empire -have never been supported by the Government, nor have its ministers -ever received any grant either for themselves or the churches and -schools under their care. An imperial order confirms the nomination of -patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops. The last received -from each family in their diocese a portion of the produce of its -fields: from a peasant, for example, from half a kilo of corn and hay -to a whole kilo, according to his means. This was considered a loyal -donation from each household to its spiritual guide. Besides this the -archbishops enjoyed special benefits from the celebration of marriages, -funerals, and other religious ceremonies to which they were invited. -But unfortunately these emoluments eventually became subject to some -abuses, which excited murmurs from the community. Another custom was -that a bishop should receive from his diocese, at his consecration, a -sum sufficient to defray his immediate expenses during the first year. -This sum, as well as the offerings in kind, was fixed by the elders of -the town in which the metropolitan resided; the local authorities never -interfered in these arrangements, except when the bishops demanded their -assistance for the recovery of their dues. These usages continued in -force until 1860; Feizi Pasha and his two supporters, Ali Pasha and -Fouad Pasha, had previously tried every means to induce the Patriarch -of Constantinople and his Synod, together with the higher classes of -the Greek nation, to accept the funds of their church from the Ottoman -Government. The Porte, in order to obtain the end it had in view, showed -itself liberal by promising large fees to the higher clergy. But for -religious, political, and social reasons, the patriarch and the nation -in general rejected the proposal. After the Crimean War a Constitutional -Assembly, composed of bishops and lay deputies from all the provinces, -was convened by order of the Porte, to deliberate upon the settlement -of some administrative affairs connected with the œcumenical throne of -Constantinople, the cathedrals, and the bishops. This assembly also -regulated, among other things, the revenues of the patriarch and all the -archbishops. Each province, proportionately to its extent, its political -importance, and its Christian population, was ordered to pay a fixed sum. -The annual minimum is 30,000 piastres, and the maximum 90,000 piastres. -The patriarch receives thirty per cent on this. The fees fixed by the -elders of each province are paid annually by each family: the maximum of -this contribution does not exceed twenty piastres each, which, in the -aggregate, constitutes the revenues of the bishops and the pay of their -subordinates. The extra revenues are regulated in the same manner, the -ancient customs concerning their receipt having been abolished. The fees -and extra emoluments of the lower clergy of cities, towns, and villages -are received after the same fashion. An annual sum is paid by each family -to the priest, which in many villages rarely exceeds three or four -piastres. The archbishops also receive their stipend from their diocese, -and are very seldom obliged to request the assistance of the authorities, -who show great repugnance to interfering in the matter. - -The social influence of a bishop proceeds from many circumstances. He -is considered the spiritual guide of all Orthodox Christians, presiding -over the vestry and corporation intrusted with public affairs—such as -schools, philanthropical establishments, and churches. He hears and -judges, conjointly with a council composed of laymen, all the dissensions -which arise between the members of the community. To a certain extent, -and when there is no intervention of the local courts, he judges in -cases of divorce, and in disputes relative to the payment of dowries, -as well as in cases of inheritance; but the local courts have the right -of interfering. In these cases the canonical laws are more or less well -interpreted according to the pleasure of the Kadi. The bishop judges all -that relates to the aforesaid cases in right of a privilege granted to -him by the patriarch. He can also decide other matters which belong to -the local courts in a friendly way when the disputants agree to it; but -when one of them appears dissatisfied he may refer it to the local court, -and the sentence or the bishop is nullified by that of this tribunal. - -The bishop enjoys the political position of Ἐθνάρχη and permanent member -of the Government Council of the province. In addition to his spiritual -duties, in the fulfilment of which he has sometimes to call in the -assistance of the local authorities, the bishop acts as intermediary -between the Christians and the civil government when they ask for his -intervention and counsel. But this is not always successful, as the -bishop is invested with no regular power, and the local authorities, as -well as the central administration, make use of it as they choose and -when convenient to them, always acting for the direct interest of their -government. - -In the Council the influence of the bishop is _nil_; for his vote, as -well as those of all the other Christian members, is lost in the majority -gained by the Mussulmans, to which is added the arbitrary influence of -the Pasha and the President. Very small benefit is derived from the -presence of these Christian representatives at the councils. Liberty -of speech, reasonable discussion, and all that might contribute to the -proper direction of affairs, are entirely unknown. - -The Greek Church is governed by four patriarchs residing at -Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria; the last three are -equal and independent, but the authority of the first is supreme in the -regulation of spiritual affairs, and in his hands rests the power of -appointing, dismissing, or punishing any of the prelates. He is elected -by a majority of votes of a synod of the metropolitan and neighboring -bishops, and is presented to the Sultan for institution, a favor seldom -obtained without the payment of several thousand pounds—a long-standing -instance of the habitual simony of the Church. The Sultan, however, -retains the unmitigated power of deposing, banishing, or executing him. -These penalties were frequently inflicted in former times, but the -ecclesiastical body within the last half century has gained much in -influence and substance. - -In spite of the general ignorance and corruption of the higher clergy -since the occupation of the country by the Ottomans, their ranks have -never lacked men who were as famous for their knowledge as for their -virtue and piety. There were many who shunned ecclesiastical dignity in -order to pass their lives in instructing the rising generation of their -time. - -No religious schools then existed: the ecclesiastics received their -elementary education in the Ottoman establishments, and were subsequently -sent to the colleges of Germany or Italy to complete their studies. It -was only about the year 1843 that the first school for the teaching -of theology was founded in the island of Chalcis, so that most of the -present archbishops in the Empire studied there; but many priests still -go to Athens to complete their education. Schools were also established -for the lower clergy, but the teaching in them was so deficient that most -of the priests were sent to study only in the national schools, where -they learn next to nothing. - -The higher ranks of the clergy are entirely recruited from the monastic -order: hence they are always unmarried, and hence the too often vicious -character of their lives. An attempt, partly successful, was made to put -some check upon their conduct by the law that no bishop or archbishop -can hold more than three sees during his lifetime. If, therefore, he -scandalizes the population of two dioceses, he is at least bound to be -prudent in the third. - -No distinction exists between the priests of the cities and those of -the country villages. All are equal; nominated and elected in the same -manner; remunerated for their services after the mode already explained. -Nearly all of them are married; but those who are not stand on the -same footing as those who are. Historically, these parish priests have -done some service to the Greek nation: they helped to remind it of its -national existence, and by their simple, hard-working lives taught their -flocks that the Greeks had still a church that was not wholly given over -to cringing to the Turks, that had not altogether bowed the knee to -Baal. But that is all that can be said for them. It is impossible to -conceive a clergy more ignorant than these parish priests; they are not -only absolutely without training in their own profession, knowing nought -of theology, but they have not a common elementary education. If, on the -one hand, this ignorance puts them more on a sympathetic level with their -parishioners, it must not be forgotten that it renders them incapable of -raising their flocks one jot above the stage of rustic barbarism in which -they found them. There is no ambition (unlike the rest of the Greek race) -in these homely priests; for they cannot attain any high position in the -Church. Their association seldom benefits the people with much religious -instruction, for their studies are restricted to the external formalities -of their services. Many of the abuses attributed to them for exactions -are exaggerated: their condition of poverty and modest way of living, in -no way superior to the common people, is the best proof of this fact. -They are accused of bargaining for the price of performing certain rites, -but any abuse of the kind can be prevented by consulting the established -table of fees for all such matters; so that this infringement cannot be -carried on to any great extent. - -There is no manner of doubt that the only hope for the Orthodox Church -lies in its separation from Moslem government. So long as its high -dignitaries have to purchase their appointments from Turkish ministers -and Sultans, so long will it retain its character for truckling and -corruption, so long will it lack the one thing needful in a church—moral -force. Not less are the lower clergy affected by this unhappy connection -between church and state. The government puts every obstacle in the -way of the establishment of schools for priests: it is aware that its -influence over the mass of the clergy can last only so long as that -clergy is ignorant and knows not the energy for freedom which education -must bring. Let the Church be severed from the control of the Porte, -let it be assured of the integrity of the Greek nation, and the end -of the necessity for conciliating the Turks, and then we may hope for -reforms—for the regeneration of the priesthood and the destruction of the -web of deadly superstition which it has so long found profitable to weave -round the hearts of the people. - -Any account, however brief, of the Greek church would be very incomplete -without some notice of the monasteries which the traveller sees scattered -over the country in the most beautiful and commanding positions, perched -on the summit of precipitous rocks, on the steep slopes of hills, or -nestled in the shady seclusion of the glens. The most renowned are the -twenty monasteries of Mount Athos, called Ἅγιος Ὄρος, or Monte Santo. The -population of this peninsula is quite unique of its kind. The community -of monks is divided into five classes. The first comprises those who -are as it were independent, and are subjected to no severe rules. It -is impossible for a man without fortune to live in these monasteries, -because the common fund provides only the rations of bread, wine, oil, -etc. Every other outlay in the way of dress or the choice of better food -is at his own expense. Each prepares his meals in his cell and need -not fast unless he chooses, but cannot indulge in meat, as its use is -strictly prohibited. - -Eight monasteries are called independent (Idiorrhythmic), on account -of the manner in which their occupants live. The greatest of these and -the first founded is Μεγίστη Λαὺρα, or Great Lavra: and the others -are Xeropotamu, Docheiareiu, Pantokratoros, Stavroniketa, Philotheu, -Iveron, and Vatopedi. But these monasteries occasionally change their -_régime_ from the stricter to the laxer discipline, or again from the -Idiorrhythmic to the Cenobite. - -The second category comprises the monasteries in which the recluses live -in common. This life, which is one of great austerity, was founded -by the organizers of the religious orders of the Orthodox Church, and -represents, as nearly as possible, the rule of the ascetics of ancient -times. Community of goods is the regulation in these convents: all is -equal, frugal, and simple. There is but one treasury, one uniform, one -table, one class of food, and the discipline is very rigid. Whoever -wishes to enter one of these monastic establishments must give all that -he possesses in the way of money or raiment to the Father Superior -or chief elected by the members of the institution. The neophyte is -submitted to a year’s noviciate; and if, during this time, he can bear -the life, he is admitted into the order and consecrated a monk. If, on -the contrary, the rigid and austere life disheartens him, he is allowed -to retire. Each monk possesses a camp-bed in his cell, besides a jug -of water and his clothing; but he is strictly forbidden, under pain of -severe ecclesiastical punishment, to have money or any kind of food, or -even the utensils necessary for making coffee. - -Should a monk find some object on his path, he is obliged to deliver it -to the Father Superior, to whom he ought to carry all his sufferings, -physical and moral, in order to receive consolation and relief. Every -monk belonging to this order must, without shrinking, execute the -commands of the Father Superior concerning the exterior and interior -affairs of the monastery. One third of the night is consecrated to prayer -in the principal church, where all the brotherhood are expected to -attend, with the exception of the sick and infirm. The ritual of prayers -is the same as in all the monasteries of Mount Athos, except those of the -communal ascetics. Vigils are very frequent, the prayers commencing at -sunset and continuing till sunrise. - -The following may be mentioned as belonging to this class: St. Paul, -St. Dionysius, St. Gregory, St. Simopetra, and St. Panteleemon, called -the Russian monasteries on account of their being principally inhabited -by Russian and Greek monks. Xenophu, Konstamonitu, and Zographu, are -inhabited by Bulgarian monks, and Chilandari by Bulgarians and Servians. -The other monasteries are Sphigmenu, Karakallu, and Kutlumusi. - -The third category is composed of monks who live in solitude. Their -rules resemble those already described, but they may be considered to -lead a life of still greater austerity. Their groups of small houses, -which contain two or three little rooms and a chapel, are called sketés -(σκητή); they are surrounded by gardens of about an acre in extent. In -the midst of these groups of, buildings is a church called Κυριακόν, -where mass is celebrated on Sundays and feast-days, at which service -all the monks are expected to be present; on other days they perform -their devotions in their own chapels. In each of these habitations two -or three monks lead a very frugal life; their food consists of fresh -or dry vegetables, which can only be prepared with oil on Saturday and -Sunday, when they are allowed to eat fish, but very seldom eggs or -cheese. The inhabitants of the σκητή support themselves entirely by their -manual labor; each monk is required to follow some trade by which he can -earn sufficient for his food and clothing. This consists mostly in the -manufacture of cowls, stockings, and other articles of dress, which are -sold in the neighborhood; with the addition of carvings in wood in the -shape of crosses, spoons, etc., with which a small commerce is carried -on with the pilgrims that visit the peninsula. Each σκητή ought to go to -Karias once a year, where a fair is held, to sell his wares, and with -the proceeds buy his supply of food. There are a great many monks who, -with the exception of this annual journey, go nowhere, and possess not -the remotest idea of what is passing in the world outside the restricted -limits of their mountain. On the whole, their life is a time of -continual toil in order to procure what is strictly necessary for their -support, and of endless prayer for the eternal welfare of their souls. - -The fourth category comprises the recluses known as Κελλιώται. Their -pretty houses are sometimes sufficiently spacious and kept in good order. -Each contains from four to five rooms and a chapel, besides possessing -large extents of garden planted with vines, and olive and nut trees. -These dwellings are tenanted by five or six recluses, and belong to -convents that sell them to the monks. But the right of possession is not -complete, as the purchasers are subjected to the payment of a small rent, -and are not allowed to transfer their purchase to other persons without -the consent of the monastery. The buyer, being the chief of those who -live with him, considers them his servants or subordinates, and they can -acquire no privileges without long years of service. The Superior may -inscribe the names of two other persons on the title-deeds, who succeed -according to their order in the hierarchy. Such property is never made -over to persons of different religions, the law on this point being very -strict. A new regulation is, that no Greek monastery should be granted to -foreigners, such as Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, or Wallachians; as -they, being richer than the Greeks, might easily make themselves masters -of the whole. - -The recluses live on the produce of their lands and seldom by the labor -of their hands. Many among them have amassed a little fortune by the sale -of their oil, wine, and nuts. Their mode of living and their food and -clothing are the same as in the other monasteries; their ritual is also -similar, with the exception that their devotions are performed with more -brevity. - -Take away their solitary life and their continual prayers, and they then -might be considered as industrial companies belonging to the world. - -The fifth category comprises the anchorites, whose rules are the most -sublime and severe. These holy men do not work, but pass their time -in prayer, the hard earth serves for their bed, and a stone for their -pillow; their raiment consists only of a few rags. - -Never quitting their grottoes, they pass their days and nights in prayer; -their food is always dry bread, with fresh water once a week. If the -abode of the anchorite be situated in an inaccessible spot, he lets -down a basket, into which the passers-by throw the bread which is his -sole nourishment. Others have friends in some distant monastery, who -alone know the secret of their retreat and bring them provisions. These -solitary beings shun the sight and sound of man, their life having for -its sole object the mortification of the flesh, meditation, and prayer. -The population of Mount Athos is estimated at between six and seven -thousand souls, two-thirds of whom are Greeks from different parts of the -Ottoman empire, and the other third Russians, Bulgarians, and Servians. -Their government is a representative assembly in which deputies from the -twenty monasteries take part, except the σκητή and the κελλιώται, who are -dependants of the others. The twenty monasteries are divided into four -parts, which are again subdivided into five. Each year a representative -from each division is called upon to take part in the government of -the peninsula. Their duties consist principally in superintending the -police and the administration of justice. These four governors are called -_nazarides_, a Turkish word which signifies inspectors. - -Twice a year regularly, and each time a serious case occurs, a kind of -parliament is called, consisting of the twenty deputies, who, with the -four nazarides, occupy themselves with current affairs and common wants. -Each monastery acts independently of the others in the administration -of its affairs. The chief inspector, judge, and spiritual chief, who -decides all disputes that arise in the monasteries is the Patriarch of -Constantinople. The authority of the Turkish government is represented -by a Kaimakam, who acts as intermediary between the parliament and -the Porte; he fulfils rather the duties of a superintendent than that -of a governor. There is also a custom-house officer to watch over the -importations and exportations of “The Holy Mountain.” - -Some of the monasteries contain fine libraries and rich church ornaments, -which are the only wealth they possess. Each convent is under the -protection of a patron saint, who is generally represented by some -λείψανα, or relics. The anniversaries of these patron saints are held -in great veneration by the Greeks, crowds resorting to the convents to -celebrate them. Caravans may be seen wending their way along the mountain -paths leading to the convent, some mounted on horses or mules, some on -foot, while dozens of small heads may be seen peeping above the brims of -large panniers carried by horses. On entering the church attached to the -edifice the pilgrims light tapers, which they deposit before the shrine -of the tutelar saint, cross themselves repeatedly, and then join the rest -of the company in dedicating the evening to feasting and merry-making. -These gatherings, though blamable perhaps as being occasioned by -superstitious rites, are otherwise harmless, and even beneficial to -the masses; to the townspeople in the break in their sedentary habits, -and to the country-people in introducing among them more enlightened -and liberal ideas, and in facilitating social intercourse between them -in these Arcadian gatherings under the shade of spreading plane-trees, -and stimulated by the circulation of the wine-cup. I have often visited -these Panaghias and experienced real pleasure in witnessing the happy -gambols of the children and the gay dances and songs executed by the -young people, and in listening to the conversation or those of more -mature years. At meal times all the assembled company unite in an immense -picnic, feasting to their hearts’ content on the good fare with which -they come provided, and to the special profit of the numerous hawkers of -“_scimitiers_,” “_petas_,” parched peas, popped corn, stale sugar-plums, -gum mastic, fruits, flowers, little looking-glasses, rouge, etc.; the -last two articles for the benefit of the young beauties, who may be found -adding to their charms hidden behind the trunk of a tree. The merriment -is kept up to a late hour, and at dawn the slumberers are awakened by -the sound of the monastery bell calling them to mass. This is generally -read by the Egumenos, or Prior, except when the bishop of the diocese -is invited to celebrate it, in which case the ceremony is naturally -more imposing and the expenses incurred by the community increased to -a slight extent. Money, however, is not extorted from the worshippers, -each individual giving to the monastery according to his means and his -feelings of devotion. Kind and open hospitality is afforded to all by the -good monks, whose retired and simple mode of life receives no variety but -from these gatherings. - -Women and animals of the feminine gender are not allowed to enter the -precincts of the “Holy Mountain.” This prohibition seems to be in some -way connected with the curiosity of Lot’s wife, whose punishment is -expected to befall the adventurous daughter of Eve who should thus -transgress. This superstition has, however, lost much of its force since -Lady Stratford’s visit to the monasteries during the Crimean War, when -some of the monks tremblingly watched for the transformation, till they -had the satisfaction of seeing her Ladyship quit the dangerous precincts -in the full possession of the graces that characterized her. - -It is difficult to say whether the adoption of the Orthodox Creed by -the Bulgarians has been a blessing or a curse to them; for the friendly -union that sprang up from the assimilation of faith between the two -rival nations was not of long duration. Their amicable relations were -often disturbed by jealousies, in the settlement of which Christianity -was often used as a cloak to cover many ugly sins on both sides, and its -true spirit was seldom allowed free scope for its sublime mission of -peace, light, and charity. Religion was the subject that occupied, after -the Crimean War, the minds of the small enlightened class of the modern -Bulgarians, spread over all parts of Bulgaria, but existing in greater -numbers in the eyalet of Philippopolis, where the honest, wealthy, and -educated men who had in foreign lands imbibed the progressive ideas of -the day, raised their voices against the then subjected condition of -their church to that of Constantinople, and put forward a just claim for -its separation or independence. As already mentioned, the religious ties -existing between the Greeks and Bulgarians do not appear at any time to -have formed a bond of union between the two nations, or promoted social -or friendly feelings among them. After the Turkish conquest, Bulgarians -and Greeks, crushed by the same blow, ceased their animosity; but bore -in mind that one was to serve in promoting Panslavistic interests, and -the other those of Panhellenism. The proximity of these two distinct -elements, and the mixture of the one people with the other by their -geographical position, render the two extremely diffident of each other -and jealously careful of their own interests, although direct and open -action on either side has not been prominent. - -The Bulgarians, during the 13th century, had separated themselves from -the Church of Constantinople. This was a serious measure which the -mother church naturally resented and used every means in her power to -abolish. In this she finally succeeded in 1767, when the Bulgarian Church -was once more placed under the immediate spiritual jurisdiction of the -See of Constantinople. The Bulgarian bishops were dismissed and their -dioceses transferred to Greeks, the monasteries seized and their revenues -applied to the Greek Church. This was doubtless an unjust blow which the -nation never forgot, nor did they cease to reproach the Greeks with the -injury done to them. The latter had, no doubt, a double interest in the -act, and the first and less worthy was the material profit the clergy -and Greek communities obtained by the appropriation of the Bulgarian -Church revenues. The second was a strong political motive; for the -right of possessing an independent Bulgarian Church and cultivating the -Bulgarian language meant nothing less than raising and developing the -future organ of Panslavism in districts the Greeks consider they have a -hereditary right to; their national interests were, in fact, at stake. -The men to whom was intrusted the duty of protecting these interests -were unscrupulous as to the means they used in the fulfilment of their -task, and a perpetual struggle ensued, resulting in persecution and -other crimes besides the unjust dealing with which the Bulgarians charge -their rivals. Both parties, from their own point of view, are right; and -there is nothing for them but to keep up the conflict till some decisive -victory, or perhaps arbitration, settles the dispute. - -The Bulgarian Church question re-commenced in 1858 and lasted until -1872, during which time the bitter strife was renewed between the two -nations, inducing the Bulgarians to demand from the Porte the fulfilment -of the promises made in decreed reforms to guarantee liberty of religious -worship and the church reforms indicated in the Hatti-scherif of Gulhané. - -These demands were just and reasonable, and at first limited to the -request that the Porte would grant permission that Bulgarians, or at -least men capable of speaking their language, should alone be appointed -bishops; that the service in their churches, instead of being performed -in the ancient Greek, a tongue unknown to the Bulgarians, should be -performed in the native language, and other similar demands, which the -Greek patriarch very unwisely refused to listen to. Previously to this, -in 1851, the Porte had obliged the patriarch to consecrate a Bulgarian -bishop. - -In a church which the Bulgarians had erected by permission of the -Porte at Constantinople, in 1860, during the celebration of Easter, -the Bulgarian bishop, at the request of the congregation, omitted from -the customary prayer the name of the patriarch. This was the first -decisive step towards the accomplishment of the schism that took place -subsequently. The example set by this bishop was followed in many parts -of Bulgaria; occasionally the name of the Sultan was substituted for -that of the patriarch. The excitement this movement caused in Bulgaria -was intense, and acted upon the dormant minds of the people with a force -that pushed them at least ten years in advance of what they had been, and -opened their eyes to things they had failed previously to observe. - -The Porte, alarmed by this sudden effervescence of public feeling in -Bulgaria, despatched the Grand Vizir on a tour in that country to study -the feeling of the people. At his approach the inhabitants of every -town flocked to his presence and brought their grievances under his -notice. The Vizir’s action was as just and impartial as circumstances -would allow; he listened to the grievances of the people, righted many -of their wrongs, imprisoned some officials and dismissed others; but, -notwithstanding, the Bulgarians failed to obtain on this occasion any -great material amelioration either of their condition or with regard to -the Church question. - -At this stage all true Bulgarians, including those of the rural -districts, were fully aroused; and, reminded by their respective -chieftains, or heads of communities, of the importance of the pending -question, and the necessity of united action, they determined to fight -the battle with the patriarch and overcome the opposition they continued -to meet with from that quarter. Help of any description was desirable -for them, and even foreign agency was prudently courted. The Porte was -given to understand that it possessed no subjects more faithful and -devoted than the Bulgarians, and that the rights they demanded could be -only obtained from it, and if their Sultan decided in their favor he -would secure their eternal gratitude and devotion. Rome began to take an -interest in the matter, and the Government of Napoleon III., stimulated -by the Uniate Propaganda, headed by some Polish dignitaries established -in Paris, endeavored to secure a hold upon the people by means of the -priests and agents sent into Bulgaria, and people were made to believe -that the whole of Bulgaria was ready to adopt Roman Catholicism and place -itself under the protection of France. (See the next chapter.) - -Russia, alarmed by these rumors, also began to show signs of active -interest in the matter, and by her promises of assistance, her efforts -to counteract the Uniate movement, and the pressure she finally began to -enforce upon the Porte in favor of the Bulgarian church movement, ended -in gaining to her side a small but influential body of Bulgarians in the -Danubian districts. There was a critical moment when the Bulgarians, -thinking all was lost for them, turned their hopes and even appealed to -England for help, promising that if this were granted they would become -Protestants. The missionaries of the Evangelical and other Protestant -societies were led to believe in the possibility of such a conversion, -and became doubly zealous in their efforts to enlighten the people. In -the midst of this conflicting state of affairs, when each party tried -to enforce its own views and derive the most profit, the church of -Constantinople remained inflexible, the Porte took to compromising, and -the Bulgarians, doggedly and steadily working on, by degrees became more -venturesome in their action, more pressing in their demands, and more -independent in their proceedings. Greek bishops were ejected from their -dioceses in Bulgaria and driven away by the people. In Nish and other -places monasteries were seized, and their incomes reappropriated by the -Bulgarian communities. Personal encounters and struggles of a strangely -unchristian nature were frequent between the contending parties, -sometimes taking place even within the precincts of the churches. The -struggle for independence continued, in spite of the anathemas hurled -against the Bulgarians by the Patriarchate, and was encouraged by the -desertion of two Bishops to their side. The exile of these by the Porte, -at the instigation of the Patriarch, and a variety of other incidents -ensued, until in 1868 Fouad and Ali Pashas took up the Bulgarian cause, -and the exiled Bishops were recalled (February 28th, 1870). - -Through the instrumentality of the latter a Firman was issued -constituting a Bulgarian Exarch, and permission was given to the -Bulgarians to elect their spiritual chief, the election to be confirmed -by a Berat of the Sultan. - -Ali Pasha’s death, however, in 1871, caused new difficulties, and the -enforcement of this measure was, under different pretexts, delayed -during the ministry of his successor, Mahmoud Pasha, and ultimately only -fulfilled in consequence of the proportions the question had assumed, -and the active interest taken in it by Russia as shown in the policy of -General Ignatieff. This policy was not approved of by the majority of -thinking Bulgarians, who, with good reason, dreaded the consequences of -Russian influence based on the solid assistance it had rendered to the -Bulgarian church. Russia from all times has made use of the churches and -monasteries in Bulgaria, largely endowing them with sacerdotal gifts, in -order to consolidate her influence and gain the faith and confidence of -the people. - -All now is confusion, darkness, and uncertainty in Bulgaria. Their -churches, inaugurated with so much hope and confidence, have been -polluted with every crime and stained with the blood of innumerable -victims. Centuries must pass before the wrongs and misfortunes of late -years can be forgotten by this unhappy people. - -There is yet another Christian Church in Turkey which must have a place -in this chapter. St. Gregory the Illuminator, the patron saint of -Armenia, is looked upon as the effective bearer of that heavenly light -that was to extinguish the beacons of the fire-worshippers and found the -Armenian Church. In the beginning of the fourth century of our era this -saint preached in court of Tiridates, who, evidently little disposed at -the time to accept the new faith, vented his ill-humor against it by -ordering the martyrdom of its preacher. The most agonizing tortures, say -the Armenian annals, inflicted upon St. Gregory failed in the desired -effect. Finally, after having been made to walk on pointed nails, and -having melted lead poured down his throat, he was cast into a cistern, -among snakes and scorpions, where he lived fourteen years, daily fed by -an angel, who brought him bread and water. At the end of this period -he was allowed to issue from his dismal abode, and was called upon -to baptize the penitent king and his nobles, converted through the -instrumentality of the king’s sister, to whom the Christian religion -was revealed in a vision. Such is the legendary origin of Christianity -in Armenia. The new faith enforced by royalty was soon spread through -the country. St. Gregory was appointed Patriarch of Armenia, and after -creating a number of churches, bishoprics, and convents, and regulating -the canons of each, he retired into the solitude of a hermitage, where -he was put to death by order of the king’s son. It was the beginning of -a long course of misfortunes. There is something grand in the sacrifice -that the ignorant and stout-hearted Asiatics made in the cause of -religion. Nowhere was persecution so long or so cruel, martyrdoms so -terrible, self-denial so complete as among the people of the land where -the human race is fabled to have had its origin. - -St. Gregory was succeeded in the Patriarchal chair by his son Aristogus, -who, having taken part in the Council of Nice in 335 A.D., brought back -with him some of its decrees, and caused the first schism in the church. -The terrible religious dissensions that raged for so many centuries -made themselves as deeply felt in Armenia as elsewhere. Every dogma -of Christianity was in turn examined, adopted, or rejected, until the -Monophysitic views, gaining the majority of the people, caused the schism -that finally separated the Armenian from the primitive church. - -The two parties, though differing but slightly from each other, cease -not, even to the present day, their antagonism. The schismatics affirm -the absorption of the human nature of Christ into the Divine—the -procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father alone—redemption from -original sin by the sacrifice of Christ, redemption from actual sin by -auricular confession and penance. They adhere to the seven sacraments, -perform baptism by trine immersion, believe in the mediation of saints, -the adoration of pictures, and transubstantiation, and administer the -sacrament in both kinds to laymen; they deny purgatorial penance and -yet invoke the prayers of the pious for the benefit of the souls of the -departed. - -The Armenian Church differs from the Latin in seven points. Its doctrine -is contained in the following formula, which the candidates for priestly -office are obliged to profess before ordination: “We believe in Jesus -Christ, one person and a double nature, and in conformity with the Holy -Fathers we reject and detest the Council of Chalcedon, the letter of -St. Leon to Flavian; we say anathema to every sect that denies the two -natures.” - -In Church polity, after long quarrels and bickerings between three -patriarchs, each following his own interest, rivalries, and rites, the -supremacy has at last been vested in one who is called Catholicos, chosen -from among the Armenian archbishops and appointed by the Emperor of -Russia. The seat of the Patriarchate is the famous convent of Echmiadzin -at Erivan, in Russian territory. This convent contains a magnificent -library, is extremely wealthy, and exercises supreme power over the -others in spiritual matters. It alone has the right to ordain archbishops -to the forty-two archbishoprics under its control, and to settle points -of dogma. Among the pretended relics it possesses are the dead hand of -St. Gregory, used for consecrating his successors in the Patriarchate, -and the lance with which Christ was pierced. This convent of Echmiadzin -is to the Armenians what Mount Athos has been to the Greeks. In both, -Russia has spared neither expense nor effort to establish her influence -and spread it by means of these channels all over the Christian -populations of the East. Her too stirring policy at Mount Athos, as shown -by the publication of “Les Responsabilités,” and her attempt to enforce -upon the Catholicos of Echmiadzin the decree for the suppression of -the Armenian language in the churches and schools, and replacing it by -Russian, had an equally unfortunate result. - -The efforts of the Russian Government to improve the condition of this -country are said to have met with a certain amount of success; commerce -and industry, encouraged by the creation of roads and other facilities, -have been the principal temptations held out to emigrants from Turkish -territory. Of all the European powers Russia alone could help to civilize -and improve the degraded condition of the Christians of those distant -regions. Her influence would have been stronger and more beneficial to -them if her policy had been a more straightforward and liberal one, -and more in accordance with the national rights of the people whose -good-will and confidence she will fail to secure so long as she follows -the old system of trying to Russianize them by the suppression of their -privileges. - -The Armenian churches are not unlike those of the Greeks; they are -similar in decoration—pictures of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints -being the principal ornaments of their altars. These pictures are -slightly superior to the expressionless ones used by the Greeks. The -pious often decorate parts of these with a silver or gold coating on the -hands, or as an aureole, and sometimes over the whole body. The Armenians -have faith in the efficacy of prayers addressed to these images, as -well as in the laying of hands on the sick or distressed, who are often -taken to the church and left through the night before the altar of some -special saint. The Armenian patriarchs and bishops enjoy the same rights -and privileges as the Greeks, and administer justice to their respective -communities on the same conditions. - -Like the Greek, the Armenian clergy are of two orders, secular and -monastic; the former are allowed to marry, but never occupy a high -position in the church. They are usually very poor, even poorer and more -retired than the Greek parish priests, living like the lower orders of -the people, who look upon them as their friends. Although ignorant, -they are much respected for the morality of their lives, but knowing -nothing more than the routine of their office they are unable to give any -religious instruction to their parishioners beyond that contained in the -books of prayer used in the church; a passage from the lives or writings -of the saints is read in place of a sermon. - -This drawback to the propagation of more practical religion is being -by degrees removed since the introduction of excellent religious books -published by the Mechitarist College at Venice, and by the American -Missionary societies. The latter especially have done much to stimulate -the dormant spirit of inquiry; the large circulation of Bibles, which -by their low price are brought within the reach of all, encourages the -propensity shown by the Armenians to admit Protestant ideas, which are -being daily more extensively spread among the community. “In Central -Turkey alone there are now no less than twenty-six organized churches, -with some 2500 members, and audiences amounting in the aggregate to 5000 -or 6000 steady attendants.” - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE AND MISSIONARY WORK. - - Turkish Tolerance—High Disdain for Christians—American - Mission Work—Roman Catholic Missionaries—Catholic - Establishments—The Uniates—United Armenians—Mechitar—The Two - Parties—Persecutions—European Interference—The Hassounists—The - Hope for Armenia. - - -From the time of the Ottoman conquest spiritual liberty has been allowed -to all creeds in Turkey, and the external observances and ceremonies of -religion have, in most places, been permitted by the Moslems, though in -some even funeral ceremonies were often molested, and the use of church -bells was forbidden. Certain rights and privileges were granted to each -church, to which the Christians clung with great tenacity—as to a sacred -banner, round which they would one day rally and march to freedom. - -By the concessions granted to the vanquished by their conquerors, they -were allowed to retain those churches that had escaped destruction or -were not converted into mosques, and permitted to worship according to -the dictates of their own consciences so long as the sound of their bell -calling the infidels to prayer did not offend the ear of the faithful. -The internal administration was not interfered with; each congregation -was free to choose its own clergy, ornament the interior of its church -as it saw fit, perform its pilgrimages and bury its dead, without -interference from the authorities. These privileges, though looked upon -as sacred by the poor, could not compensate in the sight of the rich -and once powerful for social and material losses; thus many Christians -renounced their faith and adopted that of their masters. - -Time and succeeding events have softened down some of the outstanding -wrongs; fanatical outbreaks and religious persecutions have become of -less frequent occurrence; and the various Hattis proclaiming freedom of -worship and religious equality to all Ottoman subjects before the law, -are guarantees that no arbitrary action on the part of the government can -interfere with the religious privileges of the Christians, or deprive -them of their rights. Though this guarantee is a proof of the sincerity -of the Porte in its efforts to give satisfaction to its Christian -subjects, it cannot remove the evil or lessen its consequences, which -remain in all their force of danger and uncertainty. Every movement of -discontent in Turkey receives a strong impulse from that religious zeal -which stimulates the Mohammedan to acts of fanatical barbarity, and -the Christian to a superstitious belief in miraculous powers that will -protect him in the hour of danger. Thus, in times of disturbance the -timorous bulk of the population of a town or village will rush to the -church for safety, there pouring out mingled prayers and tears to God -and all the saints that the threatened danger may be averted. Rarely, -it would seem, are such prayers heard, for the first place to which -the excited Mussulman rushes is the church, and thither the brigand -chief will lead his band, and perpetrate acts of the most revolting -barbarity. The armed peasant, the undisciplined soldier, or the cruel -and licentious Bashi-Bazouk will all attack the sacred edifice, break it -open, and destroy or pollute all that falls into their hands. These are -the ever-recurring evils that no Imperial law will be able to prevent, -no measures eradicate, so long as the two rival creeds continue to exist -face to face, and be used as the principal motives in the struggle, past -and present, for supremacy on one side, freedom and independence on -the other. The Mussulmans, under pressure, will grant every concession -demanded of them, and to a great extent carry them out; but it would be -utterly erroneous to suppose for a moment that under any pressure or in -any degree of civilization, the Turk would be able to disabuse himself of -the deeply-rooted disdain the most liberal-minded of his race feels for -strangers to his creed and nation. - -The experiences of all thoroughly acquainted with the character of the -Ottoman tallies with mine on this point. I have seen the disdain felt by -the Mohammedan towards the Christian portrayed on the faces of the most -liberal, virtuous, and well-disposed, as well as on those of the most -bigoted. A Christian, be he European or Asiatic, is an infidel in the -Moslem’s sight. He will receive him graciously, converse with him in the -most amicable manner, and at the same time mumble prayers for pardon for -his sin in holding communication with an unbeliever. - -The religious freedom enjoyed by the members of the Protestant and Roman -Catholic churches is far more extensive than that enjoyed by the Eastern. -Both, upheld by the powerful support of European powers, enjoy a liberty -of action and license of speech rarely found in other countries. Both -are aliens and owe their origin to the proselytizing efforts of the -missionaries. The Church of Rome, being the older and more enterprising, -naturally commands a much vaster field than the Protestant; she is -supported by France and other Roman Catholic countries, who jealously -watch over her rights and privileges. The Protestants are protected by -England and America; their missionaries entered Turkey at a later date -and gradually established themselves over the country. At first the -extremely reserved attitude of the missionaries, their conscientious -method of making converts, and the extreme severity of their regulations, -gave them but a poor chance of success. Gradually, however, the esteem -and regard of the people for them increased; stringent opposition, -promoted by sectarian dissensions, died out, and mission stations, -with numerous churches, some of considerable importance and promise, -were established, especially in Armenia. The principal cause of the -encouragement they met with was the wise policy, lately adopted, of -promoting missionary work by education. - -The extensive body of Protestant missionaries now found in Turkey -is almost entirely American. The meetings of the Board are held in -Constantinople; it controls the administration of the different missions -and directs the large American College at Bebek—the best foreign -institute for education in the country. - -When a community of Protestant converts numbers a few families it is -given a church and school, and one of the principal men is elected -as chief of the society. This person is presented officially to the -authorities by one of the consuls of the protecting powers—generally -the English; he is recognized as chief of his community, obtains a seat -in the local court, and is intrusted with all the interests of his -co-religionists. In difficult or complicated cases the missionaries -themselves share the responsibilities of this chief, and through consular -or ambassadorial agency generally settle all matters calling for redress -and justice in a satisfactory manner. - -The few English missionaries who are established in Turkey are intrusted -with the fruitless task of endeavoring to convert the Jews. - -The Roman Catholic missionaries, from the date of the separation of the -Eastern and Western Churches, have ever been actively and diligently -employed in making converts. Thus a great portion of the population of -Syria, yielding to their influence, has become Roman Catholic, as have -the Bosnians, a portion of the Albanians, some of the Greeks inhabiting -the islands, the Armenians of Constantinople, and of later years a -small portion of the Bulgarians. The action of the missionaries of -late years has not, however, been so much directed towards making new -converts as it has to consolidating and strengthening the tie binding -the few scattered communities to the mother-church. This religious body -recruits itself chiefly from France and Italy, and consists of priests, -monks, and Sisters of Charity, belonging chiefly to the orders of St. -Benois, the Jesuits, Lazarists, and St. Vincent de Paul. Their extensive -establishments are situated in the Frank quarters of the towns, and -consist of well-built and spacious churches, monasteries, schools, orphan -asylums, and foundling hospitals. Pera and Galata contain a goodly -number of these establishments, as do the principal towns of European -and Asiatic Turkey. These missions are evidently well furnished with -funds, for their establishments have everywhere a prosperous appearance, -and are provided with every requisite for the purposes for which they -are intended. The religious instruction given in them is, however, -extremely illiberal, bigoted, and imparted on Jesuitical principles. -Exclusiveness and intolerance towards other creeds are openly prescribed. -“Point de salut hors de l’Eglise” is their doctrine. Considerable laxity -is allowed in moral points so long as they do not interfere with the -external duties of the community to the church. Should an individual -belonging to another creed die among the community, the rite of burial -will be refused to him by the Roman Catholic priests, but those of the -Orthodox Church will often in that case consent to perform it. Even the -marriage ceremony, unless performed in their churches, is considered by -the more bigoted portion of the Roman Catholic clergy as not binding. -This strange statement was made in my presence before a large gathering -of persons belonging to different creeds, by the superior of a Lazarist -establishment at A⸺. It was on the occasion of the marriage of two -members of the Latin community of that town, when the service was -terminated by the following short address to the married couple: “Twice -happy are you to belong to the Holy Church of Rome and to be united in -the sacred ties of matrimony within her bosom: for in the same manner -as there is no hope after life for those who do not belong to her, so -marriage is not binding out of her, but every woman who so gives herself -is not a legal wife but a concubine!” In many cases the sacrament is -refused to ladies united in marriage to persons belonging to other creeds. - -The secular teaching given in the schools of these missions is limited, -and, based on the same principles as the religion, is illiberal and -narrow-minded. Much time is consecrated by the pupils to religious -recitations, prayers, and penances of no possible profit to the children. -Thus from an early age, imbued with narrow ideas and made to lose sight -of the spirit of Christianity, the Roman Catholic communities, be they -of European, Greek, or Armenian nationality, are the most bigoted, -intolerant, and exclusive of all the Christian communities of the East. - -The missionaries belonging to this Church are unsurpassed in the -admirable manner in which their charitable establishments are arranged. -The homes and asylums for the poor and orphan children are for the girls -under the control of the Sisters of Charity, and for the boys under -that of the priests and monks. These are well kept, and very orderly, -the food is good and abundant, and the dress of the children solid and -befitting their condition. Hospitals are attached to each establishment, -where the sick are well cared for and destitute Europeans admitted -irrespective of creed. The good Sisters of Charity take upon themselves -the duty of watching over the patients night and day. A dispensary is -included in each mission station, where medicines and medical advice -are given gratuitously. The children reared in these establishments are -placed in situations on leaving them; but I regret to be obliged to say -that comparatively few of either sex are known to turn out honest and -respectable. - -The retired lives led by these active servants of Rome do not prevent -their being very intimately connected with their respective communities -or using their all-powerful influence for good or for evil in all family -concerns. They are hardy, active, and most persevering; their personal -wants are small and their mode of living modest and unassuming. But in -spite of this they are worldly-wise, crafty, and unscrupulous as to the -means they use in obtaining their ends. Their mode of action is based -upon the principle that the end justifies the means; few, therefore, -are the scruples that will arrest their action or the dangers and -difficulties that will damp their courage or check their ardor in their -work. - -All the internal regulations and arrangements of the Catholic community -are made without the Porte troubling itself much about them—indeed, to -do the Turk justice, in his high contempt for things Christian, he keeps -as much as possible out of the religious dissensions of his subjects, -and when by chance he does appear on the scene of action, by turns -persecutor, protector, or peacemaker, he is generally prompted in the -matter by one of the interested parties. An amusing incident witnessed by -one of my friends at Jerusalem well illustrates this fact. This gentleman -accompanied one of the peacemaking governors-general to the Holy City -at the time the quarrel of the possession of the little door leading to -the Sepulchre was at its highest. All the interested parties loaded the -Pasha with acts of politeness and civility, which he received with great -urbanity; but when the great question was delicately broached in the -course of conversation, he at once turned round and exclaimed, Turkish -fashion, “Oh, my soul! I pray do not open that door to me!” - -There is little to be said about the Uniates, or Bulgarian Catholic -converts in Turkey. The movement in its commencement, effects, and -results may be compared to Midhat Pasha’s Constitution—a farce and -imposition from beginning to end. Like the Constitution, the Uniate -movement broke out in the midst of a hot fever of excitement and -discontent; the first was created as a palliative for Turkish misrule, -the second emanated from the mismanagement of a church. The disputes -between the Greeks and Bulgarians on the church question was at its -height when a certain number of Bulgarians, carried away by the hope of -ameliorating the actual condition of things and ultimately obtaining -their end, viz., the emancipation of the Bulgarian Church from the Greek, -accepted the nominal supremacy of the Romish Church, and by a fictitious -conversion became attached to it under the denomination of Uniates. Their -number, at first small, would probably have remained so had it not been -that some effective arguments and causes gave it a momentary impetus, -bringing it under public notice. The sensational part of the incident was -due to the exaggerated accounts given by the agents of the Propaganda -and other societies of the future triumphs of Rome in this new field of -action, and to the political advantage which the government of Napoleon -III. tried to derive from it. Monsieur Bouré, the ambassador at that -time in Turkey, greatly favored the movement, while some of the consular -agents, overstepping their instructions, held out to the Bulgarian people -the open support and protection of the French Government in favor of the -anticipated converts: “C’est ici,” said one of those zealous agents, -“C’est ici au consulat de France que la nation Bulgare doit dorénavant -tourner son regard, porter ses plaintes et demander protection!” - -The most telling argument with the Bulgarian peasant to abjure his faith -was not the future benefit his soul would derive from the change nor -the value of French influence and protection, but simply the prospect -of freeing himself from all future Church impositions, and having his -children educated at the schools of the Propaganda free of cost. These -conditions were very enticing, and some thousands, yielding to the -further influence of a few of their superiors who had declared themselves -Uniates, blindly followed these as sheep following their shepherd in -search of food. They knew nothing of the dogmatic side of the question, -and cared not to inquire. The name of the Pope was substituted for that -of the Patriarch of Constantinople; the ignorant Greek or Bulgarian -priests were superseded by Polish preachers well versed in the Bulgarian -tongue, whose sermons were composed with a view to impressing the people -with a sense of the material rather than the spiritual benefits to be -derived from their apostasy. The proselytizing centres were Adrianople, -Monastir, and Salonika, where large establishments belonging to the Roman -Catholic Societies undertook the work of conversion in a very zealous -manner, and established branches in places of smaller importance in -order to give more weight to the affair and increase the confidence of -the Bulgarians in its stability. A Bulgarian monk, the best that could be -got, was pounced upon by the Fathers and sent to Rome to be consecrated -primate of the Uniates. This individual, unprepossessing in appearance -and utterly ignorant and stupid, remained at Rome in order to receive the -homage due to him as the future primate of the Uniates, and then returned -to Bulgaria, where every effort was made by the agents of the Propaganda -to give importance to the event and establish the authority of the new -primate. The poor Bulgarian Uniates, closely watched and pressed on both -sides by the Greeks and the Bulgarians, found it very hard to stand their -ground. They began to show signs of laxity of zeal, and gradually dropped -out of the newly-formed flock. This reaction took a very decided turn -after the formation of the Bulgarian national church, when the converts -_en bloc_ returned to it, leaving a few of the faithful to occupy the -benches of the deserted churches, and some orphans and beggars to people -the schools attached to them. - -Thus began and ended an affair which was nothing but a joke to those -who were on the spot and behind the scenes; while the Catholic world, -judging from all the wild tales of the press on the subject, seemed to -lose their reason over it to the extent of exciting the curiosity of some -governments and greatly alarming others, until the thing died out, to -make room for more important matters. - -However successful the work of conversion may be in the East when it -is carried on (as with the Romish Church) with the object of entirely -denationalizing a community and absorbing it into the proselytizing -church, it will prove a failure in the long run. In the case of the -United or Catholic Armenians, one sees another instance of the tendency -of all the subject races of the Porte whenever a question of religion -or political liberty is raised; it is to the West that one and all look -for the settlement of these questions, for support, and for protection. -European interference has been systematically imposed upon the Porte, and -has obtained ascendancy over it in proportion as the Turk has become weak -and incapable of resistance. - -The Armenian nation seems to have remained united and at peace with the -Church of its adoption until the year 1587, when Pope Sixtus sent the -Bishop of Sidon as ambassador to the Armenian Melkhites, Jacobites, and -Chaldean communities, to recover them from their heresy and establish -papal authority over them; but the utmost the legate obtained at the time -was the consent of the Armenian Patriarch of Cilicia to sign a confession -of the Catholic faith according to the statutes of the Council of -Florence. In the meanwhile numerous missionaries belonging to the order -of the Jesuits and others had settled in the country with the object -of carrying on the work of conversion. It was one of these, a Jesuit, -who, a century later, converted Mechitar, the illustrious founder of the -United Armenian community, which now numbers over 40,000 souls. Mechitar -united in his person the qualities of the theologian, the scholar, and -the patriot. Yielding to persuasion, he adopted the Catholic creed and -directed all his energies to propagating it among his countrymen. His -ideas were, however, those of an enlightened man who wished to combine -conversion with mental development and liberal ideas based upon the -sound foundation of separating the civil from the religious rights, -founding a Church, Catholic in faith, but Armenian in nationality, with -a constitution free from the direct control and interference of the See -of Rome. It is impossible to say how far the project of the intrepid -convert was feasible; his enterprise met with very decided opposition -from the head of the propaganda, whose efforts were directed with -fanatical tenacity and ardor towards denationalizing and Latinizing -the new converts. Thus the community in its very origin found itself -divided into two branches—the liberal, professing the views of Mechitar, -proud of the name of Armenian, and desirous of promoting the interests -of their fatherland; and the Ultramontanes, bigoted and holding Rome as -the sole pivot on which their social, moral, and religious existence -turned. These divisions soon caused dissensions, and Mechitar, finding -the opposition of the Fathers too strong for him in his native land, -left it and went to Constantinople, where he hoped to find more liberty -and a more extended field for action. Here, also, bitter disappointment -awaited him, for he found the pressure of the European Fathers put upon -the new Church; mild persuasion and exhortation were set aside and an -earnest policy of intolerance and exclusiveness was preached to the new -community, forbidding its members to enter the churches of their fathers, -which were represented as “sanctuaries of the devil,” holding its liturgy -up to execration, and refusing absolution to those unwilling to submit -to these severe doctrines. This system of intolerance succeeded so well -with the retrograde party as to widen the breach already separating it -from the liberal, and sowed at the same time the seeds of that mortal -hatred between the United and the Gregorian Armenians that has more than -once well-nigh caused their common destruction. At this stage, while -party dissensions rendered union among the Armenian Catholics impossible, -the work of proselytism marched on, until the Gregorians, alarmed at its -rapid progress, rose in a body, and by means of hypocrisy and intrigue, -headed by their uncompromising patriarch Ephraim, obtained a firman from -the Porte ordering the banishment of all the Armenian Catholics from -Constantinople. Thus the sparks of persecution kindled by this patriarch -soon spread into a general conflagration under his successor Avidic, who, -gaining the ear and support of the Grand Mufti Feizallah, obtained decree -after decree for the persecution, confiscation, and expatriation of all -their opponents in the empire, including the Fathers. The blow was too -strong, and the sensation it created too great, for it to be passed over -by the Western powers belonging to the same Church. A French ambassador -consequently raised his voice so loudly and effectively at the Porte -as to have the obnoxious patriarch expelled and exiled to Chios; the -ill-fated dignitary, however, was not allowed to expiate his evil-doing -in peace and solitude, but, waylaid, it is believed, by some equally -unchristian Jesuit Fathers, he was kidnapped and taken to the Isle of St. -Margaret, where he died the death of a martyr. - -The Porte, in its desire to right the wronged, felt ill-requited by this -act. The abduction of the Patriarch, together with other grievances, -magnified by the Gregorians, increased its discontent, and, casting its -mask of reconciliation aside, it became the open and direct persecutor -of the suspected community. The Jesuits’ house at Galata was put under -surveillance, the Armenian printing establishment was closed, and -proselytism was forbidden on pain of exile. A Hatti ordered the arrest -of all the Armenian adherents of the Romish Church. What remained of -the community continued in hiding, awaiting a favorable time for its -reappearance. Mechitar himself, suspected, distrusted, and disliked by -all parties save his own, fled from Constantinople, and, after many -vicissitudes and an unsuccessful attempt to found a monastery at Medon, -finally succeeded in doing so in the Isle of St. Lazarus, granted to him -by the republic of Venice. The monastery he there founded was of the -order of St. Benedict, and was later on approved of by a bull of Clement -XI. In this quiet refuge the learned monk established his order, which -took the name of Mechitarists after him, and has become the college, not -of orthodox catholicism, as understood and practised by the Latinized -converts, but of learning, patriotism, and liberal views and ideas in -religious matters. Scarcely had the United Armenians recovered from the -shock of this persecution than they were again, in 1759, subjected to -a fresh one set on foot as before by the Gregorians, who forced upon -them religious forms repulsive to them, backed by the active support of -the Porte. But the most critical moment for the very existence of the -community, including a considerable proportion of Franks, was the time -of the battle of Navarino. All the ill-humor and exasperation of the -Turks fell upon the unfortunate Armenian Catholics, who, represented to -the credulous Turks as traitors and spies of the Franks, were treated -accordingly, and persecution and exile, ruin and death, were once more -their lot. The principal actors in this last were an obscure sheikh who -had a tekké at Stamboul, and who by some freak of fortune had risen -to the rank of Kadi Asker, becoming far famed as Khalet Effendi, and -an individual who was pipe-bearer in the Duz-Oglou family, one of the -wealthiest of the United Armenian families. - -The Porte declared that it recognized only one Armenian nation and -one Armenian religion, and invited all schismatics to abjure their -apostasy and return to the bosom of their own church and nation, on -which conditions they could alone be pardoned. This was the climax of -the evils and sufferings of the United Armenians. The Governments of -Western Europe, indignant at this rigorous treatment and the miseries -it brought upon an unfortunate community, took up its cause, and after -a prolonged dispute between the French Government and the Porte, the -determined conduct of the representative of the former power triumphed -over the intrigues of the Gregorian Armenians and the ill-will and -cruelty of the Porte; the exiles were recalled, their property restored, -and they were recognized as a separate community under a patriarch of -their own. We need not follow all the difficulties and complications -that had to be overcome before these salutary results could be obtained. -Since that epoch this community was formed into a separate body, and -owing its welfare, security, and subsequent prosperity to the protection -of France has enjoyed in peace the same rights and privileges as the -Gregorians. These privileges were further granted by the Porte under -the same pressure to the other Catholic communities. The grant of -these concessions constituted France the moral supporter and religious -protector of all the Catholics of the East, and for some years French -influence in favor of the Catholic rayahs was supreme at the Porte. - -In 1831 the community began once more to consolidate itself by the -scattered members returning to their homes and re-assuming the ordinary -business of life. Much had been done in their favor, but much remained to -be done by the community itself. The first step was to frame a general -assembly, composed of representatives of the various classes of the -community by whom the national interests were discussed and debated -upon with much freedom. The result was the election of a president -who was confirmed by the Porte, and invested with temporal authority -alone. The spiritual power was conferred on a primate appointed by the -Pope. This measure was adopted in the hope of preventing one authority -from encroaching upon the other; the patriarch’s seal was divided into -three parts, which were intrusted respectively to the patriarch, the -primate, and the president of the council. Other measures were also -adopted which established the interests and influence of the Church on -a solid basis, increased the privileges of the community at large, and -greatly heightened its prestige. But dissensions and jealousies crept in, -destroyed the passing dignity of the Church, and brought it to the low -level of its adherents, making it a centre of bigotry and intolerance on -one side and of struggling efforts for enlightenment and emancipation on -the other. - -Mechitar’s views and principles are held in increasing veneration by the -liberal and progressive Armenians, who believe that the future prosperity -of their country is dependent on them. Imbued with these ideas, it is -not astonishing to find that this party and that of the Propaganda and -Latinized Armenians are in a state of continual contention, undermining -the peace and prospects of the community. - -In 1846, Father Minassian, a Mechitarist monk, proposed the establishment -of a society for the reconciliation of the two divisions of the nation -with the view of the furthering education and ultimate political -emancipation of the Armenians. The Conservative party, with the patriarch -at its head, rejected his plan, which, warmly taken up by the Liberal -(or as it is now called Anti-Hassounist) party led to fresh disputes and -dissensions, keeping this community for years in a continual state of -religious agitation and setting families at variance. The Anti-Hassounist -party comprises some of the most wealthy and influential families, while -the Hassounists, on the other hand, boast of the influence of their -patriarch, the approval and protection of Rome, and the assistance and -co-operation of the Propaganda; accordingly, of late years, both parties -have sallied forth from their former reserved attitude and offered to the -world of Constantinople the spectacle of a pitched battle—one side armed -with all the power that spiritual help can afford, the other bracing -itself with the force of argument and the protection and favor of the -Porte. - -Hassoun and his party accepted the doctrine of the Infallibility of the -Pope, and committed their spiritual welfare and worldly concerns into -the keeping of the mother Church, trusting to her maternal care for -unlimited patronage. The Anti-Hassounists, led by Kupelian, rebelled -against this despotic arrangement, denied the Infallibility and the -right of the Church of Rome to interfere in the social and religious -organization of the community; they actually went so far as to break out -into open rebellion, and, supported and protected by Hossein Aoni Pasha -and some of his colleagues, denied the authority of the patriarch, drove -his adherents out of the schools, closed the churches, and sent away the -priests under his control, finally effecting the schism which lies under -Papal excommunication, but prospers nevertheless, and must ultimately, -as the nation advances, triumph over opposition and attain equality, -independent of the powerful and absorbing influence of the Church of Rome. - -The spiritual authority of this new sect is in the keeping of a patriarch -whose election by the community is confirmed by the Porte. He enjoys the -same rights and privileges as the patriarchs of the other communities. -The patriarch of the United Armenians receives a stipend of 5000 piastres -per month, exclusive of the salaries of the officers of his chancery. The -expenses of the _bairat_, amounting to 500 piastres, are defrayed by the -community and furnished by a proportionate tax levied by the National -Council. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy consists of the Patriarchs of -Cilicia, the Primate of Constantinople, the bishops, and the monastic and -secular clergy. The principal see is solely supported by funds provided -by the Propaganda of Rome and the “œuvres des missions.” - -The priests are divided into _Vartabieds_, or doctors, and _derders_, or -ordinary priests. Some of the former may be found at the head of small -churches, aided by derders or acolytes. They occupy a modest position -in rich families, where they are employed as religious instructors of -youth and general counsellors of the family. As a class, however, their -voice in the Church is overruled by that of the clergy of the Propaganda. -The Vartabieds carry a crosier; no regular stipend is allotted to them, -but they derive their support from church fees. The regular clergy -consists of Mechitarist and Antonine monks, who have colleges at Venice, -Constantinople, and Mount Lebanon. - -The national council of the United Armenians is composed of twelve lay -members called Bairatlis; their election is confirmed by the Porte. -They are unpaid, and their period of office is limited to two years, -six retiring and six resuming office annually. This council works in -conjunction with the Patriarch; it regulates all matters concerning the -civil and financial affairs of the community; it is the arbitrator and -judge of all disputes among the United Armenians. This community at -Constantinople alone numbers about 20,000 souls, forming seven parishes -in different parts of the city. - -In Pera, annexed to the church of St. John Chrysostom, they possess an -infirmary for the poor and a lunatic asylum; each parish has a primary -school, and some institutes for female education exists. One of these, -founded in 1850 by the family of Duz-Oglou, is conducted by a French -lady and placed under French control; the instruction afforded is in the -French and Armenian languages. - -The unfortunate duality ever present in the Church makes itself felt in -the educational department as well, and greatly impedes its progress. -The Mechitarist Fathers of St. Lazarus include in the religious and -literary instruction given in their schools the records of past Armenian -glory, inculcate a love of country, teach its language, and render its -illustrious authors familiar to the rising generation; the current -language in their institution is the Armenian. The opposition abuse and -ridicule all that is Armenian, and replace the native language by Latin -and Italian, or French; their principle is, “Let nationality perish -rather than doctrine, the holy pulpit was never established to teach -patriotism, but gospel truth.” The tutelar saints of the Armenians, -treated with the same disrespect, are replaced by saints from the Roman -calendar. - -In character and disposition the United Armenians are peaceable, regular -in their habits, industrious, and fond of amassing wealth; parsimonious -and even miserly in their ideas, the love of ostentation and good-feeding -has yet a powerful effect upon their purse-strings. They are, however, -considerably in advance of the Gregorian Armenians. The youth of the -better classes are for the most part conversant with European languages -and the external forms of good society, affect European manners, and -profess liberal views. Owing to the higher educational privileges they -enjoy, they have made more progress in the arts and professions than -the Gregorian Armenians. The school of Mechitar has produced scholars -of considerable merit, but the vocation they seem specially made for is -that of banking. In all careers their success has been signal. There was -a time when the increasing wealth and prosperity of the United Armenians -was the cause of much envy and jealousy, when no European banking houses -existed in Turkey, and the financial affairs of the Ottomans were left -entirely in the hands of the Armenian bankers, who directed the mint -and regulated the finances of the government and of the Pashas. On the -change of system, the ruin of the State as well as that of most of -these families, once so wealthy, became inevitable. Should Armenia, -however, eventually become a principality, should the Mechitarist school -triumph over sectarian susceptibilities, and an understanding be arrived -at leading to a national union between the United and the Gregorian -Armenians, a considerable number of wealthy, intelligent, and earnest -men, fit to be placed at the head of a nation, and able to control -it with wisdom, prudence, and moderation, will not be wanting in both -branches of this widely scattered nation. The critical moment in the -destinies of this country has, I believe, arrived. The Armenians, -detesting the Ottoman rule, are ready to cast themselves into the arms -of any power that will offer them protection and guarantee their future -emancipation. The turning-point reached, Russia or England will have to -face them and listen to their claims. If their cause is taken up in good -time they will be saved; and the name and prestige of England, already -pretty widely spread in Armenia, will become all-powerful. - - -THE END. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] _Leromenos_ signifies _soiled_, which among the Greeks is the highest -title of a brigand bravo, evinced in the filth of his long-worn and -unwashed _fustanella_. - -[2] “Brigand Albanian!” “Bath-boy!” - -[3] “Very well, we shall see, it may be done.” - -[4] Turkish ethnology divides the human race into seventy-seven and a -half nations, the Jews representing the half, and the gypsies being -entirely excluded. This is clearly an improvement upon Mohammed’s -estimate of the number of different sects in Islam, etc. - -[5] In August, 1875, the law of inheritance on vakouf lands was modified -and improved. - -[6] Boghcha, bundle. - -[7] Leyen, basin. - -[8] Ibrik, jug. - -[9] Pastes for soup and pilaf. - -[10] Molasses made from grapes. - -[11] Preserves made with molasses from fresh or dried fruits. - -[12] Starch made from wheat, much used for making sweets. - -[13] “How do you do?” - -[14] “Valley-lord,” or feudal chief. - -[15] Generally a European, who often attains to high rank and fortune. - -[16] In polite language, “child of unknown paternity.” - -[17] A few years ago the mother of Sultan Abdul-Aziz, desirous of -further reducing this number, brought forward an old palace regulation, -that every seraglio woman found _enceinte_ should be subjected to the -operation of artificial abortion, with the exception of the first four -wives. - -[18] Under-superintendent of the harem. - -[19] Should the father be unacquainted with the form of prayer, an Imam -is called in, who reads the prayer over the infant, outside the door. - -[20] Old women, whose mission it is to be the bearer of invitations to -all ceremonies. - -[21] Wonderful! Let it be long-lived and happy! - -[22] The Italian expression “_Multi Saluti_” is the nearest approach to a -correct interpretation of this word. - -[23] “Baron” signifies Mr. - -[24] Wonderful! - -[25] Giving rise to the Greek saying of “καμαρώνει σά νύμφἤ.” - -[26] The best man and head bridesmaid, whose duty it is subsequently to -be the godfather and godmother of the children: _see_ p. 40. - -[27] The following is a translation of this distich:— - - “O Maldever! O Stardever! why do you wait outside? - Dismount thy steed and enter thy husband’s house, O bride!” - -[28] These crosses are of three classes, and range in value from 100 to -500 piastres—14_s._ to 3_l._ 10_s._ - -[29] Blind or lame, is he or she acceptable? - -[30] Sourah lvii. v. 19. - -[31] Sourah xxxv. v. 44. - -[32] Sourah ii. v. 275. - -[33] The evil being is supposed to be of immense size, his upper lip -touching heaven, and his lower earth; and he holds in his hand a huge -iron cudgel. - -[34] In some inland towns the relations continue to chant the Myriologia -all the way to the church, and afterwards to the burial-ground. - -[35] H⸺ Bey, on visiting London, finding to his surprise that “sinking -underground” entered into the routine of every-day life, on returning -home, said to his mother, “_Hanoum yerin dibineh batunméh? Ben batum da -chiktum._” (“Have you ever sunk underground? I have done so, and risen -again.”) - -[36] This is referred to in the first verse of a popular song: - - Φεγγαράκι μοῦ λαμπρό - Φέγγι μοῦ νὰ προπατῶ - Νὰ πεγαίνω’ς τὸ σχολεῖο - Νὰ μαθαίνω γράμματα - Τοῦ θεοῦ τὰ πράγματα - -[37] Those who wish to have some idea of Bulgarian poetry will find -an interesting account of it in a work on Slav poetry by Madame Dora -d’Istria. - -[38] Δεῦτέ λάβετε φῶς ἐκ τοῦ ἀνεσπέρου φωτὸς καὶ δοξάσατε Χριστὸν τὸν -ἀναστάντα ἐκ νεκρῶν. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TWENTY YEARS' RESIDENCE AMONG -THE PEOPLE OF TURKEY *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Twenty Years' Residence among the People of Turkey</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Bulgarians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks, and Armenians</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Anonymous</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Editor: Stanley Lane Poole</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: March 13, 2022 [eBook #67626]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TWENTY YEARS' RESIDENCE AMONG THE PEOPLE OF TURKEY ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<p class="center smaller"><span class="smcap">Booksellers supplied with trimmed or untrimmed copies as they may -indicate their preference.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/fsl.jpg" width="600" height="200" alt="Franklin Square Library." /> -</div> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Number 12. <span class="spacer">Published by -HARPER & BROTHERS, New York.</span> Price 15 Cts.</span></p> - -<p class="center smaller">Copyright, 1878, by <span class="smcap">Harper & Brothers</span>.</p> - -<h1><span class="smaller">TWENTY YEARS’ RESIDENCE<br /> -<span class="smaller">AMONG</span></span><br /> -THE PEOPLE OF TURKEY:<br /> -<span class="smaller">BULGARIANS, GREEKS, ALBANIANS, TURKS, AND ARMENIANS.</span></h1> - -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br /> -A CONSUL’S DAUGHTER AND WIFE.<br /> -<span class="smaller">EDITED BY STANLEY LANE POOLE.</span></p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">DEDICATED (BY PERMISSION) TO</span><br /> -THE MARCHIONESS OF SALISBURY,<br /> -<span class="smaller">BY HER GRATEFUL SERVANT, THE AUTHOR.</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>No one who has talked with many people -on the Eastern Question can have failed to -remark the wide difference of opinion held -on things which ought to be matters of certainty, -and on which two opinions ought to -be impossible. This divergence of view is -only a very natural consequence of the want -of any book of authority on the subject. -How is one to learn what manner of men -these Bulgarians and Greeks of Turkey really -are? Hitherto our information has been -chiefly obtained from newspaper correspondents: -and it is hardly necessary to observe -that the nature of their selected information -depends upon the tendency of the paper. -There have, of course, been notable exceptions -to this common rule of a party-conscience: -the world of journalists is but now -lamenting the untimely death of one of its -most distinguished members, with whose -name honor and truth and indefatigable -thoroughness must ever be associated. But -granting the honesty and impartiality of a -correspondent, allowing the accuracy of his -report of what he has seen, it must be conceded -that his opportunities for observation -are short and hurried, that he judges almost -solely from the immediate present, and that -by the nature of his profession he is seldom -able to make a very long or intimate study -of a people’s character. One accepts his reports -as the evidence of an eye-witness; but -one does not necessarily pledge one’s self to -his deductions. For the former task he has -every necessary qualification: for the latter -he may have none, and he probably has not -the most important. Especially unsafe is it -to trust to estimates of nations formed hastily -on insufficient experience in the midst of -general disorder, such as that in which many -summary verdicts have lately been composed.</p> - -<p>But if newspaper correspondents are placed -at some disadvantage, what can be said for -those well-assured travellers who pay a three -months’ visit to Turkey, spend the time -pleasantly at Pera, or perhaps at the country-houses -of some Pashas, and then consider -themselves qualified to judge the merits of -each class in each nationality of the mixed -inhabitants of the land. It is unpleasant to -have to say it; but it is well known that -scarcely a single book upon Turkey is based -upon a much longer experience than of three -months.</p> - -<p>In this dearth of trustworthy information, -it was with no little interest that I learnt that -an English lady, who had lived for a great -part or her life in various provinces of European -and Asiatic Turkey, and whose linguistic -powers perfected by experience enabled -her to converse equally with Greeks, Turks, -and Bulgarians as one of themselves, had -formed a collection of notes on the people of -Turkey—on their national characteristics, -the way they live, their manners and customs, -education, religion, their aims, and -ambitions. In any case the observations of -one who had for more than twenty years enjoyed -such exceptional advantages must be -valuable. Of the opportunities of the Author -there could be as little doubt as of her conscientious -accuracy in recording her experience. -The only question was not the quality -but the quantity of the information. But in -this the manuscript surpassed all expectations. -Every page teemed with details of -life and character entirely novel to all but -Eastern travellers. Every subject connected -with the people of Turkey seemed to be exhaustively -treated, and it was rarely that any -need for more ample information was felt.</p> - -<p>In editing what, as I have had nothing to -do with the matter of it, I may without vanity -call the most valuable work on the people -of Turkey that has yet appeared, I have -strictly kept in view the principle laid down -by the Author—that the book was to be a -collection of facts, not a vehicle for party -views on the Eastern Question, nor a recipe -for the harmonious arrangement of South-eastern -Europe. Politically the book is entirely -colorless. It was felt that thus only -could it commend itself to both, or rather all, -the disputing parties on the question, and -that only by delicately avoiding the susceptible -points of each party could the book attain -its end—of generally imparting a certain -amount of sound information on the worst-known -subject of the day.</p> - -<p>The reader, therefore, must not expect to -find here a defence of Turkish rule nor yet -an attack thereon: he will only find an account -of how the Turks do rule, with a few -incidental illustrations scattered throughout -the book. Comment is, as a rule, eschewed -as superfluous and insulting to the intelligence -of the reader. Still less must he look -for any expression of opinion on the wisdom -or folly of the policy of Her Majesty’s Government. -All these things are apart from -the aim of the work. It is wished to provide -the data necessary to the formation of any<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -worthy views on the many subdivisions of -the Eastern Question. It is not wished to -point the moral. Once conversant with the -actual state of the people of Turkey, once -knowing how they live, what are their virtues -and vices, what their aims and ambitions, -and it is easy for any rational man to draw -his conclusions; easy to criticise favorably -or otherwise according to the merits of the -case the policy of the British Government -towards Turkey and towards Greece, to decide -whether after all the supposed rising in -Bulgaria (about which little is said here, because -everything has already been well said) -was ever a rising at all; whether the Turks -are or are not incapable of the amenities -which many believe them then to have indulged -in; whether the Bulgarians are -friendly to Russia, or are really the very humble -servants of the Porte; in short, whether -half the questions which have for two years -been the subject of perpetual contention admit -of debate at all.</p> - -<p>The book has been divided into four parts. -In the first, the general characteristics of the -various races of Turkey are sketched. Very -little is said about their history, for it is not -the history but the present state—or rather -the state just before the war—of the people -that is the subject of the book. But the -Author has tried to bring home to the reader -the social condition and the national character -of their different races. The Bulgarians, -Greeks, Albanians, Turks, Armenians, and -Jews are in turn described, and the, for the -time, scarcely less important Circassians, -with the Tatars and Gypsies, have their -chapter.</p> - -<p>In the second part, the tenure of land in -Turkey and the state of the small peasant -farmers are explained, and an account is -given of houses and hovels in Turkey, including -that most superb of Turkish houses, -the Seraglio of the Sultan, to which with its -inmates a very detailed notice is devoted; -and the part ends with an account of Municipality -and Police in Turkey, together with -the kindred subject of Brigandage.</p> - -<p>The third part is occupied with the manners -and customs of the races. Few things -give such an insight into the character of a -people as a study of their customs, and it is -believed that these chapters on the extraordinary -ceremonies employed in Turkey on the -occasion of a birth or marriage, or a death, -the dress, food, amusements, of the Greeks, -Bulgarians, Turks, and Armenians will prove -of as much value as interest. The fact, for -example, that in many parts of Bulgaria the -weddings take place not in the church but -in the cellar of the bridegroom’s house speaks -volumes on the insecurity of a woman’s person -while Turkish governors rule in Bulgarian -towns. The custom of the Bulgarian -bridegroom flinging a halter over his bride’s -neck and dragging her into his house is an -interesting relic of capture, and the subsequent -knocking of the bride’s head against -the wall as a warning against infidelity illustrates -the general chastity of the people. The -indecent exhibitions, again, at Turkish weddings -help to explain the want of refinement -and womanly feeling among Turkish ladies. -The ceremonies of the Greeks are interesting -from another point of view, inasmuch as very -many of them are identical with those of the -ancient Greeks.</p> - -<p>The last part is devoted to the education, -superstition, and religion of the people of -Turkey. It is here that we get to the root of -Turkish manners; for we see how the Turk -is brought up, how he learns the vices that -have become identified with the thought of -his race, how he remains, in spite even of a -western education, deeply imbued with superstition, -and finally how he loses all the energy -of the old Othmanli character by the operation -of the fatal doctrine of Kismet. The -chapters on Education are among the most -valuable in the book; whilst those on Religion -will serve to explain some of the difficulties -that beset the proper adjustment of -affairs in Southern Europe.</p> - -<p>The study of the facts thus brought together -points to a considerable modification of the -views commonly entertained with regard to -the characters of the peoples of Turkey. The -Author’s long experience leaves no doubt of -the vast superiority of the Greeks to the -other races; yet there is no people that one -is more accustomed to hear spoken of with -distrust and even contempt. The Greeks -are commonly charged with a partiality for -sharp practice, with intolerable vanity; their -character is summed up as petty. There is -always a grain of truth in a calumny: -when plenty of mud is thrown some of it -sticks, not because of the quantity of the mud, -but because there is sure to be an adhesive -sympathy with some part of the object of -the attack. The Greeks have in some degree -laid themselves open to these charges. It -was very unwise of them to take the first -rank as merchants in the East, and thus -arouse the jealousy of the merchants of all -European nations, whom they have eclipsed -by their superior business capacities. Envy -will pick holes anywhere, but it is especially -easy to criticise the customs of a merchant -class. Mercantile morality all over the world -is a thing of itself, not generally understanded -of the people. But there is nothing to show -that the Greek merchants are less scrupulous -than the rest, though their temptations are -infinitely greater. If a little sharp business -is said to be permissible, and even perhaps -necessary, at Liverpool, for instance, it is -<i>à fortiori</i> essential in Turkey. It is a perfectly -well-understood principle that in Turkey, -where everything is done by bribery -and corruption, a merchant, unless he wishes -to be ruined, must steer a somewhat oblique -course. So long as the late Turkish rule extended -over Greek subjects, it was necessary -to do in Turkey as the Turks do. French -and English merchants sin as much as the -Greeks in this manner; but the superior -commercial ability of the Greeks and their -consequent success have drawn on them the -whole evil repute. It is not that the Greeks -cheat more than other commercial nations: -it is merely that they make more money on -the same amount of cheating. <i>Hinc illæ iræ!</i></p> - -<p>The Greeks, again, are certainly conceited, -and with excellent reason. It would be -absurd to expect anything else. They are -but newly freed; after centuries of Ottoman -tyranny, followed by a generation of Bavarian -despotism, they have at last been allowed -to enjoy some fifteen years of freedom. Even -under the stiff court of George, but much -more during the last fifteen years, they have -made prodigious progress. Having worked -out their own freedom, they have been making -themselves fit for freedom. From craven -slaves of the Turk they have become a liberty-loving -people. Their thoughts have -been casting back to the noble ancestry which -they claim as their own, and looking onward -to the great future that is in store for them. -They have measured themselves intellectually -with the rest of Europe and have not been -worsted. They have spent the last twenty -years in the work of self-education, and so -successful have been their efforts that it is -well known that no nation can compare with -Greece in the general education of its people—that -to Greece alone can be applied the -ambiguous taunt that she is over-educated.</p> - -<p>All these things are legitimate subjects of -pride. It is no wonder that the Greeks are -vain of their adopted ancestors; no marvel -that they are proud of their keen wits and -facile intelligence. They have formed a justly -high estimate of their national worth, and -are justly proud of the progress they have -already made, and they take no pains to conceal -it. Their faults are only exaggerations -of national virtues, the outcome of the reaction -from a long servitude; they are the -necessary but temporary result of the circumstances. -A little time for development, a -closer association with the other powers of -Europe, and a worthier trust on the part of -these, and the Greeks will lose their blemishes -of youth; conceit will be toned down -to a proper pride, and high intelligence will -no longer be called over-cleverness. The nation -has marched steadily forward in the little -time it has been free; it has made great -steps in educating itself and in spreading -knowledge among its members still subject to -the alien; it has shown itself able to govern -itself, even to restrain itself under terrible -provocation when there was much to gain -and little that could be lost. If it is given -fair play, the time may yet come when a -seventh Great power shall arise in Europe, -when the Greeks shall again rule in Byzantium, -and Europe shall know that the name -of Hellenes is still a sacred name.</p> - -<p>The Author’s account of the Bulgarians -differs little from the ordinary opinion, except -on one important point. She describes -them as honest hard-working peasants, rather -slow and stupid, but excellent laborers. But -she absolutely denies the ferocious character -ascribed to them by some writers. Every one -knows that they exacted a terrible vengeance -from the Turks, and no man of spirit can -blame them for it; though it is much to be -regretted that, if the accounts be true, they -carried their revenge to the length of Turkish -barbarity. But this was an exceptional time: -it has had its parallel in most nations, as -those who remember the feeling in England -at the time of the Indian mutiny can witness. -As a rule the Bulgarian is, on the contrary, -rather too tame. He is a very domestic -animal, lives happily with his family, -keeps generally sober, enjoys his dance on -the common on feast-days, and goes with -perfect willingness and satisfaction to his -daily work in the fields or at the rose-harvest. -He is an admirable agricultural laborer, with -a stolidity more than Teutonic, without the -Teuton’s energy. Yet these Bulgarians seem -to have a good deal of sound common sense, -and show many of the qualities necessary in -a people that is to govern itself. It has -hitherto submitted with curious tranquillity -to the Turkish yoke, and the Sultan has probably -had few less ill-affected servants than -the Bulgarians. On the other hand, it seems -that the Bulgarians entertain a very decided -hostility to Russia, an enmity second only to -their hatred for the Greeks.</p> - -<p>The third important element in the future -of South-East Europe is the Turks. Of them -it is not necessary to say much: most -people are fairly enlightened as to the manners -and rule of the Turk, and the Author -has intentionally avoided crowding her pages -with Turkish atrocities: they are all very -much alike, and they are not pleasant reading. -The official classes meet with scant -respect at her hands; but with most writers -she speaks favorably of the Turkish peasant. -The principal vice he has is his religious -fanaticism, which is the result partly of -Mohammedanism itself, and partly of the -form and manner in which it is inculcated in -Turkey. Islam may be broad and tolerant -enough; but not the rigid orthodox Islam as -taught in the primary schools of the Ottoman -Empire. Islam is an excellent creed by -itself; but a ruling Mohammedan minority -in a Christian country is an endless source of -trouble. But the religious question is only -one of those which have disturbed the position -of the Porte. The system of administration, -as described in these pages, is enough to -overturn any power, and an official class -brought up under vicious home influences, -educated in fanatical mosque-schools, living -the self-indulgent indolent life of Stamboul, -getting and keeping office by bribery, administering -“justice” to the highest bidder, -is a doomed class. When one sees how a -Turkish child is brought up he begins to wonder -how any Turk can help being vicious and -dishonest. It is quite certain that there is no -hope for the Turks so long as Turkish women<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span> -remain what they are, and home-training is -the initiation of vice. So far as can be -judged, the Turk naturally possessed some -of the true elements of greatness; but it is -rarely they come to bear fruit: they are -choked by the pernicious social system which -destroys the moral force of the women and -thereafter the men of the empire. It is this -carefully inculcated deficiency in all sense of -uprightness and justice, and this trained tendency -to everything that is a crime against the -community, that renders the Pasha incapable -of governing. It is this fact which compels -one to admit that, whatever the decisions of -the Berlin Congress, it is a clear gain that the -war has won for Europe, to be able to speak -of Turkish rule in the past tense.</p> - -<p>With full knowledge of the experience and -research of the Author, I must yet say there -are some points—notably the Greek Church -of Russia—in which I cannot bring myself -to agree with her; and I must also add that, -owing to the haste with which the book was -put through the press, I have allowed a few -misprints to escape me.</p> - -<p class="right"><span class="smcap">Stanley Lane Poole.</span></p> - -<p><i>June 20th, 1878.</i></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE BULGARIANS.</span></h2> - -<p>Sketch of Bulgarian History—The Slav Occupation—Bulgar -Conquest—Mixture of the Races—The Bulgarian -Kingdom—Contests with Constantinople—Basil -Bulgaroktonos—Bulgaria under Ottoman Rule—Compulsory -Conversion—The Pomaks—Oppressive Government—Janissary -Conscription—Extortion of Officials—Misery -of the People—Improvement under Abdul-Medjid—Fidelity -of the Bulgarians to the Porte—The -late Revolt no National Movement—The Geographical -Limits of Bulgaria—Mixture with Greeks—Life -in the House of a Bulgarian Country Gentleman—Daily -Levées of Elders and Peasants—Counsel of the -Chorbadji and Stupidity of the Clients—Instances of -Bulgarian Grievances—St. Panteleemon—A Spiritual -Elopement—Dentist’s Fees—Woman’s Work in Bulgaria—Sobriety—Town -Life—A Bulgarian Ball—A -Night in a Bulgarian Hamlet, and the Comfort thereof—Unity -of the Nation—Distrust of Foreigners—Demoralization -of the Bulgarians—The Hope for the -Future.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The Bulgarians, who were completely -crushed by the Ottoman Conquest, and -whose very existence for centuries was -almost forgotten, have been suddenly brought -before the world by the late unhappy events -in their country.</p> - -<p>Much has been written by English and -foreign authors respecting them, but few of -the writings on the subject appear to agree -with regard to the origin, the history, or the -present social and moral condition of this -much injured but deserving people. I have -no pretensions to throw a fresh light on the -first two points. The few remarks I shall -make are based upon such authors as are considered -most trustworthy, and especially on -the recent researches of Professor Hyrtl, reserving -to myself the task of describing the -moral and social condition of the modern -Bulgarians, as fourteen years spent among -them enables me to do.</p> - -<p>From the Bulgarian Professor Drinov, who -appears to have made the Balkan peninsula -his especial study, we learn that before the -arrival of the Bulgarian tribes into European -Turkey, the southern side of the Danube -had been invaded by the Slavs, who during -four centuries poured into the country and, -steadily spreading, drove out the previous -inhabitants, who directed their steps towards -the sea-coasts and settled in the towns there. -In the beginning of the sixth century the -Slavonic element had become so powerful in -its newly-acquired dominions, and its depredatory -incursions into the Byzantine Empire -so extensive, that the Emperor Anastasius -found himself forced to build a wall from -Selymbria on the Sea of Marmora to Derkon -on the Black Sea in order to repel their attacks. -Procopius, commenting on this, relates -that while Justinian was winning useless -victories over the Persians, part of his -empire lay exposed to the ravages of the -Slavs, and that not less than 200,000 Byzantines -were annually killed or carried away -into slavery.</p> - -<p>The hostile spirit, however, between these -two nations was broken by short intervals of -peace and friendly relations, during which -the Slav race supplied some emperors and -many distinguished men to the Byzantines. -Many Slavs resorted to Constantinople in -order to receive the education and training -their newly-founded kingdom did not afford -them. The migration of the Slavs into -Thrace ceased towards the middle of the seventh -century, when they settled down to a -more sedentary life, and, under the civilizing -influence of their Byzantine neighbors, -betook themselves to agricultural and pastoral -pursuits. According to historical accounts -the Slavs did not long enjoy their acquisitions -in peace, for about the year 679 -<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> a horde of Hunnish warriors, calling -themselves Bulgars (a name derived from -their former home on the Volga), crossed the -Danube under the leadership of their Khan, -Asparuch, and after some desperate fighting -with the Slavs, finally settled on the land now -known as Bulgaria and founded a kingdom -which in its turn lasted about seven hundred -years.</p> - -<p>From the little that is known of the original -Bulgarians, we learn that polygamy was practised -among them, that the men shaved their -heads and wore a kind of turban, and the -women veiled their faces. These points of -similarity connect the primitive Bulgarians -with the Avars, with whom they came into -close contact, as well as with the Tatars, during -their long sojourn between the Volga and -Tanais, as witness the marked Tatar features -some of the Bulgarians bear to the present -day. The primitive Bulgarians are said to -have subsisted chiefly on the flesh of animals -killed in the chase; and it is further related -of them that they burnt their dead, and -when a chieftain died his wives and servants -were also burnt and their ashes buried with -those of their master. Schafarik, whose -learned and trustworthy researches on the -origin of the Bulgarians can scarcely be called -in question, remarks that the warlike hordes -from the Volga regions, though not numerous, -were very brave and well skilled in war. -They attacked with great ferocity the patient -plodding Slavs, who were engaged in cultivating -the land and rearing cattle, quickly -obtained the governing power, and after tasting -the comforts of a settled life, gradually -adopted to a great extent the manners, customs, -and even the language of the people -they had conquered. This amalgamation appears -to have been a slow process, occupying, -according to historical evidence, full two -hundred and fifty years. It is during this -period that the Bulgarian language must have -gradually been effaced, and the vanquishing -race, like the Normans in England, absorbed -by the vanquished.</p> - -<p>This fresh mixture with the Slav element -constituted the Bulgarians a separate race, -with no original title to belong to the Slavonic -family beyond that derived from the fusion -of blood that followed the long intercourse -of centuries, by which the primitive Bulgarians -became blended with the former inhabitants -of the country. It is evident that they -were superior to the Slavs in military science -and power, but inferior as regards civilization, -and thus naturally yielded to the influence -of the more advanced and better organized -people. By this influence they created -a distinct nation, gave their name to the -country, and consolidated their power by -laws and institutions.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian kingdom, from its very -foundation in 679 until its final overthrow by -the Turks in 1396, presents a wearisome tale -of battles with short intervals of peace, in the -struggle for supremacy between the Emperors -of Byzantium and the rulers of Bulgaria. -The balance of power alternately inclined -from one party to the other; the wars were -inhuman on both sides; on the one hand, we -read of hundreds of thousands of Byzantines -yearly sacrificed by the Slavs; on the other, -we have equally horrible spectacles presented -to us, like that enacted during the reign of -Basil, surnamed Βουλγαροκτόνος (The Bulgarian-killer), -on account of the great number -of Bulgarians killed by his order. This savage, -having on one occasion captured a large -number of Bulgarians, separated 15,000 into -companies of 100 each, and ordered ninety-nine -out of each of these companies to be -blinded, allowing the remaining hundredth -to retain his sight in order to become the -leader of his blind brethren.</p> - -<p>In the midst of such scenes, and at the cost -of torrents of blood, successive kingdoms -were constituted in this unhappy land of perpetual -warfare. Raised into momentary eminence -by the force of arms, they were again -hurled to the ground by the same merciless -instrument. Supreme power has been alternately -wielded by the savage, the Moslem, -and the Christian; each of whom to the -present day continues the work of destruction.</p> - -<p>The condition of Bulgarians did not improve -under the Ottoman rule. Their empire soon -disappeared, leaving to posterity nothing but -a few ruined castles and fortresses, and some -annals and popular songs illustrating its past -glory. The Turkish conquest was more -deeply felt by the Bulgarians than by their -brethren in adversity, the Byzantines and the -neighboring Slav nations. These, owing to -the more favorable geographical position of -their countries and other advantages, were -able to save some privileges out of the general -wreck, and to retain a shadow of their national -rights. The Byzantines were protected -by a certain amount of influence left in -the hands of the clergy, while the Slav nations -were enabled to make certain conditions with -their conqueror before their complete surrender, -and were successful in enlisting the sympathies -and protection of friendly powers in -their behalf, and in obtaining through their -instrumentality at intervals reforms never -vouchsafed to the Bulgarians. This nation, -isolated, ignored, and shut out from the civilized -world, crouched under the despotic -rule of the Ottomans, and submitted to a life -of perpetual toil and hardship, uncheered by -any of the pleasures of life, unsupported by -the least gleam of hope for a better future.</p> - -<p>This sad condition has lasted for centuries; -and by force of misery the people became -grouped into two classes: the poor, -who were constant to their faith and national -feeling, and the wealthy and prosperous, who -adopted Islam in order to escape persecution -and save their property. To this latter class -may be added the Pomaks, a predatory tribe -inhabiting a mountainous district between -the provinces of Philippopolis and Serres. -They live apart, and pass for Mussulmans -because they have some mosques; but they -have no knowledge of the Koran nor follow -its laws very closely. Most of them to this -day bear Christian names and speak the Slav -language. The men are a fine race, but -utterly ignorant and barbarous.</p> - -<p>Upon the poor and therefore Christian class -fell all the weight of the Ottoman yoke, -which made itself felt in their moral and -material condition, and reached even to the -dress, which was enforced as a mark of servility. -They were forbidden to build -churches, and beyond the ordinary annual -poll-tax imposed by Moslems on infidel subjects, -they had to submit to the many illegal -extortions of rapacious governors and cruel -landlords; besides the terrible blood-tax -collected every five years to recruit the ranks -of the Janissaries from the finest children of -the province. Nor were the Bulgarian maidens -spared: if a girl struck the fancy of a Mohammedan -neighbor or a government official, -he always found means to possess himself of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -her person without using much ceremony or -fearing much commotion.</p> - -<p>The depressing and demoralizing effect of -such a system upon the Bulgarians may be -imagined; it was sufficient to brutalize a -people far more advanced than they were at -the time of the conquest. It cowed them, -destroyed their brave and venturous spirit, -taught them to cringe, and weakened their -ideas of right and wrong. It is not strange -that a people thus demoralized should, under -the pressure of recent troubles, be said in -some instances to have acted treacherously -both towards their late rulers and present protectors; -but the vices of rapacity, treachery, -cruelty, and dishonesty could not have -been the natural characteristics of this unhappy -people until misery taught them the -lesson.</p> - -<p>The laws promulgated in the reign of Sultan -Abdul-Medjid with respect to the amelioration -of the condition of the rayahs were -gradually introduced into Bulgaria, and their -beneficial influence tended greatly to remove -some of the most crying wrongs that had so -long oppressed the people. These reforms -apparently satisfied the Bulgarians—always -easily contented and peacefully disposed. -They were thankful for the slight protection -thus thrown over their life and property. -They welcomed the reforms with gratitude -as the signs of better days, and, stimulated -by written laws, as well as by the better system -of government that had succeeded the -old one and had deprived their Mohammedan -neighbors of some of their power of molesting -and injuring them, they redoubled their -activity and endeavored by industry to improve -their condition. Such changes can be -only gradual among an oppressed people in -the absence of good government and easy -communication with the outer world.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarians, inwardly, perhaps, still -dissatisfied, seemed outwardly content and -attached to the Porte in the midst of the revolutionary -movements that alternately convulsed -the Servian, Greek, and Albanian -populations. A very small section alone -yielded to the influence of the foreign agents -or <i>comitats</i>, who were using every means to -create a general rising in Bulgaria, or was at -any time in the Bulgarian troubles enticed to -raise its voice against the Ottoman Government -and throw off its allegiance. The late -movement is said to have received encouragement -from the Bulgarian clergy acting -under Russian influence, and from the young -schoolmasters, whose more advanced ideas -naturally led them to instil notions of independence -among the people. But these views were -by no means entertained by the more thoughtful -and important members of the community, -and no organized disaffection existed in Bulgaria -at the time the so-called revolt began. The -action of a few hot-headed patriots, followed -by some discontented peasants, started the revolt -which, if it had been judiciously dealt -with, might have been suppressed without -one drop of blood. The Bulgarians would -probably have continued plodding on as -faithful subjects of the Porte, instead of being -made—as will apparently be the case—a -portion of the Slav group. Whether this -fresh arrangement will succeed remains to be -seen; but according to my experience of -Bulgarian character, there is very little sympathy -between it and the Slav. The Bulgarians -have ever kept aloof from their Slavonic -neighbors, and will continue a separate -people even when possessed of independence.</p> - -<p>The limits of Bulgaria, which must be drawn -from an ethnological standpoint, are not very -easily determined. The right of conquest and -long possession no doubt entitles the Bulgarians -to call their own the country extending -from the Danube to the Balkans. South of -that range and of Mount Scardos, however, -<i>i.e.</i>, in the northern part of Thrace and Macedonia, -their settlement was never permanent, -and their capital, originally established -in Lychnidos (the modern Ochrida), had to -be removed north of the Balkans to Tirnova. -The colonies they established were never -very important, since they were scattered in -the open country as better adapted to the agricultural -and pastoral pursuits of the nation. -These settlements, forming into large and -small villages, took Bulgarian names, but the -names of the towns remained Greek.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarians south of the Balkans are a -mixed race, neither purely Greek nor purely -Bulgarian; but their manners and customs -and physical features identify them more -closely with the Greeks than with the Bulgarians -north of the Balkans. There the Finnish -type is clearly marked by the projecting -cheek-bones, the short upturned nose, the -small eyes, and thickly-set but rather small -build of the people.</p> - -<p>In Thrace and Macedonia, where Hellenic -blood and features predominate, and Hellenic -influence is more strongly felt, the people -call themselves Thracians and Macedonians, -rather than Bulgarians; the Greek language, -in schools, churches, and in correspondence, -is used by the majority in preference -to the Bulgarian, and even in the late -church question in many places the people -showed themselves lukewarm about the separation, -and the bulk remained faithful to -the Church of Constantinople.</p> - -<p>The sandjak of Philippopolis, esteemed -almost entirely Bulgarian by some writers, is -claimed for the Greeks by others upon the argument -that Stanimacho, with its fifteen villages, -is Greek with regard to language and -predilection, and Didymotichon, with its forty-five -villages, is a mixture of Greeks and -Bulgarians. As a matter of fact, however, in -this sandjak, in consequence of its proximity -to Bulgaria proper, and to its developed and -prosperous condition, the Bulgarian element -has taken the lead.</p> - -<p>The revival of the church question and the -educational movement have stayed and almost -nullified Greek influence, which is limited -to certain localities like Stanimacho and -other places, where the people hold as -staunchly to their Greek nationality as the -Bulgarians of other localities do to their own. -While dispute waxed hot in the town of -Philippopolis between the parties of Greeks -and Bulgarians, each in defence of its rights, -no spirit of the kind was ever evinced in -Adrianople, where the population is principally -Greek and Turkish, with a small number -of Armenians and Bulgarians. In Macedonia -the sandjak of Salonika, comprising -Cassandra, Verria, and Serres, numbering in -all about 250.000 souls, is, with few exceptions, -Greek, or so far Hellenized as to be so to -all intents and purposes. The inhabitants of -Vodena and Janitza, and the majority in -Doïran and Stromnitza, and a considerable -portion of the population of Avrat Hissar, on -the right bank of the Vardar, claim Greek -nationality. The Greeks in this part of the -country have worked with the same tenacity -of purpose and consequent success in Hellenizing -the people, as the Bulgarians of the -kaza of Philippopolis in promoting the feeling -of Bulgarian nationality there. This -mission of the Greeks here has not been a -very difficult one, as the national feeling of -the bulk of the population is naturally -Greek.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the marked tendency of -the people towards Hellenism, the language -in Vodena and other places is Bulgarian; -but the features of the people, together with -their ideas, manners, and customs, are essentially -Greek; even the dress of the Bulgarian-speaking -peasant is marked by the absence -of the typical <i>potour</i> and the <i>gougla</i> or cap -worn in Bulgaria.</p> - -<p>Most of the authors who have written on -the populations of these regions have, either -through Panslavistic views or misled by the -prevalence of the Bulgarian language in the -rural districts, put down the whole of the -population as Bulgarian, a mistake easily -corrected by a summary of the number of -Greeks and Bulgarians conjointly occupying -those districts, separating the purely Greek -from the purely Bulgarian element, and taking -into consideration at the same time the -number of mixed Greeks and Bulgarians.</p> - -<p>If the wide geographical limits projected -by Russia for Bulgaria be carried out, there -will be a recurrence of all the horrors of the -recent war in a strife between the Greeks -and Bulgarians, in consequence of the encroachment -of the future Bulgaria upon territory -justly laid claim to by the Greeks as -ethnologically their own and as a heritage -from past ages. The question would be -greatly simplified and the danger of future -contests between the two peoples much lessened, -if not entirely removed, by the Bulgarian -autonomy being limited to the country -north of the Balkans.</p> - -<p>The Greek Government might not be equal -at first to the administration of their newly-acquired -kingdom, but if united in close alliance -with some friendly power and placed -under its tutelage, an honest and stable empire -might be established with every probability -of soon rising into a flourishing condition -in the hands of a people whose intelligence, -activity, and enterprising spirit give -them an incontestable superiority over the -other races of Turkey.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarians south of the Balkans being, -as before said, of a mixed race engrafted upon -the Hellenic stock, would not be found to -offer any serious opposition. They are closely -incorporated with the Greek element in -some districts; while in others, where Bulgarian -feeling predominates, the people -would willingly migrate to Bulgaria proper, -as the Hellenized Bulgarians under such an -arrangement would draw nearer to Greece; -whilst in parts of Macedonia, where Hellenism -has the ascendancy, very little difficulty -would be met with from the Bulgarian settlements.</p> - -<p>My recollections of Bulgarian social life -are to a great extent derived from a three -months’ stay I made under the hospitable -roof of a Bulgarian gentleman, or <i>Chorbadji</i>, -as he was called by his own people. He was -the most wealthy and influential person in -the town of T⸺, where his position as -member of the <i>Medjeiss</i> constituted him the -chief guardian and advocate of the Bulgarian -people of the district. I mention this in -order to show the reader that in his house -the opportunity of making important observations -and of witnessing national characteristics -were not wanting. These observations -embraced the social features I was allowed -to study in the midst of the home and family -life both of the educated and thinking Bulgarians -and of the peasants who daily flocked -to the house of my friend from the towns -and villages to submit to him their wrongs -and grievances, and, as their national representative, -to ask his advice and assistance before -proceeding to the local courts.</p> - -<p>These levées began sometimes as early as -six o’clock in the morning, and lasted until -eleven. The <i>Kodja-bashi</i>, or headmen, would -come in a body to consult about the affairs -of the community, or to represent some -grave case pending before the local court of -their respective towns; or groups of peasants -of both sexes, sometimes representing -the population of a whole village, would arrive, -at the request of the authorities, to answer -some demand made by them, or plead -against an act of gross injury or injustice. -Whatever the cause that brought them daily -under my notice, the picture they presented -was extremely curious and interesting, and -the pleasure was completed by the privilege -I enjoyed of afterwards obtaining a detailed -account of the causes and grievances that -brought them there. When the interested -visitors happened to be elders of their little -communities or towns, they were shown into -the study of my host. After exchanging salutes -and shaking hands, they were offered -<i>slatko</i> (preserves) and coffee, and business<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> -was at once entered into. At such moments -the Bulgarian does not display the heat and -excitement that characterizes the Greek, nor -fall into the uproarious argument of the Armenians -and Jews, nor yet display the finessing -wit of the Turk; but steering a middle -course between these different modes of action, -he stands his ground and perseveres in -his argument, until he has either made his -case clear or is persuaded to take another -view of it. The subjects that most animated -the Bulgarians in these assemblies were -their national affairs and their dissensions -with the Greeks; the secondary ones were -the wrongs and grievances they suffered -from a bad administration; and although -they justly lamented these, and at times bitterly -complained of the neglect or incapacity -of the Porte to right them in an effective -manner and put a stop to acts of injustice -committed by their Mohammedan neighbors -and the local courts, I at no time noticed any -tendency to disloyalty or revolutionary notions, -or any disposition to court Russian -protection, from which, indeed, the most enlightened -and important portion of the nation -at that period made decided efforts to keep -aloof.</p> - -<p>When it was the peasants who gathered at -the Chorbadji’s house, their band was led by its -Kodja-Bashi, who, acting as spokesman, first -entered the big gate, followed by a long train -of his brethren. Ranged in a line near the -porch, they awaited the coming of the master -to explain to him the cause of their visit. -Their distinguished-looking patron, pipe in -hand, shortly made his appearance at the -door, when caps were immediately doffed, -and the right hands were laid on the breast -and hidden by the shaggy heads bending -over them in a salaam, answered by a kindly -“Dobro deni” (good morning), followed by -the demand “Shto sakaty?” (what do you -want?) The peasants, with an embarrassed -air, looked at each other, while the Kodja-Bashi -proceeded to explain matters. Should -his eloquence fall short of the task, one or -two others would step out of the ranks and -become spokesmen. It was almost painful -to see these simple people endeavoring to -give a clear and comprehensive account of -their case, and trying to understand the advice -and directions of the Chorbadji. A -half-frightened, surprised look, importing -fear or doubt, a shrug of the shoulders, accompanied -by the words “Né znam—Né -mozhem” (I do not know, I cannot do), was -generally the first expression in answer to the -eloquence of my friend, who in his repeated -efforts to explain matters frequently lost all -patience, and would end by exclaiming, “Né -biddy magari!” (Don’t be donkeys!)—a remark -which had no effect upon the band of -rustics further than to send them off, full of -gratitude, to do as he had counselled.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the reader may be curious to know -the details of some of the cases daily brought -under my notice. I will mention a few not -connected with Turkish oppression and maladministration; -for by this time the English -public has been pretty well enlightened on -that subject. My list will include some -rather more original incidents which took -place in the community: disputes between -all non-Mussulmans are generally settled by -the temporal or spiritual chiefs, and seldom -brought before the Courts of Justice.</p> - -<p>While Greeks and Bulgarians in the heat -of controversy were snatching churches and -monasteries from each other, the priests and -monks who were attached to these sacred -foundations found themselves unpleasantly -jostled between the two hostile elements. To -be a Greek priest or monk and be forced to -acknowledge the supremacy of an anathematized -and illegal church was a profanation -not to be endured; and, on the other hand, -to be a Bulgarian and be forced to pray day -by day for a detested spiritual head rejected -by his nation was an insupportable anomaly. -In the midst of the difficulty and confusion -at first caused by this state of affairs, some -of the good fathers and monks had to remove -their quarters and betake themselves -to a wandering life, visiting their respective -communities and encouraging the people by -their exhortations to hold fast to their church -and oppose with all their might the claims -and usurping tendencies of the others. -Among these a Bulgarian monk, more venturous -and evidently endowed with a greater -amount of imaginative eloquence than the -rest, and rejoicing in the title of Spheti Panteleemon, -regarded himself as the prophet of -the Bulgarian people. This Saint Panteleemon -was a man of middle age and middle -height, with a jovial face, a cunning look, -and an intelligent but restless eye, by no -means indicative of an ascetic view of life.</p> - -<p>Contrary to the saying that no man is a -prophet in his own country, Spheti Panteleemon -was acknowledged as such by a considerable -class of his people, consisting entirely -of the gentle sex, and his success among them -was as great as ritualism appears to be in -England.</p> - -<p>The preaching of this prophet, intended -solely for the Bulgarian women, became so -pronounced in its tenets, so eloquent in its -delivery, and was rendered so impressive by -the different means he employed to instil his -precepts into the hearts and minds of his -hearers, that their number soon increased -into a vast congregation, which flocked from -all parts of the country to hear the words of -their favorite saint. On such occasions, -this false prophet, who had managed to -usurp possession of a small monastery, would -stand forth amid thousands of women, who -at his approach would cross themselves and -fall down almost to worship him. Spheti -Panteleemon, in acknowledgment of this -mark of devotion, would raise his voice and -rehearse his doctrines to the devotees. These -doctrines included strange principles, asserted -by their author to be the best and surest -way to Paradise; but they scarcely conduced -to the satisfaction of the husbands. Women, -according to this man, were to be free and -independent, and their principal affections -were to be bestowed upon their spiritual -guide; their earnestness was to be proved by -depositing their earthly wealth (consisting -chiefly of their silver ornaments) at his feet. -The practical Bulgarian husbands, however, -were by no means admirers of this new spiritual -director, whose sole object appeared to -be to rob them of the affections of their wives -along with their wealth, and they soon raised -their voices against his proceedings. After -holding counsel on the subject, they decided -to give notice of his doings to the local authorities, -and by their influence to have him -sent out of the country. The prophet was -arrested one fine morning, while addressing -a congregation of 500 women, by a body of -police, and brought to the prison of the town -of S⸺, whilst all the women devoutly followed, -weeping, beating their breasts, and -clamoring for the release of their saint. The -husbands, on the other hand, pleaded their -grievances against this disorganizer of society, -and proved his dishonesty by displaying -to the authorities a quantity of silver trinkets -of all descriptions taken from his dwelling, -to the great indignation of his devotees. -The imagination of some of these ignorant -and superstitious peasant women had been -so worked upon that they solemnly declared -to me that the feet of their prophet never -touched the ground, but remained always -a distance of two feet above it, and that his -sole sustenance was grass. While his fate -was still undecided, amidst the wailings of -the women, the protests of the husbands, -and the embarrassment of the authorities, the -fellow got out of the difficulty by declaring -himself a “Uniate” and a member of the -Church of Rome. This avowal could not -fail to excite the interest of the agents of -that body: they claimed the stray sheep as -redeemed, took him under their immediate -protection, but (it is to be hoped) deprived -him of his pretended attribute of sanctity and -the power of making himself any longer a -central object of attraction to the <i>beau sexe</i>.</p> - -<p>Another incident was of a nature less sensational -but equally repulsive to the feelings -and notions of the strict portion of the Bulgarian -nation, and had also a monk for its -hero. It consisted of an elopement, and if -there is one crime that shocks and horrifies -orthodox people more than another, it is that -of a monk who, taking the vows of celibacy, -perjures himself by adopting the respectable -life of a married man. Such events are of -very rare occurrence, and when they take -place cause a great commotion.</p> - -<p>This monk, at the time of the disputed -church rights, lost his solitary retreat, and -was once more thrown in contact with the -world he had forsworn. Sent adrift, he set -out in search of an unknown destiny, without -hope or friends, uncertain where his next -meal was to come from. After a long day’s -march, he lay down to rest under a tree in a -cultivated field, and, overcome by fatigue, -fell asleep. He was about twenty-five years -of age, tall, with regular features, a startlingly -pale complexion, and coal black eyes, -hair, and beard; his whole appearance, indeed, -rather handsome than otherwise. Such, -at least, was the description given of him by -the rustic beauty who surprised him while -driving her father’s cattle home.</p> - -<p>A Bulgarian monk in those stirring times -was always an object of interest, even to a -less imaginative person than a young maiden. -She, therefore, considered it her duty -to watch over his slumbers, and refresh him -with bread and salt on awaking. Quietly -seating herself by his side, she awaited the -arousal of the unconscious sleeper. When -he awoke, his eyes met those of the girl, and -in that exchange of looks a new light dawned -upon these two beings, who, though they -had never met before, were now to become -dearer to each other than life itself. The -monk forgot his vows and poured forth his -tale of love to a willing listener, who immediately -vowed to follow his fortunes and become -his wife, or end her days in a convent. -This illustrates the definition of love once -given to me by a Bulgarian gentleman: -“Chez nous l’amour n’a point de préliminaires; -on va droit au fait.” The adventurous -couple forthwith eloped, and wandered -about the country, until the monk was discovered, -in spite of his disguise, by the scandalized -Bulgarians, by whom he was once -more sent to a monastery, imprisoned in a -dungeon, condemned to live upon dry bread -and to undergo daily corporal chastisement -for his sins. But the adventurous -maiden, determined to effect his release, contrived -to make friends with the Kir Agassi, -or head of the mounted police in the district -where the monastery was situated, and -through his instrumentality the monk was -again set at liberty. The subject was discussed -in all its bearings at the house of my -friends, until the couple wisely adopted Protestantism, -and after being married by a minister -of that church settled down to a peaceful -life of domestic bliss.</p> - -<p>A third incident illustrates the Bulgarian -appreciation of surgical art. The name of -surgeon was unknown in the country villages, -and that of dentist, even in a large -town like S⸺, until an adventurous spirit -belonging to the latter profession, in the -course of a speculative tour, established himself -there. The inhabitants, on passing his -house, used to stop and gaze in wonder at -the sets of teeth displayed under glass cases. -Conjecture ran wild as to how these were -made and could be used. Some imagined -them to be abstracted front the jaws of dead -persons, salted, and prepared in some mysterious -way for refitting in the mouths of the -living.</p> - -<p>The fame of the dentist’s art began to be -noised abroad throughout the district, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -many became desirous, if not of procuring -new teeth, at least of having some troublesome -old stumps extracted. Among these -was a well-to-do Bulgarian peasant, who -presented himself in the surgery for this purpose. -The dentist relieved him of his tooth -with great facility, to the man’s exceeding -astonishment. On leaving he took out his -long knitted money-bag, carefully counted -out five piastres (10<i>d.</i>), and handed them to -the dentist, who returned them, saying that -his fee would be half a lira. “What!” exclaimed -the indignant Bulgarian; “do you -mean to say that you will charge me so -much, when last week I underwent the same -operation at the hands of my barber, and -after a struggle of two hours over an obstinate -tooth, during which I had several times -to lie flat on my back and he and I were both -bathed in perspiration until it finally yielded, -I paid him five piastres, with which he was -quite contented; and you, who were only a -few minutes over it, demand ten times that -sum! It is simply monstrous, and I shall -forthwith lodge a complaint against you!”</p> - -<p>As good as his word, in a fever of excitement -he arrived at the Chorbadji’s house to -denounce the extortionate Frank. When -quietly asked if it were not worth while to -pay a larger sum and get rid of his tooth -without loss of time and trouble, instead of -spending two hours of suffering and violent -exertion for which he was charged only five -piastres, he admitted that such was the case, -and that the Frank was a far cleverer man -than the barber could ever hope to be.</p> - -<p>Social life among the Bulgarians differs -little from that of the Greeks, save in the -greater ascendancy the Bulgarian wives of -the working classes have over their husbands. -This advantage is probably derived -from the masculine manner in which they -share in the hardy toil, working by the side -of their husbands, and by their personal exertions -gaining almost as much as the men do. -The care of clothing the family also devolves -entirely upon them, besides which they -have to attend to their domestic duties, which -are always performed with care, cleanliness, -and activity. Simple as these tasks may be, -they require time, which the housewife always -manages to find. The well-beaten -earthen floor is always neatly swept, the -rugs and bedding carefully brushed and -folded up, and the copper cooking utensils -well scoured and ranged in their places. The -cookery is simple but very palatable, especially -the pastry, which is excellent; whilst -the treacle and other provisions stored away -for the winter are wholesome and good.</p> - -<p>Some uninformed authors have, I believe, -stated that not only are the Bulgarian men -seldom to be seen in a state of sobriety, but -that the women also indulge to a great extent -in the vice of drunkenness. So far as I -am able to judge, this statement is utterly -groundless; for no woman in the east, whatever -her nationality, disgraces herself by -drinking to excess in the shops where spirituous -drinks are sold, or is ever seen in the -streets in a state of intoxication. The man -certainly likes his glass, and on occasions -freely indulges in it; but excesses are committed -only on feast-days, when the whole -village is given up to joviality and merriment.</p> - -<p>The townspeople seldom indulge in these -festivities; but tied down to a sedentary -life, cheered by no view of the open country, -nor by fresh air and the rural pursuits congenial -to their nature, they lead a monotonous -existence, divided between their homes -and their calling. The women on their side -fare no better, and with the exception of paying -and receiving calls on feast-days, or taking -a promenade, keep much within doors, -occupying themselves with needlework and -taking an active part in their domestic affairs. -This quiet uniform life is occasionally brightened -by an evening party, or even a ball, if -the deficiency in the arrangement of the -rooms, the refreshments, and especially the -<i>sans gêne</i> observed with regard to dress, permit -of the name. One of these festive scenes -was illuminated by large home-made tallow -candles, supported by candelabra of Viennese -manufacture, further supplemented by another -innovation in the shape of a pair of elegant -snuffers, which fortunately obviated the -usual performance with the fingers, by which -the ball-rooms are usually perfumed with the -odor of burnt mutton chops. Setting aside -minor details, my attention was much attracted -by the queer versatility of the band, -which suddenly changed from the national -<i>hora</i> to an old-fashioned polka which had -just been introduced as a great novelty, but -was indulged in only by married couples, or -timid brothers and sisters, who held each -other at so respectful a distance that another -couple might easily have passed between -them. But the greatest charm of the gathering -was the <i>coup d’œil</i> that embraced dress, -deportment, and decorations. The dress was -as varied in shape and material as the forms -of the wearers. Double and triple fur coats, -according to age and taste, safely sheltered -the majority of the gentlemen from cold and -draughts; well-fitting frock coats distinguished -the few <i>comme il faut</i> officials; while -dress coats of Parisian cut distinguished the -quiet and apparently gentlemanlike youths -brought up in Europe, and contrasted with -the less elegant toilettes of their untravelled -brethren dressed <i>à la Bulgare</i>.</p> - -<p>The variety in the dress of the ladies was -equally diverting. Some wore their fur -jackets over rich silk dresses, others, more -fashionable, dispensed with the weight of this -unnecessary article; while the heads of all of -them sparkled with jewelry. Crinoline, often -heard of under the name of “Malakoff,” -but unseen in the town before 1855, was supposed -to be introduced into the room by a -German Jewish lady, an old resident in the -town, and was so proudly displayed by her -in all its proportions, that it attracted the attention -of a homely old Bulgarian <i>gospoyer</i>, -who, in a simple manner, quietly turned up -the hem of her dress and displayed to a small -section of the astonished assembly an ingenious -substitute for the crinoline made of <i>The -Times</i> newspaper!</p> - -<p>The chapter on Peasant-holdings treats at -some length of the Bulgarian peasant, of his -capacity for work, and the amount of ease -and prosperity he is able to attain in spite of -the many drawbacks that surround him. -His prosperity is due to two sources—the -modesty of his wants, and the activity of his -whole family. The fruits of such a system -are naturally good when the soil, climate, and -other natural advantages favor it.</p> - -<p>But some parts of Bulgaria are far from -being the Utopia some newspaper correspondents -have represented it, with vines -hanging over every cottage-door, and milk -and honey flowing in the land. Nothing but -long residence and personal experience can -enable one to arrive at a true estimate of such -matters.</p> - -<p>Though in some parts I found the scenery -delightful, the prosperity of the inhabitants -astonishing, and Moslems and Christians -rivalling each other in hospitable kindness to -the traveller, some spots were anything but -romantic or prosperous, and far from happy-looking. -Some villages, in particular, I noticed -in the midst of a dreary plain, such as -the traveller may see on the road from Rodosto -to Adrianople, where the soil looks dry -and barren, and the pastures grow yellow -and parched before their time, and where flying -bands of Circassian thieves and cut-throats -hover about like birds of prey. I -was once travelling through the country, riding -the whole of one day on such bad roads -that the mud often reached up to my horse’s -knees, and the carriage containing my maid -and the provisions often came to a dead stop, -while the rain poured incessantly. The -journey appeared interminable, and as darkness -crept on and several miles of road still -separated us from our projected halting-place, -I made up my mind to stop at an isolated -village for the night. So traversing -fresh pools of mud we entered the hamlet, -and were met by the Kodja-Bashi, a poorly-clad, -miserable-looking individual, who led -our party into his farm-yard. On alighting -from my horse I was ushered into a dark, -bare, dismal hovel, without windows, and -lighted only by a hole in the roof, through -which escaped some of the smoke from a -few dung-cakes smouldering in a corner. -One or two water-jars stood near the door, -and an earthen pot, serving for all culinary -purposes, was placed by the fire, in front of -which was spread a tattered mat occupied by -a few three-legged stools. A bundle of uninviting -rags and cushions, the family bedding, -was stowed in a corner, and in another -were seen a few pots and pans, the whole -“table service” of the occupants.</p> - -<p>This hovel was attached to a similar one -opening into it, where I heard some bustle -going on. I was told that a member of the -family who occupied it and was seriously ill -was being removed to a neighbor’s house. -Much annoyed at having caused so much -trouble and disturbance to the unfortunate -sufferer, I asked my host why he had not -placed me in another cottage. “Well, <i>gospoyer</i>,” -answered he, with an apologetic -gesture, “poor and wretched as my home is, -it is the best the village possesses. The rest -are not fit to kennel your dogs in. As for -my daughter, I could not but remove her, as -her cries during the night would prevent -your sleeping.” I inquired her complaint, -and was told that she was in high fever, and -suffered from sharp pains all over her body. -There was no doctor to attend her, nor had -she any medicine but the decoctions prepared -for her by the old <i>bulkas</i>.</p> - -<p>I visited the poor creature and gave what -help I could; but, being by no means reassured -as to the nature of her malady, and unwilling -to sleep in the vicinity of an infected -room, I ordered the carriage to be placed under -a shed and proposed to pass the night in -it. The host, however, on hearing this, told -me that it was quite impracticable, as the -village dogs were so famished that they -would be sure to attack the carriage for the -sake of the leather on it. “I have taken the -precaution,” he added, “of removing every -part that is liable to be destroyed, but there -is no telling what these animals will do.” I -then ordered the hamper to be brought in -and supper to be prepared; but on sitting -down on the floor to partake of it we discovered -that our provision of bread was exhausted, -and learnt that not a morsel was procurable -in the village. Our host explained this -by saying, “You see, <i>gospoyer</i>, our village is -so poor and miserable that we have no drinkable -water, and our <i>bulkas</i> have to fetch it -from a distance of three miles. We have no -fuel either, for the village has no forest, and -we content ourselves with what you see on -the hearth. As for bread, it is a luxury we -seldom enjoy; millet flour mixed with water -into a paste and baked on the ashes is -our substitute for it; it does for us, but -would not please you.”</p> - -<p>In the mean time the women and children -had gathered round me in the little room, -all looking so poor, fever-stricken, and miserable, -and casting such looks of eager surprise -at the exhibition of eatables before me, -that I felt positively sick at heart; all my -appetite left me, and distributing my supper -among the hungry crowd, I contented myself -with a cup of tea, and endeavored to forget -in sleep the picture of misery I had witnessed. -I was thankful to get away in the -morning, and am happy to say that neither -before nor since have I witnessed such poverty -and misery as I saw in that village.</p> - -<p>The marked slowness of perception in the -character of the Bulgarian peasants, and -their willingness to allow others to think and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> -act for them in great matters, is not so apparent -when the immediate interests of the -village or community are concerned. Before -referring these to the higher authorities, -they meet and quietly discuss their affairs, -and often settle the differences among themselves. -The respect the Bulgarian entertains -for the clergy and for the enlightened portion -of his fellow-countrymen is so great that -he allows himself to be entirely guided by -them, evincing in small things as well as -great the feeling of harmony and union that -binds the whole people together. But the -reverse of this disposition is manifested by -the Bulgarians, more especially the peasants, -towards any foreign element, and particularly -towards the Turkish authorities. Obedient -and submissive as they have generally shown -themselves under the Ottoman rule, they -have inwardly always disliked and distrusted -it, saying that the government with regard -to their country, its richest field of harvest, -has only one object in view—that of -getting as much out of it as possible.</p> - -<p>This prevalent idea, not altogether ill-founded, -gave to the Bulgarian character -that rapacity and love of gain which, being -developed by late events, in the midst of general -ruin and loss of property, tempted him -to try to get what he could of what had been -left, without much scruple as to the means. -When unmerited calamities befall a people, -and oppression long weighs heavily upon -them, the sense of justice and humanity is -gradually lost and replaced by a spirit of -vindictiveness which incites to ignoble and -cruel actions. This ought not to surprise the -world in the case of the Bulgarians, when -their national life during the last two years is -taken into consideration; for what is it but a -series of unspeakable outrages by their enemies, -and destruction by those who professed -themselves their friends?</p> - -<p>The Bulgarians, however, as I have known -them in more peaceful times, never appeared -to possess as national characteristics the vices -that hasty and partial judges arguing from -special instances have attributed to them. -On the contrary, they seemed a peace-loving, -hard-working people, possessing many domestic -virtues which, if properly developed -under a good government, might make the -strength of an honest and promising state.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE GREEKS OF TURKEY.</span></h2> - -<p>Importance of the Greeks at the Present Moment—Their -Attitude—The Greek Peasant as Contrasted -with the Bulgarian—His Family—Eloquence—Patriotism—Comforts—The -Women—A Greek Girl—Women -of the Towns of the Upper Class—Of the Lower -Class—Wives and Husbands—Greek Parties—The -Conservatives and the Progressives—A Conversation -on Greek Go-a-head-ness—Physical Features of the -Modern Greek—Character—General Prejudice—A -Prussian Estimate—Greek Vices—An Adventure with -Greek Brigands—Adelphé—Unscrupulousness in Business—Causes -and Precedents—Jews and Greeks—Summary.</p> - -</div> - -<p>All eyes are now turned upon the Greek -race as one of the most important factors in -the Eastern Question. The future of South-Eastern -Europe is seen to lie in the balance -between Greek and Slav, and people’s opinions -incline to one side or the other as dread -of Russia or distrust of “Greek guile” gets -the upper hand. I have nothing to say here -about the people of free Hellas: I have only -to tell what I have witnessed of the character -and condition of the subject Greeks in -Turkey. These, though they shared in the -national effort of 1821-9, reaped little of the -fruits. The Greeks of Macedonia, Thessaly, -and Thrace did not gain the freedom accorded -to the people of “Greece Proper,” though -their condition was somewhat improved. -But they are only biding their time. They -know that their free countrymen are anxious -to share with them the results of the glorious -struggle of 1821. They know that centuries -of subjection and oppression have demoralized -and debased the nation; and they have -long been striving with their whole strength -to prepare themselves for freedom. They -have employed the time of transition with -great moderation and judgment. Those -whom the Porte has appointed to high offices -have filled their posts with conscientiousness, -fidelity, and dignity. Taught worldly -wisdom in the school of adversity, they have -avoided premature conspiracy and rebellion, -and have directed all their energies to educating -the race for its future. “Improve and -wait patiently” is the motto of the Greeks in -Turkey.</p> - -<p>The Greek peasant differs greatly from the -Bulgarian. Agriculture is not all the world -to him; his love for the pursuit is decidedly -moderate unless he sees an opening for enterprise -and speculation, as in the growth of -some special kind of produce which he can -sell in the raw condition or as manufactured -goods. Unlike the Bulgarian, his whole -family is not chained to the soil as the one -business of life. When the paterfamilias can -dispense with the services of some of his -daughters, they leave their home in pursuit -of occupation, and his sons in the same manner -are allowed to quit the paternal roof in -search of some more lucrative employment -elsewhere. It is thus that the Greek is to be -found in every nook and corner of Turkey, -established among his own kindred or with -foreigners, and following various professions -and callings, as doctors, lawyers, schoolmasters; -whilst, descending to a lower scale, we -find him employed in every town and village -as a petty tradesman, mason, carpenter, shoe-maker, -musician, in all which occupations he -manages by dint of energy, perseverance, and -address to obtain a modest competence, or -sometimes even to reach prosperity.</p> - -<p>I remember, among other instances of the -kind, the case of a Greek peasant family in -the district of B⸺. The father was a respectable -man, who owned a small property -in his native village, and whose quiver was -filled with eight children. The eldest remained -to assist on the farm; two others of -tender age also remained under the mother’s -care; the other five, including a girl, left -their home, and came to the town. One of -the boys and the girl took service with me; -a second boy apprenticed himself to a photographer, -another became a painter of -church pictures, and the fourth a cigarette-maker. -The salaries these young peasants -received were at first very meagre; but all -the same the four boys clubbed their savings -together, and after a time sent for their -younger brother to live in town in order to -enjoy the benefit of receiving a good education. -Six years passed, during which the -boy and his pretty and intelligent sister remained -in my house; both learned to speak -English, the boy having studied the language -grammatically in his leisure moments. They -are now honest, intelligent servants, perfect -in the performance of their duties, and devoted -to my family. The three apprentices, -through their steadiness, good conduct, and -energy, have become proficient enough in -their different callings to set up for themselves, -while the boy at school is one of the -most advanced students of the <i>Gymnasium</i>.</p> - -<p>The intellectual position of the Greeks is -far superior to that of the Bulgarians. They -are cleverer, and they and their children are -more advanced in education. They display -a great interest in passing events, as well as -in politics, a knowledge of which they obtain -by means of the numerous Greek newspapers -they receive from Athens, Constantinople, -and all the large towns of Turkey. These -journals find their way to the remotest hamlets, -one or two being sufficient to make the -round of a village. They also possess other -literature in the shape of the history of their -country, biographies of some of their illustrious -ancestors, and national songs in the -vernacular. All these make a deep impression -upon the entire population, who, after -the conclusion of the labors of the day, gather -together in the taverns and coffee-houses to -discuss matters, talking excellent sense over -the coffee-cup, or waxing hot and uproarious -over their wine and <i>raki</i>.</p> - -<p>The Greek peasant displays none of the -embarrassment and tonguetiedness of the -Bulgarian. I have often met with instances -of this: one especially struck me which happened -in the early part of last summer in the -vilayet of B⸺. Some Bashi-bazouks had -entered a village, and committed some of -their usual excesses; but the peasants had -found time to send away their wives and -daughters to a place of safety. On the following -day a body of fifty Greeks came to -complain to the authorities. In order to -render their claims more effective, they applied -for protection at the different Consulates. -I happened to be at luncheon at one -of these Consulates, and the Consul ordered -the men to be shown into the dining-room to -make their statements. One at once stepped -forward to give an account of the affair, -which he related with so much eloquence -and in such pure modern Greek that the -Consul, suspecting him to be some lawyer in -disguise, or a special advocate of Greek -grievances, set him aside, and called upon -another to give his version. Several looked -questioningly at each other, but with no sign -of embarrassment; on the contrary, the expression -on each face betokened natural self-confidence, -and meant in this instance to say, -“We can each tell the tale equally well, but -I had better begin than you.”</p> - -<p>Patriotism is highly developed among the -Greek peasants, who are fully aware of the -meaning of the word <i>patris</i>, and taught to -bear in mind that half a century ago free -Hellas formed part of the Ottoman Empire; -that its inhabitants, like themselves, were a -subject people, and owe the freedom they -now enjoy to self-sacrifice and individual -exertion. “They are our elder brothers,” -say they, “who have stepped into their inheritance -before us. There is a just God for -us as well!”</p> - -<p>The wants of the Greek are more numerous -than those of the Bulgarians. Their -dress, for instance, is not limited to a coarse -suit of <i>aba</i> and a sheepskin <i>gougla</i>, but is -sometimes made of fine cloth and other rich -materials, and includes shoes and stockings. -The culinary department also demands more -utensils; besides which, tables, table-linen, -knives and forks are often seen at their -meals. The bedding they use is more complete, -and does not consist solely of rugs, as -with the Bulgarians. Their houses are better -built, with some regard to comfort and -appearance, frequently with two stories, besides -possessing chimneys and windows -(when safe to do so). The village schools -are better organized, and kept under the -careful supervision of the Society for their -direction, and the churches are more numerous. -The women are less employed in field -work, and consequently more refined in their -tastes, prettier in appearance, and more careful -and elegant in their dress. The Greek -peasant girl knows the value of her personal -charms, and disdains to load herself with the -tarnished trinkets, gaudy flowers, and other -wonderful productions in which the Bulgarian -maiden delights. A skirt of some bright-colored -silk or mixed stuff and a cloth jacket -embroidered with gold form the principal -part of her gala costume, covered with a -fur-lined pelisse for out-of-door wear. Her -well-combed hair is plaited in numerous -tresses, and surmounted by the small Greek -cap, which is decorated with gold and silver -coins like those she wears as a necklace. -She is not to be bought, like the Bulgarian, -for a sum of money paid to her father as an -equivalent for her services; but according to -her means is dowered and given in marriage, -like the maidens of classical times. Still the -peasant girl is neither lazy nor useless; she -takes an active part in the duties of the -household, is early taught to knit and spin -the silk, flax, wool, or cotton which the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -mother requires for the different home-made -tissues of the family. She leads her father’s -flock to the pasture, and under the title of -<i>Voskopoula</i> kindles a flame in the heart of the -village youth and inspires the rustic muse. -On Sundays and feast-days she enters heartily -into all the innocent pleasures of her retired -and isolated life. She has more pride than -the Bulgarian; and although in married life -she is submissive and docile, she possesses a -greater depth and richness of love. I have -known instances of peasant girls exchanging -vows with youths of their village who are -leaving their home in search of fortune, and -patiently waiting for them and refusing all -offers in the mean time. In most cases this -devotion is requited by equal constancy on -the part of the lover; but should she be deserted, -her grief is so terrible that she not -seldom dies from the blow.</p> - -<p>If there is more than one daughter in a -family, some from the age of twelve or fourteen -are usually sent to town and placed out -as servants, with the double object of giving -them the opportunity of seeing more of the -world and the means of earning something -for their own maintenance. These earnings -as they are acquired are converted into gold -coins and strung into necklaces.</p> - -<p>When these girls are honest and good, -and fall into proper hands, they are usually -adopted by the family with whom they take -service, under the title of ψυχόπαιδα. On -reaching the age of twenty-five or twenty-seven -a trousseau is given to them with a -small dowry, and they are married to some -respectable artisan. Those simply hired as -servants either marry in the towns or do so -on returning to their native village.</p> - -<p>The Greek peasant women are as a rule -clean and industrious, fond mothers and virtuous -wives. The best proof of their morality -is in the long absences many husbands are -obliged to make from their homes, which are -attended by no unfaithful results. In some -instances for a period of even twenty years -the wife becomes the sole director of the property, -which she manages with care and -wisdom, and the only guardian of the children -left in her charge.</p> - -<p>The peasants who still cling to the soil -plod away at their daily toil in very much -the same way as the Bulgarians, but show a -greater aptitude for rearing the silkworm and -growing olives and grapes. The Greek -peasants are not models of perfection; but -as a body they are better than any other -race in Turkey, and under a good government -they are certain to improve and develop -much faster than either the Bulgarians -or the Turks.</p> - -<p>The Greek women of the towns, according -to their station and the amount of refinement -and modern ideas they have been imbued -with, display in their manners and mode of -living the virtues and faults inherent in the -Greek character. I must in justice state that -the former exceed the latter; their virtues -consist principally in their quality of good -honest wives, and in the simple lives they -are usually content to lead in their homes. -The enlightenment and conversational talents -of some of the better class do not fall far -short of those of European ladies. Those -less endowed by education and nature have -a quiet modest bearing, and evince a great -desire to improve. The most striking faults -in the Greek woman’s character are fondness -of dress and display, vanity, and jealousy of -the better circumstances of her neighbors. -The spirit of envious rivalry in dress and -outward appearance is often carried to such -a pass that the real comforts of home-life are -sacrificed, and many live poorly and dress -meanly on ordinary occasions in order to display -a well-furnished drawing-room and expensive -holiday costumes to the public. -When living in the town of N⸺, I was -taken into the confidence of the Archbishop’s -niece, who was my neighbor. She confessed -to me that on promenade days she regularly -stationed her servant at the end of the street -in order to inspect the toilette of her rival, -the wife of the richest <i>chorbadji</i>, so that she -might be able to eclipse her.</p> - -<p>Greek ladies are fond and devoted mothers, -but they are not systematic in rearing their -children. This has, however, been remedied -in many cases by children of both sexes being -placed from a very early age in the care -of governesses, or at school, where the more -regular training they receive cannot fail to -have beneficial results.</p> - -<p>The life of women of the working classes -is still more homely and retired, as it is considered -an impropriety to be seen much out -of doors, especially in the case of young -girls, whom prejudice keeps very secluded, -even to the length of seldom allowing them -to go to church. When abroad, however, -their fondness for display is equal to that of -their richer sisters, whose toilettes, however -novel or complicated, in cities like Constantinople -and Smyrna, are sure to be copied by -the fishermen’s or washerwomen’s daughters. -In provincial towns like Rodosto and Adrianople, -the love of dress finds its satisfaction -in bright colors and wreaths of artificial flowers, -especially the much coveted carnation, -when out of season, which is worn by some -as a love-trophy; for it must have been given -by some lover on the feast-day. Greek girls -are very clever at needlework and embroidery; -but their life is nevertheless monotonous, -and they have little variety of occupation -and amusement. This is owing in part -to the exclusion of women of all races in -Turkey from occupations in shops, and to -the absence of manufactories, which, with -the exception of some silk factories, do not -exist in the country. Those in the silk-growing -districts, however, give employment to a -number of Greek girls, who show great aptitude -for this branch of industry, and often -become directresses of establishments in -which Armenian and other women are employed.</p> - -<p>The affection of a Greek wife for her husband -is joined to a jealous care of his interest; -she will strive to hide his faults and -weaknesses, and the disinterested devotion -with which she will cling to him in prosperity -and adversity is astonishing. A woman -belonging to the town of S⸺, on hearing -that her husband had been arrested on a -charge of complicity with brigands, left her -home and five children to the care of a blind -grandmother, and set out on foot on a three -days’ journey to the town where he was to -be tried. He was condemned to seven years’ -imprisonment, and sent to the prison at -A⸺, whither she followed him. Young -and pretty, entirely friendless, and without -means of subsistence, she lingered about the -Greek quarter until her sad tale gained her an -asylum in a compassionate family. She toiled -hard to gain a small pittance, which she -divided between herself and her unhappy -partner shut up in the common prison. The -dreadful news was brought to her that three -of her children were dead, that her house -was falling to pieces, and that her aged and -afflicted mother was unable to take care of -the two surviving little ones. Unmoved by -these calamities, she refused to quit the town -of A⸺ until, through the instrumentality -of some influential persons whose sympathies -she had enlisted, her husband’s period of -punishment was shortened.</p> - -<p>Greek society may be divided into two -classes, the conservative party and the progressive. -The former, in the provincial -towns, are jealous of their rights and privileges -as elders of the community and representatives -of the nation in the <i>Medjliss</i>. In -many instances these side with the authorities -in acts of injustice, sometimes from timidity -and sometimes from interested motives. -This small retrograde class is also strongly -opposed to the progress of education, and -often hinders it by stint of money and general -hostility to all changes.</p> - -<p>The second class consists of the educated -members of the community, who earn their -fortunes in much the same way as the rest of -the civilized world, and spend it liberally in -comforts and luxuries, and for the benefit of -the nation—an object to which every Greek -tries to contribute in some degree. The motto -of this party is <i>Embros!</i> (Forward!) -They are stopped by no difficulties and overcome -by no drawbacks, either in their personal -interests or those of the nation. Their -success in enterprise should no longer (as formerly) -be attributed to disloyalty, dishonesty, -and intrigue—in these respects there is no -reason for believing them worse than their -neighbors—but to the wonderful energy and -ability they show in all their undertakings. -I heard a conversation some time ago between -two medical celebrities of Constantinople -with reference to the Greek spirit of -enterprise and ambition. One praised their -enterprise as a promising quality, and, to use -his own expression, said, “There is an immense -amount of ‘go’ in the Greek.”</p> - -<p>“Go!” repeated the other, waxing hot, -“Too much so, I believe: there is no telling -where a Greek’s enterprising spirit may not -lead him, or where his ambition will stop! -Listen to my experience on the subject and -judge for yourself. Some years ago I was -asked by a good old Greek I knew very well -to take his son, a youth of twenty, into my -service. According to the father’s recommendation, -he was a good Greek scholar -and knew a little Latin. I asked the father -in what capacity I was to engage him. -‘Any you like,’ was the reply: ‘let him be -your servant—your slave.’ ‘Very well; but -he will have to clean my boots and look after -my clothes!’ ‘πολὺ καλὰ’ was the response, -and I engaged his son.</p> - -<p>“On the following day my new valet entered -upon his duties. He was a good-looking, -smart, and intelligent fellow, and at first -exact and able in the performance of his -functions; but gradually he became lax, absent -in manner, and negligent; although -steady and quiet in his conduct. One day -the mystery of this change was revealed on -my returning home unexpectedly, and finding -the fellow, instead of cleaning my boots, -which he held in his hand, deeply plunged in -one of the medical works on my table. In -my anger at seeing my papers and books -meddled with, I brought my boots into contact -with his head, telling him that if ever I -caught him again at that sort of thing, he -would be punished more severely. ‘Forgive -me,’ said he, in a very penitent manner, and -walked demurely out of the room. He -showed, however, no signs of improvement, -and subsequently I discovered him committing -no less a piece of impertinence than -copying some prescriptions that lay on my -desk. This was too much; so, as a punishment, -I made him take one of the potions; -but on the next day he calmly told me that -the <i>iatrico</i> had done him good, having calmed -his blood and cleared his head! Of course, -I dismissed the fellow and replaced him by -an Armenian, who answered my purpose better, -though he did dive now and then rather -extensively into the larder. For some years -I lost sight of my former valet, and had forgotten -his very existence till it was brought -to my recollection in the following unexpected -manner. I one day received a pressing -message to go at once to the house of -D⸺ Pasha to see a sick child and hold a -consultation with his new <i>hekim bashi</i> (doctor) -on its case. At the appointed hour I went, -and on entering the konak was ushered into -the selamlik to await the arrival of the other -doctor who was to lead me into the harem. -In a few minutes my supposed colleague -walked in, hat and gold-headed stick in one -hand, while the other was extended to me, -with the words ‘καλημέρα, ἴατρε’(good-morning, -doctor). The face and voice transfixed -me for a moment, but the next presented to -me the fact that my former valet stood before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span> -me, claiming the right of holding a consultation -with me. Whereat I was on the -point of giving vent to my indignation, by -seizing him by the collar and ejecting him -from the apartment, when he quietly said, -‘Excuse me, ἴατρε, but I stand before you in -right of the diploma I have obtained from -Galata Serai. Allow me to submit it to your -learned and honorable inspection.’ There -was no denying the fact; the fellow’s diploma -was in perfect order. My anger cooling, -I consented to consult with him, when he -again incensed me by venturing to take a -view of the case opposed to mine. His opposition, -however, was only momentary; for, -taking the upper hand, I dictated my directions -to him, and he, yielding with a good -grace to my experience, carried out my orders -with great precision. I had subsequently -many opportunities of meeting him, -and must in justice say that he turned out -one of the best pupils of Galata Serai, and -the most grateful man I have ever known. -He is at present attached to the Red Cross -Society, to which he gives the greatest satisfaction.”</p> - -<p>In feature and build the modern Greek still -possesses the characteristic traits of his ancestors. -Scientific researches and anatomical -observations made upon the skulls of ancient -Greeks are said to prove that if art had glorified -to a slight extent the splendid models of -statues, it could not have strayed very far -from the originals. Such pure and perfect -types are constantly met with at the present -day in the modern Greeks, who, as a rule, -possess fine open foreheads, straight noses, -and fine eyes full of fire and intelligence, -furnished with black lashes and well-defined -eyebrows; the mouths are small or of medium -size, with a short upper lip; the chin -rather prominent, but rounded. The entire -physiognomy differs so essentially from the -other native types that it is impossible to mistake -it. In stature the Greek is rather tall -than otherwise, well made and well proportioned; -the hands and feet are small in both -sexes. The walk is graceful, but has a kind -of swagger and ease in it, which, although -it looks natural in the national costume, -seems affected in the European dress.</p> - -<p>The distinct Greek type, so noticeable in -certain localities, has in others suffered from -the admixture with foreign elements; but we -find it again in all its perfection in the inhabitants -of the coast of Asia Minor, where the -Greeks were at one epoch so crushed and -denationalized as to have lost the use of their -mother-tongue. Some of the finest specimens -of the Greek race may be found in -Smyrna, Gemlek, and Philadar, as well as -in more inland places, such as Mahalitch, -Demirdesh, and Kellessen.</p> - -<p>The influence and effects of the last and -most important change must be carefully followed -and the transformation already wrought -upon the nation taken into consideration before -a fair and impartial estimate of the character -of the present Greeks can be arrived at. -The nation in its present scattered condition -presents great variety and dissemblance; -but even these points, in my opinion, constitute -its force and guarantee its future prosperity. -No person well acquainted with -modern Greece can contest the vast improvement -in the national character during the last -half century, the moral development already -gained, and the prosperous condition the little -kingdom has now entered upon. The educated -and enlightened <i>rayah</i> follows closely -in the footsteps of his liberated kinsmen, and -bids fair some day to catch them up. Until -recent times the real advance in the Greek -character seems to have escaped the notice of -European critics, and in obedience to ancient -prejudice it is still the fashion to cry down -the future queen of South-East Europe. A -charitable Prussian diplomatist, writing with -more zeal than knowledge, gave the following -flattering portrait of the Greeks of Constantinople -at the end of the last century;</p> - -<p>“Le quartier est la demeure de ce qu’on appelle -la noblesse grecque, qui vivent tous aux -dépenses des princes de Moldavie et de Valachie. -C’est une université de toutes les scélératesses, -et il n’existe pas encore de langue -assez riche pour donner des noms à toutes -celles qui s’y commettent. Le fils y apprend -de bonne heure à assassiner adroitement son -père pour quelque argent qu’il ne saurait être -poursuivi. Les intrigues, les cabales, l’hypocrisie, -la trahison, la perfidie, surtout l’art -d’extorquer de l’argent de toutes mains, y -sont enseignés méthodiquement!”</p> - -<p>An English author of more recent date, but -neither more enlightened nor animated with -a greater sense of justice or impartiality, denies -their right to a national history or their -possession of an ancestry, furnishing them -instead with one out of his fertile imagination. -According to him several millions of -Greeks are nameless, homeless upstarts, who -have invariably made their fortunes by following -the trade of <i>bakals</i>, or chandlers, and, -with the enormous and illegal profits of their -business, send their sons to Athens to be educated -and receive a European varnish, then -to return to Turkey full of pretension and -bad morals, to sow discord and create mischief -among their less enlightened brethren. -Such absurd statements carry their own refutation; -but they mislead people who are -already prejudiced and ready to believe anything -bad of the Greeks. The general currency -such erroneous assertions receive, even -in England, the country of Byron and the -seamen of Navarino, struck me in a remark -lately made by an intelligent English boy of -twelve, who, happening to hear the Greeks -mentioned at the luncheon-table, asked his -mother if all the Greeks were not cut-throats?</p> - -<p>These fallacies are gradually being cleared -away. As a nation the Greeks possess undeniable -virtues and talents, which, properly -encouraged and guided, have in them the -making of a strong progressive people—such -as one day the Greeks will assuredly be. -Their faults are as distinct and prominent as -their virtues. In the careful and impartial -examination a long residence has enabled me -to make of the character of this people, I -discovered a good deal of vanity, bravado, -and overweening conceit. They are vain of -their ability, and still more vain of the merits -and capacity of free Hellas, of which they -are so enamoured as to consider this little -kingdom, in its way, on a level with the -Great Powers. The spirit of bravado is often -shown in animated disputes and controversies, -for which they have a great partiality. -They are subtle, extremely sensitive, -fond of gain, but never miserly. Their -enthusiastic nature, given free scope, will -lead them into the doing of golden deeds; -and, in the same way, bad influence will -make of some the most finished rogues in -creation. No Greek thief of Constantinople -will be beaten in daring or in the art of carrying -out a <i>coup de main</i>. No assassin will -more recklessly plunge his knife into the -heart of an enemy, no seducer be more -enticing, no brigand more dashing and -bold. And yet in the worst of these there -is some redeeming quality; a noble action -polluted by many bad ones; crimes -often followed by remorse and a return to a -steady and honest life. Gratitude for a good -service is always met with among the Greeks, -as among the Albanians. An example of -this may be seen in an adventure that more -than twenty years ago happened to an Englishman -in the Government employ, who was -travelling in a province infested by brigands. -Armed and accompanied by a good escort, -Mr. F. had set out during the night for the -town of L⸺, and following the impulse of -an adventurous spirit, he strayed away from -his companions in a dense forest. The light -of a full moon made the path quite distinct, -and he had proceeded some distance, when his -bridle was suddenly seized by some fierce-looking -fellows, who appeared by his side as -if by magic. Mr. F.’s surprise was as great -as the action was menacing; but he instantly -seized his revolver, and thought on the prudence -of using it, when the “capitan,” a -regular <i>leromenos</i>,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> sprang forward, and a -struggle ensued for its possession, in which -the weapon was broken. The moment was -critical, the danger imminent, for self-defence -was out of the question with a broken revolver. -In this emergency, with the presence -of mind which characterizes him, Mr. -F. thought of another means of protection, -and removing the white cover of his official -cap, pointed out the crown on it, and declared -himself a servant of the British Government. -This had the desired effect, for -the chief released his hold of the bridle, and -retired a short distance with his companions -to hold a consultation, the result of which -was his again stepping forward, and inquiring -if the gentleman was the son of the consul -of the town of T⸺, and being answered -in the affirmative the “capitan,” with much -feeling, declared he was free to pursue his -way, for his father had rendered many good -and noble services to the Greek families of -Thessaly and Epirus, and had saved the lives -and property of many others. “Besides,” -added he, “we love and respect the English. -But a few miles hence you will fall in with the -camp of old A. Pasha, who, with 800 troops -and two guns, intends to surround yonder -mountain, where he expects to entrap and -chase us like wild beasts. The price of your -freedom is your word of honor not to reveal to -him your meeting with us until to-morrow; -when that is given, your escort will be allowed -to pass unmolested.” Mr. F. then continued -his journey, and a couple of hours brought -him to the camp of his friend the brigand-chasing -Pasha, who gave him an excellent -supper, and entertained him with the plan -of his next day’s assault on the brigand band, -to which he had patiently to listen, bound as -he was by his word not to reveal what he -knew of their whereabouts until the next day. -As the game the Pasha expected to entrap -escaped him on the morrow, the revelation -naturally annoyed him; but he was too well -aware of the value an Englishman placed -upon his pledged word, even to a brigand, -to find fault with the reticence of his friend -on that occasion.</p> - -<p>The Greek aristocracy has almost disappeared, -and the nation seems now eminently -democratic, though fond of giving titles to -persons of position, such as “Your Worship,” -“Your Honor,” “Your Highness,” -etc., and “Your Holiness” to the clergy. -Such terms are smoothly introduced in epistolary -addresses or used in conversation, so -long as this is carried on with calmness and -reflection; but directly discussion becomes -animated, and the speaker, whatever his -condition, excited, all such high-flown phrases -are discarded and exchanged for that more -natural to the Greek fraternal feeling, the -word “Adelphé” (brother), which never -fails to grate upon the ear of Englishmen in -the East.</p> - -<p>It certainly had this effect upon one of our -old consuls who had rather a hasty temper -and was a strict observer of etiquette. On -one occasion he had to listen to an excited -Greek who had a dispute with another, and -heard the title of Adelphé addressed to him -by the complainant, who, to make matters -worse, was by no means such a respectable -person as could be wished. The indignant -consul exclaimed in Greek, “Brother! I am -no brother of yours!” and was proceeding -to render his assurance more effectual by a -vigorous and unexpected movement of his -foot, when he lost his balance and was -stretched on the floor. This unforeseen aspect -of affairs appeared so comical to him -that he indulged in a hearty peal of laughter,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -in which the Greek, though politely asking -after his injuries, joined—in his sleeve.</p> - -<p>The charges raised most frequently against -the Greeks are their want of honesty in their -dealings with strangers, and their general -unscrupulousness in business transactions. -These accusations, in great part well founded, -are due to the unnatural position in which -the rayah is placed. Every Greek who is -truly a Greek in heart (and I have known -few who were not so) must detest and dislike -his rulers, and direct his energies to promoting, -openly or secretly, the interest of his -nation. In order to do this, however, he -must work in the dark, and strive to undermine -the interests of his masters; consequently -the mask of hypocrisy has to be -worn by all in the same way. To cheat the -Turks in small matters when he can, in revenge -for grosser injuries he is liable to receive -from them, becomes one of his objects. -His is not the only subject race that evinces -a laxity of principle and want of morality in -the transaction of business. He is sharp in -its despatch, perhaps sharper than some -others, but no worse than they in the manner -in which he carries on his trade.</p> - -<p>I have often heard this subject discussed -in all its bearings, and the statements of European -as well as native merchants appeared -to agree on the main point—that with the -corrupt administration, and the perpetual -necessity of having recourse to bribery in -order to facilitate the course of business, -honest and straightforward dealing was out -of the question. “We must,” said a wealthy -French merchant, “do in Turkey as the -Turks do, or else seek a fortune elsewhere.” -The following incident out of innumerable -others will give an idea of how enterprise is -encouraged and business carried on in this -country.</p> - -<p>Some Jews in the town of L⸺ had established -a soap factory, producing a bad article -and selling it at high prices. Subsequently -some Cretan Greeks set up a rival -establishment in the same town. The Cretans -enjoyed a great repute in Turkey for this -branch of industry, and offered their soaps -to the public at a lower price than the Jews, -who were thrown into the shade; these -therefore had to invent some plan to ruin -their rivals. Both factories imported their -own oil from the Greek islands, and paid the -duties in kind or in cash. The Greeks -adopted the former method, and the Jews, -aware of the fact, presented themselves at -the custom-house, estimated the oil the -Greeks received at double its value, and transported -a portion of it to their premises, thus -obliging the Greeks to pay double duty—a -serious matter, which, if not remedied, -would ruin their business. They decided -upon offering the Jews privately half of the -extra duty they were called upon by them to -pay to the revenue. But on a second cargo -of oil being imported they abstained from -paying that sum to the Jews, who thereupon -made them pay double duty a second time, -which so exasperated the Greeks that they -resolved to have their revenge. So, sending a -fresh order for oil, they instructed their -agent to have two of the barrels filled with -water, and marked with some sign. This -cargo on arriving was left by the Greeks in -the custom-house until the Friday afternoon -when they went to clear it. The Jews, made -aware of this fact by their spies, also presented -themselves, estimated the oil, as formerly, -at double its value, and offered to purchase -the two barrels left as payment of -duty. The Greeks prolonged the affair until -there was only just time for the Jews to take -away their purchase, but not to inspect it -without breaking the Sabbath. On the following -evening the Jews discovered the trick -that had been played upon them, and exposed -it to the custom-house officials, demanding redress. -The Greeks, summoned to appear and -answer the charge, denied that the swindle -had been practised by them, and exposed the -dishonest dealings of the Jews towards them, -saying that it must have been they who abstracted -the oil and replaced it with water, -with the object of cheating the Customs. -The authorities, unwilling to take further -trouble about the matter, sent away both -parties, and would have nothing more to do -with the case. The Jews in the mean time -were inconsolable; and when the Cretans -thought they had been sufficiently punished, -they confessed the trick, and offered to make -amends by refunding the money they had -paid for the casks if they would go with -them to the Rabbi and take an oath to make -no more attempts to injure their business by -dishonest means.</p> - -<p>The principal Greek merchants trade under -foreign protection, as it affords them -greater security and freedom from the intrigues -of the ill disposed.</p> - -<p>To sum up. The subject Greek of Turkey -has his vices: he is over-ambitious, conceited, -too diplomatic and wily; and, in -common with most merchants, European or -Eastern, in Turkey, he does his best to cheat -the Turks—and occasionally extends the -practice further, not without excellent precedent. -But these are the vices of a race -long kept in servitude and now awaking to -the sense of a great ancestry: the servitude -has produced the servile fault of double-dealing -and dishonesty; and the pride of a noble -past has engendered the conceit of the present. -Such vices are but passing deformities: -they are the sharp angles and bony length of -the girl-form that will in time be perfected in -beauty. These faults will disappear with the -spread of education and the restoring of freedom -long withheld. The quick intellect and -fine mettle of the Greek, like his lithe body, descended -from a nation of heroes, are destined -to great things. The name alone of Hellenes -carries with it the prescriptive right of speaking -and doing nobly; and the modern Hellenes -will not disown their birthright.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE ALBANIANS.</span></h2> - -<p>Albania little known to Travellers—Character of -the Country—Isolation and Neglect—Products—The -Landholders—Ali Bey’s Revolution—Albanian Towns—The -Albanian’s House his Castle In a Literal Sense—Blood -Feuds—Villages—Unapproachable Position—The -Defence of Souli—Joannina—Beautiful Site—Ali -Pasha’s Improvements—Greek Enterprise—The -Albanians—Separate Tribes—The Ghegs—The Tosks—Character -of the Latter—Superiority of the Ghegs—Respect -for Women—An Adventure with a Brigand -Chief—Gheg Gratitude—A Point of Honor with an -Albanian Servant—Religion among the Albanians—Education -among the Tosks—Warlike Character of -the Albanians—Use of the Gun—The Vendetta—Women -to the Rescue—Albanian Women in General—Female -Adornment—Emigration—Mutual Assistance -Abroad—The Albanian Character—Recklessness—Love -of Display—Improvidence—Pride—Hatred of -the Turks reciprocated to the Full.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The Albanians, like most of the races of -minor importance inhabiting European Turkey, -are little known to the civilized world. -Albania, with its impassable mountains, -broken by deep and precipitous ravines, the -footways of torrents, has been visited only by -those few travellers who have had enough -courage and adventurous spirit to penetrate -into its fastnesses. This country, occupying -the place of the ancient Illyria and Epirus, -was in the middle ages called Arvanasi, and -later on Arnaoutlik by the Turks and -Arvanitia by the Greeks; but in the native -tongue it is called Skiperi, or “land of rocks.” -It is divided into Upper and Lower Albania, -and forms two vilayets, that of Scutari (comprising -the provinces of Berat, El Bassan, -Ochrida, Upper and Lower Dibra, Tirana, -Candia, Duratzo, Cruia, Tessi, Scutari, Dulcigno, -and Podgoritza), and that of Joannina, -in Epirus (comprising Joannina, Konitza, -Paleopogoyani, Argyrokastro, Delvino, Parakalanio, -Paramythia, Margariti, Leapourie -or Arbar, and Avlona).</p> - -<p>Owing to the mountainous character of the -country, and the turbulent and warlike disposition -of its inhabitants, it is still unexplored -in many parts, poorly cultivated in -others, and everywhere much neglected in its -rich and fertile valleys. Unfortunately agriculture, -still in a very primitive and neglected -condition throughout Turkey, is especially so -in Albania. This neglect, however prejudicial -to the well-being of the inhabitants, -rather heightens the wild beauty of the -scenery, the changing grandeur and loveliness -of which alternately awes and delights -the traveller.</p> - -<p>Shut out from the civilized world by the -want of roads and means of communication, -all the natural advantages the country possesses -have remained stationary, and its -beauty and fertility turned to little account -by the wild and semi-savage population that -inhabits it.</p> - -<p>The principal productions of Illyrian Albania -are horses, sheep, and oxen, reared in -the valleys of the Mousakia; grain is extensively -grown at Tirana; and rye and Indian -corn are grown in El Bassan; and in some -parts of Dibra a coarse kind of silk is manufactured -into home-spun tissues, and used -for the elaborate embroidery of the picturesque -national costume. A stout felt used -for the <i>capa</i>, or cloak, is made of wool. A -kind of red leather, and other articles of -minor importance, are also manufactured in -these parts.</p> - -<p>Epirus, or Lower Albania, owing to its -more favorable situation and the mildness of -its climate, is by far the more fertile and better -cultivated of the two vilayets. In addition -to the above-mentioned products, it -grows rice, cotton, olives, tobacco, oranges, -citrons, grapes, and cochineal. Though -agriculture is carried on in the same primitive -manner, richer harvests are produced, -and, as shown by the yearly returns, there is -a steady increase of the export trade.</p> - -<p>Albania abounds in minerals, but the mines -are little known, still less worked. Hot -springs, possessing valuable medicinal qualities, -are also to be found in many places, but -the country people are totally ignorant of -their properties, and take the waters indiscriminately -for any ailments they may happen -to have, and, in obedience to the old -superstitious reverence for the spirits of the -fountains, even drink from several different -sources in the hope of gaining favor with -their respective nymphs.</p> - -<p>The large landowners, both in Upper and -Lower Albania, are Mohammedans, often -perverted from Christianity. They still exercise -a despotic and unlimited control over -the peasants, and show the convert’s proverbial -spirit of intolerance towards their -brethren who hold fast the faith of their fathers. -At the beginning of this century, and -before Ali Pasha had made himself the complete -master of Joannina, much of the landed -property in Lower Albania was held by Christians, -and many semi-independent villages, -entirely inhabited by Christians, were to be -found scattered all over the country. Their -number was sadly diminished during the -revolutionary convulsion that upset the country. -The property of many Christian landholders -experienced the same fate. Their -estates were snatched from their lawful owners -by the wily, avaricious, and hypocritical -despot, who, employing by turns the three -methods of force, fraud, and nominal compensation, -drove away the owners and appropriated -the lands to himself. After his -death all these lands passed to the crown as -<i>Imlak</i> property, and were never restored to -their former possessors.</p> - -<p>The landed property in both Upper and -Lower Albania still retains much of the characteristics -of the species of feudal system -which once prevailed throughout Turkey; -but instead of the rule of a few powerful -Beys or one single despot, a legion of petty -tyrants hold the people in bondage. Yet -there may be found among the landholders -a few, poorer than the rest, who are respected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> -for their integrity and for their paternal treatment -of the peasants on their estates.</p> - -<p>The general aspect of the towns and villages -in Upper Albania differs very little from that -of other towns and villages in Turkey. The -same want of finish and clumsiness of workmanship -prevail in all the Albanian houses, -which are usually detached from one another -and stand in court-yards surrounded by high -walls. Some of these dwellings are complete -fortresses; but this is not on account of the -terrible never-ending blood-feuds transmitted -from generation to generation, which make -each man’s life (out-of-doors) the least secure -of his possessions. In times of peace his -house can be left with open gates, and is held -sacred and respected even by the vilest and -most desperate characters; for it is a point -of honor with an Albanian never to incur the -disgrace of shedding a man’s blood in his -own house; but the moment he crosses the -threshold, he is at the mercy of his foe.</p> - -<p>An Albanian chieftain, who had a deadly -quarrel with a neighbor and consequently -was in terror of his life, was compelled to -stay within doors for twelve long years, knowing -the risk he ran if the threshold were -crossed. Finally, craving a little liberty, he -obtained an armistice and was allowed perfect -freedom for a short space of time.</p> - -<p>In times of open contention the houses are -fortified and guarded by armed bands, who -conceal themselves in strongholds attached to -some of the buildings, watch for the approach -of the enemy, and open fire upon them from -the loop-holes with which the walls are -pierced.</p> - -<p>The furniture of their dwelling-houses is -scanty, poor, and comfortless. Some valuable -carpets, a gorgeously embroidered sofa -in the reception-room, and a few indispensable -articles, are all they possess. The streets -are narrow and badly paved, and look dismal -and deserted. The bazars and shops are inferior -to those of most of the towns of Turkey. -They contain no variety of objects for -use or ornament beyond those absolutely -necessary for domestic purposes.</p> - -<p>The villages are far more curious and interesting -to the traveller than the towns. -Some of these in Upper Albania, in mountainous -districts, are at a great distance from -each other, and are perched up on the summits -of high rocks that tower above each -other in successive ranges, in some places -forming a natural and impassable rampart to -the village, in others trodden into steep paths -where the goat doubtless delights to climb, -but where man experiences any but agreeable -sensations.</p> - -<p>Lower Albania, better known to travellers, -is less rugged and wild in appearance. But -here and there we meet with mountainous -districts—such as the far-famed canton of -Souli, which in the time of Ali Pasha numbered -eleven villages, some scattered on the -peaks of mountains, others studding their -skirts; while the terrible Acheron gloomily -wound its way through the deep gorges that -helped to secure the river its victims.</p> - -<p>Souli, defended by its 13,000 inhabitants, -withstood the siege of the dreaded pasha’s -armies, held them in check for fifteen years, -and acquired undying fame in the history of -the war of Greek independence for heroism -hardly surpassed by the most valiant feats -of the ancients, and with which nothing -in modern warfare can compare. Every -Souliot, man, woman, and child, was ready -to perish in the defence. The women and -children who had fought so long by the side -of their husbands and fathers, at the last -extremity, preferring death to captivity and -dishonor, threw themselves from the rocks -into the dark stream below, while the few -that survived the final destruction cut their -way through their enemies, and were scattered -over Greece to tell the sad tale of the fall of -Souli.</p> - -<p>The plateau of Joannina is entirely surrounded -by wooded mountains, and is from -1,200 to 1,500 feet above the level of the sea. -On this table-land is a lake about fourteen -miles in length and six in breadth, on the rich -borders of which rises the town of Joannina, -like a fairy palace in an enchanted land. -This town, which contains 25,000 inhabitants, -became the favorite abode of Ali Pasha, -who transformed and embellished it to a considerable -extent, and founded schools and -libraries.</p> - -<p>The edifices erected by him were partly -destroyed by his followers, when his power -was supposed to have reached its end, -together with the gilded kiosks and superb -palaces built for his own enjoyment. All -that Joannina can boast of at the present day -is the exceeding beauty of its situation, and -the activity that Greek enterprise has given -to its commerce, and the excellent schools -and syllogæ that have been established and -are said to be doing wonders in improving -and educating the new generation of Epirus.</p> - -<p>The Albanians are divided into several distinct -races, each presenting marked features -of difference from the other and occupying -separate districts. Those of Upper Albania -are called Ghegs, and inhabit that portion of -the country called Ghegueria, which extends -from the frontiers of Bosnia and Montenegro -to Berat.</p> - -<p>These men are broad-chested, tall, and robust, -have regular features, and a proud, -manly, independent mien. Their personal -attractions are not a little enhanced by their -rich and picturesque national costume—a pair -of cloth gaiters; an embroidered jacket with -open sleeves; a double-breasted waistcoat; -the Greek fustanella (white calico kilt), surmounted -by a cloth skirt opened in front; a -kemer, or leather belt, decorated with silver -ornaments, and holding a pistol, yataghan, -and other arms of fine workmanship. The -whole costume is richly worked with gold -thread. On the head is worn a fez, wider at -the top than round the head, and ornamented -with a long tassel.</p> - -<p>The Tosks inhabiting Lower Albania, in -the sandjaks of Avlona and Berat, and the -Tchames and Liaps of the sandjaks of Delvina -and Joannina, designate their country -Tchamouria and Liapouria. These latter are -supposed to be direct descendants of ancient -Hellenes, as they speak the Greek language -with greater purity than the rest; and certainly -some of their characteristic features -bear a great resemblance to those of the ancient -Greeks. All the Albanians of Epirus -use the Greek language, and are more conversant -with it than with Turkish, which in -some places is not spoken at all.</p> - -<p>The Tosks are tall and well built, and extremely -agile in all their movements; their -features are regular and intelligent, but like -most Albanians they have a fierce, cruel, and -sometimes cunning cast of countenance, and -a swagger in their gait, by which they can -easily be distinguished from the other races, -even when divested of their national costume. -They are of a warlike and ferocious disposition, -yet they have noble qualities which -atone in some measure for their ferocity and -produce a very mixed impression of the national -character. They are a constant source -of dread to strangers, but objects of implicit -confidence and trust to those who have gained -their friendship and earned their gratitude.</p> - -<p>In bravery, trustworthiness, and honor, the -Ghegs bear the palm. No Gheg will scruple -to “take to the road” if he is short of money -and has nothing better to do. If any man he -may meet on the high-road disregards his -command, “<i>Des dour</i>” (stand still), he thinks -nothing of cutting his throat or settling him -with a pistol-shot; but if a Gheg has once -tasted your bread and salt or owes you a debt -of gratitude or is employed in your service, -all his terrible qualities vanish and he becomes -the most devoted, attached, and faithful of -friends and servants. Generally speaking, -the Ghegs are abstemious and not much addicted -to the vices of Asiatics. Women are -respected by them and seldom exposed to the -attacks of brigands or libertines.</p> - -<p>These characteristics are so general and so -deeply rooted in the character of the Gheg -that consuls, merchants, and others, who -need brave and faithful retainers, employ -them in preference to men of any other race.</p> - -<p>I was once making a journey across country -to a watering-place in Albania and set -out for this deserted and isolated spot with a -capital escort; accompanied moreover by a -wealthy Christian dignitary of the town in -which I had been staying. During a short -halt we made in a mountain gorge to refresh -ourselves with luncheon, near a ruined and -deserted <i>beklemé</i>, or guard-house, suddenly a -fine but savage-looking Albanian appeared before -us. He was followed by several other -sturdy fellows, all armed to the teeth. My -friend turned pale, and the escort, taking to -their guns, stood on the defensive.</p> - -<p>But the feeling of fear soon vanished from -my people, as the Albanians approached them, -and instead of uttering the dreaded “<i>Des -dour!</i>” gracefully put their hands on their -breasts and repeated the much more agreeable -welcome word “<i>Merhaba!</i>” The band -chatted with my men, whilst their chieftain -approached my travelling companion, and -entered into conversation with him, every -now and then giving a glance at me with an -expression of wonder on his face. At last -he inquired who I was, and declared he was -astonished at the independent spirit of the -<i>Inglis</i> lady, who, in spite of fatigue and danger, -had ventured so far.</p> - -<p>He willingly accepted our offer of luncheon; -first dipping a piece of bread in salt -and eating it. My horse was then brought -up; the chief stood by, and gallantly held -the stirrup while I mounted. I thanked -him, and we rode off at a gallop. After we -had gone some distance on our road, my -friend heaved a deep sigh of relief, and said -to me, “Do you know who has been lunching -with us, holding your stirrup, and assisting -you to mount? It is the fiercest and -most terrible of Albanian brigand chiefs in -this neighborhood! For the last seven years -he and his band have been the terror of this -kaza, in consequence of their robberies and -murders, respecting none but those of your -sex,—guided, I presume, in this by the superstition, -or let us say point of honor, some Albanians -strictly observe, that it is cowardly -and unlucky to attack women.”</p> - -<p>An adventure that lately happened to a -friend of mine will show the manner in -which Ghegs remember a good service rendered -them. Some years ago, a few Albanians, -personally known to the gentleman in -question, who owns a large estate in Macedonia, -heard that three of their fellow-countrymen -had got into trouble. Through -the influence Mr. A. possessed with the local -authorities, their release was obtained. The -incident had almost passed out of his memory -when it was unexpectedly recalled at a critical -moment. Some Albanian beys, who had -a spite against Mr. A., in consequence of a -disputed portion of land, resolved to take -advantage of the present state of anarchy and -disorder in the country to have him or his -son assassinated the next time either of them -should visit the estate. The villanous scheme -was intrusted to a band of Albanian brigands -that were known to be lurking in the vicinity -of Mr. A.’s estate. At harvest-time, as he -was about to start for the country, he received -a crumpled dirty little epistle, written in -the Greek-Albanian dialect, to this effect:—</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="noindent">“<i>Much esteemed Effendi, and venerated benefactor</i>:</p> - -<p>“Some years ago your most humble servant -and his companions were in difficulties. -You saved them from prison and perhaps -from the halter. The service has never been -forgotten, and the debt we owe to you will -be shortly redeemed by my informing you -that the robber band of Albanians in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> -vicinity of your chiftlik have received instructions -and have accepted the task of -shooting you down the first time you come -in this direction. I and my valiant men will -be on the look-out to prevent the event if -possible, but we warn you to be on your -guard, for your life is in danger.</p> - -<p class="center">“Kissing your hand respectfully,</p> - -<p class="center">“I sign myself,</p> - -<p class="right">“A MEMBER OF THE VERY BAND!”</p> - -</div> - -<p>Another friend related to me a strange adventure -he had with an Albanian ex-brigand, -who for some time had been in his service. -This gentleman was a millionaire of the town -of P., who in his younger days often collected -the tithes of his whole district, and -consequently had occasion to travel far into -the interior and bring back with him large -sums of money. During these tours the -faithful Albanian never failed to accompany -his master. On one occasion, however, -when they had penetrated into the wildest -part of his jurisdiction, his servant walked -into the room where he was seated, and after -making his <i>temenla</i>, or salute, said, “Chorbadji, -I shall leave you; therefore I have -come to say to you <i>Allah ’semarladu</i> (good-by).”</p> - -<p>“Why,” said the astonished gentleman, -“what is to become of me in this outlandish -place without you?”</p> - -<p>“Oh,” was the response, “I leave you because -I have consented to attack and rob you, -and as such an act would be cowardly and -treacherous while I eat your bread and salt, -I give you notice that I mean to do it on the -highway as you return home, so take what -precautions you like, that it may be fair play -between us.” This said, he made a second -<i>temenla</i> and disappeared.</p> - -<p>He was as good as his word; going back -to his former profession, he soon found out -and joined a band of brigands, and at their -head waylaid and attacked his former master, -who, well aware of the character of the man -he had to deal with and the dangers that -awaited him, had taken measures accordingly -and provided himself with an escort strong -enough to overpower the brigands.</p> - -<p>The Albanians before the Turkish conquest -professed the Christian religion, which, however, -does not appear to have been very deeply -rooted in the hearts of the people; from time -immemorial they were more famous for their -warlike propensities and adventurous exploits -than for their good principles.</p> - -<p>After the conquest, Islam, finding a favorable -soil in which to plant itself, made considerable -progress in some districts, where -the inhabitants willingly adopted it in order -to escape persecution and oppression. This -progress, however, was not very extensive -until the time of the famous Iskander Beg, or -Scanderbeg, who played so prominent a <i>rôle</i> -in the history of his country, and whose desertion -of the Mohammedan and adoption of -the Christian religion so exasperated Sultan -Murad that he forthwith ordered that most -of the Christian churches should be converted -into mosques, and that all Epirots -should be circumcised under pain of death.</p> - -<p>The second impulse Mohammedanism received -in Albania was under the rule of Ali -Pasha, when whole villages were converted -to Islam, though their inhabitants to this day -bear Christian names, and in some cases the -mother or wife is allowed to retain the faith -of her fathers and will keep her fasts and -feasts and attend her Christian church while -her husband joins the Mussulman congregation. -In those parts of Epirus, however, -where the Greek population was in the majority -and its ignorant though devout clergy -had influence with the people, they held fast -to their religion as they did to their language.</p> - -<p>The Mirdites were equally steadfast to their -faith and purpose, and have remained among -the most faithful and devout followers of the -Pope. The number of Roman Catholic Mirdites -is reckoned at about 140,000 souls, scattered -in the different districts of Albania. -They have several bishoprics, and their -bishops and priests are sent from Rome or -Scutari. The Mirdites make fine soldiers, -and have often been engaged by the Porte -as contingent troops, or employed in active -service. They take readily to commerce -and agriculture, and on the whole may be -considered the most advanced and civilized -of the Illyrian Albanians. They might, -however, progress much more rapidly if -their pastors, to whose guidance they submit -themselves implicitly, would follow -the example of the Greeks in Epirus, -and introduce a more liberal course of instruction; -for the education is at present very -limited beyond the religious branches. There -can be no doubt that excessive religious teaching -among ignorant people, though a powerful -preservative of the faith, tends inevitably -to render them narrow-minded, bigoted, and -incapable of self-development.</p> - -<p>The Mohammedanism of the Albanians is -not very deeply rooted, nor does it bear the -stamp of the true faith. Followers of the -Prophet in Lower Albania especially may be -heard to swear alternately by the <i>Panaghia</i> -(blessed Virgin) and the Prophet, without appearing -disposed to follow too closely the -doctrines of either the Bible or the Koran. -It is an undoubted fact that the Moslems of -Albania contrast very unfavorably with the -Christians.</p> - -<p>The Tosks are held in ill-repute on account -of the difficulty they seem to experience in defining -the difference between treachery and -good faith. They are clever and have made -more progress than the Ghegs in the civilization -that Greece is endeavoring to infuse -among her neighbors. Some of their districts -are worthy of mention, on account of the taste -for learning displayed by their inhabitants, -the earnestness with which they receive instruction, -and the good results that have -already crowned their praiseworthy efforts.</p> - -<p>Zagora, for instance, famous as having -afforded shelter to many Greeks after the -conquest of Constantinople, is renowned for -the intelligence and general enlightenment of -its inhabitants. The sterile and unproductive -soil induces the men to rely less upon the -fruits of their manual toil than upon their -mental labor, consequently most of them -migrate to other countries, seeking their -fortune. Some take to commerce, others to -professions, and after realizing a competence -they return to their native land and impart the -more advanced ideas their experience has -given them to their compatriots who have -not enjoyed the same privileges.</p> - -<p>The women of Zagora are much esteemed -for their virtues and enlightenment. Such -facts as these make a refreshing contrast to -the dark cloud of ignorance which, in spite -of the pure sky of Albania and the beauty of -the scenery, still hangs thickly on the land, -and casts a shadow where Nature meant all -to be sunshine.</p> - -<p>The warlike instincts of the Albanian find -more scope for action in the Mohammedan -than in the Christian religion. They gladly -accept an invitation to fight the battles of the -Porte or those of any nation that will pay -them. This help must, however, be given in -the way most agreeable to themselves, <i>i.e.</i> as -paid contingents under the command of their -own chieftains, to whom they show implicit -obedience and fidelity. Under the beloved -banner of their Bey, legions will collect, -equally ready to do the irregular work of the -Bashi-bazouks or to be placed in the regular -army.</p> - -<p>But, as a rule, the Albanian objects to ordinary -conscription, and avoids it, if possible, -by a direct refusal to be enrolled, or -else makes his escape. When on the road -to the seat of war, a regiment of Albanians -is a terrible scourge to the country it passes -through; like locusts, they leave nothing but -naked stalks and barren ground behind them.</p> - -<p>The principal merits of the Albanian -soldier are his rapidity of motion, steady aim, -carelessness of life, and hardy endurance in -privation. An Albanian’s gun is his companion -and his means of subsistence in peace -or war. To it he looks for his daily bread -more than to any other source, and he uses it -with a skill not easily matched.</p> - -<p>When travelling in Upper Albania we -halted one day in a field which appeared quite -uncultivated and waste, and were making arrangements -for our mid-day meal, when an -Albanian <i>bekchi</i> (forest-keeper) appeared on -the scene and ordered us to quit the spot, as -it was cultivated ground. Our escort remonstrated -with the fellow, saying that it -was the only convenient place near for a -halt, and that now we had alighted we should -remain where we were until we had finished -our meal.</p> - -<p>The Albanian, entirely regardless of the -number of the escort and the authority of -government servants, became more persistent -in his commands, and the guards lost patience -and threatened to arrest him and take -him before the Mudir of the town that lay a -little further on. “The Mudir,” scornfully -repeated the mountaineer, “and who told -you that I recognize the authority of the -Mudir?” Then taking his long gun from -his shoulder, he held it up and said, “This is -my authority, and no other can influence me -or acquire any power over me!”</p> - -<p>The social relations of the Albanians are -limited to two ideas, <i>Vendetta</i> and <i>bessa</i> -(peace).</p> - -<p>In cases of personal insult or offence the -vendetta is settled on the spot. Both parties -stand up, the insulted full of indignation and -thirsting for revenge, the offender repentant, -perhaps, or persistent. The aggrieved person, -even in the former case, seldom yields -to persuasion or softens into forgiveness; he -draws a brace of pistols and presents them to -his antagonist to make his choice. The little -fingers of their left hands are linked together -and they fire simultaneously. A survivor is -rare in such cases, and the feud thus caused -between the relatives of both parties is perpetuated -from generation to generation.</p> - -<p>It takes very little to provoke these terrible -blood-feuds, and one or two instances that -have come under my direct notice will suffice -to give an idea of their nature and the violence -with which real or fancied insult is -avenged.</p> - -<p>One happened while I was at Uskup. The -cause was nothing more weighty than a contention -between two Albanian sportsmen, -who were disputing the possession of a hare -that each maintained he had shot. The dispute -became so violent that a duel was resorted -to as the only way to settle it. It came -off on the common in the presence of the -combatants’ relatives and friends, who joined -in the quarrel; and a general battle ensued, -in which the women fought side by side with -their husbands and brothers. A girl of seventeen, -a sister of one of the two sportsmen, -fought with the courage of a heroine, and -with a success worthy of a better cause. -Fourteen victims fell on that day. The Governor -of Uskup, who related the story to me, -said that he despaired of ever seeing these -savage people yield to the influence of their -more refined neighbors, or become entirely -submissive to the Sultan’s government. But -great changes have taken place since then -with respect to their submission to the Porte. -The Government is now able almost safely -to send governors and sub-governors into Albania -to collect taxes from such as choose -to pay them, and even draw a certain number -of recruits from the most turbulent and -independent districts.</p> - -<p>Another of these lamentable blood-feuds -happened in Upper Dibra, and was witnessed -by one of my friends then living there.</p> - -<p>It originated in two lads at the village -fountain throwing stones and breaking the -pitcher of an Albanian girl who had come to -fetch water. This was considered an insult<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -to her maidenhood and was at once made the -cause of a serious quarrel by the friends of -the two parties. A fight ensued in which no -less than sixty people lost their lives. -Women’s honor is held in such high esteem -in these wild regions that so trivial an accident -suffices to cause a terrible destruction of life.</p> - -<p>Albanian women are generally armed, not -for the purpose of self-defence—no Albanian -would attack a woman in his own country—but -rather that they may be able to join in -the brawls of their male relatives, and fight -by their side. The respect entertained for -women accounts for a strange custom prevalent -among Albanians—that of offering to -strangers who wish to traverse their country -the escort of a woman. Thus accompanied, -the traveller may proceed with safety into -the most isolated regions without any chance -of harm coming to him.</p> - -<p>The Albanian women are lively and of an -independent spirit, but utterly unlettered. -Very few of the Mohammedans in Lower -Albania possess any knowledge of reading or -writing. They are, however, proud and -dignified, strict observers of the rules of national -etiquette; and they attach great importance -to the antiquity of their families, -and regulate their marriages by the degrees -of rank and lineage.</p> - -<p>The natural beauty of the Albanian girl -soon disappears after she has entered upon -the married state. She then begins to dye -her hair, to which nature has often given a -golden hue, jet black; she besmears her face -with a pernicious white composition, blackens -her teeth, and reddens her hands with -henna; the general effect of the process is to -make her ugly during youth, and absolutely -hideous in old age. The paint they use is -not only most destructive to the complexion, -but also to the teeth, which decay rapidly -from its use. I believe they blacken their -teeth artificially to hide its effects. On my -inquiring the reason of this strange custom -of some Albanian ladies, they laughed at my -disapproval of it, and told me that in their -opinion it was only the fangs of dogs that -should be white.</p> - -<p>Both Christian and Mohammedan Albanians, -dissatisfied with the poverty of their -country and their incapability of developing -its natural resources or profiting by them, -often leave it and migrate to other parts of -Turkey in search of employment. Large numbers -seek military service in Turkey, Egypt, -and other countries, or situations as guards, -herdsmen, etc. Some of the Christians study -and become doctors, lawyers, or schoolmasters. -The lower classes are masons, carters, -porters, servants, dairymen, butchers, etc.; -their wives and children seldom accompany -them, but remain at home to look after their -belongings, and content themselves with an -occasional visit from the assiduous bread-winner.</p> - -<p>All Albanians call themselves <i>Arkardash</i> -(brothers), and when away from their homes -will assist and maintain the <i>Kapoussis</i>, or -new-comers, until they obtain employment -through the instrumentality of their compatriots -already established in the town. Thus -assistance is given in small towns to the <i>Kapoussis</i> -to defray the expenses of his maintenance -and lodging in the Khan. When he -obtains a place, he repays the money in -small instalments until the debt is acquitted.</p> - -<p>The Albanian, generally a gay, reckless -fellow, is always short of money: many -among the better conditioned carry their fortune -on their person in the shape of rich embroideries -on their handsome costumes and -valuable arms. In their belt is contained all -the money they possess. When the fortune-seeker -has to wait a long time for the fickle -goddess to smile upon him, and the forbearance -or generosity of his friends is exhausted, -and the <i>kemer</i> becomes empty, he sells -his fine arms, and the splendid suit of clothes -follows to the same fate. But the Albanian, -though externally transformed, will be by no -means crushed in spirit or at all less conceited -in manner, even when a tattered rag has -replaced the gaudy fez, and a coarse <i>aba</i> his -<i>fustanella</i> and embroidered jacket. With -shoes trodden down at heel he patiently -lounges about under the name of <i>Chiplak</i> -until the expected turn of fortune arrives. -Should it be very long in coming, our Albanian -turns the tables upon the goddess, -shoulders his gun, and takes to the high-road.</p> - -<p>The <i>bessa</i>, or truce, is the time Albanians -allow themselves at intervals to suspend their -blood-feuds; it is arranged by mutual consent -between the contending parties, and is -of fixed duration and strictly observed: the -bitterest enemies meet and converse in perfect -harmony and confidence.</p> - -<p>The character of the Albanians is simply -the mixed unhewn character of a barbarous -people; they have the rough vices but also -the unthinking virtues of semi-savage races. -If they are not civilized enough not to be -cruel, at least civilization has not yet taught -them its general lesson that honor and chivalry -are unpractical relics of Middle-Age -superstition, quite unworthy of the business-like -man of to-day, whose eyes are steadily -fixed on the main chance. The Albanian, -too, can plunder, but he does it gun in hand -and openly on the highway; not behind a -desk or on ’Change. His faults are the -faults of an untrained violent nature, they -are never mean; his virtues are those of forgotten -days, and are not intended to pay. -He is more often abused than praised, but it -is mostly for want of knowledge; for his -faults are on the surface, whilst his sterling -good qualities are seen only by those who -know him well, and know how to treat him.</p> - -<p>The ties that bind this nation to its rulers -have never been those of strict submission, -or of sympathy. The Turkish government -cannot easily forget the troubles and loss of -life the conquest of Albania occasioned, nor -can it feel satisfied with the manner in which -imperial decrees are received by the more turbulent -portion of the inhabitants with regard -to the enrolment of troops and the payment -of taxes; nor pass over the insolence and -even danger to which its officials are often -exposed.</p> - -<p>The Mohammedan Albanians on their side -deeply resent the loss of their liberty, and -the forfeiture of their privileges, and reciprocate -to the full the ill feeling and abusive language -of the Turks. The Turk calls the Albanian -<i>Haidout Arnaout!</i> or <i>Tellak!</i><a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<p>The Albanian regards the Turk as a doubtful -friend and a corrupt and impotent master; -and if this antipathy exists between the -Turks and the Albanian Moslem, it is scarcely -necessary to say that it is felt far more -strongly between the Turks and the Albanian -Christians of Epirus and the Mirdites, who, -feeling doubly injured by the oppressive rule -to which they are forced to submit, and the -loss of their freedom, ill-brook the authority -of the Porte. The Mirdite turns his looks -and aspirations towards the Slavs, while the -Albanian hopes finally to share the liberty of -the Greek.</p> - -<p>The Porte, under these circumstances, had -a difficult mission to fulfil in controlling this -mixed multitude, and was not unjustified in -looking upon it with distrust and suspicion. -It now seems probable, however, that it may -be relieved of the weight of this responsibility.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE TURKS.</span></h2> - -<p>Turkish Peasants—Decrease in Numbers—Taxation -and Recruiting—Relations with the Christians—Appearance—Amusements—House -and Family—Townspeople—Guilds—Moslems -and Christians—The Turk -as an Artisan—Objection to Innovations—Life in the -Town—The Military Class—Government Officials—Pashas—Grand -Vizirs—Receptions—A Turkish Lady’s -Life—The Princes—The Sultan—Mahmoud—His Reforms—Abdul-Medjid—Abdul-Aziz—Character and -Fate—Murad—Abdul-Hamid—Slavery in Turkey.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The Turkish peasants inhabiting the rural -districts of Bulgaria, Macedonia, Epirus, and -Thessaly, although the best, most industrious, -and useful of the Sultan’s Mohammedan -subjects, everywhere evince signs of poverty, -decrease in numbers, and general deterioration. -This fact is evident even to the mere -traveller, from the wretchedness and poverty-stricken -appearance of Turkish villages, -with their houses mostly tumbling to pieces. -The inhabitants, unable to resist the drain -upon them in time of war when the youngest -and most vigorous men are taken away for -military service, often abandon their dwellings -and retire to more populous villages or -towns: the property thus abandoned goes to -ruin, and the fields in the same manner become -waste. This evil, which has increased -since the more regular enforcement of the -conscription, may be traced to three principal -sources: the first is the unequal manner -in which the conscription laws are carried -out upon this submissive portion of the people; -the second is the want of laborers, the -inevitable consequence of the recruiting system, -whereby the best hands are drawn away -annually at the busiest and most profitable -time of the year, to the great and sometimes -irreparable injury of industry; the third is the -irregular and often unjust manner in which -the taxes are levied. Under these unencouraging -circumstances the disabled old men, -the wild boys, and the women (who are never -trained to work and are consequently unfit -for it), are left behind to continue the labor -of the conscripts, and struggle on as well as -indolent habits and natural incapacity for -hard work will allow them. The large villages -will soon share the fate of the small -ones and be engulfed in the same ruin, unless -radical changes are introduced for the benefit -of the Turkish peasants. Their condition -requires careful and continued attention at -the hands of a good and equitable administration.</p> - -<p>The Turkish peasant is a good, quiet, and -submissive subject, who refuses neither to -furnish his Sultan with troops nor to pay his -taxes, so far as in him lies; but he is poor, -ignorant, helpless, and improvident to an almost -incredible degree. At the time of recruiting -he will complain bitterly of his hard -lot, but go all the same to serve his time; he -groans under the heavy load of taxation, gets -imprisoned, and is not released until he manages -to pay his dues.</p> - -<p>He is generally discontented with his government, -of which he openly complains, and -still more with its agents, with whom he is -brought into closer contact; but still the idea -of rebelling against either, giving any signs -of disaffection, or attempting to resist the -law, never gets any hold upon him. His -relations with his Christian neighbors vary -greatly with the locality and the personal -character of both. In some places Christian -and Turkish peasants, in times of peace, live -in tolerable harmony, in others a continual -warfare of complaints on one side and acts of -oppression on the other is kept up. The only -means of securing peace to both is to separate -the two parties, and compel each to rest -solely upon its own exertions and resources, -and to prove its worth in the school of necessity. -An English gentleman owning a large -estate in Macedonia used to assert that until -the Christian peasant adopts a diet of beer -and beef, nothing will be made of him; in -the same manner I think that until the Turk -is cured of his bad habit of employing by -hook or by crook Petcho and Yancho to do -his work for him, he will never be able to do -it himself.</p> - -<p>The Turkish peasant is well built and -strong, and possesses extraordinary power of -endurance. His mode of living is simple, his -habits sober; unlike the Christians of his -class he has no dance, no village feast, and -no music but a kind of drum or tambourine, -to vary the monotony of his life. His cup -of coffee and his chibouk contain for him all -the sweets of existence. The coffee is taken<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -before the labors of the day are begun, and -again in the evening at the <i>cafiné</i>. His work -is often interrupted in order to enjoy the chibouk, -which he smokes crouched under a -tree or wall. His house is clean but badly -built, cold in winter and hot in summer, possessing -little in the way of furniture but bedding, -mats, rugs, and kitchen utensils. He -is worse clad than the Christian peasant, and -his wife and children still worse; yet the -women are content with their lot, and in -their ignorance and helplessness do not try, -like the Christian women, to better their condition -by their individual exertions; they are -irreproachable and honest in their conduct, -and capable of enduring great trials. Some -are very pretty; they keep much at home, -the young girls seldom gather together for -fun and enjoyment except at a wedding or -circumcision ceremony, when they sing and -play together, while the matrons gossip over -their private affairs and those of their neighbors. -The girls are married young to peasants -of their own or some neighboring village. -Polygamy is rare among Turkish peasants, -and they do not often indulge in the -luxury of divorce.</p> - -<p>On the whole the Turkish peasant, though -not a model of virtue, is a good sort of man, -and would be much better if he had not the -habit in times of national trouble to take -upon him the name of Bashi-Bazouk, and to -transform himself into a ruffian.</p> - -<p>Turks, generally speaking, prefer town to -country life; for in towns they enjoy more -frequent opportunities of indulging in that -<i>dolce far niente</i> which has become an integral -part of the Turkish character and has entirely -routed his original nomadic disposition.</p> - -<p>The tradespeople of the towns are ranged -into <i>esnafs</i>, or guilds, and form separate corporations, -some of which include Christians -when they happen to be engaged in the same -pursuits. Thus there are the <i>esnafs</i> of barbers, -linen-drapers, greengrocers, grooms, -etc. These bodies, strange to say, in the -midst of general disunion and disorganization, -are governed by fixed laws and regulations -faithfully observed by Christians and -Turks alike, and the rival worshippers, bound -only by the obligation of good faith and -honor towards each other, pull together much -better and show a greater regard for justice -and impartiality than is evinced by any other -portion of the community. Every corporation -elects one or two chiefs, who regulate -all disputes and settle any difficulties that -may arise among the members. These <i>Oustas</i>, -or chiefs, are master-workmen in their -different trades. The apprentices are called -<i>Chiraks</i>, and obtain promotion, according to -their ability, after a certain number of years. -When considered sufficiently advanced in -their business, the master, with the consent -and approval of the corporation, admits them -into the fraternity, and gives them the choice -of entering into partnership with him or beginning -business on their own account.</p> - -<p>The grooms yearly elect a chief in each -town, called <i>Seis Bashi</i>, through whom, for a -small fee, grooms may be obtained with -greater security than otherwise for their good -behavior and capability. The meetings, or -<i>lonjas</i>, of this <i>esnaf</i>, are held pretty frequently -in coffee-houses, where the affairs of the -corporation are regulated, and the meeting -generally terminates in an orgy; after which -the grooms retire to their stables, much the -worse for the wine and <i>raki</i> they have drunk.</p> - -<p>Once a year each of the associations gives -a picnic, either on the feast of the patron saint -or at the promotion of an apprentice. On -such occasions a certain sum is collected from -the members, or taken from the reserve fund -which some of the <i>esnafs</i> possess, for the -purchase of all kinds of provisions needed -for a substantial and sometimes even sumptuous -meal, to which not only all the members -of the guild are invited, irrespective of -creed and nationality, but also all strangers -who may happen to pass the place where the -feast is held. The amusements include music -and dancing for the Christians, and a variety -of other entertainments, always harmless and -quite within the bounds of decorum, and -joined in with the spirit of joviality that -characterizes these gatherings; disputes are -of rare occurrence, and the greatest harmony -is displayed throughout the day between -Christian and Mussulman. When the interests -of the Mohammedans are closely connected -with those of the Christians, both willingly -forego something of their usual intolerance -in order to further the cause of business. It -is strange and regrettable that this spirit of -association among the lower orders should -receive so little encouragement from the Government -and the higher classes.</p> - -<p>Though the Mohammedans in certain -localities and under such circumstances as -those I have mentioned are just in their -dealings with the Christians, and maintain a -friendly feeling towards them; in others, especially -in inland towns, the growing prosperity -of the Christians excites a bitter feeling -among their Turkish neighbors, who -often offer open hostility and inflict irreparable -injury on their business and property. -Many incidents of this nature have come under -my notice, and lead me to the conclusion -that the non-progressiveness of the Turks -and the rapid decline of their empire is partly -due to the unfortunate and insurmountable -incongeniality existing between the Turks -and Christians. The Turks, as the dominant -race, assumed total ascendancy over the -Christians, got into the habit of using them -as tools who acted, worked, and thought for -them in an irresponsible fashion, and thus -lost the power of doing for themselves, together -with the sense of seeing the necessity -of dealing with justice, generosity, and impartiality, -which alone could have guaranteed -enterprise or secured confidence and sympathy -between the two classes. Unfortunately -for the Turks this has brought about a -state of permanent antipathy between the -two that can never be corrected; nor can any -reconciliation be arrived at unless these -classes become entirely independent of one -another. Any arrangement short of this, as -any person well informed as to the actual relations -of Turks and Christians, be they -Greeks or Bulgarians, will admit, must be of -short duration, and before long there could -not fail to come a recurrence of outbreaks, -revolutions, and the usual atrocities that accompany -disorder among these races.</p> - -<p>The Turks, generally speaking, are not active -or intelligent in business, and do not -venture much into speculation or commercial -transactions of any great importance. For -example, one never hears of their undertaking -banking, or forming companies for the -purpose of working mines, making railways, -or any other enterprise involving risk and requiring -intelligence, activity, system, and -honesty to insure success. The first reason -for this strange neglect in a people who possess -one of the finest and most productive -countries in the world is a naturally stagnant -and lethargic disposition; another is the -want of the support of the Government, -which has never shown itself earnestly desirous -of aiding private enterprise or guaranteeing -its success by affording disinterested -protection. Until very recent times no pains -have been taken either by individuals or by -the Government to introduce those innovations -and improvements which the times demand. -The consequence is that the Turkish -tradespeople gradually find the number of -their customers decrease, while the Greeks, -Franks, and others successfully supply the -public with the new articles, or the old ones -improved and better fashioned. To give an -instance of this I will repeat an incident related -to me by a Turkish bey of “La Jeune -Turquie” as a lamentable proof of the non-progressiveness -of the masses. “When at -Stamboul,” said he, “I had during some time -to pass by the shop of a Turkish basket-maker -who, with two of his sons, one grown -up and the other a boy, might be seen working -at the wicker hampers and common -baskets which have been used in the country -from time immemorial, but are now less used -by reason of the superiority of those brought -from Europe or made in the school for mechanical -arts in Stamboul, an institution not -much appreciated by the artisans who enjoy -the liberty of going themselves or sending -their children to learn the innovations in -their different branches of industry. The -basket-maker and his sons were evidently a -steady-going set, representing the honest -Turks of olden time, but seemed to be struggling -for a livelihood. Feeling an interest in -them, I one day stopped and asked the old -man what he realized per diem by the sale of -his baskets. He heaved a deep sigh, glanced -round his dismal shop, ornamented only -with dust-covered baskets, and said, ‘Very -little, from three to six piastres (6<i>d.</i> to 1<i>s.</i>); -for my business, once a thriving one, is now -cast into the shade, and few customers come -to buy the old Turkish baskets.’ ‘Why then -do you not give it up and take to something -else?’</p> - -<p>“‘No, it did very well for my father, who -at his death recommended me to continue it -and leave it to my sons and grandsons, who -should also be brought up to the trade. I -have done so, but it is a hard struggle for -three of us to live by it.’</p> - -<p>“I then suggested that one or more of his -sons should learn the new method of basket-making, -which would improve his business -at once. This idea did not seem to be received -favorably by the old man and the eldest -son; but the boy caught at it and asked -if he could go and learn. Encouraged by his -evident willingness, I prevailed upon the father -to allow me to place his son in the Industrial -School, where I hear he has made -certain progress in his art.” The Turkish -mechanic has no power of invention, and his -work lacks finish; but he is capable of imitating -with some success any design shown -to him.</p> - -<p>The life led by the Turkish tradespeople is -extremely monotonous and brightened by no -intellectual pleasures. The shopkeeper, on -leaving his house at dawn, goes to the coffee-house, -takes his small cup of coffee, smokes -his pipe, chats with the <i>habitués</i> of the place, -and then proceeds to his business, which is -carried on with Oriental languor throughout -the day. At sunset he again resorts to the -coffee-house to take the same refreshment -and enjoy the innovation of having a newspaper -read to him—a novelty now much appreciated -by the lower classes. He then returns -to the bosom of his family in time for -the evening meal. His home is clean though -very simple; his wife and daughters are ignorant -and never taught a trade by which -they might earn anything. Embroidery, indispensable -in a number of useless articles -that serve to figure in the <i>trousseau</i> of every -Turkish girl, and latterly coarse needle and -crochet work, fill up part of the time, while -the mothers attend to their household affairs. -The young children are sent to the elementary -school, and the boys either go to school -or are apprenticed to some trade.</p> - -<p>A considerable proportion of the Turks belong -to the army. The officers, however, -unlike those of their class in Europe, do not -enjoy the prestige or rank to which the merits -of the profession entitle them. It follows -that the individuality of the officer is not -taken into account: if he possesses any special -ability, it is overlooked so long as superiority -of rank does not enforce it and obtain -for him proper respect from soldiers and civilians. -A Turkish captain does not receive -much more consideration from his senior officer -than does a common private; and in a -moment of anger his colonel or general may -strike and use foul and abusive language to -him: a major is barely secure from such -treatment. There are certainly men of merit<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -and education among the officers of the -Turkish army, whose behavior, like that of -the soldiers, is much praised by those who -have had the opportunity of seeing the admirable -manner in which they conducted -themselves in the late war. Unfortunately it -is principally in individual cases that this -can be admitted, and it can by no means apply -to the whole body of officers.</p> - -<p>When not in active service Turkish officers -generally have their wives and families in -the towns in which they are stationed. The -pay of an officer under the rank of a general -is very inadequate and is irregularly received—a -fact sadly evident in their neglected and -disordered appearance. With boots down at -heel and coats minus half the buttons, they -may often be seen purchasing their own food -in the market and carrying it home in their -hands.</p> - -<p>The young officers who have pursued their -studies in the military schools present a -marked contrast to these. They are well -dressed and have an air of smartness, and in -military science they are said to be far more -advanced than those who have preceded -them. The training they receive, however, -is by no means a perfect one, and much will -be needed before the Turkish officer can rise -to a level with the European.</p> - -<p>Their wives are women from the towns; -as they generally follow their husbands to -the different stations allotted to them, they -obtain some knowledge of the world by travelling -in various parts of the country, and are -conversable and pleasant to associate with.</p> - -<p>The sons of all good and wealthy families -in the capital are either placed in the military -schools or sent to the <i>Kalem</i> (Chancellerie -d’État), where the majority of the upper -class Turkish youth are initiated into official -routine and receive different grades as they -proceed, the highest rank accorded corresponding -with that of <i>Serik</i> (general of division). -The officials who pass through this -school are generally more polished in manner, -more liberal in their ideas, and superior -in many respects to the mean creatures who -in former times were intrusted with offices -for which they were quite unfit. This practice -of appointing <i>Chiboukjis</i> (pipe-bearers) -and other persons of low origin as <i>Mudirs</i> -(governors of large villages) and <i>Kaimakams</i> -(governors of districts), is now less in force, -and is limited to Governors-general, who -sometimes send their servants to occupy -these positions. A Mudir may become a -Kaimakam, and a Kaimakam a Pasha, but -the top ranks can be obtained without passing -through the lower grades. The inferior -official placed over each village is the <i>Mukhtar</i>. -He may be Christian or Moslem, according -to the population; in mixed villages two are -generally chosen to represent the respective -creeds. These functionaries are intrusted -with the administration of the village; they -collect the taxes, and adjust the differences -that arise among the peasants. They are too -insignificant to do much good or much harm, -unless they are very vicious. The Mudirs -are at the head of the administration of their -villages and of the medjliss or council, in -which members chosen by the people take -part. <i>Mutessarifs</i> are sub-governors of <i>Kazas</i> -or large districts, and <i>Valis</i>, Governors-general -of vilayets.</p> - -<p>All this body of officials, together with the -<i>Defterdars</i> (treasurers), <i>Mektebjis</i> (secretaries -of the Pashalik), <i>politico memours</i> (political -agents), etc., taken as a whole, are seldom -fitted for their posts: they are ignorant and -unscrupulous and much more bent upon securing -their personal interests than the welfare -of their country.</p> - -<p>It must, however, in justice be said that, -owing to the large sums the higher officials -have to disburse in order to obtain their appointments, -the great expense entailed in frequently -moving themselves and their families -from one extremity of the empire to the -other, and the irregular and meagre pay the -minor officials receive, it is impossible for -them to live without resorting to some illicit -means of increasing their incomes. And it -must be admitted that praiseworthy exceptions -are to be found here and there among -both the higher and the lower officials.</p> - -<p>The case is very simple. A man has to -pay a vast sum of money to various influential -people in order to get a certain post. His -pay is nothing much to speak of. He is liable -to be ejected by some one’s caprice at -any moment. If he is to repay his “election -expenses” and collect a small reserve fund, -he must give up all idea of honesty. An -honest official in Turkey means a bankrupt. -Under the system of favoritism and bribery -no course but that of corruption and extortion -is open to the official. <i>Il faut bien vivre</i>; -and so long as the old system exists one must -do in Turkey as the rest of the Turks do. It -is utterly corrupt; but it must be reformed -from the top downwards.</p> - -<p>People in the East never think of asking -what was the origin of pashas or in what -manner they have attained their high station. -Genealogical trees in Turkey are not cultivated; -most of the old stems (as explained in -Part II., Chap. I.) were uprooted at the beginning -of the present century; their -branches, lopped off and scattered in all directions, -have in some instances taken fresh -root and started into a new existence; but -they no longer represent the strength of the -ancient trunk. The important body of beys, -pashas, etc., thus abolished, had to be replaced -by a new body selected without much -scrutiny from the crowd of adventurers who -were always awaiting some turn of fortune -whereby they might be put into some official -position and mend their finances.</p> - -<p>Yusbashi A., one of the chief leaders of -the Bashi-Bazouks, who performed the work -of destruction at the beginning of the Bulgarian -troubles, was subsequently sent to Constantinople -by the military authorities to be -hung; but being reprieved and pardoned, he -was promoted to the rank of Pasha. He -had come, when a boy, to the town of T⸺ -as an apprentice in a miserable barber’s shop; -later on he left his master and entered the -service of a native bey. During the Crimean -war he joined the Bashi-Bazouks, and when -peace was made returned to the town with -the rank of captain and a certain amount of -money, which he invested in land. By extortion -and oppression of every kind exercised -upon his peasants, he soon became a -person of consequence in the town. Later -on this man found his way to the Konak, -was appointed member of the council, and -was placed upon some commission by which -he was enabled, through a series of illegal -proceedings, to double and triple his fortune -at the expense of the Government revenues. -The misdeeds of this man and some of his -associates becoming too flagrant to be longer -overlooked, the Porte sent a commission to -examine the Government <i>defters</i> or accounts. -The captain, by no means frightened, but -determined to avoid further trouble in the -matter, is said to have set fire to the Konak -in several places, so that all the documents -that would have compromised him were destroyed -and the Pasha and commission who -came to inspect his doings barely escaped -with their lives. Knowing the desperate -character of the man they had to deal with, -they were alarmed, and unfeignedly glad to -get away and hush the matter up.</p> - -<p>Thus the illustrious line of Pashas and -Grand Vizirs, like the Kiprilis, was put aside -and replaced by a long list of nonentities -who, with the exception of a few such as -Ali and Fuad Pashas, cannot be said to have -benefited their country in any remarkable degree, -or to have shown any special qualifications -as statesmen.</p> - -<p>The title of Grand Vizir, now nominally -abolished, was one of the oldest and the -highest given to a civil functionary. His -appointment, being of a temporal nature, depended -entirely upon the will of the Sultan, -who might at his pleasure load the Vizir -with honors, or relieve him of his head. -This unpleasant uncertainty as to the future -attached to the Vizir’s office gradually almost -disappeared as the Sultans began to recognize -the indispensable services rendered to -them by an able Grand Vizir. They began -to appreciate the comfort of having ministers -to think for them, make laws, and scheme -reforms in their name; and this confidence, -so agreeable to an indolent Sultan, and so -convenient to an irresponsible minister, -was the ruling principle of the constitution -during the reign of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, who -was affable to his ministers, changed them -less frequently than his ancestors did, and -loaded them indiscriminately with decorations -and gifts. Not so his wayward and -capricious brother and successor Abdul-Aziz, -who scrupled not, on the slightest pretext, to -dismiss his Grand Vizir. A trifling change -in his personal appearance, a divergence of -opinion, timidly expressed by the humble -minister—who stood with hands crossed, -dervish-fashion, on his shoulders, in the attitude -of an obedient slave—just as much as a -more serious fault, such as casting difficulties -in the way of his Imperial Majesty with regard -to his exorbitant demands on the treasury, -were sufficient to seal the fate of the -daring <i>Sadrazam</i>. But in spite of the difficulties -and drawbacks and humiliations of -the post, a Grand Vizir continued to be, after -the Sultan, the most influential person in the -country. The gates of his Konak were at -once thrown open, and the other ministers -and functionaries flocked to pay their respects -to him. The governors of districts -telegraphed their felicitations, while the ante-chamber -and courts of his house and office -were rarely free from the presence of a regular -army of office-hunters, petitioners, dervishes, -old women, and beggars, waiting for -an audience or a chance glimpse of the minister -on his exit, when each individual pressed -forward to bring his or her claim to his notice. -<i>Pek aye, bakalum olour</i>,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> were the -words that generally dropped from the -mouths even of the least amiable Vizirs on -such occasions—words of hope that were -eagerly caught by the interested parties, as -well as by the numerous <i>cortége</i> of <i>kyatibs</i>, -servants, and favorites of the great man who, -according to the importance of the affairs or -the station of the applicant, willingly undertook -to be the advocate of the cause, guaranteeing -its success by the counter-guarantee -of receiving the <i>rushvets</i> or bribes needed in -all stages of the affair. This method of -transacting business, very general in Turkey, -is called <i>hatir</i>, or by favor; its extent is -unlimited, and its application varied and undefined; -it can pardon the crime of murder, -imprison an innocent person, liberate a condemned -criminal, take away the property of -one minister to present it to another, remove -governors from their posts just as you change -places in a quadrille, or simply turn out one -set, as in the cotillon, to make room for another. -Anything and everything can in fact -be brought about by this system, except a -divorce when the plea is not brought by the -husband.</p> - -<p>I have particularized the Grand Vizir as -doing business in this way merely because it -was he who was more appealed to in this -manner than the other ministers, not because -the others do not follow closely in his steps. -Their duties are extensive and important, and -demand for their proper and exact performance -not only intelligence, but also high -educational qualifications, which, with rare -exceptions, Turkish officials do not possess—a -capital defect, which, added to the uncertainty -of the period they are likely to remain -in office, and the systematic practice, pursued -by each successive minister, of trying -to undo what his predecessor had done for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -the country, and of dismissing most of the -civil officials and provincial governors to replace -them by some from his own set, greatly -contributes to increase maladministration, -and to create the disorder that has long prevailed -in Turkey.</p> - -<p>About honesty I need not speak, for no -business of any kind is undertaken without -bribery; even if the minister should be above -this, there are plenty of people surrounding -him who would not be so scrupulous. Kibrizli -Mehemet Pasha was one of the few high -officials against whom no charge of the kind -could be brought, but his <i>Kavass-Bashi</i> condescended -to take even so small a sum as five -piastres as a bribe. This Pasha was a thorough -gentleman, high-minded both in his -administrative affairs and family life. After -he lost his position as Grand Vizir, I had occasion -to see a great deal of him; he took -the reverses of fortune with great calmness -and <i>sang-froid</i>; so do all Turks meet “the -slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.”</p> - -<p>The fall of a minister was generally rumored -some time before it took place, during -which period he and those around him tried -to make the most of the opportunities left to -them, while the opposition continued their -intrigues until the blow finally fell. When -this happened the <i>Sadrazam</i> remained at -home, the gates of his Konak were closed, -and the world, including his best friends, -would pass without venturing to enter; the -only visitors would be his banker, doctor, -and creditors, who in prosperity and adversity -never neglect this duty.</p> - -<p>During the administration of a Grand Vizir, -his harem was also called upon to play -its part and take the lead in the female society -of Stamboul. The <i>salon</i> of the chief -wife, like that of her husband, would be -thrown open, and crowds of visitors, including -the wives of the other ministers, would arrive -to offer their respects and felicitations, and -demand favors and promotions for their sons -or posts for their husbands. All these visitors, -on their arrival, were ushered into the -ante-chamber according to their respective -stations, where they took off their <i>feridjés</i> and -refreshed themselves with sweets, coffee, -sherbets, etc. The interval between this and -their reception, sometimes of several hours’ -duration, was spent in conversation among -the visitors, in which some of the ladies of -the household, or some visitors staying in -the house, would join, until they were requested -to proceed to the drawing-room. -When the hostess appeared all would rise -from their seats, walk towards the door, -make <i>temenlas</i> and deep obeisances, and endeavor -to kiss her foot or the hem of her -garment, an act of homage which she would -accept, but gracefully and with much dignity -try to prevent in those of high rank by saying -<i>Istafourla</i> (Excuse me—don’t do it). The -conversation, started afresh, would depend -for subjects upon the disposition and tact of -the mistress of the house; but would chiefly -consist in flattery and adulation, carried -sometimes to a ridiculous extent. The manner -of the <i>hanoum effendi</i> would be smooth -and friendly towards the partisans of her -husband, curt towards those of the opposition, -but patronizing and protecting in its -general tone towards all. Should the Vizir’s -lady be of the unprincipled type, the conversation -would bear a different <i>cachet</i>. I was -told by some distinguished Turkish ladies -that when they paid a visit to the wife of a -short-lived Vizir, the lady, both old and ugly, -entertained them with a recital of the follies -and weaknesses of her husband and exposed -some of her own not more select proceedings -into the bargain.</p> - -<p>The wife of a Grand Vizir also played a -great part with regard to the changes, appointments, -and dismissions which followed -each new Vizirate, by the influence she exercised -both over him and also in high quarters, -where she often found means to make -herself as influential as at home.</p> - -<p>I have often been asked what a Turkish -lady does all day long? Does she sleep or eat -sugar-plums, and is she kept under lock and -key by a Blue-Beard of a husband, who allows -her only the liberty of waiting upon him? -A Turkish lady is certainly shut up in a -harem, and there can be no doubt that she is -at liberty to indulge in the above-mentioned -luxuries, should she feel so disposed; she has -possibly, at times, to submit to being locked -up, but the key is applied to the outer gates, -and is left in the keeping of the friendly -eunuch. Besides, woman is said to have a -will of her own, and “where there is a will -there is a way” is a proverb to which Turkish -ladies are no strangers. I have seldom -met with one who did not make use of her -liberty; in one sense she may not have so -much freedom as Englishwomen have, but in -many others she possesses more. In her -home she is perfect mistress of her time and -of her property, which she can dispose of as -she thinks proper. Should she have cause -of complaint against any one, she is allowed -to be very open spoken, holds her ground, -and fights her own battles with astonishing -coolness and decision.</p> - -<p>Turkish ladies appreciate to the full as -much as their husbands the virtues of the -indispensable cup of coffee and cigarette; -this is their first item in the day’s programme. -The <i>hanoums</i> may next take a bath; the -young ladies wash at the <i>abtest</i> hours; the -slaves when they can find time. The <i>hanoum</i> -will then attend to her husband’s wants, -bring him his pipe and coffee, his slippers -and pelisse. While smoking he will sit on -the sofa, whilst his wife occupies a lower -position near him, and the slaves roll up the -bedding from the floor. If the gentleman be -a government functionary the official bag -will be brought in, and he will look over his -documents, examining some, affixing his seal -to others, saying a few words in the intervals -to his wife, who always addresses him -in a ceremonious manner with great deference -and respect. The children will then -trot in in their <i>gedjliks</i> with the hair uncombed, -to be caressed, and ask for money -with which to buy sweets and cakes. The -custom of giving pence to children daily is -so prevalent that it is practised even by the -poor.</p> - -<p>The children, after an irregular breakfast, -are sent to school or allowed to roam about -the house; the <i>effendi</i> proceeds to perform -his out-of-door toilet and leaves the <i>haremlik</i>, -when the female portion of the establishment, -freed from the pleasure or obligation -of attending to his wants, begin the day’s occupation. -If this should include any special -or unusual household work, such as preserve-making, -washing or ironing, or general -house-cleaning, the lady, be she of the -highest position, will take part in it with the -slaves. This is certainly not necessary, for -she has plenty of menials, but is done -in order to fill up the day, many hours of -which necessarily hang heavily on her hands -when not enlivened by visiting or being visited. -In the capital, however, less of this -kind of employment is indulged in by the -fashionable <i>hanoums</i>, who are trying to create -a taste for European occupations by -learning music, foreign languages, and fine -needlework. The time for dressing is irregular. -A lady may think proper to do her -hair and make herself tidy for luncheon, or -she may remain in her <i>gedjlik</i> and slippers all -day. This fashion of receiving visitors <i>en -négligé</i> is not considered at all peculiar unless -the visit has been announced beforehand.</p> - -<p>Visiting and promenading, the principal -amusements of Turkish ladies, are both -affairs of very great importance. Permission -has previously to be asked from the husband, -who, if liberally disposed, freely grants it; -but if jealous and strict, he will disapprove -of seeing his family often out of doors. -When a walk or drive is projected the children -all begin to clamor to go with their -mother. Scarcely is this question settled by -coaxing or giving them money, than another -arises as to which of the slaves are to be allowed -to go. Tears, prayers, and even little -quarrels and disturbances follow, until the -mistress finally selects her party. The details -of the toilette are very numerous; the -face has to be blanched, then rouged, the -eyebrows and lashes to be blackened with -<i>surmé</i>, and a variety of other little coquetries -resorted to requiring time and patience before -the final adjustment of the <i>yashmak</i> and -<i>feridgé</i>.</p> - -<p>Then comes the scramble for places in the -carriage, the <i>hanoums</i> naturally seat themselves -first, the rest squeeze themselves in, -and sit upon each other’s knees. It is wonderful -to see how well they manage this close -packing, and how long they can endure the -uncomfortable postures in which they are -fixed.</p> - -<p>If the excursion is solely for visiting, the -occupants of the carriages make the best of -the time and liberty by coquetting with the -grooms and <i>agas</i> in attendance, should these -be young and handsome, and sending salaams -to the passers-by, mingled with laughter -and frolic. But when the excursion has a -picnic in prospective, or a long drive into the -country, the gayety and fun indulged in is -bewildering; and the <i>hanoums</i> can only be -compared to a flock of strange birds suddenly -let loose from their cages, not knowing what -to make of their new freedom. Flirting, -smoking, eating fruits and sweets, walking -about, running, or lounging on the carpets -they bring with them, varied by music and -singing, fill the day. They usually set out -early and return before sunset in time to receive -their master on his visit to the harem -before dinner. When this meal is over, the -company, comfortably dressed in their <i>négligé</i> -costume, indulge in coffee and cigarettes, -and the events of the day are discussed. -The ladies then retire to rest at an early hour, -and rise the next day to go through the same -routine.</p> - -<p>At the foot of the imperial throne we see -the princes, who, like children at dessert, are -to be seen, not heard. They now enjoy a -degree of freedom before unknown, and their -wants and caprices are to a certain extent -satisfied by allowances from the Sultan. In -childhood and youth they are masters of -their own time, and employ it as they please. -On emerging from boyhood they are furnished -with harems; some more distantly -related to the reigning Sultan are allowed to -have children; but the others are denied that -privilege. All these members of the imperial -family live a very secluded life. They -are not allowed to take any part in the administrative, -hold commissions in the army -or navy, or enter the civil service. The only -exception to this rule was the son of the late -Sultan Abdul-Aziz, who, at the age of ten, -was, I believe, a captain in the army, and a -few years later was made a general. This is -said to have given the occasion for a reproach -made to the prince by his father, who at the -moment of his deposition turned to him and -said, “My son, I placed you in the military -school where you remained three years without -making a single friend; see what this -has now led to!”</p> - -<p>This reproach of being friendless addressed -to any of the princes is unjust, as -they are not allowed to make friendships. -Friends for a prince mean a party, and a -party means cabals and conspiracies, so all -such dangerous connections are carefully -suppressed, and the prince, under the influence -of the suspicion and espionage by which -he is surrounded, is as little disposed to have -any friends among the influential classes and -men of rank as they are to court his friendship -or approach him too closely. A personal -friend of the ex-Sultan Murad told me -that in early youth that prince and he had -been very much thrown together, and a sincere -affection had sprung up between them,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -which, however, on Sultan Abdul-Medjid’s -death, had to be entirely given up. Rare -meetings between them could only be arranged -when the prince went to Pera on -shopping expeditions. Thus the Ottoman -princes, spoilt in childhood, secluded from -active public life, are left to vegetate in their -respective homes.</p> - -<p>The Princes of the Blood and all relations -of the late Sultan used always to be cleared -out of the way on the accession of a new -Padishah; but the custom has fallen into -disuse since the time of Mahmoud II., who -found it necessary to order the strangulation -of the deposed Sultan, the drowning in sacks -of 174 of his wives and odalisks, and also the -decapitation of a great number of other persons. -This measure, considered needful to -insure the inviolability of his person, as the -only remaining representative of the house of -Othman, soon put an end to the rebellion -that had occasioned his ascension to the -throne. On the day of his proclamation as -Sultan, thirty-three heads were exposed at -the gate of the Seraglio to bear evidence to -the fact. Rebellion, fire, and murder, it -was said, could not be otherwise put down -than by counter-violence, and the extreme -measures adopted by the new sovereign -ended in the restoration of order in the capital.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding this black page in the -history of Mahmoud, this Sultan, to whom -history has not yet done justice, was one of -the best, most enlightened, and powerful of -Ottoman sovereigns.</p> - -<p>Unlike most of his predecessors, he had -not wasted the long years of captivity in idleness -and frivolous occupations, but had seriously -employed them in study. He originated -the material changes that have since been -made in the life of seraglio inmates, and also -endeavored to better the condition of his -Christian subjects. Whatever progress has -been made by the Turkish Mohammedans -in the road of civilization must also be attributed -to his efforts. Amid wars without and -revolts within, the discontent of the Moslems -at the attempted innovations, the clamoring -of the Christians for the amelioration of their -condition, the Sultan struggled on for thirty -years with a perseverance worthy of the -cause, till death put an end to his work. He -was succeeded by his son, the liberal but -weak-minded Abdul-Medjid.</p> - -<p>The young Sultan was well imbued with -the ideas of his father, but less capable of -carrying them out; yet he showed himself -liberal and sincerely desirous of improving -the degraded condition into which the country -had fallen.</p> - -<p>The security of life and property became -greater under his rule. Executions and confiscation -of property became less frequent, -and a general change for the better in the -material existence of the people was decreed; -but unfortunately the Sultan could not insure -the carrying out of his decrees. The exchequer, -impoverished by the extravagance -of the palace and the corruption of the officials, -was on the brink of bankruptcy, which -was only postponed by the foreign loans obtained -in the succeeding reign.</p> - -<p>Had the Sultan’s perseverance in seeing -these changes enforced been equal to his -good-will in ordaining them, Turkey might -have been spared many of its present miseries.</p> - -<p>He was beloved by his subjects, who, in -the midst of their misery, forgave his weakness -in remembering his gentleness and benevolence -to those who appealed to his mercy. -His aversion to bloodshed was so great that -he was never known to decree a single execution. -This was, of course, a serious hindrance -to carrying on the judicial arrangements -of the country. In cases of urgent -necessity his signature had to be obtained -by subterfuge.</p> - -<p>A lover of pleasure and ease, Abdul-Medjid, -on coming to the throne, soon plunged -into that life of self-indulgence, luxury, and -excess, which at once began to tell upon -his delicate constitution and by degrees affected -in a most fatal manner his moral and -physical faculties; and he died of exhaustion -on June 25th, 1861.</p> - -<p>His successor, Abdul-Aziz, had been the -first to profit by the indulgence and liberality -of his brother, who from the beginning to the -end of his reign showed him genuine brotherly -affection, allowed him uncontrolled freedom -as heir-apparent, and furnished him with a -very liberal income, making a point of never -getting any object of value for himself, -without offering its equivalent to his brother.</p> - -<p>Abdul-Aziz, however, did not make any -good use of the liberty he enjoyed before -coming to the throne. Sensual, extravagant, -and narrow-minded, his occupations and -pleasures were anything but imperial: his -wasteful habits were ruinous to his country, -whilst his want of judgment and foresight -prevented his realizing the fatal effects of his -conduct. This may, however, be accounted -for, to a great extent, by the fact that he was -subject at times to <i>merak</i> (aberration of -mind). From an early age he began to give -signs of that whimsical, suspicious, and -morose disposition which during the latter -part of his reign became the principal characteristic -of his nature.</p> - -<p>Unlike his brother, Abdul-Medjid, he was -strongly built, and his personal appearance -was singularly unattractive. His tastes and -amusements, very much in harmony with his -exterior, showed themselves in all kinds of -extravagant and odd fancies. Cock-fighting -was a spectacle in which he greatly delighted, -by turns decorating or exiling the combatants.</p> - -<p>In his moments of good-humor he often -imposed a wrestling match upon his ministers -and favorites, at times taking an active -part in the sport. The celebrated Nevrez -Pasha, half knave, half fool, who from the -lowest stage of seraglio functions had been -raised to a ministerial position, was the one -generally chosen by the Sultan with whom -to measure his strength.</p> - -<p>The corpulent Pasha never failed to be the -beaten party; the ludicrous attitudes into -which he fell and his jokes gave him a -higher grade whenever they were called into -play, and caused him to say that every kick -he received from the imperial foot was worth -to him a <i>Nishan</i> (a decoration), a konak, or -a vizirlik.</p> - -<p>It would, however, be unfair not to acknowledge -in this Sultan some good services -rendered to his country.</p> - -<p>One of these is the purchase of the fine fleet -of iron-clads the Porte now possesses; another, -his untiring efforts in placing the army -on the, comparatively speaking, improved -and high footing on which it stood at the -beginning of the war; and a third, the construction -of the railways now existing in the -country. Some will perhaps reckon among -his merits the shrewdness he and his ministers -displayed in accomplishing these undertakings -with funds that were not exactly -theirs.</p> - -<p>The details of the dethronement, short captivity -and death of Sultan Abdul-Aziz, though -extremely curious and interesting, are as yet -but little known to the public. One of the -ladies of his seraglio related some of the incidents -connected with these events to me, but -she said, “We cannot now divulge all, for -fear of prejudicing the living, but in course -of time, when history reveals unknown -facts, all doubts and mystery on his untimely -death will be removed.” Upon which she -burst into tears, and repeatedly uttered the -Turkish exclamation of distress, “Aman! -Aman!”</p> - -<p>She then recited to me in Arabic the verse -which the unfortunate Sultan, on entering -his prison, traced on the dust that covered -the table. The following is a translation:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Man’s destiny is Allah’s will,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sceptres and power are His alone,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">My fate is written on my brow,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Lowly I bend before His Throne.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Turning towards the window the Sultan -noticed that one of his much-prized iron-clads -had been placed in front of the <i>Yahli</i> which -served as his prison, with the guns pointed -towards him. But a still more appalling sight -met his gaze. A sailor was seized by a few -of his comrades, who, pointing him out to -the Sultan, passed a crimson <i>kushak</i> or girdle -round his neck and led him three times round -the deck, signifying to the unfortunate captive -that in three days he would undergo the -same operation. Pointing this out to the -Validé Sultana, he exclaimed, with emotion, -“Mother! see to what use the force I have -created for the preservation and aggrandizement -of my empire is applied! This is evidently -the death reserved for me.” A belt -containing some of the most valuable crown-jewels, -which the Sultan had placed on his -person when leaving the palace, disappeared -the day he was found dead, and has never -since been heard of. The Sultan had to ask -for food repeatedly before he was supplied -with it, and even then what he obtained was -given him on the <i>sofra</i> of a common soldier. -On my further questioning this lady on the -cause of the Sultan’s untimely end, she -passed her hand over her lips, meaning they -were sealed, and muttering a “<i>Turbé Istafourla</i>,” -said, “It is not in my power to reveal -more!—the justification of the dead -must be withheld so long as it endangers the -living. The duty of the devoted is to keep -silence until history can divulge secrets that -will then harm none.”</p> - -<p>Soon after the death of Abdul-Aziz, I had -occasion to discuss it with a Turkish general. -Expressing his opinion of the equally unfortunate -Sultan Murad, the Pasha, with smiling -urbanity, said, “I cannot tell as yet; but -with us, Sultans are now so numerous, that -we can afford to sweep them away successively -with a broom, if they do not suit us.”</p> - -<p>Every one is acquainted with the quiet -and peaceable manner in which Sultan Abdul-Aziz -was dethroned in 1876, to make room -for his nephew Murad. This unfortunate -prince was as little acquainted with the -changes that were being planned as was his -uncle, and his sensitive nature, unprepared -for the shock that placed him on the throne, -caused him to receive the messenger who -came to inform him of the change in his position -more as the bearer of his sentence to -death than the herald of sovereignty. Taken -by surprise at the moment he was about to -retire, the prince hastily put on his coat and -met the vizir at the door of the Mabeyn. -Deathly pale, but calm and resigned, he -looked in his face, and said, “What is my -offence, and whom have I ever harmed that -I should thus be doomed to an untimely -death?”</p> - -<p>Entirely ignorant of the conspiracy that -opened a path for him to the throne, and -severely grieved for his uncle’s misfortunes, -the news of his tragical end is said to have -given the first shock to the young sovereign’s -intellect, and, followed by the murder -of the ministers, with its equally distressing -details, determined the bent of his vacillating -mind. One of the first symptoms of his -insanity was a habit he fell into of spanning -with his hand the distance between the wrist -and elbow joint, striking the bend of the arm -with his hand, then starting, and reflecting. -I have never heard of his having broken out -into acts of violence, except upon one occasion, -when he raised a stick and struck his -brother-in-law. On one occasion he made -his escape into the garden, where he was -found sitting on a marble slab, making grimaces -at those who approached him. He is -said to have experienced some lucid intervals; -one of these chanced to be at the moment -the salutes were being fired on the occasion -of his brother Abdul-Hamid’s ascension<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -to the throne. Looking at his son, a -promising youth of fourteen, he said, “My -boy, what is the reason of this firing?” -“Oh!” said the boy, wishing to spare his -father’s feelings, “it is the fête of a foreign -monarch.” “No,” said the unhappy monarch, -“it is the proclamation of my own dethronement, -and the accession of thy uncle -to the throne; God’s will be done!” Heaving -a deep sigh, he shed a few tears, and, -happily for him, under the circumstances, -relapsed into his former state.</p> - -<p>Sultan Murad was said to possess many of -the virtues of his father, a kind and gentle -disposition, and intelligence and liberality of -ideas. During his short reign, the affability -of his manners, and the desire he showed to -please all parties, irrespective of race or religion, -and to abolish the burdens that -weighed upon them, had gained for him the -respect and affection of his subjects, which is -evinced even to the present day by sorrow -and sympathy for his misfortunes.</p> - -<p>The present Sultan at first declined the imperial -throne, from feelings of affection and -delicacy towards his brother, and could only -be prevailed upon to accept it when all the -physicians, called in for advice, pronounced -Murad’s case quite hopeless. Sultan Abdul-Hamid -is much esteemed and highly spoken -of by persons who have had the honor of -conversing with his Imperial Majesty. He -is, moreover, said to be qualified for his position, -being liberal in his ideas, and possessed -of many of the qualities of a good sovereign, -and desirous of carrying out the reforms -that alone can insure the happiness of -his people and restore prosperity to the country. -Unfortunately, he came to the throne -at a moment when the best and most gifted -of sovereigns could do little single-handed. -When affairs are settled, much will naturally -be expected from him, which his friends and -the well-wishers of Turkey feel confident he -will realize.</p> - -<p>I have not yet mentioned an important section -of the Turkish community—the slaves. -Slavery in Turkey is now reduced mainly to -one sex. Male slaves, except in the capacity -of eunuchs, are now rare, though every now -and then a cargo of them is smuggled into -some port and privately disposed of, since the -Government professes to share the anti-slavery -views of England. But female slavery -is a necessary part of the seraglio and of the -Turkish harem system. The seraglio is of -course recruited from its numbers; and few -Turks can afford to keep more than one free -wife. A second wife insists upon a separate -establishment, and causes endless jealousy to -the first wife and trouble to the husband. -But a slave is no cause of jealousy, lives in -the same house as the wife, and costs much -less to keep than a free woman. Female -slaves, too, are generally given by fathers to -their sons, to avoid the expense of a marriage; -and daughters, on marrying, are always -supplied with a slave as lady’s-maid. -Moreover, slaves are in much request as servants, -and do their work excellently, besides -presenting many advantages and conveniences -that are not found in free women.</p> - -<p>The condition of slaves in Turkey is not a -hard one. The principle is of course radically -wrong, and the initial stage is full of -cruelty. But the women are not often ill-treated; -and when an occasional case of violence -and ill-usage occurs, it excites general -indignation among the Moslems. A slave is -entitled to her liberty after seven years of -bondage, and she generally gets it, and is -dowered and married to a freeman, though -sometimes a bad master will evade the law -by selling her before the seven years have -quite expired. But this is a rare case, and -the slave system in Turkey is, as a whole, a -widely different thing from American slavery.</p> - -<p>The only class who suffer much are the negresses. -When they are freed and married off -it not seldom happens that from their native -wildness or other causes they quarrel with -their husbands and are turned off to earn their -own living as best they may. Their condition -then becomes very wretched, and the quarter -in which they live is a dismal group of -rickety houses, inhabited by a miserable and -ragged set of women and children. This is -by no means the case with the Abyssinians -or the half-castes, who rank higher, and -never have to appeal to public charity. But -the negresses are hardly worse off than the -disabled slaves. If a woman of this class by -some accident or age becomes unfit for work, -she is looked upon as a burden and very -badly cared for.</p> - -<p>Turkish slavery is not so bad as it might -be: the system is softened by many humane -laws, and is marked by a kindly paternal -character. Yet it is a blot on the country, -and so soon as the harem system and polygamy -can be got rid of, it too must go.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE ARMENIANS AND JEWS IN TURKEY.</span></h2> - -<p>Historical Misfortunes of the Armenians—Refugees -in Turkey, Russia, Persia—Want of Patriotism—Appearance -and Character—Armenian Ladies—American -Mission Work—Schools—The Jews of Turkey—Reputed -Origin—Classes—Conservatives and Progressives—Jewish -Trade—Prejudice against Jews—Alliance -with Moslems—Wealth and Indigence—Cause of -the Latter—The Jewish Quarter—Education—“L’Alliance -Israélite”—Divorce among the Jews merely a -Question of the Highest Bidder.</p> - -</div> - -<p>There are few nations that can compete -with the Armenians in historical misery. -Tossed about between Arsacid, Roman, and -Sassanian; fought over by Persian and Byzantine; -a common prey to Arabs, Mongols, -and Turk, it is a matter for amazement that -the nation still exists at all. Up to the fourteenth -century the Armenians held persistently -to their country; but after its subjection -by the Mamluk Sultans of Egypt, the -unfortunate inhabitants, seeing no hope of -the restoration of their old independence, and -despairing of relief from the oppression and -spoiling to which they had been exposed for -centuries, began to migrate to other countries, -to try whether fortune would everywhere -be so unkind to them. Some went to -Anatolia, others to Egypt, or to Constantinople, -where they were kindly received and -allowed a Patriarch. Some wandered into -Poland, whence they were soon driven out by -the determined hostility of the Jesuits, and -forced to take refuge in Russia, where they -were joined by numbers of their compatriots -and formed a colony at Grigoripol. Others -went to the Crimea and Astrachan, and many -of the Armenians who had first gone to Turkey -followed in their steps. The Armenians -in Russia were treated with great kindness -by Peter the Great and Catherine, and were -granted special rights and privileges. A colony -of Armenians was settled at New Nakhitchevan -on the Don. After more persecutions -from the Ottomans, in the sixteenth -century, a large number of Armenian refugees -set out for Persia. The Shah received -them graciously, and settled them in Ispahan. -Afterwards, during the war between the -Shah and the Sultan, a depopulation of Armenia -was attempted, with the view of destroying -the Turkish power there. Twelve -thousand families were dragged off to Persia, -most of whom died on the way. The -settlers at Ispahan were at first treated well, -but afterwards subjected to such persecution -that they were obliged to seek a home in -other lands. The portion of Armenia ceded -by Persia to Russia, thus acquiring for the -first time the necessary conditions of peace -and safety, became the refuge of the Armenians -who had not already left their native -land, but who now, driven beyond endurance -by the oppressive rule of the Pashas, crossed -the frontier and immediately found themselves -possessed of the ordinary privileges of -Russian subjects, and able to carry on commercial -pursuits, in which the nation excels, -in peace and confidence. Thus the Armenian -race became scattered over the face of -the earth, whilst only a remnant still lives in -the land of its ancestors. The Armenians -are to be met with all over the East. There -are large numbers of them at Constantinople -and a few other towns, such as Adrianople, -Gallipoli, and Rodosto. In the towns of the -interior, however, their number is small.</p> - -<p>Ages of Asiatic oppression, varied by few -glimpses of prosperity, in the traditional garden -of Eden, have obliterated whatever love -the Armenians formerly had for their country, -which they willingly deserted to seek a -home wherever they could find one. When -the first cravings of their hearts for peace and -security had been satisfied, they settled down -in communities, forgot their country and its -past history, and assimilated their external -forms and customs with those of the nations -among whom they lived, with the philosophic -<i>nonchalance</i> of the Asiatic. In Armenia, -the people who remain, remembering -the terrible sufferings their country has gone -through, have followed the wise policy of -burying in the depths of their hearts any surviving -sparks of patriotism or love of liberty; -though these hidden sparks may some day -be fanned into flame by the introduction of -education and by the influence Russia is exerting -in the country. So far the Porte may -felicitate itself on the success its foreign policy -has met with in Armenia. This policy, -with its consequences of misery and suffering, -is safe only so long as ignorance and stupid -docility prevail among the masses; this cannot -last forever, and in the face of present -events it will not be surprising to hear of -troubles breaking out in that direction as well -as everywhere else. It is only a question -of time. In Turkey, political feeling among -the Armenians is still in its infancy; but -there must be thinking men among the educated -young generation who are watchful of -the present and hopeful for the future.</p> - -<p>The Armenians as a race are strong, well -built, and hardy. With these constitutional -advantages they readily take to the mechanical -arts; but commerce and banking are -their <i>forte</i>, and in these they show great ability -and as much honesty as is possible in a -country where, of all difficulties, that of following -a straight line of conduct is the greatest. -They are considered crafty, but at the -same time exercise considerable moral influence -in the countries they inhabit, especially -at Constantinople, where some of the rich -Armenians have been very closely connected -with the high dignities of the empire. Their -fancy for toad-eating is well adapted to -please the Turks, who by turns show them -regard and contempt. There is an old saying, -that no Turk can be happy in the evening -without having cracked a few jokes with -an Armenian during the day.</p> - -<p>The physiognomy of the Armenians is -generally dark. Their heads are large, with -black, coarse, and abundant hair. Their -eyes, overshadowed by long eyelashes and -thick eyebrows, meeting over the nose, are -black and almond-shaped, but lack the lustre -of Greek eyes. The nose, the worst feature -of the Armenian face, is large and hooked; -the mouth large, with thick lips; the chin -prominent. Their bearing would be dignified -but for a certain want of grace. Armenians -are divided into two classes denominated -<i>Kalun</i> and <i>Injé</i>, or coarse and refined. -The latter belong to the Roman Catholic -creed, and are certainly more advanced than -the former, who are far more subservient to -the Turks, and keep as much as possible in -the background, devoting themselves to the -interests of the Porte in general and to their -own in particular.</p> - -<p>In Armenia the ladies are secluded to the -extent of dining and sitting apart from the -men, and are said to be very backward in -every respect. Their costume very nearly -resembles that formerly worn by Turkish -women. They display the same disregard -to neatness as the latter, without possessing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -their redeeming point of cleanliness: their -heads are specially neglected, and abound in -live stock of a most migratory character. My -mother once pointed out one of these creatures -on the forehead of an Armenian girl, and -reprimanded her for her neglect of her person; -the girl answered that she did not know -that any human being could exist without -them!</p> - -<p>The Armenian ladies of Constantinople are -renowned for their beauty, which is supposed -to lie particularly in the languid expression of -their eyes. Both in Constantinople and Smyrna -there are many Armenians of both sexes -who are well educated, and scarcely to be -distinguished from Europeans in society. I -was once invited to an Armenian fancy ball, -where I was the only European present. -Everything was arranged as in civilized society, -the stewards were equal to their duties, -and the costumes were <i>recherchés</i> and varied. -One slight pretty girl, in particular, dressed -in the old Turkish costume, produced a great -sensation, and was deservingly besieged by -partners, for she waltzed to perfection. -Many of the ladies and gentlemen spoke English, -and nearly all French, and I certainly -spent a very pleasant evening among them.</p> - -<p>In the privacy of their homes the women, -as a rule, are untidy and slatternly. They -are exceedingly fond of dress, and, to the -best of their ability, copy the Parisian -fashions; but their natural want of taste seldom -fails to make itself evident in toilettes -of glaring and ill-assorted colors, while their -hands, arms, and necks are overloaded with -jewelry. Out of doors they are shod with -boots of Parisian manufacture, on whose -high heels they totter along the badly-paved -streets; but they exchange them for slippers -down at heel on re-entering their homes. -Even those who have lived in Europe, and -no longer consider themselves Orientals, sit -cross-legged on their sofas in the most careless -costumes.</p> - -<p>The Armenians have advanced but a very -little way on the road of education. The -most enlightened are certainly those in British -India, whilst those of them who are Russian -subjects have of late considerably improved. -Hitherto, the nation has never had -a fair chance, but that it has the possibility -of progress in it is shown by the fact that no -sooner are the Armenians placed under a firm -and wise government than they at once begin -to go forwards, in every respect. The progress -of the inhabitants of Russian Armenia -has begun to work a political revival among -their brethren under Turkish rule. A wish -for instruction is everywhere beginning to be -shown, and it has received a strong and most -salutary impulse from the numerous American -missionaries now established throughout -Armenia. The untiring efforts of these -praiseworthy and accomplished workers in -the cause of civilization and humanity are -beginning to bear fruit, especially since education -has become one of their principal objects. -They are working wonders among -the uncultivated inhabitants of this hitherto -unhappy country, where mission-schools, -founded in all directions, are doing the double -service of instructing the people by their -enlightened moral and religious teaching, and -of stimulating among the wealthy a spirit of -rivalry, which leads them to see their own -ignorance and superstitious debasement, and -raises a desire to do for themselves, by the -establishment of Armenian schools, what -American philanthropy has so nobly begun -to do for them.</p> - -<p>The moral influence that America is now -exercising in the East through the quiet but -dignified and determined policy of its Legation -at Constantinople, curiously free from -political intrigues and rivalry, is daily increasing, -and has the most salutary effect on -the country. It watches with a jealous care -over the rights and safety of the missionaries, -who are loved and respected wherever they -settle, and make their influence felt in the -remotest corners of Turkey. Next to Greece, -whose educational efforts are naturally greater -throughout the country, it is America that -will be entitled to the gratitude of the Christians -for her ready aid in elevating the ignorant -masses to the dignity of civilized beings.</p> - -<p>In the Armenian schools, the Turkish, -Armenian, and French languages are taught; -the two former are generally well mastered -by the pupils, Armenians being considered -apt linguists; a very fair knowledge of -French is also common among them.</p> - -<p>Armenians do not show any taste for the -arts and sciences. One seldom hears of an -Armenian artist, doctor, or lawyer, and the -few that do exist attain only mediocrity.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to obtain correct statistical information -of native Armenian schools, but I -can affirm that of late years they have greatly -increased in number, and are much improved -in their organization and mode of teaching. -At Constantinople, Erzeroum, and many -other towns where the Armenian communities -are large, excellent schools for girls have -been founded. In towns where these are -wanting, many girls are sent for a few years -to the boys’ schools, where religion, reading, -and writing are taught them. Turkish, the -language with which the Armenians are -most conversant, is also taught from books -written in the Armenian characters. In -all other respects, the education of Armenian -girls is very much neglected; from an early -age they fall into a listless, aimless existence, -and are seldom taught to busy themselves -with needlework or any useful or rational -employment. Some of the wealthy families -at Constantinople and Smyrna are manifesting -a desire for improvement in this respect, -by engaging European governesses or sending -their children to European schools; but -it will be long before either sex gets rid of -the ignorance and indolence which circumstances, -perhaps, as much as nature, have -forced upon it.</p> - -<p>The Jews dwelling in Turkey are, to a -great extent, descendants of those expelled -from Spain by the Inquisition and the edict -of 1492; their language is a corrupt Spanish -dialect; but they are conversant with those -of the places they inhabit. Besides these and -other native Jews, there is an influential class -of European Jews who are certainly in the -van of progress among their co-religionists -in Turkey. They are educated, liberal-minded -men, and, as a rule, a prosperous -class. They are untiring in their efforts to -develop education among the native Jews -by establishing schools, assisting the poor, -and setting a good example of conduct by -their own higher manner of life.</p> - -<p>The native Jews may be divided into two -classes, Conservative and Progressive. The -Conservative Jews are strict, rigid, and intolerant -to their brethren: they keep aloof from -the rest of the world, and mix with it only -in business transactions. They are cunning -and avaricious, and although some possess -large fortunes, they are seldom known to use -them for the benefit of the community, or -for any other good purpose. Strongly opposed -to liberal education, the influence they -exercise over their respective communities is -always employed to counteract the action of -the enlightened party. The Progressive -Jews, who are becoming pretty numerous -among the upper classes, act in direct opposition -to these principles and endeavor as -much as possible to shake off old customs and -traditions.</p> - -<p>The chief occupations of the Jewish community -are banking and commerce. They -excel in both to such a degree that where a -man belonging to another nationality can -only realize a fair competence, the Israelite -makes a fortune; whilst in positions in which -other men would starve, the Jew will manage -to keep himself and family in comfort. -The secret of this well-known fact lies in the -unusual finesse and ability displayed by -Israelites occupying high positions in the -business world, and the cunning and ingenuity -of the lower orders, who with moderate -exertion make the most of their trade, and -extort all they can from those with whom -they have dealings.</p> - -<p>With regard to moral and personal qualifications, -the Jews of Turkey are the most -backward and debased of any of the races. -This degenerate condition may be attributed -to more than one cause. One of the chief -causes, however, is the general feeling of -antipathy shown towards Jews in a semi-civilized -country: all kinds of real and fictitious -sins are attributed to them, from the -charge of kidnapping children (an absurdity -still credited everywhere in Turkey) to the -proverbial accusation of never transacting -business with members of other creeds without -infringing the laws of good faith and -honesty. To apply this latter charge to the -whole community would be unjust, for there -are honest, liberal, and straightforward men; -but there is no doubt the reputation is not -altogether ill-earned among them.</p> - -<p>The Jews in Turkey have from all times -shown a greater liking for their Moslem -neighbors than for the Christians. The -Moslems sneer at them and treat them with -disrespect as a nation, but are far more tolerant -and lenient towards them than towards -the Christians. The Jews, on their side, -although at heart feeling no disposition to respect -their Mohammedan masters, show great -sympathy outwardly for them; and in case -of a dispute between Christians and Mohammedans, -unanimously espouse the cause of the -latter. The wealthy Israelites would render -every assistance in their power to remove the -difficulties of the Government, while those -of humbler standing tender their service for -the performance of anything that may be -required of them, however degrading.</p> - -<p>In few countries is the contrast of wealth -and indigence among the Jews so striking as -in Turkey. On one side may be seen wealth so -great as to command respect for its possessors, -and give them an influence in the localities -in which they spring up greater than that -of all other nationalities; whilst hard by one -sees poverty and wretchedness of the most -sickening nature. The principal cause of -this is the limited sphere of action allotted -to, or rather adopted by, the Jewish communities. -They evince a strong repugnance -to going beyond the few trades generally -practised by the laboring classes; the rest -content themselves with performing the -coarsest and dirtiest work of the town. -From generation to generation the Jews will -cling to these callings without allowing themselves -to be tempted beyond them, or raising -themselves in the social scale by taking to -agricultural or other pursuits that might insure -them a comfortable home and an honorable -living.</p> - -<p>In towns where the Jewish element predominates, -it is packed in dingy, crowded -quarters, in hovels, buried in filth. These -miserable abodes contrast strongly with the -fine and showy houses of the rich. Both rich -and poor of the native Jews may be seen in -their court-yards or at their doors, the mother -rocking the cradle, the children playing in -the mud, and the women and girls washing -or engaged in other household occupations. -The men on coming home don their <i>négligé</i> -in-door costume and join the family party, -lounging on a sofa, smoking and chatting. -This community is very noisy, the most natural -conversation among them being carried -on in the loud tones of lively dispute, all talking -at once in such an elevated key as to be -heard at a considerable distance.</p> - -<p>They are certainly lively and cheerful, -neither want nor poverty detaining them at -recreation-time from listening to their discordant -national music, which they accompany -by a vocal performance of a deafening -nature.</p> - -<p>Some of the women are very pretty, and -their beauty is heightened by their peculiar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -costume and gay head-dress. They are, however, -cold and rather graceless in demeanor, -and are not noted for intelligence.</p> - -<p>Education among the native Jews was completely -neglected until very recently, when -the efforts of the European Jews and a few -of the liberal natives finally produced a beneficial -reaction, and schools of a superior order, -principally dependencies of “L’Alliance -Israélite” formed in Europe for the benefit of -the Eastern Jews, have been established in -all the principal towns, and are said to have -greatly benefited the rising generation, which -is wanting neither in intelligence nor aptitude -for study. Before the establishment of -these schools the Jews had to send their children -to European or Greek schools, where -they received an indifferent style of education, -as the training, owing to the difference -of religion and habits, did not include the -complete course.</p> - -<p>The director of the schools established by -“L’Alliance Israélite” gave me most satisfactory -accounts of the progress made by the -pupils attending them, and of the increase of -morality among them. The Jewish girls -have not equal advantages with the boys with -respect to educational establishments. This -unfortunate difference will, it is hoped, be in -time remedied by the schools, founded by the -same society and others, in the principal -towns. All these schools owe their origin to -the generosity of wealthy Israelites like -Baron Hirsh and others, who have endowed -the establishments with the funds necessary -for rendering them useful and of lasting duration. -In Salonika the girls’ school, established -some years ago, has, thanks to the able -management and munificence of the Messrs. -Allatini, been placed upon an excellent footing, -and, being presided over by the most intelligent -and gifted European ladies of the -community, is doing great and good service.</p> - -<p>Besides these schools, there is one of older -standing connected with the Missionary Society, -under the direction of a missionary and -three able and devoted Scottish ladies, who -receive a large class of day pupils and give -them the benefit of sound education for a -trifling fee. This part of missionary work is -in reality the best and most beneficial to the -community, and far more so than the efforts -made at proselytism—efforts which, so far -as I can ascertain, have nowhere met with -success.</p> - -<p>Polygamy is prohibited among the Jews; -but their divorce laws are very lenient; and -a separation is the easiest thing in the world—for -the husband. A wife cannot get a -separation without her husband’s consent. -Practically, however, this is seldom refused -if a sum of money is offered. A gentleman, -aware of this Jewish weakness, and falling in -love with a Syrian beauty who was married -to a Jew, bought her divorce for 2,000<i>l.</i> In -some towns the morality of the community -is closely watched. In Adrianople, for instance, -a faithless wife is led for three successive -days round the Jewish quarter, and -compelled to stop before every door to be -spat upon and abused. At Salonika, where -the Jews are very numerous, it is quite otherwise. -Among the wealthy and liberal many -of the old customs have been set aside, intermarriage -with European Jewish families -is of frequent occurrence, and many modifications -permitted which do not seem strictly -conformed to the Mosaic law.</p> - -<p>The affairs of the Jewish communities, like -those of the Christians, are managed by -elders. The chief Rabbi has control over -all matters regarding the religious and social -interests, and is in direct communication -with his superior at Constantinople.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE CIRCASSIANS, TATARS, AND GYPSIES OF -TURKEY.</span></h2> - -<p><i>The Circassians.</i>—Their Immigration into Turkey -in 1864—Their Camp—Chiefs and Slaves—Origin of -the Charge of Cannibalism—Assistance of the Government -and the Peasantry—Bulgarian Views of the -New-comers—A Cherkess Girl—Sale of Circassian Women—Depredations—Cattle-lifting—Circassian -Fellow-travellers -in a Steamer—Appearance and Character—Scheme -of Philanthropy respectfully offered to Russia.</p> - -<p><i>The Tatars.</i>—Their Arrival in the Dobrudcha with -a Good Character, which they have since maintained—Their -Excellent Qualities as Artisans—Religion—Women—Dirtiness—Tallow -their Specialty—Rivalry -of Jewish and Tatar Hawkers.</p> - -<p><i>The Gypsies.</i>—Legend of the Origin of the Name -Chenguin—Abhorrence of them by the Turks—Religion -and Superstitious Customs—Nomad Life—Two -Classes—Physical Characteristics—Reported Witches—Indiscriminate -Pilfering—A Case of Horse-stealing—Gypsy -Cunning in the Market—Gypsy Avocations—Character—Gypsy -Soldiers—Town Gypsies—Agricultural -Gypsies.</p> - -</div> - -<p>In 1864 Russia, the present champion of -the subject races of Turkey, was busy in her -own vast dominions giving the <i>coup de grâce</i> -to the unruly and only half-subjugated Circassians. -These people, during a period of -eighty years, resisted Russian aggression, defending -their homes and liberties at the point -of the sword, until the consequences of war, -famine, and misery compelled them to yield -to the superior power of the Czar. They -were offered the choice of migrating to the -lower steppes of that land, where Russian -discipline alone could tame them, or of quitting -the country. Some accepted the former -alternative, while a large portion, consisting -of about 300,000 souls, preferred to accept the -hospitality of Turkey. Before leaving the -shores of their beloved native land, collected -on the beach like a herd of wild animals -caught in a storm, they raised their voices -and cried aloud against the injustice and -cruelty they, with their wives and children, -had received at the hands of the Muscovites. -That voice reached Turkey, who, whatever -her sins are, has never been known to refuse -shelter and assistance to the homeless and -the refugee. A proof of this may be found -in the harbor offered within my recollection -to the exiled Prince of Persia, Kouli Mirza, -subsequently a pensioner of Great Britain; -the famous Syrian chieftain, the Emir Beshir -and his party; the Polish, Wallachian, and -Hungarian refugees, and Abdul Kadir; the -Algerine captive chief, who obtained permission -from Napoleon to reside in Turkey. All -these with their followers were received with -hospitality, treated with kindness, and, in -some cases, allowed pensions while they remained -in the country.</p> - -<p>This gift of Russia to Turkey was, as far -as the female portion of it was concerned, as -irresistible as the beauteous Pandora is said to -have been to Epimetheus; and the Circassian -ladies certainly brought with them the equivalent -for Pandora’s famous box, in the shape -of their kith and kin, who dispersed themselves -all over the country, and, from that moment, -have never ceased to do mischief, and justify -Russia’s treatment of them. I have had opportunities -of seeing these people since their -arrival in Turkey, of watching them in the -different stages through which they have -passed, and noting the irreparable harm they -have done to the country that offered them -an asylum. On landing, about 2000 were -quartered in a little wood. Emaciated by -the long sufferings of the journey, covered -with vermin, and half famished, they encamped -on the damp soil in the early spring, -some sheltering themselves under the trees, -others under such tattered tents as they possessed, -all closely packed together, the sick -lying face to face with the dead, and the living -moving, gaunt and ghostlike, among -them, careless of everything except, getting -money. As we neared the infected camp, -bands of men and women came forward, -holding their children by the hand and offering -to sell them to any who would buy. The -little wretches themselves seemed anxious to -be separated from their unnatural parents, in -the hope of getting food and better shelter. -These Circassians were divided into two -classes, the chieftains and the slaves. Each -regarded the other with distrust; the one expecting -from his slave the abject obedience -he had been accustomed to receive in his native -land; the other, aware of the change in -his condition, ready to dispute this right with -his former master.</p> - -<p>Rations and clothes were distributed by the -Turkish authorities, but the master took his -slave’s portion and sold it for profit. The -slave, on his side, stole what he could, and -stripped even the dead of his last covering, -leaving the corpse to be devoured by dogs. -The sight of these bodies by the townspeople -and others originated the idea that these -people were cannibals, and this reputation -preceding the Circassians, on their march -further into the country, caused a panic on -their route. Children ran away on their approach, -and even the peasants themselves, instinctively -aware of the pernicious nature of -the element introduced among them, did their -best to avoid giving them offence in refusing -assistance.</p> - -<p>The majority of the Circassians distributed -in European Turkey are settled in the Dobrudcha; -the rest were allotted patches of ground -in all parts of Bulgaria and in other provinces, -where the peasants were called upon to -supplement the Government in providing -them with cattle, grain, and all other requisites -necessary to start them as settlers. The -Bulgarian peasants stoically made it a point -of duty to render every assistance in their -power to the destitute and helpless creatures -so strangely brought among them, and Circassian -settlements soon started up like weeds -by the side of the peaceful and thriving villages.</p> - -<p>Four years later I had again occasion to -pass through these settlements, and was -much surprised at the transformation in the -appearance of the Circassians. The men, -dressed in their picturesque costume, wearing -their arms, some of which were curious -and rich pieces of Eastern workmanship, -were lazily lounging about the commons of -their villages; while the women, arrayed in -their dress of red silk braided with gold, presided -over their household duties. Some -well-conditioned cattle, driven by Circassian -youths, were grazing in the surrounding -meadows. I stopped at a Bulgarian village -opposite one of these settlements. It was a -<i>prasnik</i>, or feast-day, and the Bulgarian youth -and beauty, dressed in their best, were dancing -the <i>hora</i>. As our party approached, the -dance stopped, and the women, saluting me -with a cheerful smile, regarded me with great -curiosity. The headman of the village came -forward, and, with a hearty welcome, offered -me hospitality for the night. I had a long -and interesting conversation with him and -the elders of the little community upon the -Circassian settlements. The Bulgarian peasants -even at that early date had a long list of -grievances against their new neighbors. -Pointing to the opposite village, they assured -me that its very foundation and prosperity -was due to Bulgarian labor and money. -“The Circassians,” said they, “lounge -about the whole day, as you see them doing -now. Their industry does not extend beyond -the sowing of a few bushels of millet for the -use of their families. Their cattle, as well as -most of their belongings, are not for work, -but are stolen property that they are freely -allowed to appropriate to themselves to the -prejudice of the peasants.” The poor men -seemed much concerned at this new evil that -had befallen them. “We never get redress -for the wrongs done by our neighbors,” said -they; “and if the Government functionaries -continue to disregard our complaints, and -to allow the depredations of these marauders -to go unpunished as they have hitherto done, -not only our property but our lives will be at -their mercy.”</p> - -<p>A Circassian girl from the village on seeing -me came forward, and with tears in her -eyes implored me to take her with me and -keep her in my service. She was about -eighteen years of age, a beautiful creature, -dark complexioned, with sparkling eyes, -which overflowed when I refused her request. -“I am perishing with <i>ennui</i> here,” she said,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -“in this dreadful outlandish place, without a -hope or chance of getting away by being -sold or rescued by some charitable person -who might take me to Stamboul!” Surprised -at her statement, I asked why she did -not do as others of her nation, and insist upon -being sold. With a look of hopeless despondency -she replied: “None now dares to -buy the <i>Cherkess</i> girls belonging to the emigrants.” -She would give me no further information, -but through subsequent inquiry I -learnt that the Turkish Government, among -the laws it had made relating to the Circassians, -had deprived them of the right of selling -their children as they formerly did in -their native country, and had also decreed -the liberation of the slaves held by them. But -this law, like many others, was disregarded, -and the chieftains continued to treat their -subjects as slaves, a cause of constant quarrelling -and bloodshed among them. Some -broke out into open rebellion and refused to -obey their master as such, while the chiefs, -strong in the close alliance that existed among -them, could at all times, notwithstanding -the interference of the authorities, bring -their subjects to terms by taking the law into -their own hands.</p> - -<p>With regard to selling their children, it was -neither the law prohibiting the practice nor -the want of purchasers that put a stop to it, -but the abuse made of it by the Circassians -themselves. For instance, two brothers -would agree to sell a sister to some Mohammedan, -who, after having paid the money -and obtained possession of the girl, was suddenly -called before the local courts to answer -the charge brought by her father, without -whose consent it was pretended the daughter -had been ravished and illegally sold. The -purchaser thus losing his prize without receiving -back the money he had paid to the -dishonest Circassians, and being condemned -for the proceeding by the law, made known -the undesirability of such purchases among -his friends, and deprived them of any wish -to participate in such troublesome business.</p> - -<p>The depredations of the Circassians became -so extensive that from one farm alone in the -district of Adrianople three hundred and fifty -head of cattle were stolen and never recovered.</p> - -<p>A systematic company of cattle-stealers -was established all over Bulgaria; the stolen -animals taken from the villages found their -way to Rodosto and Gallipoli, where they -were shipped to Asia Minor and exchanged -with stolen cattle from that coast. The dexterity -with which a Circassian, introducing -himself into a stud, takes possession of the -best horse is the terror and wonder of the -farmer. He uses a kind of lasso which, cast -over the head of the animal, enables him to -mount it and stick to it as if horse and rider -were one. The wildest animal is soon cowed -under the iron sway of the rider, and disappears, -to be seen no more.</p> - -<p>A gentleman, wishing to procure a good -horse from a Circassian, asked the owner if -the animal was a good trotter. The Circassian, -with a malicious smile, answered, “Sir, -he will take you to the world’s end, so long -as you are careful not to turn his head in the -direction of Philippopolis, but in that case I -do not guarantee him!”</p> - -<p>Another incident, illustrative of the thievish -propensities of these people, was related -to me of a carter who, driving his wagon -from town, fell asleep in it, and was met by a -band of Circassians, who thought the prize -too tempting to be allowed to escape. Some -of the party, therefore, took to unharnessing -the oxen, and two of them, taking the place -of the captured animals, kept the cart going -while the others went off with the oxen. -When these were at a fair distance, their -substitutes gave the cart a strong jerk to -arouse the poor unsuspecting driver, and -heartily saluting him, disappeared across -country.</p> - -<p>So long as Circassian marauding was limited -to incidents of this nature the peasants -put up with it, and in many cases abstained -even from complaining to the authorities; -but gradually the proceedings of this dangerous -race assumed a character the gravity of -which only escaped public notice because of -the general disorganization that followed.</p> - -<p>Becoming prosperous and wealthy through -their continual depredations and robberies, -the youthful portion of the community that -had escaped sickness on first landing formed -a lawless hostile faction in the land, having -as little respect for the authority of the Porte -as for the life and property of the natives. -When the Government tried some years ago -to bring a portion of them under military -discipline, they rebelled and gave much -trouble to the authorities in the capital itself, -where it was found necessary to seize, exile, -and otherwise punish some of the chiefs for -insubordination.</p> - -<p>I happened to be travelling in a Turkish -steamer with thirty of these rebellious subjects. -Their chief was said to have been an -influential person, holding the rank of aide-de-camp -to a member of the Imperial family, -perhaps the famous Cherkess Hasan, who -nearly two years ago murdered the Ministers. -The Turkish officer who had charge of these -troublesome prisoners told me that for two -months he and his men had given chase to -this band, who had escaped into Asia Minor, -where they had continued their depredations, -and were only secured at last by being surrounded -in a forest. They appeared a dreadful -set of cut-throats—not at all pleasant fellow-passengers—and -their guards had to keep -good watch over them. This officer further -stated that the Sultan, out of kindness, had -invited them into his dominions, giving them -land, and every opportunity of settling down -and becoming useful members of society; -but it was a sad mistake, for they would -neither work nor yield to discipline, neither -would they make any efforts to requite the -Government for the benefit they had received, -but in every instance proved their reputation -for lawlessness and depredation. It is an -important fact that before the Bulgarian -troubles the peasants of the districts where -the Circassians were in force dared no longer -circulate except in companies of fifty or sixty, -and that murderous attacks had become -every-day occurrences.</p> - -<p>Although protected in some high quarters -in consequence of their close connection -through family ties, the Circassians are generally -disliked and distrusted, especially by -the people, who have no such strong reasons -for protecting them. In physical features -they often present splendid specimens of the -famed Circassian type, though not unfrequently -bearing a great resemblance to the -Mongolian. In manner they are haughty and -even insulting, with an air of disdain and -braggadocio such as no really brave man assumes. -In character the Cherkess is undoubtedly -cowardly, cruel, and false. Education -he has none, so that all the evil passions -of his nature, unchecked by any notion -of moral, religious, or civil obligation, have -developed themselves with irresistible force, -and prompted him to acts that during the last -two years have placed the name of the Circassian -below that of the gypsy.</p> - -<p>It is said that they are to be expelled from -European Turkey. If this is the case, the -unfortunate population of Asia Minor, both -Mohammedan and Christian, among whom -they will be quartered, are most deeply to be -pitied, as well as the Government, whose -duty it will be to re-establish and discipline -these ruffians now rendered desperate and -doubly hardened by the crimes and horrors -of every description into which they have -lately plunged with impunity.</p> - -<p>The best and wisest plan would be to request -Russia, if she really and earnestly desires -the welfare of the Christians in Turkey, -to take the Circassians back and reinstate -them in their native land. Should this be -impracticable, the Turkish Government -would do well to send them to colonize some -of the fertile but waste lands in the heart of -Asia Minor, in the vicinity of half-savage -tribes like themselves, in whom they might -find their match, and cease to become a perpetual -source of trouble and injury both to -the Government and its peaceful subjects.</p> - -<p class="tb">The migration of the Tatars into Turkey -preceded that of the Circassians by half a -century. When their country passed into -the hands of Russia, the Tatars, unwilling to -remain under her dominion, removed, at a -great sacrifice of life and property, into Bessarabia, -where, scarcely had they begun to -feel settled and to forget their wrongs and -sufferings, than the Muscovite eagle again -clouded the horizon, and the emigrants, fluttering -at its approach like a flock of frightened -birds, collected their families and belongings, -and took to flight. Weary and -exhausted, they alighted on the Ottoman -soil, and settled in the Dobrudcha. They -were a quiet and industrious people, and before -long, through toil and exertion, they -made themselves homes, and peopled the -Dobrudcha with their increasing numbers. -Some of the Tatar princes migrated with -their subjects, and took up their abode in -the vicinity of Zaghra, where they retained -their title of <i>Sultanlar</i>, or “the princes.” -They became in time wealthy landowners, -but, unlike their less exalted brethren, they -were hard, unjust, and oppressive masters to -the Bulgarian peasants, and by their cruel -treatment of these people were among the -causes of their being cited as rebels before -the authorities.</p> - -<p>A second emigration of Tatars took place -after the Crimean War, when these unfortunate -people, in a similar plight to the Circassians, -came to join their kinsmen in the -Dobrudcha and other parts of European Turkey. -They were poor, and for the most part -destitute of every requisite of life. The -Turkish Government did its best to help them -by giving grants of land, etc., but those who -settled as agriculturists were unfortunate, for -a series of bad seasons crushed their first -efforts, and, unassisted by further relief, they -remained in a stationary condition of poverty, -notwithstanding many praiseworthy -efforts to better their condition. Those who -settled in towns fared better; all who were -acquainted with some handicraft at once set -to work and executed their different branches -of industry with so much activity, neatness, -and honesty that they soon reached prosperity -and comfort.</p> - -<p>Their religion is Mohammedan, but they -are by no means strict or fanatical. Their -women do not cover their faces when among -their own community, but when abroad are -veiled like the Turkish women. They are -very thrifty in their habits, and some are -pretty and sweet-looking, but as a rule they -are the dirtiest subjects in the Sultan’s dominions. -Their uncleanliness with regard to -dress, dwellings, and food is so great as to -shock and horrify the Turks, who certainly -have that virtue which is said to come next -to godliness.</p> - -<p>The principal ingredient in their cookery -seems to be tallow; as candle-makers they -are greatly superior to the natives, and the -preference given to this article of their manufacture -has induced them to take the principal -portion of this branch of industry into -their hands.</p> - -<p>When a colony settled in the town of -A⸺, one of my friends took a great interest -in the efforts made by these estimable -artisans to earn a livelihood as shoe-makers, -tailors, tallow-chandlers, etc. Some opened -small shops for the sale of different articles, -while those who had no distinct calling or -possessed no capital became wood-cutters, or -hawkers of vegetables, fruits, etc. In this -business, however, they met with shrewd -and knowing professionals—the Jews, who<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -were far more able and practised hands at it, -and at first gave very little chance to the -poor Tatars. It became a race between Jew -and Tatar who should get up earliest in the -morning and go furthest to meet the peasants -bringing their produce to market. In this -the Tatar was most successful, as he was the -better walker of the two, and less afraid than -the Jew of venturing some distance from the -town; but the latter contented himself with -the reflection that there are many roads that -lead to the same goal, and many ways of -making profit which are not dreamt of in -Tatar philosophy.</p> - -<p class="tb">The Gypsies in Turkey, numbering about -200,000 souls, profess outwardly Mohammedanism, -but keep so few of its tenets that -the true believers, holding them in execration, -deny their right to worship in the -mosques or bury their dead in the same cemetery. -Although not persecuted, the antipathy -and disdain felt for them evinces itself -in many ways, and appears to be founded -upon a strange legend current in the country. -This legend says that when the gypsy nation -were driven out of their country and arrived -at Mekran, they constructed a wonderful -machine, to which a wheel was attached. -Nobody appeared able to turn this wheel till, -in the midst of their vain efforts, some evil -spirit presented himself under the disguise of -a sage and informed the chief (whose name -was Chen) that the wheel would be made to -turn only when he had married his sister -Guin. The chief accepted the advice, the -wheel turned round, and the name of the -tribe after this incident became that of the -combined names of the brother and sister, -<i>Chenguin</i>, the appellation of all the gypsies of -Turkey at the present day.</p> - -<p>This unnatural marriage, coming to the -knowledge of one of the Moslem saints, was -forthwith, together with the whole tribe, -soundly cursed; they were placed beyond -the pale of mankind, and sent out of the -country under the following malediction: -“May you never more enter or belong to the -seventy-seven and a half races that people -the earth, but as outcasts be scattered to the -four corners of the earth, homeless, wretched, -and poor; ever wandering and toiling, -never realizing wealth, enjoying the fruits of -your labor, or acquiring the esteem of mankind!”<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<p>I have related this legend because it represents -in a very striking manner the condition -of the gypsies of Turkey as well as the belief -placed in it by people of all creeds, who not -only put them beyond the pale of humankind, -but also deny to them what would be -granted to animals—their alms. Last year -during the Ramazan, a popular Hodja, -preaching on charity to a large congregation -of Mohammedans, thus addressed them—“O -true believers, open your purses every one of -you, and give largely to the poor and needy! -Refuse not charity either to Mohammedans or -Christians, for they are separated from us -only by the thickness of the skin of an onion, -but give none to the Chenguins, lest part of -the curse that rests upon their heads should -fall upon yours!”</p> - -<p>Mohammedanism and the Christian rites -also practised by a few of the gypsies can -only be a mask to hide the heathen superstition -handed down among them from generation -to generation, together with their native -language, and some other observances, such -as keeping a fire continually burning in their -camp. On the first of May all go in a body -to the sea-coast or the banks of a river, where -they throw water three times on their temples, -invoking the invisible <i>genii loci</i> to grant -their special wishes.</p> - -<p>Another custom, observed with equal constancy, -is that of annually drinking some potion, -the secret of whose preparation is -known only to the oldest and wisest of the -tribe. This draught is partaken of by the -whole community as a charm or preventive -against snake-bites. It is certain that, owing -to some agency, the gypsies can catch snakes -and handle them with the greatest impunity, -but are never known to kill or hurt these -animals.</p> - -<p>The habits of these people are essentially -nomadic. Sultan Murad IV. tried to check -their roving disposition by ordering that they -should be permanently settled in the vicinity -of the Balkans, and obliged to live a regular -life; but disregarding the imperial decree, -they dispersed all over the country, now -pitching their tents in one place and now in -another, like evil spirits bent on mischief, or -birds of prey ready to pounce upon any game -that offers itself. Their pilfering propensities -are entirely directed to supplying the -common wants of nature; they never grow -rich on their plunder.</p> - -<p>The tribe is divided into two classes—those -who live in the towns for short periods, -and those, the wildest and vilest, who -wander about all the year round; during the -summer pitching their tents in the open -country or on the roadside, men, women, -and children all huddled together under the -tattered rags that form their only shelter. -The men and women are miserably clad, and -the children walk about in their original -nakedness. The Chenguins are muscular, -thin, and of middle size; with dark skins, -bright sparkling eyes, low undeveloped -brows, and well-defined nose, wide at the -nostril; the lower part of the face is ill-formed -and sensual. When quite young, -some of the women are very pretty and much -appreciated by the Turkish community as -dancing girls, in which calling their utter -want of decency and morality makes them -adepts. When the gypsy woman is advanced -in years she becomes perfectly hideous; her -brown skin shrivels up through privation -and exposure, her body gets thin and -emaciated, and her uncombed elf locks, half -concealing her features, give her the appearance -of a witch. The cunning creature, -aware of the effect she produces, makes capital -out of it, by impressing the credulous -with a belief in her uncanny powers of predicting -the future, casting or removing the -evil eye, or other magic spells, invoking benefits -or bringing evil upon those who refuse -charity or provoke her anger; thus extorting -from fear the alms that pity refused.</p> - -<p>In winter they quarter themselves in the -vicinity of towns or villages, where they -have a better chance of carrying on their -trade of petty thieving. The nuisance they -become to a neighborhood is increased by -the hopelessness of obtaining any recovery of -property stolen by them. The gypsy is by -no means particular as to the nature of the -object he covets, but will condescendingly -possess himself of an old horse found conveniently -in his neighborhood, or venture -further and lay hands on anything from a -useful article of dress to a stray ox.</p> - -<p>The following incidents that came under -my personal observation were attributed to -an encampment of gypsies in the vicinity of -the town of M⸺, and will give an idea -how these people, called by the peasants -<i>Taoukjis</i>, set about business, and the precautions -they take to avoid detection and escape -punishment.</p> - -<p>In our stable were three fine and valuable -horses, much admired in the town, which -had evidently awakened the cupidity of some -gypsies encamped opposite the house on the -other side of the river. On one occasion, -when the two best were away from home together -with the groom, the third horse disappeared -during the night. In the morning -I sent to give notice of the occurrence to the -sub-governor and request his aid in discovering -the thief or thieves. This functionary, -a kind and civil man, at once called upon me -and gave me the assurance that the horse -would be recovered, as none but the gypsies -encamped opposite could have stolen it. The -police were sent to the camp to request about -a dozen to come to the Konak to answer for -the robbery.</p> - -<p>On arriving, the gypsies were placed under -close examination by the Kaimakam and -Medjliss; they naturally denied all knowledge -of the robbery and protested against the -accusation. Finding them obstinate, the -Kaimakam ordered them to be placed under -the pressure of the whip, but this appearing -to produce no effect, made the governor suspect -that some trick had been resorted to, in -order to prevent the culprits feeling the -smart of the punishment they had anticipated. -They were ordered to undress, upon -which, looking very crestfallen, they began -to pray for mercy, but their prayers were -soon drowned in the sounds of general hilarity -that followed the discovery of the successive -layers of sheepskin in which they had -taken the precaution of enveloping their -bodies. The first few blows that fell upon their -now unprotected backs, drew forth screams -of “Aman, Effendi!” followed by sundry -revelations on the disappearance of the horse. -“Last night,” said one, “it came quite unexpectedly -into our camp; we tried to secure -it but it escaped again, we will endeavor to -find and bring it back, but, oh, Aman! Effendi! -beat us no more! we will pay the value -of the horse for the honor of the Chenguin -tribe!” When these proceedings came to -my knowledge, I begged the Kaimakam not -to be too hard on the poor rogues, but set -them free after the severe punishment they -had received. I may add that the horse was -never found.</p> - -<p>On the shapeless, ill-paved, mud-pooled -space which usually occupies the centre of -small Turkish towns, the peasants collect -from all parts of the surrounding country -with their carts and beasts of burden, laden -with goods for sale or barter. On one occasion -an industrious Bulgarian cloth-weaver -took up his habitual post at the corner of a -narrow street, where he exhibited his stock -of goods and invited purchasers. Shortly -afterwards, a ragged, thievish-looking Chenguin, -with a couple of sieves of his own -manufacture, came and seated himself opposite, -apparently with the object of selling his -stock in trade. No customer appeared, and -the gypsy began to show signs of weariness -and sleepiness; he yawned desperately, -stretched his limbs, looked at his neighbor, -yawned again and again, until he succeeded -in infecting him with a sympathetic drowsiness. -Gradually passing into the second -stage of somnolence, he closed his eyes and -nodded. The Bulgarian, following his example, -was soon fast asleep, and the gypsy, -quickly springing to his feet, seized a fine -piece of <i>shayak</i>, and walked away with it. -The Bulgarian unsuspectingly slept on until -roused by his head coming in contact with -the wall, against which he was leaning; his -bewildered gaze instinctively turned to the -spot which the other slumberer had occupied, -and, finding that it was empty, he -looked at his merchandise and discovered -that his best piece of cloth had disappeared -also. Much troubled, he packed up the rest -of his goods, and proceeded to the house of -the Chorbadji, who advised him to find the -gypsy, and point him out to the police, who -might succeed in recovering his property. -To this he responded, “All the gypsies have -the same wild, tattered, and cunning appearance, -and follow the trade of <i>taoukjis</i>; if I -call the attention of the police to my case, I -shall be made responsible for the imprisonment -of the whole band, and incur expenses -greater than the value of my cloth. I must -therefore forego it; but never again shall this -stupid ‘Bulgarski glava’ be outdone by -gypsy cunning!”</p> - -<p>The other callings followed by the Chenguins<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span> -are those of tinkers, blacksmiths, leaders -of bears and monkeys, and musicians of -a primitive kind. The women keep up the -<i>Nautch</i> dance of the East with an excruciating -kind of accompaniment, consisting of a -drum, bagpipe, tambourine, and pipe, with -which they make the round of the towns and -villages on feast-days, when they are hired -by the people, and dance and shout to their -hearts’ content.</p> - -<p>The gypsies are idle, false, and treacherous. -They have none of the manly virtues; and -on account of their known cowardice, they -were never pressed into military service by -the Turks until last year, when a certain -number of those settled in towns and villages -were sent off as recruits. It was a picture -worth seeing, when a band of these wild -creatures was embarked at the town of S⸺. -Guarded by a detachment of soldiers headed -by a drum and clarionet, and followed by the -whole tribe of old men, women, and children, -screaming, crying, and dragging their -rags after them, these doubtful warriors -marched through the town. I asked an old -crone how it was that the Chenguins had to -go to war. “God knows,” was her reply; -“it is the Sultan’s command and must be -obeyed.”</p> - -<p>The hatred shown by the Turks to the invaders -of their country was so great, and their -patriotism and bravery in defending her so -conspicuous, that even this degenerate race -became infected with a certain degree of the -same devotion, and evinced a desire to go and -fight for Allah and the Sultan, although at the -last moment their natural cowardice proved -too strong for them. Some mutilated their -hands, others feigned sickness or insanity as -an excuse for remaining behind, whilst those -who actually reached the seat of war gave -great trouble to their officers, did no service -whatever, and deserted whenever a chance -presented itself.</p> - -<p>The class of gypsies living in towns is -slightly better and more respectable as a -community. They generally occupy hovels -built round a court, in which they take shelter -during the night; but during the day, in -winter or summer, they live out of doors. A -great part of their time is spent lounging -about the court, hammering at their forges, -smoking or quarrelling, while the girls listlessly -parade the streets, and the children -beg or fall into any mischief that presents itself. -They are never sent to school, and I -do not think there is a single person of either -sex who is able to write a word of any language.</p> - -<p>The gypsies settled in the villages take to -field work as far as their roving habits -and thievish propensities allow them. These -are either <i>chiftjis</i>, who work regularly, or -<i>ailikjis</i>, who do odd jobs. They present -a strong contrast to the rest of the rural -population in their thriftlessness and want -of care for the morrow. They are so careless -of health that an aged gypsy is rarely -met with. As laborers they are very unsatisfactory, -and require much supervision from -their employers. No gypsy ever becomes -wealthy or respectable; as a class they are -always in debt.</p> - -<p>The whole tribe is a curious mixture of the -human and the animal: it is endowed with -the scent of the dog, the cunning of the monkey, -and the form and vices, but none of the -virtues apparently, of mankind.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">TENURE OF LAND.</span></h2> - -<p>Three Classes of Lands in Turkey—<i>Vakouf</i> Lands, -their Origin and Growth—Turkish Equivalent of Mortmain—Privileges -of Tenants on <i>Vakouf</i> Land—Maladministration—Corruption -of Charity Agents and Government -Inspectors—General System of Embezzlement—Sultan -Mahmoud’s Attempted Reform—Insufficiency -of <i>Vakouf</i> Revenues as administered; Supplemented -by State—General Decay of <i>Vakouf</i> Property, -Mosques, Medressés, and Imarets—Misapplication of -<i>Vakouf</i> Funds intended for the Support of the Public -Water-supply—<i>Mirié</i> Lands, Government Grants, -Military Proprietors, Growth of a Feudal System—Miserable -Condition of the Rayahs—Anxiety of the -Porte—Destruction of the Feudal System by Mahmoud -and Abdul-Medjid—Reduction of the Bosnian -and Albanian Beys—Present Condition of the Country -Beys—<i>Mirié</i> Lands reclaimed from the Waste—Title-Inspectors—A -Waste-Land Abuse—Similar Difficulties -in Connection with Ordinary <i>Mirié</i> Tenure—<i>Mulk</i> or -Freehold Lands—Their Small Extent—Difficulty of -Establishing Safe Titles—Descent and Transfer of -Land—Tenure of Land by Christians and by Foreign -Subjects—Commons and Forests—The Inspectors of -the Forest Department.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Regarded from a conveyancer’s point of -view, land in Turkey is of three kinds: <i>mevkoufé</i> -(or <i>vakouf</i>), “church” property; <i>mirié</i>, -crown property; and <i>mulk</i> or <i>memlouké</i>, freehold.</p> - -<p>1. <i>Vakouf</i> lands are those set aside for the -support of the religious establishments, the -mosques, <i>medressés</i> (or mosque-colleges) and -other religious schools, and the <i>imarets</i>, or institutions -for public almsgiving. The appropriation -of a just part of a man’s wealth for -purposes of religion and charity is one of the -most constantly reiterated principles of Islam, -and, to the credit of Moslems be it said, it is -a principle very regularly reduced to practice. -It is not surprising, therefore, that on -the conquest of European Turkey a large -share of land was set apart “for God.” But -this original grant was not the only source of -the present large extent of vakouf lands. -Private munificence has constantly added to -the original foundation. The piety of some -Moslems and the vain-glory of others has -ever been displayed in the erection and endowment -of mosques, with their attendant -medressés and imarets. In the one case it was -a sure key to heaven; in the other, it was -the best way to get the praises of men of -one’s own generation and the admiration of -posterity. Formerly ordinary people used -frequently to indulge in this architectural -luxury; but, during the present century, -only Sultans and Grand Vizirs have found -the practice convenient.</p> - -<p>Besides the original grant and the private -additions which each century contributed, vakouf -lands have been greatly increased from -a third source. The people of Turkey seem -to have duly appreciated those privileges -against which our own mortmain laws were -directed. The parallel is not indeed strictly -accurate, but there are strong points of resemblance. -A Moslem (or, for that matter, a -Christian) sells his land to a mosque for -about one-tenth of its real value. The land -is now the property of the mosque, but the -seller has the right of lease, and may retain -his tenancy on payment of a fixed rent. During -his life he may sell the lease, or at his -death it passes on to his heirs; but in default -of direct descendants the lease reverts absolutely -to the mosque.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> By this transaction -both parties are the gainers, and only the -Government and its corrupt officials the -losers.</p> - -<p>The mosque receives a large interest for a -comparatively trifling expenditure of capital; -and has besides the reversion in the -event of default of heirs. The tenant, though -he has to pay a rent where formerly he paid -none, is not burdened by this slight charge, -and sets against it the immense privileges he -has acquired; for, as a tenant on vakouf land—that -is, holding direct of Allah—he pays -no taxes; he is safe from confiscation by -the Government, extortion from its officials, -and persecution from private creditors. It -is the most profitable and secure tenure to be -met with in Turkey, and it is a matter of -congratulation that the mosque authorities -place so high a value upon money that they -are willing to accept it even from dogs of -Christians who wish to avail themselves of -the protection afforded by vakouf leasehold.</p> - -<p>No official report of the extent of the vakouf -lands has, so far as I can learn, been -published; but it is easy to understand that -their extent and value must be very great. It -is even estimated at two-thirds of the whole -land of Turkey. It is therefore remarkable -that the revenues derived from them do not -nearly suffice for the purposes for which they -were intended. The expense of maintaining -the services of the mosques and of keeping -up the extremely economical system of religious -education would not seem to be excessive, -though the charitable imarets would of -course require considerable support. But -these are not the real reasons why these rich -revenues are not sufficient. One reason is, -that they are expected to maintain a large -class of Ulema, whose numbers are altogether -disproportionate to the educational results -they produce. The other and far more disastrous -cause is that the revenues are corruptly -administered.</p> - -<p>At first the management of the funds lay -in the hands of agents appointed by the pious -founders. When an agent died, his successor -was named by the Roumeli Kadisi (or -Anadoli Kadisi if in Asiatic Turkey). The -agents were under the supervision of inspectors, -whose business it was to verify the -mosque accounts. These inspectorships -were generally given to high functionaries of -the Porte, and so lucrative were they that -they excited keen competition (in the Turkish -sense), and eventually came to be regarded -as the fixed appendages of certain offices. It -may easily be imagined that between the -agents and the inspectors there was not much -of the vakouf revenues left for the right purposes. -As a matter of fact, most of the -money found its way into the pockets of the -inspectors of the Sublime Porte.</p> - -<p>Among the many schemes that engaged -the attention of the Reformer-Sultan Mahmoud -there was of course a place for vakouf -reform. He wished to amalgamate the vakouf -lands with the mirié or crown lands, -but had not the boldness necessary to the -carrying out of so revolutionary a measure. -He contented himself with clearing away -some of the more obvious abuses of the administration -of vakoufs, and appointed a director, -with the rank of Minister, to see to the -proper management of the property. Still, -however, the revenues did not prove sufficient. -The annual budget of vakouf returns -reached a total of 20,000,000 piastres; yet in -1863 it had to be supplemented by another -20,000,000 piastres from the Treasury, and is -ever in need of similar assistance. The -funds are still misapplied; and, as the result, -the mosques and medressés have fallen more -and more into ruin and decay; the imarets -are become instruments of a merely nominal -almsgiving; and every charitable or religious -intention of the pious founders is daily -trodden under foot.</p> - -<p>Among the minor objects of vakouf endowments -are the construction and maintenance -in repair of aqueducts and road fountains. -I have often witnessed with regret -the manner in which the trust is abused by -its holders. In most towns the principal -water supply is endowed by vakoufs, the -revenues of which were intended to defray -all expenses connected with keeping the -channels and fountains in repair. In three -cases out of four these funds are misapplied. -At Salonika, for instance, the water supply -is richly endowed, and the town ought clearly -to be well furnished with water. Instead -of this, a great number of the fountains are -dried up, and a serious waste of water is -caused by the neglect of the water-pipes. It -is painful to see the crowd of miserable Jewish -children waiting for hours round the -dribbling fountain under a burning summer -sun, or pierced with the biting winter winds, -till they get a chance of filling their pitchers—too -often only to get them broken in the -battle that immediately ensues. In summer, -when the want of water is most severely felt, -many people do not scruple to dig down -to the water pipes in some deserted street, -stop the current that leads to the fountain, -and thus obtain the supply they -need. In former times fountains were erected<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -on all the main roads and in every -town and village; but most of them are -now dried up or fallen to ruin. Some of -those that remain are of solid marble, with a -carved frontage inscribed with the name of -the donor, the date of erection, and some -verses from the Koran. Some are in the -form of basins, with jets playing in them, -sheltered sometimes by little kiosks, and always -shaded by fine old trees. The thirsty -traveller and his beast are all the more grateful -when they do find a fountain with water -running, because the chances are so overwhelmingly -against such good luck—thanks -to the vakouf administrators, who from this -point of view deserve credit for intensifying -the virtue of gratitude.</p> - -<p>2. The <i>Mirié</i>, or crown-lands, include the -private demesnes of the Sultan and the royal -family, the lands reserved for the partial support -of the administration, the waste lands, -together with an enormous extent of land -originally granted on condition of military -service to the most zealous supporters of the -Sultan, with a view to retaining their fidelity -and assuring the supremacy of the Government -over the native princes. The country -was thus given over to the power and license -of an army of occupation. It was divided -into sandjaks governed by Pashas, Beys, -and Beglerbeys. Those last-named were the -administrators of the sandjaks. Their duty -it was to collect the taxes and furnish the -contingents of troops to the Imperial army. -The favored officers of the Porte received immense -grants of land in return for their zeal; -they were exempt from taxation, and only -required to find soldiers for the wars of the -Porte. Excluding vakouf lands, the greater -part of Turkey was thus placed on a sort of -feudal tenure, the proprietor holding of the -crown by military service. All the evil -effects of the system soon developed themselves.</p> - -<p>The lands of these military proprietors -were of course chiefly tilled by the rayahs, -who had formerly held them in freehold. -Although these underholdings were supposed, -like all mirié lands, to be registered, -and thus to enjoy the advantage of a legally -fixed rent, they were yet subject to the endless -extortions invariably associated with the -notion of Turkish officials. Especially heavily -did this system press upon the Christian -tenants of the military landowners. In -principle the conduct of the Turks to their -Christian subjects was not greatly blamable; -it was in practice, as usual, that the -grievances arose. The Christian communities -were managed by their Kodja-Bashi, or -headman, who had to collect the tribute, proportioning -it to the means of each individual; -and to gather the kharadj, or poll-tax, -and other impositions. A community was -allowed to compound for each or all its taxes -by a fixed sum. Thus far all appears surprisingly -satisfactory. But when the actual -condition of the Christian tenants is looked -into, a very different impression is produced. -Their landlords were ever devising some new -extortion; the taxes were levied with ruinous -irregularity; fresh impositions were constantly -being added; and, in fine, their state -became so intolerable that large numbers of -them deserted their faith (of which they are -generally highly tenacious in spite of ignorance -and persecution), and became Moslems, -and were at once placed in possession of the -privileges of the dominant race. A curious -instance of this conversion by necessity was -that of the Krichovalis, a lawless race of -mountaineers about Vodena. About the beginning -of this century they found themselves -unable longer to endure the disabilities -of their condition. They met in solemn assembly -in their old church on a great feast-day, -and swore the sacred oath upon the -Bible that they became Mohammedans under -protest, being compelled to abandon their -faith in order to escape the intolerable trammels -of their bondage. The Bible on which -they swore, containing the signatures of the -chief men, still exists, I am told, in the keeping -of the Greek priest.</p> - -<p>The evils of military tenure bore upon the -Porte as well as upon the rayahs. The Sultans -were not slow to note with alarm the -growing power of the great feudatories. -They endeavored to curtail their privileges -and to strengthen the hands of the rayahs -and attach this class to themselves. But for -a long time the efforts of the central government -were unavailing. The military landowners -made common cause with the Beglerbeys, -who had by degrees acquired the supreme -control of their sandjaks; and these -two united in defying the authority of the -sovereign. A great landed aristocracy had -grown up, like the baronage of England in -Angevin times, and threatened the very extinction -of the supremacy of the Porte over -its subjects. A great blow must be struck at -the country Beys; and Mahmoud II. resolved -to strike. He was completely successful, and -left to his successor Abdul-Medjid only the -task of bringing some of the rebellious chieftains -to punishment. Some were beheaded, -other banished, and all had their property -confiscated. Inoffensive tenants by military -service received compensation; but the system -was rooted out, and has now ceased to -exist.</p> - -<p>How the great feudal landowners were -crushed will be understood from a few examples. -A short time ago I made the acquaintance -of one of the dervish sheikhs who followed -Ali Pasha when he was dispatched by -Abdul-Medjid to reduce the Bosnian rebels. I -asked how the reduction was effected; and -this was his account: Ali Pasha, with a -small but well-organized army of Nizams, on -approaching the country, asked permission -of the Bosnians to cross into the Austrian -territory. The Bosnians unsuspectingly -granted leave, and we marched into the -country and pitched our camp in its very -heart. After a few days the Pasha produced -the Iradé of the Sultan, containing a demand -for 60,000 recruits from the Bosnians. They -refused to furnish them, and began to assemble -and arm. The Pasha did not insist upon -the enforcement of the Imperial order, but -opened negotiations. He was a wily man and -knew his business. He managed with soft -words and fair promises to entice all the -Bosnian grandees into the camp, under the -pretext of holding a general council. Having -thus collected all the influential persons -of the country, he put them under arrest and -proceeded to try them. Some were beheaded, -and Ali Pasha with his own hand struck -down the leading chief. The rest after some -further parley were brought to terms, and -were then exiled and their goods confiscated. -The 60,000 recruits were soon raised, and -the general marched triumphantly back to -Constantinople at their head.</p> - -<p>The Albanian chieftains were dealt with in -the same way: when forced failed, treachery -prevailed. Their two leaders, Veli-bey and -Arslan-bey, were enticed by a friendly invitation -to Monastir, where they were received -with every mark of consideration and kindness. -A few days afterwards they and their -friends were invited to a great feast by Reshid -Mehemet Pasha. This was to take place in a -kiosk outside the town near the head-quarters -of the regular troops.</p> - -<p>On the appointed day Veli-bey and Arslan-bey -proceeded to the rendezvous accompanied -by nearly all their beys and retinue; in all -about 400 men. The kiosk was hidden from -view by a turn in the road till they had almost -reached it, and it was only on entering -the space in front that they perceived the -troops ranged in order of battle. A suspicion -crossed the mind of Arslan-bey, who said to -his companion in Eastern phrase, “We have -eaten dirt!” Veli-bey replied, “It is the -regular way of paying honor.” “At all -events,” said Arslan-bey, with doubtful -friendship, “let us change sides.” This -was done, and Arslan-bey found himself -screened from view by the imposing figure -of Veli-bey and his horse. They had -reached the centre of the line, when an order -issued from the window of the kiosk, the -soldiers raised their pieces, and a murderous -fire was opened on the ranks of the Albanians, -followed by a bayonet charge. Veli-bey -and his horse fell pierced with nineteen -balls, but Arslan-bey was unhurt. Followed -by those who had escaped the first discharge, -he turned his horse and took to flight; but a -second fire reached their flank. Arslan-bey -again miraculously escaped, and owing to -the speed of his horse soon left the place of -carnage at a distance. But his flight had -been observed from the kiosk from which -the Grand Vizir had directed the massacre, -and he was pursued; but putting spurs to -his horse, he urged it up the precipitous side -of the hill, making for the summit with furious -speed. The top was almost reached -when a shower of balls brought down man -and horse; and they rolled down the steep -hillside to join the bodies of their fellow-victims -below. Such were the last fatal blows -aimed at the expiring feudal system; exile -and confiscation did the rest.</p> - -<p>The once powerful Beys, when thoroughly -crushed and impoverished, were allowed a -small income, and after many years of expatriation -were finally permitted to return to -their native districts. Their power is completely -gone, although their personal influence -is still considerable over the populations -among whom they live, and in the local -courts in which they sit. It is however of a -mutinous nature, and seldom employed either -in facilitating the introduction of the new -measures attempted by the Government for -the improvement of the administration, or in -promoting the general welfare of the country.</p> - -<p>Some beys in the interior still possess considerable -landed property, but with few exceptions -their estates are dilapidated and -heavily mortgaged; while their owners are -so deeply in debt to the Government that if -called to a reckoning under a well-regulated -administration they would be ruined men. -A few, however, whose estates are in better -condition are more enlightened, and take a -real interest in the welfare of their country.</p> - -<p>The country contains extensive areas of -mirié kinds reclaimed from the waste, for -which of late years there has been a great -demand made by the peasants, who reclaim -portions of them by paying a small fee of -about 1<i>s.</i> an acre. They cultivate or build -upon them, and after paying tithes for the -space of twenty years get the <i>Tapou</i>, or title-deed, -from the Porte constituting them legal -owners. But although subjected to special -laws and restrictions and under government -supervision, it is a dangerous speculation, -often involving litigation, and liable to usurpation.</p> - -<p>Great abuses are occasioned by the corruption -of the <i>Tapou Memours</i>, or inspectors, who -within the last seven years have been intrusted -with the supervision and legislation -of such lands, and regulate them (irrespective -of the rights of Christian or Turkish landholders) -in favor of the highest bidder. The -consequences are that many persons have -been dispossessed of their property, others -have had to pay high prices to retain it by -obtaining <i>Tapous</i>, whilst many are daily being -driven out of their lands. An example of -this kind presented itself the other day in the -local court of the town of L⸺. The claimant -was a Turkish <i>Hanoum</i>; the disputants, -Turkish and Christian peasants. The lady, -a widow, had inherited an estate bordering -on some waste land upon which these peasants -had built a village. The <i>Hanoum</i> in the -mean time married an influential person at -Constantinople, through whose authority and -assistance, she managed to obtain a <i>Tapou</i>, including -the village of the settlers on the waste -land within her own property. The villagers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -indignantly protested against this act of usurpation, -and refused to acknowledge the -authority of the lady, who, however, returned, -furnished with powerful <i>Emirnamés</i> -from the Porte to the town of L⸺ to enforce -her claims. The complaints of the -peasants were disregarded, and they themselves -were seized as criminals and brought -to the Konak, driven into it by blows that -fractured the skull of one and occasioned -severe injuries to others, and then imprisoned.</p> - -<p>Disputed claims like this on commons, -forests, etc., are innumerable. The estates -sold by the crown also labor under the same -disadvantages. Among many cases I may relate -one in which the purchaser was an English -gentleman who bought a large estate in -Upper Macedonia, comprising one of the -most beautiful lakes in the country. It was -an ancient fief, sold for the sum of 2000<i>l.</i> -The speculation promised to be a splendid -one, and a fortune was expected to be realized. -One day, however, as the owner was walking -over his grounds, an old Turkish peasant -presented himself, and with much natural -eloquence, and perhaps some truth, explained -to the English bey that the former owner had -usurped part of his fields which were comprised -in the estate. The proprietor, either -convinced of the man’s rights, or out of kindness, -ordered that the contested lands should -be restored; but the one individual thus -righted soon developed into a legion, all presenting -equal claims. Subsequently the -legion became a band of armed and menacing -Albanians, who by their hostile attitude -stopped all attempts at culture, and threatened -to shoot the tenants and the steward, burn -the crops, etc. A long litigation followed, -and the affair terminated, after much loss of -time and damages amounting to several thousand -pounds, in the gentleman re-selling the -estate for the amount he had paid for it.</p> - -<p>Besides the above-mentioned drawbacks, -the holders of mirié lands cannot sell, transfer, -or mortgage them without a license from -the authorities, nor can they make them -<i>Vakouf</i> property without a special <i>Firman</i> -from the Sultan.</p> - -<p>3. The <i>Memlouké</i> or <i>Mulk</i> lands are the -freehold property of their owner, who can do -with them whatsoever pleaseth him well. -They do not form a large proportion of the -lands of Turkey, and a reason for this is the -prejudice entertained against this form of -tenure on account of the difficulties encountered -in establishing titles. It is unfortunately -no unusual thing in Turkey for title-deeds -to be forged, substituted, destroyed, -and otherwise interfered with.</p> - -<p>The descent and division of Mirié and Vakouf -lands are regulated by imperial firmans -and the special ordinances of the Vakouf -laws; but Memlouké land comes under the -regulation of the <i>Mehkemé</i> or court of the -town Kadi. The laws of Moslem inheritance -are too complicated to be recorded here, and -their complexity is aggravated by the mixture -of Christians and the different ways of -holding land. In the absence of heirs, mirié -and memlouké lands revert to the state; vakouf, -as already mentioned, to the administration -of pious foundations.</p> - -<p>Memlouké land is transferred legally by -conveyance; vakouf and mirié by conveyance -together with registration. The duty -on the sale of memlouké land is five per -cent, and the succession duty two and a -half per cent; on mirié, five per cent on -sale, and the same on succession; on vakouf -land, five per cent on sale, and the same on -succession. A difference, however, is made -if the land is built over.</p> - -<p>The division of property among all the -children and the reduction of its value by -these duties tend constantly to the diminution -and deterioration of Turkish estates and -lead generally to mortgage. Mortgage on -landed property is at an average interest of -eighteen per cent. The result is easily imagined. -Freehold lands may be legally mortgaged -before two witnesses without any further -precaution; but crown and “church” -lands to be mortgaged must be registered by -the registrar of title-deeds, or the directors of -vakouf property, for the fee of (nominally) -one per cent.</p> - -<p>A great number of large estates can be purchased -in all parts of Turkey for very small -sums. The wealthy native Christians would -gladly purchase these, but for the complications -that surround the possession of landed -property that is not vakouf, and the difficulties -and opposition to which a Christian land-holder -is exposed. Turks seldom look favorably -upon the passing of such estates into -Christian hands. Those who purchase them -are generally foreign subjects; the rayahs -who venture to do so can never enjoy their -acquisitions in the same peace and security. -Among many instances of encroachment on -such estates by hostile beys, Circassians, and -other neighbors, I may mention two that -have come under my personal observation. -The first refers to a wealthy Bulgarian gentleman, -whose acquaintance I made ten years -ago at R⸺. He was a man of great influence, -and a member of the Medjliss, or town -council. A large estate owned by him, not -far from the town, was twice set on fire -by his Mohammedan neighbors, and a large -mill he had constructed was pulled down. -Neither his influence in the district, nor his -wealth, nor his position as member of the -council, could protect his estate, which he -was finally obliged to abandon.</p> - -<p>The second case was that of a wealthy -Greek at Baba Eski, a pretty village between -Constantinople and Adrianople. Some years -ago I passed a night in the house of this -Chorbadji. When I talked to him about his -property he complained bitterly of the hostility -he experienced from his Turkish neighbors, -and of the encroachments of the Circassians. -The former had attempted to set -fire to his mill, and the latter had stolen in -the course of one year three hundred and fifty -head of cattle from him. “Wealth and prosperity,” -said he, “are the sure recompense -of every man’s labor in a fine country like -this, but it is hard work to keep them when -acquired.” Last year I met the unfortunate -man at C⸺; he was a complete beggar in -appearance, and, with tears in his eyes, told -me how the Circassians and other enemies, -profiting by the troubles in Bulgaria, had -completely destroyed his property. He had -come to the town to obtain redress, but I -thought that his efforts would be fruitless.</p> - -<p>Many gentlemen in Macedonia are owners -of large estates. Some of them are Greeks -by birth, and all foreign subjects; for foreign -subjects are now permitted to hold land in -Turkey on the same conditions as the subjects -of the Porte. Having capital at their -command, and being more intelligent than -the Turks, they improve their property, and -realize from seven to ten per cent profit; but -even their estates are not quite free from the -attacks and depredations of brigands, who -often prevent them from visiting their farms -freely, or introducing all the improvements -they are desirous of making. Out of four of -these, three sent their sons to Europe, where -they were educated for the profession of -agriculturists, a proceeding quite unknown -among the Turkish proprietors. <i>Bonâ-fide</i> -Europeans are more respected and feared, -and consequently are not exposed to the hostilities -to which native Christians are subjected. -Some English gentlemen possessing -farms in Macedonia have had no occasion to -complain, even in these disordered times, -when perfect anarchy prevails; their property -has been respected, and every assistance is -afforded them by the local authorities.</p> - -<p>Estates can also be rented for a mere trifle, -and when restored to good condition are said -to yield lucrative returns. Here again, however, -great care has to be taken to ascertain -that they are not disputed property, and, in -the case of their belonging to several individuals -of one family, that all are of age, and -sign the title-deeds. A case was related to -me by a member of the civil court of A⸺ -of a rayah who had rented an estate from a -Turkish family, consisting of a widow and -her three sons, all of whom were of age and -had signed the contract together with their -mother. The tenant, who was a man of -moderate means, set to work to improve the -property, and spent £1000 upon it; but just -as he was beginning to realize the profits of -his toil and outlay, a fourth son of the widow -came of age and disputed the validity of the -contract. The case was tried before the local -civil court, and the rayah was declared to -have justice on his side; but as the case was -one of heritage, the Turk had the right to -transfer it to the Mehkemé, or religious court -of the Kadi, which decided it in his favor. -The result was that the tenant was driven -out of his estate, and lost all the money he -had spent upon it.</p> - -<p>Almost every village in Roumelia and Macedonia, -and in fact all over Turkey, had once -its own common and forest, in which the -peasant proprietors, under certain laws and -regulations, had the right to burn charcoal, -cut wood, and let the pasturage in spring to -the herdsmen, who brought down their sheep -and cattle and kept them there the greater -part of summer. This was a great resource -for the rural population, who, in bad years, -could always make some profit out of it.</p> - -<p>After the organization of the vilayet system -this privilege was curtailed, and the forests -and grazing grounds were placed under -government supervision. A Forest Department -was established at Constantinople, and -a chief inspector appointed in every district, -together with agents to superintend the pasturages. -The laws that were to regulate -these were said to be excellent, and, whilst -equitable towards the peasants, promised at -the same time to yield considerable revenues -to the state. One of these regulations set -forth that a portion of forest and pasturage -land should be left to the use of each village, -securing its provision of fuel and pasturage -for its cattle. None of these laws were, however, -observed in the interior, and nothing -definite was decided with respect to either of -these rights.</p> - -<p>The beys, through bribery and favoritism, -continued to enjoy their ancient privileges -over the forests and grazing lands, while the -forest inspectors are said to have realized -such immense profits that every official was -desirous of becoming connected with the -Forest Department. The Government at the -beginning, no doubt, derived some good receipts -from this new source, but the great expense -inseparable from it, the robberies that -took place, and the destruction of property -allowed, could not fail, in the long-run, to be -injurious to its interests. The abuses, partiality, -and waste that mark the proceedings -of this branch of the administration are most -prejudicial to the rural population.</p> - -<p>But the agents of pasture lands and the -forest keepers are still more tyrannical.</p> - -<p>The extent of these grounds in the government -possession was never defined, nor has a -limit ever been drawn. The beys rented the -commons to the herdmasters; the contracts -were made with the cognizance of the local -authorities, and on stamped paper. Some of -the villages that possessed pasturage let it to -the Wallachian sheep-owners, who, in the -early part of spring, migrate annually into -Macedonia to pasture their flocks on the commons.</p> - -<p>Some herdsmen had made contracts for -bringing down 300,000 sheep into the plains, -paid the fees for the contract, and the stipulated -sum to the peasants. All the arrangements -seemed in perfect order until the -arrival of the flocks upon the different grazing -grounds, when they were driven off with -violence and brutality by the forest-keepers -and their subordinates, who declared that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -they had no right to the pasturage unless -they paid the rent. The poor people produced -their contract to show that they had -paid the money, and refused to do so a second -time; justly observing that, if any illegal -action existed in the renting of the pasturage, -it regarded the Government and the villagers, -and not them, and that the Government -should reclaim the money from the -peasants. This dispute lasted a week; some -of the Wallachians referred it to the local -authorities, while others in their distress applied -to any person from whom assistance -could be expected. Day after day these -men, women, and children might be seen in -the streets of the town with desponding, -careworn faces, anxiously looking out for -some of their people who might tell them how -the case was prospering. When I saw them -no more about the town, I asked one of the -principal officials how the affair had terminated; -he replied, “Madame, malheureusement -le gouvernement n’a pas su encore -mettre toutes ces choses en ordre, et il nous -arrive souvent de ces cas tristes; mais ça -vient d’être arrangé.” He would not enlighten -me further on the subject, but I subsequently -learnt that a great amount of -bakhshish had settled the matter in favor of -the Wallachians.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">PEASANT HOLDINGS.</span></h2> - -<p>Small Proprietors <i>South of the Balkans</i>—Flourishing -State of the Country a few Years ago—A Rose-Harvest -at Kezanlik—Bulgarian Villages—Oppressive -and Corrupt System of Taxation and of Petty Government—The -Disadvantages counterbalanced by the Industry -and Perseverance of the Bulgarian Peasant—The -Lending Fund in Bulgaria—Its Short Duration—Bulgarian -Peasant often unavoidably in Debt—Bulgarian -Cottages—Food and Clothing—Excellent Reports -of German and Italian Engineers on the Conduct -and Working Power of Bulgarian Laborers—Turkish -Peasants—Turkish Villages—Comparative -Merits of Turkish and Bulgarian Peasants—Land <i>in -Macedonia</i>—Chiefly Large Estates—<i>Chiftliks</i>—The -<i>Konak</i>, or Residence of the Owner—Country Life of -the Bey and his Family—His Tenants (<i>Yeradjis</i>)—Character -of the Yeradji—His Wretched Condition—The -Metayer System Unfairly Worked—The <i>Yeradji</i> -generally in Debt—Virtually a Serf bound to the Soil—Difficulty -of getting Peasants to become <i>Yeradjis</i>—Statute -Labor—Cultivation and Crops.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The land south of the Balkans, from the -Black Sea to the frontier of Macedonia, is divided -into small holdings, which belong to -and are farmed by a peasant population of -an essentially agricultural nature. Before -the late destruction of property in Bulgaria, -almost every peasant in those districts was a -proprietor of from five to forty acres, which -he farmed himself. The larger estates, of -which there were a considerable number, were -superintended by the proprietors themselves, -but farmed by hired laborers. The following -figures will give an idea of the average -extent of the holdings in those districts: -Out of a thousand farms, three had five hundred -acres; thirty had between one hundred -and five hundred; three hundred between -fifty and a hundred; four hundred between -ten and fifty; and two hundred and sixty-seven -under ten acres. All these lands were -well cultivated and yielded rich returns. I -was astonished at the beauty and flourishing -condition of the country during a journey I -made some years ago from Adrianople to -Servia. It appeared like a vast and fruitful -garden. The peace-loving and toiling Bulgarian -was seen everywhere steadily going -through his daily work, while his equally -active and industrious wife and daughters -were cheerfully working by his side. <i>En -route</i>, I stopped a few days in the lovely town -of Kezanlik, and was most kindly received by -its well-to-do and intelligent inhabitants, who -pressed their hospitality upon me with a genuine -kindness never to be forgotten. I visited -the schools, in which the people prided -themselves as much as in the astonishing -progress the pupils were making in their -studies. I was also taken on a round of -visits into well-built clean houses where -European furniture was beginning to find a -place, and contrasted pleasantly with the -well-made native tissues that covered sofas -and floors. At dawn next morning a tap at -my door announced that it was time to rise -and witness the rose-gathering, which I -wished to see. The roses begin to be collected -before sunrise, in order to keep in -them all the richness of their perfume. It -requires expedition and many hands; so -large bands of young men and maidens, -adding pleasure to toil whilst gathering the -roses, amuse themselves by carrying on their -innocent little flirtations and love-makings.</p> - -<p>The large garden to which I was conducted -belonged to the wealthy Chorbadji in whose -house I was staying. It was at some distance -from the town, and by the time we -reached it the bright rays of a lovely spring -morning were fast spreading over the horizon. -The field was thickly planted with rose-bushes, -with their rich harvest of half-open -dew-laden buds. The nightingales, in -flights, hovered over them, disputing their -possession with the light-hearted Bulgarian -harvesters, and chorusing with their rich -notes the gay songs of the scattered company, -who, dressed in their <i>Prasnik</i> (feast-day) -clothes,—the youths in snow-white shirts and -gaudy sleeveless vests, the girls in their picturesque -costume, the colored kerchiefs on -their heads floating in the breeze,—had the -appearance of a host of butterflies flitting -over the flowers. The girls were actively -and cheerfully employed in stripping off the -buds and throwing them into the baskets -slung on their arms. The youths helped them -in the task, and were rewarded each with a -bud from his sweetheart, which he placed in -his cap. The children ran to and fro emptying -the baskets into larger receptacles presided -over by the matrons, who sat under the -shade of the trees and sorted the roses. The -whole picture was so bright and happy, in -such harmony with the luxuriant beauty surrounding -it, that I was perfectly fascinated -by it, and felt almost envious of those happy -beings (as I then thought them), the careless -simple children of nature. Their happiness -was not for long.</p> - -<p>It is not a week since my attention was -attracted by an article in one of our papers -describing the destruction of Kezanlik and -the horrors the writer had witnessed. The -once smiling and fruitful district was become -the valley of the shadow of death.</p> - -<p>The general appearance of the villages in -Bulgaria was very pleasing. Those in the -plains were not so well built or so picturesque -as those nestled among the hills, where the -abundance and cheapness of the material -needed for building afforded greater facilities -for more solid and more artistic construction. -Some of these villages had increased to such -an extent as to look like small towns. This -was owing to the more equal division of land -among the people and the large number of -landed proprietors that cultivated it. In the -midst of the difficulties that surrounded them, -such as an irregular and unequal system of -taxation and the encroachment and tyrannies -of petty government officials, Zaptiehs, Circassians, -and sometimes native beys—the -Bulgarian peasant, by his steady and persevering -habits of industry, managed to get on, -and in some places, when favored by circumstances, -even to become wealthy. A species -of lending fund was organized (since the introduction -of the vilayet system) by the provincial -government, chiefly for the benefit of -the peasant class of proprietors. The capital -of this fund was derived from an annual tax -of two bushels of wheat (or their equivalent -in money) levied on every yoke of oxen -owned by the farmers, and of money contributed -by those not engaged in agriculture, -to the value of one-tenth of their income-tax. -The agricultural interest of the -country derived great advantage from this -institution. It helped the small farmers to -borrow the sum needed for the cultivation of -their crops and the purchase of stock at a -reasonable rate of interest, and enabled those -who had large estates to improve them without -mortgaging; while others were enabled -to free their estates from the mortgages which -already burdened them. I believe that this -excellent institution did not long continue in -working order, and that latterly it was beyond -the reach of those who really needed -the money and might have benefited both -their farms and the State by its use.</p> - -<p>As a general rule, the Bulgarian peasant is -not wealthy. There are many villages that -were so deeply in debt that for years they -had not been able to pay their taxes. A rising -was occasioned in one of the villages of -the district of Sofia on this account. The -Pasha of Sofia had been pressed by the Porte -to send some money to Constantinople; he, -on his part, had to collect it from the people. -Calling up a Chaoush of Zaptiehs, he told -him to make the round of the villages, and, -under pain of instant dismissal, not to return -empty-handed. The Zaptieh was a bandit, -like many of his brethren who have represented -the police corps since the diminution -of pay and abolition of the excellent body -that had been organized by the wise policy of -Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha. He marched -with his band into one of the villages and demanded -that £400 should at once be paid to -him. The men were absent from the village, -and the women, not authorized to act in such -matters, could not accede to his demand. -The Zaptiehs then seized some and locked -them up in a barn, and, after subjecting them -to gross ill-treatment, left the village. The -unfortunate peasants, thus pressed by the -authorities for taxes they could not pay, and -subjected to foul and violent treatment, revolted.</p> - -<p>A Bulgarian cottage is neither neat nor regular -in construction. A number of poles are -stuck in the ground, secured to each other by -wattles, plastered within and without with -clay and cow-dung mixed with straw. The -walls are generally whitewashed, and the -roof raised to a dome covered with tiles or -thatch. The interior, divided into three -rooms, is neat and clean. One of the apartments -is used as the living-room of the family, -another as sleeping-room, while the third is -reserved for storing provisions and such-like -domestic purposes. These rooms are of -tolerable height, and from fifteen to twenty -feet long and ten to fifteen wide. The -earthen floor is hardened and covered -with coarse matting and woollen rugs, the -handiwork of the inmates. The furniture -consists principally of the thick woven tissues -used for bedding and carpeting.</p> - -<p>Pictures of the saints and relics from Mount -Athos adorn the walls; a night-lamp may be -seen suspended before the most venerated of -these objects, serving the double purpose of -<i>veilleuse</i> and mark of regard to the saint. -The shelves round the walls contain the -crockery and shining copper pans, a pair of -pistols, and various other articles. The bedding, -neatly rolled up, is piled in one corner, -while near the door stand the jars of fresh -water. Attached to these cottages are sheds -for the farm stock; and a cow-house, pig-sty, -and poultry-house, an oven, and sometimes a -well, are inclosed in the yard, which is surrounded -by walls or fences, and guarded by -dogs.</p> - -<p>In the hilly districts, the cottages of both -Mohammedans and Christians are constructed -with considerable solidity. The peasants -throughout European Turkey are economical -and frugal; their wants are few, and they -are content with very little. They seldom -taste fresh meat, and generally live on rye -bread and maize porridge, or beans seasoned -with vinegar and pepper. The dairy produce -is consumed at home, and on great occasions -a young pig or lamb serves as a <i>pièce de résistance</i>, -washed down by home-made wine. -For pastry they have a cake called <i>Banitza</i>, -much relished by all.</p> - -<p>The clothing of the peasants is warm and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -comfortable. It is chiefly composed of woollen -stuffs, coarse linen, or cotton cloth. Every -single article of wearing apparel is woven, -embroidered, and made up by the hands of -the women, who are at the same time spinners, -weavers, and tailors. When coming to -town, and on <i>Prasnik</i> days, coarse socks and -sandals are worn; these are also home-made, -and their use on other occasions is dispensed -with.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian peasant is strong and healthy -in appearance. Both in Bulgaria and Macedonia -he is a diligent worker. He may not -have the smartness and activity of the English -laborer, but I have often been assured -that, notwithstanding the numerous feast-days -he keeps, at the end of the year he is -found to have completed almost as much -work, for the simple reason that he makes his -working-day much longer, and his whole -family turn out to assist him; for the women -of these districts are as industrious as the -men: no sooner are their household tasks accomplished -than they join the paterfamilias -in the field.</p> - -<p>The German and Italian engineers who undertook -the construction of the railways in -Macedonia repeatedly asserted that the labor -of the natives was equal to that of Europeans. -In Macedonia, the Italian company, -on commencing operations, brought out five -hundred Italian navvies to work on the line; -but on discovering that the natives, when -well paid, well treated, and shown how to set -about it, did the work better than the -Italians, the latter were sent away. These -gentlemen were most warm in their praises -of the steadiness of the men and of the excellence -of their work; but I must add that -they did not omit to study the character of -the people and treat them with the kindness -and consideration that, in the long-run, never -fail to improve and elevate even the most -debased.</p> - -<p>The Turkish peasants, who are in the minority -both in Bulgaria and Macedonia, have -also a healthy appearance, added in the -former place to a look of audacity, and in the -latter to a look of ferocity. The Greek peasant -is tall and rather slim, with an intelligent -look and a hardy and self-reliant expression.</p> - -<p>All the rural population is sober. Greek -and Bulgarian peasants have, it is true, every -now and then, an orgy; but there is no systematic -drunkenness. All the well-to-do -farmers and peasants keep a provision of -wine and <i>raki</i>, or spirit, but their daily portion -is moderate, and excesses are only indulged -in on feast-days, and even these are -not of a very serious nature.</p> - -<p>All the villages, both Greek and Bulgarian, -have their <i>Kodja-Bashis</i>, who see to the administration -of the village, proportion the -taxes, settle petty disputes, attend to the arrival -and reception of guests, Zaptiehs and -troops, and other wants or necessities of the -community.</p> - -<p>The Turkish villages bear a more impoverished -appearance and look more neglected -and decaying than the Christian. This is -partly owing to the seclusion of the women, -who are little seen about, and, unlike the -Christian, never sit working at their doors. -They are helpless; do no field work, and -very little weaving; and occupy themselves -solely about their in-door duties, and as these -are not very heavy, they consequently spend -much of their time idly. The men are laborious, -but not so active and energetic as the -Christians. They spend a good deal of time -smoking in the coffee-houses of the village, -and are much poorer than the Christians. -This is due partly to their character and to -the absence of all help from their wives, but -also in great part to the conscription, which -takes many valuable years of labor from the -working-man. Drunkenness is rare among -Turks of this class, but when chance cases -occur they are of the most vicious and incurable -kind.</p> - -<p>In Macedonia landed property is more unequally -divided than in Bulgaria. Great portions -of it are united in large estates held by -native beys, or by pashas and officials at Constantinople. -Some of these estates comprise -an immense area, of which only a part is cultivated. -They are called <i>Chiftliks</i>; the -house, or <i>Konak</i>, on the estate, is the residence -of the owner when he visits it, for he -seldom resides on his property, but is represented -by a <i>Soubashi</i>, or agent. The elegance, -dimensions, and comfort of the Konak depend, -of course, upon the means and habits -of the owner. Some of the more ancient of -these edifices are large and spacious, built in -the style of the old Konaks at Stamboul; -but they present a still more dilapidated and -neglected appearance. Others of more recent -erection are smaller, but neither more -comfortable nor more tidy in appearance. -Some, again, are in the form of turrets, -which, if not elegant, have at least the merit -of being as strong as small fortresses. A -large court-yard contains, beside the house, -the usual farm buildings. On entering the -yard of the best regulated <i>Chiftlik</i>, the first -thing that attracts the attention is the air of -complete disorder and dirt that pervades the -premises. In one or two corners may be seen -heaps of refuse, in others broken carts and -farm implements standing in the midst of -mud-pools and filth of every description, including -a collection of old brooms that could -never have been worn out in sweeping the -place. Among these, children, fowls, geese, -ducks, and dogs roam in freedom. The interior -of the Konak is usually divided into Haremlik -and Selamlik, if sufficiently large. One or two -rooms in each department may be furnished -with a few hard sofas and dingy calico curtains. -The room reserved for the master -sometimes presents a somewhat better appearance, -its walls decorated with fire-arms, sometimes -of beautiful workmanship, and its furniture -boasting a deal table and a few chairs. -When the Bey intends paying a long visit -to his estate and is accompanied by his family, -the bedding and other household necessaries -are brought from town. It is astonishing -to see how little luggage a Turkish family -travels with on such an occasion. Each -person will have a <i>boghcha</i>,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> containing his or -her wearing apparel; the articles for general -use comprise a few candlesticks, petroleum -lamps, perhaps two <i>Leyen</i><a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> and <i>Ibrik</i><a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> for -ablutions, which in the morning and at meal -times make the round of the house; kitchen -utensils and a few tumblers, plates, etc., are -all that is needed for the <i>Villeggiatura</i> of a -Turkish family.</p> - -<p>The way in which the Bey spends his time -on his estate is also regulated by the means -and tastes of the individual. If he be a -sportsman, he will have a battue on his lands -and enjoy the pleasures of the chase. Should -he be addicted to drinking and debauchery, -he has every means of indulging his taste. -His duties as landlord consist in regulating -accounts with his agent, hearing the cases -that need his interference, giving general instructions -for future operations, and, above -all, realizing the profits. As to improving -his estate, ameliorating the condition of the -tenants, beautifying the property by planting -trees and laying out gardens, such things are -never thought of or known to have been -practised by any large land-owner in Macedonia.</p> - -<p>The harem, on their side, bring friends to -stay with them; and the days are spent in -roaming out barefooted in the most <i>négligés</i> -costumes, eating fruit, and helping to make -the winter provisions, such as <i>Tarhana Kouskous</i>, -<i>Youfka</i>,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> <i>Petmaiz</i>,<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> <i>Rechel</i>,<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and -<i>Nichesteh</i>.<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> No needlework is brought to fill up the -leisure hours of country life; the only amusements -are the indecent conversation and the -practical jokes of the parasites who never fail -to accompany such parties.</p> - -<p>The villages owned by the bey are made up -of the dwellings of the tenants. These for the -most part present a pitiable appearance of -poverty and misery, though their interiors -are as clean as circumstances will allow. -They are constructed of mud and wattle, and -divided into two or three rooms, with small -openings for windows, and open chimneys. -A fence incloses the house, together with the -granary and cattle-shed. The tenants are, -with few exceptions, Christians, and are called -<i>Yeradjis</i>. They are poor, and look dejected -and depressed, a demeanor I have often heard -superficial observers attribute to laziness and -natural worthlessness. This judgment may -be just in some instances, but can by no -means be taken as generally correct; the -people are as willing to work and gain an -honest living as those of any other land, but -they labor under certain disadvantages which -merit attention, and which, when carefully -examined, will go far to justify their failings.</p> - -<p>A Yeradji’s house costs from £30 to £50; -sometimes it is built by the landlord, sometimes -by the tenant himself. This may happen -for instance when the Yeradji has a son -to marry and the landlord refuses to build a -house for him, in which case he has to build -it at his own expense, and should he leave -the estate, receives no compensation for it. -These <i>Chiftliks</i> are cultivated on the Metayer -system as it is understood and practised in -Macedonia: the landlord provides the seed in -the first instance, the Yeradji finds his own -yoke of oxen or buffaloes and implements, -tills the ground, sows the grain, reaps it, -threshes and winnows it, and when the seed -for the next year and the tithes have been -deducted, shares the produce with the landlord. -The Metayer system on a luxuriant -soil like that of Macedonia would not only -pay, but would also contribute to increase the -wealth of the estate and improve the wretched -condition of the Yeradji if it were only properly -and equitably administered. But it is -not difficult to point out capital failings in the -working of the system. When the grain is -cut, a certain number of sheaves, forty for -instance, of the finest and heaviest, are set -aside as samples. These are threshed separately, -and the seed for the next year, the -tithes, and the landlord’s share deducted according -to this standard, which leaves the -Yeradji an iniquitously small proportion of -the produce. Under this unfair arrangement -the Yeradji has to give for every head of cattle -he possesses six Constantinople kilés of -barley and six of wheat to the <i>Soubashi</i> of his -bey.</p> - -<p>In addition to these the Yeradji has to defray -the heavy burden of his own taxes, and -the quartering of troops and Zaptiehs upon -him, besides other burdens, among which -must be reckoned the wasted time of the -numerous feast-days, that deprive him of so -much work in the year. Toil as hard as he -may, he can never become an independent -and prosperous man.</p> - -<p>When these estates are transferred by sale -or other causes, the Yeradji, should he be in -debt to the estate, goes with it into a sort of -bondage terminable under certain conditions, -viz.: his industry and activity and the honesty -of the landlord and his agent. If on -one hand the superabundance of feast-days -is to be looked upon as a hindrance to the -Yeradji freeing himself from debt, the unscrupulous -manner in which his master or -the Soubashi reckons accounts opposes fresh -obstacles to the breaking of the chain that -binds him to the soil. Farm accounts are -generally kept by means of <i>chetolas</i>, or notched -sticks, a very primitive mode, leading to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -many errors being committed, wittingly or -unwittingly. The consequence is that all -tenants are more or less in debt to their landlords -in the same manner as all Turkish landlords -are in debt to the Government or to private -individuals.</p> - -<p>The scarcity of Yeradjis and their disqualifications -as tenants are now a general complaint -throughout Macedonia. It is not, however, -surprising that the better class of peasants -should refuse to become Yeradjis, and -that the inferior classes, employed in their -absence, should be found fault with and be -always in debt.</p> - -<p>Of late years some of these estates have -passed into the hands of Christians, by purchase -or mortgage. These proprietors, as a -rule, do not reside on their estates, which are -left in the charge of an agent, but content -themselves with an occasional visit. When -this property is well situated, and (as seldom -happens) free from litigation, it is said to be a -good investment.</p> - -<p>Besides these Yeradji villages, there are -the <i>Kephalochoria</i>, or head-villages, composed -of petty landholders, some of whom were -formerly wealthy, and might have continued -so but for the injury done to them by the forest -regulations and the heavy impositions laid -upon them by the Government since the commencement -of the war.</p> - -<p>One of the principal grievances peasants -labor under is the <i>angaria</i>, or statute-labor, -into which man, beast, and cart are impressed -at the command of a mere Zaptieh, causing a -loss of time, and injury to property and -cattle, which is often fatal to an otherwise -well-to-do village. A village on a main road -is never free from all kinds of vexatious impositions -and the quartering of Zaptiehs and -troops, who, whether they pay or not for -what they have consumed, extort sums of -money from their hosts, and are always careful -to take away with them a declaration -from the <i>Kodja-Bashi</i> that all accounts have -been settled.</p> - -<p>The Angaria work lately exacted from the -inhabitants of Cavalla for the transport of -flour for the use of the army was very nearly -occasioning troubles of a nature likely to -prove fatal to the whole town. The affair -originated in the townspeople being required -to carry on Sunday loads which they willingly -carried on Saturday. They refused, and -shut themselves up in their houses; whereupon -an excess of zeal was displayed by the -police in trying to force them out by breaking -into some of the dwellings. This led to -a slight disturbance which encouraged some -noted bad characters belonging to the Moslem -population to take a menacing attitude, and -conspire to break into the offices of some of -the principal merchants of the town, ransack -them, and then proceed to follow the precedent -with the rest of the town, threatening -the Christians with massacre. Panic soon -spread, and the people shut themselves in -their churches. Men-of-war were telegraphed -for, but luckily the local authorities were -able to put down the tumult, and order was -restored without loss of life. The incident -is instructive in showing the difficulties and -dangers under which the Macedonian peasant -carries on his work. It is no wonder that the -land is ill-cultivated.</p> - -<p>Among the peasant farmers of Roumelia -there is no regular system of rotation of -crops observed; but with the occupants of -large estates the ordinary rule for rich lands -is two wheat crops and one of oats, then fallow -one or more years, wheat, and then -sesame. In Macedonia, where arable land is -more abundant, one year’s rest is allowed to -some lands. The only manure some of these -lands obtain is from the treading of the sheep -on the land in early spring and after the harvest -is reaped, and yet the soil is naturally -so rich that a generally bad harvest is of rare -occurrence. The mode of cultivation is very -primitive, employing much hand labor and -involving much waste. Tillage is performed -with the native plough, on an average depth -of four inches to the furrow. The instrument -used for the purpose is very rude and -has only one handle. The number of buffaloes -used varies from two to five. In Roumelia -some large estate owners attempted introducing -agricultural implements from -Europe, but threshing-machines alone met -with any success. In Macedonia even these -proved a failure, as their management is not -understood, and fuel is difficult to procure in -the interior. In some parts the grain is scattered -over the stubble and then ploughed in. -Much of the harvest is done by young women -and girls in Roumelia and Macedonia. They -and the male harvesters hire themselves for -the June harvest. On the 21st August the -harvest-home is celebrated. Decked in their -holiday costumes, crowned with garlands, -and carrying bouquets composed of ears of -corn, the reapers proceed to the nearest town -to dance and sing before the doors of the -principal houses and in the market-place.</p> - -<p>Threshing is performed in the most antique -manner imaginable. The instrument -used for the purpose consists of two pieces of -wood curved at one end, fastened together, -and studded with a number of flints. This -is attached at the curved end to a team of -three or four horses. A girl stands on this -sledge and drives the team rapidly over the -corn thrown in bundles on the ground, which -has been hardened and prepared for the purpose. -This process breaks the straw into -very small lengths, making it very palatable -food for the cattle. The corn is winnowed -by being thrown up in the air with wooden -shovels, the breeze carrying away the chaff. -In some parts of Macedonia the process is -even more simple. A team of horses is driven -over the bundles of corn, treading out the -grain. The women and children also sit on -the ground and help in the operation by beating -it with sticks.</p> - -<p>The principal crops raised in Roumelia are -wheat, barley, maize, rye, oats, sesame, and -canary-seed. A considerable quantity of -rice is grown in some parts. In the south, -towards Adrianople, the vine reaches some -degree of perfection, and excellent wine is -made, which, when kept for some years, resembles -sherry in taste and color. The mulberry -grows abundantly, and before the silkworm -disease appeared in those districts -formed a very profitable branch of industry. -The mulberry gardens sometimes comprise -several acres of land; when they are near -towns or large villages, the silkworm nurseries -are placed in them. The rearing process -begins in early spring, with the budding of -the leaves, and lasts over two months. It is -a very tedious and laborious work, requiring -great neatness and attention, and is generally -undertaken by the women. When the crop -succeeds and is free from disease, it is an interesting -process to watch. In Macedonia -the same crops are grown, with the addition -of a large supply of excellent tobacco. The -best comes from Drama and Cavalla.</p> - -<p>The cattle in Turkey, though small, are -hardy and very serviceable. Little attention -has hitherto been paid by the Government towards -improving the breed. The sheep, too, -are small, and their wool is of an inferior -quality. Those in Asiatic Turkey are mostly -of the Karamanian, or broad-tailed, breed. -Their fat is much used by the natives for -cookery, and their milk made into cheese. -Sheep-farming is carried on to a great extent -both in European and Asiatic Turkey. -Buffaloes for draft purposes and ploughing, -and camels as beasts of burden, are very -numerous, especially in Asia Minor. Great -numbers of goats are also kept; their milk is -much used for making cheese. The Angora -goats are (I need hardly say) much prized for -their fleece. Their introduction into other -parts of the country has been attempted several -times, but has invariably failed. They do -not thrive away from their native mountains.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">TURKISH HOUSES.</span></h2> - -<p>The Turkish Quarter—A <i>Konak</i>—Haremlik and Selamlik—Arrangement -of Rooms—Furniture—The -<i>Tandour</i>—Turkish Clemency towards Vermin—Bordofska—An -Albanian <i>Konak</i>—The Pasha and his Harem—A -Turkish <i>Bas-bleu</i>—Ruins of <i>Konaks</i> outside -Uskup—The Last of the Albanian Deri-Beys—A -<i>Konak</i> at Bazardjik—The Widow of the Deri-Bey—<i>Kiosks</i>—<i>Koulas</i>—A -<i>Koula</i> near Salonika—Christian -Quarters—<i>Khans</i>—Furniture—Turkish Baths, Public -and Private—Cafés.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Bright sunshine, fresh air, ample space, -and pure water are indispensable to the felicity -of a Turk. Both in the capital and in -provincial towns the Turkish quarter is invariably -situated in the most healthy and elevated -parts, and occupies, on account of the -gardens belonging to almost every Turkish -house, double the ground of the Christian -and Jewish quarters. These gardens are all -more or less cultivated, but, except in the -capital, where horticulture has obtained some -degree of perfection, they seldom display -either taste or order. A few fine mulberry -or other fruit trees may be seen here and -there overshadowing patches of ground bordered -with box or tiles, and planted with -roses, lettuces, and garlic; and in the gardens -of the better class of houses one may -often see pretty fountains.</p> - -<p>The streets of the Turkish quarter are narrow -and irregular, and, except in the principal -thoroughfares, look solitary and deserted; -they are, however, cleaner than those of -the Christian and Jewish quarters, and this -for three good reasons: they are little frequented; -they are not encumbered with rubbish, -owing to the space the Turks possess in -their court-yards and gardens, where they can -heap up most of the refuse that the Christians -have to throw into the streets; and -they are better patrolled by the street dogs, -for these famous scavengers, being under the -special protection of the Mussulman, are -more numerous in the Turkish than in the -other quarters, and eat up all the animal and -vegetable refuse.</p> - -<p>A Turkish <i>konak</i>, or mansion, is a large -building, very irregular in construction, and -without the slightest approach to European -ideas of comfort or convenience. This building -is divided into two parts, the <i>haremlik</i> -and the <i>selamlik</i>; the former and larger part -is allotted to the women, the latter is occupied -by the men and is used for the transaction -of business, the purposes of hospitality, -and formal receptions. The stables are attached -to it, forming part of the ground-floor, -and rendering some of the upper rooms -rather unpleasant quarters. A narrow passage -leading from the <i>mabeyn</i> (or neutral -ground) to the <i>haremlik</i> joins the two establishments. -The materials used for building -are wood, lime, mud, and stone for the foundations. -A Konak generally consists of two -stories, one as nearly as possible resembling -the other, with abundant provision for the -entrance of light and air. A large hall, called -the <i>devankhané</i>, forms the entrance into the -Haremlik; it is surrounded by a number of -rooms of various sizes. To the right, the -largest serves as a sort of ante-chamber, the -rest are sleeping apartments for the slaves, -with the exception of one called <i>kahvé-agak</i>, -where an old woman is always found sitting -over a charcoal brazier, ready to boil coffee -for every visitor. A large double staircase -leads to the upper story, on one side of which -is the <i>kiler</i>, or store-room, and on the other -the lavatories. The floors are of deal, kept -scrupulously clean and white, and in the -rooms generally covered with mats and rugs. -The furniture is exceedingly poor and -scanty; a hard uncomfortable sofa runs -along two and sometimes three sides of the -room; a <i>shelté</i>, or small square mattress, occupies -each corner, surmounted by a number of -cushions piled one upon the other in regular -order. The corner of the sofa is the seat of -the Hanoum, and by the side of the cushions -are placed her mirror and <i>chekmegé</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p>A small European sofa, a few chairs placed -stiffly against the wall, a console supporting -a mirror and decorated with two lamps or -candlesticks, together with a few goblets and -a small table standing in the centre with -cigarettes and tiny ash-trays, complete the -furniture of the grandest provincial <i>Buyukoda</i>. -Though some Turks possess many rare -and curious objects, such as ancient armor -and china, which, if displayed, would greatly -add to the elegance and cheerfulness of their -apartments, these are always kept packed -away in boxes.</p> - -<p>Windows are the great inconvenience in -Turkish houses; they pierce the walls on -every side, with hardly the space of a foot between -them. The curtains are usually of -coarse printed calico, short and scanty, with -the edges pinked out, so that when washed -they present a miserably ragged appearance. -The innumerable windows render the houses -ill-adapted either for hot or cold weather; -the burning rays of the sun pour in all day in -summer, and the frames are so badly constructed -that the cold wind enters in all directions -in winter.</p> - -<p>Bedsteads are not used by the Turks; mattresses -are nightly spread on the floor, and -removed in the morning into large cupboards, -built into the walls of every room. -These walls, being whitewashed and roughly -furnished, increase the uncomfortable appearance -of the rooms, which at night are -dimly lighted by one or two sperm candles or -a petroleum lamp, the successors of the ancient -tallow candle. The halls and passages -are left in obscurity, and the servants find -their way about as well as they can.</p> - -<p>The <i>mangals</i>, or braziers, are the warming -apparatus generally used by the Turks in -their houses. These are made of different -metal; some fixed in wooden frames, others -in frames of wrought brass of very elegant -and costly workmanship. The fuel consists -of a quantity of wood ashes in which burning -charcoal is half buried.</p> - -<p>The <i>tandour</i>, now nearly fallen into disuse, -is also worthy of notice. It consists of -a square deal table with a foot-board covered -with tin, on which a brazier stands; the -whole is covered with a thick quilted counterpane -which falls in heavy folds on a sofa -running round it, covering the loungers up -to the chin, and giving one the idea of a -company of people huddled together in bed. -The tandour is still very much used in Smyrna, -and round it the Levantine ladies love to -sit during the winter months. More than -one English traveller, newly arrived in the -country, when ushered into a drawing-room, -is said to have rushed frantically out again -under the impression that he had surprised -the family in bed.</p> - -<p>The furniture of the <i>selamlik</i> is similar to -that of the Haremlik. A family often removes -from one set of apartments to another; this -propensity is doubtless stimulated by the desire -to escape from the assaults of the fleas -and other vermin that swarm in the rooms. -When once these insects obtain a footing in -a house, it is difficult to get rid of them, -partly on account of the unwillingness of the -Turks to destroy animal life of any description, -and partly because these insects take up -their abode between the badly joined planks -under the mats and rugs.</p> - -<p>I was once visiting at the house of a Pasha -lately arrived at Adrianople. The Hanoum, -a charming woman, was complaining bitterly -to me of her rest having been much disturbed -the previous night by the abundance of these -creatures in her apartment. One of the -slaves modestly remarked that she had occupied -herself all the morning in scalding the -floor of the room her mistress had slept in, -and expressed a hope that she would not be -longer troubled in that respect. A general -outcry against this slave’s want of humanity -was raised by all the women present, and a -chorus of “Yuzuk! Gunah!” (Pity! Sin!) -was heard. It is curious that they raised no -such outcry when they heard of the frightful -destruction of human life that took place a -few years later among their Christian neighbors -in Bulgaria, but a few miles from their -own secure homes!</p> - -<p>When in the interior I had the opportunity -of visiting some Konaks worthy of note; one -of these called Bordofska, situated in the -heart of Albania, some leagues from Uskup, -had been built as a country residence by the -famous Hevni Pasha. It was an immense -building, solidly constructed of stone at the -expense and with the forced labor of the people, -who were pressed into the work. It occupied -the middle of a large garden that must -have been beautiful in its time, and being -surrounded by high walls bore a strong resemblance -to a feudal castle. This fine old -building had become the property of Osman -Pasha, a venerable Turk of the old school; -all the furniture was European, and of a very -rich and elegant description, but looked worn -and neglected. The aged Pasha received me -with the politeness and hospitality his nation -knows so well how to show when it pleases.</p> - -<p>After an interchange of civilities, and having -partaken of coffee, I was invited to visit -the harem. A hideous black monster, the -chief of the eunuchs, led the way through a -long dark passage lined with forty of his -brethren, not more pleasant-looking than -himself, who salaamed to me as I passed.</p> - -<p>My then limited experiences of the customs -of harems made me regard this gloomy -passage and its black occupants with feelings -of curiosity, not unmingled with dread. -The chief wife of Osman Pasha (for I believe -he had six others, besides slaves) was a very -fat, elderly person, who showed little disposition -to give me the hearty and civil reception -I had just received from her husband, -and I soon discovered that she belonged to -that peculiar class of Turkish women called -<i>Soffous</i>—the <i>bas-bleus</i> of Mohammedanism, -bigoted zealots of the straitest sect of the -Moslem Pharisees.</p> - -<p>On entering the room I found the Hanoum -seated in her sofa corner, from which she -did not rise but merely gave a bend of the -head, with a cold “Né yaparsen?”<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> in response -to my deep Oriental obeisance. She -spoke very little, and the few words she was -obliged to utter were intermingled with -<i>Duvas</i> she muttered; perhaps asking forgiveness -for the sin she was committing in -holding direct intercourse with a <i>Giaour</i>. -The other wives, who were all pretty and -gay, tried to make amends for the ill-humor -of their <i>doyenne</i>, and were as kind and amiable -as etiquette would allow in her presence.</p> - -<p>Four other Konaks of the same description -may still be seen outside the town of -Uskup, standing alongside in melancholy -decay. The first and largest was intended -for the residence of the once powerful Hevni -Pasha himself; the second for his son, and -the two others for his daughters. I was -deeply impressed by the sight of these imposing -ruins, and visited them with the double -object of satisfying my curiosity and ascertaining -the possibility of lodging myself -in some habitable corner of one of them during -my stay in the neighborhood. The interior -was well worth seeing, and comprised -splendid apartments, the walls and ceilings -being decorated with gildings and elaborate -carvings in walnut wood. The baths of -sculptured marble could still be taken as -models of that luxurious and indispensable -appendage to a Turkish house. A wing of -one of these buildings was habitable; but -when I proposed to install myself in it, some -natives who had accompanied our party objected, -saying the houses were <i>hursous</i> and -<i>nahletli</i>, having been cursed by the people at -whose expense, and by whose unrequited -labor, they had been erected. Even the -beasts, they said, that had carried the heavy -loads of building material were seen to look -up to heaven and groan under the pressure -of their burdens; and a prophet of the place -had foretold the downfall of the owner on -the day of the completion of the work. This -prophecy was fulfilled to the letter, for on -the day the Pasha was to have entered his -new abode, the Turkish Government, suspicious -of his growing power and wealth, managed -to lay hands upon him.</p> - -<p>This Deri-Bey<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> is said to have been a wonderfully -intelligent man, counterbalancing -many of his tyrannical actions by the zealous -care he showed in promoting the individual -safety of his people and in increasing their -prosperity. Though entirely uneducated, his -natural talents were great enough to enable -him to comprehend the advantages of modern -civilization, and to lead him to introduce -some recent inventions into the country; he -also attempted to render the river Vardar (the -ancient Axius) navigable.</p> - -<p>Hevni Pasha and his <i>voïvodes</i>, or captains, -twenty-five or thirty years ago, may be -looked upon as the last representatives of the -chiefs of the wild Albanian clans, who at -that time still refused to recognize the authority -of the Porte, and when pressed to do -so broke out into open rebellion. Badjuksis -Ahmet Pasha, then a mere colonel, marched -with his regiment upon Uskup, one of the -principal strongholds of the Albanians, and, -partly by stratagem and partly by threats, -managed to penetrate into the town and take -possession of the fortress. In the meantime, -Frank Omar Pasha, the field-marshal, came -with some regular troops to his assistance, -having previously defeated the Albanians in -battle at Kaplan, and dispersed them into the -plains. He surrounded the town, and invited -Hevni Pasha with his captains and the principal -beys of the town into the fortress to -hear the Imperial Firman read. This ceremony -being concluded without disturbance, -Hevni Pasha and such of his party as were -likely to continue their resistance to the orders -of the Porte were requested by the military -authorities to mount at once the horses -that had been surreptitiously prepared for -them, and were conveyed under escort to -Constantinople, whence they were sent into -exile, their families being sent after them, -and their goods confiscated. Notice was next -given to the rest of the native beys that, -should any of them be found in direct or indirect -communication with the scattered -bands of Albanians, or sending provisions to -them, the guns of the fortress would be turned -upon the town, which would be razed to -the ground. This was a master-stroke on the -part of the Government; the Albanians, after -a few vain attempts at Monastir, Vrania, -Philippopolis, and other places, to resist the -authority of the Sultan, partially submitted -and returned to their impregnable mountain -fastnesses; not, however, without having -committed some barbarities similar to those -recently enacted in Bulgaria.</p> - -<p>During my trip to Bazardjik, I visited another -konak: it belonged to Kavanos Oglou, -another of the too famous Deri-Beys, who -had acquired complete control over his part -of the country, and who was similarly seized -by the Porte, despoiled of his possessions, -and sent into exile. This konak was an immense -quadrangular building, inclosing a -court-yard with a veranda running round it -supported on massive wooden pillars. Upon -this veranda a hundred rooms opened. The -house was low and clumsy in appearance, -but timber of remarkable size and solidity -had been used in its construction.</p> - -<p>At the time of my visit it was abandoned; -the doors and windows had disappeared, -giving to the edifice an appearance of solitude -and emptiness, rendered still more dismal -by the presence of innumerable bats and -owls, its only occupants. The old dungeon, -with its cruel associations, could still be traced -in a low building, about thirty feet long<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -and twenty wide, surrounded by a wall of -immense thickness and strongly roofed. For -windows nothing was seen but a few slits. -The interior on one side was occupied by a -double wall, with just enough space between -to admit a person in a standing position; in -this the offenders against the laws, and the -victims of vendetta, were squeezed, secured -by heavy chains that hung at equal distances -from iron rings. A well, now filled up, occupied -the centre, into which the heads of -decapitated prisoners were thrown, to disappear -in the dismal darkness of its depths.</p> - -<p>I was not sorry to leave this cheerless scene -of former despotism and present decay, and -to turn my steps towards a gate on the opposite -side of the garden leading into a kiosk -more modern in appearance than the house, -though bearing traces of decay. This last -refuge of a once powerful family was occupied -by Azizié Hanoum Effendi, the much-respected -widow of the tyrant. Her two -sons, who occupied inferior positions under -Government, were absent. The descendants -of Kavanos Oglou continue to be much respected -in the country in spite of their -downfall and the confiscation of their property. -The venerable lady into whose presence -I was ushered bore, notwithstanding -her advanced age, traces of a beauty that must -have been perfect in its bloom. She was a -fine tall blonde of the Circassian type, of a -commanding appearance, softened by the -sweet dignity of fallen sovereignty, before -whom I felt I could bow the knee and -kiss the hand she graciously extended to -me. I had a long and interesting conversation -with her on the state of the country, -which she described as having been more -flourishing under the rule of her husband -than at this time. “But,” said she, with a -sigh, “God ordains all things, casting some -into misfortunes and raising others into prosperity, -according as Kismet has prepared for -all. <i>Allah Kerim!</i>”</p> - -<p class="tb">Every one has heard or read of a <i>kiosk</i>, the -indispensable pleasure-seat of a Turk. The -imperial and other kiosks on the Bosphorus -are miniature palaces, luxuriously furnished, -whose elegance and beauty are only equalled -by the incomparable advantages of their situation -on the richest of soils and beneath the -sunniest of skies. Kiosks may be situated -anywhere, and may comprise a suite of -apartments or be limited to one; they are -light and airy in style, generally commanding -a fine prospect, often floored with marble, -and containing a <i>shadravan</i>, or sculptured -fountain, playing in the midst; a range of -sofas runs all round the walls, on which the -Turk loves to sit for hours together lost in -meditation, and in the fumes of his inseparable -companion the <i>nargilé</i>.</p> - -<p>The interiors of old kiosks and konaks -used to be ornamented with a peculiar open -woodwork of arabesque design decorating -the walls and ceilings, but this is now completely -out of fashion. The ceiling of a house -I formerly inhabited was decorated with this -work, and attracted the attention of all travellers. -One, an Englishman, was so much -struck with it on entering the room, that -hardly had he bowed to the company before -he asked permission to make a sketch of it. -We were so accustomed to similar displays -of originality in British tourists that the request -was at once granted.</p> - -<p>A <i>koula</i> is a high turret found on every -large <i>chiftlik</i>, or farm, and used as a refuge -in case of assault by brigands; it is a quadrangular -edifice, from three to four stories -high; the lowest is used as a granary and for -storing seeds and other valuable property belonging -to the farm; the others, light and -airy, are reserved for the habitation of the -owner of the chiftliks during his occasional -visits to his property.</p> - -<p>The last stronghold of this description I -visited was the property of a British subject in -the district of Salonika. It was solidly constructed, -with massive iron doors and shutters, -and some years ago resisted the assault -of a band of brigands who besieged it for three -days, till the arrival of a corps of Zaptiehs -occasioned their hasty disappearance. The -marks of their bullets may still be seen on -the doors and shutters, but no further damage -was done.</p> - -<p>There is no very marked difference between -the quarters of the town occupied by -Christians and those occupied by Turks. -The Christians’ houses are built very much -in the same style, though they are not so -large, and open directly on the street, with -shops in their lower stories in the principal -thoroughfares. The windows are free from -the lattices invariably seen in a Turkish <i>haremlik</i>. -There is much more life and animation -in a Christian or Jewish quarter, partly -in consequence of one house being occupied -by several families. This is especially the -case among the lower orders of Jews, where -one may count as many families as there are -rooms in a house.</p> - -<p>In most Eastern towns the Jewish quarters, -containing the fish, meat, and vegetable -markets, are the most unclean, and consequently -the most unhealthy. Few sanitary -regulations exist, and little attention is paid -to them or to the laws of hygiene. The streets -are frequently nearly impassable, and some -of the dwellings of the poor are pestilential, -the hotbeds of every epidemic that visits the -country.</p> - -<p>Most of the ancient khans, warehouses, -and bazars at Stamboul, and in large provincial -towns, are fine solidly constructed edifices. -The bazars are of a peculiarly Oriental -style of architecture, and appear well adapted -to the use for which they were designed—the -display and sale of goods. In the interior, -however, many of these bazars are neglected, -and some left to decay have been by -degrees abandoned by the tenants of the innumerable -shops they once contained.</p> - -<p>The <i>charshi</i>, or market-place, consists of an -incongruous assemblage of shops, huddled -together without any attempt at architecture -or regard to appearances; for the most part -protected only by large shutters that are -raised in the morning and lowered at night. -A low platform of boards occupies the greater -part of the interior, in the front corner of -which the shopkeeper sits on a little carpet, -cross-legged, with a wooden safe by his side -and his account-book and pipe within easy -reach, ever ready to attend to the wants of -his customers. Rows of shelves, constructed -in recesses in the walls, serve as receptacles -for his goods.</p> - -<p>The <i>khans</i>, or warehouses, in towns are -used as deposits for merchandise and for the -transaction of business by merchants and -bankers who have offices in them. A series -of hostelries of all descriptions and dimensions, -also called khans, some built of stone -and others of timber, exist in large numbers -in all parts of the country, serving as hotels -to travellers and store-rooms for merchandise -during transit. The ruins of the most -ancient of these, built by the Turks at the -time of the conquest, and used by them as -blockhouses, still exist on the main roads and -in some of the principal towns. By the side -of these substantial stone buildings have -arisen a number of miserable edifices dignified -with the name of khan, with whose discomforts -the weary traveller too often makes -sad acquaintance.</p> - -<p>The furniture of wealthy Greek houses in -Constantinople is European; in those of Jews -and Armenians of high position it is a compromise -between European and Turkish. All -Orientals are fond of display; they like to -build large houses and ornament their reception -rooms in a gaudy manner; but the <i>ensemble</i> -lacks finish and comfort. At A⸺ I -had fixed upon an old Turkish konak as my -residence; but on coming to inhabit it I discovered -that extensive alterations and improvements -must be made before it approached -in the remotest degree to my idea -of an English home. Some officious person, -at a loss to understand the object of these -changes, gave notice to the proprietor that -his tenant was fast demolishing his house, -upon which the good old Turk asked if she -were building it up again, and being answered -in the affirmative, quietly said, -“<i>Brak yupsen!</i>” (<i>laissez faire!</i>)</p> - -<p>The furniture found in the dwellings of all -the lower classes is much the same throughout -the country; a Turkish sofa, a few deal -chairs, and a table serving for every purpose. -The bedding is placed on the floor at night -and removed in the morning. But if furniture -is scanty, there is no lack of carpets and -copper kitchen utensils, both being considered -good investments by the poor.</p> - -<p>Before concluding this chapter I must not -forget to describe one of the most necessary -adjuncts to a Turkish house—the bath. In -a large house, or konak, this is by far the best -fitted and most useful part of the whole establishment. -A Turkish bath comprises a suite -of three rooms; the first—the <i>hammam</i>—is a -square apartment chiefly constructed of marble, -and terminating in a kind of cupola -studded with a number of glass bells, through -which the light enters. A deep reservoir, -attached to the outer wall, with an opening -into the bath, contains the water, half of -which is heated by a furnace built under it. -A number of pipes, attached to the furnace, -circulate through the walls of the bath and -throw great heat into it. One or two graceful -fountains conduct the water from the reservoir, -and on each side of the fountain is a -low wooden platform which serves as a seat -for the bather, who sits cross-legged, and undergoes -a long and complicated process of -washing and scrubbing, with a variety of -other toilet arrangements too numerous to -mention.</p> - -<p>The second room, called the <i>saouklouk</i>, is -constructed very much in the same style as -the first, but is smaller, and has no furniture -but a marble platform upon which mattresses -and cushions are placed for the use of those -who wish to repose between intervals of bathing, -or do not wish to face the cooler temperature -of the <i>hammam oda</i>. This room is furnished -with sofas, on which the bathers rest -and dress after quitting the bath.</p> - -<p>Turkish women are very fond of their -bath, and are capable of remaining for hours -together in that hot and depressing atmosphere. -They smoke cigarettes, eat fruits and -sweets, and drink sherbet, and finally, after -all the blood has rushed to their heads, and -their faces are crimson, they wrap themselves -in soft burnouses, and pass into the third or -outer chamber, where they repose on a luxurious -couch until their system shakes off part of -the heat and languor that the abuse of these -baths invariably produces. A bath being an -indispensable appendage to every house, one -is to be found in even the poorest Turkish -dwelling. Some more or less resemble a regular -<i>hammam</i>, others are of a very simple -form—often a tiny cabinet attached to one of -the rooms, containing a bottomless jar buried -in the ground, through which the water runs. -I consider these little baths, which are neither -expensive nor require much space, excellent -institutions in the houses of the poor as instruments -of cleanliness. The constant and -careful ablutions of the Turk are the principal -preventives to many diseases, from -which they are, comparatively speaking, -freer than most nations.</p> - -<p>The public baths, resorted to by all classes, -are to be found in numbers in every town. -They are fine buildings, exact copies of the -old Roman baths, many of which are still in -existence, defying the march of centuries -and the work of decay. Like the home -baths, they consist of three spacious apartments. -The outer bath-room is a large stone -building lighted by a cupola, with wooden -platforms running all round, upon which -small mattresses and couches are spread for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span> -the men; but the women, not having the -same privilege, are obliged to bring their own -rugs, upon which they deposit their clothes, -tied up in bundles, when they enter, and repose -and dress upon them on coming out of -the bath. A fountain of cold water is considered -indispensable in this apartment, and -in the basin surrounding it may be seen water-melons -floating about, placed there to cool -while their owners are in the inner bath.</p> - -<p>The bath itself contains a number of small -rooms, each of which can be separately engaged -by a party, or used in common with -the other bathers. It is needless to say that -the baths used by men are either separate or -are open at different hours.</p> - -<p>Turkish women, independently of their -home baths, must resort at least once a month -to the public <i>hammam</i>. They like it for -many reasons, but principally because it is -the only place where they can meet to chat -over the news of the day and their family -affairs.</p> - -<p>Some of these baths, especially the mineral -ones at Broussa, are of the finest description. -Gurgutly, containing the sulphureous -springs, is renowned for the remarkable efficacy -of its waters, its immense size, and the -elegant and curious style of its architecture. -It comprises two very large apartments, one -for the use of the bathers previous to their -entering the bath, the other the bath itself. -This is an immense room, with niches all -round containing fountains in the form of -shells, which receive part of the running -stream; in front of these are wooden platforms, -on which the bathers collect for the -purpose of washing their heads and scrubbing -their bodies. On the left, as you enter, -stands an immense marble basin, seven feet -in length and three in width, into which the -mother stream gushes with impetuous force. -From this it runs into a large round basin -about ten feet in depth, in which dozens of -women and children may be seen swimming, -an exhausting process, owing to the high -temperature of the water and its sulphureous -qualities. This wonderful basin is in the -shape of a reversed dome, sunk into the marble -floor, which is supported underneath by -massive columns.</p> - -<p>Coffee-houses are to be met with everywhere, -and are very numerous in the towns. -The Turks resort to them when they leave -their homes early in the morning, to take a -cup of coffee and smoke a nargilé before going -to business. In the evening, too, they -step in to have a chat with their neighbors -and hear the news of the day. Turkish newspapers -have become pretty common of late -in these quiet rendezvous, and are to be -found in the most unpretending ones. Few -of these establishments possess an inviting -exterior or can boast any arrangements with -regard to comfort or accommodation; a few -mats placed upon benches, and a number of -common osier-seated chairs and stools, are -the seats afforded in them. Small gardens -may be found attached to some, while others -atone for the deficiencies of their interiors by -the lovely situations they occupy in this picturesque -and luxurious land.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE SERAGLIO.</span></h2> - -<p>The Chain of Palaces along the Bosphorus—<i>Eski -Serai</i>, the oldest of the Seraglios—Its Site and Appearance—Beauty -of its Gardens—Contrasts—Its Destruction—<i>Dolma-Bagché</i> -and <i>Begler-Bey</i>—Enormous -Expenditure of Abdul-Medjid and Abdul-Aziz on -Seraglios—<i>Yahlis</i>, or Villas—<i>Begler-Bey</i> furnished -for Illustrious Guests—Delicate Attentions of the -Sultan—Furniture of Seraglios—Mania of Abdul-Aziz—Everything -Inflammable thrown into the Bosphorus—Pleasure -Grounds—Interior Divisions of the Seraglio—The -<i>Mabeyn</i>—The Padishah <i>en négligé</i>—Imperial -Expenditure—Servants, etc.—Food—Wages—Stables—Fine -Art—Origin of the Inmates of the Seraglio—Their -Training—Adjemis—A Training-School for the -Seraglio—Ranks in the Seraglio—The <i>Bash Kadin -Effendi</i> and other Wives—<i>Hanoums</i>, or Odalisks—Favorites—Equal -Chances of Good Fortune—Ceremonies -attending the Sultan’s Selection of an Odalisk—A -Slave seldom sees the Sultan more than once—Consequent -Loss of Dignity and Misery for the rest of -her Life—Precarious Position of Imperial Favorites—Intrigues -and Cabals in the Seraglio—Good Fortune -of the Odalisk who bears a Child—Fashions in Beauty—Golden -Hair—The <i>Validé Sultana</i>—The <i>Hasnadar -Ousta</i>—Ignorance and Vice of the Seraglio Women—The -Better Class—The Consumptive Class—The -“Wild Serailis”—Amusements of the Seraglio—Theatre—Ballet—Shopping—Garden -Parties in Abdul-Medjid’s -Time—Imperial Children—Foster-Brothers—Bad -Training and Deficient Education of Turkish -Princes and Princesses.</p> - -</div> - -<p>There are more than twenty Imperial Palaces, -variously named, according to their -size and character, seraglios, yahlis, and kiosks, -scattered about Constantinople, some -on the Bosphorus, others inland, but all -equally to be admired as striking spectacles -of Eastern magnificence. Dolma-Bagché -and Beshiktash, linked with other mansions -and kiosks, mingling European architecture -with Oriental decoration, form a chain of -splendid palaces such as can be seen nowhere -but on the historic shores of the Bosphorus.</p> - -<p>The most renowned of the Ottoman palaces -was Eski Serai, on the point of land -where the Bosphorus enters the Sea of Marmora. -Built on the site of old Byzantium -by Mehemet II., this celebrated palace was -enlarged and beautified according to the -wants and caprices of each successive sultan. -It presented to the eye a crowded pile -of vast irregular buildings, crowned by gilded -cupolas and girt with shaded gardens. Beautiful -mosques, varied with hospitals and other -charitable foundations, were scattered about -in detached groups, amid clusters of stately -cypresses and the burial-grounds of kings. -Here might be seen a gorgeous pavilion, there -a cool jet, here again a mysterious building -with high impenetrable walls and latticed -windows, the monotonous dwelling-place of -bright young creatures who, once engaged, -were rarely permitted to regain their freedom. -And there, dwarfing all else, rose the -tall white minarets, accenting their clear outlines -against the tender sky of the East. In -this irregular confusion the artist saw one of -the choicest sights of the capital; and a -closer view offered to the curious a clear and -minute conception of the palace of an Eastern -despot.</p> - -<p>All was there: the gorgeous and the -squalid, the refined and the loathsome, the -splendid state rooms of the Vicar of God, -beside the gloomy cages of those unhappy -princes, who, cursed by their royal blood, -were left to pine in solitude until death -came to settle accounts between them and -the tyrants who had doomed them to their -chains. There were the charitable establishments -whence the poor never turned away -unrefreshed,—and there the dungeon where -the powerful were left to starve and die. -There was the gilded kiosk where the Padishah -smoked his chibouk and issued his decrees,—whose -terrible ordinances were carried -out in the adjoining chamber-of-blood. -Beyond were the mausoleums of his race, lifting -up their rich adornment in the chill beauty -of the city of the dead—severed by a little -space from the scarcely more splendid dwellings -of the living. There lay those doomed -princes to whom a life without liberty and -ofttimes a cruel death were ill balanced by -the useless splendor of their tombs. “What -is the use of thy getting children,” once with -a mother’s bitterness said a Circassian slave -who had borne a son to one of the sultans, -“when they are only destined to people the -tombs?”</p> - -<p>In later times Eski Serai was abandoned to -the use of the harems of deceased sultans, who -were sometimes shut up there for life. Its -last occupants, the multitudes of wives, -slaves, and odalisks belonging once to Sultan -Abdul-Medjid, unable any longer to endure -its dismal solitude, are reported to have set it -on fire in the hope of obtaining a dwelling -more congenial to the habits of comparative -liberty they had acquired. At all events the -palace was destroyed, and a vast number of -valuable and rare objects perished with it. -The site is now occupied by gardens, and a -railroad runs across it; the gem of the Golden -Horn has vanished.</p> - -<p>Dolma-Bagché, built by Sultan Mahmoud -II., was a large wooden edifice. This and -Begler-Bey became the usual winter and summer -residences of the imperial family. Sultan -Abdul-Medjid, on coming to power, rebuilt -Dolma-Bagché and several other kiosks and -seraglios. Gentle, sensitive, refined, and loth -to shed blood, he is said to have evinced a superstitious -aversion to the old imperial palaces -whose splendor was tainted by the memory -of the crimes of his ancestors. He, and -still more his brother Adbul-Aziz, spent incalculable -sums in the erection and decoration -of seraglios. The latter’s yearly expenses -on this alone were reckoned to have -exceeded £580,000—one of the items which -ran away with the money which trusting or -speculative capitalists of Europe had been -foolish enough to supply for the future benefit -and improvement of Turkey (not, of -course, forgetting a slice in the pie for themselves), -but which has fallen somewhat short -of the end for which it was designed: Turkish -bondholders do not seem to consider -themselves of all men the most fortunate, -and Turkey itself has not gained by loading -its exchequer with a mountain of debt for -the sake of the reckless extravagance of imperial -luxury.</p> - -<p>Holding a middle place between the great -palaces and the kiosks, the sultans of Turkey -possess <i>yahlis</i>, or villas, not less beautiful than -the mansions of greater pretensions. These -villas often rise on the shores of the Bosphorus -from a bed of verdure. Generally they -are closed and silent, with a solitary guard -standing sentinel at the gate; but every now -and then one of them may be seen lighted -up, as by magic, and teeming with life, with -the rumbling of carriages to and fro, and the -clashing of arms. At the sound of the trumpet -a strain of sweet music strikes up, and -the approach of a water-procession of caïques -swiftly gliding towards the gates announces -the arrival of the august master.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the sultan goes alone to spend -a few hours of <i>dolce far niente</i>; at others he -makes an appointment with some special favorite -to meet him there. Abdul-Medjid’s -known partiality for Bessimé Sultana, the -most worthless but most beloved of his -wives, induced him on one occasion, while -on a visit to his Yahli at the sweet waters of -Asia, to send his own yacht for her in the -dead of night, alarming the whole seraglio by -its unexpected appearance at so unusual an -hour.</p> - -<p>One of the three palaces most renowned -for beauty of architecture and magnificence -of furniture is Begler-Bey. It is worthy of -the use for which it has been selected, of being -the palace offered for the occupation of -illustrious foreign visitors. The arrangements -made in it for one imperial guest were -presided over by Sultan Abdul-Aziz in person, -and the private apartments of the illustrious -lady were perfect copies of those in -her own palace. The fastidiousness of the -host on this occasion was so great, that on -discovering that the tints on the walls and -furniture slightly differed from those he had -seen when on his European tour, he ordered -that everything should be removed and new -ones brought from Paris. The fair visitor is -said to have been equally surprised and flattered -by the delicate attention that had not -omitted even the smallest object of her toilette -table. The Sultan, in truly Oriental -fashion, caused a new pair of magnificent -slippers, embroidered with pearls and precious -stones, to be placed before her bed -every morning.</p> - -<p>Since the time of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, the -furniture of the imperial palaces and kiosks -has been made to order in Europe. It is of so -costly a description as to be equal in value to -the edifices themselves. On entering Tcheragan, -and some of the other serails, the eye -is dazzled by the gilt decorations, gold and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span> -silver brocades, splendid mirrors and chandeliers, -and carved and inlaid furniture they -contain. In Abdul-Medjid’s time, clocks -and china vases were the only ornaments of -the apartments. The absence of pictures, -books, and the thousand different objects -with which Europeans fill their houses gave -the rooms, even when inhabited, a comfortless -and unused appearance.</p> - -<p>Some years ago, when visiting the private -apartments of this Sultan, I noticed a splendid -antique vase. Lately, on speaking of -this priceless object to a seraglio lady, I was -informed that it had been thrown into the -Bosphorus by order of its owner. This act -of imperial extravagance was caused by the -supposition that the vase had been handled -by some person afflicted with consumption.</p> - -<p>Sultan Abdul-Aziz, a year or two before -his dethronement, possessed with a nervous -terror of fire, caused all inflammable articles -to be taken out of the palaces, and replace -them by articles manufactured of iron. The -stores of fuel were cast into the Bosphorus, -and the lights of the Sultan’s apartments -were placed in basins of water. The houses -in the neighborhood of the Seraglio were -purchased by the Sultan, their occupants -forced to quit at a very short notice, their -furniture turned out, and the buildings pulled -down at once. These tyrannical precautions -served to heighten the general discontent of -the capital against the Padishah especially -among the poor, who justly complained that -they might have benefited by what had been -wasted; while some of the wealthy, though -not more contented, profited by the freak, -and carried off many of the rich objects taken -out of the palace.</p> - -<p>The vast pleasure-grounds attached to the -seraglios are laid out with a tasteful care, -which, added to the beauty of the position -and the fertility of the soil, goes far to justify -the renown of the gardens of the Bosphorus. -The hills, valleys, and gorges that surround -them are covered with woods; here orchards -and vineyards, weighed down with their rich -burdens, lend color to the scene; there the -slopes are laid out in terraces, whose perpendicular -sides are clothed with the contrasted -shades of the sombre ivy-leaf and the bright -foliage of the Virginian creeper. Banks of -flowers carry the thoughts back to the hanging -gardens of Babylon. Nature and art -have ornamented these delightful spots with -lakes, fountains, cascades, aviaries, menageries, -and pavilions. “Here in cool grot” -every opportunity is offered for love-making, -and if this one is already engaged, there -are highly romantic nooks, concealed by -overhanging boughs, that will answer the -purpose as well. Trees and plants seem to -rejoice in the bright sunshine; the birds’ -songs mingle strangely with the roar of the -wild beasts from which the Sultan is perhaps -trying to learn a lesson of humanity; and -gorgeous butterflies hover round, kissing the -sweet blossoms that fill the air with their -fragrance. Here the ladies of the harem, -when permitted to escape for a time from -their cages, roam at liberty like a troop of -school-girls during recreation hours, some -making for the orchards, others dispersing in -the vineyards, with screams of laughter and -wild frolic that would astonish considerably -any European garden party. The conservatories -and flower beds suffer terribly during -these incursions, and great is the despair of -the head-gardener.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> - -<p>A Seraglio, like all Moslem dwellings, is -divided into Haremlik and Selamlik. The -former is reserved for the family life of the -Sultan and his women; the latter is accessible -to officials who come to transact state -business with his Highness. The Mabeyn -consists of a number of rooms between the -two great divisions, and may be considered -the private home of the Sultan. It is here that -the Padishah resorts between nine and ten in -the morning, attired in his <i>gedjlik</i>, or morning -négligé; consisting of a <i>tekké</i>, or white -skull-cap; a bright-colored <i>intari</i> (dressing-gown) -and <i>eichdon</i> (trousers) of similar material; -a pair of roomy <i>terliks</i> (slippers), a <i>kirka</i> -(quilted jacket), or a <i>kirk</i> (pelisse lined with -fur), according to the season.</p> - -<p>Thus attired, he resorts to his study and -gives his attention to state affairs, or to any -other occupations that suit his tastes and inclinations. -Close by are the apartments -where the gentlemen of the household, the -private secretaries, and other functionaries, -await their Imperial Master from sunrise.</p> - -<p>An account I recently saw of the Imperial -expenditure estimated the annual outlay of -Sultan Abdul-Aziz at £2,000,000. The Palace -contained 5500 servants of both sexes. -The kitchens alone required 300 functionaries, -and the stables 400. There were also -about 400 caïkjis, or boatmen, 400 musicians, -and 200 attendants who had the charge of -the menageries and aviaries. Three hundred -guards were employed for the various palaces -and kiosks, and about 100 porters. The -harem, besides this, contained 1200 female -slaves.</p> - -<p>In the Selamik might be counted from -1000 to 1500 servants of different kinds. The -Sultan had twenty-five “aides-de-camp,” seven -chamberlains, six secretaries, and at least -150 other functionaries, divided into classes, -each having its special employment.</p> - -<p>One is intrusted with the care of the Imperial -wardrobe, another with the pantry, -a third with the making and serving of the -coffee, and a fourth with the pipes and cigarettes.</p> - -<p>There were also numberless attendants -who carried either a torch, or a jug of perfumed -water for ablutions after a repast. -There is a chief barber, a superior attendant -who has special charge of the games of backgammon -and draughts, another superintends -the braziers, and there are at least fifty kavasses, -and one hundred eunuchs; and the -harem has also at its service a hundred servants -for going on errands and doing commissions -in Stamboul and Pera.</p> - -<p>Altogether, the total number of the employés -of the Palace is about 5500. But this -is not all; these servants employ also other -persons beneath them, so that every day 7000 -persons are fed at the expense of the Palace. -So great is the disorder in the organization -that the contractors claim five francs per -diem for the food of each of these 7000 persons, -which amounts to £511,000 per annum -for the employés only.</p> - -<p>The various items comprise £1120 for -wood, £1040 for rice, and £16,000 for sugar.</p> - -<p>The wages of employés included in the -civil list amounted to a total of £200,000, -exclusive of the salaries of aides-de-camp, -doctors, musicians, etc., which were paid by -the minister of war.</p> - -<p>The stables of the Palace contained 600 -horses, whose provender, according to the -estimates of the most reasonable contractors, -cost three Turkish liras per month, making a -total of about £20,000.</p> - -<p>More than 200 carriages of every description -were kept in the palace. These were -for the most part presents from the Viceroy -of Egypt, but the expenses of the 150 coachmen -and footmen with their rich liveries are -paid by a civil list, also the harness-maker’s -accounts, and other items of this department.</p> - -<p>The annual expenditure for pictures, porcelain, -etc., was never less than £140,000, -and in one year Sultan Abdul-Aziz spent -£120,000 for pictures only. As for jewels, -the purchases attained the annual sum of -£100,000, and the expenses of the harem for -presents, dresses, etc., absorbed £160,000 per -annum.</p> - -<p>Besides these items, the allowances to the -mother and sisters of the Sultan, to his nephews -and nieces, and to the heir-apparent, -amounted to £181,760. This gives a total of -at least £1,300,000 annually. To this must -be added £80,000 for keeping in repair the -existing Imperial kiosks and palaces, and -£580,000 for the construction of new ones. -The Imperial revenue in the civil list was -£1,280,000. The expenditure was really -over £2,000,000.</p> - -<p>I am unable to give an estimate of the expenses -of the seraglio of the present Sultan, -but I have been informed on good authority -that his Majesty personally superintends the -management of the palace, and regulates its -expenditure with great wisdom and economy; -it will take some time, however, to put an end -to the disorder, corruption, and irregularity -that have become so rooted in the whole system, -and caused the extravagance and waste -that prevailed in the households of former -sultans. A Turkish proverb says, “Baluk -bashtan kokar,” “The fish begins to decompose -at the head;” accordingly, if the head -be sound there is every hope that the body -will also keep fresh.</p> - -<p>The haremlik of the Seraglio contains from -1000 to 1500 women, divided among the -Sultan’s household; that of his mother, the -Validé Sultana; and those of the princes.</p> - -<p>This vast host of women of all ranks, ages, -and conditions are, without exception, of -slave extraction, originating from the cargoes -of slaves that yearly find their way to -Turkey from Circassia, Georgia, Abyssinia, -and Arabia, in spite of the prohibition of the -slave-trade. These slaves are sold in their -native land by unnatural relations, or torn -from their homes by hostile tribes, to be subsequently -handed over to the slave-dealers, -and brought by them into the capital and -other large towns. All these women are the -offspring of semi-barbarous parents, who seldom -scruple to sell their own flesh and blood. -Born in the hovel of the peasant or the hut -of the fierce chieftain, their first condition is -one of extreme ignorance and barbarism. -Possessed with the knowledge of no written -language, with a confused idea of religion -mixed up with the superstitious practices -that ignorance engenders; poorly clad, portionless, -and unprotected, they are drawn -into the seraglio by chains of bondage, and -go under the denomination of <i>Adjemis</i> (rustics). -No matter how low had been their starting-point, -their future career depends solely -upon their own good fortune. Their training -in the seraglio is regulated by the vocations -for which they are destined; those -chosen to fulfil domestic positions, such as -negresses and others not highly favored by -nature, are put under the direction of <i>kalfas</i>, -or head-servants, and taught their respective -duties.</p> - -<p>The training they receive depends upon -the career to which their age, personal attractions, -and color entitle them. The -young and beautiful, whose lot has a great -chance of being connected with that of his -Imperial Majesty, or some high dignitary to -whom she may be presented by the Validé -or the Sultan as odalisk or wife, receives a -veneer composed of the formalities of Turkish -etiquette, elegance of deportment, the art -of beautifying the person, dancing, singing, -or playing on some musical instrument. To -the young and willing, instruction in the -rudiments of the Turkish language is given; -they are also initiated in the simpler forms of -Mohammedanism taught to women, such as -the <i>Namaz</i> and other prayers and the observance -of the fasts and feasts. Most of them -are, however, left to pick up the language as -best they can, and for this they display great -aptitude, and often succeed in speaking Turkish -with a certain amount of eloquence, although -their native accent is never lost, and -the extraction of a seraili can always be discovered -by her particular accent. Many of -these women possess great natural talent, and -if favored with some education, and endowed -with a natural elegance, become very tolerable -specimens of the fair sex.</p> - -<p>All the seraglio inmates, on their entrance<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -to the imperial abode, do not belong to this -class of <i>Adjemis</i>; many of them have been -previously purchased by Turkish hanoums of -high station, who, from speculative or other -motives, give them the training described, -and when sufficiently polished sell them at -high prices, or present them to the seraglio -with the view to some object.</p> - -<p>An ex-seraili of my acquaintance had herself -undertaken this task and had offered as -many as fourteen young girls to the seraglio -of Abdul-Aziz, after having reared each for -the duties that would probably devolve upon -her. This lady said to me, “What other -gift from a humble creature like myself could -be acceptable to so great a personage as his -Imperial Majesty?” At the time this conversation -took place she had a fresh batch of -young slaves in hand. They were all smart-looking -girls, designated by fancy names -such as Amore, Fidèle, Rossignole, Beauté, -etc. Their dress was rich, but ludicrous in -the extreme, being composed of cast-off -seraglio finery of all the colors of the rainbow; -some children were even dressed in -the Turkish military uniform, which contrasted -strangely with the plaits of their long -thick hair tied up with cotton rags. Their -politeness, half saucy, half obsequious, was -very amusing; on entering the room they all -stood in a row at the lower end, and when -some jocose observations were made to them -by their mistress, a ready and half impudent -reply was never wanting. The youngest, -about eight years of age, was dressed in a -miniature colonel’s full uniform; on being -addressed by her owner by the name of -“<i>Pich</i>,”<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> and asked, “Will you have this -lady’s little son for your husband? I mean to -marry him to you when you grow up!” the -little miss laughed, and seemed perfectly -well acquainted with the meaning of the proposal, -and by no means abashed at it.</p> - -<p>The treatment these girls received seemed -to be very kind, but sadly wanting in decency, -morality, and good principle.</p> - -<p>On the accession of a new Sultan to the -throne, it was customary to make a clearance -of most of the inmates of the seraglio, and -replenish it with fresh ones, such as those -that already belonged to the household of the -new sovereign, and others further to augment -the number. Ottoman sultans, with two exceptions, -have never been known to marry; -the mates of the Sultan, chosen from among -the ranks of slaves already mentioned, or -from among those that are presented to him, -can only be admitted to the honorable title of -wife when they have borne children. The -first wife is called Bash Kadin Effendi, the -second Ikinji Kadin Effendi, and so on in -numerical order up to the seventh wife -(should there be so many), who would be -called Yedinji Kadin Effendi.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> - -<p>The slaves that have borne children beyond -this number bear the title of Hanoums, -and rank after the Kadin Effendis; their -children are considered legitimate, and rank -with the other princes and princesses. To -these two classes must be added a third, that -of favorites, who having no right to the title -of Kadin Effendi or Hanoum, are dependent -solely upon the caprice of their master or the -influence they may have acquired over him -for the position they hold in the imperial -household.</p> - -<p>Under this system every slave in the seraglio, -from the scullery-maid to the fair and -delicate beauty purchased for her personal -charms, may aspire to attaining the rank of -wife, <i>odalisk</i>, or favorite. The mother of the -late Sultan Abdul-Aziz is said to have performed -the most menial offices in the establishment. -When thus engaged one day she -happened to attract the attention of her imperial -master, Sultan Mahmoud II., who distinguished -her with every mark of attention, -and raised her to the rank of Bash Kadin. -Generally speaking, however, the wives of -sultans are select beauties who are offered to -him yearly by the nation on the feast of Kandil -Ghedjessi, others are gifts of the Validé -and other persons wishing to make an offering -to the Sultan.</p> - -<p>When one of these odalisks has succeeded -in gaining the good graces of the Sultan, and -attracted his attention, he calls up the Ikinji -Hasnadar Ousta,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and notifies to her his desire -of receiving the favored beauty into his -apartment. The slave, being informed of -this, is bathed, dressed with great care and -elegance, and introduced in the evening to -the imperial presence. Should she be so fortunate -as to find favor in the eyes of her lord -and master, she is on the next morning admitted -into a separate room reserved for -slaves of this category, which she occupies -during the time needful for ascertaining -what rank she is in future to take in the seraglio. -Should the arrival of a child raise her -to that of Kadin Effendi or hanoum, a <i>Dairé</i>, -or special apartment, is set apart for her. -Those who are admitted to the Sultan’s presence, -and have no claims to the rights of maternity, -do not present themselves a second -time unless requested to do so, nor can they -lay claim to any further attention, although -their persons, like those of the Kadin Effendi -and hanoums, become sacred, and the contraction -of marriage with another person is -unlawful. The distinction between the favored -and the discarded favorite is made -known by her abstaining from going to the -<i>hammam</i>. The lot of these discarded favorites -is naturally not an enviable one. Accidentally -noticed by the Sultan, or entertained -by him as the object of a mere passing caprice, -they seldom have the good fortune to -occupy a sufficient ascendency over the mind -or heart of the sovereign to enable them to -prolong or consolidate their influence.</p> - -<p>A seraglio inmate, who had herself enjoyed -Imperial favor of this description, told -me that it was very seldom that a slave enjoyed -more than once the passing notice of -the Sultan, a disappointment naturally very -deeply felt by those who after being suddenly -raised to the height of favor find themselves -quickly consigned again to oblivion, -in which their future is passed. There are -many among the rejected favorites who have -sensitive natures and are capable of a serious -attachment, and in consequence of the sarcasms -the more favored fail not to heap upon -them, the disappointment they have experienced, -or the devouring jealousy that unrequited -love occasions, are said to become broken-hearted -or die of consumption. “Nor,” -continued my informant, “was the condition -of those more closely connected with the -Sultan such as insured to them perfect happiness, -mental unconcern, or security.”</p> - -<p>They are obliged to have recourse to every -art to preserve their beauty, fight hard -against the attacks and intrigues of rivals, -and carefully to watch over themselves and -their offspring.</p> - -<p>Bessimé Sultana, one of the few who obtained -a right to that title by marriage, was -an emancipated slave, adopted by the lady -who had brought her up, and consequently -could not be possessed by Sultan Abdul-Medjid -unless through <i>Nekyah</i>, or legal marriage.</p> - -<p>In relating her strange and adventurous -life, as one of the Kadin Effendis, to a personal -friend of mine, she said, Nothing can -give a clear idea of the intrigues and cabals -perpetually carried on within the walls of -the seraglio. The power and happiness of -some contrast strangely with the trials and -sufferings of those who are in the power of -the influential and malicious. Every crime -that has a chance of being silently passed -over can be committed by these.</p> - -<p>The slave who, by her interesting position, -becomes entitled to the use of separate apartments, -receives a pension, has her own -slaves, her eunuchs, her doctors, banker, -carriages, and caïques, and is supplied with -apparel, jewels, and all other requisites suited -to her rank. She dines in her own rooms, -receives her friends, and goes out when allowed -to do so. On attaining this rank a -new world, dazzling with gold, luxury, and -every refinement belonging to the favored -and elevated is opened to her, raising her far -above her former companions in toil and -frolic, who in future, setting aside all familiarity, -stand before her with folded arms, -kiss the hem of her garment, and obey her -orders with profound respect.</p> - -<p>The favored beauty fulfils the duties of -her new position with the elegance, dignity, -and <i>savoir faire</i> of an enchanted being, who, -accustomed to the distant perspective of the -fairy-land which has been the one object of -her dreams, suddenly attains it, and feels at -home. Her single aim in life is now to preserve -those charms which have caused her -elevation.</p> - -<p>In Sultan Abdul-Medjid’s time, blue-eyed, -delicate beauties with golden hair were the -most admired by the Sultan; fair beauties -consequently became extremely <i>recherchées</i>, -and the grand ladies of the capital vied with -each other in their assiduity in finding out -and educating them, in order to present them -to the seraglio. By degrees the taste for -<i>Laypisca</i>, or golden locks, became so general -in Turkish society as to make the fortune of -many a Pera perruquier, who sold for a guinea -the tiny bottle of fluid that changed the dusky -hair into golden tresses, whilst the ladies paid -the penalty of its abuse in the injury done -to their eyes and the nervous maladies contracted -by its use. Besides this, all the seraglio -ladies indulged to a great extent in paint, -rouge, and <i>rastuk</i> (antimony) for the eyes -and eyebrows.</p> - -<p>A French proverb says, “La femme est -un animal qui s’habille, babille et se barbouille.” -If this can be applied to any particular -class of womankind, it is surely to the -inhabitants of the fairy-land I have attempted -to describe.</p> - -<p>The Validé Sultana, or mother of the Sultan, -ranks first in the seraglio; one of the -wings of the palace nearest to that occupied -by her son is set apart for her use. She possesses -state apartments, has an innumerable -train of slaves, and every mark of attention -is paid her not only by the Sultan, but also -by all the high functionaries of the Porte, -who at times have more to dread from her -influence and interference than from the Sultan -himself. The other members of the Imperial -family rank next by courtesy, but -these are all under the direct control of the -Hasnadar Ousta, or superintendent, who, -with her assistant, the second Hasnadar Ousta, -attends to all the wants of each department, -regulates their internal administration, -and acts as go-between of the Sultan and his -wives when they have any request to make -to him, or when he has orders to give respecting -them; she also regulates the receptions -and ceremonies as well as the expenses. -Some of her duties are of the most delicate, -difficult, and responsible nature, and require -a great amount of judgment and experience. -The person appointed to this important post -is generally the favorite slave of the Validé.</p> - -<p>Very few of the seraglio inmates, except -young princesses and other children that are -brought up from their infancy in it, possess -any knowledge of writing, or have had the -advantage of regular training. All started in -life from the same condition: chance alone -settles the difference between the wife, odalisk, -favorite, and Imperial mother, and -draws a line between them and their luckless -sisters left to the exercise of menial functions.</p> - -<p>Education, much neglected as yet among -Turkish women, has made very little progress<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -in the seraglio, where it would prove -an invaluable aid to those destined to hold -the responsible positions of wives and mothers -of Sultans. If the former, instead of being -chosen as they are from a host of human -beings chained to the service of a single individual, -with the sole object of amusing his -leisure hours, attending to his wants, and -giving him the progeny that is to succeed -him on the throne, were selected, as in other -countries, from among educated ladies, and -their number fixed (or reduced to one) by the -laws of religion and civilization, how different -would seraglio life be! Dignity and esteem -would replace humiliation; woman, elevated -to her true sphere, would exercise her -influence for high and noble objects, instead -of the unworthy purposes which she effects -through the only channel left open to her.</p> - -<p>Under such a system it will not be surprising -to hear of vice and corruption prevailing -in a centre where virtue is crushed, and the -benefits of sound education are neither acquired -nor appreciated. The correctness of -this statement, which may appear severe, can -only be understood and appreciated by those -who have come in contact with inmates of -the seraglio, and are well acquainted with -the language, manners, and customs of the -Turks. Such persons would have no hesitation -in admitting that exceptions are to be -found in the seraglio, as well as in the rest of -Turkish society. The class which is in the -minority consists of those naturally gifted -natures, to be met with in this country as elsewhere, -who possess virtues that yield not to -the influences of temptation and vice, and become -ladies in the true sense of the word. -The real Turkish Hanoum, or lady, is a dignified, -quiet person, elegant, sensible, and -often naturally eloquent, condescending and -kind to those who gain her good-will, proud -and reserved to those who do not merit her -esteem. Her conversational resources are certainly -limited, but the sweetness and poetry -of the language she uses, the pretty manner -in which her expressions are worded, and the -spirited repartee that she can command have -a charm that atones for her limited knowledge. -Her manners, principles, and choice of -language offer a pleasant contrast to those -prevalent among the generality, and render -her society extremely agreeable.</p> - -<p>There is another class of serailis who present -a not less interesting study. Sensitive -and refined, fragile and dreamy in appearance, -gifted perhaps with virtues they have no occasion -to exercise, or with strong and passionate -feelings that in a seraglio can never find -vent in a solid and healthy affection, they become -languid and spiritless, verging towards -decline, to which they fall victims, unless released -(as occasionally happens) by being set -free and married.</p> - -<p>Another class of serailis is the independent -set, who are denominated Deli Serailis, -or wild serailis, famous for their extravagant -ideas, disorderly conduct, and unruly disposition; -endowed with the bump of cunning -and mischief, joined to a fair amount of energy -and vivacity, they carry out, in spite -of high walls and the watchful surveillance -of more than a hundred eunuchs, all the -wicked plans and mad freaks their disorderly -minds and impulsive natures suggest to them; -their language, manners, and actions are -such as no pen can describe. In the reign of -Sultan Abdul-Medjid, the misconduct and -extravagance of this set had reached its climax, -and attracted the attention even of that -indulgent sovereign, who was induced to order -the expulsion of the most notorious. A -few of them were exiled, others given in -marriage, by Imperial order, to some dependants -of the palace, who received official -appointments or were sent into the interior. -These unfortunate men, burdened with their -uncongenial helpmates, were but inadequately -compensated by the rich gifts they received -at the same time. During a long residence -in the interior of Turkey, I became personally -acquainted with a number of these -ladies. One of them, a stout, coarse-looking -woman, would not even deign to show that -outward appearance of respect required from -every Turkish woman towards her husband. -She was the wife of a sub-governor, in whose -house I passed a day and night; she was -gay and of a sociable disposition, but evidently -not much attached to her husband, -whom she designated as <i>Bezim Kambour</i> (my -hen-pecked one), and to whom she addressed -invectives of a very violent nature, accompanied, -as I was subsequently informed, by -corporal chastisement.</p> - -<p>A second seraili, worthy of mention, was -a thin Circassian brunette, married to a governor-general -of high rank. She had a propensity, -rather unusual amongst Turkish -women, to an abuse of strong drinks, and she -and her boon companions indulged in this -excess to such a degree as to shock and scandalize -the Mohammedan portion of the inhabitants -wherever she went.</p> - -<p>The other serailis of this class were so -strange and extravagant in their manners, -and their actions had made them so notorious, -that details of their freaks would be as unedifying -to the public as painful to me to describe.</p> - -<p>Generally speaking, I frequented this -class of serailis as little as the <i>convenances</i> of -society permitted, but, on the other hand, -experienced great pleasure in associating with -the serailis that belonged to the respectable -class, in whose society, conversing upon seraglio -life, I have spent many a pleasant -hour.</p> - -<p>The amusements in the Imperial palace depend -very much upon the tastes and disposition -of the reigning sovereign, whose pleasure -in such matters is naturally first consulted. -In the days of Sultan Abdul-Medjid -these amusements daily received some increase -in the shape of European innovations. -A theatre of great beauty was built in one of -the palaces, by order of the Sultan, and a -European company of actors played pieces, -which the ladies were allowed to witness from -behind lattices. Ballet-dancing, for which -the Sultan evinced great partiality; conjurors -of European celebrity; the Turkish Kara -Guez, or Marionettes; <i>al fresco</i> entertainments, -etc., were among the entertainments. -Shopping in the streets of Pera was not the -least appreciated of their amusements. The -French shopkeeper himself played as prominent -a part in the matter as the perfumes -and finery he displayed and sold. There -were also delightful garden-parties, when the -seraglio grounds would be lighted up with -variegated lanterns and fireworks, and all -that the Palace contained of youth and beauty -turned out; some, dressed as young pages, -would act the part of Lovelace, and make -love to their equally fair companions, dressed -in light fancy costumes; others, grouped together, -would perform on musical instruments -or execute different dances; others, -again, seated in light caïques, with costumes -so transparent and airy as to show every -muscle of their bodies, and with flowing hair -to preserve their white necks from the evening -dew, would race on the still waters of the -lakes.</p> - -<p>The Sultanas and hanoums, seated on carpets, -beguiling the time by drinking sherbets, -eating fruits and ices, and smoking cigarettes, -would gaze on the scene, while strains -of music and the notes of the Shaiki (songs) -would be heard in all directions. All, however, -both slaves and ladies, were similarly -occupied with one sole object—that of rendering -the scene pleasant and beauteous to the -lord and master for whom it was designed. -All would redouble their life and animation -as the Sultan listlessly approached each group, -acknowledging its presence with a sweet -smile, a gentle word, or a passing caress, -which he never withheld even when all the -faculties of enjoyment were destroyed, and -his earthly paradise of houris had become an -object of indifference.</p> - -<p>During the reign of his successor the tone -of the seraglio became more serious and the -life of its inmates more constrained; there -was less European amusement and more Turkish; -such as a Turkish theatre, whose actors -and actresses, Turkish and Armenian, performed -Turkish pieces, with a certain amount -of success, such as the <i>Meydan Oyoun</i>, a -coarse kind of comedy, and other representations -of a similar character.</p> - -<p>A child born in the seraglio is allowed to -remain under the care of its mother, who, -with the assistance of a wet-nurse and several -under-nurses, has charge of its infantile -wants up to the age of seven. The wet-nurse -is generally sent for from Circassia. On entering -upon her duties as foster-mother, she -is entitled to special attention, and exercises -great influence over her charge. Her own -child is received as <i>Sut Kardash</i>, or foster-brother, -of the Imperial offspring, and enjoys -the privilege of becoming his playmate and -companion. The two children, as they grow -up together, never lose sight of one another, -the fortune of the one being assured in right -of the privilege of having drawn its nourishment -from the same source as the other.</p> - -<p>I obtained these details from a Pasha of high -rank, who had himself the honor of being -foster-brother to one of the Sultans: he said, -“Before I saw the light, my mother was -sent for from Circassia, and my birth, which -took place in the seraglio, preceded that of -his Imperial Majesty by a few weeks. As I -grew up, the prosperity of my family, due to -Imperial bounty, was not limited to my -mother and myself, but extended to my father -and the rest of my relatives, who were -brought to Constantinople, and enriched with -grants of wealth, rank, and position.” The -results, however, of these ties are not always -so favorable to the Imperial prince as to those -who owe their all to his generosity. These -persons, being of humble origin, on finding -themselves suddenly raised to a higher -sphere, do not possess the necessary qualification -for making a good and judicious use -of the influence they thus acquire. The foster-mother -of Sultan Abdul-Aziz was notorious -for her rapacity and spirit of intrigue; -she had, by degrees, acquired such ascendency -in the seraglio as to have it in her power to -appoint or dismiss, at her will, governors-general -and other important personages. -One of her special protégés, on being informed -that he was about to be transferred -from his post as Governor-General of a vilayet -of R⸺, smiled calmly, and said to me, “So -long as the Sultan’s foster-mother is there to -protect my interests, I am in no danger of -that! The attempt made to remove me will -cost a little money, that is all!”</p> - -<p>The training of the Imperial child is not -free from the many drawbacks that attend -other Turkish children. From its earliest infancy, -left in the hands of fond but weak and -uneducated women, the child becomes wayward, -capricious, and difficult to please.</p> - -<p>This lenient treatment of the infant is continued -in the more advanced stages of its life, -and seriously retards its education. At this -period Imperial princes and princesses command -absolute attention, obedience, and respect -from the legion of menials that surround -them, who, anxious to lay the foundations -of future favoritism, refuse nothing in -their power, and pamper their vanity and -precocious ideas to such an extent as to destroy -in great part the effects of the teaching -they receive, often rendering profitless the -instruction given them in morality and good -principle.</p> - -<p>The knowledge generally acquired by -Turkish princes was formerly limited to the -study of Arabic, and the Persian, Turkish, -and French languages, with other branches -of the general Turkish education, but the -harem indolence, and the maternal and paternal -indulgence, sadly interrupt the course -of their lessons, which are gone through in a -most negligent manner, and fail to have their<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -due effect upon the young mind that pursues -them with little assiduity.</p> - -<p>The education of the young princesses is -still more deficient, both in the substance of -the teaching and in the manner and time in -which it is undertaken. An elementary -knowledge of their native language, of music, -and needlework, given at leisure and received -at pleasure, is considered quite sufficient. -These girls, on attaining the age of fifteen -or sixteen, are richly portioned, receive the -gift of a splendid trousseau, jewelry, and a -palace, and are married to some court favorite. -In consequence of their high birth, and -the precedence they have over their husbands, -these princesses are very independent, and -absolute mistresses in their households.</p> - -<p>Few of the married princesses in the reigns -of the more recent Sultans enjoyed good reputations, -or acquired public esteem, or even the -affection of their husbands. Wayward and -extravagant in their habits, tyrannical, and -often cruel, their treatment of their little-to-be-envied -spouses furnished cause for endless -gossip to the society of Stamboul. The few -princesses who formed exceptions to this rule -are still remembered with affection by the -numerous dependants of their establishments.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">MUNICIPALITY, POLICE, AND BRIGANDAGE.</span></h2> - -<p><i>Municipality.</i>—Improvement at Constantinople—No -Improvement in Country Towns—Sanitary Negligence.</p> - -<p><i>Police.</i>—The Corruption of the old Police—Formation -of the new Corps—Its various Classes—Economical -Reductions—The Corruption of the new Police—Voluntary -Guards the connecting Link between -Police and Brigandage.</p> - -<p><i>Brigandage.</i>—Ancient and Modern Brigands—Great -Diminution of Numbers—Constant Outrages, however—Albanians -the born Brigands—Systematic Attacks—Uselessness -of the Police—My Brigand Guides—Usual -Manner of Attack—Danger to <i>Kheradjis</i>—Brigands -at Vodena repulsed by a Chorbadji and his Wife—Impotence -of the Authorities—Outrage at Caterina—Modern -Greek Klephts.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The sanitary and protective laws of Turkey -are in their application still very primitive, -although of late years they have been -revised and reorganized, and a municipality -and district police corps have been formed. -The carrying out of these new laws was intrusted -to a regular administration, having -its chief seat at Constantinople, with branches -in all the provincial towns, and it has done -good service in the capital itself, for many -of the improvements that have been made -there are due to the efforts of the municipality.</p> - -<p>In other towns, however, its good influence, -though well paid for by the inhabitants has -hitherto been little felt. The streets continue -to be ill-paved, and but dimly lighted with -petroleum; sanitary measures are neglected; -immense heaps of refuse are piled upon pieces -of waste ground and stray spots, and are left -to decompose by the action of the air, be devoured -by unclean animals, or float away on -some small stream of water. Enough, however, -remains in the streets and in the vicinity -of towns and villages to pollute the air -and cause intermittent fever. Fortunately -the climate is naturally salubrious, and the -public health, taken on an average, is good. -Some districts are considered very unhealthy, -but the fault lies with the municipality of the -place, who, when they become more intelligent -and active, may perhaps attend less to -their own interests and more to those of the -public. Besides the above-mentioned innovations -of the <i>Beledié</i>, or municipality, small -portions of pavement, two or three feet in -length, are now and then constructed, professing -to be the commencement of a magnificent -pavement that is to traverse the town; -but alas! after a few weeks the work is -abandoned, and these short lengths of footpath -are left isolated in the midst of pools of -mud and water, which can only be crossed by -using the boulders scattered here and there as -stepping-stones.</p> - -<p>Sometimes a number of scavengers may be -seen doing duty in the streets, or carting -away the rubbish collected in the town; but -they only convey it to the quay, where it is -left for the ragged Jews and other beggars to -explore.</p> - -<p>The defects of the police were far more -serious and more deeply felt throughout Turkey -than those of the municipality. The -police were insufficient as a protective force. -They were badly organized, and they showed -an utter want of principle, honesty, and -morality. The deplorable condition of this -corps, and the oppressive and illegal influence -it exerted over the people, gave rise to -great public indignation, and induced the -people to complain loudly against it.</p> - -<p>Ali and Fuad Pashas, well aware of the -grievance, were the first to attempt a thorough -police reform. By their united efforts a regular -corps was formed, more numerous, better -conditioned, better paid, clad in uniform, -and classified as follows:</p> - -<p>(1.) The <i>Kavasses</i>, doing duty in the capital -and attached to embassies and other -foreign offices.</p> - -<p>(2.) The <i>Seymen</i>, doing police duty at -Constantinople.</p> - -<p>(3.) The <i>Zaptiehs</i>, foot police for the service -of the district administration.</p> - -<p>(4.) The <i>Soubaris</i>, mounted police, charged -with the superintendence of public safety; -with the office of receiving the taxes from the -villages and transmitting them to the authorities; -and with the duty of accompanying -overland mails, travellers, etc.</p> - -<p>(5.) The <i>Bekchis</i>, or rural police, placed at -the Beklemés or guard-houses on all the -main roads.</p> - -<p>(6.) The <i>Teftish</i>, or detectives.</p> - -<p>The uniform worn by the Kavasses consists -of a black cloth coat and trousers, -braided with gold, a belt, and a formidable-looking -Turkish sword and pistol. That of -the detectives is similar, but they carry no -arms. The rest of the police wear a uniform -similar to that of the Zouaves, of dark blue -<i>shayak</i>, braided and turned up with red, a -black leather belt and a cutlass. The Soubaris -have long guns, and all wear the fez. -The officers’ uniform is similar to that of the -officers’ in the army. The arms are supplied -by the Government, and a new suit of clothes -allowed every year.</p> - -<p>When this body was first organized, some -attention was paid to enrolling in it men of -respectable character. The increase of pay -and the regularity of the pay-days gave it for -some time a better name than the old force; -but, unfortunately, hardly had the people begun -to feel the benefit of the changes created -during the reform fever, than these were set -aside to make room for the economical mania -that took possession of the administration -on the formation of a new ministry. This -latest epidemic, of the many that have attacked -Turkey, was fatal to the provincial -administration in general, and affected the police -in particular. Their numbers were reduced, -and pay diminished, and irregularly -distributed. The guard-houses on the highways, -which had been established at the distance -of four miles from each other, and intrusted -to <i>Bekchis</i>, who were held responsible -for the security of their districts, were abandoned -and fell into ruin, or were occupied by worthless -fellows who undertook the duty for -a small recompense, which proving difficult -to obtain, these so-called “guards” were -compelled to make up their financial deficits -as best they could.</p> - -<p>I heard of a fellow of this kind who had -taken the post of Bekchi in a mountain pass -as a chiplak, or tattered Albanian, but who -after a year had passed was the owner of 700 -goats and a fine house, and was dressed in all -the glory of his national costume.</p> - -<p>How did he obtain it? is a question not -easily answered if put to a great many of his -class. I do not, myself, find the problem -difficult of solution. These amateur guards -would seem to be the connecting link between -the police and the brigands; if, indeed, -any such link were needed.</p> - -<p>Conversing, some time ago, with some -highly educated Bulgarians, well versed in the -affairs of their country, I was told that the -chief causes of the discontent of their nation -were the increase of the taxes, the harshness -with which the payment was enforced upon -them by the district officials, the extortion of -the police, and the robberies and crimes committed -by the Circassians. The people complained -most bitterly of the insolent arrogance -of the police, which they declared -drove them to desperation, and made them -ready to listen to any one who promised release, -rather than continue to submit longer -to such evils. There are, of course, some -honest men in the police force who are ready -to do their duty, but the generality are unquestionably -immoral and unscrupulous, and, -even if they were honest, their number is too -small for the protection of the millions who -depend upon them for their safety.</p> - -<p>From time immemorial brigandage has -played so prominent a part in both the political -and social condition of Turkey that a -description of life in this country would be -incomplete without a few words about this -lucrative profession.</p> - -<p>I shall pass over the time, which may still -be remembered by some of the oldest inhabitants, -when brigands, mustering in overwhelming -forces, composed of degenerate -janissaries and malcontents from all the provinces -of European Turkey, gathered under -chieftains like Passvan Oglou and Ali Pasha -of Joannina, defied the authority of the -Porte, ravaged and devastated whole provinces, -besieged towns, spread terror and -bloodshed on every side, and left behind -them nothing but misery and tears. The -Greek Klephts were not more renowned for -their bravery and patriotism than for the -ravages and crimes they committed during -and after the war of Greek independence.</p> - -<p>Since that time great changes have taken -place in Turkey, and brigandage lost its ancient -power. The thousands that filled its -ranks have, in our day, been reduced to tens. -But the evil though deprived of its force, -and even entirely eradicated in some parts of -the country, has not been wholly suppressed.</p> - -<p>Of late years, in Turkey, brigandage has -ceased to clothe itself in the garb of politics; -it is now represented merely by bands of cut-throats -belonging to all creeds and nationalities. -The chiefs, however, and the backbone -of these bands, are Albanians. The -number is made up by Greeks, Turks, and -Bulgarians. The Mussulman Albanian takes -to brigandage because he likes it, and willingly -makes a profession of it; the others join -in order to evade justice, or to avoid want -and misery, or simply to respond to the dictates -of a vicious and criminal disposition. -It is generally in early spring, when the trees -have lost their nakedness and the hedges are -covered with green leaves and sweet-smelling -blossoms, that this element of infamy and -destruction makes its appearance, taking to -the highway or lurking for its prey among -the hills and valleys, and polluting with its -blood-stained feet the freshness and purity of -resurgent nature. Its victims may often be -found lying dead on a bed of violets or lilies, -gazed upon by the wild rose that hangs its -head and seems to blush for man’s outrage. -Such sights are of every-day occurrence.</p> - -<p>The brigands have associates living in the -towns with every appearance of respectability, -who furnish them with timely notice -when and where a good piece of business can -be done. They have spies who give them -warning when danger is at hand, and they -often find protectors in high places to help -them to escape the arm of the law. As for -food, the flocks of the terror-stricken Christian -shepherds are at their mercy, and the -peasant, trembling for the safety of his home, -dares not refuse to satisfy them with bread -and wine. He dares not give notice to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -authorities of the presence of those marauders, -as that would expose him to their vengeance, -and he would pay for his temerity with his -life. But should the authorities suspect a -countryman of having furnished provision or -other necessaries to the brigands, he is forthwith -prosecuted and cast into prison as their -associate and a participator in their spoils. -These are the causes that breed and rear brigandage -in Turkey in defiance of laws and -of the power of the authorities. The police -regulations, theoretically excellent, are practically -useless, and may be looked upon as -one of the principal reasons of the continuance -of brigandage, a scourge on the inhabitants -and a disgrace to the administration.</p> - -<p>When a band of brigands has taken up its -quarters in a district, the country round is continually -kept on the <i>qui vive</i> by its repeated -crimes and depredations. A force of <i>Soubaris</i> -(mounted police) is sent in chase, but -the laxity with which their duty is generally -discharged, the neglect of proper precautions -to insure success, and the usual futile termination -of such expeditions, are often caused -by unwillingness to risk a dangerous encounter, -or by interested motives for letting off -the brigands.</p> - -<p>The inhabitants, on the other hand, suffer -in any case by the pursuit, for, when it -proves fruitless, it does not save them from -danger, and only aggravates the enemy; and -when the chase is successful, the expenses -of having these armed men and their horses -quartered upon them, besides the suspicions -and injuries to which they are often exposed -under the pretence of having direct or indirect -communication with the brigands, are -so great as to render the remedy almost -worse than the evil, and induce them to petition -the authorities to withdraw the Soubaris -sent for their protection.</p> - -<p>If these policemen are headed by an honest -and courageous chief, as occasionally happens, -and he sets to work earnestly to do his -duty, success is almost certain, and the brigands -are either captured, destroyed, or dispersed. -Those who are caught are disarmed, -handcuffed, and, if numerous and of a desperate -character, chained in couples and -marched off to prison. Still the hardy freebooters -are not dispirited, for if they are -wealthy, or the proofs of their crime are not -transparently clear, their chances of escape, -especially in the interior, are not small, and -bribery affords them a ready means of regaining -their liberty.</p> - -<p>When brigands disperse or retire in winter -from the field of action, they find shelter -in a well-protected refuge. Such places are -easily found in the country <i>chiftliks</i> of influential -beys, who, from motives of self-preservation -or ignorance of their guests’ antecedents, -allow their Albanian guards to harbor -the malefactors who venture to seek shelter -under their roof.</p> - -<p>The severe laws formerly existing in Turkey -for the punishment of crime, whereby -mutilation was ordained in certain cases, are -no longer in use. Crime, according to its -extent and the circumstances that surround -it, is punishable by imprisonment for a certain -period, or condemnation to death; the -sentence, however, is seldom put into execution -except in very bad cases, or when the -authorities are desirous of making an example -of severity in the town. When a long -and careful procedure has taken place before -both the civil and religious courts, the Kadi -decrees the sentence, which must be presented -to the Sultan for his sanction before -it can be carried out. The culprit is strung -up to some shop-front in the most frequented -part of the bazar, or decapitated, and his -head exposed, sometimes for three days, in -the market-place.</p> - -<p>I have heard many stories of the outrages of -brigands during my long residence in remote -and semi-barbarous parts of the country. I -have even been in close contact with some, -and on a friendly footing, and once escaped -from their pursuit only thanks to the swiftness -of a powerful horse. On two other occasions, -yielding to necessity and in the interests -of self-preservation, I accepted the -services of two or three Albanians who were -suspected of being cut-throats, instead of the -Government escort.</p> - -<p>They were fine, hardy fellows, with deep -scars on their faces, that attested the lease -upon which they held their life and the manner -in which they had disputed it with -others. They were reputed to be as venturesome -in crime as they were ready to sacrifice -their lives, if need were, for the preservation -of those intrusted to their care. I penetrated -into deep gorges with these men, and stopped -in isolated and ill-reputed khans, and -throughout the night slept as securely as if -I had been in my own home. The worst of -men, like the wildest of beasts, has his good -side; the secret of finding this out lies in -striking the right chord; put the Albanian -on his honor, and he will never desert you or -betray your trust.</p> - -<p>The attacks made by brigands vary according -to the locality, the nature of the enterprise, -and the result desired. Should the attack -be upon a caravan of peasants returning -home from market or elsewhere, they are -waylaid, stripped of all they possess, cruelly -beaten, wounded, and sometimes killed. -When the assault is directed against a person -that has been singled out for them either for -his wealth or other purposes, the assault -made upon him and his escort is always of a -murderous nature, terminating in the inflictions -of cruel wounds or death.</p> - -<p>The long gun of the Albanian or the yataghans -of his equally dreaded companions are -ever suspended over the heads or the wealthy -Chorbadjis: when the slightest opportunity -is afforded they assault the villages, -rob, murder, and carry off hostages in the persons -of young men or boys—the sons of people -who are sufficiently wealthy to redeem them -by the payment of large ransoms.</p> - -<p>Such attacks are of not unfrequent occurrence, -especially in troubled times, when the -ends of justice are rarely attained in the punishment -of the criminals or the recovery of -lost property.</p> - -<p><i>Kheradjis</i>, the brave and trustworthy fellows -who undertake to convey the goods of -the merchants from town to town on the -backs of their horses and mules, and the -Tatar couriers, who are intrusted with the -transport of sums of money, are great temptations -to brigands. The last attack on a -Kheradji I heard of took place last summer -when he and his companion, an Albanian -Mohammedan, had quitted one of the smaller -towns in the Vilayet of Salonika, conveying -a considerable sum of money concealed in the -sacks of corn with which his animals were -laden. While on the road, and a short distance -from their destination, they were suddenly -attacked by two brigands, who -wounded the Christian Kheradji, and, after -a struggle, succeeded in disarming the Mohammedan. -They then searched the persons -of the two men, and not finding the -expected booty proceeded to cut open the -sacks and abstract the money, after which -they made off, leaving the unfortunate Kheradjis -to find their way back to the town they -had left, and to which both were strangers.</p> - -<p>Next morning the Albanian presented himself -before the Medjliss, or local court, to -deposit his complaint; on looking round he -started, and pointing to one of the members -of the Bench exclaimed, “By Allah and Mohammed, -I swear that here is one of the two brigands, -that attacked us yesterday! If any -one doubts my word let this man’s house be -searched, and a jacket with a torn sleeve will -be found, to attest the truth of my accusation!” -The culprit, in the midst of the general -surprise and confusion, made his escape. -Search was made in his house, and the jacket -described by the Kheradji found, but the -owner has not since been heard of.</p> - -<p>Another robbery of a far more daring and -serious nature was attempted by a gang of -Albanians in the autumn of 1876 in the town -of Vodena. The assailants, seven in number, -had been frequently noticed lurking in -the woods and gardens that lie in the beautiful -plain by which this picturesque town is -surrounded. The brigands had marked out -the house of one of the wealthy Chorbadjis -as the object of their attack. This man possessed -a certain amount of education, and -had taken the precaution of building a house -sufficiently solid to protect himself and family -and to secure his treasure. The building -was not large but well protected, and surrounded -by a large court-yard with high walls -and a strong gate. The house-door was very -solid, and furnished with triple bolts; and -the windows, opening on a veranda, were -well barred. The robbers, having planned -their attack and posted a sentinel at the only -open end of the street, proceeded to attack -the gate. Finding it impossible to break it -open, they undermined it, and entered the -yard. The first barrier thus passed, and persuaded -that an attempt on the house-door -would prove fruitless, they placed a ladder -which they found against the veranda, supposing -that where the Chorbadji and his wife -slumbered there would their treasure be. -They set to work at the window of this -chamber, attempting to demolish the iron -bars.</p> - -<p>The night was dark and stormy and the -rain fell heavily, but the unconscious slumberers -were not awakened for some time. At -length the wife of the Chorbadji, startled by -the unaccustomed noise at the window, -aroused her husband and acquainted him -with what was going on. His coolness and -courage were quite equal to the occasion, and -after a short consultation with his wife he decided -upon using the fire-arms that hung -against the wall. It was a terrible moment -for both. Standing a little on one side, and -protected by the darkness of the room, they -could see several men trying to force the -bars. To face these men openly was certain -death, and it was hard to get a good aim at -them. He decided finally to attempt a shot, -first calling out in a determined voice, “Who -goes there? Let him leave the spot, or he is -a dead man!”</p> - -<p>This appeal, however, instead of having -the desired effect, stimulated the energy of -the brigands, who, forming into two bands, -now attacked the door of the house as well, -and were making strenuous efforts to open -it. The Chorbadji, cautiously advancing towards -the side of the window, and screened -by the projecting walls, fired his pistol and -shot one of the Albanians dead who stood on -the ladder; another mounted, and a second -shot stretched him wounded on the floor of -the veranda. The rest, whose shots into the -room proved ineffective, abandoned the window -and went to the door, at which they continued -pounding with the fury of fiends, but -as yet to no effect.</p> - -<p>In the mean time the brave couple, freed -from the immediate vicinity of their enemies, -struck a light, and while the husband was -pouring his fire upon them the wife loaded -his pistols. A girl who slept in the next room -opened her window and called loudly for -help, but was nearly paying for her rashness -with her life, as one of the brigands in the -yard fired at her, and the ball struck the iron -bar against which her head was pressed, but -glanced off.</p> - -<p>The Albanians, after some further efforts, -began to fear the consequences of the alarm -the affray was beginning to excite in the -neighborhood, and bethought themselves of -making good their retreat. But previously -to doing so they cut off the head of their -dead comrade to avoid detection, and carried -it away with them, together with their -wounded. A few weeks subsequently the -assault was renewed, but the owner was well -prepared to receive and repel it, without,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -however, being able to obtain definite peace -and security for his home.</p> - -<p>The Albanians, doubly incensed against -him for the loss of their comrade and their -disappointment at not having been able to -effect their purpose, sent threatening messages -to the Chorbadji, and claimed 160<i>l.</i> for -the widow and children of the slain brigand, -or in lieu thereof himself to pay the debt -with his life. The poor man, being hard -pressed, appealed to the Kaimakam, or sub-governor -of the town, for protection; but -this dignitary, being an Albanian, old and -void of energy, and incapable of bringing -the culprits to justice, offered his services as -peacemaker between the two parties, and -proposed a compromise for half that sum. -The Chorbadji refused to pay anything, and -the Albanians renewed their threats. The -persecuted man in the mean time had to remain -in-doors on the pretext of ill-health, and -only expects to be able to regain his liberty -when affairs settle and better times come.</p> - -<p>Among the many sad cases of children and -youths being carried off from the villages, -which have become so prevalent during these -disordered times, I may relate one which happened -last year, in the district of Caterina, -at the foot of Mount Olympus. The victim -was a fine promising young Greek of two-and-twenty, -an only son, doted upon by a grief-stricken -mother, whose husband had been -killed by brigands. This youth was suddenly -attacked as he was returning home, carried -off, and never more heard of. The unfortunate -mother, distracted with grief, and -prompted by mingled hope and despair, wandered -up to the mountains, and for days was -seen by the shepherds roaming about and -calling for her son. It was thought that he -had been put to death in consequence of his -father having killed one of the brigands that -had attacked him.</p> - -<p>I have not included the Circassians as -members of this general fraternity of brigands, -because they form a distinct set, who, -ever since their arrival in this country, have -been notorious for theft and crime and outrage.</p> - -<p>Although political brigandage has ceased -to exercise its former influence in the country, -it has in a small degree again made its -appearance as an inseparable incident of war -and internal trouble. A few bands, mustering -from thirty to fifty men, have lately made -their appearance in different parts of European -Turkey. They are composed of Greek -desperadoes, supposed to be the agents of an -Ἑταιρεία, or secret society of violent Greek -patriots holding extreme views. Their object -in maintaining these <i>Klephts</i> in different -localities is that of having them in readiness -in case of an insurrection among the discontented -peasantry. One or two of these bands -have been stationed since last spring in the -district of Caterina. They have not been -known to molest any one; but their presence -somewhat kept in check the Albanian -brigands and prevented them devastating the -Greek villages. The Klephts obtained their -provisions from the peasants, for which they -regularly and scrupulously paid. The <i>Eteria</i> -that supports these individuals is disapproved -of by the Greek authorities, who consider it -an element of disorder and trouble.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CEREMONIES OF BIRTH AND INFANCY.</span></h2> - -<p>The Birth of a Turkish Child—Midwives—Mummification -of the Baby—Amulets—The State Bedstead—Naming -the Child—Invalid Diet—Reception of -Friends and Strangers—Treatment of the Baby—Evil -Eye, and Remedies thereagainst—Bathing of Mother -and Child—Daubing of the Mother and Refreshment -of the Guests—The Cradle—Opiates given to Children—Treatment -of Baby Illnesses—Food—Deaths from -Over-eating—Late weaning—Circumcision—Procession—Rejoicings—Hospitality—The -Diseases of -Childhood and their Treatment in Turkey—Fosterage—Attempted -Census—Frequent Deaths of Mothers—Births -among the Jews—Armenian Birth Ceremonies—Births -among the Greeks—Remains of Ancient -Customs—The Christening—Triple Immersion—Dedication -of Hair—Confirmation by Anointing—Conscientious -Performance of the Duties of Sponsors—Hardiness -of Bulgarian Women—Their Indifference -to Lying-in—Their Sorrows—Survival only of the -Fittest—A Bulgarian and her Cow—Doctoring Children.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The birth of a Turkish child is left very -much to nature, slightly aided by the unscientific -assistance of the <i>Ebé Kadin</i> or midwives, -who are very numerous in the country, -recruited from the lower strata of society, -and belonging to all creeds. They are -ignorant, uneducated, and possess not the -most rudimentary knowledge of medicine or -of the surgical art. Some of these women, -however, from long experience and natural -<i>savoir faire</i>, acquire a certain repute for ability, -well justified by the success they sometimes -obtain in difficult cases. All <i>Ebés</i> who -have attained this height of superiority are -much esteemed in Turkish society; they are -admitted into elevated circles, and are entitled -to special marks of honor and attention.</p> - -<p>As soon as a Turkish child is born it is enveloped -in a tiny chemise and <i>Libardé</i>, or -quilted jacket of many colors, bound with a -swathe; its limbs are pulled straight down, -and then imprisoned in a number of quilted -wrappers and tightly bandaged all over by -another swathe, giving the unfortunate -mummified being the appearance of a Bologna -sausage. A red silk cap is placed on -the head, ornamented with a pearl tassel, one -or two fine gold coins, and a number of amulets -and charms against the evil eye.</p> - -<p>These objects consist of a head of garlic, a -piece of alum, a copy of one or two verses of -the Koran plaited in little triangles and sewn -in bits of blue cloth, and a number of blue -glass ornaments in the shape of hands, horseshoes, -etc. The baby, thus decked out, is -next placed in a fine square quilted covering, -one corner of which forms a hood, the other -three being crossed over its body; a red -gauze veil, thrown over the whole, completing -its toilette. After the child’s birth a -state couch is prepared on a bedstead used -for the occasion, decorated with the richest -silks, the heaviest gold embroideries, and the -finest gauzes of the East. The bed is first -covered with a gauze sheet, worked with -gold threads; five or six long pillows of various -colored silks, covered with richly-embroidered -pillow-cases, open at the ends, occupy -the head and one side of the couch; -one or two <i>yorgans</i>, or quilted coverlets, -heavily laden with gold embroidery, occasionally -mixed with pearls and precious stones -and the under-sides lined with gauze sheets, -are thrown over it. On this bed of state the -happy mother is placed, at no small sacrifice -of ease and comfort. Her head is encircled -with a red <i>Fotoz</i>, or scarf, ornamented with a -bunch of charms similar to that placed on -the head of the child, the garlic insinuating -its head through the red veil that falls on the -temples. A stick, surmounted by an onion, -is placed in one corner of the room, against -the wall.</p> - -<p>When these preliminary arrangements have -been made, the husband is admitted, who, -after felicitating his wife on the happy event, -has his offspring put into his arms; he at -once carries it behind the door, and after -muttering a short prayer, shouts three times -into the baby’s ear the name chosen for it. -He then gives back the infant to its mother, -and quits the room.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p> - -<p>For several days (the exact time depending -upon the mother’s health) water, either for -drinking or ablutionary purposes, is not -comprised in the régime imposed upon the -invalid, whose lips may be parched with -thirst, but not a drop of water is given to -her. Sherbet, made from a kind of candied -sugar and spices, varied by a tisane extracted -from the maidenhair fern, is the only -drink administered. Turkish ladies, after -confinement, get little rest; the moment the -event is known, relations, friends, and neighbors -crowd in, and are at once permitted to -enter the chamber and partake of sherbet, -sweets, and coffee, not even abstaining from -their inveterate habit of smoking cigarettes.</p> - -<p>On the second day a great quantity of this -sherbet is prepared, and bottles of it sent to -friends and acquaintances by <i>Musdadjis</i>,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> -also an invitation to the <i>Djemiet</i>, or reception -held on the third day. The house on -this occasion is thrown open to visitors, invited -or uninvited. Dinner is served to the -former, and sherbet to the latter. Bands of -music are in attendance to receive and accompany -upstairs the most distinguished -guests, who arrive in groups, preceded by -servants bearing baskets of sweets prettily -got up with flowers and gilt paper and enveloped -in gauze tied up with ribbons.</p> - -<p>The guests are first conducted into an ante-chamber, -where they are divested of their -<i>Yashmaks</i> and <i>Feridjés</i> (veils and cloaks) previously -to being introduced to the presence -of the invalid. The latter kisses the hands -of all the elderly <i>hanoums</i>, who say to her, -“Mashallah, ermuli kadunli olsoun.”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Very -little notice is taken of the baby, and even -then only disparaging remarks are made -about it, both by relatives and guests, such -as <i>Murdar</i> (dirty), <i>Chirkin</i> (ugly), <i>Yaramaz</i> -(naughty). If looked at it is immediately -spat upon, and then left to slumber in innocent -unconsciousness of the undeserved abuse -it has received. Abusive and false epithets -are employed by Turkish women under all -circumstances worthy of inviting praise or -admiration, in order to counteract the supposition -of ill-feeling or malice underlying -the honeyed words of the speaker, which are -sure to be turned against her in case of any -accident or evil happening to the subject of -the conversation.</p> - -<p>As soon as the visitors have departed a few -cloves are thrown into the brazier, to test -whether any ill effects of the evil eye have -been left behind. Should the cloves happen -to burst in burning, the inference is drawn -that the evil eye has exerted its influence; -the consequences of which can only be averted -by some hair from the heads of the -mother and child being cut off and burnt -with the view of fumigating the unfortunate -victims with the noxious vapor. Prayers -and sundry incantations, intermingled with -blowings and spittings, are made over the -heads of the stricken creatures, and only desisted -from when a fit of yawning proclaims -that the ill effects of the <i>Nazar</i> (evil eye) have -been finally banished.</p> - -<p>The party suspected of having given the -Nazar is next surreptitiously visited by some -old woman, who manages to possess herself -of a scrap of some part of the suspected person’s -dress, with which a second fumigation -is made.</p> - -<p>Among the lower orders, coffee, sugar, and -other provisions frequently replace the baskets -of sweets; and if the father of the child -is an official, his superior and subordinates -may accompany these with gifts of value. -The poor, who cannot afford to give dinners, -content themselves with offering sherbet and -coffee to their visitors. With the poor the -third, and with the rich the eighth, day is -appointed for the bathing of the mother and -child. There is a curious but deeply-rooted -superstition, accepted by all Turkish women, -which imposes upon them the necessity of -never leaving the mother and child alone, for -fear they should become <i>Albalghan mish</i>, possessed -by the Peris. The red scarves and -veils are, I believe, also used as preservatives -against this imaginary evil. When a poor -person is unavoidably left alone, a broom is -placed by the bedside to mount guard over -her and her child.</p> - -<p>If the ceremony of the bath takes place in -the house, the <i>Ebé Kadin</i> and a number of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -friends are invited to join the bathers and -partake of luncheon or some other refreshment. -When the ceremony is carried out at -the public bath, the company march there in -procession, headed by the <i>Ebé Kadin</i> carrying -the baby. Each family sends a carpet -and the bathing linen tied up in a bundle, -covered with embroidery and pearls sometimes -amounting in value to 30<i>l.</i> or 40<i>l.</i> The -mother and child are naturally the chief objects -of attention. The former, divested of -her clothing, is wrapped in her silk scarf -offered to her by the <i>Hammamji Hanoum</i> -(mistress of the bath), puts on a pair of high -pattens worked with silver, and is led into -the inner bath, supported on one side by the -Hammamji and on the other by some friend, -the baby in the charge of the <i>Ebé Kadin</i> -bringing up the rear. Hot water is thrown -over it, and it is rubbed and scrubbed, keeping -the company alive with its screams of -distress. This concluded, the infant is carried out, -and its mother taken in hand by her -<i>Ebé Kadin</i>, who, before commencing operations, -throws a bunch of keys into the basin, -muttering some prayers, and then blows -three times into it. A few pails of water are -thrown over the bather, and after the washing -of the head and sundry manipulations -have been performed she is led to the centre -platform, where she is placed in a reclining -position, with her head resting on a silver -bowl. A mixture of honey, spices, and aromatics, -forming a brownish mess, is thickly -besmeared all over her body, and allowed to -remain about an hour. Her friends surround -her during this tedious process, and amuse -her with songs and lively conversation, every -now and then transferring some of this composition -from her body to their mouths with -their fingers. The spicy coating thus fingered -gives to the lady a singular zebra like -appearance; but, though not becoming, it is -believed to possess very strengthening and -reviving powers, and it is considered a good -augury even to get only a taste of it. What -remains of this mixture after the friends have -been sufficiently regaled is washed off.</p> - -<p>The lady, no doubt greatly benefited by -this application, is then wrapped in her bathing -dress, the borders of which are worked -with gold, and is ready to leave the bath. -Previous to doing so, she must make a round -of the baths, and kiss the hands of all the -elderly ladies, who say to her in return “<i>shifalou -olsoun</i>.”<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> Refreshments are offered in -abundance to the guests during the ceremony, -which lasts the greater part of the day. -These formalities are only <i>de rigueur</i> at the -birth of the first child; at other times they -are optional.</p> - -<p>The cradle (<i>beshik</i>) plays a great part in the -first stage of baby existence. It is a very -strange arrangement, and, like many Turkish -things and customs, not very easy to -describe. It is a long, narrow, wooden box -fixed upon two rockers, the ends of which -rise a foot and a half above the sides, and -are connected at their summits by a strong -rail, which serves as a support to the nurse -when giving nourishment to the child. The -mattress is hard and no pillow is allowed. -The baby lies on its back with its arms -straight down by its sides, its legs drawn -down, and toes turned in.</p> - -<p>It is kept in this position by a swathe, -which bandages the child all over to the cradle. -A small cushion is placed on the chest, -and another on the knees of the child, to keep -it in position and prevent the bandage from -hurting it. The infant thus secured becomes -a perfect fixture, the head being the only member -allowed the liberty of moving from side -to side. This strange contrivance (called the -<i>kundak</i>) has a very distorting effect, and is -one of the principal causes of the want of -symmetry in the lower limbs of the Turks and -of the Armenians (who are reared in the same -fashion), who are, as a rule, bow-legged and -turn their toes in. I believe the <i>kundak</i> system -is going out of fashion among the higher -classes, but it is still resorted to by the lower, -who find it extremely convenient on account -of the leisure it affords to the mother. The -child, thus disposed of, is left in the cradle -for five or six hours at a time; it is occasionally -nursed, and in the intervals sucks an -<i>emsik</i> composed of masticated bread and -sugar, or some Rahat lakoum (Turkish delight), -tied up in a piece of muslin.</p> - -<p>All Turkish mothers and many Armenians -of the lower orders administer strong sleeping -draughts, generally of opium, poppy-head, -or theriac, to their infants; some carry the -abuse of these to such an extent that the -children appear always in a drowsy state, -the countenance pale, the eyelids half closed, -the pupils of the eyes contracted, the lips -parched and dry, and a peculiar hazy expression -fixed upon the face; all the movements -are lethargic, in marked contrast to -the sprightly motion of a healthy European -child. The natural baby-cry is replaced by a -low moan, and no eagerness is shown for the -mother’s milk, only an inclination to remain -listless and inactive. I have known mothers -give as many as five opium pills to a restless -child in one night. Besides the stupefying -effect of these opiates on the brain, they are -highly injurious to the digestive organs, occasioning -constipation, which, treated under -the designation of <i>sangyu</i> (colics), is increased -by frequent employment of heating medicines, -such as spirits of mint, camomile, or -aniseed. A Turkish mother never thinks of -giving her child an aperient; almond oil is -the nearest approach to a remedy of this kind.</p> - -<p>Sleeplessness, uneasiness, or slight indisposition -in babies is generally put down to -the effects of the evil eye. Any old woman, -whose <i>nefs</i>, or breath, is considered most efficacious, -is called in. She takes hold of the -child, mutters prayers over it, exercising a -sort of mesmeric influence, and blowing it at -intervals, a remedy that results in soothing -the child to sleep for a while. Should her -breathing powers prove inefficacious, the -<i>Sheikh</i> (whose <i>nefs</i> is held in the highest esteem) -is called in. The magnetizing powers -of the latter are increased by the addition of -a <i>muska</i> (amulet) hung round the neck of the -child, for which a shilling is paid. When -all these remedies prove unavailing, the doctor -is applied to, but his advice, generally little -understood and less credited, is never -thoroughly carried out. The Turks have no -faith in medicine or doctors—“kismet” overrides -all such human efforts.</p> - -<p>No régime is followed with regard to the -food of a child. It is allowed to eat whatever -it can get hold of, and digest it as best it -can. The excesses into which children are -liable to fall by the indulgence of sweets and -other unwholesome food often lead to serious -consequences. I have seen a splendid -child two years old die, after an illness of -seven hours, from indigestion caused by eating -an undue quantity of boiled Indian corn, -a favorite dish among Turkish children. I -have also witnessed two other similarly painful -cases; one of a girl nine years of age, -who, after consuming a large quantity of -heavy pastry, was found dead, crouched up -in a corner of a room; the other of a boy -seven years old, whose partiality for pickles -brought on inflammation of the bowels, from -which, after forty days, he died.</p> - -<p>Turkish children are nursed up to the age -of eighteen months, and even to three years. -Some foolish mothers will nurse their children -as long as Nature supplies them with -the necessary nourishment. I knew a boy -of five years of age who was still being -nursed. The strangest part of this case was -that his foster-mother, a woman with whom -I was personally acquainted, had never had a -child of her own, but, determining to participate -in part in the sweets of maternity, had -adopted a baby, which she perseveringly -nursed till Nature by some strange freak -provided her with milk!</p> - -<p>Weaning is perhaps the most critical period -of babyhood. A little basket is provided -by the tender parents, into which all kinds -of fruits and sweets are heaped, and left at -the child’s disposal to eat as much as it likes. -The consequence of this injurious custom is -the complete derangement and distension of -the stomach, the effects of which are often -noticeable in after-life. Rice and starch, -boiled in water, are the ingredients Turkish -women sometimes use for baby-food, feeding -them invariably with their fingers; but -it is impossible to say what they do or do not -feed them with, for there is no notion in -Turkey of a regular system for bringing up -children.</p> - -<p>A rite of childhood which must not be -passed over, since it is accompanied by curious -ceremonies, is circumcision. The obligatory -duty of parents in this matter falls -heavily on the middle classes and entails -great expense upon the budget of the wealthy. -When a Turk of some standing is expected -to have a <i>Sunnet Duhun</i>, the coming event is -watched for by a number of persons who -cannot afford individually to undertake the -responsibility of the outlay the ceremony -would involve. All such individuals send in -the names of their children, begging that -they might be allowed to participate in the -ceremonial rite. The grandee appealed to -fixes the number of these according to his -means or his generosity. When the ceremony -takes place in the imperial palace, the -Sultans have not the liberty of limiting the -number of applicants, which sometimes -amounts to thousands, and occasions a very -heavy drain upon the treasury.</p> - -<p>The <i>Sunnet Duhun</i> begins on a Monday -and lasts a whole week. The ages of the -candidates range from four to ten years. -The boys are sent to the bath, where the uncropped -tufts of hair left on the crown of -their heads are plaited with gold threads allowed -to hang down their backs up to the -moment of initiation. The chief candidate -is provided with a suit of clothes richly -worked with gold and ornamented on the -breast with jewels in the shape of a shield; -his fez is also entirely covered with jewels. -The number of precious ornaments necessary -for the ceremony is so great that they have -in part to be borrowed from relatives and -friends, who are in duty bound to lend them. -The caps and coats of all the minor aspirants -are equally studded with gems. They are -provided with complete suits of clothes by -the family in whose house the <i>Sunnet Duhun</i> -is held, by whom also all other expenses -connected with the ceremony are defrayed.</p> - -<p>On the Monday, the youths decked out in -their parade costumes, and led by some old -ladies, make a round of calls at the harems -and invite their friends for the coming event; -Monday and Tuesday being dedicated to a -series of entertainments given in the Selamlik, -where hospitality is largely extended to the -poor as well as the rich. Wednesday and -Thursday are reserved to the Haremlik, -where great rejoicings take place, enlivened -by bands of music and dancing girls. On -the morning of the latter day the ladies busy -themselves in arranging the state bed, as -well as a number of others of more modest -appearance. The boys, in the mean time, -mounted upon richly-caparisoned steeds and -accompanied by their Hodjas, the family -barber, and some friends, and preceded by -music, pass in procession through the town. -On returning home the party is received at -the door by the parents of the boys. The -father of the principal candidate takes the -lead and stands by the side of the stepping-block, -the barber and Hodja taking their -places by his side. The horse of the young -bey is brought round, and the hand of the -father, extended to help him to dismount, is -stayed for a moment by that of the Hodja, -who solemnly asks him, “With what gift<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -hast thou endowed thy son?” The parent -then declares the present intended for his -son, which may consist of landed property -or any object of value according to his means, -and then assists him to dismount. The other -boys follow, each claiming and receiving a -gift from his father or nearest of kin. Should -any of the boys be destitute of relatives, the -owner of the house takes the father’s place -and portions him.</p> - -<p>The children are then taken to the Haremlik, -where they remain until evening, when -they return to the Selamlik and do not again -see their mothers till the morning of the completion -of the ceremony, when they are carried -to the Haremlik and placed upon the -beds prepared for them. The entertainments -this day are carried on in both departments. -The children are visited by all their friends -and relations, who offer them money and -other presents; the ladies every now and -then disappearing in order to allow the gentlemen -to enter and bring their offerings. -The money and gifts collected on these occasions -sometimes amount to considerable sums. -The Hodja and barber are equally favored. -The <i>Musdadji</i> receives a gold piece from the -mother on announcing to her the completion -of the sacred rite.</p> - -<p>Every effort is made in the harem to amuse -and please the children, and beguile the time -for them till evening, when the fatigue and -feverish excitement of the day begin to tell -upon them, and they show signs of weariness, -the signal for the break-up of the party. -On the next day the boys are taken home by -their relatives, but the entertainments are -continued in the principal house till the following -Monday.</p> - -<p>The Turks, hospitable on all occasions, are -particularly so on this, and consider it a religious -duty to show special regard and attention -to the poor and destitute.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to give a definite idea of the -expense incurred by this ceremony among -the rich. The lowest estimate among the -middle classes, who limit it to one day, -would be from 10<i>l.</i> to 12<i>l.</i>, while the poor -are enriched by it to the extent of 2<i>l.</i> or 3<i>l.</i></p> - -<p>Turkish children are subject to much the -same diseases as those of other nations. The -most terrible of these used to be small-pox, -which committed fearful ravages, carrying -off great numbers, and leaving its mark in -blindness or some other organic defect in -those who survived it. Its ravages, however, -have greatly diminished since the introduction -of vaccination, now pretty generally -adopted throughout the country. -Teething, measles, whooping-cough, scarlatina, -and low intermittent fevers are the -principal maladies prevalent among Turkish -children. A doctor is rarely called in; the -treatment of the invalid is left to the mother’s -instincts, aided by some old woman’s -doubtful pharmacopœia and the saintly influence -of <i>Hodjas</i>, whose superstitious rites are -firmly believed in by the applicants. Diphtheria, -unknown in the country until the arrival -of the Circassian immigrants, may also -be classed among the prevalent infantile maladies; -fortunately it has seldom been known -to rage as an epidemic, otherwise its ravages -would be incalculable by reason of the entire -disregard of quarantine laws.</p> - -<p>Mortality, however, among Turkish children -is considerable, and one of the causes -why large families are so rarely to be met -with. A bey of Serres, for instance, possessed -of a goodly number of wives, who -had borne him about fifty children, saw only -seven of them live to attain manhood.</p> - -<p>In wealthy families a wet-nurse is engaged, -called <i>Sut nana</i> (foster-mother), who enjoys -great privileges, both during the time she -serves and afterwards. Her own child becomes -the <i>Sut kardash</i> (foster-brother) of her -nursling, a bond of relationship recognized -through life, and allowing the foster-children, -if of different sexes, to set aside, if they -choose, the law of <i>Namekhram</i>, and see each -other freely. Besides the foster-mother, a -<i>Dadi</i>, or nursemaid, is at once appointed to attend -upon a child of rank. She has the care -of its wardrobe, and upon her devolves the -duty of sleeping near the cradle.</p> - -<p>Correct statistical information of births -cannot be obtained, as no registration exists. -Census regulations were for the first time -introduced into the country by Sultan Mahmoud, -and they have been but imperfectly -carried out by his successors. During Sultan -Abdul-Medjid’s lifetime a census of the -population (excluding women) was made, but -the Mohammedans, fearing the consequences -in the conscription laws, tried as much as -possible to avoid giving correct information; -many people were represented as dead, others -put down far above or below their actual -ages. Every seven or eight years this census is -taken and each time more strictly enforced, -but the absence of birth-registration greatly -facilitates the frustration of the Government’s -desire for exact statements. The -number of children in a Turkish family, notwithstanding -the system of polygamy, is -never great, ranging between two and eight. -If the first children happen to be females, the -mother is still ambitious of possessing a male -child, but should the latter come first she is -satisfied, and resorts to every means in her -power to prevent further additions to her -family. A Turkish mother may practically, -with impunity, destroy her offspring if she -chooses at any stage of her pregnancy; and -this cruel and immoral custom is resorted to -by all classes of society, often resulting in -dangerous accidents, occasioning injuries -felt through life, and sometimes having fatal -results. Strong opiates are also resorted to -for the same purpose, as well as a number of -extraordinary means passing description. -Many dangerous medicines used with this -object, which in Europe are disposed of with -difficulty, or of which the sale is even prohibited, -are every year shipped for Turkey, -where they find numerous purchasers. During -a short visit I made to Philippopolis I -stayed at the house of the Mudir of Haskia; -his newly-married wife was very young, extremely -pretty, and delicate. She was very -much depressed at the idea of becoming a -mother, before becoming rather plumper; -for <i>embonpoint</i> is a great object of ambition -with Turkish ladies. When, on my return -to Haskia, I stopped at the same house, the -delicate beauty was dead, and her place already -filled by a robust young rustic, who -bustled about, trying with awkward efforts -to accustom her untrained nature to the -duties of her new position. On making -inquiries about the previous wife in whom I -was interested, I was quietly told that she -had succumbed about two months previously -to some violent measures she had used in -order to procure abortion, and had been -found dead in her bath. Her untimely end -was due to the instrumentality of a Jewish -quack, who, though having evidently caused -the death of the poor woman, never lost any -social position from what was simply considered -as a misadventure.</p> - -<p>I have heard from a trustworthy Turkish -source that in Constantinople alone not less -that 4000 instances of abortion are procured -annually with the assistance of a class of women -known as Kaulii Ebé, who earn considerable -sums by their nefarious practice. This -statement has been confirmed by the “Djeridé -i Havadis” newspaper, and in an article -which appeared in the Bassuret newspaper -on the serious decrease of the population. -The writer (a Turk) says this decrease is owing, -first, to the conscription; secondly, to -polygamy; thirdly, to the prevalence of artificial -abortion; fourthly, to the absence of all -sanitary precautions in domestic economy.</p> - -<p>The births among other Eastern nations -have all their peculiar ceremonies; some -originating in national traditions, others being -copied from the customs of the dominant -nation. Jewesses pride themselves greatly -when nature has made them prolific mothers; -even the poorest rejoice over successive -births, particularly when the children are -males. On all such occasions, friends and -relatives gather round the expectant mother, -giving much of their time to her company, -and making every effort to amuse her and -make her less sensitive to the pains and anxieties -of maternity. In some towns, Adrianople -for instance, regular <i>réunions</i> take place -round the sick-couch (including visitors of -both sexes), enlivened by music and dancing. -If the child be a girl, its name is given to it; -if a boy, it is circumcised. A Rabbi is called -in, and a godfather and godmother chosen. -The latter carries the baby to the door of the -room and delivers it to the former, who holds -the infant during the initiation; it is then -returned to the mother, and a feast is given -on the occasion.</p> - -<p>The Armenians have conformed more to -the Turkish customs than any other race in -the country. An Armenian confinement is -assisted by a midwife, herself an Armenian, -and as ignorant as her Turkish colleague; -only in difficult cases is a doctor resorted to. -The ceremonies at an Armenian birth are -scarcely less superstitious than the Turkish -rites. They are of a more vague and indefinite -character. If possible, a mother and -child should not be left alone the first few -days; but the broom is replaced by the venerated -image of the Holy Virgin or some -saint, put on guard over the bed. Garlic is -not resorted to as a safeguard against the evil -eye, but holy water is nightly sprinkled over -child and mother, who are also fumigated -with the holy olive-branch. The company -received on these occasions is quiet, and only -part of the Turkish show and pageantry is -displayed in the adornment of the bed. The -child has the same Bologna sausage appearance, -modified by a European baby’s cap. -A neighbor of mine once brought her child -to me in great distress, saying it had not -ceased crying for three days and nights, -without her being able to guess the reason. -I made her at once unbandage the baby, and -soon discovered the cause. A long hair had -in some inexplicable manner wound itself -round the child’s thumb, which was swollen -to a disproportionate size through the stoppage -of the circulation, and was nearly severed -from the little hand.</p> - -<p>About the ninth day the bath ceremony -takes place; but instead of the mother’s -body providing food for her guests by the -honeyed plaster of the Turkish woman, all sit -down to a substantial luncheon in which the -<i>Yahlan dolma</i> and the <i>lakana turshou</i> (Sauerkraut) -play a prominent part, and which is -brought into the bath on this occasion.</p> - -<p>As the christening takes place within eight -days, it cannot on that account be witnessed -by the mother, who is unable to attend the -church services before the fortieth day, when -she goes to receive the benediction of purification. -Part of the water used for the christening -is presumably brought from the river -Jordan, and the child is also rubbed with holy -oil. The service concluded, the party walk -home in procession, headed by the midwife -carrying the baby. Refreshments are offered -to the company, who soon afterwards retire. -A gift of a gold cross or a fine gold coin is -made to the child by the sponsors.</p> - -<p>No system of diet is followed in the rearing -of Armenian children, nor are their bodies -refreshed by a daily bath. Few people in -the East bathe their children, like Europeans, -for a general idea prevails that it is an injurious -custom and a fertile cause of sickness. -Kept neither clean nor neat, they are allowed -to struggle through infancy in a very irregular -manner. Yet in spite of this they are -strong and healthy.</p> - -<p>The customs among the higher classes of -Greeks and Bulgarians are very much alike. -The latter, though now more backward, were -till lately pretty faithful copies of the former. -Their usages differ according to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> -district, and depend upon the degree of progress -civilization has made among the people. -At Constantinople, for instance, everything -takes place just as in Europe; but in -district towns, such as Adrianople, Salonika, -Vodena, Serres, many of the superstitions of -the ancient Greeks may still be found in connection -with the birth of a child. At Serres, -for example, the event is awaited in silence -by the midwife and a few elderly relatives; -when the little stranger arrives, the good -news is taken to the anxious father, and then -circulated through the family, who soon collect -round the maternal couch and offer their -hearty felicitations, saying, “Νἀ πολυχρονήση.” -The infant in its turn receives the same -good wishes, and after being bathed in salt -and water is wrapped up (but not mummified) -and laid by the side of the mother, who can -press its little hand and watch its tiny feet -moving about under their coverings. The -couch is kept for three days, when the accouchée -is made to rise from it, walking in a -stream of water poured by the <i>mammê</i> (accoucheuse) -from a bottle along her path. -This custom must be connected with the -conception of water as the emblem of purity, -and must be intended to remind the mother -that her strength must ever rest upon her -chastity. On this night a woof and some -gold and silver coins are placed under the -pillow, as a hint to the Moeræ, or fates, who -are supposed to visit the slumbering infant, -that they may include riches and industry in -the benefits they bestow upon it.</p> - -<p>The christening, as a rule, takes place -within eight days after the birth. The -<i>Koumbáros</i> and the <i>Koumbára</i> (also called -<i>Nono</i> and <i>Nona</i>) stand as godfather and godmother -to the child, who is carried to the -church by the <i>mammê</i> followed by the sponsors, -the relatives, and friends invited to the -ceremony. The cost of the baptismal robe, -the bonbons, liqueurs, and all other expenses -connected with the rite are defrayed by the -Nono. The lowest estimate of the cost is 2<i>l.</i> -10<i>s.</i>, and, though a great outlay for a poor -family, they are never known to be omitted.</p> - -<p>The child, held by the godfather, is met -at the church door by the officiating priests, -who read over it part of the service, the -Nono responding to the questions.</p> - -<p>The priest then holds the child in an erect -attitude, and standing on the steps of the -church makes the sign of the cross with it. -It is then taken by the godfather and placed -for a moment before the shrine of Christ or -the Virgin, according to its sex, while the -priests, proceeding to the font, pour in the -hot water and some of the oil brought by the -sponsor and consecrated in the church. The -infant is taken from his hands, and in its original -nakedness plunged three times into the -font. Three pieces of hair are cut from its -head in the form of crosses and thrown into -the water, which is poured into a consecrated -well in the church. The cutting off of these -locks of hair probably had its origin in a -custom observed by the ancient Greeks, who -dedicated their hair to the water deities; now -it signifies the dedication of the infants to -Christ at their baptism.</p> - -<p>The sign of the cross is made on the head -and parts of the body with holy oil, signifying -confirmation. The child is then delivered -into the hands of the godmother, who carries -it three times round the font while prayers -are being read; it is then taken to the -holy gates, where the communion is administered -in both hands with a spoon, so that the -three sacraments, baptism, confirmation, and -the Eucharist, are all given to the child while -an unconscious infant.</p> - -<p>The service concluded, the party return to -the house to partake of bonbons, liqueurs, -etc., and to be decorated with small crosses -attached to favors given as mementoes of the -event.</p> - -<p>The members of the orthodox church are -perhaps the only people who do not content -themselves with making solemn promises for -the child, but conscientiously fulfil them to -the best of their ability. The Nono and -Nona, in consequence of the responsibilities -they assume, become so closely connected -with their godchildren that marriage between -these and their own children is not -permitted.</p> - -<p>While the Bulgarian lady in town is setting -aside many of the usages and superstitions -attached to the rearing of children, a -word or two about her hardy sister in the rural -districts may not be out of place here. -While staying at Bulgarian villages it was -very pleasant to me to watch the simplicity, -activity, and wonderful physical strength of -the peasantry.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian women are rather small but -thickly set, their chests well developed, their -limbs powerful through constant exercise, -and their whole frames admirably adapted -for bearing children. They do not, as a -rule, bear many, as they seldom marry young, -and their life of constant toil and hardship -makes them sterile before the natural time.</p> - -<p>The delicate touch of refinement has not -yet reached these strong natures, whose systems, -kept free from special care and anxiety, -remain proof against shocks that would kill -many an apparently strong woman whose -physical training had not been the same. -Providence is the sole guardian that watches -over these peasants, and nature the only -fountain from which they derive their support. -I remember the ease of a Bulgarian -<i>bulka</i>, the wife of a tenant attached to the -farm at which I was staying. She was a fine -young woman, bright-looking, clean, and -well dressed; her bare feet were small and -well shaped, her mien erect and free, although -she appeared far advanced in pregnancy. -Daily I used to watch her walk out -of the yard, with her two large copper pails -slung on a rod gracefully poised on her -shoulder, and go to the fountain to fetch -water. One evening I saw her return later -than usual; her step seemed lighter although -her pails were full, and her pretty apron, the -ends of which were tucked into her sash, -contained something I could not well discern -at a distance, but which, as she approached, -I was surprised to see was a new-born baby, -with its tiny feet peeping out on one side. -Passing the door of a neighbor, she smilingly -beckoned to her, pointing to the infant in -her apron, and asked for her assistance. I -followed shortly after, curious to see how -fared this prodigy of nature. I found her -quietly reposing on the bed that had been -hastily prepared for her on the floor, while -her companion was washing the infant. The -latter, after its bath, was thoroughly salted, -wrapped in its clothes, and laid by the side -of the mother; but the miseries of the little -being did not end there; a pan was produced, -some oil poured into it and set to -boil; in this three eggs were broken and -cooked into an omelette. This was placed on -a cloth with a quantity of black pepper sifted -over it, and applied to the head of the unfortunate -infant, who began at once to -scream in great distress. I naturally inquired -the benefit to be derived in salting and -poulticing the new-born child, and was told -that if not salted, its feet or some other part -of its body would exhale offensive odors, and -that the application of the poultice was to -solidify the skull and render it proof against -sunstroke. The next morning the mother -was up going through the usual routine of -her household work. She assured me that -in a few days she would resume her field labor, -carrying her suckling with her, which, -she added, “now fanned by the evening -breeze, now scorched by the burning rays of -the sun, would all the same brave the adverse -elements: <i>Ako ema strabi jive</i> (if it has life -to live).”</p> - -<p>Struck by the fatalistic meaning of her -words, I asked how could a weak or delicate -child stand such a trial. “Stand it!” she -repeated, “who said it did? With us a delicate -child does not outlive the year.” The -Archangel would silently come upon it one -day as it slumbered under the shade of some -spreading tree and snatch away its innocent -soul while the mother was toiling in the field -to gain her daily bread and put by something -for those left behind. “Happy they!” -she went on, while hot tears ran down her -cheeks. “Let the little souls depart in -peace, and await in heaven the souls of their -unfortunate mothers whom God and man -seem to have abandoned to cruel adversity, -heart-rending sorrows, distress, and despair.” -I was deeply affected by this genuine outburst -of grief, and did all in my power to -console her.</p> - -<p><i>Du sublime au ridicule il n’y a qu’un pas!</i> -Next morning, on a tour I made round the -village, I stepped into a cottage that teemed -with little children, and here I unexpectedly -met with my second heroine, who, although -a Spartan in body, was not specially vigorous -as to mind. My other Bulgarian <i>bulka</i> was -a fat, jolly little woman verging towards -middle age, the mother of ten children, most -of whom had come by twins in rapid succession. -The two youngest, born the day before, -were just now reposing in kneading-troughs, -violently rocked by their elder sisters, -while the mother, surrounded by this -happy family, was occupied in kneading -bread.</p> - -<p>As she saw me come in she advanced and -welcomed me with the usual salutation. I -questioned her about her children, and how -she managed to bring up and feed such a -number, often having the care of two infants -at a time. “Oh,” said she, “it is no trouble. -I and my cow, being two, manage between -us to set the little mites on their legs. -Yesterday, two hours after the arrival of my -two children,” pointing to the troughs, “my -cow poked her head in at the door lowing -for me and for her calf. What could I do? -I got up and milked her as usual, and sent -her to her young one, while I fed my numerous -family with her milk. We peasants who -till the ground have not much time to think -about ourselves or to give to our children, -who cannot begin too early to accustom -themselves to the hardships that await them -through life. When the troubles of maternity -are greater than usual, the oldest shepherd -of the village is called in and performs -for us the services of a doctor, and when any -one among us is ailing, frictions and aromatic -potions will cure him.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">FOOD.</span></h2> - -<p>A Turkish Kitchen—Turkish Meals—Dinner—Coffee—European -Innovations—Turkish Cookery—The -Sultan’s Kitchen—Turkish Gourmets—Economy of -Food—Hospitality—Greek and Bulgarian Food—Lent -Dishes—European Manners among the Greeks—Armenian -Gluttony—Marriages with Cooks—Jewish -Food—A Bulgarian Ménage—Experiences of a Dinner -in the Opium Country—Refreshment to Visitors—Tatlou—Sherbet—Coffee—Wine -and Spirits—Recipe -for Making Coffee <i>à la Turca</i>—Milk—Cheese—Sour -Cream—A Diplomatic Coup—Cook-shops.</p> - -</div> - -<p>A Turkish kitchen is a spacious building, -roughly constructed, and, in the dwellings of -the rich, generally detached from the rest of -the house. A deep arched opening made in -the wall facing the door forms the foundation -of the cooking-range, which is raised about -three feet from the ground and consists of a -row of <i>Ogaks</i>—holes with grates in them -over a sort of ash-bed, where the <i>Kebab</i>, or -roast, is cooked and the smaller dishes kept -warm. A sink of a primitive description occupies -one side of the kitchen, and a plate-rack, -containing the cooking utensils, another. -The side facing the house is of open -lattice-work; the floor is invariably of stone. -Great attention is paid to keeping the culinary -utensils, which are all of copper, clean -and bright; but order and neatness in other -respects are entirely disregarded, and there -are few of those arrangements that render -an English kitchen such a pleasant and interesting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -apartment. A tin lamp, such as -has been used from time immemorial, is -hung at one side of the chimney, and gives -but a very dim light.</p> - -<p>The kitchen is generally included in the -department of the Haremlik, and is presided -over by one or two negresses, who make very -good cooks. The fresh provisions are purchased -daily by the <i>Ayvas</i>, or purveyor, generally -an Armenian, and passed in through -the <i>Dulap</i>, a revolving cupboard in the wall -between the Haremlik and Selamlik, used -for most communications between the two -departments; a loud knock on either side -being answered by a servant who comes to -hear what is wanted.</p> - -<p>The Turks have two meals a day; one, -<i>kahvalto</i>, between ten and eleven, and the -other, <i>yemek</i>, at sunset. One or two cups of -black coffee is all they lake in the early -morning. The dinner is brought into the -dining-room of the Haremlik on a large circular -copper tray, and deposited on the floor; -a similar tray is placed on a stool and covered -with a common calico cloth. On this are -placed a number of saucers containing <i>hors -d’œuvres</i>, a salt-cellar, a pepper-box, and a -portion of bread for each person. A leather -pad occupies the centre, on which the dishes -are placed in succession, and the company sit -cross-legged round the tray. Dinner is announced -by a slave—the hostess leads the -way into the <i>Yemek oda</i>, or dining-room. -Servants approach and pour water over the -hands from <i>Ibriks</i>, or curious ewers, holding -<i>Leyens</i>, or basins, to catch it as it falls; -others offer towels as napkins to use during -the meal. As many as eight or ten persons -can sit round these trays. The hostess, if -she be of higher rank than her guests, is the -first to dip her spoon into the soup-tureen, -politely inviting them to do the same; if -her rank be inferior to that of any one of her -guests, they are invited to take precedence.</p> - -<p>Turkish soups resemble very thick broth, -and are altogether unlike those found on European -tables. After the soup has been sparingly -partaken of, it is removed on a sign -from the hostess and replaced by the other -dishes in succession. The sweets are eaten -between the courses. The left hand is used -to convey the food to the mouth, the thumb -and two first fingers doing the duty of forks.</p> - -<p>It is considered a mark of great attention -on the part of the hostess to pick up the -daintiest bit of food, and place it in the -mouth of any of her guests. <i>Pilaf</i>, the national -dish, composed principally of rice, and -<i>Hochaf</i> (stewed fruits, iced), are the last -dishes placed on the table. Pure water is -the only drink allowed in the <i>Haremlik</i>, and -is handed, when required, in tumblers held -by slaves standing behind the company. -Before leaving the <i>Yemek oda</i>, the <i>Ibriks</i> and -<i>Leyens</i> are again resorted to. On re-entering -the drawing-room, coffee and cigarettes are -immediately handed round. The way in -which coffee is served is one of the prettiest -of the old Turkish customs. All the slaves -and attendants enter the rooms and stand at -the lower end with folded arms. The coffee-pot -and cup-stands of gold or silver are placed -on a tray held by the <i>Kalfa</i>, or head-servant; -attached to the tray is an oval crimson -cloth, richly worked with gold. The -coffee is poured out, and the cups offered -separately by the other servants, who again -retire to the lower end of the room till they -are required to take the empty cups.</p> - -<p>On my last visit to the capital I found -many changes, and noticed that many European -customs had been adopted in some of -the principal houses, tables and chairs having -replaced the dinner-trays in most of -them, and even a complete European dinner-service -might in some houses be found in -use. I happened to visit a Pasha’s harem, -and was invited to stay to luncheon; on being -ushered into the dining room, I was -agreeably surprised to find myself in a spacious -apartment, furnished in the European -style, and surrounded on three sides by a -lovely garden where the rose, the jasmine, -and the orange blossomed in profusion, -breathing their delicious perfume into the -room through the open windows. Three tables, -richly laid, stood in the room; a large -one, occupying the centre, and two smaller -ones in corners. The centre one was reserved -for the <i>Hanoum</i> and such of her guests as -were entitled by their rank to be admitted to -her table, the second for her daughter and -her young companions, and the third for -guests of an inferior degree. The luncheon -went off very well, although one or two of -the company appeared little accustomed to -the use of knives and forks, which they held, -indeed, in their hands, but, forgetful of the -fact, conveyed the food to their mouths with -their fingers, and consequently made a few -scratches on their noses. This <i>maladresse</i> -occasioning some merriment to the others, -these offenders against European customs -laid down the dangerous implements and -took to their own method of eating, a very -good one of its kind and demanding much -more skill than the European manner. There -is a neatness in the Turkish way of manipulating -the food that can only be acquired by -care and long practice; the thumb and two -fingers alone must touch the meat, the rest -of the hand remaining perfectly clean and -free from contact with it.</p> - -<p>Another incident of an amusing nature -would have tended to increase our merriment -had not Turkish equanimity imposed upon -us the necessity of ignoring it. Mustard, an -unusual condiment on a Turkish table, was -handed round, perhaps in honor of my presence. -An old lady, not knowing what it -was, took a spoonful, and before any one had -time to interfere, had swallowed it. Her -face became crimson, tears ran down her -cheeks, she sneezed and appeared choking; -but at last, with a supreme effort, she regained -her composure, and looked as pleasant -as circumstances would allow.</p> - -<p>The use of knives and forks, though fast -becoming general among the higher classes at -Stamboul, is not yet much introduced into -the interior. During my residence in one of -the provincial towns of European Turkey, -these articles were occasionally borrowed -from me by a rich bey for his grand entertainments. -The forks I lent were electro-plate; -but when they were returned I found -silver ones among them, and discovered that, -some of mine having been stolen or lost, the -bey had them copied by native workmen.</p> - -<p>The most refined Turkish cookery is not -costly; the materials consist of mutton, fowl, -fish, flour, rice, milk, honey, sugar, vegetables, -and fruit. All the dishes are cooked in -clarified butter in a simple manner, and fat -or oil is seldom used. The average number -of dishes sent to table in a wealthy house is -nine at each meal. The meat is always over-cooked -and badly served, except the lamb -roasted whole, stuffed with rice and pistachios, -and the <i>Kebab</i>. The latter consists of -small pieces of meat cooked on skewers, and -served on a <i>Peta</i>, a species of batter pudding. -Another favorite dish is the <i>Imam Baildi</i>, or -“The Imam fainted;” it is composed of aubergines -and onions cooked in oil, and has -the following rather vapid little history attached -to it. An Imam stole some oil from -the mosque in his care, the whole of which -his ingenious wife used in cooking a dish she -had just invented. This was being partaken of -with much relish by the Imam till he was -informed that all the oil had been consumed -in its preparation, when he immediately -fainted. Some of these dishes are excellent, -and are relished even by Europeans.</p> - -<p>Two <i>Sofras</i>, or tables, are furnished by the -cook at each meal; one for the <i>Haremlik</i> and -the other for the <i>Selamlik</i>. After the master -and mistress have left the tables the servants -take the vacant seats. The supply is unlimited, -and much waste and extravagance ensue, -owing to the number of guests of high -and low degree that are always expected to -drop in to dinner.</p> - -<p>During Abdul-Medjid’s reign I visited the -imperial kitchen, an immense establishment, -giving employment to 500 cooks and scullions. -Among some curious details I learnt -respecting this department, one referring to -the functions of the head-cook may not be -uninteresting. This unfortunate individual -was chained to the stove by being obliged to -provide an hourly meal for the Sultan, whose -repasts depended upon his caprice, and who -required that food should be ready for him -at any moment.</p> - -<p>Abdul-Aziz was an enormous eater, and a -great gourmet; he was often known to empty -a dish of six eggs cooked in butter, with -<i>Pastourmah</i>, a kind of dried meat, in a few -minutes.</p> - -<p>It was one of his peculiarities to throw his -food at the heads of his ministers when displeased -with them, and this favorite dish -often experienced that fate. During the latter -part of his reign his meals were prepared -in the harem, under the superintendence of -the Validé Sultana, who enveloped every -dish in crape, and tied and sealed it with her -own seal before sending it into the Selamlik.</p> - -<p>Another illustrious man, A⸺ K⸺ -Pasha, surpassed his august sovereign in -gluttony; while in Albania, I was assured -by more than one eye-witness that he frequently -consumed the whole of a stuffed -lamb at a meal.</p> - -<p>Bread forms the fundamental part of a -poor man’s food; with it he eats <i>kattuk</i>, -which comprises cheese, treacle, halva, fruit, -onions, garlic, etc., etc. Fruit is extremely -cheap and good, and is largely consumed by -all classes. Poor families can subsist upon -from a shilling to one and sixpence a day.</p> - -<p>In the Turkish quarter, where the rich live -side by side with the poor, the latter have -often the opportunity of eating a good dinner; -they have only to drop in at the rich -man’s door, and hospitality is at once extended -to them. This kind of charity, however, -is greatly on the decrease, owing, no -doubt, to the financial embarrassment generally -felt throughout the country.</p> - -<p>The kitchen department, both in Greek -and Bulgarian families, is superintended by -the mistress of the house, who orders dinner, -and daily or weekly regulates the expenses.</p> - -<p>The food of the middle classes of the Christians -differs only from that of the Turks in -the addition of the Lent dishes. During this -period the poorer orders consume more garlic, -onions, olives, and dried fish.</p> - -<p>The Greeks appear to have been the first -of the natives of this country to adopt the -custom of eating with knives and forks and -making their meals at a table. Except in -wealthy houses in the capital, their table arrangements -are very deficient and inelegant; -till very recently the napkins and table-cloths -were either home-woven or made of unbleached -calico. The knives and forks were -of steel and iron, clumsy productions from -Austria and Bohemia, and the glass and -crockery from the same countries were of -uncouth forms, sold at high prices. The -competition in the sale of these articles that -France and England have of late years established -in the country has not only created a -marked improvement in the quality of these -necessaries, but has also reduced their prices -and brought them within the reach of all. -Most families are possessed of a certain -amount of table silver, in the shape of forks, -spoons, etc.; these are, however, being replaced -by electro-plate, now abundantly introduced.</p> - -<p>The Jews and Armenians have many -strange and interesting customs in the matter -of eating. The Armenians are renowned for -their gluttony and extreme fondness for good -things. Until lately they took their meals in -a manner very similar to the Turks. They -would use their knives and forks to a certain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> -extent, but their fingers much more. The -lower orders still sit on the floor round a table -about eight inches high. Their dishes, -with the addition of a few national ones, resemble -those of the Turks, and they are famous -for the manufacture of very rich sweets -of various kinds. The kitchen, being the -most important department in an Armenian -house, demands the daily supervision of -both master and mistress; the former has the -supreme voice in selecting the dishes, and the -latter often takes an active part in their preparation. -I knew a wealthy Armenian who -married the daughter of his cook in order to -secure the permanent services of the mother. -He assured me of the perfect bliss the alliance -had brought him in the possession of a -pretty wife and the daily enjoyment of the -<i>dolmas</i> made by his mother-in-law. Some -time ago a well-known and wealthy Englishman -fell in love with and married a worthless -Armenian girl, having seen her, from a -neighboring house, preparing the same dish. -He had, however, reason to repent thus making -his appetite his only consideration; life -became no longer endurable with such an unsympathetic -helpmate, and he absconded and -returned to his native land, it is to be hoped -a wiser man.</p> - -<p>The Jews in the East observe, with the -greatest strictness, all the outward forms of -their religion, and particularly those relating -to food, whose preparation is regulated by a -great many strange and complicated laws.</p> - -<p>All flesh is <i>Tourfa</i>, or unclean, unless the -animal has been killed in the presence of a -Rabbi, who hands to the butcher a special -knife (after having examined the animal in -order to ascertain if it be clean or unclean) -with which he must sever the windpipe at a -single stroke; should he fail to do so the animal -is considered unclean and cannot be -eaten. Even in case of success, parts of the -flesh only are acceptable to them, and all the -fat adhering to the muscles must be removed -before it is cooked. Cheese, wine, and sundry -other provisions are not considered -clean unless made by Israelites; butter is seldom -bought, and only when sold in skins -with the hairy side turned inwards. Six -hours must elapse before a Hebrew can touch -cheese, milk, or butter after having partaken -of meat, though he is at liberty to eat meat -directly after these. The dishes are cooked -in sesame oil, an ingredient that renders -them quite distasteful to any but Jewish palates; -this oil is also used for making pastry, -which is very heavy and indigestible. In -fact, their cookery is so peculiar and unpalatable -that when a Jew entertains Gentiles he -generally resorts to foreign dishes. When -a Turk or Christian wishes to extend his -hospitality to an Israelite, he is obliged to -have most of the food prepared by a cook of -the Hebrew faith.</p> - -<p>A duty on all that is <i>Tourfa</i> is imposed by -the Rabbi of each community; this tax, -amounting to a considerable sum, is set apart -for charitable purposes, and for the support -of schools for the poor. It is, on the whole, -a strange kind of charity, for after all it is -only taking the money out of the pockets of -the poor in one form to give it back to them -in another, and the tax falls heavily on the -Jewish communities, since they are principally -composed of poor people. Several attempts -have been made by them, especially -in Salonika, to have it removed, but hitherto -their efforts have been fruitless.</p> - -<p>The hospitality of the Jews is, with a few -exceptions, limited to members of their own -race, and even then not very largely practised. -The customs of the Israelites who -have received a European education differ -very little from those of the Franks.</p> - -<p>During the numerous journeys I have had -occasion to make in Turkey I have always -found genuine and hearty hospitality offered -to me both by Turks and Christians. I -generally accepted that of the latter, as it -is more in unison with our own customs -and habits. Every effort was made on the -part of my entertainers to please me and anticipate -my wants, and I have often been -both delighted and surprised to find in the -heart of barbarous little towns such comforts -as a bedstead, basin, and table service, besides -other articles, the use of which did not -always appear quite clear to their possessors. -In one Bulgarian house, for instance, I was -offered wine in a feeding-bottle, which was -handed in turn to the rest of the company. -This ludicrous utensil would probably have -been refused if fate had not ordained me to -be the first baby to drink from it.</p> - -<p>As a contrast to this incident I must not -forget to mention one of a far superior order. -Passing through Sofia, I put up at the house -of a wealthy Bulgarian Chorbadji; it was a -large building, pretty comfortably furnished, -and very neat and clean in appearance. -Scarcely had I rested the needful time after -my journey and partaken of <i>Slatko</i>, or preserved -fruit, and coffee, when my hostess -came to ask if I were not desirous of taking -a bath of milk and rose-water. This proposal, -denoting such a high standard of luxury, -took me by surprise, and my desire to know -its origin exceeded the wish of taking immediate -advantage of it. The question had to -be solved, and I thought the best way of explaining -it would be to ask my hostess if this -was an indispensable part of the toilet of the -<i>élite</i>. It was now her turn to look surprised. -“Oh, dear no, <i>Gospoyer</i>,” she exclaimed, “I -made the offer believing it to be one of your -own customs, as two English maidens who -lodged in my house some time ago daily -made use of what they called ‘a most refreshing -and indispensable luxury.’ Oh, dear no, -Gospoyer,” she repeated, “we are too thrifty -a people to think of wasting a quantity of -good milk that could be converted into so -much cheese and butter; but you Franks are -an extravagant race.” There was a good -deal of truth in what she said, so, making a -compromise in these good things, I willingly -accepted the offer of the rose-water, which is -plentiful in the town, as Sofia is not far from -the principal rose-growing districts.</p> - -<p><i>Autre pays, autres mœurs.</i> During a flying -visit I paid to Kara Hissar, in Asia Minor, I -took up my quarters at the house of an -opium-growing grandee. The dinner offered -to me was good, and even refined, but for a -slight but peculiar flavor to which I was unaccustomed; -I partook of it heartily, and -afterwards, in order to please my hostess, -accepted a cigarette. Presently I felt a -strange languor creeping over me, my head -whirled, my ears began to tingle, my eyesight -dimmed, and, my eyelids heavily closing, -I soon found myself in the fool’s paradise of -opium-eaters. All sorts of sweet -dreams took possession of my imagination, -crossed by the most ludicrous thoughts and -desires. I imagined that trains were running -down my arms; next my travelling-boots, -which I had exchanged for slippers, attracted -my attention, and although not very large, -they took to my deluded vision the proportions -of a grotto, towards which I made a -desperate rush, and soon felt exhausted with -the efforts I made to enter it. My hostess -took the form of a rat, from whose presence -I vainly tried to escape; I went towards the -open window, where the pure night-air -somewhat refreshed me, and the twinkle of -the myriad bright stars raised my mind to -higher thoughts, and sensations of an indescribably -delicious character took possession -of me. I became poetical, and surprised my -entertainers by my declamations which, needless -to say, were quite unintelligible to them. -I finally retired to rest, and sleep overtaking -me consigned all to oblivion. On awaking -next morning, I felt very uncomfortable; in -fact, I was ill. The meal of which I had -partaken had been cooked in poppy-oil, -always used for the purpose in that part of -the country, and said not to have any effect -on the inhabitants, who are accustomed to it -from childhood. The cigarette, it appeared, -was also strongly impregnated with the same -narcotic. Let my experience be a warning -to travellers in the opium-growing country.</p> - -<p>It is the custom throughout Turkey to -offer as refreshment the <i>Tatlou</i>, a rich kind -of preserve made from fruits, or flowers such -as roses, lilies, violets, and orange-blossoms. -It is brought in soon after the entrance of a -visitor. The service used for the purpose -may be of the most costly or of the simplest -description; that used in Turkish harems is -always of some precious metal, and comprises -a salver, two preserve basins, a double spoon-basket, -and a number of goblets and spoons. -The edge of the salver, like that used for the -coffee, is surrounded by a gold-embroidered -cloth; the slave who offers it does so on -bended knee.</p> - -<p>In addition to the <i>Tatlou</i>, in Turkish -Konaks, sherbet, immediately followed by -coffee, is offered to visitors when about to -leave or when the hostess is desirous of being -relieved of their company. This beverage is -made from the juices of fruits, cooled with -ice; it is brought in on a tray in goblets. A -number of slaves holding richly embroidered -napkins (on one end of which the goblet is -placed, resting on the palm of the hand), offer -the cup to the guests, who wipe their lips on -the other end. A fermented drink, called -<i>Boza</i>, made from millet seed, is very largely -consumed by the lower orders; it is of two -kinds, <i>tatlou</i> and <i>ekshi</i>, sweet and sour. The -latter, possessing intoxicating properties, is -thick and muddy, and has a peculiar earthy -taste.</p> - -<p>Wine, both good and abundant, is consumed -in moderation by Jews, Christians, -and Europeans, and of late years “La Jeune -Turquie” has manifested a decided partiality -for it. Turks generally dine in the Selamlik, -where those who are addicted to drink (a custom -prevalent among the higher orders) begin -some hours before the evening meal to partake -freely of <i>mezzeliks</i>, which they wash -down with copious draughts of <i>raki</i>. It is -not rare to find Turks who have never tasted -wine or spirits in their lives; but one seldom -hears of a Turk once addicted to their -use who does not nightly make a gross abuse -of them, a habit which tends greatly to increase -the vices of Turkish society. It is repugnant -to point out the many evils that result -from such orgies, and would be still -more so to illustrate them with the many incidents -that have come under my notice.</p> - -<p>A true follower of the Prophet will refrain -from wine, as prohibited by the Koran. The -popular belief about the cause of the prohibition -is that Mohammed when on his way -to the mosque one day saw a band of his followers, -whose happy looks and gay laughter -made a pleasant impression upon him. He -inquired the cause, and was told that they -were lively through having partaken of wine; -he approvingly smiled and passed on. On -his return the scene of merriment was -changed to one of strife and bloodshed, and -he was informed that it was the result of -drunkenness. He then laid a curse upon the -liquor that had occasioned the disaster, and -upon all who should thenceforth indulge in -it.</p> - -<p>Coffee in Turkey is prepared in a manner -far superior to that of any other country. I -will give the recipe for its preparation for -the benefit of any who may like to try it. -Water is placed in a peculiarly-shaped coffee-pot -with a long handle and a beak-shaped -spout. This is pushed sideways against a -charcoal fire, and when the water has arrived -at the boiling point it is withdrawn, a small -quantity of its contents poured into a cup and -a few spoonfuls of finely-pulverized coffee -(according to the number of cups required) is -mixed in the coffee-pot, which is again placed -against the fire and the contents gently shaken -up once or twice while a thick scum rises on -the surface. Before it has time to boil up -again it is again withdrawn and the water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -that had been poured out is put back. It is -then replaced on the fire, and when finally -withdrawn is gently knocked once or twice, -and after standing a few moments is poured -out and served.</p> - -<p>Sugar, not taken by the Turks, may be -added before or after boiling. There is some -little art required in the making, but the -quality of the coffee and the manner in which -it is roasted are the most important points. -The roasting must be done to a turn, leaving -the coffee, when ground, a rich golden -brown.</p> - -<p>Milk, very plentiful in the country, is made -into very indifferent cheese, excellent clotted -cream, called <i>Kaymak</i>, and sour cream, -called <i>Yaourt</i>. The latter, being very cheap -and good, forms a great part of the nourishment -of the people; it is prepared and sold -in large dairy-pans, which the vendors carry -on their heads. One of these pans served -some years ago in a practical joke that the -gay <i>jeunesse</i> of our Embassy played in the -Prince’s Islands on an Armenian tutor, who -mentor-like followed three young ladies in -their walks, evidently to the dislike of the -lively ladies and the scheming young diplomatists, -who had made up their minds to steal -a kiss from the cheeks of the young beauties -should occasion offer. During a meeting of -the parties, a <i>Yaourtji</i> passing by at the moment -seemed admirably suited for their purpose; -one of the gentlemen, famous for his -freaks, seized the basin, and poured its contents -over the head of the unfortunate tutor, -who, blinded by the cream running down -his face, was unable to notice what passed.</p> - -<p><i>Ashji Dukyan</i>, or cook-shops, are numerous -in all the bazars of Eastern towns. Those at -Stamboul have a great reputation, especially -the <i>Kebabjis</i>, where <i>Kebab</i> and fruit only are -sold. The food is served on copper dishes, -and the customers sit on stools round little -tables in neat gardens attached to the establishments.</p> - -<p>The <i>Ashji dukyan</i> contain on one side a -long range for cooking, upon which are -placed bright copper pans, whence issues the -steam from a number of savory dishes. The -other side is occupied by a platform, upon -which the customers sit cross-legged round -low <i>Sofras</i>, to partake of the dishes of their -choice plentifully placed before them, accompanied -by bread and water <i>ad libitum</i>.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">DRESS.</span></h2> - -<p>The Old Turkish Dress—European Innovations—Present -Dress of Upper Class of Turks—Peasant Dress—Dress -of Ulema—Ladies’ In-door Costume in Old -Times—Out-door Dress—<i>Yashmaks</i> and <i>Feridjés</i>—Green—The -Spinach Field of Broussa—Women’s Dress -of the Lower Orders—Children—The Dress of Turkish -Ladies in the Present Day—Ludicrous Use of European -Garments—Conservatism in Dress among the -Peasants—Dress of the Rayahs—Macedonia—Thessaly—Epirus—Bulgaria—Inappropriateness -of Dress to -Different Occasions—Turkish Négligé—An Armenian -Wedding Conversation—Eastern Notions of European -Manners—Amusements in Turkey—Disappearance of -the Old Exercises—Hunting—Battues—Wrestling -Matches—Musicians and Story-Tellers—Kara Guez and -Hadji Eyvat—Dancing Girls—Clowns—Farces—Performing -Bears—Pipe and Coffee—Cafés—Amusements -of the Rayahs—Greek and Bulgarian Dances—Pleasure -Excursions—Saints’ Days.</p> - -</div> - -<p>On visiting the East the first thing that attracts -the attention of the traveller is the -variety of costume he meets at every step, -especially among the Mohammedan population.</p> - -<p>The dress of the first Ottomans was simple. -Othman, the founder of the Empire, is -represented as seated on a square throne, similar -to that of the Shahs of Persia, ornamented -with inlaid mother of pearl. He -wore on his head a red cloth cap half buried -in a Tatar turban, and called <i>Burki -Khorasani</i>; wide trousers, and a bright-colored -jacket descending to his knees. A -splendid yataghan was fastened in his belt, -and a flowing <i>kaftan</i>, surmounted by a red -collar, enveloped the whole. The boots or -shoes were of bright scarlet or yellow.</p> - -<p>Sultan Orkhan and his Grand Vizir devoted -much time to the regulation of the forms and -colors of garments and head-dresses. These -measures subsequently embraced all the details -of the fashion, material, linings, and -borders of the kaftans, dolmans, and pelisses -of honor worn by the different functionaries -at state ceremonies. Costume became the -distinguishing mark of rank among the ruling -race, and the token of creed among the subject -nations.</p> - -<p>It was, however, the head covering that -was at all times the part of oriental dress that -received the greatest attention. At the time -of the conquest the Greeks wore embroidered -or gilt caps, the Turcomans caps of red felt, -and the Ottomans, as a distinction, adopted -white felt caps to be worn by the military -and civil servants. Their shape and the -color of the turbans that encircled them depended -upon the rank and profession of the -wearer; they were of varied form and color, -bright and picturesque, and harmonized well -with the equally variegated and rich pelisses -and kaftans of the Mohammedans. The garments -worn by these dignitaries were of rich -tissues and fine cloths, and consisted of wide -and long <i>shalvars</i>, or trousers, vests, rich -shawls, girdles, and jackets of different -shapes.</p> - -<p>By degrees, however, great changes were -introduced into the national dress, which -became extremely rich and costly, abounding -in gold and embroidery. Among the -most striking of these costumes was that of -the sailors and officers of the navy, which -was of scarlet cloth richly worked with gold.</p> - -<p>The gradual abandonment of all these -gorgeous costumes by the Ottomans dates -from the time the state began to feel the -weight of the immense expense they caused, -at the beginning of the present century. The -uniforms of the army and navy were -changed, and the European style began to -be adopted by the Sultan and by the civil -employés; and the fashion was gradually -introduced among the townspeople of all nationalities.</p> - -<p>The present costume of the upper class of -Turks is a European frock-coat buttoned up -to the throat, European trousers, and the fez—sole -relic of the old dress. The uniforms -of government officers, according to their -rank, are richly embroidered, and on great -occasions covered with decorations and precious -stones.</p> - -<p>The Ottomans illustrate their love of display -and wealth by a proverb which says: -“<i>Akli Frengistan, Mali Hindustan, Saltanat -Ali Osman</i>,”—“Mind is the gift of the -European, wealth that of the Hindoo, and -pomp that of the Osmanli.”</p> - -<p>The peasants and poorer orders of the -Turks have to a great extent adhered to their -primitive costume, which is principally -composed of coarse woollen and linen stuffs; -those among the well-to-do, who still adhere -to this style of dress, make a great display of -gold and silk embroidery; the turban, however, -has for the most part been abandoned -in the towns, and replaced by the fez, worn -by all classes.</p> - -<p>The dress of the majority of the Ulema and -Softas has changed only with respect to the -turban, which has been reduced and made of -uniform size, and to the materials of the -dress, which are now less costly than -formerly and of European manufacture. -Those members of these orders who belong -to “La jeune Turquie” have modified their -dress by the adoption of European articles of -apparel which they wear under their <i>jubbé</i>, -or pelisse.</p> - -<p>The ancient in-door costume worn by ladies -of rank consisted of a gown of cloth or damask -silk, embroidered with bouquets of flowers -wrought in silk, with a border of similar -workmanship. Opening upon the breast, it -displayed a handsome silk gauze shirt, the -sleeves of which hung loosely at the wrists, -surmounted by a velvet jacket, richly -worked with gold thread. The round, flat -cap worn on the head was covered with -pearls and precious stones; the shoes or slippers -were equally adorned with embroidery -and jewels.</p> - -<p>The garments that served to shelter the -form of the Turkish lady from the public -gaze when walking or riding abroad consisted -first of a piece of white muslin placed over -the head and coming down to the eyes; -another and larger piece was placed over the -mouth, covering the lower part of the nose, -and secured at the back of the head. This -covered the neck and chest, and hung some -distance down the back. A cloak of cloth, -silk, merino, or some lighter fabric, covered -the whole person; a rectangular piece, which -hung from the shoulders and reached nearly -to the ground, completely hid the form of -the wearer. The trousers, drawn up a little -above the ankle, did not appear. The yellow -morocco boot was worn under a golosh of -the same color.</p> - -<p>In some parts of Asia Minor a black shade, -made of horsehair, covers the eyes, and the -head is thickly enveloped in calico coverings, -no part of the face being visible. The -<i>Mahrama</i> is also frequently seen in all parts -of Turkey. This consists of a large piece of -colored stuff fastened at the waist and brought -over the head; the face is covered with a -colored silk handkerchief.</p> - -<p>The <i>yashmak</i> (veil) and <i>feridjé</i> (cloak) are -universally worn by Turkish women of all -classes out of doors. The former varies, according -to the rank and place of residence of -the wearers, from ordinary calico to the -finest tarlatan, while the latter may be of -almost any material or color. Green, the -color of the Prophet’s garments, is sacred to -the Mohammedans, and only a certain branch -of the Turkish family is entitled to wear it -on their heads. Those of both sexes that enjoy -this privilege are called <i>Mollahs</i>. Green -<i>feridjés</i> can, however, be indiscriminately -used by Mohammedan women, and the preference -for this color is so strongly marked in -some localities that cloaks of other hues are -seldom seen. In the town of Broussa, for -instance, many years ago, the dark green -<i>feridjé</i>, with a square veil of coarse linen enveloping -the head, and tied under the chin -over another piece covering the mouth, was -the favorite out-of-door costume of all classes. -During a visit that Sultan Abdul-Medjid paid -to this town, the whole population turned out -and lined the sides of the road during his entry. -The mass of Turkish women, distinguishable -from a certain distance, presented -a peculiar spectacle, which drew from the -Sultan the following unromantic remark on -the veiled beauties who were impatiently -waiting to gaze upon the Padishah: “The -hanoums of Broussa may be famous for their -personal charms and beauty; but thus -equipped and grouped their Padishah has -seen little in them, and can only compare -them to a field of spinach dotted with snowflakes!”</p> - -<p>The clothing of the women of the lower -class is generally of coarse printed calico, -of which they make quilted jackets and undergarments, -but as a rule they appear very -thinly clad, and their apparel is made of such -poor material that it seems almost transparent. -The children usually wear long quilted -cotton jackets fastened round the waist by a -<i>chevré</i>, or worked handkerchief, but strings -and buttons seem to be almost unknown. -Men’s garments are generally made in the -public shops, and both cut out and sewed by -men. The shirt and drawers are perfectly -loose, and would fit equally well almost anybody. -The trousers consist of a long piece of -cloth folded, with the ends sewed together, as -well as one side, with the exception of two -openings left at the corners for introducing -the feet; it is in fact a bag, pure and simple, -with two holes at the bottom corners, and -open at the top. The vests of the men are -made of striped cloth and have long tight<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -sleeves; the girdle is a shawl bound tightly -round the waist. The jacket has various -forms. It is short, with sleeves coming -down only to the elbows; or these extend -to, or even beyond, the hand, and are close, -or slit open from the shoulder down; they -may be buttoned, left to hang loosely, or tied -in a knot behind the back. In every case -Oriental clothing lies in folds about the person, -but easy locomotion, or the free use of -the limbs, is impossible.</p> - -<p>The transformations in dress among Turkish -ladies, both with regard to material and -fashion, are most disadvantageous. Among -the higher orders the European dress has -been adopted for in-door wear, resulting in -extravagance, bad taste, and incongruity. -The description of one or two of the least -striking of these toilettes will suffice to give -some idea of the manner in which Parisian -fashions are generally understood and worn -by Turkish ladies. Last year, when paying -a visit to the wife of the Governor-General -of P⸺, I found that lady with her hair uncombed, -wearing a red cotton dressing gown -made in the <i>princesse</i> style. Over this was a -yellow satin jacket, secured round the waist -by a gold belt. Round her neck was a <i>collier</i> -of the rarest pink coral of most perfect workmanship. -When this lady returned my call, -a very large quantity of fine jewellery was -displayed on her person, but her dress was so -badly made and ill-assorted as to make her -pretty little person bear a great resemblance -to that of a polichinelle. Madame F. Pasha, -who succeeded her shortly afterwards, -offered a still more grotesque and ludicrous -picture, both in her own person and in those -of the suite of slaves and companions that -accompanied her. She was very plain and -of a certain age; her costume consisted of a -skirt of common crimson silk with yellow -velvet trimmings, surmounted by a blue -jacket braided with violet. Round her neck -was a scarlet tie, and on her head an orange-colored -<i>bashbagh</i>, or turban, with diamonds -and brilliants enough to represent all the -bright luminaries of heaven.</p> - -<p>Her little daughter, a child of seven, wore -a red cotton skirt, with a quilted jacket of -violet silk, and a European hat, in which -pink and white satin ribbons predominated. -Some of her ladies-in-waiting wore tarlatan -dresses over dirty tumbled skirts which had -been washed at some remote date and all the -tucks ironed the wrong way. The wife of -another pasha, after taking off her feridjé, -as is usual on paying calls, disclosed a wrapper -made of common chintz, of a gaudy pattern, -such as is commonly used for furniture-covers. -The length of this robe, however, -was insufficient to conceal an exceedingly -dirty though most elaborate cambric petticoat -of Parisian make.</p> - -<p>The <i>chaussure</i> of Turkish ladies, be it of -the last French fashion, or of the oriental -make and covered with gems and embroidery, -never fits well, nor is properly worn. Their -stockings are never darned, and are used till -they fall to pieces; as to the manner in which -they are secured the less said the better; it is -very improbable that this part of a Turkish -beauty’s raiment will ever have the chance -of instituting a second Order of the Garter. -After contemplating this disparaging but true -picture of a modern Turkish lady’s dress, -the readers will doubtless agree with me in -preferring the elegant costume of the old-fashioned -class, or the white <i>gedjlik</i>, still a -popular négligé costume, with the bare white -feet half hidden by a pretty oriental slipper. -These, together with the characteristic -<i>shalvar</i>, <i>intari</i>, and <i>koushak</i>, and the graceful -<i>fotoz</i> that surmounted the abundant locks -which fell in multitudinous tresses over the -shoulders of the Turkish lady of other days, -gave her a <i>cachet</i> of distinction entirely lost -in the present day.</p> - -<p>After the conquest strict laws were issued -as to the form of the head-coverings to be -worn by the rayahs, determining their shape -and color, and the form of the shoes and -<i>kaftans</i> in particular. The <i>kalpak</i>, or hat, -was black, and in the shape of an immense -pumpkin or miniature balloon. The <i>kaftan</i> -also differed in form and color from that -worn by Mussulmans; and the shoes were -black, or of a dark plum-color. No exterior -sign of luxury or wealth was allowed out of -doors.</p> - -<p>As fashion and custom changed, these regulations -fell into disregard, and each race in -towns may now dress as it chooses, and -adopt its national costume or European garments -without exciting either surprise or disapproval. -Generally speaking, it is the use -of the latter raiment that has acquired ascendency -among townspeople, and the national -costume is more peculiar to the peasantry, -and varies according to nationality in -elegance and comfort, but never changes its -original form.</p> - -<p>The Turkish peasant adheres to his extensive -turban, and seldom exchanges it for the -more simple fez; the Greek continues to -wear his wide <i>vrakiá</i> and blue <i>servéta</i>; and -the Bulgarian his <i>potour</i> and <i>gougla</i> (black -sheepskin cap). The Armenian is still attired -in his long <i>jubbé</i>, or loose coat and blue -turban, and the Jew in his floating robes of -immemorial form. Some years ago a Turkish peasant -from one of the towns of the interior -visited the capital. On his return I -asked him what he had seen there to strike -his fancy. “What did I see?” replied the -good old fellow, stroking his beard in dismay. -“I was astonished to see the deformity -of human nature in that great city; the -women now have two heads, one planted on -the top of the other, and the hump, which -we in our village consider a terrible calamity, -seems to be a general affliction, but has descended -much below the shoulders! May -Allah have mercy upon us; but such preposterous -changes as these must to a certainty -be the signs of bad times!” The sensible -man alluded to the enormous chignons and -tournures then in fashion, and perhaps he -was not far wrong in his ideas.</p> - -<p>Fashions, like coins, will penetrate everywhere -and find currency among the most -savage, who are glad to purchase finery at -any cost. Eighteen years ago, when I first -visited the town of N⸺ in Upper Albania, -I was honored by visits from the wives of -all the dignitaries of the town. The first -batch of callers consisted of about twenty -ladies, whose arrival was announced to me -at six o’clock in the morning, and who could -with difficulty be persuaded by my people -that the Franks were always in their beds at -that time, and received at a much later hour -of the day. “Well, if that is the <i>Inglis -moda</i>, we too must adopt it!” said the most -enlightened lady. By the time they again -appeared I was quite ready to receive them, -and not a little curious to see what kind of -birds these were that had flocked together so -early to visit me. In the mean time, as a -great admirer and reader of the works of -Lord Byron, I had formed all kinds of conjectures -with regard to the lovely faces and -picturesque costumes I was going to see. -The fair maid of Athens, and numberless -other beauties, flitted before my imagination -when a heavy tramp of feet (not at all fairy-like) -up the stairs, preceded by the announcement -that the ladies of the Chorbadjis had -arrived, brought me back to reality, and I -advanced to receive my guests. And now, -what was the spectacle that met my gaze and -deprived me of all control over my risible -propensities? A display of Parisian articles -of dress applied in the most indiscriminate -manner, without any regard to the use for -which they were manufactured and the sex -of the persons for whom they were designed! -Stiff black satin stocks encircled the fair -necks of some of the ladies, assorting queerly -with their graceful and rich national costume, -and making an ugly separation between -their head-dresses and the fine white -crape chemisettes that veiled so much of their -necks as was left uncovered by elaborately -embroidered vests. Below this vest were the -graceful floating scarlet trousers, that should -have fallen to the ground like a skirt, secured -only round the ankle by an embroidered cuff; -but all the beauty and grace of this garment -were lost in the expansion caused by a monstrous -cage crinoline introduced within it, -which gave the otherwise sylph-like figures -of the wearers the appearance of a shapeless -balloon supported on large pairs of gentlemen’s -patent-leather boots, proudly displayed!</p> - -<p>The costumes worn in the towns of Thessaly, -Epirus, and part of Macedonia are half -Greek and half Albanian. They comprise a -variety of forms, all more or less original and -picturesque. The headgear of the men is -usually the small Turkish fez, surmounted -by a blue tassel; the wider and longer Greek -fez is also worn, falling with its long tassel -on one side of the head. The tight braided -vest and jacket with hanging sleeves over a -white linen shirt form the upper part of the -dress; the lower comprises the <i>fustanella</i>, or -white kilt, or the wide and long <i>vrakiá</i>, descending -to the ankle, or only covering the -knee, terminated by tight gaiters of braided -cloth. The <i>servéta</i>, or silk girdle, is generally -of a bright color, and often richly embroidered -with gold and silk thread. Those worn -by the peasantry are frequently of gray -tweed worked with darker braid, and the -<i>fustanella</i> is replaced by a linen blouse worn -over a pair of short trousers; gaiters and -pointed shoes or sandals complete the dress.</p> - -<p>The costume worn by the women varies -according to the locality, but is always very -graceful and pretty. The head-dress consists -of a flat cloth or felt cap encircled by -embroidered velvet, rows of coins, or other -ornaments, or by a thick braid of hair. The -centre is often occupied by a large pearl -ornament. This cap is worn on one side, -and the hair under it is parted in the centre -and smoothly brushed over the ears, plaited, -or allowed to hang loose.</p> - -<p>The upper part of the body is inclosed in -a tight short-waisted bodice, open in front, -down to the middle of the chest, over a fine -gauze chemisette crossed over the bosom; a -short and full skirt, or shalvar, and belt of -various patterns and materials are worn in -the house. Out of doors a long jacket -is worn, fitting tightly to the figure and -reaching nearly to the feet; it is generally -made of fine cloth, plain, or richly embroidered -with gold, and invariably lined with -fur; a colored kerchief, carelessly thrown -over the head, completes the costume. The -tissues used for these garments are of silk, -cotton, and wool, enlivened by silken and -other embroidery.</p> - -<p>The dress of the peasants is very similar, -except that it is made of coarser materials, is -plainer, and comprises a great variety of -bright colors.</p> - -<p>The dress of the Bulgarian women varies -according to the locality. North of the Balkans -it is entirely national, and has a picturesque -appearance, but is heavy and incommodious -to the wearer, while that of the men, -though more simple and convenient, is by no -means elegant; the only part of it to which -some attention is paid in the rural districts is -the blouse, which is carefully and elaborately -embroidered round the collar and wide -sleeves. In Macedonia this attention is extended -to the white turban, which replaces -the <i>gougla</i>. This is a long towel, the ends -embroidered in tapestry stitch, which is -twisted round the red fez, and one end allowed -to fall on the collar, hiding in part the -long and dishevelled hair allowed to grow -at the back of the head. This tuft of hair is -sometimes plaited, and bears a great resemblance -to the Chinese coiffure. On feast-days -a flower is placed in the turban. The Bulgarians -of the towns have adopted a more -Europeanized costume made of <i>shayak</i>, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -thick native cloth. These home-woven fabrics -are very substantial, and sometimes the -gray and white are beautiful, but the rest are -ugly, especially the shot and striped ones, -on account of the colors being badly assorted. -The Bulgarian townspeople generally choose -these stuffs for their garments, and add to -their unbecomingness by the uncouth shapes -in which they cut them, the trousers being -always either too short or too loose, and the -coats and vests most shapeless and slovenly. -This description does not of course include -the higher classes, who pay great attention -to their toilettes.</p> - -<p>What is principally wanting in these national -costumes is the being adapted to the -occasions on which they are worn. For example, -for every-day wear both sexes choose -their plainest suits, and keep them on from -morning till night, whether in the field or in -the house. The gala costumes are of fine -cloth, or still more delicate material, and are -donned on feast-days and other great occasions, -and once put on are worn all day long, -getting covered with dust out of doors, and -yet serving for the soirée and the dance.</p> - -<p>This incongruity also extends to season. -The uniform long jackets lined with fur are -worn by the women in winter and in the heat -of a long summer’s day.</p> - -<p>There is no evening dress comprised in the -wardrobe of an Oriental. The refinements -of society have prescribed none but that -which his easy-going and indolent life claims -from him, viz., his gedjlik, or dressing-gown. -The Turk, the Armenian, and the native -Jew alike put on this no doubt delightfully -comfortable, but by no means elegant, garment -immediately on re-entering the bosom -of their families after the labors of the day -are concluded. This custom is so prevalent -among the Turks that as soon as the return -of the <i>bey</i> or <i>effendi</i> is announced the wife -unfolds the wrapper and holds it ready for -him to put on. This attire is sometimes rendered -still more négligé by a complete exchange -of the day dress for that commonly -appropriate for use at night. The bey or -pasha may return to the Selamlik so attired, -and receive his visitors there, should they be -of equal or inferior rank to himself; but if -of higher rank he must receive them in his -day costume.</p> - -<p>The adoption of the European dress has -everywhere created a display of bad taste. -On first changing their costume, the natives -proudly profess a great partiality for it, and -call themselves followers of the “à la -Franca,” or Frank fashions. Those few -who possess some education alone make the -change without grievously shocking the taste -of their European neighbors.</p> - -<p>A few instances of the manner in which -“Frank” dress and etiquette are understood -by the majority will give the reader a better -idea than any explanation on the subject.</p> - -<p>I was present at an Armenian wedding, -when the house was crowded by a large company -composed of both sexes. The ladies, -however, had almost monopolized the drawing-room, -which was furnished with long -Turkish sofas running round the walls on -three sides, occupied by three rows of ladies. -The first row were seated on the cushions, the -second sat cross-legged in front, and the third -contented themselves with the extreme edge, -while some other ladies and a few of the -other sex were favored with chairs, or walked -about the room. I had prudently possessed -myself of a chair, and placed it in a position -to have a good <i>coup d’œil</i> of the scene, and -be near enough to the sofa to hear and join -in the conversation of some of its occupants. -It was by no means an uninteresting sight; -there was the bride, the queen of the fête, -seated on a pile of cushions in the corner reserved -for her, surrounded by the triple line -of ladies representing all ages, types, and -fashions. The dark and unassuming attire -of the aged pleasingly contrasted with the -gay dresses of the young and pretty, radiant -with the glitter of jewelry and the sparkle of -many pairs of bright black eyes that frequently -met and questioned each other; a -not unpleasant way of making up for the -oriental laconism generally observed in large -assemblies, when conversation is carried on -in low tones, and generally consists only of -a passing joke or criticism on the appearance -of others of the company. Some of these -remarks I found very amusing; for instance, -a thin, yellow brunette said to her neighbor, -“Doudou, do you notice how stiff and -stately Mariemme Hanoum sits in her new -polka? Her husband, Baron Carabet,<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> who -has just returned from Constantinople, has -brought her a machine made of whalebone -and steel, in which the Franks cage their -wives in order to fill up what is missing and -tone down what is superfluous.” “Chok -shay!”<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> exclaimed her companion, an exceedingly -stout lady, casting a hasty glance -over her voluminous person. “I wonder if -the like is to be found in the <i>charshi</i> (bazar), -so many articles of dress have lately been -brought from Europe by one of the shopkeepers!”</p> - -<p>This conversation was brought to an abrupt -termination by the exclamation of -“Ouff! Aman!” from a third lady who was -sitting cross-legged, and evidently in an uncomfortable -position. “Ouff! Aman!” she -repeated, stretching out her feet as far as possible, -and then proceeded to pull off her -socks, quietly folded them up, and put them -in her pocket. She was an elderly lady, evidently -of the old school, for her proceedings -shocked one much younger than herself -seated near, and provoked from her some -remark on the impropriety she had committed. -The old lady, however, could not -be prevailed upon to see it, and replied very -quietly:</p> - -<p>“Kesim, what does it matter? all now is -‘à la Franca,’ and we may do as we please!”</p> - -<p>Incidents of European fashions, completely -distorted into alarming caricatures, -are still very frequent, and, what is more -serious, are often accompanied by so great -an absence of all knowledge of the rules of -good breeding that everything out of the -common, however free or strange it may be, -is put down to the “à la Franca,” or European -liberty. Only two years ago, at a ball -given by one of my friends, a functionary of -the Porte, Armenian by birth, coolly entered -the boudoir, pulled off his boots, which were, -it appears, too tight for him, and seated himself -on a sofa smoking his cigarette. This -gentleman was requested by the host to resume -his chaussure and withdraw from the -house; and yet civilized notions had so far -penetrated the somewhat dull imagination of -this <i>Effendi</i> as to have induced him to use -visiting-cards upon which was engraved, together -with his name, his title of “Membre -perpétuel de la Justice,” surmounted by a -gilt pair of scales.</p> - -<p>Dress and amusement are thought by many -to denote the degree of refinement and mental -development of nations. There is certainly -some truth in this theory, and I have often -allowed my opinion of a people and my belief -in its prosperity and progress to be -guided in some degree by their apparently -most trivial characteristics.</p> - -<p>To seek through these means, however, to -arrive at an estimate of the Turkish character -is a somewhat difficult task. The national -costume is disappearing, and is being -replaced by a counterfeit or borrowed attire. -With regard to amusement the difficulty becomes -still greater, for all the games that -were characteristic of the East, such as that -of the <i>Djerid</i>, or throwing the lance on horseback -when galloping at full speed, have fallen -into disuse; together with the now forgotten -races and target-practising in which -the youth of the two towns used to display -their splendid arms and prove their capacity -for manly and warlike pursuits. The grand -hunting parties, in which the grandees and -even the Sultans loved to take part, now -only take place occasionally, headed by some -fine old governor-general of the ancient type. -In such instances the chase becomes most enjoyable -and delightful. Many years ago, -while residing in a country town, I had several -times the pleasure of taking part in these -animated coursing parties organized by the -governor of the town, and headed by him in -person. The company would sometimes -consist of twenty cavaliers, with an equal -number of mounted attendants leading the -<i>capon</i>, or fine greyhounds peculiar to Albania. -Proceeding at first in a compact body across -the hills, down on the fertile plains on the -borders of the Maritza, as we neared the open -country and descended the slopes, the cavalcade -dispersed, the fiery horses could scarcely -be controlled, and the dogs, trembling with -excitement, strove to break from the leashes. -The sportsmen in their variegated costumes, -stimulated by their surroundings, lost their air -of lassitude and torpor, and appeared like the -traditional Osmanli of old. The scattered -band of cavaliers would explore the ground -until the frightened and startled animals, -driven out of their haunts, would after a few -bounds come to a dead stop, and then flee, -pursued by the hounds and followed by the -hunters.</p> - -<p>There was something so animating in the -whole scene that even a timid woman might -have disregarded the danger of fracturing -her collar-bone and willingly taken part in -it.</p> - -<p>The other excursions, carried on with equal -spirit, consist of battues of large and small -game, which take place on the estates of the -beys, who issue invitations to their friends, -throw open the gates of their chiftliks or -farms, and receive visitors with every mark -of hospitality. At dawn the whole party assembles -at the appointed place, previously -surrounded by the tenants and laborers belonging -to the property, who beat in the -game.</p> - -<p>These parties, I am assured, are much appreciated -by European sportsmen, who enjoy -the wildness of the scenery, as well as the -shyness of the birds, which, unlike their preserved -kinsfolk in England, are complete -strangers to contact with man in their unfrequented -forests and plains.</p> - -<p>An interest is still evinced by all classes in -the wrestling matches which are usually held -on the commons outside the towns. On -these occasions the greater part of the population -turns out and seats itself in a closely-packed -circle. The combatants, stripped to -the waist, enter the ring, encouraged by the -crowd; closely watching each other’s movements, -each awaits a favorable opportunity -for seizing his antagonist, whom, by a dexterous -catch, he hopes to throw. No animosity -is displayed by any of the rivals, -be they Turks, Christians, or gypsies. The -spectators take a deep interest in these contests, -but seldom express their approbation -or disapproval in a very marked manner.</p> - -<p>Minstrels still play a prominent part among -all classes of the Turkish population. These -are professional artists, well versed in improvisation, -and skilful players on musical -instruments, especially the <i>Kanoun</i>, a species -of zither, for which a great partiality is -displayed. Whatever their nationality, they -are as welcome in the Konaks of the highest -dignitaries as among the crowds that flock -on Fridays and other holidays to some <i>café</i>, -where, seated in a prominent place, the bard -pours forth his strains or relates his <i>massal</i> -(story), which generally turns upon love, -and, though wanting neither in interest nor -brilliancy, is accompanied by unpleasant gesticulation, -and is hardly meet either for the -ears or the eyes of the young.</p> - -<p>When I was in Albania, the Mushir of -Roumelia, with his <i>corps d’armée</i>, passed -through the town, and as a mark of civility<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -sent his minstrel to my house to enliven me -with his performance. Oriental music, however, -has not as a rule an enlivening effect -upon Europeans. But there is a pensiveness -and a sadness in it that to me have an irresistible -charm.</p> - -<p>Another amusement is that of the Kara -Guez and Hadji Eyvat, a kind of Punch and -Judy. This is a most indecent representation, -and the language that accompanies it is -quite in harmony with the scenes; but it -greatly delights the Turkish ladies, for whose -diversion it is frequently introduced into the -harems. To this class of recreation may be -added the obscene <i>Kucheks</i>, or dancing women -and boys; the <i>Mukkalits</i>, or clowns, who -amuse the company with their jests; the -<i>Meydan Oyoun</i>, or comic plays held in the -open air; the performing monkeys and bears, -trained by hardy Pomaks or gypsies, who -lead these creatures from town to town, and -force them to display the accomplishments -they have learned under the discipline of the -lash.</p> - -<p>What a Turk heartily enjoys is his pipe -and coffee, sitting by the side of a running -stream or in some spot commanding a fine -view. This quiescent pleasure he calls -“taking <i>Kaif</i>.” On the whole, his capacity -for enjoyment is rather of a passive than an -active kind.</p> - -<p>Clubs, reading-rooms, or other resorts for -social and intellectual improvement are quite -unknown among the Turks. Their place is, -however, filled to some extent by the old-fashioned -<i>café</i> for the Osmanli of mature age, -and by the Casinos and other places of the -same doubtful character for “La jeune Turquie,” -who <i>faute de mieux</i> resort thither to -enjoy the delights of taking their <i>raki</i>, or -sometimes ruining themselves by indulging in -<i>rouge et noir</i> or other games of chance which -they do not understand, and, to do them justice, -do not as a rule largely indulge in.</p> - -<p>The amusements of the Rayahs are neither -very brilliant nor very varied, but they are -part of a more healthy social life, and serve -as a point of union between the sexes, increasing -the joys and pleasures of home existence, -whose monotony they do not often -interrupt. The great delight of these people -is the national dances of the Greeks, Bulgarians, -Armenians, and Jews, always gladly -indulged in when a chance offers. Such opportunities -are generally weddings and great -feast-days, and carnival time. With the -Jews and Armenians it is an insipid formality, -and the similarity of the costume of the -women, who alone indulge in it, the want of -variety in the step, and the dull and graceless -manner in which it is performed, deprive it -of any claim to be called an amusement. -But with the Greeks and Bulgarians it is -quite a different matter; both enter into it -with a zest and animation delightful to witness. -The Greeks collect in a ring to dance -the <i>surto</i> of immemorial date. Holding each -other by the hand, and led by the most agile -youth and maiden, who hold the corners of -a handkerchief, they perform a variety of -measured steps and evolutions, while the -surrounding ring execute a step to the sound -of the music that accompanies the dance. All -the movements are graceful, and performed -with precision, at some times becoming more -animated, and at others falling back into a -slow measured step. The ring breaks at intervals -and allows those wishing to retire to -do so, or receives fresh additions from the -outsiders.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian <i>hora</i> is performed to the -sound of the <i>gaida</i>, or bagpipe. The sounds of -this instrument act like magic upon these gay -and pleasure-loving people, who no sooner -hear its discordant groans than, forming into -a circle and holding each other by the belt, -they begin to stamp and turn round in an -earnest and excited manner, appearing thoroughly -absorbed in the performance.</p> - -<p>There is a second kind of dance in which -the Bulgarians take great pleasure, that -known as the “bear dance.” It is performed -by a man dressed in a bearskin, who -presents himself to the company, led by a -pretty girl, who makes him perform all kinds -of pranks and buffooneries, greatly to the enjoyment -of the spectators, who occasionally -join in the dance and give chase to the bear. -I do not think it is possible to find a people -who can enjoy more heartily the wild music -of the <i>gaida</i> than the Bulgarian, or enter -more enthusiastically into the dance than he -does. With the Greeks, dancing is reserved -for appointed times and seasons, but the Bulgarian, -be he in the field or resting on the -common on a Prasnik day, will come forward -and indulge in it as his greatest delight.</p> - -<p>After the dance come the small pleasure -parties, for which families club together and -go to spend a few days in some picturesque -village or hospitable monastery, or to some -wild watering-place, where they can enjoy -the baths to their hearts’ content. The mineral -springs are encircled by the remains of -magnificent old Roman baths, roofless for the -most part, but evidently indestructible so far -as the splendid marble basins that receive the -water are concerned.</p> - -<p>Every saint seems, by some ubiquitous -means, to possess a shrine in every town, -village, or monastery. To these all the people -resort on their anniversaries, attired in -their best, to see and to be seen, and any person, -be it man, woman, or child, bearing the -name of the saint, is visited by all its friends -and relatives during the day; generally speaking, -a party is given in the evening, where, -if instrumental music and dancing do not -form part of the entertainment, a variety of -round games, cards, vocal music, and other -similar diversions, are had recourse to. Divers -refreshments, in the form of excellent -native wine, fruit, and cakes, are offered -during the evening after the formal handing -round of <i>glico</i> and coffee. These gatherings, -often kept up to a late hour, always conclude -peacefully, and cases of disorder and drunkenness -are unheard of, and indeed are of rare -occurrence at any time, excepting at a late -hour at the place where a fair is held, when -a few <i>mauvais sujets</i> may remain behind in a -disorderly frame of mind.</p> - -<p>This description refers only to the working -classes and tradespeople. Among the better -educated classes music, conversation, -theatricals, and in fact almost everything -that belongs to European society is included, -although, as may be supposed, deficiencies -as to dress, etiquette, and other details are -to be remarked in the provinces; but a -marked desire for improvement, especially -among the Greeks, is everywhere noticeable. -Each community, however, keeps within its -own circle, a drawback that renders the society -limited and prevents the sociable feeling -that should prevail among them.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.<br /> -<span class="smaller">TURKISH WEDDINGS.</span></h2> - -<p>Early Marriage—Betrothal—Divorce—Love Matches—The -Trousseau—Wedding Ceremonies—Marital -Discipline in Macedonia—Monday: Arrangement of -Trousseau in Bridegroom’s House—Tuesday: Bathing -the Bride—Wednesday: Visit of the Bridegroom’s -Party to Bride’s House—Great Festivities—The Kena—Thursday: -The Girding of the Bride—The Bridegroom -goes to the Mosque—Final Amenities of -Friendship—Interested Marriages.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The Turks generally marry early, from -seventeen for the men, and from eleven for -the girls—who all marry, so that an old -maid, like many other European institutions, -is absolutely unknown in Turkey. This -custom of early marriages is encouraged by -parents as a check upon their sons contracting -wild habits. It may in this respect have -the desired effect, but must be very injurious -in every other. How can a youth of seventeen -or twenty, whose studies, if he by -chance has pursued any, are not finished, -whose career in life is yet to begin, assume -the weight of a family without morally and -physically suffering for it? Ambition, the -mainspring of a young man’s exertions, -damped by the early contraction of sedentary -habits, soon degenerates into listless indifference. -The intellectual faculties, crossed in -the pursuit of knowledge by a current of -ideas and responsibilities totally foreign to -them, are checked before they have had their -due course; while, physically speaking, harem -life, bad at all the stages of the life of -a Turk among the higher orders, must be incalculably -worse when entered upon so early.</p> - -<p>The <i>Nekyah</i>, or betrothal, comprises the -fiançailles as well as the matrimonial contract. -The preliminaries of the engagement are undertaken -by the parents of the contracting -parties. The mother or some near relative -of the young man, in company with a few of -her friends and the <i>Koulavouz</i>, starts on a tour -of inspection, visiting families known to possess -marriageable daughters. The object of -the visit being made known, they are admitted, -and the eldest girl presents herself, offers -coffee, kisses hands all round, waits to take -the empty cups, and then disappears, her inspectors -having to content themselves with -the short view they have thus had of her. -Should this prove satisfactory, they at once -enter into negotiations, make inquiries as to -the age and dowry of the girl, answer counter-inquiries -on the condition of the youth, -and say that, if it be agreeable to both parties -and it is <i>Kismet</i> that the marriage should -take place, they will come again and make -the final arrangements. On the mother’s return -home, she gives a faithful description of -the maiden’s appearance to her son, and -should this meet with his approval, the intermediaries -are commissioned to settle all preliminaries.</p> - -<p>The dowry is, of course, among Muslims -given by the bridegroom; the only dowry -Turkish brides are bound to bring consists -in a rich <i>trousseau</i>. Should the lady possess -any property the husband cannot assume any -right over it, nor over any of the rest of her -belongings. The wisdom and generosity of -this law cannot be too highly commended; -it is an indispensable clause in the canons of -polygamy. So easy is it for a Turk to -divorce his wife that he has only to say to -her in a moment of anger, “Cover thy face, -thy <i>nekyah</i> is in thy hands,” and she ceases -to be his wife, and must at once leave his -abode, carrying with her, luckily for her, -“bag and baggage.”</p> - -<p>The privileges of divorce thus indulgently -permitted to a man are entirely beyond the -reach of a woman, whom no human power -can release from her <i>nekyah</i> vows without -her husband’s free consent. And even if she -gain her husband’s consent to a divorce, she -thereby loses her dowry and <i>trousseau</i>, which -she would retain if divorced not of her own -motion. This unfair restriction gives rise to -many unhappy disputes, issuing in litigation -which ever proves vain and fruitless against -the obstinacy of the husband or, even worse, -his helplessness, should he become insane; -for a lunatic’s word of divorce cannot count -before the law.</p> - -<p>The following sad history of a bride I -knew is a good illustration of the latter case. -The heroine was a fine brunette, the daughter -of Yousuf Bey, a rich and influential personage -in the town of B⸺. A <i>nekyah</i> had -been contracted between her and a young -man rather queer and strange in his manners, -but very wealthy—a consideration which -more than counterbalanced his failings in the -estimation of her avaricious father.</p> - -<p>The <i>Duhun</i>, or wedding-day, fixed upon, -the festivities began according to the routine -of pomp and display usual among the wealthy. -As the wedding-day approached the bridegroom -became more and more strange; now -falling into fits of deep melancholy, now into -merriment.</p> - -<p>His friends, noticing this, suggested that it -was <i>jahilik</i>, or childishness, occasioned by the -prospect of his approaching happiness, crossed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -by the thought that he had no father to -participate in it, and no mother to second -him in his duties by welcoming his bride to -her future home.</p> - -<p>Be this as it may, the <i>Duhun</i> went on all -the same; the bride, decked in her splendid -array, arrived at the bridegroom’s house, -and was met, according to custom, by the -bridegroom, who, under the direction of the -<i>Koulavouz</i>, was waiting to conduct her to her -apartment. The emotion of the moment was -too much for his vacillating mind. He fixed -his gaze for a moment upon his bride with a -vacant stare; her face was unknown to him. -The tinsel, the bridal veil, the crowd of <i>hanoums</i> -surrounding her, failed to impress him -with the solemnity of the event his mind no -longer comprehended.</p> - -<p>In vain the shrill voice of the <i>Koulavouz</i> -strove to make him understand her repeated -suggestion that he should conduct his bride -upstairs. Her words, confusedly caught, -and mingled with some flickering notion of -what he ought to do, at length urged him to -action. He seized the <i>Koulavouz</i>, a frightful -old witch, passed her arm through his, and -with the determination and obstinacy of the -madman led her upstairs and placed her in -the bridal bower. A miserable scene of confusion -ensued. The poor bride, faint and -sick at heart, re-entered her coach and hurried -back to the paternal roof, while the <i>hanoums</i> -made a rush towards their <i>yashmaks</i> -and <i>feridjés</i>, dismayed at the misfortune and -alarmed by the screams of the old <i>Koulavouz</i>, -who was making frantic efforts to release -herself from the tight embrace of the maniac. -Help from the Selamlik soon arrived, and the -madman was secured.</p> - -<p>Seven years have elapsed, the unhappy -bride is still pining over her misfortunes and -the loss of the liberty which all efforts have -thus far proved unable to restore to her.</p> - -<p>A Turkish husband has the power of -divorcing his wife and taking her back -twice; but should he send her away for the -third time, she must be married to another -man before she can again return to her first -husband. This strange and disgusting law -is meant as a check upon people disposed to -abuse too often the privilege of divorce. The -person asked to fulfil this strange position of -intermediary husband must be advanced in -years, generally belongs to the poorer class, -and receives a sum of money for his services. -The conditions are that he should enter the -abode of the lady for one night only, with -every right over her of a legal husband, and -quit it the next morning, telling her, “Thy -liberty is in thy hands, thou art no longer -my wife.” Cases have been known when -the old gentleman, finding his position pleasant, -has refused to give the lady up, and if -this should happen the first husband is wholly -without remedy, and must forego his desire -of reunion with his former wife.</p> - -<p>An incident of the kind happened at Adrianople, -affording much merriment to my -Turkish friends. The couple concerned -were very fond of each other, and lived happily -together except at times, when the husband, -under the influence of <i>raki</i>, would become -quarrelsome. The wife, a fine spirited -woman, would retort, and violent disputes -followed, ending in alternate divorce and -reconciliation. This happening once too -often, the husband, unable to repossess himself -of his spouse, had recourse to an old -<i>effendi</i> who had seen better days, and promised -£20 for his services. The <i>effendi</i>, according -to custom, went to the bath, dressed -himself in a new suit of clothes, and being -presented at the appointed time, the <i>nekyah</i> -ceremony was gone through. The old gentleman -walked into the harem, seated himself -upon the lady’s sofa, and began to enjoy, -through the fumes of his nargilé, the -sweet vision of his unlooked-for happiness; -while the lady, whose dreams did not exactly -harmonize with his, after offering the acquaintance-cup -of coffee, generally shared -by the wife on such an occasion, preferred -standing at a respectful distance. The old -effendi, however, would not be balked in -the prospect he had formed for the re-enjoyment -of his former happier days. Why -should he not prolong the tenure of the rights -thus unexpectedly devolving upon him? -Nothing hindered but his pledged word to -renounce them on the following morning. -His conscience easily reconciled to this -breach of faith, he decided upon remaining -master of the situation, leaving the poor husband -to lament the loss of his wife and his -£20, and quite regardless of the useless burden -he would become to the doubly-injured -lady. Such events, however, are not of frequent -occurrence.</p> - -<p>It is customary for the bridegroom to furnish -the wedding-dress and sundry other accessories, -as well as to promise the <i>nekyah</i> -money settled upon the wife in case of divorce. -These, including the <i>Kaftan</i> (outer -wedding dress) are sent with great pomp -eight days before the <i>Duhun</i>. The Hodja, -priest of the parish in which the parents of -the girl reside, is requested to give a declaration -that the young lady is free to contract -matrimony. This, taken to the Kadi, obtains -the marriage license, for which a small -fee is paid. A piece of red silk and some -sugar-plums are taken by the bridegroom’s -mother to the house of the bride. The red -silk, which later on is made into an under-garment, -is spread on this occasion on the -floor; upon it the young lady steps to kiss -the hand of her future mother-in-law and -receive the gift with her blessing.</p> - -<p>Half of one of these sugar-plums, bitten in -two by her pearly teeth, is taken to the bridegroom -as the first love token; literal sweetness -in this case making up for any fault in -the sentiment. These preliminaries are sealed -by the formality performed by the Imam in -the presence of witnesses who are called to -the door of the Haremlik, behind which the -maiden and her friends stand. The Imam -asks the bride if she consents to accept the -youth proposed (giving his name) for her -husband. The question is repeated three -times, the bride answering each time in the -affirmative. The Hodja has to declare the -amount of the <i>nekyah</i> money promised, and -calls three times upon the bystanders to bear -witness before God to the contract; a short -prayer follows, and the ceremony is concluded. -The felicitations are conveyed in the -poetical expression of “May Allah grant harmony -between their two stars!” The contract, -religious as well as civil, is made verbally, -and though no other ceremony of importance -follows it, the bride and bridegroom -do not see each other till the <i>Duhun</i>, or wedding -festivities, have been held. The length -of this period may be from a few weeks to a -few years, and is a blank which potential -love is at liberty to fill with fantastic pictures -of coming happiness. No sweet messages, -letters, or communications of any kind are allowed -during the interval to pave the way -towards the future binding together of two -beings whose common lot is cast, without -regard to personal sympathy, into the vague -abyss of destiny. Kismet, the supreme ruler -of all Turkish events, is left to decide the degree -of misery or indifference that marriage -contracted under such unfavorable circumstances -may bring, instead of the looked-for -happiness.</p> - -<p>Romance, ending in marriage, however, is -not unknown between Turkish youths and -maidens, and the parents seldom refuse their -consent in such cases. Young love, even -Turkish love, is sometimes strong enough to -break through the barriers of harem restraint -and reach its object in spite of every obstacle -with which the organization of centuries of -jealous guardianship has surrounded Turkish -women.</p> - -<p>At Adrianople, a young beauty of sixteen -suddenly began to pine and sicken. The -color faded from her cheeks, she became -thoughtful, sad, and listless; a low fever set -in, greatly alarming the anxious parents, who -were at a loss to divine the cause. As usual, -all the learned Hodjas were resorted to, but -their <i>Muskas</i>, prayers, and blessings failed to -revive the sinking health and spirits of the -maiden. One day I happened to visit this -family; the girl was seated at the corner -window, overlooking the street, dreamily gazing -out from behind the lattice. Her little -brother was playing by her side, while the -mother was describing to me the symptoms -of her daughter’s indisposition. The -little fellow suddenly jumped up, saying, -“<i>Ishdé</i> Ali Bey. I want to go to him!” -His sister started up, her cheeks suffused -with blushes, and left the room in confusion. -Both the mother and I noticed the incident, -though no remark was made about it at the -time by either of us; but I was at no loss -then to understand the reason of the girl’s -failing health and depression of spirits. A -short time after I heard of her engagement to -this young man, whom it appears she had -loved as a child. This love later on becoming -a hidden passion was shared by the youth -and stealthily interpreted between them by -the language of flowers, fruits, and scents, -the mediums generally resorted to by Turks -in such cases. The lover, handsome and intelligent, -was a mere <i>Kyatib</i>, who deemed his -limited means an obstacle to his aspiring to -the hand of one of the wealthiest young hanoums -of the town. I was present at the -marriage festivities of this lovely creature, -and saw her a year later a blooming wife and -mother.</p> - -<p>The trousseau comprises bedding, sometimes -to the amount of fifty sets, each composed -of two mattresses, two quilted coverlets, -and three cotton bolsters; kitchen utensils, -all of copper, very numerous, consisting -of two or three immense cauldrons, several -large jugs and pans, and a great number of -dinner-trays, with the services belonging to -them; among the wealthy one of these would -be of silver. It also comprises furniture for -two rooms of some rich material embroidered -with gold, a handsome <i>mangal</i> (brazier), curtains, -and a few carpets and rugs, besides the -house linen. The wardrobe contains several -expensive fur jackets, a shawl or two, some -<i>feridjés</i>, and a number of suits of apparel, -consisting of under-gowns and jackets. The -<i>gelinlik</i>, or wedding-dress, ranging in value -from sixty to hundreds of pounds, is embroidered -with gold and pearls. The rest are -less rich in material, and are of silk and -woollen stuffs, and less expensive materials -down to print <i>gedjliks</i>. The other articles -are chemises, a few pairs of stockings, boots, -and slippers, some dozens of worked handkerchiefs, -head-ties, and <i>yashmaks</i>, together -with a number of European odds and ends, -such as petticoats, gloves, and parasols.</p> - -<p>The <i>Duhun</i>, like the circumcision ceremony, -lasts a whole week, occasioning great -expense to the parents, who, however, cannot -possibly avoid it, and often incur debts -for its celebration that hang heavily upon -them through life.</p> - -<p>The customs connected with weddings -differ according to the district in which they -take place. In Macedonia I was highly -amused to see the manner in which the bride -was introduced into her new home. As soon -as her feet had crossed the threshold, a halter -was thrown round her neck and she was -dragged in by her husband, to teach her an -early lesson of gentle four-footed obedience; -on passing the first hearth-stone her head was -brought into violent contact with the wall, as -a warning of the chastisement she may expect -in case of misconduct.</p> - -<p>Her face is a mask of gold-dust and gum -worked on the cheeks, forehead, and chin -with spangles. The eyebrows are thickly -painted and meet over the nose, and the teeth -are blackened. This hideous disguisement is -worn till evening, when the bridegroom, on -his first visit to the bride, pours out the water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span> -with which she washes it away in order -to give the nuptial kiss.</p> - -<p>The wedding festivities begin on the Monday. -A number of friends and relatives collect -at the home of the bride to superintend -the final arrangement and expedition of the -trousseau to the bridegroom’s house. This -luggage is carried by <i>Hammals</i>, who, on arrival -at the house, are entitled beside their -fee to a <i>chevré</i>, or marked handkerchief -offered by the mother. They are preceded -on their march by the <i>Koulavouz</i>, who delivers -their burdens into the charge of the -mother-in-law or some responsible person. -Shortly afterwards, the bride’s party follows, -who after partaking of coffee and bonbons -are shown by the <i>hanoum</i> into the apartments -destined for the occupation of the bride.</p> - -<p>It is customary for Turkish youths who -have homes to take their wives to them on -marrying. Should the Konak be too small -to accommodate all the married sons, extra -wings are added to it. The guests, left to -themselves, at once set to work to decorate -the bridal chamber, some stretching strings -along the walls on which to hang the larger -articles of dress, such as furred and embroidered -jackets, <i>feridjés</i>, cloaks, and <i>intaris</i>, all -of bright colors, and richly worked and -trimmed. The shawls, prayer carpet, and -bridal <i>boghcha</i>, all objects of value, occupy -the centre of these rows, which are successively -surmounted by others, consisting of the -linen, kerchiefs, towels, head scarves, and -other adjuncts of the toilet, all arranged with -great taste. Along the top of the walls runs -a garland of crape flowers. The bride’s corner -is richly decorated with these and other -artificial flowers, arranged in the form of a -bower. This promiscuous exhibition of silk -gauze and various stuffs, intermingled with -embroidery in variegated silks, gold, and silver, -is most striking in effect, and forms, with -the bridal bower, a sight peculiarly Oriental -and gorgeous. The alcove is reserved for -the display of jewels and other precious objects -placed under glass shades.</p> - -<p>When this adornment (which takes up -the whole night) is completed, the party goes -to the next room and arranges the furniture -sent for it, thence proceeding to the hall and -unpacking the bedding, which, placed against -the walls upon the empty cases, forms a -huge mass of colored strata of silk, embroidery, -and bright cotton print. One or two -little stools of walnut wood, inlaid with -mother-of-pearl, support the candelabra, and -the <i>hochaf</i> tray with its prettily cut crystal -bowl and ivory spoons would be placed in -front, together with the brooms, dustpan of -walnut wood inlaid with silver, both patterns -of the same materials, and the kitchen utensils, -<i>mangals</i>, and all other belongings of the -bride.</p> - -<p>On Tuesday the bride is taken to the bath -with great ceremony, the expenses on this -occasion being defrayed by the bridegroom. -Before leaving the bath the bride is led three -times round the centre platform, kisses hands -all round, and goes out to be dressed. The -clothes she wears on this occasion must not -belong to her.</p> - -<p>On Wednesday, the bridegroom’s party of -lady friends go in a body to the home of the -bride, preceded by the <i>Koulavouz</i>, who announces -their arrival with an air of great importance. -Violent confusion ensues; the -mother, followed by her friends, descends -the staircase. They form a double row, each -couple conducting a visitor between them, -beginning with the bridegroom’s mother, and -proceed upstairs into apartments specially -reserved for the friends of the bridegroom, -who do not mix with the bride’s party on -this occasion. When their veils and cloaks -have been removed they seat themselves -round the room and partake of bitter coffee -and cigarettes, followed half an hour later by -sweet coffee. The bride is led into the room -by two hanoums who have only been married -once, and kisses the hands of all present, -beginning with her future mother-in-law, -and terminating with the youngest child in -the room. She is then seated on a chair near -her <i>Kayn Validé</i>, who is allowed on this occasion -to take her by her side for a few minutes -only, during which masticated sugar is -exchanged between them as a token of future -harmony. The bride is then taken away, -excused by some insipid remarks on the expiring -rights of maternal possession over her.</p> - -<p>The dancing girls and musicians are now -called in and perform before the company, -receiving money from each person as they -leave the room in order to entertain the other -party of guests. When the bridegroom’s -friends are about to leave they throw small -coins over the head of the bride, who is led -down to the door for the purpose. The -scramble that ensues among the hawkers of -sweets, fruits, etc., assembled in the court, -the children, the beggars, and innumerable -parasites crowding houses during the celebration -of a wedding, is beyond description.</p> - -<p>Before departure an invitation is given for -the evening to take part in the <i>Kena</i>, an entertainment -more especially designed for the -bride and her maiden friends. When the -company is assembled, tapers are handed to -each, and a procession formed, headed by -the bride, and accompanied by the dancing -girls and music. They descend the staircase -into the garden, and wind among the flower-beds -and groves of trees. The lights, the -gay dresses, flashing jewels, and floating hair -of the girls, the bright castanets, and the -wild songs and weird music of the accompanyists, -combine to form a glimpse of fairy-land, -or a dream of “The Thousand and -One Nights.”</p> - -<p>The ceremony of the <i>Kena</i> consists in the -application of the henna mixture, which is -prepared towards morning. The bride, after -being divested of her wedding finery, enters -the presence of her mother-in-law, shading -her eyes with her left arm, while she seats -herself in the middle of the room. A silk -bath scarf is thrown over her outstretched -right hand, and is then thickly plastered over -with the henna, upon which her mother-in-law -sticks a gold coin, her example being -followed by the rest of her company. This -hand placed in a silk bag relieves the other in -covering her eyes, and the left hand is in its -turn extended and gifted in like manner by -the bride’s mother and <i>her</i> friends; the feet -are also stained with the henna. This is followed -by the last dance, called the <i>Sakusum</i>, -performed by the <i>Chingis</i>, accompanied by a -song and gestures of the most unrestrained -and immodest nature, terminating in these -dancers taking extraordinary positions before -each guest, sometimes even sitting on their -knees to receive their reward, which consists -of a small gold coin, damped in the mouth, -and deposited on their unblushing foreheads. -In these proceedings, the modesty and innocence -of the young girls present is never -thought about.</p> - -<p>The bride reposes long enough for the -henna to impart its crimson dye, but not to -turn black, which would be considered a bad -augury.</p> - -<p>The only touching scene in the whole -course of the wedding ceremonies, the girding -of the bride by her father, takes place in -the presence of her mother and sisters just -before she leaves the home of her childhood. -The father enters the room appearing deeply -affected, and sometimes even joining his -tears to the weeping of his wife and daughters. -The bride, also weeping, falls at his -feet, kisses them, and kisses his hands, while -he presses her to his breast and girds her -with the bridal girdle, giving at the same -time some good advice and his blessing.</p> - -<p>In some district towns the bridegroom’s -male friends arrive at dawn with torches to -take away the bride. She is not, however, -seen by her husband until evening, when he -is taken to the mosque, and accompanied to -the door of his dwelling by the Imam. A -short prayer is offered, the company joining -in the refrain of <i>Amin, Amin</i>, at the conclusion -of which the happy man is pushed into -the house, a shower of blows falling on his -back; they then partake of sherbet standing, -and disperse. The bridegroom proceeding -upstairs comes upon a bowl of water, -which he upsets with his foot, scattering the -contents in all directions. The Koulavouz -meets and conducts him to the nuptial apartment, -where the bride, shy and trembling, -awaits the introduction of the complete stranger, -in whose hands her destiny for good or -for evil is now placed.</p> - -<p>She rises as he enters and kisses his hand; -her bridal veil removed by the Koulavouz is -spread on the floor and knelt on by the -bridegroom, who offers a solemn prayer, the -bride all the time standing on its edge behind -him. The couple then sit side by side; the -old lady approaching their heads together -while she shows them the reflection of their -united images in a mirror, and expresses her -wishes for the continuation of their present -harmonious union.</p> - -<p>Masticated sugar is exchanged between -them as a token of the sweetness that must -henceforth flow from their lips. Coffee follows, -after which the Koulavouz retires till -her services are again required for bringing -in the supper, which consists of sweets and -eggs, meat being excluded on the ground that -to indulge in it on so solemn an occasion -would lead to future bickerings between -them.</p> - -<p>The supper hour depends upon the shyness, -obstinacy, or good-will of the bride, over -whom her husband can have no control until -he has succeeded in making her respond to -his questions. Brides are recommended by -experienced matrons to remain mute as long -as possible, and the husband is sometimes -obliged to resort to a stratagem in order to -accomplish this. The anxiously looked-for -speech is at once echoed by the relieved husband -by a knock on the wall, which is the -signal for supper. This partaken of, the -bride is divested of her finery and the paint -and flowers washed off by the Koulavouz, -and left to repose after the fatigue and excitement -of five successive days of festivity, -still to be extended for two days longer. On -the morrow she is again decked in her wedding -apparel to receive the crowd of hanoums, -invited and uninvited, that flock to the -house to gaze upon her.</p> - -<p>I have said nothing about the bakhshish, or -presents, for the reason that the givers and -receivers are legion; nor of the kind of -amusement resorted to during these days, -since they consist principally in feasting, -drinking sherbet, smoking, and chatting, enlivened -only by the monotonous music and -the spectacle of dancing girls. This part -of the entertainment is so disgusting to behold, -and so repulsive to describe, that the -less I say about them the better; their immodesty -can only be matched by the obscene -conversations held by the numerous parasites -specially introduced for the amusement of -the company.</p> - -<p>Entertainments of a similar nature take -place at the same time in the Selamliks of -both houses.</p> - -<p>At Constantinople the bride is taken on the -Thursday morning from the paternal roof, -and conveyed in a carriage to her new home, -followed by a train of other carriages, preceded -by music and surrounded by buffoons, -performing absurd mummeries for the amusement -of the party, besides a numerous company -of unruly youths, some mounted and -others on foot, most of whom get intoxicated -and noisy on the occasion. The bride is received -by her husband at the door; he offers -his arm and conducts her upstairs through -the crowd of <i>hanoums</i>, who are not very -careful about hiding their faces, on the plea -that the bridegroom being otherwise occupied -will not look at them. He leads his -wife to the bower prepared for her, but before<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span> -taking her seat a scuffle ensues between -them for precedence, each trying to step -upon the foot of the other, the successful -person being supposed to acquire the right of -future supremacy.</p> - -<p>A Turkish wedding, as shown by this description, -in its frivolous forms and the absence -of the sanctity of a religious ordinance, -fails to impress one with the solemnity of -the Christian rite. The whole ceremony contains -many ridiculous superstitions and -much that is worse than absurd.</p> - -<p>Polygamy was no invention of Mohammed’s: -he found it already firmly rooted in -Arabia. To abolish it was an idea that could -never have entered his mind. We must only -be grateful to him for having to some extent -set bounds to its evils. But those bounds are -thoroughly inadequate. Four wives and -perfect facility of divorce are bad enough, -without reckoning the permission to keep as -many concubines as a man pleases. But the -wretched necessities of polygamy and divorce -are wrapped up with the harem system. The -latter absolutely demands the former; and -though cases of true love do exist in Turkey -where a man resigns the so-called pleasures -of polygamy and of possessing odalisks; yet -it may be confidently asserted that until the -harem system, and with it polygamy, are -finally abolished, the condition of Mohammedan -women can never be anything but degraded.</p> - -<p>Interested marriages are often contracted -by young Turks, to whom ambition or gratitude -recommends as partners some faded -court beauties called <i>Serailis</i>, or the ugly and -deformed daughter of the patron to whom -they owe their position and upon whom they -depend for future promotion. The number -of vizirs and pashas that have attained such -high rank solely through the interest and influence -of their wives is very great; a fact -which, if better known by Europeans, would -disabuse them of the idea that a Turkish wife -of every rank is the slave of her husband. I -have seen innumerable cases denoting the -reverse. The fraternity of meek, submissive, -and hen-pecked husbands is, I suppose, -like the gypsies, to be found all over the -world. Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on being informed -that his favorite wife had concealed -one of her lovers in a cupboard, had a scene -with her, during which he received a sound -box on the ear. At last the tyranny of this -much-loved beauty passed all endurance, and -the Sultan decided upon putting her away -and sending her into exile. His Grand Vizir -Reshid Pasha, was charged with the task of -visiting the Sultana and enforcing upon her -the Imperial order. She received him, heard -her fate unmoved, and, still confident in -the supreme power she possessed over her -lord and master, quietly collared his Grand -Vizir and walked him out of the room.</p> - -<p>O⸺ Pasha, in his young days, contracted -a marriage of this kind with the -daughter of an influential minister. She was -humpbacked, with a face so distorted as to -render a disinterested marriage hopeless. I -made her acquaintance at Uskup, as she -passed through on her way to the interior of -Albania, where her husband had been appointed -Governor-General. She told me that -she had made a great sacrifice in leaving her -beautiful <i>Yahli</i> on the Bosphorus and undertaking -a journey the perils and hardships of -which were nearly killing her, but that she -thought it her duty to be near her husband -lest he, yielding to the temptation occasioned -by the absence of her surveillance, should -form new ties that might rob her of her -rights. “Do you Franks,” she asked, -“trust your husbands out of your sight?”</p> - -<p>A week after her departure, another fussy -arrival of harems put Uskup into commotion. -On my inquiring whose they were, I was told -that they were the beautiful Circassian Odalisks -of O⸺ Pasha, who were following -the steps of his wife, entirely unknown to -her. On arriving at their destination I learnt -that they had been carefully smuggled by -their owner into a house which he visited -under the pretext of the long <i>teptil</i>, or night -watches, he had to make in the town in order -to see that all was right among his unruly -Arnaouts. It is true the story cuts two -ways: it not only shows that the husband -dared not be openly unfaithful to his wife, -but also that her suspicious surveillance was -entirely ineffectual.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CHRISTIAN WEDDINGS—GREEK, BULGARIAN, -AND ARMENIAN.</span></h2> - -<p><i>Greek Weddings.</i>—The <i>Arravón</i>—Dowry—The -Bridegroom’s Call of Ceremony—The Wedding Festivities—Monday: -the Sifting of the Grain—Wednesday: -the Making of the Wedding Cakes—Friday: -Bridal Presents—Saturday: Invitations; Dressing of -the Bride’s Hair and Shaving of the Bridegroom—Sunday: -the Wedding; Kissing of the Bridegroom—The -Second <i>Arravón</i>—Duties of Best Man—At the Church—Ceremonies -on re-entering the House—The final -Dance—Monday: Feeding of the Bride—Offering at -the Well—Separation and Divorce among the Greeks.</p> - -<p><i>Bulgarian Weddings.</i>—Betrothal—Never Broken—Preparatory -Ceremonies—The Wedding—Procession -to the Cellar—Christian Marriage Service mixed with -Dionysian Rites—Offering to the Water Deities—Punishment -of Unchastity—Turkish Raids upon Brides—Bulgarian -Trousseau—Marriage among the Wealthy -Bulgarians of the Towns—Ladies from Abroad.</p> - -<p><i>Armenian Weddings.</i>—The Offer—Wedding Ceremonies—Friday: -the Bath—Saturday: the Maidens’ -Feast—Sunday: Feast of Young Men and Girls—Caging -of the Bride—The Bridegroom’s Toilette—The -Barber—Procession to the Bride—“Half-Service”—To -the Church—Multiple Marriage—Rite—Return to -the House—Scramble for Stockings—The Virgin -Guard—Wednesday: Conclusion of Marriage—Etiquette -of Conversation.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Greek weddings vary in form and custom -according to the country in which they are -celebrated and to the degree of modification -ancient customs have experienced under the -influence of modern ideas. One of the most -interesting forms is that practised at Vodena -(Edessa, the ancient capital of Macedonia), -as comprising in its forms many of the customs -and usages of the ancient Greeks. The -preliminary ceremony is the ἀρραβών, or troth, -which, though it is not a religious rite, is -considered binding, and cannot lightly be set -aside. An incident that happened at Broussa -will show how strong is the bond of this -mere verbal engagement. A young Greek -girl, who had been talked about in the town, -was portioned by her influential protector, -and engaged to a young peasant who was -unacquainted with her and ignorant of her -antecedents and was induced to pledge his -word to marry her. All had been prepared -for the ceremony. The young man was hurried -to church, where he and his friends became -acquainted with the bride. Her appearance -did not satisfy the bridegroom, and -he refused to fulfil his promise. The officiating -priest insisted on the completion of the -ceremony, in right of the bridegroom’s -pledged word. A scuffle ensued, and the -active peasant, helped by his friends, effected -his escape from the church, leaving his -<i>fez</i> in the hands of one of his antagonists; -and, later on, obtained his release by legal -proceedings.</p> - -<p>Contrary to European custom, the young -men are sought in marriage by the parents of -the girl, or through the intermediary, in imitation -of their ancestors, who employed such -persons in this service.</p> - -<p>The usual age for the men is twenty-five, -and for the girls eighteen. The dowry is -settled in the presence of witnesses, who -bear testimony to the right of inheritance -of the children, and the <i>arravón</i> is considered -concluded when the bridegroom declares -himself satisfied with the amount of the promised -dowry. This belongs unconditionally -to the husband, except in case of divorce, -when it is returned, in accordance with a law -identical with that of the ancient Athenians. -The modern Greeks appear to attach as -much importance to the dowry as the ancient, -although it is no longer meant to denote -the difference between the γυνή and the -παλλακή, which was marked by the wife -bringing a dowry whilst the concubine -brought none.</p> - -<p>The <i>trousseau</i> is being prepared long before -it is required by the careful parents, who by -degrees buy all the materials for it, the girl -herself having no other concern than to give -her help towards making up the various articles -of dress.</p> - -<p>No Greek of the present day would refuse -to co-operate with his father in portioning -his sisters. He will renounce to himself the -privilege of taking a wife while any of his -sisters remain unmarried.</p> - -<p>As soon as the engagement is made public, -the συνδεδεμένος, in company with his relatives -and friends, pays his respects to the -house of his future wife, who presents herself -in an extremely bashful attitude, her -eyes cast down, her hands crossed on her -breast, and her mien on the whole that of -one who tries to conceal pride and joy under -a stiff and conceited exterior.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Receiving -the felicitations of those present, she bows -three times, and then retires. Gilt βασιλικός -(basil) is offered as a memento of the event, -a relic of the ancients, who used herbs and -flowers in connection with the affairs of marriage. -As the company retire, the ἀρραβωνιαστική -(bride), standing at the head of the -staircase, kisses the hands of her future husband -and his friends, receiving in return gifts -of gold coins. This custom of kissing hands -on the part of the woman is a humiliating, -but in the East a common, mark of submission, -which our western ideas have happily -reversed.</p> - -<p>It is customary for the bridegroom to send -occasional presents to the bride in the interval—of -varying length—between the betrothal -and the wedding. The document containing -the conditions of the ἀρραβών is delivered -to the bridegroom on the Sunday previous -to the wedding, and its receipt is acknowledged -by a present of bonbons, henna, hair-dye, -rouge, and soap, together with a double -flask containing wine.</p> - -<p>On Monday, the bride and her maiden -friends collect, and, as in olden time, sift the -grain, which, on its return from the mill, -will be converted by them into bridal cakes. -Very bright are the faces and very merry the -voices of these young maidens thus busily -employed; the room resounds with their gay -laughter and joyous songs. On Wednesday -the gay company again assembles, increased -in number by friends and relatives, who arrive -in the evening to assist in kneading the -dough. The trough is brought in and filled -with a snowy pile of flour, which the Macedonian -maidens delight in converting into -savory cakes that none could disdain to partake -of; and, especially on this occasion, -they do their utmost to make them worthy -emblems of what their ancestors intended -them to represent. The trough is occupied -at one end by a saddle mounted by a boy -girded with a sword; on the other by a girl, -whose tiny hands must be the first to mix the -dough and lose in it the ring and coins. -These children must be bright and happy, -their lives unclouded by the death of even a -distant relation. This custom, having survived -the march of centuries, is left as an inheritance -to the Macedonians, pointing out -to the γαμβρός (bridegroom) the duties of the -husband, the care and defence of his home,—together -with his out-door labors,—while -it signifies to the Macedonian maiden that -she cannot begin too early to attend to her -household affairs. The kneading is continued -by more experienced hands, and the -dough left till the morrow, when it is divided -into portions and handed round to the company, -who all hopefully look for the hidden -ring, for which the lucky finder receives a -present when returning it to the bridegroom. -The paste, re-collected, is mixed with the -rest of the dough, from which the <i>propkasto</i><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span> -(wedding cake) and a variety of other cakes -are made. On Thursday the <i>propkasto</i> is -placed over a bowl of water, round which, -after the merry mid-day meal, the happy -youths and maidens dance three times, singing -a song suited to the occasion. The cake -is then taken up, broken in pieces, and, together -with figs and other fruits, thrown over -the heads of the couple; the children, -scrambling for these, are covered with a -blanket, another surviving custom of ancient -Greece, figs and cakes denoting plenty, rendered -doubly significant by the scrambling -children covered with the blanket, emblematic -of the future fruitfulness of the union -itself.</p> - -<p>Friday is reserved for the interchange of -presents between the bride and bridegroom, -each awaiting with loving curiosity the expected -gift of the other; the right of the -first surprise belongs to the bride, whose beating -heart responds to the distant sounds of -music that herald the approach of the bearers, -who, on arrival, after having been thanked -and refreshed, are intrusted with the presents -destined by her for her betrothed.</p> - -<p>On Saturday, invitations are issued, a formality -extended to the bride and bridegroom -who invite one another, enlivened, as regards -the <i>Koumbáros</i> and <i>Koumbára</i>,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> with bands -of music, which, accompanying the invitation, -lead these distinguished visitors back to -partake of the festivities of the day.</p> - -<p>In the evening the young girls for the last -time rally round their comrade, who, on the -next day, is to leave their ranks; and, amid -songs, tears, and vows of unalterable friendship, -the bride abandons her youthful locks, -dyed black, into the hands of her friends, -who dress it in a number of plaits in readiness -for the next day. The bridegroom on -his part, accompanied by his friends and -cheered by the sounds of lively music, submits -to the operation of shaving; during -which operation an ode to the razor is sung.</p> - -<p>Sunday, looked upon as the most propitious -day, is fixed for the celebration of the -nuptials; relatives and friends collect at the -abode of the bridegroom, kiss the happy -man, offering him felicitations and presents, -and conduct him to the home of the bride, -preceded by the mother, who, on leaving the -house, empties a jar of water at the gate, and -places on the ground a belt, over which her -son steps. The procession stops on its way -to take the <i>koumbáros</i> and the <i>koumbára</i>. -On arriving at their destination, the formality -of exchanging the documents containing -the marriage contracts is gone through; -these are presented by the priest to the respective -parties, the dowry in cash is delivered -and sent to the bridegroom’s home. -The second ἀρραβών then takes place in the -following manner, and in accordance with -the customs of the ancient Greeks. The -bride’s father, or nearest of kin, presents -himself to the father, or nearest of kin, of the -bridegroom, and offers him in a plate some -basil, saying, “Accept the engagement of -my daughter to your son,” repeating his request -three times; this ceremony is repeated -on the bridegroom’s side, and followed by -the presentation of a glass of wine, a ring-shaped -cake, and a spoon to the bridegroom, -who partakes of the wine, and drops money -into the glass, in acknowledgment to the -bride of this attention; he keeps half the -cake, giving the other half and the spoon -into the charge of the best man, who feeds -the bride with it next morning. This messenger -is followed by another, who comes to -gird the bridegroom, lifting him up at the -same time, which latter task is made as difficult -as possible by the person operated upon, -in order to gain more consideration. More -kisses are now showered upon him by the -relatives of the bride, after which he is left in -peace for a time; while the bride, in another -room, has her own trials to go through, those -trials of the heart which belong to the supreme -moment when the maiden is about to -tear herself away from the thousand dear -associations of home, to bid farewell to -mother and brother and sister, and then to -enter upon new duties, new ties and affections.</p> - -<p>Like all things, this soon comes to an end; -it is the best man’s duty to conclude it, in a -strictly unsentimental manner, by putting -on the bride’s boots, a gift from her future -husband. The bride, veiled, is led to the -church, followed by the rest of the company; -bonbons are thrown over her head and -water spilt, this time by her mother, on her -march as she passes the gate. The clear -rhythm of a triumphal march, accompanied -by a bridal chorus, rules the slow steps of -the procession. At length it reaches the -church; but before entering it, the bridegroom’s -mother asks the maiden three times, -“Bride, hast thou the shoes?” The couple -then enter the church, holding richly-decorated -tapers, and proceed to the altar, where -they stand side by side, the bride on the left -of the bridegroom. The priest, after reading -part of the ritual, makes the sign of the cross -three times with the rings over the heads of -their respective owners, and places them on -their hands, saying, Ἀρραβωνίζετε ὁ δοῦλος τοῦ -θεοῦ (giving the name of the man), τὴν δούλην -τοῦ θεοῦ (the name of the woman), in the name -of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, three -times; leaving to the <i>koumbáros</i> the duty of -exchanging them. This terminates the third -ἀρραβών, and the marriage service begins by -the priest taking the wedding wreaths, placing -them on the heads of the bride and the -bridegroom, saying, Στέφετε ὁ δοῦλος τοῦ θεοὑ -(giving the name of the bridegroom), τὴν -δούλην τοῦ θεοῦ (the name of the woman), in -the name of the Father, etc., exchanging -them three times. A glass of wine, consecrated -by the priest, is offered first to the -bridegroom, then to the bride, and finally to -the <i>koumbáros</i> standing behind the couple -holding the wreaths. The priest then joins -their hands, and leads them three times round -the altar; the <i>koumbáros</i> follows. The priest -then removes the bridegroom’s crown, saying, -Μεγαλύνθητι Νυμφίε ὡς ὁ Ἀβραὰμ καὶ εὐλογήθητι -ὡς ὁ Ἰσαὰκ καὶ πληθύνθητι ὡς ὁ Ἰακώβ, -and that of the bride, saying, Καὶ σὺ, νύμφη, -μεγλιζε ὡς ἡ Σαῤῥὰ καὶ εὐφράνθητι ὠς ἡ Ῥεβεχὰ, -κ. τ. λ.</p> - -<p>The ceremony concluded, the <i>koumbáros</i> -followed by the relations, kisses the bride -and bridegroom, while the friends in offering -their congratulations kiss the bridegroom and -the wreath of the bride. On returning, the -bride’s mother welcomes the couple by placing -two loaves on their heads, while a fresh -shower of comfits is being thrown over -them. They are finally conducted to the -nuptial chamber, and not spared the ordeal -of sweetmeat-eating. The quince of the ancients -is replaced by sugar-plums.</p> - -<p>The manner in which this is given and -taken is curious. The couple bend on one -knee, placing a few sugar-plums on the other, -which each strives to pick up with the lips, -the most expeditious having the right first to -resume liberty of posture. I have not been -able to ascertain if this particular custom is -meant to predict supreme power to the lord -and master in case of success, or his subjection -to petticoat government in case of failure.</p> - -<p>Towards evening, the bride, led by her -father-in-law, or husband’s nearest of kin, -proceeds to the common outside the town or -village, and opens a round dance, called the -<i>surto</i>. This dance consists of a quick step, -accompanied by music and chanting; after -its performance the company disperse, the -nearest relations leading the couple home.</p> - -<p>On Monday morning the sleepers are wakened -by songs, and the <i>koumbáros</i>, invited to -partake of the frugal morning meal, feeds -the bride with the remaining half of the cake, -and offers her the spoon with which she eats -the first mouthful of food that day.</p> - -<p>Breakfast over, the bride is the first to -leave the table, and goes to the well accompanied -by her friends, round which she -walks three times, dropping an <i>obol</i> into it -from her lips, a sacred attention of the ancients -to the water deities, and still in vogue -among the moderns. On returning home, -the bride, desirous of making her husband -share in the benefits of her dedication, pours -some water over his hands, offering at the -same time the towel on which to dry them, -and receiving in return a present from him.</p> - -<p>The rejoicings continue throughout the -day, the bride’s father, or nearest of kin, -having this time the right of opening the -dance with her.</p> - -<p>On the following Friday evening, the -young matron proudly returns in company -with her husband, to the paternal roof, under -which they remain till Saturday night.</p> - -<p>Five days afterwards the bride again returns -to visit her mother, taking with her a -bottle of <i>raki</i>, which she exchanges, taking -a fresh supply back with her. The Saturday -following, a great feast is given by the bride’s -father, inviting all the relatives to a cordial -but sober meal. In the evening the bride is -accompanied home by the party, when she is -left in peace to enter upon the duties of her -new home.</p> - -<p>The modern Greeks fully deserve the praise -they receive for the virtues that distinguish -their family life, the harmony of which is -seldom disturbed by the troubles and dissensions -caused by illegal connections, acts of -cruelty, or other disorders. Incompatibility -of feeling in unhappy unions is wisely settled -by separation. In more serious cases a divorce -is appealed for to the bishop of the diocese, -who submits it to the council of the <i>demogerontia</i>, -which, according to the merits -of the case, gives a decision, or refers it to -the Patriarch at Constantinople. Thus the -scandal of an open court of law is avoided, -and the offspring, innocent of all participation -in the crime (should there be any) are -not made to suffer from its unjust stigma.</p> - -<h3>MARRIAGE AMONG THE BULGARIANS.</h3> - -<p>Fourteen years spent among Bulgarians -afforded me the opportunity of witnessing -many marriage ceremonies, which were very -peculiar and interesting. Especially curious -are those of Upper Macedonia, as presenting -remarkable traces of Dionysian worship.</p> - -<p>The matrimonial negotiations are carried -on by the <i>stroinichitsita</i> and <i>stroinitcote</i>, persons -commissioned by the parents to find a -suitable <i>parti</i> for their marriageable daughters; -the proposal, among the peasants, being -addressed by the man to the parents of the -girl, who accept it on the promise of a sum -of money, ranging from £50 to £300, according -to his means. The sum is offered -as purchase-money for the labor of the hardy -maiden, whose substantial assistance in field -and other work to the <i>paterfamilias</i> ceases on -the marriage day, when her services pass to -her husband.</p> - -<p>Wednesday or Thursday evenings are considered -most propitious for the betrothal, -which takes place in the presence of witnesses, -and consists in the exchange of marriage -contracts, certifying on one side the -promised sum of money, and on the other -stating the quantity and quality of the <i>trousseau</i> -the bride will bring. The interchange -of contracts is followed by that of rings between -the affianced, offered to them by the -priest who asks each person if the proposal -of the other is accepted. A short blessing -follows, and this simple betrothal is concluded -by the bride kissing the hands of her -affianced husband and of the rest of the company.</p> - -<p>These engagements, never known to be -broken, are often prolonged for years by selfish -parents, who are unwilling to part with -the services of a daughter who is valued as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span> -an efficient laborer. This unjust delay gives -rise to clandestine associations, tolerated, but -not acknowledged, by the parents, and finally -ending in matrimony. Runaway marriages -are also of frequent occurrence in cases when -there is difficulty about the payment of the -portion. The young couple elope on an appointed -day, and ride to the nearest church, -where they are at once united. On returning -home the bride usually hides herself in -the house of some relative, until friends intervening -obtain her father’s forgiveness.</p> - -<p>The principles of good faith and honor are -sacredly kept among these simple people, -who are never known to break their pledged -word under any circumstances.</p> - -<p>How curious would an English girl think -the preliminary customs that a virgin in this -fine, but now neglected, country must observe -before entering upon the state of holy -matrimony. And yet, rude and primitive as -these customs are, they well deserve our attention -as having once belonged, in part at -least, to a wonderful civilization, now lost, -but never to be forgotten.</p> - -<p>Preparing the house for the coming festivity, -washing with ceremony the bride’s -head, exhibiting the <i>trousseau</i> for the inspection -of the matrons, who do not spare their -criticism on its merits or demerits, while the -young and thoughtless are busy putting a -last stitch here and there amid gay songs and -cheerful talk; the ornamentation of cakes -sent round to friends and relatives in lieu of -invitation cards,—all these are old customs -which ring in unison with the peaceful and -industrious habits of a people whose life in -happier times reminded one of the Arcadias -of the poets.</p> - -<p>Nor is the marriage ceremony itself void -of interest. I was present at one of these -while staying at a large Bulgarian settlement -in Upper Macedonia. The village, buried in -a picturesque glen, looked bright and cheery. -Its pretty white church and neat school-house -stood in the midst; around were the -farm-houses and cottages, roofed with stone -slabs, standing in large farmyards, where the -golden hay and corn-stacks, the green trees, -and small flower-beds disputed the ground -with a roving company of children, pigs, and -fowls.</p> - -<p>The wedding took place in the house of a -rich Chorbadji, who was giving his daughter -in marriage to a young Bulgarian from a -village on the opposite side of the glen. The -festivities began on a Monday and lasted -through the week, each day bringing its duties -and pleasures, its songs, music, and dancing,—indispensable -parts of a Bulgarian peasant’s -existence.</p> - -<p>On the eve of the wedding-day the virgin -meal took place, each maiden arriving with -her offering of sweets in her hands. It was -a pretty sight to look at all those bright -young faces, for the time free from care and -lighted up with smiles of content and joy. -It takes so little to amuse innocent peasant -girls, for whom a day of rest is a boon in itself, -well appreciated and generally turned -to good account.</p> - -<p>On Sunday, in the early forenoon, the company -once more assembled. The children, -washed and dressed, played about the yard, -filling the air with their joyous voices. The -matrons led their daughters in their bright -costumes, covered with silver ornaments, -their heads and waists garlanded with flowers. -The young men also, decked out in -their best, and equally decorated with flowers, -stood to see them pass by, and to exchange -significant smiles and looks.</p> - -<p>On entering the house, I was politely -offered a seat in the room where the bride, in -her wedding dress, a tight mantelet closely -studded with silver coins, and hung about -with strings of coins intertwined with flowers, -sat awaiting the arrival of the bridegroom’s -company, who were to lead her to -her new home. The sound of distant music -soon announced their approach, and was the -signal for the touching scene of <i>adieux</i>. All -the bride’s smiles died away, and tears stood -in every eye. Kissing hands all round, and -being kissed in return, she was led by her -father to the gate, and mounted upon a horse -that awaited her; the rest of the company -followed her, all mounted also. The scene -changed, and as we rode along the mountain -paths I felt myself transported into the -mythological age in the midst of a company of -Thyiades, garlanded with flowers and vine-leaves, -proceeding to the celebration of their -festival. The procession, headed by a standard-bearer -carrying a banner surmounted -by an apple, and followed by a band of -music, wended its way along the mountain -paths. The wild strains of the minstrels -were echoed by the shouts and songs of the -company, excitedly careering among the -flowery intricacies of the mountain passes, -like a wild chorus of Bacchantes. On entering -the village, the procession was completed -by the addition of the <i>Nunco</i> (best man) with -the <i>Stardever</i>, who, like the Kanephoroi in -the Dionysia, carried baskets of fruit, cakes, -the bridal crowns, and the flasks of wine, and -led the sacrificial goat with its gilded horns, -all gifts of the <i>Nunco</i>.</p> - -<p>On arriving at the gate of the bridegroom’s -house, the standard-bearer marched in and -planted his banner in the middle of the court. -The bride, following, stayed her horse before -it, and, after a verse had been sung by the -company,<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> she bowed three times, and was -assisted to dismount by her father-in-law. -On parting with her horse she kissed his -head three times, and then, holding one end -of a handkerchief extended to her by her -father-in-law, was led into a kind of huge -cellar, dimly lighted by the few rays that -found their way through narrow slits high -up in the walls. In the midst stood a wine-barrel -crowned with the bridal cake, on -which was placed a glass of wine. The -scene here deepened in interest; the priests, -in their gorgeous sacerdotal robes and high -black hats, holding crosses in their hands, -stood over this Bacchanalian altar awaiting -the bride and bridegroom, who, garlanded -with vine-leaves and also holding tapers, advanced -solemnly, when the sacred Christian -marriage rite, thus imbued with the mysteries -of the Dionysian festivals, was performed. -After having tasted the wine contained in the -glass, and while walking hand-in-hand three -times round the barrel, a shower of fruits, -cakes, and sugar-plums was thrown over the -couple. The ceremony ended by the customary -kissing, as observed among the Greeks. -The company then sat down to a hearty -meal. The feasting on such occasions lasts -till morning; dancing, drinking, and singing -continue till dawn, without, however, any -excess.</p> - -<p>The next day, the banner crowned with -the apple, still keeping its place, proclaims to -the guests who come to lead the bride to the -village well to throw in her <i>obol</i>, that she has -virtuously acquired the rights of a wife. -Should the reverse be the case, the bride receives -severe corporal punishment, and -mounted on a donkey, with her face turned -towards its tail, which she holds in her -hands, is led back to her father’s house—a -barbarous custom which must be set aside -after the disorders lately committed in this -country.</p> - -<p>The custom of marrying in the most retired -part of the house, instead of the church, -among the peasants, is, according to my information, -the result of the dread they had -in times of oppression of giving unnecessary -publicity to their gatherings, and thus inviting -the cupidity of some savage band of -their oppressors, who scrupled not when -they had a chance to fall upon and rob -and injure them. This state of things was -brought back during late events.</p> - -<p>Some months ago, a marriage was taking -place in the village of B⸺, in Macedonia. -The bridal procession had just returned -from church, when a band of ferocious -Turks fell upon the house where the festivities -were being held, robbing and beating -right and left, until they arrived at the unfortunate -bride, whom, after divesting of -all her belongings, they dishonored and left -to bewail her misfortunes in never-ending -misery. The distracted husband, barely -escaping with his life, rushed into the street, -loudly calling upon his Christian brethren to -shoot him down, and thus relieve him of the -life whose burden he could not bear.</p> - -<p>The <i>trousseau</i> of a Bulgarian peasant girl -consists of the following articles: A long -shirt, embroidered with fine tapestry work in -worsted or colored silks round the collar, -sleeves, and skirt; a sleeveless coat (<i>sutna</i>), -tightly fitting the figure, made of home-spun -woollen tissue, also richly embroidered; a sash -(<i>poyous</i>), made of plaited wool, half an inch -wide and about eighty yards long, with which -they gird themselves; an overcoat, also embroidered; -an apron, completely covered with -embroidery; embroidered woollen socks, garters, -and red shoes. The head-dress varies -according to the district. In Bulgaria proper -a sort of high coif is worn, not unlike the -pointed cap of English ladies in the Middle -Ages. In Macedonia, to the hair, cut short -upon the forehead and plaited behind in a -number of braids, is added a long fringe of -black wool, braided, fastened round the head -and falling below the knees; the crown of -the head being covered with a richly embroidered -white cloth, fastened on with innumerable -silver ornaments and strings of -coins. The whole wardrobe, made of strong, -durable materials, is home-spun and home-made, -and being elaborately embroidered -forms an <i>ensemble</i> extremely picturesque, -very durable, and well adapted to the mode -of life of the wearers. One of these dresses -often requires three months’ constant work -to accomplish its embroidery; but I may as -well add that it will take a lifetime to wear -it out.</p> - -<p>In addition to these articles of dress, whose -number varies according to the condition of -the person for whom they are intended, carpets, -rugs, towels, and a few sheets are -added, together with a number of silver ornaments, -such as belts, necklaces, earrings, and -bracelets, some of which are extremely pretty.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian <i>trousseaux</i>, needing so much -time and work, are in course of preparation -while the children for whom they are intended -are still in their infancy, and as each article -is woven, it is packed away in a long, -bolster-shaped bag, in unison with their careful -custom of exposing their belongings to -observation as little as possible.</p> - -<p>I shall not dwell long upon the marriage -of the wealthy in large towns like Philippopolis. -The religious service used is that of -the orthodox Greek Church, since there is no -doctrinal difference between the creeds of the -Greeks and the Bulgarians.</p> - -<p>The festivities, both among rich and poor, -are continued for a week; the former still -adhering to some of the old usages for form’s -sake. In the town of Philippopolis the native -customs have been in part set aside and -replaced by the European. At the last marriage -I witnessed there the bride was a shy -little beauty, well versed in her own language, -with a pretty good knowledge of -modern Greek and a smattering of French. -Her <i>trousseau</i>, like those of many of her -rank, had been received from Vienna, as well -as the bridal dress, veil, and wreaths, presents -from the bridegroom. Some years ago -dowries were not demanded, but a good -amount of fine jewelry, much appreciated -by Bulgarian ladies, formed an indispensable -appendage to the <i>trousseau</i>.</p> - -<p>Besides the European apparel given to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -brides, a large amount of native home-made -articles of dress and house linen are added. -Some of these are of exquisite taste and -workmanship, such as <i>crêpe</i> chemises, made -of mixed raw and floss silk; embroidered -towels and sheets, worked with an art and -taste that can well vie with the finest French -and English embroideries; besides tissues in -home-woven silk and cotton for bedding, and -other articles of native manufacture that -would be well appreciated if they could find -their way into the wardrobes of fashionable -Europeans.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian <i>élite</i> follow the custom of -being asked in marriage on the lady’s side.</p> - -<p>A number of Bulgarians are now educated -in foreign countries, and attain distinction -and great success in the professions they -exercise. When a sufficient competence for -life has been acquired, they return to their -homes in order to marry on their native soil, -to which they are devotedly attached.</p> - -<p>Great is the commotion that the return of -one of these absentees occasions. Each -member of the tribe of <i>Stroinicotes</i>, busily -working in the interest he or she represents, -tries to outdo the others, until the coveted -prize is obtained. In the mean time the newcomer -is feasted in every direction, the mothers -doing their utmost to be amiable and the -daughters to look their best; while the fathers -are calculating whether the new custom -of giving dowries to their daughters is likely -to be one of the conditions of the hopeful -match. Great is the glee of a parent on -hearing the welcome words of <i>Né kem pari; -sa kumchupa</i> (I ask no money; I want the -maiden), upon which the match is soon concluded -by the usual routine of betrothal, -exchange of contracts, and presents. The -lover is free to visit his <i>fiancée</i>, and instill into -her mind the ideas and feelings that must -elevate her to his own standard; a praiseworthy -duty, often crowned with success -when the husband undertakes it in earnest. -Some of my most esteemed friends in Bulgaria -were the wives of highly educated men. -The knowledge they possessed was limited; -but they were gentle, virtuous, ladylike, and -admirable housewives, devoting all their -efforts to the education and improvement of -their children, in whom they try to develop -those talents and qualities that in their own -youth had been left untrained. The Bulgarians -after marriage are attached to their -home, husband and wife uniting their efforts -to make it comfortable and happy.</p> - -<h3>ARMENIAN WEDDINGS.</h3> - -<p>The Armenian <i>fiançailles</i>, although contracted -in a very simple fashion, are not -easily annulled, and can only be set aside for -very serious reasons.</p> - -<p>A priest, commissioned by the friends of -the aspirant, makes the proposals of marriage -to the young lady’s parents. Should the -offer be accepted, he is again sent, accompanied -by another priest, to present to the -<i>fiancée</i> a small gold cross bought by her betrothed -for the benefit of the Church, and of -a price proportioned to the means of the -family.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p> - -<p>Girls are given in marriage at a very early -age, some when they are but twelve years -old; but men seldom marry before they are -twenty-two.</p> - -<p>The wedding ceremony, as I remember -seeing it in my childhood, and as it still takes -place in Armenia, where customs <i>à la Franca</i> -have not yet penetrated among the primitive, -semi-civilized people, is a truly curious proceeding. -Like the Turkish wedding, it takes -place on a Monday. A priest is sent by the -bride’s parents to inform those of the bridegroom -that all is ready and the <i>Duhun</i> may -begin. On the Friday, invitations are issued -and the bride is taken to the bath with great -ceremony. On the Saturday, musicians are -called in, and all the young maidens assemble -to partake of a feast intended especially for -them, and extended to the poor, who come -in flocks to share in the good things.</p> - -<p>Next day this festivity is repeated; the -dinner is served at three, and the young men -are allowed to wait upon the girls—a rare -privilege, equally pleasing to either sex, at -other times excluded from each other’s society—and -it is needless to say that they now -make the most of their opportunities.</p> - -<p>As soon as this repast is over, the married -people sit down to the wedding dinner in a -patriarchal fashion, husband and wife side -by side, while the young men are the last to -partake of the bridal repast. In the evening, -they are again admitted to the company -of the ladies, on the plea of handing refreshments -to them. About ten o’clock the bride -is taken into another room by her friends, -who place upon her head a curious silver -plate, over which a long piece of scarlet silk -is thrown, falling to her feet, secured at the -sides by ribbons, enveloping her in a complete -bag, drawn tight at the top of her head, -under the silver plate; two extraordinary-looking -wings called <i>sorgooch</i>, made of stiff -card-board, covered with feathers, are fastened -on each side of the head. When this -disguise is complete, the bride, blindfolded -by her veil, is led forth from the apartment, -and conducted by her father or nearest male -relative to open a round dance, during the -performance of which money is showered -over her. She is then led to a corner, where -she sits awaiting the arrival of the bridegroom -in the solitude of her crimson cage.</p> - -<p>The bridegroom’s toilette begins early in -the afternoon: he is seated in the middle of -the room surrounded by a joyous company -of friends; the <i>gingahar</i>, or best man, and a -host of boys arrive, accompanied by the band -of music sent in search of them.</p> - -<p>The barber, an all-important functionary, -must not be overlooked: razor in hand, girded -with his silk scarf, his towel over one -shoulder, and a species of leather strap over -the other, he commences operations, prolonged -during an indefinite period, much enlivened -by his gossip and <i>bon mots</i>, and turned -to his advantage by the presents he receives -from the assembled company, who, one by -one, suspend their gifts on a cord, stretched -by him for the purpose across the room. -These gifts consist chiefly of towels, pieces -of cloth, scarves, etc. When the gossip considers -the generosity of the company exhausted, -he gives the signal for the production -of the wedding garments, which, brought -in state together with the bridegroom’s presents -to his bride, must receive the benediction -of the priest before they can be used.</p> - -<p>After the evening meal has been partaken -of, the gifts, accompanied by the musicians, -are conveyed to the bride, the company following -with the bridegroom, who walks between -two torches, and is met at the door by -another band of music.</p> - -<p>On entering the presence of his future -mother-in-law and her nearest relatives, he -receives a gift from her and respectfully -kisses her hand. Allowed a few moments’ -rest, he is seated on a chair between two flaring -torches, after which he is led into the -presence of his veiled bride, to whom he extends -his hand, which she takes, extricating -her own with difficulty from under her <i>duvak</i>, -and is assisted to descend from her sofa corner, -and stands facing her betrothed with -her forehead reclining against his. A short -prayer, called the “half service,” is read -over the couple; their hands, locked together, -must not be loosed till they arrive at the -street door, when two bridesmaids supporting -the bride on each side lead her at a slow -pace to the church.</p> - -<p>The procession is headed by the bridegroom -and his men, followed by the bride -and the ladies; no person is allowed to cross -the road between the two parties. On entering -the sacred edifice, the couple, making the -sign of the cross three times, offer a prayer, -believing that whatever they ask at this moment -will be granted them; they then approach -the altar steps and stand side by side. -An Armenian superstition considers some -days more propitious than others for the celebration -of weddings, consequently a number -of bridal couples generally collect on the -same day, and at the same hour. I was -present on one occasion when the church at -Broussa, although a vast building, scarcely -sufficed to accommodate the friends of the -sixty couples waiting to get married. The -brides, all similarly dressed, were pushed forward -by the dense crowd of relatives, friends, -and spectators towards the altar, where the -sixty bridegrooms awaited them, standing in -a line. Two brides, alike in stature, changed -places, in the hurry and confusion of the -moment. One was a pretty peasant girl, -whose only dower was her beauty, destined -to become the wife of a blacksmith; the -other was the ugly daughter of a wealthy -Armenian, about to be united to a man of -her own station. The mistake was noticed, -but the nuptial knot being already tied, it -was too late to be rectified, no divorce for such -a cause being allowed among Armenians.</p> - -<p>The bridegroom who could only complain -in a pecuniary point of view made the best -of it,—doubtless consoled by the adage that -beauty unadorned is adorned the most; while -the blacksmith, greatly benefited by this unexpected -good turn from Dame Fortune, had -probably pleasant dreams of abandoning the -hammer and anvil and passing the rest of his -days in ease, affluence, and plenty, and was -ready to admit that riches, like fine garments, -may hide a multitude of defects.</p> - -<p>But let us return to the marriage ceremony. -The first part of the service is read by -the priest, standing on the altar steps; the -couples, placed in a row before him, with -the best men and boys behind him. He asks -each couple separately, first the bridegroom, -and then the bride, the following question:—“<i>Chiorus -topalus cabullus?</i>”<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> To which -the parties answer in the affirmative. Should -either person object to the union, the objection -is accepted, and the marriage cannot be -proceeded with; but incidents of this kind -are rare: only one ever came under my notice.</p> - -<p>After the formalities of the acceptance -have been gone through, the couple stand -facing each other, with their heads touching, -and a small gold cross is tied with a red silken -string on the forehead of each, and the -symbol of the Holy Ghost pressed against -them. The ceremony terminates by the partaking -of wine; after which, the married -pair walk hand-in-hand to the door of the -church; but from the church to her home -the bride is once more supported by the -bridesmaids. The moment they are about to -cross the threshold, a sheep is sacrificed, over -whose blood they step into the house.</p> - -<p>When husband and wife are seated side by -side, the guests come one by one, kiss the -crosses on their foreheads, and drop coins -into a tray, for the benefit of the officiating -priest.</p> - -<p>The bride is now once more led to her solitary -corner; the veil, which she has been -wearing all the time of the ceremony, is momentarily -lifted from her face, and she is refreshed -with a cup of coffee, into which she -drops money as she gives it back; a male -child is then placed on her knees for a short -time. This formality is followed by a regular -scramble for her stockings by a flock of -children, who make a great rush towards her -feet, pull off her boots and stockings, which -they shake, in order to find the money previously -placed in them.</p> - -<p>The bride and bridegroom soon after open -a round dance, and during its performance -money is again thrown over their heads.</p> - -<p>The bride is again led back to her corner,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -where she remains a mute and veiled image; -sleeping at night with that awful plate on her -head, and guarded by her maiden friends, -who do not desert her until Wednesday evening, -when the bridegroom is finally allowed -to dine <i>tête-à-tête</i> with the bride. The only -guests admitted that day to the family dinner -are the priest and his wife; the latter -passes the night in the house, and is commissioned -the next morning to carry the tidings -to the bride’s mother that her daughter has -happily entered upon the duties of married -life.</p> - -<p>At noon a luncheon is given to the relatives -and friends, who collect to offer their -congratulations.</p> - -<p>On Saturday, the ceremony of kissing the -hands of her mother and father-in-law is -again gone through; the bridal veil on this -occasion is replaced by one of crimson <i>crêpe</i>, -which she wears until her father-in-law gives -her a present and allows her to remove it. -Brides are not allowed to utter a word in the -presence of a near relative of their husband -until permitted to do so by his father. This -permission, however, is sometimes not easily -obtained, and years may elapse before it is -given. Many a young wife has gone to her -grave without having spoken to her father- -and mother-in-law.</p> - -<p>Though the Armenians are sensual and -despotic, they generally make good husbands; -but the standard of morality is getting -lax among the emancipated followers of -the customs <i>à la Franca</i>, who, being entirely -ignorant of the rules of true breeding, often -abuse the freedom of European manners.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">FUNERAL CEREMONIES.</span></h2> - -<p><i>Moslem Funerals.</i>—Fatalism—Ceremonies before -Burial—Testimony of the Guests—Procession to the -Grave—The Imam’s Questioning—Funerals of Women—Effects -of Rapid Burial—Sorrow for the Dead—Mourning—Prayers -for the Dead—Funeral of a Dervish -Sheikh.</p> - -<p><i>Greek Funerals.</i>—Remains of Ancient Greek Rites—Myriologia—The -Obol for Charon—The Funeral Service—The -Interment—Mourning—Second Marriage—Masses -for the Souls of the Departed—Wheat Offerings—Opening -of the Tomb and Collecting of the -Bones—Bulgarian Ceremonies—Messages to the -Other World.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Few people in the world view the approach -of death with such indifference, or -receive its fatal blow with such calmness and -resignation, as the Moslems.</p> - -<p>According to some verses taken from the -Koran, earthly existence is but a fleeting -shadow, seen for a moment, then lost sight -of forever; its joys and pleasures all delusion; -itself a mere stepping-stone to the -celestial life awaiting the true believer.</p> - -<p>“Know that this life is but a sport—a -pastime—a show—a cause of vain-glory -among you! And the multiplying of riches -and children is like the (plants which spring -up after) rain; whose growth rejoices the -husbandman; then they wither away and -thou seest them all yellow; then they become -stubble.”<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p> - -<p>Kismet (destiny) and Edjel (the appointed -time of death) are decreed by Allah. Every -one of his creatures has these traced on his -forehead in invisible letters. Kismet, disposing -of his earthly career; Edjel, fixing its -duration and the nature of its end. “To an -appointed time doth he respite them.”<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p> - -<p>Seen from this fatalistic point of view, the -terrors of death impress Moslems mostly -when viewed from a distance; and its name, -softened by some poetical expression, is never -uttered in refined society without the preface -of <i>Sis den irak olsoun</i>, “Far be it from you;” -and the common people invariably spit before -uttering it.</p> - -<p>At the approach of death, the moribund -appears resigned to his fate, and his friends -reconciled to the thought of his approaching -end. No Imam or servant of God is called -in to soothe the departing spirit or speed its -flight by the administration of sacraments. -The friends and relatives collected round the -couch weep in silence, and if the departing -one is able to speak, <i>helal</i> (forgiveness) is requested -and given. Prayers are repeated by -the pious, to keep away the evil spirits that -are supposed to collect in greater force at -such moments. Charitable donations are -made, and other acts of generosity performed -at death-beds; and frequently at such times -slaves are set free by their owners; for it is -written: “They who give alms by night and -by day, in private and in public, shall have -their reward with their Lord; no fear shall -come upon them, neither shall they grieve.”<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> - -<p>The moment the soul is believed to have -quitted the body, the women begin to utter -wailings. Some tear their hair, others beat -their breasts, in an outburst of genuine sorrow. -A lull soon follows, and, without loss -of time, preparations are made for performing -the last duties to the corpse; for the Turks -do not keep their dead unburied any longer -than is necessary for the completion of these -preliminaries.</p> - -<p>If the death be that of a person of consequence, -the Muëzzin chants the special cry -from the minaret; and invitations are issued -to friends and acquaintances for the funeral. -Directly after death the eyelids are pressed -down and the chin bandaged; the body is undressed -and laid on a bed called <i>rahat yatak</i> -(“couch of comfort”) with the hands -stretched by the side, the feet tied together, -and the head turned towards the <i>Kibla</i>. A -veil is then laid over the body. While the -company is gathering in the Selamlik, or in -the street, performing the ablution (<i>abtest</i>), -and preparing for the prayer (<i>namaz</i>), the -corpse, if it be that of a man, is taken into -the court-yard on the stretcher, and an Imam, -with two subordinates, proceeds to wash it.</p> - -<p>The formalities connected with this observance -are of strictly religious character, and -consequently carried out to the letter. The -first condition to be observed is to keep the -lower part of the body covered, the next to -handle it with great gentleness and attention, -lest those engaged in the performance of that -duty draw upon them the curse of the dead. -Seven small portions of cotton are rolled up -in seven small pieces of calico; each of these -is successively passed between the limbs by -the Imam, while some hot water is poured -over the bundles, which are then cast away -one after the other. After the rest of the -body has been washed, the <i>abtest</i>, or formal -religious ablution, is administered to it. This -consists in washing the hands, and in bringing -water in the hand three times to the nose, -three times to the lips, and three times from -the crown of the head to the temples; from -behind the ears to the neck; from the palm -of the hand to the elbow, and then to the -feet, first to the right and then to the left. -This strange ceremony is performed twice. -The <i>tabout</i> (coffin) is then brought in and -placed by the side of the stretcher, both of -coarse deal, put together with the rudest -workmanship. Before laying the body in the -coffin, a piece of new calico, double its size, -is brought. A strip about two inches in -width is torn off the edge, and divided into -three pieces, which are placed upon three -long scarves laid across the shell. The calico, -serving as a shroud, is next stretched in -the coffin, and a thousand and one drachms -of cotton, with which to envelope the corpse, -are placed upon it. Some of this cotton is -used to stop the issues of the body, and is -placed under the armpits and between the -fingers and toes.</p> - -<p>The body is then dressed in a sleeveless -shirt, called <i>kaflet</i>, and is gently placed in -the coffin. Pepper is sifted on the eyes, and -a saline powder on the face, to preserve from -untimely decay; rose-water is then sprinkled -on the face, which is finally enveloped in the -remainder of the cotton. The shroud is then -drawn over and secured by the three strips of -calico, one tied round the head, the other -round the waist and the third round the feet, -and the coffin is closed down.</p> - -<p>When all is ready, the guests are admitted; -and the Imam, turning round, asks the -crowd: “O congregation! What do you -consider the life of this man to have been?” -“Good,” is the invariable response. “Then -give <i>helal</i> to him.”</p> - -<p>The coffin, covered with shawls and carrying -at the head the turban or fez of the -deceased hung on a peg, is then borne on the -shoulders of four or more individuals who -are constantly relieved by others; and the -funeral procession, composed exclusively of -men, headed by the Imam and Hodjas, slowly -winds its way in silence through the -streets until it arrives at the mosque where -the funeral service is to be read. The coffin -is deposited on a slab of marble, and a short -Namaz, called <i>Mihit Namaz</i>, is performed by -the congregation standing. This concluded, -the procession resumes its way to the burial-ground, -where the coffin is deposited by the -side of the grave, which, for a man, is dug -up to the height of a man’s waist, for a woman, -up to her shoulder.</p> - -<p>A small clod of earth, left at one end of the -excavation, in the direction of the <i>Kibla</i>, -takes the place of a pillow. The coffin is then -uncovered, and the body gently lifted out of it -by the ends of the three scarves, previously -placed under it (one supporting the head, -another the middle of the body, and the third -the feet), and lowered into its last resting-place. -A short prayer is then recited, a -plank or two laid at a little distance above -the body, and the grave is filled up.</p> - -<p>At this stage, all the congregation withdraw, -and the Imam is left alone by the side -of the grave, where he is believed to enter -into mysterious communications with the -spirit of the departed, who is supposed to -answer all the questions on his creed which -his priest puts to him. He is prompted in -these answers by two spirits, one good and -one evil, who are believed to take their places -by his side. Should he have been an indifferent -follower of the Prophet, and forbidden -to enter Paradise, the evil spirit forces -him to deny the only true God, and make a -profession unto himself. A terrible battle is -supposed to ensue in the darkness of the -grave between the good and evil spirits called -<i>Vanqueur</i> and <i>Veniqueur</i>.<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The good angel -spares not his blows upon the corpse and the -evil spirit, until the latter, beaten and disabled, -abandons his prey, who by Allah’s -mercy is finally accepted within the fold of -the true believers.</p> - -<p>This scene, however, is revealed to none by -the Imam, and remains a secret between Allah, -the departed, and himself. I have questioned -several Mohammedans of different -classes about this superstition, and they all -appear to believe in it implicitly. Most credulous -are the women, who embellish the tale -with Oriental exaggeration and wonderful -fancies that pass description.</p> - -<p>The funeral ceremonies of the women are -similar to those of the men, with the exceptions, -that the washing is done by women -screened from view, and that when the body -is laid upon the “couch of comfort,” the -face, as well as the body, is half covered, instead -of the body only. During the procession -the only apparent difference is that, instead -of the fez on the peg at the head of the -coffin, one sees the <i>chimber</i>, or coif.</p> - -<p>The necessity of immediate burial in hot -climates where Islam had its birth and passed -its childhood must have been the cause of -the adoption of the custom in Turkey. It -has the disadvantage, that in the time of an -epidemic, such as cholera, a great number of -people are falsely taken for dead and buried<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span> -alive; but when accident reveals the disturbed -condition of these unfortunate beings -to the living, instead of exciting the horror -of relations, the disturbance is universally -attributed to struggles with evil spirits after -burial. Few invalids receive regular medical -attendance, and post-mortem examinations -are unheard of.</p> - -<p>It is considered sinful for parents to manifest -extreme sorrow for the loss of their children; -for it is believed that the children of -over-mourning parents are driven out of -Paradise and made to wander about in darkness -and solitude, weeping and wailing as -their parents do on earth. But it is the reverse -with the case of children bereaved of -their parents; they are expected never to -cease sorrowing, and are required to pray -night and day for their parents’ forgiveness -and acceptance into Paradise.</p> - -<p>Part of the personal effects of the deceased -is given to the poor, and charity distributed, -according to the means of the family. On -the third day after the funeral, <i>loukmas</i> -(doughnuts), covered with sifted sugar, are -distributed to the friends of the family and -to the poor, for the benefit of the soul of the -departed. The ceremony is repeated on the -seventh and the fortieth days, when bread is -also distributed. These acts of charity are -supposed to excite the gratitude of the departed, -if already in Paradise, and if in “another -place” to occasion him a moment of -rest and comfort.</p> - -<p>External marks of mourning are not in -usage among the Turks. Nothing is changed -in the dress or routine of life in consequence -of a death in a family. Visits of condolence -are, however, paid by friends, who, on entering, -express their sympathy by the saying, -<i>Sis sagh oloun evlatlarounouz sagh olsoun</i> -(“May you live, and may your children -live”), with other expressions of a similar -nature. Friends and relatives say prayers at -stated times for the soul of the departed. On -my mentioning to a Turkish lady that I was -about to visit a common friend who a year -before had lost a beautiful daughter of fourteen -years, she begged me to say that her -two girls, friends of the child, never failed to -offer prayers for the departed soul every day -at noon. After the first outbreak of grief, -both men and women become calm and quite -collected in appearance, and speak of the -event as one that could not have been averted -by human help.</p> - -<p>When a dervish sheikh of repute dies, his -remains are followed to the grave by all the -members of his brotherhood, by dervishes of -the other orders, and a large concourse of the -population. It is a most impressive and interesting -sight: the long procession slowly -winding through the narrow streets, the variety -of costumes presented by the numerous -orders of the dervishes, some with flowing -robes and high sugar-loaf hats, others with -white felt caps and green or white turbans; -all with bowed heads and looks of deep humility, -uttering at intervals the sacred word -<i>Allah</i>! On passing a mosque or <i>tekké</i>, the -coffin is deposited in front of the gate, and a -service is chanted, the congregation joining -in the refrain of <i>Amin! Amin!</i> when the -body is again taken up and the procession -resumed.</p> - -<p>The long survival of ancient customs is a -continual subject of surprise and interest; -but nowhere is their seeming immortality -more remarkable than among the subject -races of Turkey. The Greeks, whether residents -of Greece, Macedonia, Epirus, or other -parts of south-east Europe, have in many -respects become assimilated to the different -races among whom they live; but nowhere -do they appear to have lost in any marked -degree the characteristic features of their nationality—their -language or their ancient customs. -Christianity and other causes have -modified many of the ancient ceremonies, -but a rich heritage still remains to certify -their origin and bear testimony to the antiquity -of their descent. Among the most -striking of these heirlooms are the funeral -rites, in which the modern Greeks closely -preserve the traditions of their ancestors. -The fundamental points in these ceremonies -are the same among Greeks wherever they -may be, and are everywhere observed by -them with religious care.</p> - -<p>The following is a description of the funeral -ceremonies observed in Macedonia and in -other parts of European Turkey.</p> - -<p>At the approach of death a priest is sent -for to administer the sacrament to the sick -man. The family gather round the couch, -give the dying person the kiss of farewell, -and press down his eyelids when his soul has -departed. His couch and linen are changed, -and after being anointed with oil and wine, -and sprinkled with earth, he is dressed in his -most gorgeous apparel upon a table covered -with a linen cloth, with the feet pointing towards -the door, with hands crossed on the -breast, and limbs stretched out to their full -extent. A stone is placed in the room and left -there for three days. Friends watch round -the body, chanting Myriologia,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> or dirges, -lamenting his loss and illustrating his life -and the cause of his death. Tapers are kept -burning all night round the body, which is -decorated with flowers and green branches. -A cup is placed on the body and buried with -it; after the expiration of three years it is -taken out and treasured in the family. -Should a person suffer from the effects of -fright, water is given to him in this cup -without his knowledge, which is supposed to -prevent any ill consequences. The interment -usually takes place on the day following -the death. Invited friends assemble at -the house of mourning, the priests arrive, and -the coffin, uncovered, is wreathed with flowers. -The <i>obol</i> of the ancients, the ναῦλον for -Charon, is not forgotten; a small coin is -placed between the lips, and a cake, soaked -in wine, is eaten by the company, who say, -Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει τόν. After the preliminary -prayers have been offered, the funeral -procession proceeds to the church. Crosses -are carried by the clergy and lighted tapers -by others. The coffin is borne on the shoulders -of men, and black streamers, ταινια, attached -to it are held by the elders of the community -or the persons of greatest importance -present.</p> - -<p>Prayers are chanted as the funeral train -slowly proceeds to the church, where the -body is placed in the nave. When the prayers -and funeral mass are concluded, the -priest tells the relatives and intimate friends -of the deceased to give him the farewell kiss. -On arriving at the cemetery, the bier is placed -by the side of the grave, the last prayers are -offered, the coffin-lid is nailed down, and the -body is lowered into the earth. After the -priest has thrown in a spadeful of gravel in -the form of a cross, the spade is passed to the -relatives, who do the same in turn, with the -words Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει τὴν ψυχὴν τοῦ -(“God rest his soul”). The bier is then -again covered with the pall, and the grave is -filled up. On returning to the house of sorrow, -water and towels are offered to the -guests for washing their hands. They then -sit down to a repast, at which fish, eggs, and -vegetables alone are eaten.</p> - -<p>The mourning worn by Greeks is similar -to that of other European nations; all ornaments, -jewelry, and colored apparel are set -aside, and both sexes dress in plain black, -and in some instances dress their furniture in -covers of the same mournful hue. The men -often let their beards grow as a sign of sorrow, -and women frequently cut off their hair -at the death of their husbands, and bury it -with them; I have known many instances of -this custom. In Epirus and Thessaly a widow -would lose respect if she contracted a second -marriage, and in other parts it would be -strictly prohibited by custom.</p> - -<p>On the evenings of the third, ninth, -twentieth, and fortieth days, masses are -said for the soul of the departed. These are -called <i>kolyva</i>. On the fortieth <i>kolyva</i>, two -sacks of flour are made into bread, and a loaf -sent to every family of friends as an invitation -to the service held in the church. Boiled -wheat is placed on a tray, and ornamented, -if for a young person, with red and white -sugar; if for an elderly person, with white -only. This is sent to the church previously, -prayers are read over it, and every person -takes a handful, saying Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει -τόν, and a small bottle of wine is presented -to the priests.</p> - -<p>On the following morning the friends assemble -at the house of mourning, and take -more boiled wheat to church. On returning, -they sit down to a meal, after again saying -Ὁ θεὸς συγχωρήσει τόν. This concluded, -they proceed to the grave, accompanied by -the priest, and erect a tombstone. A feast is -subsequently given to the poor.</p> - -<p>Tapers are kept burning in the house for -forty days. On the last of these a list of the -ancestors of the deceased is read, and prayers -are offered for their souls. These ceremonies -are repeated at intervals during the -space of three years, at the expiration of -which the tomb is opened, and if the body is -sufficiently decomposed, the bones are collected -in a cloth, placed in a basket, dressed -in fine raiment, adorned with flowers, and -taken to church, where they are left for nine -days. Every evening the relatives go to say -prayers, and take boiled wheat to the church. -If the person had been of some standing, -twelve priests and a bishop perform mass. -The bones are then put in a box, surmounted -by a cross, and replaced in the tomb.</p> - -<p>Should the body not be sufficiently decomposed -at the end of the three years, it is -supposed to be possessed, and for three years -longer the same prayers and ceremonies are -repeated.</p> - -<p>The funeral ceremonies of the Bulgarians -differ from those of the Greeks only in their -preliminary usages. The religious service is -very similar. The sacrament is administered -to the dying person, and his last hours are -cheered by the presence of relatives and -friends.</p> - -<p>After death he is laid upon a double mattress -between sheets, and completely dressed -in his gala costume, with new shoes and -stockings. A pillow of home-spun is filled -with handfuls of earth by all the persons -present, and placed under the head.</p> - -<p>A curious idea prevails that messages can -be conveyed by the departing soul to other -lost friends by means of flowers and candles, -which are deposited on a plate placed on the -breast of the corpse.</p> - -<p>An hour after death a priest comes to read -prayers for the dead, tapers are lighted, and -dirges chanted until the following morning, -when the clergy again arrive to accompany -the body to its last resting-place. Mass is -performed in the church, and when the procession -reaches the grave a barrel of wine is -opened, and boiled wheat, with loaves, are -distributed to all present, who say <i>Bogda prosti</i> -(“God have mercy on his soul”). The -gay costume is taken off, and libations of oil -and wine poured on the body; the shroud is -drawn over the face, the coffin nailed down -and lowered into the grave.</p> - -<p>Returning to the house of mourning, the -company wash their hands over the fire, and -three days afterwards everything in the -house is washed. The objects that cannot -be washed are sprinkled with water and exposed -to the air for three days, given to the -poor, or sold.</p> - -<p>The ceremonies of the <i>kolyva</i> are the same -as among the Greeks, and the bones are disinterred -at the end of three years, with the -same observances.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">EDUCATION AMONG THE MOSLEMS.</span></h2> - -<p><i>Home Education.</i>—Influence of the Mother—Disrespect -of Children—Toys—No Bath nor any Exercise—Bad -Influence of Servants—No Discipline—Dirtiness—Dress—Food—Conversation—Tutors—Nurses—Immoral -Influence of the Dadi—The Lala—Turkish Girls -and Education—An Exceptional Family—Turks -“educated” at Paris—Religious Shackles.</p> - -<p><i>Moslem Schools.</i>—<i>Mektebs</i>, or National Schools—Dogmatic -Theology taught—Reforms—<i>Rushdiyés</i>—<i>Idadiyés</i>—Teachers’ -School—Reforms of Ali and -Fouad Pasha—The Schools of Salonika—State of Education -in these Schools—Moslem View of Natural -Science—The Dulmé Girls’ School—The Turkish -Girls’ School—The <i>Lyceum</i>: its Design, Temporary -Success, and Present Abandonment—The <i>Medressés</i>—Education -of the Upper Classes—Official Ignorance.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The absence of any approach to sound -education of the most rudimentary kind -throughout the country is among the prime -causes of the present degraded condition of -the Turks. Both at home and at school the -Moslem learns almost nothing that will serve -him in good stead in after life. Worse than -this, in those early years spent at home, -when the child ought to have instilled into -him some germ of those principles of conduct -by which men must walk in the world -if they are to hold up their heads among civilized -nations, the Turkish child is only -taught the first steps towards those vicious -habits of mind and body which have made -his race what it is. The root of the evil is -partly found in the harem system. So long -as that system keeps Turkish women in their -present degraded state, so long will Turkish -boys and girls be vicious and ignorant.</p> - -<p>Turkish mothers have not the slightest -control over their children. They are left to -do very much as they like, become wayward, -disobedient, and unbearably tyrannical. I -have often noticed young children, especially -boys, strike, abuse, and even curse their -mothers, who, helpless to restrain them, either -respond by a torrent of foul invective, or, in -their maternal weakness, indulgently put up -with it, saying, “<i>Jahil chojuk, né belir?</i>” -(“Innocent child! what does it know?”)</p> - -<p>I was once visiting at a Pasha’s house, -where, among the numerous company present, -a shrivelled-up old lady made herself -painfully conspicuous by the amount of -rouge on her cheeks. The son of my hostess, -an impudent little scamp of ten years, independently -marched in, and, roughly pulling -his mother by her skirt, demanded a <i>beshlik</i> -(shilling); she attempted a compromise, and -offered half the sum, when the young rascal, -casting side glances at the painted old lady, -said, “A whole <i>beshlik</i>, or I will out with all -you said about that <i>hanoum</i> and her rouged -cheeks, as well as that other one’s big nose!” -My friend, exceedingly embarrassed, under -this pressure, acceded to her son’s demand, -the only way she could see of getting rid of -his troublesome company.</p> - -<p>As a general rule the manner in which -children use their mothers among the lower -classes is still worse, and quite painful to -witness. When these youngsters are not at -school they may be seen playing in the street, -paddling in the water near some fountain, -making mud-pies, or playing with walnuts -and stones, at times varying their amusements, -in some retired quarter, by annoying -Christian passers-by, calling out <i>Giaour -gepek!</i> (“Infidel dog”), and throwing stones -at them. Under the parental roof they express -their desires in an authoritative tone, -calling out disrespectful exclamations to their -mothers.</p> - -<p>Should their requests meet with the slightest -resistance, they will sit stamping with -their feet, pounding with their hands, clamoring -and screaming, till they obtain the desired -object. The mothers, who have as -little control over themselves as over their -children, quickly lose their temper, and begin -vituperating their children in language -of which a very mild but general form is, -<i>Yerin dibiné batasen!</i> (“May you sink under -the earth!”)<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - -<p>Turkish children are not favored with the -possession of any of the instructive books, -toy-tools, games, etc., that European ingenuity -has invented for the amusement of children, -and which may be obtained at Constantinople -and other cities of Turkey; the -only playthings they possess are rattles, trumpets, -a rude species of doll (made of rag-bundles), -cradles, and a kind of <i>polichinello</i>, fashioned, -in the most primitive manner, of -wood, and decorated with a coarse daub of -bright-colored paint, applied without any regard -to artistic effect. These are sometimes -sold in the chandlers’ shops, but are only exposed -for sale in large quantities during the -Bairams, when they make their appearance, -piled in heaps on a mat, in the thoroughfares -nearest the mosques.</p> - -<p>A Turkish child is never known to take a -cold bath in the morning; is never made to -take a constitutional walk, or to have his -limbs developed by the healthy exercise of -gymnastics. No children’s libraries exist, to -stimulate the desire for study—for which, it -is true, little taste is displayed. Among the -higher classes an unnaturally sedate deportment -is expected from children when in the -presence of their father and his guests, before -whom they present themselves with the -serious look and demeanor of old men, make -a deep salaam, and sit at the end of the room -with folded hands, answering with extreme -deference the questions addressed to them. -Out of sight, and in the company of menials, -they have no restraint placed upon them, use -the most licentious language, and play nasty -practical jokes; or indulge in teasing the -women of the harem to any extent; receiving -all the time the most indecent encouragement, -both by word and action, from the -parasites, slaves, and dependants hanging -about the house. No regular hours are kept -for getting up and going to bed. The children, -even when sleepy, obstinately refuse to -go to their beds, and prefer to stretch themselves -on a sofa, whence they are carried fast -asleep. On rising, no systematic attention is -paid either to their food, ablutions, or dressing. -A wash is given to their faces and -hands; but their heads, not regularly or daily -combed, generally afford shelter to creeping -guests, that can only be partially dislodged -at the <i>Hammam</i>.</p> - -<p>Their dress, much neglected, is baggy and -slovenly at all times; but it becomes a ridiculous -caricature when copied from the European -fashion; shoes and stockings are not -much used in the house, but when worn, the -former are unfastened, and the latter kept up -by rags hanging down their legs. A <i>gedjlik</i> -(night-dress) of printed calico, an <i>intari</i> -(dressing-gown), <i>ayak-kab</i> (trousers), and a -<i>libardé</i> (quilted jacket), worn in the house, -do duty both by night and day.</p> - -<p>Children are allowed to breakfast on anything -they find in the larder or buy from the -hawkers of cakes in the streets.</p> - -<p>No person exercising the functions of governess, -nursery governess, or head nurse, exists -in harems. There is no reserve of language -observed before young girls, who are -allowed to listen to conversations in which -spades are very decidedly called spades. The -absence of refined subjects naturally leads the -tone of these conversations, at times, to so -low a level as to render its sense quite unintelligible -to the European listener, though it -is perfectly understanded of the Turkish -maiden.</p> - -<p>Turks sometimes have <i>hodjas</i> as tutors for -their sons; but these are not always professional -instructors of youth, and their supervision -over their pupils seldom extends beyond -the hours of study. The <i>hodjas</i>, belonging -to religious orders, are grave, sanctimonious -persons; having little in common -with their pupils, who find it difficult to exchange -ideas with them, and thus to benefit -in a general way by their teaching. Poor -<i>effendis</i> or <i>kyatibs</i> are sometimes engaged to -fill the office of tutors, but their inferior position -in the house deprives them of any serious -control over their charges. The <i>dadi</i>, -appointed to attend upon the child from its -earliest infancy, plays a great part during its -youthful career; her charge, seldom separated -from her, will, if she be good and respectable, -benefit by her care; but if she be the -reverse, her influence cannot be anything but -prejudicial, especially to boys, whose moral -education, entirely neglected at this stage, -receives a vicious impulse from this associate. -The fact that the <i>dadi’s</i> being the property -of his parents gives him certain rights -over her is early understood and often abused -by the boy.</p> - -<p>I have seen an instance of the results of -these boyish connections in the house of a -Pasha, who, as a child, had formed a strong -attachment for his <i>dadi</i>, and, yielding to her -influence, had later been induced to marry -her, although at the time she must have been -more than double his age. When I made -her acquaintance she was an old woman, superseded -by four young companions, whose -lives she made as uncomfortable as she could -by way of retaliation for the pain her husband’s -neglect was causing her. The fourth -and youngest of these wives, naturally the -favorite, nearly paid with her life for the -affection she was supposed to have diverted -from the <i>Bash Kadin</i> (first wife); for the -quondam <i>dadi</i>, taking advantage of her rival’s -unconsciousness whilst indulging in a siesta, -tried to pour quicksilver into her ears. The -fair slumberer fortunately awoke in time; -and the attempted crime was passed over in -consideration of the culprit’s past maternal -services, and of the position she then held.</p> - -<p>Next to the important functions of <i>dadi</i> -those of <i>lala</i> must be mentioned. He is a -male slave into whose care the children of -both sexes are intrusted when out of the -harem. He has to amuse them, take them -out walking, and to school and back. His -rank, however, does not separate him from -his fellow servants, with whom he still lives -in common; and when the children come -to him, he takes them generally first to their -father’s apartment, and then into the servants’ -hall, where they are allowed to witness -the most obscene practical jokes, often played -upon the children themselves; and to listen -to conversations of the most revolting nature, -only to be matched I should think in western -Europe among the most degraded inhabitants -of the lowest slums. This is one -of those evil customs that cannot be other -than ruinous to the morality of Turkish children, -who thus from an early age get initiated -into subjects and learn language of which -they should for years be entirely ignorant.</p> - -<p>The girls are allowed free access into the -<i>selamlik</i> up to the time they are considered -old enough to wear the veil; which, once -adopted, must exclude a female from further -intercourse with the men’s side of the house. -The shameful neglect girls experience during -childhood leaves them alone to follow their -own instincts; alternately spoiled and rudely -chastened by uneducated mothers, they grow -up in hopeless ignorance of every branch of -study that might develop their mental or -moral faculties and fit them to fulfil the duties -that must in time devolve upon them.</p> - -<p>I am glad to say that, in this respect, a -change for the better is taking place at Constantinople: -the education of the girls -among the higher classes is much improved; -elementary teaching, besides instruction in -music and needlework, is given to them; and -a few are even so highly favored as to have -European governesses, who find their pupils -wanting neither in intelligence nor in good-will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> -to profit by their instruction. I have -known Turkish girls speak foreign languages, -but the number of such accomplished -young ladies is limited, owing partly -to the dislike which even the most enlightened -Turks feel to allowing their daughters -any rational independence; for the girls, they -say, are destined to a life of harem restraint -with which they would hardly feel better -satisfied if they had once tasted of liberty; -their life would only be less happy, instead of -happier; ignorance in their case being bliss, -it would be folly to make them wise!—If -true, only another argument for the overthrow -of the system.</p> - -<p>Some time ago, when at Constantinople, I -visited an old friend, a Christian by birth, -but the wife of a Pasha. This lady, little -known to the <i>beau monde</i> of Stamboul, a -most ladylike, sweet woman, was married -when her husband was a student in Europe -and she a school-girl. She has held fast to -her religion, and her enlightened husband has -never denied her the rights of her European -liberty; though, when in the capital, she -wears the <i>yashmak</i>, out of <i>convenance</i>. Her -children are Mohammedans. The daughter, -now a young lady of eighteen, a most charming, -accomplished girl, is justly named “The -Budding Rose of the Bosphorus.” Some -Turkish ladies acquainted with this family -spoke of it to me as an example of perfection -worthy of study and imitation. A truly poetical -attachment binds the mother and -daughter together, and finding no congeniality -in their Mohammedan acquaintances, -in the simplicity of their retired life they -have become all in all to each other, and are -doted upon by the father and brother. It -was very pleasant to look upon the harmony -that existed in this family, notwithstanding -the wide differences in the customs and religions -of its members. For many years I -had lost sight of my friends, and at length -found them caged up in one of the lovely villas -on the Bosphorus; the mother now a -woman of forty, the daughter a slim, bright -fairy.</p> - -<p>After the surprise caused by my visit and -the friendly greetings were over, Madame -B⸺, full of delight and happiness, related to -me the engagement of her daughter to one of -the wealthiest and most promising grandees -of <i>La Jeune Turquie</i>, who, having just completed -his studies in Paris, was expected in a -few days to come and claim her as his bride. -She was to dwell beneath the paternal roof, -and I was taken to visit the apartments that -had been prepared for the young couple. -They were most exquisitely furnished, with -draperies of straw-colored satin, richly embroidered -by the deft fingers of the ladies. -The mother, her face beaming with joy, said -to me, “Am I not happy in marrying my -daughter to an enlightened young Turk, -who, there is every reason to expect, will -prove as good and affectionate a husband to -her as mine has been to me?”</p> - -<p>The young lady had known her affianced -before his departure for Paris; full of faith -and hope, she nourished a deep love for him, -and, in the innocent purity of her heart, felt -sure he responded to it.</p> - -<p>I have not seen these ladies since, but a -short time after my visit I was deeply grieved -to hear that this seemingly well-adapted -match was broken off in consequence of the -young Bey having returned accompanied by -a French ballet-dancer, whom he declared he -did not intend to give up.</p> - -<p>I have heard that, generally speaking, -Paris is not the most profitable school for -young Turks. Attracted by the immense -amount of pleasure and amusement there -afforded to strangers, they become negligent -students, waste their time and money in -profitless pursuits, keep company of the most -doubtful kind, are led to contract some of the -worst Parisian habits, and return to their -country, having acquired little more than a -superficial varnish of European manners. -These they proudly display; but at heart -they profoundly despise the nation whose -virtues they failed to acquire, whilst they -plunged freely into those vices which were -more congenial to their habits and nature.</p> - -<p>Those who are acquainted with Stamboul -life may remember the sensation caused in -1873 by a band of young Turkish ruffians, -who bore the name of <i>Tussun</i>, whose declared -object was to initiate the youth of both -sexes into those dark practices of the Asiatics -still so prevalent among the upper classes. -This abominable society was so strong that -the police were, for a time, powerless against -it. The chief of these vagabonds was stated -to be the son of a member of the Sultan’s -household, and the other young men were -connected with some high Turkish families. -It was only by the most active interference -of the minister of justice that this fraternity -was finally put down.</p> - -<p>One of the great drawbacks the progress -of education meets with among the Turks is -the insurmountable repulsion Mohammedans -feel to freeing this movement from the fetters -of religion. The most enlightened of Turks -will be found wanting in good-will and assistance -when the question is that of promoting -the current of liberal ideas at the cost of -the religious dogmas which regulate all his -social habits; and these retrograde notions -cannot be openly repudiated even by those -who profess no belief in the religion upon -which they are supposed to be founded. -These sceptical Turks, possessing no distinct -conception of any philosophical school whose -aim should be to replace prejudice and superstition -by the propagation of free thought, -based upon morality and scientific research, -merely become reckless and unprincipled, -but are of no more use than the bigoted party -in helping forward an undenominational -movement in education.</p> - -<p>Until quite recent times the only public -institutions for the education of the Turkish -youth were those common to all Moslem -countries, the <i>Mahallé Mektebs</i>, or primary -schools, and the <i>Medressés</i>, or Mosque-Colleges. -The <i>Mektebs</i> are to Turkey, though in -a still more inefficient way, what the old -National Schools were to England. They -are the universal, and till recently the only -existing, instruments of rudimentary education -for the children of both sexes of all -classes. Like the old-fashioned National -Schools, religion is the main thing taught; -only in the Turkish Mektebs religion is pretty -nearly the one thing taught. The little -Turkish boys and girls are sent to these -schools at a very early age, and pay for their -instruction the nominal fee of one piastre -(2¼<i>d.</i>) a month. Great ceremony attends the -child’s first entrance. Its hands are dyed -with henna; its head decorated with jewels; -and it is furnished with a new suit of clothes, -and an expensive bag called <i>Soupara</i>, in -which the <i>Mus-haf</i>, or copy of the Koran, is -carried. The father of the child leads it to -the Mekteb, where it recites the Moslem -creed to the Hodja, kisses his hand, and joins -the class. The other children, after the recital -of prayers, lead the novice home, headed -by the Hodja, who chants prayers all the -way along, the children joining in the response -of <i>Amin! Amin!</i> Refreshments and -ten paras (a halfpenny) are offered to each -child by the parents of the new scholar, on -receipt of which they make a rush into the -street and throng round the trays of the -numerous hawkers who collect round the -door on such occasions. This ceremony is -repeated on the first examination, for which -the Hodja receives £1 and a suit of linen. -The teaching in these schools was, until recently, -strictly limited to lessons from the -Koran. The scholars, amounting in number -sometimes to one or two hundred, are -closely packed together in a school-room -which is generally the dependence of the -Mosque. Kneeling in rows, divided into tens -by monitors who superintend their lessons, -they learn partly from the book and partly -by rote, all reading out the lesson at the same -time, and swaying their bodies backwards -and forwards. An old Hodja, with his assistant, -sits cross-legged on a mat at one end -of the room, before the chest which serves -the double purpose of desk and bookcase. -With the cane of discipline in one hand, a -pipe in the other, and the Koran before him, -the old pedagogue listens to and directs the -proceedings of the pupils. Unruly children -are subjected to the punishment of the cane -and the <i>Falakka</i>, a kind of wooden hobble -passed over the ankle of the culprit, who -sometimes has to return home wearing this -mark of disgrace. The Koran lessons, delivered -in Arabic, are gibberish to the children, -unless explained by the master; and -the characters used in Koran writing are not -well adapted for teaching ordinary Turkish -handwriting.</p> - -<p>It is easily seen what ample room for improvement -there is in these establishments, -where Moslems spend the best part of their -childhood. Religion, taught in every-day -language, simplified and adapted to the understanding -of children, together with the -rudiments of ordinary knowledge, would lay -the foundation of a wiser and more profitable -system of education than all these many -years lost in poring over theological abstractions, -comprehensible glimpses of which can -only be conveyed to such young minds by -the explanations of the Hodja, who is sure -to dwell upon the most dogmatic and consequently -the most intolerant points of Islam, -and thus sows among the children ready-made -ideas, the pernicious seed of that fanaticism -which finds its early utterance in -the words <i>Kafir</i> and <i>Giaour</i> (infidel), and -prompts the little baby to measure himself -with his gray-bearded Christian neighbor, and -in the assurance of superior election raise his -hand to cast the stone of ineradicable contempt.</p> - -<p>The finished scholars from these institutions -may become Hodjas themselves, acquiring, -if they choose, a knowledge of writing. -Such is the system of primary education -which has existed in Turkey ever since the -Conquest. Happily this century has seen -some improvements, not so much in the -Mektebs as in the introduction among them -of Government (so to say, Board) Schools on -improved principles.</p> - -<p>No era of the Ottoman history presents a -more dismal picture of ignorance and incapacity -than the close of the last century. -The country appeared to be crumbling to -pieces; and the nation seemed lost in the two -extremes of apathy and fanaticism. Sultan -Mahmoud’s sagacious mind saw wherein the -evil lay, and attempted to remedy it by establishing -schools more after the European -model, and by this means spreading among -his people the liberal ideas that alone could -civilize and regenerate them. The difficulties -he encountered in his praiseworthy and -untiring efforts to bring about this change -were great and varied. Nevertheless, he -succeeded in establishing a few schools in the -capital, which have served as bases to those -that were instituted by his son and successor -Abdul-Medjid. These latter consisted first -of <i>Rushdiyés</i>, or preparatory schools, where -boys of all classes are admitted on leaving -the Mektebs, and are gratuitously taught -Turkish, elementary arithmetic, the history -of their country, and geography.</p> - -<p>Next to these establishments come the -<i>Idadiyés</i>, or more advanced preparatory -schools, where boys are also admitted gratuitously, -and remain from three to five years; -they are instructed in the studies adapted to -the careers they are destined to follow in the -finishing medical, military, marine, and artillery -schools to which they gain admittance -on leaving the Idadiyés.</p> - -<p>Besides these schools the capital contains -some others of equal importance, such as a -school for forming professors for the Rushdiyés,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span> -a school teaching foreign languages to -some of the <i>employés</i> of the Porte, a forest -school, and one for mechanics.</p> - -<p>The original organization of all these institutions -is said to be good, but unfortunately -the regulations are not carried out. The absence -of a proper system of control and strict -discipline, a want of attention on the part of -the students, and of competence on that of -the professors, are the chief characteristics -of most of them.</p> - -<p>In addition to the educational establishments -of the capital, Rushdiyés have also -been opened in all large country towns, and -in some even Idadiyés. It is, perhaps, -hardly necessary to state that there are no -schools of any kind in country villages; the -three R’s are there regarded as wholly superfluous -luxuries.</p> - -<p>Had the Turks followed up more systematically -the movement thus happily begun; -had it become general throughout the country, -and been marked by proper care and -perseverance, many of the evils which now -beset Turkey might perhaps have been -avoided. The contempt for the Christian -generally displayed by the Moslem, engendered -through ignorance and fanaticism, -might have been softened into tolerance, and -a more friendly feeling might have been created -between them.</p> - -<p>Education, however, received another impetus -during the administration of Ali and -Fouad Pashas, who by their united efforts -succeeded in creating new schools and slightly -improving those already existing.</p> - -<p>Most of these institutions, excepting the -medical college, were formerly open to Christian -children only in name; under Ali and -Fouad they became open in reality to a few, -who took their places by the side of the Mohammedan -boys.</p> - -<p>The following is a list of the Turkish -schools in the town of Salonika, which contains -about 15,000 Mohammedan inhabitants, -including 2500 <i>Dulmés</i>, or Jews converted -to the faith of the Prophet:—seven <i>Mahallé -Mektebs</i>, or “National” schools; one <i>Mekteb -Rushdiyé</i>, or Government school; one small -private school for Turkish girls, established -about twelve mouths ago; and two special -schools for the Dulmés, one for girls and -another for boys. The <i>Mekteb Rushdiyé</i> is -supported by the Government, and has one -superintendent and two masters, and is attended -by 219 children, all day pupils. -Teaching is divided into four classes; the -first comprises poetry, the Turkish, Arabic, -and Persian languages; the second, logic, -mathematics, elementary arithmetic, and the -rudiments of geography; the third, cosmography, -Ottoman and universal history, writing; -the fourth, preparatory lessons for beginners.</p> - -<p>The mathematical and historical teaching -is very deficient, and the whole system of instruction -needs much improvement. Students -on leaving this school may enter the -Harbiyé, or military school, at Monastir, or -continue their studies at the <i>Medressé</i>, where -the Softas and Ulema graduate, or may attach -themselves to some Government office -as unsalaried Kyatibs, or scribes, called -<i>Chaouch</i>, until a vacancy or some other -chance helps them to a lucrative post.</p> - -<p>The Dulmés, who are found in large numbers -only at Salonika, have of late years -shown a great desire to promote education -among both sexes of their small but thriving -community. The course of study followed -in their boys’ school is similar to that of -the <i>Rushdiyé</i>, and, of course, includes the -very elementary curriculum of the National -schools. It has four classes, subdivided each -into three forms; three masters, aided by -monitors, superintend the studies. I visited -this school, and found a great lack of order -and discipline. First-class boys, seated on -benches and before desks, were mixed up -with the little ones, who, I was told, were -placed there in order to be broken in to the -school routine—a strange arrangement, unlikely -to benefit either; at least it had been -better for these mere infants to be placed in -a class where lessons and exercises suited to -their years were taught. Some of the big -boys were examined, and, as far as I was -able to judge, seemed well advanced in writing -and in the knowledge of the Turkish language, -but they did not appear equally well -versed in mathematics or the scientific -branches of study, which were evidently -taught in a very elementary form, if one -might judge by the simple questions put by -the masters. This examination was concluded -by the senior boys chanting in chorus -the names of the days of the week and the -months of the year! It must be borne in -mind, however, that this establishment, which -is said to be the best in the town, was opened -only eighteen months ago.</p> - -<p>With regard to the higher branches of -study, I was far more edified during an examination -of the <i>Rushdiyé</i> and <i>Harbiyé</i> -schools at Adrianople, where some of the -pupils had produced well-executed maps and -drawings, and had also distinguished themselves -in mathematics; the schools of that -town seemed to be of a higher standard than -those of Salonika, although, like all Turkish -schools, they left much to be desired in good -principles, refinement, and general enlightenment, -to all of which a marked disregard -is universally displayed. The comparative -progress made in the above-mentioned subjects -should not, however, be considered a -criterion of the cultivation of art and science -in general. In spite of the simplicity with -which these various branches of science and -of art may now be taught, they are not likely -to make much advancement among the Mohammedans. -These people display an astonishing -apathy and a total absence of the -spirit of inquiry and research with regard to -everything. They confide the secrets of -nature, to the supreme care of Allah, and -deem it superfluous to trouble themselves -with such subjects beyond the extent required -for their common wants. All mental -effort is in direct opposition to the listless -habits of the Turk, and, since he is not the -man to run against the will of Providence, -who fashioned his disposition, is therefore -seldom attempted. Professional men are rare -among them, and such as there are can only -be ranged in the class of imitative mediocrities, -who have not the genius to improve or -develop any useful branch of science.</p> - -<p>The Dulmé girls’ school of Salonika was -held in a house containing a number of small -rooms, in which the pupils were huddled -together. One of these rooms was fitted up -with desks and benches that might have accommodated -about thirty children; when I -entered all the pupils were doing needlework; -Shemshi Effendi, the director, a -young man of some enterprise and capacity -and a good deal of intelligence, led the way -and ordered all to stand up and salaam; a -lesson I hope they will condescendingly bear -in mind and practise later on in life in their -intercourse with Christians. They were -learning plain sewing, crochet, tapestry, and -other ornamental work, taught by a neat-looking -Greek schoolmistress. A good many -of the pupils were grown-up girls, who sat -with veils on. The master pointed them out -to me, saying that most of those young ladies -were engaged to be married; “I have not, -therefore, attempted to teach them reading or -writing, as they are too old to learn, and -their time here is very short, but with the -little ones I hope in time to do more.” Some -of the latter were examined before me in -reading, writing, and arithmetic, in which -they seemed to have got on very fairly considering -the short time they had attended the -school and the utter want of order and system -prevailing in it.</p> - -<p>The general appearance of the girls was -that of negligent untidiness; their hair was -uncombed, and most of them were seated on -the ground working, with a total absence of -that good breeding which was to be expected -in a well-regulated school for girls of their -age and condition.</p> - -<p>Defective as this establishment is, it is deserving -of praise and encouragement as a -first attempt which may lead to a higher -standard of education among Turkish women. -Perhaps some of the institutions at -Stamboul, though now greatly improved, had -no higher origin. Conversing lately about -these with an intelligent Turk, I was assured -that some of the young Turkish girls had so -much profited by the education afforded in -them as to have made great progress in composition -and even novel-writing, an unprecedented -event in the lives of the ladies of this -nation! Some have devoted themselves to -the study of French, and have translated one -or two little French works into Turkish. -One of these institutions has now become a -training college for teachers, who are sent as -mistresses into other schools.</p> - -<p>The Turkish girls’ school of Salonika is -attended by forty-eight pupils, superintended -by one master, and a Greek schoolmistress -for needlework. It is hardly necessary to -say that the instruction afforded is very defective, -and can be of little practical use to -young girls who often, after a few years of -childhood, leave when they attain the age of -ten or eleven, just when their young minds -are beginning to take in what is taught them. -However, a little is always better than nothing, -and it is to be hoped that the Salonika -girls’ schools will pave the way to more -effective means of teaching.</p> - -<p>Excepting one or two schools founded by -Midhat Pasha, in the vilayet of the Danube, -no other Moslem girls’ schools but these at -Stamboul and Salonika exist in Turkey. It -must be the vegetating existence of these few -establishments that has caused the flowing -pen of one writer on Bulgaria to scatter girls’ -schools profusely all over the country, placing -one even in the remotest village of the -Balkans; in all these schools, according to -him, girls are everywhere taught to read and -write! The statement is, unfortunately, -only another proof of the accuracy of the saying, -that a thing may be too good to be true.</p> - -<p>The foundation of the <i>Lyceum</i> at Constantinople, -decided upon in 1868, was due to -Ali and Fouad Pashas. The object of this -institute was to spread knowledge and education -throughout the country, irrespective -of creed and nationality, and thus to attempt -to break through the mischievous routine of -separate education, and to bring together all -the youth of Turkey with the view to establishing -better relations between the different -races, creeds, and parties. The task was not -an easy one. The history of the opposition -encountered by the director and professors -at the opening of the college will give a -slight idea of the difficulties and obstacles -the Government itself meets with in the management -of its subjects.</p> - -<p>One hundred and fifty purses were voted -for the Lyceum, to be expended for the benefit -of all Ottoman subjects, whether Moslems, -Catholic or Gregorian Armenians, -Roman Catholics, Greeks, Bulgarians, or -Jews. Foreign subjects were only admitted -on the payment of fees.</p> - -<p>It was intended to establish branches of -the Lyceum in the principal towns, but this -project was soon given up. The administration, -as well as the direction of the greater -part of the studies, was confided to French -functionaries, chosen by the Minister of -Public Instruction in France, subject to the -approval of the Turkish Minister of the same -department. The lessons were to be given -in French, and comprised literature, history, -geography, elementary mathematics, and -physical science. The Arabic, Persian, and -Turkish languages were to be taught by -Turkish professors. Greek and Latin were -to be taught, partly to facilitate the acquisition -of a knowledge of scientific terms, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -partly because Greek was of daily utility to -the greater part of the students.</p> - -<p>The Mohammedan religious instruction -was confided to an <i>Imam</i>, but the spirit of -tolerance had gained sufficient ground in the -customs of the establishment to allow its -members to practise their different creeds at -will amidst their comrades, and it is said to -have been a most interesting sight to witness -their devotions.</p> - -<p>In spite of (or rather on account of) the -liberality and tolerance of the original bases -of this institute, and the constant endeavor -of the directors to accommodate these bases -as much as possible to the habits and ideas of -the members of the different races there represented, -none seemed to feel the satisfaction -and content that was expected. The Mohammedans -naturally demanded that the -Koran laws and its exhortations regarding -prayer, ablutions, the fasting of Ramazan by -day and the feasting by night, should be respected. -The Jews, rigid observers of their -traditions, rebelled against the idea of their -children being placed in an institute directed -by Christians, and of their partaking in common -of food that was Tourfa, or unlawful. -The Greeks followed, complaining that their -language was not sufficiently admitted into -the course of studies; and the well-to-do -members of that community abstained from -sending their children there. The Roman -Catholics had religious scruples caused by a -special prohibition of the Pope, and were under -pain of deprivation of the sacraments if -they placed their children in an infidel institution. -Armenian pretension required -that special attention should be paid to the -children belonging to that community, and -the Bulgarians demanded that a strict line -should be drawn between their children and -those of the Greeks.</p> - -<p>Next to this came the difficulty about the -Day of Rest: the Turks claiming Friday, the -Jews Saturday, and the Christians Sunday; -allied to this point of dispute was that of the -observance of the religious and national festivals, -all falling on different days. Even the -masters themselves, Turks, Armenians, English -and French men, Greeks and Italians, by -the variety of nationalities they represented, -still further complicated the matter.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, in a country where education -is so expensive and so difficult to obtain -as it is in Turkey, there were not wanting -liberal-minded people who were willing -to pass over these niceties for the sake or -the counterbalancing advantages; and at -the opening of the Lyceum, 147 Mohammedan, -48 Gregorian Armenian, 86 Greek, 34 -Jew, 34 Bulgarian, 23 Roman Catholic, and -19 Armenian Catholic students applied for -admission, forming a total of 341.</p> - -<p>At the end of two years their numbers -were almost doubled, for as long as Ali and -Fouad Pashas had the direction the institution -continued to prosper and to give satisfaction -to those who had placed their children -in it; but after the death of these true -benefactors of Turkey everything changed -for the worse.</p> - -<p>The French director, disgusted with the -intrigues that surrounded him and the interference -he then met with in the performance -of his functions, sent in his resignation and -returned to Villa Franca; and within a -month 109 pupils were withdrawn.</p> - -<p>The post of director was successively filled -by men whose mismanagement provoked so -much discontent as to cause the still greater -reduction in the number of students from -640 to 382.</p> - -<p>The following extract from an article by -M. de Salve in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, -15th Oct., 1874, contains a pretty correct estimate -of the talent, capacity, and general -good conduct of the pupils that attended the -Lyceum:</p> - -<p>“After three years in the month of June, -1871, eight pupils of the Lyceum received the -French decree of <i>Bachelier des Sciences</i> before -a French Commission, and in the following -years similar results were obtained.</p> - -<p>“When the starting-point is considered -and the progress made reflected upon, it will -be admitted that it was impossible to foresee, -or hardly to hope, for success. The degree -that was attained bears testimony to the value -and devotion of the masters as much as to -the persevering industry and good-will of the -pupils. In general, the progress made in the -various branches of study, and particularly -in that of the French language, and in the -imitative art, has surpassed all our hopes, -and in this struggle of emulation between -pupils of such varied extractions, the most -laudable results have been accomplished.</p> - -<p>“We should then be wrong in looking -upon the Eastern races as having become incapable -of receiving a serious intellectual -culture, and condemning them to final and -fatal inaction. It may be interesting to know -which nationalities have produced the most -intelligent and best-conducted pupils. In -these respects the Bulgarians have always -held the first rank, and after them the Armenians, -then the Turks and Jews, and lastly, -I regret to say, the Roman Catholics. The -Greeks, in addition to some good characters, -presented a great many bad ones.”</p> - -<p>The supremacy of the Bulgarians is a fine -augury for the coming state of things; and -that the Greeks and Roman Catholics should -not have greatly distinguished themselves -need not surprise us; for all the children of -the better classes of these communities are -educated in schools kept by professors of -their own persuasion. One of the reasons -why the Lyceum has been abandoned by the -majority of the Christian pupils is its removal -to Stamboul, which made it very difficult -for their children to attend, together -with the radical changes which have taken -place in its administration and in the tone, -which has now become quite Turkish.</p> - -<p>In describing the improvements effected by -Ali and Fouad Pashas upon the old Moslem -Mekteb, we have been led away from the -other primeval Moslem institution, the -<i>Medressé</i>, or Mosque College. These Medressés, -supported by the funds of the -mosques to which they are attached, are the -universities where the Softas and Ulema, and -lower down the Imams and Kyatibs, study, -and, so to speak, graduate. The subjects -taught are much the same as in the Medressés -of other Mohammedan countries. Language -and theology are the main things in the eye -of the Ulema (or Dons) of a Medressé. Language -means grammar, rhetoric, poetry, calligraphy, -and what not, in Arabic, and -(though less essentially) in Persian and Turkish. -Theology includes the interpretation -of the Koran and traditions; and when we -have said that we have said enough for one -lifetime, as every one knows who knows anything -of Arab commentators and traditionists -and recommentators and traditionists commentated. -Theology, it should however be -added, of course includes Moslem law, since -both are bound together in the Koran and the -traditions of Mohammed. It may easily be -conceived that the instruction in these Medressés -was and is always of a stiff conservative -sort, not likely to advance in any great -degree the cause of general enlightenment in -Turkey. Still, since all the scholars and -statesmen of the country were, until quite -lately, invariably educated at the Medressés, -it cannot be denied that they have done service -in their time. Whatever historians, -poets, or literary men Turkey can boast of -more than a generation back, to the Medressés -be the credit! In the case of statesmen -the result of this training has not always -been very happy. It is not satisfactory to -know that in quite recent times a Minister of -Public Instruction (of the old school), sitting -upon a commission for looking into the state -of the schools of Turkey, on being shown -some maps and some mathematical problems -executed by the pupils, appeared entirely -ignorant of their meaning, and exclaimed, -“Life of me! Mathematics, geography, -this, that, and the other, what use is such -rubbish to us?”</p> - -<p>Now, however, the highest classes send -their sons to Paris and elsewhere to be educated. -The effect of this training upon La -Jeune Turquie I have already noticed. In -some cases it must, nevertheless, be admitted -that the Turk educated in Europe has really -made good use of his time, and has raised -himself, as near as his nature permits, to the -level of the more civilized nations he has associated -with.</p> - -<p>Such is the general state of education in -Turkey. Brought up, first by an ignorant -mother, then by the little less ignorant Hodja -of the Mekteb, or, in rarer cases, by the well-meaning -but still incompetent masters of the -Government schools, it is not surprising that -the ordinary Turk is crafty, ignorant, and -correspondingly fanatical. Yet dark as the -present position is, it is better than it was a -few years ago. The efforts of Ali and Fouad -Pashas have certainly given education a forward -impulse. The advance has been slow, -but it has been forward, not backward. In -this advance the Turks have shared far less -than the subject races. Were things as they -were two years ago, this could hardly be -taken as a hopeful sign; but, looking at it -from the opposite point of view, that the -Bulgarians and Greeks have advanced more -than the Turks, it must be admitted, in the -new arrangement of the provinces now negotiating, -that the fact carries a bright ray of -hope.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">EDUCATION AMONG THE GREEKS AND BULGARIANS.</span></h2> - -<p>The Turkish Conquest and Greek Schools—Monasteries -almost the sole Preservers of Letters—Movement -of the last Half-Century—Athenian Teaching -and Its Influence on Turkey—Education of the Greeks -at Constantinople—Μνημόσυνα—Salonika Girls’ -Schools—Boys’ Schools—A Greek School based upon -Mr. Herbert Spencer—The Past and the Present of the -Greeks—<i>Bulgarian</i> Ignorance—Birth of a Desire for -Knowledge—A Report from a Bulgarian Young Lady—The -First Bulgarian Book—Bulgarian Authors—Schools—Church -Supervision—Loyalty to the Sultan—Bulgarian -Language—Schoolmasters and their Reforming -Influence—Bulgarian Intelligence—American -Missionaries.</p> - -</div> - -<p>It was not to be expected that the immense -progress made by Greece during the past half -century in education would exercise no influence -upon the Greeks in Turkey. The -people of the kingdom of Greece, secure of -their own freedom, released from that servile -condition to which centuries of oppressive -misrule had reduced them, and become citizens -of a liberty-loving country, have for the -past twenty years been using every effort to -promote the cause of liberty by the spread of -education among their brethren still in subjection -to the Porte. When the Turks conquered -the Greek provinces, they did their -best to extinguish education among their -Christian subjects: the Greek schools were -suppressed, new ones prohibited, and the -Greek children had to be taught during the -night.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> But the monasteries, nests of ignorance -and vice as they were, were the principal -refuges of letters. Scattered all over the -empire, they enjoyed the privileges drawn -from the special liberty and favor granted by -the wise Sultan to the Greek clergy. This -was done by the Sultan with the view of acquiring -unlimited control over the Greek -rayahs, by giving a just sufficient amount of -power to a small but influential body of men, -to induce them to support his designs. -Mount Athos, one of these privileged asylums,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> -became a famous resort of the retired -clergy. A college of some merit was also established -on this monastic spot for affording -secular instruction to Greek youths. At -Phanar, the secluded refuge of the Greek -noblesse, in right of their privileges, education -among the higher classes was promoted. -For a long time this was the only place Constantinople -could boast as supplying men of -letters, some of whom, being conversant with -foreign languages, were employed in European -embassies as interpreters. Within the -last fifty years the educational movement -among the Greeks of Turkey has altered its -course. Some schools established in the -country afforded elementary instruction to -the children, but, for the most part, they -were now sent to Athens and Syra to complete -their studies, where numerous schools -and colleges afforded them the means of acquiring -a perfect knowledge of their own -language and a tolerably good general education. -This migration, perseveringly continued -for nearly thirty years, increased the -number of these Athenian and Syraote establishments, -and the pecuniary benefit they -derived from it enabled them to perfect their -organization. Politics and learning were -two essential elements of education, which -the modern Greeks uphold with a tenacity -worthy of final success. The young Greek -rayah, sent to Athens, returns to his home a -scholar and a staunch Philhellene, burning -with an all-absorbing desire to instil his ideas -and feelings into the minds of his fellow -rayahs. Such currents flow slowly but -surely among a population that, debased as -it may be by a foreign yoke, has a history -and literature of its own to look back to. -The first students returning from Greece were -the pioneers of the immense progress that -education has lately made among the Greeks -in Turkey. None can realize and testify to -this better than those who have watched its -introduction and development in the interior. -As I stated in another part of this work, even -the élite of the Greek society of Broussa -thirty years ago had lost the use of their -mother-tongue, replacing it by broken Turkish. -Since then, the introduction of schools -has been the means of restoring the use of -their own language to the great majority of -the people, though one portion of the town is -still ignorant of it, in consequence of the -profitable occupation the silk factories afford -to girls, who are sent there from a very early -age, instead of going to school. The inhabitants -of the surrounding villages, in all of -which Greek schools have now been established, -have learnt their national language—a -proof that although the general attention -of the Greeks has naturally first been directed -to promoting education in Thessaly, -Macedonia, and Epirus, the scattered colonies -left on the Asiatic side have not been -altogether forgotten or neglected; they have -now good colleges in Smyrna, and schools in -less important towns and villages.</p> - -<p>The Greek village of Demerdesh, between -Broussa and the seaport Moudania, merits -special praise for the wonderful progress, -both mental and material, it has made. It is -refreshing to see the intelligent features of -the inhabitants of this village, and their -independent and patriotic disposition. One -thinks involuntarily of some of the ancient -Greek colonies that from small beginnings -rose to great power and created for themselves -a noble history.</p> - -<p>At Constantinople the Greeks possess several -rapidly improving educational establishments -for both sexes. The Syllogus, too, a -literary association for the promotion of -learning, has been lately instituted in all the -large towns of Turkey. Some years ago I -was travelling with the head mistress of the -girls’ school at Epibatæ, in the district of Silivri, -near Constantinople—an institution -which owes its origin and maintenance to the -generosity and philanthropy of Doctor -Sarente Archegenes, a native of the place, -who, having acquired just reputation and -wealth in the capital, did not forget his native -village, but furnished the means for -building and maintaining a school for girls -in 1796. This mistress was a clever and -well-educated lady from Athens, and she -described to me her pleasure at the quickness -displayed by these peasant girls in their -studies. The only drawback, she remarked, -to this work of progress is the absence of a -similar establishment for the boys, who, all -charcoal-burners by trade, ignorant and uncouth, -are rejected as husbands by the more -privileged sex. I believe since then the evil -has been removed by the establishment of a -boys’ school. How much more beneficial to -humanity was the establishment of these institutions -than that of the one founded by -Mehemet Ali Pasha of Egypt at Cavalla, his -native place. Desiring to benefit his country -with some of the wealth acquired in Egypt, -he requested the people of Cavalla to choose -between a school and a charitable establishment -or <i>Imaret</i>: the former was meant to -impart light and civilization among them, the -latter to furnish an abode for fanatical Softas, -and daily rations of pilaf and bread for three -hundred individuals. The Cavalla Turks -did not hesitate between the mental and material -food; and shortly after a substantial -edifice was erected, its perpetual income -helping to maintain a number of indolent -persons within its walls, and feed the refuse -of the population that lazily lounged about -outside, waiting for the ready food that rendered -labor unnecessary.</p> - -<p>The wealthy Greek families at Constantinople -are now giving special attention to the -education of their children; the girls appear, -more especially, to have profited by it, for -the Greek ladies, as a class, are clever, well-informed, -and good linguists, well bred and -extremely pleasant in the intimacy of their -social circles. Most of them are musicians, -as the phrase is, some even attaining to excellence. -A French lady told me she had -heard a French ambassador state as his -opinion that the best and most enlightened -society in the capital was the Greek; but it -was so exclusive that an easy admission into -it was a privilege not to be enjoyed even by -an ambassador. I may state that my personal -experience allows me to coincide with -this view. The men, absorbed in business, -and perhaps still bearing the <i>cachet</i> of some -of those faults that prejudice is ever ready to -seize upon and exaggerate, are less refined and -agreeable in society than the women. Gifted -men, however, and men of a high standard -of moral integrity and good faith, are not rare -among them; and the munificence of such -men as Messrs Zarifi, Christaki, Zographo, -Baron Sina, and many others, in encouraging -the advancement of education, and helping -in the relief of the poor in time of want and -distress, has entitled them to the gratitude of -their nation.</p> - -<p>Some time ago I was invited to attend -the μνημόσυνα, an anniversary at the girls’ -school at Salonika, in remembrance of its -chief benefactress Kyria Castrio. A large -cake, iced and decorated with various devices, -was placed on a table facing the portrait -of this lady, which, garlanded with -flowers, appeared to look on smilingly and -contentedly, encircled by a ring of young -girls. The room was densely crowded with -guests and the relatives of the children. -Presently a great bustle was heard, and the -crowd opened to give passage to the dignified, -intellectual-looking Bishop, accompanied -by his clergy, who quietly walked up to -the cake, and read mass over it for the benefit -of the soul of the departed lady. This -ceremony concluded, he amiably shook hands -with some of the company nearest to him, -and took his seat at the rostrum used for -lectures. It was now the turn of the young -girls to express their gratitude to the memory -of her to whose kind thought and generosity -they owed in great part the education they -were receiving. This was conveyed in a -hymn composed for the occasion, and rendered -with much feeling and expression, under -the able direction of a young German -master, who, for the love of the art in general, -and the Greek nation in particular, had -kindly undertaken to give free lessons in -vocal music to the girls. Some of the elder -girls looked very pretty, and all seemed -bright and intelligent. The little ones, mustering -in a company of two hundred, were -next marched up in a double row, clasping -each other round the waist. It was a pretty -sight to see these little mites assembled round -the chair of the paternal Bishop, keeping -time with their feet to the tune, and singing -their little hymn. This interesting ceremony -was concluded by a long lecture, from one -of the masters of the establishment, delivered -in Greek. The profound attention with -which all listened to it was a proof that it -was understood and appreciated. These -Mnemosyné are held annually in many -towns, and even in secluded villages, in -memory of charitable persons who have -founded or largely endowed their schools.</p> - -<p>While on the subject of the Salonika girls’ -school, I may as well go on with it, and describe -its organization, the course of studies -followed in it, and the immense benefit it -has proved to the community. Tedious as -such a description is, it may be useful in giving -an idea of the many other similar institutions -scattered throughout the country. The -building, formerly I believe a Turkish Konak, -is in itself rather dilapidated: it consists -of two spacious halls, into which open a number -of class-rooms.</p> - -<p>I inspected the classes, and was much -pleased to find that the teachers ably and -conscientiously fulfilled their duties, and -that the pupils apparently did them great -credit. The following is a list of the subjects -taught by a lady principal and two professors:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Upper Division.</span></p> - -<p>I. Greek.—Translations of ancient Greek -authors and poets, with explanations, grammatical -analysis, and composition.</p> - -<p>II. Catechism, with due theological instruction.</p> - -<p>III. History of Greece.</p> - -<p>IV. Mathematics, including mathematical -and geometrical geography.</p> - -<p>V. Psychology.</p> - -<p>VI. Παιδαγωγία.</p> - -<p>VII. Plain and fancy needlework.</p> - -<p>VIII. Vocal music.</p> - -<p>IX. Physics.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Middle Division.</span></p> - -<p class="center">(Taught by lady principal, one mistress, and -one professor.)</p> - -<p>I. Greek and Greek writers.</p> - -<p>II. Sacred history, and explanations of the -Gospels.</p> - -<p>III. Mathematics.</p> - -<p>IV. Natural history.</p> - -<p>V. Political and physical geography.</p> - -<p>VI. Universal history.</p> - -<p>VII. Calligraphy.</p> - -<p>VIII. Needlework and vocal music.</p> - -<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Lower Division.</span></p> - -<p class="center">(Taught by six mistresses and four pupil -teachers.)</p> - -<p>I. Greek.—Reading, writing, modern -Greek grammar, with explanations of modern -Greek authors.</p> - -<p>II. Sacred history and catechism.</p> - -<p>III. Greek history.</p> - -<p>IV. Arithmetic.</p> - -<p>V. Natural history.</p> - -<p>VI. Political geography, needlework, and -calligraphy.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The infant schools contained two hundred -scholars, who were seated on a gallery; four -pupil teachers, two on each side, were keeping -order, and the mistress was giving the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -lesson of the day, illustrating it by one of -the many colored pictures that decorated the -walls of the apartment. The lesson, explained -by the teacher, is repeated by the -children in chorus, who are afterwards questioned. -The system followed in this school -appears to me the most successful and appropriate -way of teaching young children, -whose minds, impressed by the object-lessons, -and diverted by the variety of the exercises -they are made to perform, are better -able to understand and retain the knowledge -imparted to them. A lady, recently arrived -from Europe, who takes a great interest in -schools, told me that few establishments of -this kind in Europe could boast of better success.</p> - -<p>The rudiments of the following lessons are -taught: Reading; elementary geography; -history; moral lessons; object-lessons; infantile -songs and games.</p> - -<p>During our visit to the girls’ school we -stopped before each class, and a few girls -were called out and examined by the master -or mistress presiding over their studies. All -these girls were intelligent in appearance, -seemed well conversant with the subject in -question, and were ready with their answers. -Arithmetic and mathematics generally were -the only branches of study in which they appeared -deficient; but on the whole the instruction -(unfortunately limited to the Greek -language for want of funds) is excellent. -The needlework, both plain and ornamental, -is copied from models brought from Paris, -and the girls show as much skill in this department -as they do aptitude for study in -others.</p> - -<p>I questioned the directress on the general -conduct and morality of the girls, and she -gave me the best account of both. No distinction -is made between the rich and poor; -they sit side by side in the same class, a custom -which, in countries where education is -more developed, would be intolerable, but -which, for the present, in a place where class -distinctions are not so great, tends to improve -the manners of the lower without prejudice -to those of the upper. The opinion -of the schoolmistress was, that the girls of -Salonika, whilst more docile and more easily -managed, were not less intelligent than the -Athenian girls, whose more independent -spirit often occasioned trouble in the -schools.</p> - -<p>From this establishment has been formed -a training school for girls who wish to become -school-mistresses; six professors instruct -in the following subjects:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>I. Greek.</p> - -<p>II. Universal history.</p> - -<p>III. Mathematics (including arithmetic and -geometry).</p> - -<p>IV. Physics, geology, and anthropology.</p> - -<p>V. Philosophy, psychology, παιδαγωγία.</p> - -<p>VI. Vocal, instrumental, and theoretical -music.</p> - -<p>VII. Gymnastics and calligraphy.</p> - -<p>VIII. Explanations of the Gospels.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Seven female students obtained their diplomas -this year (1877), and were sent into the -interior, where in their turn they will be -called upon to impart light and knowledge to -the girls of some little town or village.</p> - -<p>During my travels I have often come -across these provincial schools, and found -much pleasure in conversing with the ladylike, -modest young Athenian women, who -had left home and country to give their -teaching and example to their less-favored -sisters in Turkey. I remember feeling a -special interest in two of these, whom I -found established in a flourishing Greek village -in a mountainous district of Macedonia.</p> - -<p>I was invited into their little parlor, adjoining -the school. It was plain but very -neat, and the scantiness of the furniture was -more than atoned for by the quantity of -flowers and the many specimens of their -clever handiwork. The Chorbadji’s wives, -some of them wealthy, doted upon these -girls, who were generally looked up to and -called Kyria (lady); each wife vying with -the other in copying the dresses and manners -of these phenomenal beings transplanted -into their mountain soil. The children, too, -seemed devoted to their teachers, and delighted -in the instruction given them, while -the men of the village showed them all respect, -and seemed to pride themselves on the -future benefit their daughters and sisters -would derive from the teachings and good influence -of these ladies.</p> - -<p>Having sufficiently enlarged upon the education -of the girls of Salonika, I will now pass -on to that of the boys, which is far more advanced.</p> - -<p>The highest school for boys is called the -Gymnasium. It contains four classes, in -which six professors teach the following subjects:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>I. Greek: translation of Greek poetry and -prose, with analysis and commentary, grammatical -and geographical, historical, archæological, -etc.</p> - -<p>II. Latin: translations from Latin authors -and poets, with analysis.</p> - -<p>III. Scripture lessons: catechism, with -theological analysis and explanations.</p> - -<p>IV. Mathematics: theoretical arithmetic, -geometry, algebra, and trigonometry.</p> - -<p>V. Natural science, comprising the study -of geology, anthropology, physiology, and -cosmography.</p> - -<p>VI. History: universal, and more especially -Greek.</p> - -<p>VII. Philosophy, psychology, and logic.</p> - -<p>VIII. French grammar, exercises and -translations from the best French authors.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The next Greek school contains three -classes, in which three masters teach the following -lessons:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>I. Greek, in all its branches.</p> - -<p>II. Sacred lessons, history, and catechism.</p> - -<p>III. Mathematics, practical arithmetic, and -geometry.</p> - -<p>IV. Natural history.</p> - -<p>V. Political geography.</p> - -<p>VI. Universal history.</p> - -</div> - -<p>In the middle school of this same town -there are four classes, each subdivided into -two; five masters teach the following lessons:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>I. Greek: reading, writing, modern Greek -grammar; and explanations of modern Greek -authors.</p> - -<p>II. Sacred history and catechism.</p> - -<p>III. History of Greece.</p> - -<p>IV. Mathematics and practical arithmetic.</p> - -<p>V. Natural history.</p> - -<p>VI. Political geography.</p> - -<p>VII. Vocal music and gymnastics.</p> - -</div> - -<p>How often, when witnessing the perseverance -and energy displayed in promoting education -among the Greeks and Bulgarians, -have I heartily wished that some more of the -funds given by our philanthropists for the -purposes of conversion could find their way -into the educational channel, and help to -stimulate its progress!</p> - -<p>Conversing on this subject with an intelligent -American missionary, settled amongst -the Bulgarians, I was told that the missionaries -found it hard to work upon the ignorant -and prejudiced, who distrust them and do -not listen willingly to their teaching. The -schoolmasters, the most enlightened among -the people, alone comprehend and appreciate -their object. He said, “Could we help -these people to help themselves through their -own schools by contributing to their support, -our work would prosper far better. Education, -destroying prejudice and superstition, -would pave the way to a simpler form of -worship; and those who really wish to benefit -ignorant humanity in a sensible and effective -manner ought to direct their efforts towards -the propagation of education, which -would finally lead to the end they have in -view.”</p> - -<p>I also visited another Greek school at Salonika, -which was under the direction of a -Greek gentleman educated in Germany, who -has designed a new educational system -which, having had a fair trial, will eventually -be adopted in all the educational establishments -of the Greeks. The origin of this -institution does not date further back than -two years, and of all the schools I have visited -here and elsewhere, this certainly struck -me as being the best and the most perfect of -its kind. The children were divided into -classes, each of which was examined by the -master, the result of which greatly surprised -myself and some friends who were present. -The director, who justly took great pride in -his work, assured us that all these boys under -his care (whose ages did not exceed -eleven) in consequence of the quickness, -facility, and ability with which they received -his instructions, had learnt in one year what -he had been unable to teach in double that -space of time to children in Germany. He -added that he was constantly called upon to -answer a shower of questions and remarks -made by the pupils upon the theme of the -lesson, which, having explained, he allows -them time and liberty to discuss the difficult -points, until they had quite mastered them. -On their first entrance they appear listless -and uninterested, but as the love of knowledge -is developed and grows upon them, they -often, when school time is up, beg permission -to remain an hour longer in class.</p> - -<p>The youngest were first examined in reading. -They read fluently from Homer, and -translated into modern Greek from chance -pages left for us to choose. While the director -was dwelling on some meteorological subject, -one little mite of six lifted up its finger -and said, “I noticed that the sky was very -cloudy yesterday, and yet it did not rain, may -I explain why?” Permission was at once -given, and he enlightened us on the subject. -All the questions put to the senior boys in -mathematics and natural science were responded -to with great promptitude and with a -clear knowledge of what they referred to. -The dog was the subject chosen for the lesson -on zoology. The answers to the questions -put on the variety of the species, and the -different characteristics that distinguished -them, were given with an exactness that -showed how well the subject had been explained -and understood. Scenes from Greek -mythology, orally taught, had been learnt by -heart, and were well retained by the pupils, -who are said to display great interest in the -classic selections, which they act in an admirable -manner; the piece chosen for recital in -our presence was a selection from the Iphigenia -in Tauris of Euripides.</p> - -<p>In answer to our inquiries on the conduct -and natural disposition of his pupils, the -master said both were good, although not -free from faults, which he however felt confident -would in time be eradicated by proper -care and attention. When they first come -they are apt to be untruthful: a vice I suppose -they acquire, together with other bad -habits, in the streets, where they are unfortunately -allowed to associate with children -who have received no education. Very -much pleased with all I had seen and heard -in this establishment, I begged the director -to let me have one of the class-books containing -the routine of teaching. He replied that -he had no special work on the subject to -abide by, and that the routine of the lessons, -left to his own judgment, had been combined -by him partly from the system he had studied -in Germany, and partly from ideas suggested -to him by reading the philosophical works -of Herbert Spencer, for which he appeared -to have a great admiration.</p> - -<p>Few subjects, I think, are more worthy of -attention than the march of progress among -nations which, perhaps from causes beyond -their own control, have long remained stationary.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -I asked a Greek gentleman, a short -time since, what was the difference between -the present and the last generation; what -were the distinguishing characteristics of -each, and what the advantages of the actual -over the two preceding it. He replied that -the first was ignorant and despotic; fortune, -rather than merit, establishing the personal -influence of the individual. When this influence -was due to official favoritism, it was -seldom honestly acquired, and rarely beneficial -to others. The fortunes, too, if made in -the country, would not stand very close inspection, -for the system of money-making -in Turkey is of so elastic a nature that it has -to be pulled many ways, drawn and quartered, -before the honest capitalist can call the -money his own. The ladies of the past generation, -though good and matronly, had received -no education, and consequently could -not afford to their children the moral support -that the children of the present day are beginning -to enjoy. The mothers taught their -daughters to be pious and honest, and instructed -them in household management and -needlework, giving them at the same time a -very limited supply of elementary teaching; -any further education, up to a recent date, -was considered a superfluous accomplishment -for girls. The fathers had begun to -pay more attention to the education of their -sons, but this education was of a peculiar -character; some of these boys, when even -sent to foreign colleges to complete their -studies, on returning home, were allowed -neither the liberty of action nor the freedom -of thought that they were entitled to by their -superior education.</p> - -<p>When these studies opened no particular -career to them, the youths were generally -called upon to follow the father’s trade or -profession in a monotonous routine often distasteful -to the more spirited young men, who -could not break through the restraint without -rebelling against the paternal authority. -This check often led to disobedience and desertion. -The independent youth would seek -elsewhere a calling more adapted to his -taste; many of these young men, starting -with no resources but their brains, have been -known to realize great fortunes. The rest -of them, married to wives generally chosen -for them by their parents, continue to live -docilely under the paternal roof, showing -every mark of deference to their father’s will,—the -absolute law of the house.</p> - -<p>All that is now changed; the present generation -is far more active and free-thinking. -Those who have had the advantages of education -are no longer the dreaded despots of -their homes, but the companions of their -wives and the friends of their children, who, -thanks to the privileges they enjoy in this -respect, find their way to a free exchange of -ideas and feelings with their parents. Many -openings are now afforded to youths, who -are consulted on the subject, and are free to -follow the career they may choose. Should -this be commercial, they are no longer, as -formerly, the employés of their fathers, but -partners with them, sharing the responsibilities -and the profits of the business.</p> - -<p>Good principles and morality are said to -have made great progress among the rising -generation, which in all respects is considered -by careful observers to be far superior to, -and promising to wipe away some of the -faults of, their ancestors in modern times. -Dishonesty is one of the evils generally attributed -to the Greek character. Considering -the long experience I have had of this -country, the close contact into which I have -been brought with all degrees of the Greek -community, I cannot in justice admit this -to be the rule. In my dealings with tradespeople, -I have never found them worse than -their neighbors belonging to other nationalities, -nor can I say that I have often detected -dishonesty in Greek servants, whilst to -their devotion and good services I owe much -of the comfort of a well-served house.</p> - -<p>The nation of the Greeks is earnestly -taken up with remodelling itself through the -salutary means of education; it has made -great progress, and cannot fail to fit itself for -the prominent part it has to play in the destinies -of South-eastern Europe.</p> - -<p>At no epoch of the history of the Bulgarians -does their dormant intellect appear to -have produced any works of art or genius. -This conclusion is arrived at by the absence -of any proof of an anterior Bulgarian civilization -in the form of literature or monuments. -Without personal traditions, they know -nothing of their past; and to learn something -of it, are forced to consult the Byzantine -and Slavonic authors. What civilization -they possessed was also borrowed from -the Slavs and Byzantines, with whom they -lived in close contact. In comparing the -national songs, their only literature, with -those of the above-mentioned nations, we are -led to conclude that the Bulgarians remained -equally impervious to the softer and more -elevating influence of the Greeks, and to the -warlike and independent spirit of the Servians -and other Slav populations, by whom -they were surrounded. Having imbibed -only to a slight extent the civilization of their -time, they must, after the Ottoman conquest, -through oppression and neglect, have -forgotten the little they once possessed, and -submitted to the life of perpetual toil and -hardship which they have for centuries endured.</p> - -<p>These peacefully disposed and hard-working -peasants, however, though devoid of -learning, deprived of national history, and -cut off from the means of improvement, lack -neither intelligence, perseverance, nor desire -for instruction. We find the indications of -this tendency in some of their somewhat disconnected -and often uncouth national songs -and ballads, which breathe a true love of -country life, and illustrate the slow progress -of their art, by eulogizing the slight innovations -in their agricultural implements. Many -of their ballads set forth the brave deeds of -their few heroes, illustrate the past glory of -their kingdom, lament its downfall, or endeavor -to account for its misfortunes.<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> - -<p>These timid utterances of an undeveloped -people are simple narratives of past incidents, -whose relation is heightened neither by -the spirit of revenge for wrongs, nor yet by -hope for a brighter future. These, the only -heritage of their ancestors, the Bulgarians -treasure in their hearts, and at moments of -joy and exhilaration or suffering, chant -them to the accompaniment of the <i>guzla</i>, an -instrument of three chords, whose monotonous -sounds harmonize well with the shrill or -plaintive airs in which utterance is given to -their sentiments.</p> - -<p>The blow aimed at the Bulgarian Church a -little more than a century ago fell with equal -weight upon the schools, which, though -neither numerous nor effective, were nevertheless -most valuable to the people, as the -last depositories of their national tongue. -These establishments, though the use of the -Bulgarian language was formally abolished -in them by the Greek Patriarch, still remained -scattered all over Bulgaria, and, directed -by the priests, enabled the Bulgarians, -during the revival of the Church question, to -make use of them as foundations for the -more important and solid erections that have -subsequently risen over them. The sudden -manifestation of a desire for instruction and -national improvement in Bulgaria is one of -the most extraordinary phenomena I have -had occasion to notice in the East.</p> - -<p>Education at the time of the commencement -of this movement was a privilege possessed -by the very small section of the nation -who were able to seek it in foreign -countries. The townspeople studied but little, -and the teaching in their schools comprised -the Greek language, together with a -few general notions: while the bulk of the -population in the rural districts were left in -entire ignorance. Those who wished for -a more complete education, without leaving -their country, had recourse to the higher -Greek schools, in spite of the antipathy that -existed between the two races.</p> - -<p>I had written to a Bulgarian gentleman requesting -some information upon the state of -education in his country, but, unfortunately, -the time at which I made this request did -not allow him to meet my demand, and his -daughter, a clever and accomplished young -lady, undertook the task instead. The following -is part of her first letter on the subject:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p>“<span class="smcap">Chère Madame</span>: Mon père m’a dit -que vous désiriez avoir quelques renseignements -relativement à l’instruction en Bulgarie: -une statistique des écoles, je crois. -Comme il est très-occupé dans ce moment, -il m’a chargé de vous fournir le -peu de renseignements que nous possédons -à ce sujet. J’ai donc recueilli tout ce qui -a été publié jusqu’à présent par rapport -aux écoles; mais malheureusement tout -cela n’est que fort incomplet. Je me suis -donc adressée aux evêques, espérant obtenir -d’eux des informations plus exactes, et surtout -plus complètes, et quelques uns d’eux -m’ont promis de m’envoyer des statistiques -des écoles dans leurs éparchies. Quant à -l’origine de ce mouvement de la nation Bulgare -vers la lumière, on n’en sait pas grand’chose. -Tout ce que je pourrais vous dire à -ce sujet n’est que les premières manifestations, -faisant présager le reveil de cette nation -à la vie, datent du commencement de ce -siècle. Déjà en 1806 apparait le premier livre -publié en langue Bulgare; l’année 1819 on -voit paraître deux autres, et depuis ce temps -chaque année apporte son contingent, quoique -bien maigre encore, à ce petit trésor, qui -s’amasse goutte à goutte. Quel rêve avait fait -tressaillir ce peuple dans cette torpeur où il -était plongé et qui avait toutes les apparences -d’une léthargie devant durer éternellement? -Etait-ce un souvenir instantané du passé? Une -espérance subite d’un avenir moins sombre? -Car, l’époque est assez loin encore où cette -agglomeration de peuples, dont il fait partie, -va venir en contact avec l’Europe civilisée et -en subir l’influence. Quelque intéressante -que serait l’explication de ce phénomène, on -est obligé néanmoins de se contenter de conjectures. -La tâche de l’historien qui essayerait -d’élaircir ce point est tout aussi difficile -que celle du philosophe qui cherche à de décrire -le travail operé dans l’âme de l’enfant -avançant progressivement à la lumière des -nouvelles notions. Dans tous les deux cas, -l’individu, dans lequel s’opére ce travail et -qui pourtant est le plus à même d’en observer -la marche, est, par sa faiblesse même, -incapable d’en juger; il subit passivement, -et c’est tout. Cependant cette période si obscure -de notre vie nationale nous a légué -trois noms bien brillants. Je veux parler -du père Paisiy, qui, vers la fin du dernier -siècle écrivait une histoire de la Bulgarie et -quelques autres ouvrages; de Stoiko Vladislavoff -(1739-1815), plus tard connu sous le -nom de Sofraniy, qui écrivit près d’une vingtaine -d’ouvrages dont quelques uns n’existent -plus; et enfin de Néophite Bogvely, dont -un des ouvrages, intitulé ‘Mati Bolgaria’ -(Mère Bulgarie), est d’une actualité si frappante -qu’on le croirait écrit hier. C’est un -dialogue entre une mère et son fils dans lequel -ils déplorent l’état de la patrie et recherchent -les causes de ses malheurs. La mère se -demande comment, malgré les immunités accordées -aux Chrétiens et la promulgation de -tant de bonnes lois, le sort de ces derniers ne -se trouve pas amélioré; alors le fils la fait -attention à la manière dont les lois sont appliquées. -On ne parlerait pas autrement aujourd’hui! -Observons en outre que tous les<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -trois parlent du joug phanariote comme d’une -des principales causes des malheurs de la -Bulgarie. Ceci montre que reveil de l’esprit -national chez les Bulgares n’est point, comme -quelques uns aiment à le faire croire, un -mouvèment factice dû à quelques individus. -C’est dans l’histoire de ces trois hommes, qui, -dans des circonstances plus favorables auraient -infailliblement été de veritables flambeaux -pour leur nation et peut-être pour l’humanité—c’est -dans leur histoire, dis-je, qu’il -faudrait chercher une partie des causes de la -régénération de la nation Bulgare.</p> - -<p>“Vous voudriez savoir l’époque à laquelle -la première école fut fondée en Bulgarie. Il -semble que de tout temps de petites aient existé -où le prêtre enseignait aux enfants à lui, -et où la limite suprême de la science était atteinte -quand on parvenait à griffoner son -nom. Mais la première école un peu plus -digne de ce nom a été fondée à Gabrova vers -l’an 1835. Kopriochtitza, Kalofer, Bazardjik, -Sopote, suivirent bientôt cet exemple. -La première école Bulgare à Philippopolis -fut fondée en 1867. Je pourrais vous envoyer -avec les statistiques les programmes de -quelques unes des principales écoles....”</p> - -</div> - -<p>I regret to say that subsequent events unfortunately -prevented my obtaining all the -hoped-for information on this subject. I can -therefore only present an incomplete description -of the work of education in Bulgaria.</p> - -<p>The schools opened at Gabrova, Kalofer, -Sapote, and subsequently at Philippopolis, -were the precursors of those that by degrees -spread in all directions, entering every nook -where a Bulgarian settlement existed; ten -years were sufficient to augment the small -number of original establishments to the following -number that existed in Bulgaria previously -to the desolation that befell that unfortunate -country.</p> - -<p>In the province of Philippopolis there were -305 primary schools, 15 superior schools, -with 356 teachers and 12,400 scholars; 27 -girls’ schools, with 37 teachers and 2265 pupils. -The Tuna vilayet, equally endowed, -was also in a fair way of improvement, and -the Bulgarian youth there, though less advanced -than in the district of Philippopolis, -were beginning to rival their brethren on the -other side of the Balkans.</p> - -<p>The lessons taught in the gymnasium at -Philippopolis comprise the Turkish, Greek, -and French languages, elementary mathematics, -geography, Bulgarian and Turkish history, -mental and moral philosophy, religious -and moral instruction, and church music.</p> - -<p>All these larger establishments, most of -which I visited, were fine spacious edifices; -some of them were formerly large old mansions, -others were specially erected for -schools.</p> - -<p>Up to the year 1860 the schools in Bulgaria -owed their creation and maintenance to voluntary -subscriptions and to funds bequeathed -by charitable individuals. But these funds -were small compared with the demand made -by the people for the extension and development -of their educational institutions. At -the separation of their Church from that of -Constantinople, they reappropriated the revenues, -which were placed under the direction -of a number of men chosen from each district, -and a part of them was set aside for the -purposes of education. These first steps towards -a systematic organization of the Church -and schools were followed by the appointment -of a mixed commission of clerical and lay -members, annually elected in each district, -charged with the immediate direction of the -local ecclesiastical department. Each commission -acts separately and independently of -the other, but is answerable to the community -at large for the supervision and advancement -of public instruction. A further innovation -in the shape of supplying funds for the increasing -demand for schools of a higher class -was made by the Bulgarians of Philippopolis -by contriving to persuade the authorities of -that place to allow a tax to be levied on each -male Bulgarian of 52 paras (about 2½<i>d.</i>), by -means of which they are enabled to improve -and maintain their excellent <i>gymnasium</i>. -When I visited these establishments, most of -them were in their infancy. Bulgarian fathers, -with genuine pride and joy, gladly led -their sons to the new national schools, telling -them to become good men, remain devoted -to their nation, and pray for the Sultan. Exaggerated -and unnatural as this feeling may -appear in the face of late events, it was nevertheless -genuine among the Bulgarians in -those days. Russian influence had not made -itself felt at that time, nor were the intellects -of the poor ignorant Bulgarians sufficiently -developed to enable them to entertain revolutionary -notions or plot in the dark to raise -the standard of rebellion. Entirely absorbed -at that moment in the idea of obtaining the -independence of their Church and promoting -education, they were grateful to their masters -for the liberty allowed them to do more -than they had presumed to expect.</p> - -<p>During the reign of Sultan Abdul-Aziz the -sentiment of loyalty of the subject races towards -their ruler diverged into two widely -distinct paths. Among the Bulgarians this -devotion originated in the intense ignorance -and debasement to which centuries of bondage -had reduced them: with the Greeks, -after the creation of free Hellas, there existed -a well-grounded confidence in themselves, -a clear insight into the future, and the patience -to keep quiet and wait for their opportunity. -The Bulgarians were loyal because -they knew no better; the Greeks because -their time was not yet come. They knew -the truth, “Tout vient à point à qui sait attendre.” -If the minds of the Bulgarians -subsequently became more alive to their actual -situation and they listened to revolutionary -suggestions, it was due to the teaching -they had obtained from their schools and -from the national ideas instilled into their -minds by the priests and schoolmasters. -This teaching was not always derived from -books, for these were rare and precious objects -not easy to obtain. Moreover, the difference -between the written and spoken language -is so great that the former can scarcely -be understood by the bulk of the population. -The original Hunnish tongue, absorbed -by the Slavonic dialect that succeeded -it, has preserved but little of the primitive -unwritten idiom; and even the adopted one -that replaced it gradually took in so great a -number of Turkish, Greek, Servian, and other -foreign words as to make the Bulgarian vernacular -scarcely analogous with the more -polished language now taught in the schools. -Even in Philippopolis some years ago the -Bulgarian ladies had great difficulty in understanding -the conversation of the ladies belonging -to the American mission, who had -learnt the written language and spoke it with -great purity. The modern Bulgarian is -based upon the Slav, and although differing -considerably from the Russian Slav language, -the two nations have no great difficulty, -after a little practice, in comprehending -each other. No less than seven Bulgarian -grammars are in existence, all written -during the last fifteen years; but they agree -neither in the general principles nor in the -details. Some entirely disregard the popular -idiom, and impose the rules of modern Russian -or Servian on the language. Others attempt -to reduce to rules the vernacular, -which is variable, vague, and imperfect.</p> - -<p>The schoolmasters are, generally speaking, -young, ardent, and enthusiastic; if educated -abroad, they are fully versed in all the usual -branches of study, earnest in their work, as -if pressed forwards by the impetus of their -desire for inculcating into the minds of their -ignorant but by no means unintelligent brethren -all the views and sentiments that engross -their own. The priests of the towns and villages -become their confidants and co-workers; -and thus the two bodies that had obtained -self-existence at the same time, and -had the same object in view, served later on -as organs for instilling into the people some -notions of personal independence and the -wish for national liberty.</p> - -<p>As a rule the Bulgarian is neither bright -nor intelligent in appearance. His timid -look, reserved and awkward manner, and his -obstinate doggedness when he cannot or will -not understand, give the peasant an air of -impenetrability often amounting to brute -stupidity. But those who have well studied -the capacity and disposition of the Bulgarian -consider this due rather to an incapability of -comprehending at the first glance the object -or subject presented to his attention, and a -dogged obstinacy that will not allow him to -yield readily to the proofs offered him.</p> - -<p>This defect is so prominent in the Bulgarians -that they have received from the Greeks -the cognomen of χονδροκεφάλους (thick-heads), -and a Turk, wishing to denote a person -of an obstinate character, will use the expression -of “Bulgar Kaphalu,” while the -Bulgarian himself makes a joke of it, and, -striking his head, or that of his neighbor, -exclaims, “Bulgarski glava” (Bulgarian -head). These heads, however, when put to -the proof, by their capacity for study, their -patience, and perseverance, gain complete -mastery of the subject they interest themselves -in, giving evidence of intelligence, -which requires only time and opportunity to -develop into maturity.</p> - -<p>The rivalry between this nation and the -Greeks is also doing much to promote education. -But another and more friendly and -effective stimulant exists in the untiring -efforts of the American missionaries who -have chosen this promising field of labor. -Their civilizing influence has taken an unassuming -but well-rooted foundation in all the -places in which they have established themselves, -and gradually develops and makes -itself evident in more than one way. Indefatigable -in their work of promoting religious -enlightenment and education, these missionaries -went about in their respective districts, -preaching the Gospel and distributing -tracts and Bibles among the people, who, in -some places, received them gladly with kindness -and confidence, while in others they -were regarded with distrust. Frequently, -however, a stray sheep or two would be -found, in even the most ignorant and benighted -parts, willing to be led away from his -natural shepherd, ready to listen to and accept -the teaching that spoke to his better -feelings and his judgment. If wholesale -conversion to Protestantism (of which I am -no advocate, unless it be based upon real intellectual -progress and moral development) -does not follow, much good is done in promoting -a spirit of inquiry, which can be satisfied -by the cheap and excellent religious -books furnished by the Bible societies. The -purity and devotion that characterize the -lives of these worthy people, who abandon a -home in their own land to undertake a toilsome -occupation among an ignorant and -often hostile population, form another moral -argument which cannot fail in the end to tell -upon the people. Nor has their work of -charity amidst death, cold, and starvation, -after the massacres, often at the risk of their -own lives, tended to lessen the general esteem -and regard in which they are held by -all classes and creeds of the population by -which they are surrounded.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian student, whether in his -own national schools or in those of foreign -nations, is hard-working and steady; grave -and temperate by disposition, he seldom exposes -himself to correction or to the infliction -of punishment. The scarcity of teachers -was at first a great hindrance to the propagation -of knowledge; this difficulty was by -degrees removed by sending youths to study -in foreign countries, who, on their return, -fulfilled the functions of schoolmasters. In -former times Russia was a great resort for -these students, but lately, notwithstanding the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -great facilities, financial and otherwise, afforded -them in that country, they now prefer -the schools of France and Germany, together -with the College of the American Mission at -Bebek, and the training schools that have -been lately established in the country, which -are now capable of supplying the teachers -necessary for the village schools. Recent -events have, to a great extent, disorganized -this excellent system: had it been allowed -ten years longer to work, a transformed Bulgarian -nation might have occupied the world’s -attention.</p> - -<p>The girls’ schools, also formed by the active -American ladies, deserve our attention. -Their principal object is to bestow sound -Christian instruction upon the rising female -population, and their efforts have met with -deserved yet unexpected success, not only in -developing knowledge among their own people, -but in stimulating the Bulgarian communities -to display a greater interest in the -education of their daughters and found -schools of a similar character. These establishments -have produced a number of excellent -scholars, who have done honor to them -by their attainments and general good character.</p> - -<p>The agents of the Roman Catholic Propaganda -have schools in the principal towns, -and are actively employed; but their efforts -are more particularly directed to proselytism -than to instruction, and their work has consequently -met with less success than that of -the Protestant missionaries.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.<br /> -<span class="smaller">SUPERSTITION.</span></h2> - -<p>Superstitious Character of the Dwellers in Turkey—Olympus—Klephtic -Legends—The Vrykolakas—Local -Spirits—A Vampire at Adrianople—Spirits of the -Springs—Miraculous Cures—Magic—Influence upon -Bulgarians—An Historiette—Antidotes for Spells—The -<i>Meras Tas</i>—Universal Belief in Magic, and the Consequences—<i>Buyu -Boghchas</i>—The <i>Buyu Boghchas</i> of -Abdul-Medjid and Aziz—Quack Astrologers—A -Superstitious Pasha—The Evil Eye—Remedies thereagainst—Spring -Bleeding—Vipers—Means of expelling -Vermin—Remedial Properties of Hebrew Beards—Dreams—Omens—Sultan -Mahmoud’s Omen—Predictions—The -Bloody Khan: Buried Treasure.</p> - -</div> - -<p>There are few people so superstitious as -the people of Turkey. All nations have their -traditions and fancies, and we find educated -Englishmen who dislike walking under a ladder -on superstitious grounds; but in Turkey -every action, every ceremony, every relation, -is hedged round with fears and omens and -forebodings. Whatever happens to you is -the work of supernatural agencies, and can -only be remedied by the <i>nostrums</i> of some -disreputable hag or some equally suspicious -quack diviner. If you lose anything, it is -the evil eye of some kind friend that has -done it. If you look fixedly at anybody or -anything, it is you who are trying to cast the -evil eye. In short, nothing happens in Turkey -unsupernaturally: there is always some -spirit or magician or evil eye at the bottom -of it. And this belief is not confined to the -Turks: Greeks, Bulgarians, and even a good -many Franks, are equally superstitious. Nor -is this superstition, like the many harmless -customs still observed in England, a mere -luxury—an affectation: it is a matter of life -and death. Not a few young girls have died -from the belief that they were bewitched, or -from some other superstitious shock; not a -few homes have been made miserable by the -meddlesome prophecies of a suborned astrologist.</p> - -<p>A great centre of superstition is Mount -Olympus. Since the gods deserted it the -popular imagination has peopled it with spirits -of every denomination, and Klephtic -legend has added to the host. The Greek -peasants have a superstitious horror of approaching -the ruined villages at the foot of -the mountain; making the sign of the cross, -they take a circuitous by-path sooner than -follow the deserted road that would lead -them past the desecrated church, the neglected -graveyards, the blackened ruins of the -cottages, now believed to be haunted by the -restless spirits of dead Klephts, who roam -about in the silence of night, bemoaning -their fate, and crying vengeance on the oppressors -of their race. It is only on the anniversary -of the patron saint of this deserted -region that the surviving inhabitants of these -once prosperous hamlets, bringing their descendants -and carrying the aged and infirm -as well as the youngest babes, set out on a -pilgrimage to these spots hallowed by unforgotten -wrongs, to pray for the souls of the -dead and offer <i>mnemosyné</i> to calm their -restless spirits; and to inculcate in their children -the sacred duty of vengeance on the tyrants -who inflicted upon their ancestors those -speechless injuries whose memory it is the -object of these pilgrimages to preserve fresh -and vengeful. The Turks, ever ready to accept -their neighbors’ superstitions, dread -these ruined villages no less than the Greeks. -Peopled, as he believes them, by Peris and -Edjinlis, no Turk will come near them, for -fear of coming under some malign influence.</p> - -<p>The Klephtic legends are full of the most -terrible of all ghosts, the <i>Vrykolakas</i>, or vampire. -Many popular songs tell of this fearful -spectre, who is the spirit of some traitor or -other evil-doer who cannot be at peace in his -grave, but is ever haunting the scene of his -crime. One ghastly poem records the visit -of a traitorous Klepht chieftain, Thanásê -Vagía, as a vampire, to his widow. This -man had betrayed his comrades to Ali Pasha, -and their souls, heralded by the ghostly -Kukuvagia, or owl of ill-omen, come and -drag him from his grave and hurry him to -Gardiki, where his deed of treachery was -done. Suddenly they find the soul of the -tyrant Ali Pasha, and, forgotten in the rush, -Thanásê Vagía takes refuge with his widow. -The dialogue between them is full of dramatic -power; the horror of the wife at the -livid apparition that seeks to embrace her, -and the vampire’s terror in his miserable -doom, are vividly told. At last the spectre -is driven away by the touch of the cross, -which he uncovers on his wife’s bosom. It -is a striking poem, and brings home to one -the living reality of this horrible superstition -to the Greeks. As we have seen, they make -periodical visits to the graves of their dead to -discover whether the soul is at peace. If the -body is not fully decomposed at the end of -the year, they believe that their relation has -become a Vrykolakas, and use every means -to lay the spirit.</p> - -<p>But the Vrykolakas, though the most -ghastly of spirits, is not alone. There are -invisible influences everywhere in Turkey. -If the Vrykolakas haunts the graveyards, old -Konaks have their <i>edjinlis</i>, fountains their -<i>peris</i>, public baths their peculiar genii.</p> - -<p>All these imaginary beings, whose existence -is implicitly believed in, are expected to -be encountered by the persons upon whom -they may choose to cast their baneful or -good influence. Their dreaded hostility is -combated by the Christians by religious faith, -such as an earnest appeal to Christ and the -Virgin, by repeatedly crossing themselves in -the name of both, or by taking hold of any -sacred amulet they may have on their persons. -These amulets consist of small portions -of the “true cross” enshrined in crosses -of silver, a crucifix, or an image of the Virgin, -which, trustingly held and shown to -the apparitions, have the effect of rendering -them impotent and causing them to vanish. -The Turks have recourse to the repetition of -a certain form of prayer, and to their <i>muskas</i> -or amulets, in which they place as much -faith as the Christians do in theirs.</p> - -<p>In 1872 the whole town of Adrianople was -put in commotion by the nightly apparition -of a spectre that showed itself at Kyik, a fine -elevated part of the town, inhabited both by -Christians and Mussulmans. This imaginary -being, believed to be a Vrykolakas, was represented -to me, by eye-witnesses of both -creeds, who swore they had seen it listening -about their houses in the twilight, as a long, -slim, ugly-looking figure, with a cadaverous -bearded face, clad in a winding-sheet; one -of those restless spirits, in fact, who, not being -allowed the privilege of peaceful decomposition -in their tombs, still haunt the homes -of the living, tapping at their doors, making -strange noises, and casting their evil influence -upon them. This comedy lasted a fortnight, -during which in vain did the Mussulman -<i>Hodjas</i> and the Christian priests endeavor, -by their prayers and incantations, to -free the people from their alarming visitor. -At last, it was rumored that the only human -being possessing the power of doing so was -a Turkish <i>Djindji</i>, or sorcerer, famous for his -power over evil spirits, who lived in a town -at some distance, but who could only be prevailed -upon to come by payment of seven -<i>liras</i> by the Kyik people. On the arrival of -this man at Adrianople the supposed spirit -disappeared. The belief of the inhabitants -in the existence of the vampire was too -deeply rooted to allow me to ascertain who -was the charlatan that had benefited by this -imposition on public credulity. I questioned -a Greek woman who had seen it. She -crossed herself, and said she would rather -dispense with talking on the subject. On -asking a Turk his opinion on the apparition, -he said, “It must have been the spirit of -some corrupt bribe-eating Kadi, forbidden -the repose due to the remains of an honest -man, and come back to trouble us with his -presence after he has lost the power of fleecing -us of our money!”</p> - -<p>The spirits that have their abodes in mineral -baths are specially courted by the sick, -who are taken to the establishments and left -under the beneficent care of these beings. -The mineral bath of Kainadjah, near Broussa, -is a dark dungeon-like place, extremely -old, and much famed in the district for its -healing powers. Its waters, strongly impregnated -with sulphur, are boiling hot, rendering -the atmosphere of the bath intolerable -to any but the credulous, who, I suppose, support -it, by virtue of the faith they place in -the good to be derived from the trial. A -crippled Turkish woman was taken to this -bath at nightfall, with a written petition in -her hand to the genii, and, according to the -usual routine, was left alone in utter darkness -in the inner bath till morning. The -spirits of the place, if well disposed towards -her and pleased with the sacrifice promised -to them, would be expected to come in the -course of the night and attend upon her. A -copper bowl, left by the side of the patient, -and knocked against the marble slabs in case -assistance was required, was the only means -of communication between the patient and -her friends waiting outside.</p> - -<p>This woman, for many years deprived of -the use of her legs, had been brought from a -distant part of the country. I had a chat -with her before she underwent the treatment. -She appeared fully sensible of the -dangers it presented, but at the same time -confident in the benefits expected to be derived, -which the bath-women represented to -her as being unfailing, owing to the supernatural -aid the spirits would be sure to -accord her. This cure, of a nature so exhausting -to the system, and so telling upon -the imagination, requires a great amount of -moral courage and no small degree of physical -strength to carry out.</p> - -<p>This subject was one of deep interest to -me, and my first care next morning was to -visit the patient, and see what the waters, -not the <i>Peris</i>, had done for her. I found her -sitting in the outer chamber of the bath, looking -very tired and exhausted; but, as I approached, -her face lighted with smiles, and -she actually stretched out her feet and attempted -to stand upon them. I could scarcely -believe my eyesight or conceal my surprise -at this sudden change in her condition. Her -friends cried out in chorus, “Spit upon -her, and say <i>Mashallah</i>!” while the bath-women<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span> -ceased not to sound the praises and -boast of the power and good-will of the <i>Peris</i> -of their establishment who had wrought this -wonderful cure, leaving all the time no doubt -in my mind that the beneficent spirits were -no other than the <i>Hammamjis</i> themselves.</p> - -<p>The following is the account the patient -gave of what she underwent when left alone -in her vapory dungeon:</p> - -<p>“At first I felt a suffocating sensation, then -by degrees a weakness crept over me, my -eyes closed, and I fainted away. I do not -know how long I remained in that condition, -but on recovering consciousness I felt myself -handled by invisible beings, who silently -pulled and rubbed my afflicted limbs. My -terror at this stage was as great as my helplessness -to combat it. I began to tremble -and wished to call for help; when on the -point of doing so, I suddenly found myself -under the reviving influence of a pail of cold -water suddenly thrown over me. The shock, -together with my terror, was so great that I -actually made a supreme effort to stand upon -my feet, when, to my awe and astonishment, -I discovered that I had the power of doing -so; I even took a few steps forwards, but in -the darkness I could proceed no further, and, -finding my voice, began to call for help with -all my might. The gentle bang of the door -for a moment made me hope that my friends -were within reach; but no! it was only the -spirits, who, unwilling to be seen by mortal -eyes, were taking their departure. Their -exit was followed by the arrival of my -friends, who, alarmed by my screams, were -rushing to my aid. I was taken out by the -advice of the good <i>Hammamji Hanoum</i> (bath -mistress), and left to repose in the outer -chamber till morning. I have already ordered -the sacrifice of the sheep I promised to -the spirits, should they relieve me of the infliction -that has crippled me so many years, -and am willing to submit to the same ordeal -twice more, according to the recommendation -of the <i>Hammamji Hanoum</i>, in order to -afford the <i>Peris</i> the full time needed for the accomplishment -of their task.”</p> - -<p>Cases of a similar nature have often been the -theme of wonder among those who frequented -the baths of Broussa, whose efficacious -waters used annually, and employed by civilized -patients who resort to them from all -parts of the Empire, are found salutary -enough without the services of the <i>Peris</i>.</p> - -<p>Magic plays a great part in Turkish affairs. -Christians and Moslems, Greeks and Bulgarians, -Turks and Albanians, implicitly believe -in the power possessed by evil-minded -persons of casting spells upon their enemies -or rivals, and extraordinary means are resorted -to with a view to removing the baneful -influence. Among my Uskup reminiscences, -which are none of the most pleasant, I remember -one particularly interesting case, -which not only illustrates the general belief -of an ignorant population in the power of -spells, but also presents a fair picture of the -way the peasants are treated by their masters. -This instance of the rape of a Bulgarian -girl by a brigand chief is no isolated -case. Such things are the daily occupation -of Turks in authority and of Albanian chiefs -who have forgotten their national traditions -and have condescended to ape Turkish manners.</p> - -<p>The heroine of my story was a young Bulgarian -girl belonging to the town of Uskup. -She was a strong healthy maiden, but not -the less beautiful:—a brunette, with bright -black eyes full of expression, a small, well-shaped -mouth, fine teeth, a forehead rather -low, but broad and determined, and a nose in -which high spirit and character were strongly -marked. Her oval face would have been -perfect but for the slight prominence of the -cheek-bones. Her jet-black hair fell in a -number of braids on her well-shaped shoulders, -in fine contrast to the rich embroidery -of her <i>Sutna</i>. On working days she was -seen laboring in the fields with her brothers, -where her cheerful voice would enliven the -monotonous sound of the spade; while on -feast-days she was ever the first to reach the -common and lead the <i>Hora</i> to the sound of -the <i>Gaida</i>. Her natural gayety made her -welcome everywhere; she was called “The -Lark” by her friends, and was the life and -soul of every gathering. She had the happy -assured look of the girl who loves well and is -loved well again.</p> - -<p>One feast-day, riding by the common, I -reined in my horse, and stopped to admire -this pretty creature by the side of her handsome -and intelligent-looking lover, gracefully -leading the dance. They both looked pleased -and happy, as though their earthly Paradise -had as yet known no shadow. But the sun -that set so brightly on the festivities of the -day was darkened on the morrow. The poor -girl was going at dawn to the harvest field, -with her bright sickle in her hand, when -she was waylaid by a band of Albanian -ruffians, who suddenly appeared from behind -a hedge where they had been concealed, and -tried to seize and carry her off. The danger -was sudden, but the stout-hearted girl lost -neither courage nor presence of mind; holding -her sickle, she stood her ground, bravely -defended herself and kept her ravishers at -bay. The Albanians, who make it a point of -honor not to strike a woman, changed their -plan, and pointing their guns at her brothers, -who stood helpless by her side, shouted, -“Yield, Bulka, or both your brothers are -dead!” A look of despair flashed for a moment -across her face; then folding her arms -she declared her readiness to follow her persecutors, -saying, “You have power over my -person, take it, and do your worst; but what -is within here” (pointing to her head and -heart) “none shall have save the Great Bogha -and my Tashko.”</p> - -<p>Mehemet Bey, a brigand chief, was the -instigator of the abduction. Assisted by two -subordinates, he placed her behind him on -his horse and galloped off across the plain of -the Vardar to his village. The brothers, dismayed -by the misfortune that had so unexpectedly -befallen their sister, ran back to the -town and gave notice to the venerable bishop, -who at once proceeded to the Konak and acquainted -the Kaimakam with the details, and -demanded that the girl should be reclaimed -and given up to him. The salutary custom -then practised in cases of both willing and -compulsory conversion was that the neophytes -should be placed under the keeping -of the bishop in the <i>Metropolis</i>, where they -were allowed to remain three days, enjoying -the benefits of religious advice and the good -influence of their friends. This excellent -custom, since done away, had the best -results. The prevailing custom, which has -superseded this, is to send the neophyte to -the house of the Kadi or governor of the -town, where a very different influence, seldom -of a salutary nature, is exerted during -three days, when the presumed convert, often -yielding to erroneous arguments and false -promises, is led before the Court to declare -his or her adoption of the Moslem faith. -This pressure was brought to bear upon -Rayna, our heroine, and she was treated by -the Albanian chief and his friends by turns -to threats of vengeance and every kind of -flattery and glittering promise. But the -brave girl was deaf to both, and by the instrumentality -of the Kaimakam the captive -was finally brought to the Metropolis, where -she strongly protested against the calumnious -accusations brought against her by her enemies -of having tacitly consented to her abduction, -and demanded to be led before the -Court without delay to make her final declaration.</p> - -<p>Her captivity had naturally been a terrible -blow to her betrothed, and the joy of her release -was sadly darkened by horrible suspicions -of the dishonor to which she might -have been subjected. The young man accepted -all the same his chosen bride, whom -he had so narrowly escaped losing, and the -wedding-day was fixed.</p> - -<p>The bridegroom’s home was so situated, -that from the windows of my room I could -see into it. The family consisted of an aged -Bulgarian woman and her son, a furrier by -trade. A week before the ceremony took -place, the old lady might be seen working -away at the preparations for the coming -event. The house was thoroughly cleaned -and whitewashed; the copper pots, pans, and -dishes, and the china and glass, indispensable -decorations of the shelves that adorn the -walls of every well-to-do Bulgarian tradesman’s -house, were in their turn brought -down, made bright and shining, and then returned -to their places. All the carpets were -then produced, in extraordinary quantity, -and of all colors, dimensions, and qualities. -These were stretched on mattresses, sofas, on -the floors of the rooms and on the veranda. -The cellar was next visited, and no small -quantity of its fluid contents brought forth. -Uskup is the only town in Turkey in which -I have noticed a tendency on the part of the -female population to indulge in drink; they -do not, however, practise this vice in public, -nor is an inebriated woman ever seen in the -country. Finally the provisions, consisting -of an abundant supply of flour, rice, butter, -honey, and fruits were collected, and all -seemed in readiness. The future bridegroom, -however, who appeared ill and dispirited, -took no very active part in the arrangements, -and I frequently observed him -sitting on the veranda silent and dull, smoking -cigarette after cigarette; his mother occasionally -whisking round and reprimanding -him in strong Bulgarian language, to which -he would sometimes respond by a few words -and at others would heave a deep sigh and -leave the house.</p> - -<p>I went to see the bride on the day she was -brought to her new home. She looked very -pretty in her bright bridal costume, but her -fine eyes had lost something of their lustre -and her cheeks much of their wonted bloom. -She looked serious and concerned; her husband, -dull and dispirited. As they stood up -to make the first formal round of the dance, -I noticed the difference in their step, -formerly so light, now heavy and sorrowful. -As they turned round, slowly measuring -their steps to the music of the <i>gaida</i>, not a -smile parted their lips, not a cheerful word -was heard from the rest of the company. -The poor bride noticed this, and a few tears -dropped from her eyes; but her cup of sorrow -was not yet full. A suspicious-looking -woman, famous for her deep knowledge of -witchcraft, entered; taking aside the bridegroom, -she whispered something in his ear -which seemed to impress him deeply. This -bird of ill omen left behind her a chill which -all seemed to feel. When the week’s feasting -was at an end, the gossips began to chat -over the event, all agreeing that a duller wedding -had never taken place in their town, -and prophesying all sorts of misfortunes to -the young couple. I frequently saw them -from my windows, and noticed that they did -indeed seem far from happy. The husband -looked morose, was seldom at home, and -during those intervals was always in bad -humor and disputing with his mother, and -quarrelling with his wife, who was oftener -crying than laughing.</p> - -<p>The gossiping tongues of the neighbors -were once more loosed, and the report was -spread that the bridegroom was laboring -under the influence of a magical spell cast -upon him by his disappointed rival, the Albanian -chieftain, and that he was consequently -<i>zaverza</i>. This spell cast upon men -is, among other devices, operated by means -of the locking of a padlock by a sorcerer, -who casts the lock into one well and the key -into another. This is supposed actually to -lock up every feeling and faculty of the individual -against whom it is directed, and to render -him insensible to the impressions of love.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -This spell, implicitly believed in and much -feared by all the ignorant people of the country, -requires the assistance of a professional -to remove its malignant effects. The unhappy -couple, after many miserable months, -resolved to have recourse to the sorceress -before mentioned, and after the husband had -undergone the remedies prescribed by her -everything went well, and my heroine once -again became happy. Such is the force of -imagination.</p> - -<p>The antidotes employed in these cases -consist of quicksilver and other minerals, -placed with water in a basin, called the -<i>Meras Tas</i>, or Heritage-Bowl, a very rare vessel, -highly prized for its virtues, and engraved -with forty-one padlocks. The water -is poured from this bowl over the head of the -afflicted person during the seven weeks following -Easter. At Monastir, this ablutionary -performance is held in a ruined mill called -Egri Deirmen, where every Thursday during -this period may be seen a heterogeneous -gathering of Turks, Jews, Bulgarians, Wallachians, -Albanians, and Greeks, young and -old, male and female, who resort to the spot, -and for the modest payment of a copper coin -receive the benefits of an anti-magical wash. -Every one who has been to the place will attest -the beneficial effect of this rite, and so -deeply rooted is the belief in the influence of -magic in the minds of these people that even -those who may have wished to free themselves -from what they almost admit to be a -superstition, say that they are led back by -the incontrovertible evidence they see of its -effects on the persons against whom it is employed.</p> - -<p>Most of the spells cast upon persons are -aimed at life, beauty, wealth, and the affections. -They are much dreaded, and the -events connected with this subject that daily -occur are often of a fatal character. A Turkish -lady, however high her position, invariably -attributes to the influence of magic the neglect -she experiences from her husband, or the -bestowal of his favor on other wives. Every -Hanoum I have known would go down to -the laundry regularly and rinse with her own -hands her husband’s clothes after the wash, -fearing that if any of her slaves performed -this duty she would have the power of casting -spells to supplant her in her husband’s -good graces. Worried and tormented by -these fears, she is never allowed the comfort -of enjoying in peace that conjugal happiness -which mutual confidence alone can give. A -<i>buyu boghcha</i> (or magic bundle) may at any -time be cast upon her, cooling her affection -for her husband, or turning his love away -from her. The blow may come from an envious -mother-in-law, a scheming rival, or -from the very slaves of whose services the -couple stand daily in need. A relative of -Sultan Abdul-Medjid assured me that on the -death of that gentle and harmless Padishah -no fewer than fifty <i>buyu boghchas</i> were found -hidden in the recesses of his sofa. All these -were cast upon the unfortunate sovereign by -the beauties who, appreciated for a short time -and then superseded by fresh favorites, tried -each to perpetuate her dominion over him.</p> - -<p>During a conversation I recently had with a -Turkish lady of high position, who had spent -seventeen years of her life in the seraglio -of Sultan Abdul-Aziz, I happened to refer to -the eccentricities occasionally displayed by -that Sultan. She looked reproachfully at me -and exclaimed, “How can you accuse the -memory of our saintly master of eccentricity -when every one knows it was the effect of -magic?” and, adding action to her words, -she began to enumerate on the tips of her -fingers all the persons who had a special interest -in having recourse to this practice in -order to bewilder the mind of the Sultan. -“The first schemer,” said she, “is the -Validé Sultana, desirous of perpetuating her -influence over the mind of her son. The -next is the Grand Vizir, in the hope of further -ingratiating himself with his master. -Then comes the Kislar Aga, chief of the -eunuchs, with a host of women, all disputing -with each other the affection of the Sultan. -If ten out of twelve of these fail in their attempt -the machinations of two will be sure -to succeed, and these two suffice to bewilder -the mind of any man. When our lamented -master was driven out of his palace, and the -furniture removed from his chamber, <i>buyu -boghchas</i> were found even under the mats on -the floor. These, taken up by some good -women that still venerated his memory, were -thrown into the sea or consumed by fire.”</p> - -<p>The <i>buyu boghcha</i> is composed of a number -of incongruous objects, such as human bones, -hair, charcoal, earth, besides a portion of the -intended victim’s garment, etc., tied up in a -rag. When it is aimed at the life of a person, -it is supposed to represent his heart, and -is studded with forty-one needles, intended -to act in a direct manner and finally cause -his death. Two of these bundles, of a less -destructive nature, were thrown into my -house; on another occasion two hedgehogs, -also considered instruments of magic and -forerunners of evil, were cast in. All these -dreaded machinations had, however, no other -effect on me beyond exciting my curiosity to -know their perpetrator; but they occasioned -great fear to my native servants, who were -continually expecting some fatal calamity to -happen in consequence.</p> - -<p>The advice of magicians, fortune-tellers, -dream-expounders, and quack astrologers is -always consulted by persons desirous of being -enlightened upon any subject. Stolen -property is believed to be recoverable through -their instrumentality, and the same faith is -placed in them as a European victim of some -wrong would put in the intelligence and -experience of a clever detective. Some of -these individuals are extremely acute in arriving -at the right solution of the mystery. -Their power, dreaded by the suspected parties -as sure to result in some unforeseen -calamity, is a moral pressure which, when -set to work upon the superstitious, succeeds -beyond expectation. The following is an -example of the hold that superstition has -over the minds of the most enlightened -Turks. A Pasha, who had been ambassador -at Paris, and whose wit, liberal ideas, and -pleasant manners were highly appreciated in -European circles, was appointed in his more -mature years Governor-General of Broussa -during the reign of Abdul-Medjid. During -his travels he had collected a splendid library, -the finest ornament of his house. -These books gave umbrage to an old sheikh, -who possessed unlimited influence over the -Pasha. The old fanatic had mentally vowed -the destruction of these writings of the infidel, -and by means of his eloquence and by -prophetic promises he so worked upon the -governor’s superstitious feelings as to induce -him to sacrifice his library, which was -brought down into the court-yard and made -into a bonfire. The recompense for this act -of abnegation, according to the sheikh, was -to be the possession of the much-coveted post -of Grand Vizir. Strange to say, a short time -afterwards the Pasha was called to occupy -that position; but its glory and advantages -were enjoyed by him for the short period of -three days only—a poor recompense for his -sacrifice.</p> - -<p>Belief in the evil eye is perhaps more deeply -rooted in the mind of the Turk than in that -of any other nation, though Christians, Jews, -and even some Franks regard it as a real -misfortune. It is supposed to be cast by -some envious or malicious person, and sickness, -death, and loss of beauty, affection, and -wealth are ascribed to it. Often when paying -visits of condolence to Turkish harems, -I have heard them attribute the loss they -have sustained to the <i>Nazar</i>. I knew a beautiful -girl, who was entirely blinded and disfigured -by small-pox, attribute her misfortune -to one of her rivals, who, envying in -her the charms she did not herself possess, -used to look at her with the peculiar <i>fena guz</i> -(bad expression) so much dreaded by Turkish -women. When the misfortune happened, -the ignorant mother, instead of reproaching -herself for her neglect in not having had her -daughter vaccinated, lamented her want of -foresight in having omitted to supply her -with the charms and amulets that would -have averted the calamity.</p> - -<p>A lady who had lost a beautiful and valuable -ring that had attracted the attention of -an envious acquaintance, when relating to -me the circumstance with great pathos, attributed -her loss solely to the evil eye cast -upon it by her friend.</p> - -<p>I knew a lady at Broussa whose eye was so -dreaded as to induce her friends to fumigate -their houses after she had paid them a visit. -She happened to call upon my mother one -evening when we were sitting under a splendid -weeping willow-tree in the garden. She -looked up and observed that she had never -seen a finer tree of its kind. My old nurse -standing by heard her observation, and no -sooner had our visitor departed than she -suggested that some garlic should at once be -hung upon it or it would surely come to grief. -We all naturally ridiculed the idea, but, as -chance would have it, that very night a storm -uprooted the willow. After this catastrophe -the old woman took to hanging garlic everywhere, -and would have ornamented me with -it had I not rebelled.</p> - -<p>At Uskup the finest horse in the town was -my Arab, which was said to excite the admiration -and envy of the Albanians, whose -love for fine horses is well known. Often -after having been out he was pronounced -<i>Nazarlu</i> by our faithful kavass and the groom, -and was at once taken to a sheikh of great -repute in the town, who read prayers over it, -pulled its ears, and after breaking an egg on -its forehead, sent it back with every assurance -that it was <i>Savmash</i> (cured). Finding -that my pet was none the worse for this -strange treatment (for which I was never -allowed to pay by my excellent friend the -old sheikh), and seeing that it afforded gratification -to my people, I allowed them to take -it as often as they liked.</p> - -<p>Visiting one day the nursery of a friend, -we found the baby, six months old, divested -of its clothing and stretched on a square of -red cloth, while the old Greek nurse, much -concerned about the ailing condition of her -charge, which she attributed to the effects of -the evil eye, was presiding over the following -operation performed by an old hag of the -same nation in order to free the infant from -the supposed influence. Little heaps of -hemp, occupying the four corners of the -cloth, were smoking like miniature altars; -their fumes, mingling with the breathings -and incantations of the old enchantress, -offered a strange contrast to the repeated -signs of the cross made by her on the baby’s -body, ending in a series of gymnastic contortions -of its limbs. The child soon recovered -his wonted liveliness, and seemed to enjoy -the process, crowing and smiling all the time.</p> - -<p>Should you happen to fix your gaze on a -person or object in the presence of ill-disposed -Turks, you are liable to receive rude remarks -from them under the idea that you are casting -the evil eye. Some months ago two -Turkish boys, belonging to one of the principal -families of the town of R⸺, attracted -the attention of some Christian children who -stood by, and who were forthwith violently -assaulted by the servants of the little boys, -who called out, “You little giaours! how -dare you look in this manner at our young -masters and give them the evil eye?” The -cries of the children brought some shopkeepers -to the spot, who with some difficulty -rescued them from this unprovoked attack.</p> - -<p>The preservatives employed against the -power of this evil are as numerous as the -means used to dissipate its effects. The -principal preventives and antidotes are garlic, -cheriot, wild thyme, boar’s tusks, hares’<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -heads, terebinth, alum, blue glass, turquoise, -pearls, the bloodstone, carnelian, eggs (principally -those of the ostrich), a gland extracted -from the neck of the ass, written amulets, -and a thousand other objects. The upper -classes of the Christians try to avert its effect -by sprinkling the afflicted persons with holy -water, fumigating them with the burning -branches of the palms used on Palm Sunday, -and by hanging amulets round their necks: -as preservatives, coral, blue glass ornaments, -and crosses are worn. The common people -of all denominations resort to other means in -addition to these. The Bulgarians, for instance, -take six grains of salt, place them on -each eye of the afflicted person, and then cast -them into the fire with a malediction against -the person supposed to have caused the evil. -They also take three pieces of burning charcoal, -place them in a green dish, and making -the sign of the cross pour water over them. -Part of this liquid is drunk by the victim, -who also washes his face and hands in it and -then throws the remainder on the ground -outside the house.</p> - -<p>On the last day of February (old style), they -take the heads of forty small fish, and string -and hang them up to dry. When a child is -found ailing from the supposed effects of the -evil eye, the heads are soaked in water, and -the horrible liquid given to it to drink. It is -considered a good test of the presence of the -evil eye to place cloves on burning coals and -carry them round the room. Should many -of these explode, some malicious person is -supposed to have left the mischievous effects -of the <i>Nazar</i> behind him.</p> - -<p>Blue or gray eyes are more dreaded than -dark ones, and red-haired persons are particularly -suspected. Great circumspection is -observed in expressing approbation, admiration -or praise, of anything or anybody, as all -Orientals live in a continual state of dread of -the effects of the <i>fena guz</i>.</p> - -<p>Besides the belief in spirits, magic, and -other supernatural powers, public credulity -in the East is apt to accept as facts a variety -of matters not less absurd and often more -injurious. In spring, for instance, a popular -idea prevails that blood in some manner or -other must be drawn from the body in order to -cool the system and render it healthy for the -summer. Part of the population will appeal -to the barber, part to professed phlebotomists, -others to the application of leeches. Superstition -requires that vipers should be medicinally -used in spring; the gypsies undertake to -collect these and sell them alive to the inhabitants -of towns. I remember seeing one -of these reptile-hunters carry a bagful of -them on his back against a sheepskin-coat. -A passer-by being attracted by their movements, -visible through the bag, took hold of -it, but no sooner had he done so than he paid -dearly for his curiosity by being severely -bitten by one of them. Freshly killed animals, -such as frogs, birds, etc., are often applied -to suffering members of the body.</p> - -<p>Croup is cured by amulets procured from -the Hodjas and hung round the neck of the -child. Turkish women have often assured -me that this remedy is never known to fail, -and consequently they resort to no other. -Square pieces of paper, bearing written inscriptions, -are given for a few piastres by -learned Hodjas to persons whose dwellings -are infested with vermin. These are nailed -on the four walls of an apartment, and are -believed to have the power of clearing it of -its obnoxious tenants. Going into the room -of one of my servants one day at Adrianople, -I found a cucumber-boat occupying each -corner. On inquiring why they were placed -there, an old servant answered that, being -inconvenienced by the too plentiful visitation -of vermin, she had appealed to a person at -Kyik, whose magical influence, conveyed in -cucumbers, was stated to be infallible in driving -the creatures away. I tried to analyze -the contents of these receptacles, but finding -them a mess composed of charcoal, bones, -bits of written paper, hair, etc., I soon desisted, -hoping that it would prove more -efficacious than it promised.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian remedy for this pest, although -simpler in form, can hardly be more -effective. It consists of a few of these insects -being caught on the 1st of March, inclosed in -a reed, and taken to the butcher, their credentials -being couched in the following -terms: “Here is flesh, here is blood for -you to deal with; take them away and give -us something better in exchange.”</p> - -<p>Another means of getting rid of serpents, -venomous insects, and vermin, is made use of -by the Bulgarians on the last day of February; -it consists in beating copper pans all -over the houses, calling out at the same time, -“Out with you, serpents, scorpions, fleas, -bugs, and flies!” A pan held by a pair of -tongs is put outside in the court-yard.</p> - -<p>Mohammedans execrate the Christian faith, -and Christians the Mohammedan faith, but -both in cases of incurable diseases have recourse -reciprocally to each other’s Ἁγιάσματα -(holy wells), the sacred tombs of the saints, -and to the prayers of the clergy of both -creeds. I have often seen sick Turkish children -taken to the Armenian church at -Broussa, and heard prayers read over them -by Armenian priests. I have also seen Christian -children taken to Hodjas to be blown -and spat upon, or have the visitation of intermittent -fever tied up by means of a piece -of cotton-thread twisted round the wrist.</p> - -<p>I happened one day to be making some -purchases from a Jew pedler at the gate, -when a Turkish woman passing by came -quietly up to the old man, and before he -could prevent her, made a snatch at his beard -and pulled out a handful. The unfortunate -Hebrew, smarting under the pain and insult, -asked the reason for her cruelty. “Oh,” she -answered, “I did not intend to insult or hurt -you; but my daughter has had fever for a -long time, and as all remedies that I have -tried have proved vain, I was assured that -some hairs snatched from the beard of an -Israelite and used to fumigate her with would -be sure to cure her.” She then tied up her -stolen treasure in her handkerchief and -walked away with it.</p> - -<p>Dreams play a great part in Eastern life. -The young girl, early taught to believe in -them, hopes to perceive in these transient -visions a glimpse of the realities that are -awaiting her; the married woman seeks, in -their shadowy illusions, the promise of the -continuation of the poetry of life, and firmly -believes in the coming realities they are supposed -to foreshadow; while the ambitious -man tries to expound them in favor of his -hopes and prospects, often guiding his actions -by some indistinct suggestion they convey -to his mind. When a Greek woman has -had a remarkable dream, she will consult -her Ὄνειρο, or book of dreams, the Bulgarian -will gossip over it with her neighbors, often -accepting their interpretation, and the Turkish -woman will do the same, but if not satisfied -with the explanations given, she has -the alternative of consulting the Hodja, who -will find a better meaning in his “learned -books.”</p> - -<p>A projected contract of marriage is often -arrested by the unfavorable interpretation of -a dream, or a marriage that had not previously -been imagined is entered into under -the same influence. The vocations of a man -may be changed by a dream, and the destinies -of a family trusted to its guidance. -Dreams are often used as a medium of discovering -truth, and are efficacious instruments -in the hands of those who know how -to use them. A Turkish servant was suspected -by one of my friends of having stolen -a sum of money which she missed from her -safe. The lady called in the woman and said -to her, “Nasibeh, I dreamed last night that -while I was out the other day you walked -into my room and took the money that was -there.” The culprit, taken by surprise, exclaimed, -with too much earnestness, “I did -not take it!” My friend responded, “I have -not accused you of having taken it, but since -you deny it so earnestly you are open to suspicion. -If the money is not there you must -have taken it.” After a little pressure the -woman confessed that, tempted by the -<i>Sheytan</i>, she had done so, but that she would -give it back, promising to be honest for the -future. She was retained in her situation, -and, be it said to her credit, was never again -found guilty.</p> - -<p>The most trivial circumstances connected -with the birth of a child are considered of -good or bad omen according to the interpretation -given to them. Trifling accidents -happening on a wedding-day have also their -signification; so have the breaking of a looking-glass, -the accidental spilling of oil, sweeping -the house after the master has left it to -go on a journey, the meeting of a funeral or -of a priest, a hare crossing the path, and a -thousand other every-day occurrences. The -Turks, after cutting their nails, will never -throw away the parings, but carefully keep -them in cracks of the walls or the boards, -where they are not likely to be scattered -about. This is based on the idea that at the -resurrection day they will be needed for the -formation of new ones.</p> - -<p>Sultan Mahmoud, the grandfather of the -present Sultan, was in his bath when the -news of the birth of his son Abdul-Aziz was -announced to him. The tidings are said to -have made him look sad and thoughtful; he -heaved a deep sigh, and expressed his regret -at having been informed of the event when -divested of his clothing, saying it was a bad -omen, and his son was likely to leave his -people as naked as the news of his birth had -found his father. Unfortunately for the -nation, this prediction was but too exactly -realized.</p> - -<p>Predictions have great influence over the -Mohammedan mind. On the eve of great -battles, or on the occasion of any great political -change, prophecies are consulted and -astrologers appealed to, to prognosticate the -issue of the coming event. Many of these -individuals have paid with their heads for -the non-fulfilment of their prophecies.</p> - -<p>The last prediction in circulation at Stamboul, -uttered since the death of Sultan Abdul-Aziz, -says that seven sultans must succeed -each other, most of them dying violent -deaths, before the Empire will be secure.</p> - -<p>While living at a farm near Broussa, situated -a few miles from the town, not far from -the ruins of a fine old hostelry called the -“Bloody Khan,” my mother was one moonlight -night accosted by an old Turk while we -were out walking. He was a stranger in -the place, tall and handsome, with a snowy -beard falling upon his slightly bent chest. A -peculiar, restless look about the eyes, and the -numerous scars that covered his bare breast -and face were evident indications that whatever -his present calling might be, his past -life must have been a stormy and adventurous -one. He walked quietly towards us, -and stopping before my mother, with a certain -amount of respect mingled with paternal -familiarity, said to her, “<i>Kuzim, gel!</i> -(Daughter, come!) I have a secret to reveal -to you.” My mother followed him, and half -amused and wholly incredulous listened -to the following recital. Pointing to the -“Bloody Khan,” which, being situated upon -the principal road leading into the interior, -had once been occupied by a band of forty -robbers, he said, “I was the chief of the -band of brigands that occupied that Khan. -You must know its story. Forty years have -passed during which my faithful followers -have been caught, killed, or dispersed, leaving -me the sole representative of the band. -A timely repentance of my evil ways led me -to make a <i>Tubé</i> vow and renounce the old -trade. I have since lived in peace with Allah -and with men. I have sworn to lay violent -hands on no man’s property more; but my<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -conscience does not rebel against attempting -to recover what I had buried beneath yonder -wall. I want your powerful concurrence to -dig out this buried treasure, the greater part -of which will be yours.” My mother naturally -refused to have anything to do with the -affair. Seeing her unwillingness, the old man -tried all his powers of persuasion to induce -her to take part in his plan, saying, “On me, -my daughter, be the sin. I will rest content -with a small portion of what will be recovered, -all the rest I abandon to you!” Finding -this last inducement had no more effect -than his previous promises, he turned away, -saying, “Since you refuse I must seek somebody -else.” Among the few Mohammedan -inhabitants of the small village his choice -fell upon the <i>Imam</i>, whose enterprising face -promised the old man better success. The -cunning Imam, on hearing the brigand’s tale, -being persuaded of its veracity, at once -promised his assistance, mentally deciding, -however, that he would be the only one to -profit by the hidden treasure. He at once -began to make use of the usual stratagem of -superstition, which could alone secure the -success of his plan. Telling the old man -that according to his books ill-gained wealth -must be in the possession of evil spirits, and -that in order to guard themselves against -their influences during their digging enterprise, -and to prevent the treasure from turning -into charcoal, a peculiar process of appeasing -and soothing incantations would be -needed; but that he would at once proceed -to perform these, and at the first crowing of -the cock all would be ready, and they would -proceed together to the spot and unearth the -treasure. The credulous old chief stroked -his beard, and said that with Allah’s help and -the good-will of the <i>Peris</i> by the next day -they would be rich men. In the course of -the night, as arranged, the two, spade in -hand, leading the Imam’s horse bearing saddle -bags, proceeded to the spot. The Imam -commenced operations by surrounding himself -and his companion with as many magical -observances as he could invent. Telling -him to remove the first spadeful of earth, -they went on digging alternately until a hollow -sound told the sharp ear of the Imam -that the distance between them and the coveted -wealth was not great. He threw down -his spade, and again resorting to magical -mummeries declared that the danger was -imminent, as the spell foretold resistance on -the part of the spirits, and a refusal to yield -possession unless a goat were at once sacrificed -to them. “Go,” said he, earnestly, -“back to the mosque, and in the small chamber -you will find three goats; take the milk-white -one and bring it here. Do not hurry -it much, but lead it gently, as becomes the -virtue of the offering.” The old man, nothing -doubting, with Turkish nonchalance -went quietly back to the village, which lay -about three miles distant. The Imam once -rid of him, and when in no danger of being -seen or heard, set actively to work, got out -the treasure, placed it in his saddle-bags, -mounted, and rode off, and was never seen -or heard of in the village again. The old -man returned in due time, accompanied by -the goat, to find nothing but his spades, the -pile of earth, and the gaping hole. Disgusted, -disappointed, and enraged, he came -back to the village, and early next morning -made his appearance at the farm. Inquiring -for my mother, he acquainted her with the -pitiable results of his attempt. This time the -curiosity of the whole family was roused, and -we all proceeded in a body to the spot. The -old man’s assertions proved to be perfectly -correct, and my brother, upsetting part of the -upturned earth, discovered a handsome silver -dish and cup, which we took home with us -as trophies of the strange adventure.</p> - -<p>The following strange incident happened -at Broussa when I was a child. Incredible -as it may appear, its authenticity cannot be -disputed, and a statement of the fact may -be found in the Consular Reports made at the -time to the Foreign Office:</p> - -<p>The monotonous life of the inhabitants of -this romantic old city, which a French -<i>improvisateur</i> justly designated as <i>un tombeau -couvert de roses</i>, was one morning startled by -the arrival of a band of fifty or sixty wild-looking -people—men, women, and a few -children. None knew whence they came or -what they wanted. Some of them, dressed -as Fakirs, spoke bad Turkish; the rest used -a guttural dialect unintelligible to any but -themselves. Their costume, composed of a -sheet or wrapper, left their arms, legs, and -tattooed breasts bare; white turbans, from -under which a quantity of matted hair hung, -covered the heads of the men. The women, -whose arms and breasts were bare, wore -brass and bead ornaments, large rings in their -ears, and a sheet over their heads. They -were fine, strongly-built people, with regular -features and bronzed skins. This nomad -band, which was conjectured to have come -from some distant part of Central Asia, took -up its quarters at Bournabashi, a beautiful -spot outside the walls of the town, where a -grove of cypress trees shelter a fine mausoleum -containing the saintly remains of one -of the first chieftains who accompanied Sultan -Orkhan and settled in the city after the -conquest. His shrine, much venerated by -the Mohammedans, is a resort for pilgrims, -who may often be seen performing their ablutions -at the cool fountains by the side of -the vale, or devoutly bending to say their -<i>namaz</i> under the shade of the imposing trees, -having lighted tapers on the tomb.</p> - -<p>It must have been some mysterious legend -connected with the life and deeds of this reputed -saint, mixed up, as most Oriental legends -are, with the supernatural, that, finding -its way back to his native land, and discovered -or expounded centuries later by his savage -kindred, led them to undertake this long -journey and do homage at the tomb of the -Emir. Their actions seem, however, to have -been prompted partly by interested motives, -for their legend seems mysteriously to have -stated that great riches had been buried with -him, whose possession was only attainable by -human sacrifice. The easy consciences of -the fanatics do not appear to have felt any -scruples with regard to the means they were -to use, and in their zeal, stimulated by their -greed for gain and by superstition, they undertook -the long journey that, after perhaps -months of hardship and toil, led them to their -goal.</p> - -<p>The day after their arrival they were seen -in twos and threes scouring the town, crossing -and recrossing all its streets under the -pretext of begging, but, as subsequently -discovered, with the real object of kidnapping -children. According to their confession, -forty was the number needed, whose fat -boiled down was to be moulded into tapers, -which, burning day and night on the tomb -of the Emir, were to soften the spirits into -complaisance and induce them to give up the -treasure they guarded in its original state, -and not in charcoal, as would be the case if -this all-important part of the operation were -omitted by the searchers. The news of the -appearance of the kidnappers, with some -inkling of their object, soon spread through -the town and began to terrorize the inhabitants -of the Christian quarters, where they -were principally seen loitering, when palpable -evidence of their operations was brought -before the English Consul by the timely rescue -of two Armenian children, who had been -half strangled, one being brought in insensible -and the other having on its throat the -deep and bleeding nail-marks of the two -ruffians from whose hands the children had -been rescued by some passers-by, who interrupted -the murderous work as it was being -executed in the sombre archway of a ruined -old Roman bridge crossing the ravine that intersects -the town. The Consul at once proceeded -to the Governor and requested that -the case should at once be looked into. But -the sacred character of Fakir protecting some -of these men made public investigation difficult, -and the authorities hushed up the matter, -and only signified to the band that they -must renounce their project and leave the -country. They did so, expressing their deep -regret at the want of faith of the authorities, -and bitterly reproaching them with their refusal -to co-operate tacitly with their desire.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI.<br /> -<span class="smaller">ISLAM IN TURKEY.</span></h2> - -<p>Religious Parties—The Ulema and Softas—Conservatism—Imams, -Muftis, and Kadis or Mollahs—Corruption—The -Dervishes—Their Influence over the -People—A Dervish Fanatic in Bulgaria—Various -Orders of Dervishes—Revolving and Howling Dervishes—The -Bektashis—A Frank Sheikh—Ceremonies -of Islam—Friday at the Mosque—The Prayers—Ramazan—A -Night in Ramazan—Pilgrimage—Kismet.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The religion of the Turks is properly the -orthodox or <i>Sunni</i> form of Islam, the doctrines -of which are too well known to require -description here. But the subject is complicated -by the fact that there is a considerable -opposition between the popular and the -“respectable” religion. The Established -Church, so to speak, of Turkey is governed -by the Ulema, or learned men trained in the -mosques, often supported by pious endowments. -The popular faith, on the other -hand, is led by the various sects of dervishes, -between whom and the Ulema there -exists an unconquerable rivalry. Some account -of these two parties is essential to any -description of the people of Turkey.</p> - -<p>The Ulema are the hereditary expounders -of the Koran, to the traditional interpretation -of which they rigidly adhere. They have -nothing to say to the many innovations that -time has shown to be needful in the religion -of Mohammed, and they brand as heretics all -who differ a hair’s-breadth from the old established -line. The result of this uncompromising -orthodoxy has been that the Ulema, -together with their subordinates the Softas -(a sort of Moslem undergraduates), have -managed to preserve an <i>esprit de corps</i> and a -firm collected line of action that is without -a parallel in Turkish parties.</p> - -<p>Midhat Pasha and his party perceived this, -and made use of the Ulema as tools to effect -their purpose; but as soon as the <i>coup d’état</i> -was completed, Midhat Pasha’s first care -was to free himself as much as possible from -further obligations towards them, and to -break up their power by exile, imprisonment, -and general persecution. He understood that -if left to acquire further ascendency in public -affairs, great mischief would ensue. The -Ulema were clamoring loudly for reforms; -but the reforms they demanded were those -of the ancient Osmanlis and the execution of -the Sheriat or Koran laws, which, equitable -as they are among Mohammedans, would -not improve the condition of the rayah. -Herein lies the chief reason why reforms in -Turkey remain for the most part a dead letter. -The Koran has no conception of the -possibility of Christian subjects enjoying the -same rights as their Moslem neighbors. No -judge, therefore, likes to go against this -spirit; and no good Mohammedan can ever -bring himself to a level with a caste marked -by his Prophet with the brand of inferiority. -Midhat Pasha, thoroughly cognizant of this -fact, could not enter into a pact with the -Ulema, the strictest observers of the Koran -law, and at the same time satisfy the urgent -demands of Europe in favor of the Christian -subjects of the Porte. He did the best he -knew in the midst of these difficulties, and -produced his constitution. This was construed -in one light to the Mohammedans, -and in another to the Christians; whilst it -was intended to pacify Europe by insuring, -nominally at least, the reforms demanded by -her for the rayahs. Nobody, however, believed -in the Constitution. The Mohammedans -never meant to carry it into execution; -and Europe, in its divided opinions on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -subject, had the satisfaction of seeing it submerged -in the vortex of succeeding events.</p> - -<p>The order of Ulema is divided into three -classes: the <i>Imams</i>, or ministers of religion; -the <i>Muftis</i>, doctors of the law; and the -<i>Kadis</i> or <i>Mollahs</i>, judges. Each of these -classes is subdivided into a number of others, -according to the rank and functions of those -that compose it.</p> - -<p>The <i>imams</i>, after passing an examination, -are appointed by the Sheikh ul Islam to the -office of priests in the mosques. The fixed -pay they receive is small, about 6<i>l.</i> or 7<i>l.</i> per -annum. Some mosques have several imams. -Their functions are to pronounce the prayer -aloud and guide the ceremonies. The chief -imam has precedence over the other imams, -the muezzins (callers to prayer), the khatibs, -hodjas, and other servants of the mosque.</p> - -<p>In small mosques, however, all these functions -are performed by the imam and the -muezzin. Imams are allowed to marry, and -their title is hereditary. Should the son be -unlettered, he appoints a deputy who performs -his duties. Imams, generally speaking, -are coarse and ignorant, and belong to -the lower-middle class of Turkish society. -Their influence in the parish is not great, -and the services they fulfil among their communities -consist in assisting in the parish -schools, giving licenses, and performing the -ceremonies of circumcision, marriage, and -of washing and burying the dead. They -live rent free, often deriving annuities from -church property. The communities pay no -fixed fees, but remuneration is given every -time the services of the imam are required -by a family. No Mohammedan house can -be entered by the police unless the imam of -the parish takes the lead and is the first to -knock at the door and cross the threshold. -Should the search be for a criminal in cases -of adultery, and the charge be brought by -the imam himself certifying the entrance of -the individual into the house, and the search -prove fruitless, the imam is liable to three -months’ imprisonment. A case of the kind -happened a few years ago to a highly respectable -imam in Stamboul, who, having for -some time noticed the disorderly conduct of -a hanoum of his parish, gave evidence, supported -by his two mukhtars, or parish officers, -of having seen some strangers enter the -house. The search leading to no discovery, -the hanoum demanded reparation for her -wounded honor, and the three functionaries -were cast into prison. The imam, on being -released, cut his throat, unable to survive the -indignation he felt at seeing the evidence of -three respectable persons slighted and set -aside before the protestations of false virtue, -backed by bribes.</p> - -<p>This is one of the strange licenses of Turkish -law. Crime is not punished unless its -actual commission is certified by eye-witnesses; -this is the reason that evidence of -crime committed during the night is not admitted -as valid by the laws of the country. -The imams, under the pressure of this law, -think twice before they give evidence; nor -do they much like the unpleasant duty of -accompanying police inspections, from which -they generally excuse themselves.</p> - -<p>The <i>muftis</i>, or doctors of the law, rank -next: seated in the courts of justice, they -receive the pleas, examine into the cases, -and explain them to the mollah, according -to their merits or the turn they may wish to -give to them. There is very general complaint -against the corruption of these men, in -whose hands lies the power of misconstruing -the law.</p> - -<p>The <i>mollahs</i> or <i>kadis</i> form the next grade in -the Ulema hierarchy. They are appointed -by the Sheikh ul Islam, and are assisted in -their functions by the muftis and other officials.</p> - -<p>The avarice and venality of this body of -men are among the worst features of Turkish -legislature. Few judges are free from -the reproach of partiality and corruption. -Their verdicts, delivered nominally in accordance -with Koranic law, are often gross misinterpretations -of the law, and the <i>fetvahs</i> or -sentences in which they are expressed are -given in a sense that complicates matters to -such a degree as to render a revisal of the -case useless, and redress hopeless, unless the -pleader is well backed by powerful protectors, -or can afford to spend vast sums in -bribes—when, perhaps, he may sometimes, -after much trouble and delay, obtain justice.</p> - -<p>The Kadi Asker of Roumelia and the Kadi -Asker of Anatolia come next in rank as supreme -judges; the former of Turkey in Europe, -and the latter of Turkey in Asia; they -sit in the same court of justice as the Sheikh -ul Islam.</p> - -<p>This Sheikh ul Islam, or Grand Mufti of -the capital, is the spiritual chief of Islam and -the head of the legislature. He is appointed -by the Sultan, who installs him in his functions -with a long pelisse of sable. The Sultan -can deprive him of his office, but not of -life so long as he holds his title, nor can he -confiscate his property when in disgrace.</p> - -<p>The chief function of the Grand Mufti is -to interpret the Koran in all important cases. -His decisions are laconic, often consisting of -“Yes” or “No.” His opinions, delivered in -accordance with the Koran, are not backed -by motive.</p> - -<p>In instances of uncertainty he has a way -of getting out of the difficulty by adding -“God is the best judge.” His decrees are -called <i>fetvahs</i>, and he signs himself, in the -common formula, “the poor servant of -God.” He is assisted in his functions by a -secretary called the <i>fetvah eminé</i>, who in -cases of minor importance directs the pleas -and presents them all ready for the affixing -of the mufti’s seal.</p> - -<p>The influence of the Sheikh ul Islam is -great, and powerful for good or harm to the -nation, according to his character, and the -amount of justice and honesty he may display -in his capacity of Head of Islam and supreme -judge. This influence, however, being -strictly Mohammedan, and based on -rigid religious dogmas, cannot be expected to -carry with it that spirit of tolerance and liberality -which a well regulated government must -possess in all branches of the administrative -and executive power. Instances, however, in -which Sheikhs ul Islam have shown strict -honesty, justice, and even a certain amount -of enlightened tolerance, have not been unfrequent -in the annals of Turkey, in the settlement -of disputes between Mussulmans and -non-Mussulmans.</p> - -<p>I have heard several curious stories about -the Grand Muftis of this century. Whilst -Lord Stratford was ambassador at Constantinople, -one of the secretaries had an audience -with the Sheikh ul Islam, who at the moment -of his visitor’s entrance was engaged in -the performance of his <i>namaz</i>. The secretary -sat down while the devotee finished his -prayers, which were ended by an invocation -to Allah to forgive a suppliant true believer -the sin of holding direct intercourse with a -Giaour. His conscience thus relieved, the -old mufti rose from his knees and smilingly -welcomed his guest. But this guest, who -was a great original, in his turn begged -permission to perform his devotions. He -gravely went through an Arabic formula, -and ended by begging Allah to forgive a -good Christian the crime of visiting a “faithless -dog of an infidel.” The astonished old -mufti was nettled, but with true Oriental imperturbability -he bore the insult.</p> - -<p>A late Grand Mufti was greatly respected, -and appealed to from all directions for the -settlement of new and old lawsuits, which -he is said to have wound up with strict impartiality -and justice; but at the same time -he always urged upon the disputants the advantages -of coming to an amicable arrangement.</p> - -<p>One of his friends, observing that this advice -systematically accompanied the winding-up -of the case, asked the dignitary why, -being sure of having delivered a just sentence, -he recommended this friendly arrangement? -“Because,” said the mufti, “the -world nowadays is so corrupt, and the use -of false witnesses so common, that I believe -in the honesty of none; and my conscience -is free when I have obtained something in -favor of the loser as well as the winner.”</p> - -<p>From the time of the annexation of Egypt -and Syria by Selim the Inflexible, the title of -Khalif, or Vicar of God, was assumed by -the Turkish Sultan; but although this title -gives him the power of a complete autocrat, -no Sultan can be invested with the Imperial -dignity unless the Mollah of Konia, a descendant -of the Osmanjiks, and by right of his -descent considered holy, comes to Constantinople, -and girds the future sovereign with -the sword of Othman; on the other hand, a -Sultan cannot be deposed unless a Fetvah of -the Sheikh ul Islam decrees his deposition, -or, if by consent of the nation, his death.</p> - -<p>Such, then, are the Ulema—the clergy, so -to speak, of the Established Church of Islam -in Turkey. They are the ultra-conservative -party in the nation in things political as well -as things religious. “Let things be,” is the -motto of the Sheikh ul Islam and his most -insignificant Kadi. It is not surprising that -this should be so. Trained in the meagre -curriculum of the Medressé, among the dry -bones of traditional Moslem theology, it -would be astonishing if these men were aught -but narrow, ignorant, bigoted; and chained -in the unvarying circle of the Ulema world -they have no chance of forgetting the teaching -of their youth. But this does not explain -the fact that nine out of ten Moslem -judges are daily guilty of injustice and the -taking of bribes.</p> - -<p>The Ulema entertain a cordial hatred for -the dervishes, whose orthodoxy they deny, -and whose influence over the State and the -people alike they dread. The dervish’s title -to reverence does not, like his rival’s, rest -upon his learning and his ability to misinterpret -the Koran; it rests on his supposed -inspiration. On this ground, as well as on -account of his reputed power of working -miracles, and the general eccentricity of his -life, he is regarded by the people with extreme -veneration. His sympathies, moreover, -are with the masses; ofttimes he -spends his life in succoring them; whilst -his scorn for the wealthy and reputable -knows no bounds. Hence the people believe -in the dervishes in spite of the ridicule and -persecution of the Ulema; and even the -higher classes become infected with this -partly superstitious veneration, and seek to -gain the dervish’s blessing and to avoid his -curse; and often a high dignitary has turned -pale at the stern denunciation of the wild-looking -visionary who does not fear to say -his say before the great ones of the land. -Sultan Mahmoud was once crossing the -bridge of Galata when he was stopped by a -dervish called “the hairy sheikh.” “Giaour -Padishah,” he cried, in a voice shaken -with fury, seizing the Sultan’s bridle, “art -thou not yet content with abomination? -Thou wilt answer to God for all thy godlessness! -Thou art destroying the institutions -of thy brethren; thou revilest Islam and -drawest the vengeance of the Prophet upon -thyself and us.” The Sultan called to his -guards to clear “the fool” out of the way. -“I a fool!” screamed the dervish. “It is -thou and thy worthless counsellors who have -lost your senses! To the rescue, Moslems! -The Spirit of God, who hath anointed me, -and whom I serve, urges me to proclaim the -truth, with the promise of the reward of the -saints.” The next day the visionary was -put to death; but it was declared that the -following night a soft light was shed over his -tomb, which is still venerated as that of a -saint.</p> - -<p>But it needed a bold man like the reformer-Sultan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -to put a noisy fanatic to death; and -even in his case the wisdom, as well as the -humanity, of the act may be questioned. -Most grandees would think twice before they -offended a dervish. For popular credulity -accords to these strange men extraordinary -powers—the gift of foreknowledge, the -power of working miracles, and of enduring -privations and sufferings beyond the limits -of ordinary human endurance; and, not -least, these enthusiasts are believed to have -the power of giving people good or evil -wishes, which never fail to come to pass, and -which no human action can resist.</p> - -<p>In spite of this apparently fanatical and -charlatan character, there is much that is -liberal and undogmatical about the dervishes. -I have certainly met with many broad-minded, -tolerant men among the sheikhs of -their orders, and have been struck by the -charm of their conversation no less than their -enlightened views and their genuine good-will -towards mankind.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, though asceticism is -part of the dervish’s creed, and though there -be among them really honest and great men, -it must be admitted that a good many dervishes -entertain not the faintest scruples -about intoxication and a good many other -pleasures which do not seem very strictly in -accordance with their vows. Among the -wandering dervishes many savage and thoroughly -bad characters are to be met with. -They roam from country to country; climate, -privation, hardships of all kinds, deter -them not; they come from all lands and they -go to all lands, but those of Persia and Bokhara -surpass the rest in cunning, fanaticism, -and brutality. There is no vice into which -some of them do not plunge; and all the -time they display a revolting excess of religious -zeal, couched in the foulest and most -abusive vocabulary their language affords.</p> - -<p>One of these wretches once stopped my carriage -under the windows of the Governor’s -house at Monastir, and before the kavass had -time to interfere he had jumped in and was -vociferating “Giaour” and a host of other -invectives in my face. It was lucky the -guard was near and prompt in arresting him. -Next day he was packed out of the town for -the fourth time.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding their vices, nothing can -exceed the veneration in which the dervishes -are held by the public, over whom they exercise -an irresistible influence. This influence -is especially made use of in time of war, -when a motley company of sheikhs and fanatical -dervishes join the army, and encourage -the officers and men by rehearsing the benefits -promised by the Prophet to all who fight -or die for the true faith. The voices of these -excited devotees may be heard crying, “O -ye victorious!” “O ye martyrs!” or “Yallah!” -Some of these men are fearful fanatics, -who endeavor by every means in their -power to stimulate the religious zeal of the -troops and of the nation. Every word they -utter is poison to public peace. Among the -numerous gangs of infatuated zealots that -spread themselves over the country just before -the outbreak of the troubles in Bulgaria, -there was one wandering dervish who specially -distinguished himself by the pernicious -influence his prophecies and adjurations obtained -over the minds of the Mohammedan -population, exciting them against their Christian -neighbors, who were completely “terrorized” -by his denunciations.</p> - -<p>The venerable Bishop of the town of L⸺ -related to me the visit he had received from -this dangerous individual, and assured me -that this fanatic was in some measure the -cause of the lamentable events that followed.</p> - -<p>He first appeared in the town of X⸺, -where, after preaching his death mission -among the Mohammedans a few days before -the Greek Easter, he walked up to the quarter -of the town occupied by some of the -principal Christian families, and knocking at -each door entered and announced to the inmates -that Allah had revealed to him His -pleasure and His decrees for the destruction -of the infidels within the third day of Easter. -On reaching the dwelling of the Bishop he -requested a personal interview, and made the -same declaration to him.</p> - -<p>The Bishop, with some of the leading inhabitants, -alarmed at this threatening speech, -proceeded at once to the Governor-General, -and related the incident to him. The dervish -was sent for, and, in the presence of the -Bishop and his companions, asked if he had -said what was reported of him, and what he -meant by such an assertion. The dervish -merely shrugged his shoulders, and said that -he was in his <i>hal</i>, or ecstatic state, and could -not therefore be answerable for what he -talked about. The Pasha sent him under -escort to the town of A⸺, with a letter to -the governor of that place requesting his exile -to Broussa; but the wily ascetic soon -managed to escape the surveillance of the -police of A⸺, and continued his mission -in other parts of Bulgaria.</p> - -<p>It is impossible here to enter into details as -to the constitution of the various dervish orders -(of which there are many), or the tenets -held by them, or the ceremonies of initiation -and of worship. Still, a few words are necessary -about the two or three leading orders -of dervishes in Turkey. The most graceful -are the Mevlevi, or revolving dervishes, with -their sugar-loaf hats, long skirts, and loose -<i>jubbés</i>. Once or twice a week public service -is performed at the Mevlevi Khané, to -which spectators are admitted. The devotions -begin by the recital of the usual <i>namaz</i>, -after which the sheikh proceeds to his <i>pistiki</i>, -or sheepskin mat, and raising his hands offers -with great earnestness the prayer to the -<i>Pir</i>, or spirit of the founder of the order, -asking his intercession with God on behalf -of the order. He then steps off his <i>pistiki</i> -and bows his head with deep humility towards -it, as if it were now occupied by his -<i>Pir</i>; then, in slow and measured step, he -walks three times round the Semar Khané, -bowing to the right and left with crossed -toes as he passes his seat, his subordinates -following and doing the same. This part of -the ceremony (called the Sultan Veled Devri) -over, the sheikh stands on the <i>pistiki</i> with -bowed head, while the brethren in the -<i>mutrib</i>, or orchestra, chant a hymn in honor -of the Prophet, followed by a sweet and harmonious -performance on the flute.</p> - -<p>The Semar Zan, director of the performance, -proceeds to the sheikh, who stands on -the edge of his <i>pistiki</i>, and, after making a -deep obeisance, walks to the centre of the -hall, and gives a signal to the other brethren, -who let fall their <i>tennouris</i>, take off their -<i>jubbés</i>, and proceed in single file with folded -arms to the sheikh, kiss his hand, receive in -return a kiss on their hats, and there begin -whirling round, using the left foot as a pivot -while they push themselves round with the -right. Gradually the arms are raised upwards -and then extended outwards, the palm -of the right hand being turned up and the -left bent towards the floor. With closed -eyes and heads reclining towards the right -shoulder they continue turning, muttering -the inaudible <i>zikr</i>, saying, “Allah, Allah!” -to the sound of the orchestra and the chant -that accompanies it, ending with the exclamation, -“O friend!” when the dancers suddenly -cease to turn. The sheikh, still standing, -again receives the obeisance of the brethren -as they pass his <i>pistiki</i>, and the dance is -renewed. When it is over, they resume -their seats on the floor, and are covered with -their <i>jubbés</i>. The service ends with a prayer -for the Sultan.</p> - -<p>The whole of the ceremony is extremely -harmonious and interesting: the bright and -variegated colors of the dresses, the expert -and graceful way in which the dervishes -spin round, bearing on their faces at the -same time a look of deep humility and devotion, -together with the dignified attitude and -movements of the sheikh, combine to form a -most impressive sight.</p> - -<p>Equally curious are the Rifa’i, or howling -dervishes. They wear a mantle edged with -green, a belt in which are lodged one or three -big stones, to compress the hunger to which -a dervish is liable, and a white felt hat -marked with eight grooves (<i>terks</i>), each denoting -the renunciation of a cardinal sin. In -their devotions they become strangely excited, -their limbs become frightfully contorted, -their faces deadly pale; then they dance in -the most grotesque manner, howling meanwhile; -cut themselves with knives, swallow -fire and swords, burn their bodies, pierce -their ears, and finally swoon. A sacred -word whispered by two elders of the order -brings the unconscious men round, and their -wounds are healed by the touch of the -sheikh’s hand, moistened from his mouth. It -is strange and horrible to witness the ceremonies -of this order; but in these barbarous performances -the devout recognize the working -of the Divine Spirit.</p> - -<p>But the order which is admitted to be the -most numerous and important in Turkey is -that of the <i>Bektashis</i>. Like all dervish orders, -they consider themselves the first and -greatest religious sect in the universe; and -for this they have the following excellent -reason. One day their founder, Hadji Bektash, -and some of his followers were sitting -on a wall, when they saw a rival dervish approaching -them, mounted upon a roaring -lion, which he chastised by means of a serpent -which he held in his hand as a whip. -The disciples marvelling at this, Hadji Bektash -said: “My brothers, there is no merit -in riding a lion; but there is merit in making -the wall on which we are sitting advance towards -the lion, and stop the way of the lion -and its rider.” Whereupon the wall marched -slowly upon the enemy, carrying Hadji -Bektash and his followers against the lion-rider, -who saw nothing for it but to acknowledge -the supremacy of the rival sheikh.</p> - -<p>The Bektashis are followers of the Khalif -Ali, and attribute to him and his descendants -all the extravagant qualities which the Alides -have from time to time invented. These -dervishes have also many superstitious beliefs -connected with their girdle, cap, and -cloak. One ceremony with the stone worn -in the girdle is rather striking. The sheikh -puts it in and out seven times, saying, “I tie -up greediness and unbind generosity. I tie -up anger and unbind meekness. I tie up ignorance -and unbind the fear of God. I tie -up passion and unbind the love of God. I -tie up the devilish and unbind the divine.”</p> - -<p>The special veneration of the Khalif Ali by -this order renders it particularly hateful to -the orthodox Mussulmans; and yet, strange -to say, it acquired great popularity in the -Ottoman Empire, especially among the Janissaries, -who when first formed into a corps -were blessed by Hadji Bektash in person. -The new troops are said to have been led by -Sultan Orkhan into the presence of the sheikh -near Amassia, when the Sultan implored -his benediction, and the gift of a standard -and a flag for his new force. The sheikh, -stretching out one of his arms over the head -of a soldier, with the end of the sleeve hanging -down behind, blessed the corps, calling -it <i>yenicheri</i>, the “new troop,” prophesying -at the same time that “its figure shall be -fair and shining, its arm redoubtable, its -sword cutting, and its arrows steeled. It -shall be victorious in all battles, and only return -triumphant.” A pendant representing -the sleeve of the sheikh was added to the felt -cap of the Janissaries in commemoration of -the benediction of Hadji Bektash. Most of -the Janissaries were incorporated into the order -of Bektashis, and formed that formidable -body of men, who, adding the profession of -the monk to the chivalrous spirit of the warrior, -may be considered the Knights Templars -of Islam.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span></p> - -<p>During the reign of Sultan Mahmoud II. -the destruction of the Janissaries was followed -by the persecution of the Bektashis, -for whom the orthodox Mohammedans of the -present day entertain a sovereign contempt.</p> - -<p>The votaries of the Bektashi order in European -Turkey are most numerous among the -Albanians, where they are said to number -over 80,000. A few years ago they were -subjected to persecutions, which seem to have -been caused by the little regard they displayed -for the forms of orthodox Islam, from -which they widely deviate. The point that -gives special offence to the Turk is the little -attention paid by the wives of these sectarians -to the Mussulman laws of <i>namekhram</i> (concealment), -with which they all dispense when -the husband gives them permission to appear -before his friends. Polygamy is only practised -among Albanian Bektashis when the -first wife has some defect or infirmity.</p> - -<p>There is much that is virtuous and liberal -in the tenets of this order, but very little of -it is put into practice. This neglect is proved -by the disordered and unscrupulous lives -often led by Bektashis, and is accounted for -by the existence of two distinct paths they -feel equally authorized to follow: one leading -to the performance of all the duties and -virtues prescribed, and the other in which -they lay these aside and follow the bent of -their own natural inclinations.</p> - -<p>Some of the principal monasteries of the -Bektashis are to be found in Asia Minor in -the vilayet of Broussa. A Greek gentleman -of my acquaintance had strange adventures -in one of their settlements at M⸺, where -his roving disposition had led him to purchase -an estate. After living for some years -among this half-savage set, he became a -great favorite, was received into their order, -and finally elected as their chief, when he -was presented with the emblematic stones of -the order, which he wore on his person. -One day, however, he narrowly escaped paying -dearly for the honor.</p> - -<p>A herd of pigs belonging to him escaped -from the farm, and took the road to the -<i>Tekké</i>, into which they rushed, while the -congregation were assembled for their devotions. -The excited animals, grunting and -squealing, mingled wildly with the devotees, -profaning the sacred edifice and its occupants -by their detested presence. The Bektashis -sprang to their feet, and with one accord -cried out to the owner of the unclean -animals to ask if, in consequence of his infidel -origin, he had played this trick upon -them, and declaring that if it were so he -should pay the forfeit with his life. The -Bektashi sheikh displayed remarkable presence -of mind at this critical moment. Rising -to his feet, he looked round, assumed an attitude -and expression of deep devotion, and -in an inspired voice exclaimed, “Oh, ye ignorant -and benighted brethren, see ye not -that these swine, enlightened from on high, -are impelled to confess the true faith and -to join us in our worship? Let them pass -through the ordeal, and tax not a creature of -Allah with the effecting of an event for which -He alone is responsible.” Strange to say, -this explanation satisfied the devotees. It illustrates -curiously the peculiar character of -the dervishes, their faith in their sheikhs, -and their belief in extraordinary inspiration.</p> - -<p>The ceremonies of Islam are observed in -Turkey in much the same way as in other -Moslem countries. On Friday all good, and -most indifferent, Mohammedans go to the -mosque for the public prayer; but of course -there is no touch of Sabbatarianism among -the Turks any more than among any other -followers of Mohammed. In most mosques -women are admitted to a retired part of the -edifice; but it is only elderly ladies who go. -In some mosques at Stamboul, where the -women’s department is partitioned off, the attendance -is larger, especially during Ramazan. -Last year I went dressed as a Turkish -lady to the evening prayer during the fast. -It was a strange sight to me, and the excitement -was increased by the knowledge of the -unpleasant consequences that would follow -the penetration of my disguise. The Turkish -women seemed out of place there: their levity -contrasted markedly with the grave bearing -of the men on the other side of the partition. -The view I thus obtained of the -beautiful mosque of Sultan Ahmet was singularly -impressive. The Ulema, in their -green and white turbans and graceful robes, -absorbed in the performance of their religious -duties; officers in bright uniforms, and civilians -in red fez and black coat, side by side -with wild-looking dervishes and the common -people in the varied and picturesque costumes -of the different nations, all knelt in rows -upon the soft carpets, or went through the -various postures of that religion before which -all men are equal. Not a whisper disturbed -the clear melodious voice of the old Hodja as -he pronounced the Terravi prayers, which -the congregation took up in chorus, now -prostrating their faces on the ground, now -slowly rising: you could fancy it a green -corn-field, studded with poppies, billowing -under the breeze. Above were the numberless -lamps that shone in the stately dome.</p> - -<p>You can give no higher praise to a Turk -than saying that he performs his five prayers -a-day. In right of this qualification young -men of no position and as little merit are -often chosen as sons-in-law by pious people. -A Turk of the old school is proud of his religion, -and is never ashamed of letting you -see it. So long as he can turn his face towards -Mekka, he will say his prayers anywhere. -The Turks like to say their <i>namaz</i> in -public, that they may have praise of men; -and it is to be feared that a good deal of hypocrisy -goes on in this matter. This, however, -is on the decrease, because fewer Turks -in all classes say their prayers or observe the -outward forms of religion than formerly. -This is no doubt partly due to the influence -of “Young Turkey,” though other causes -are also at work.</p> - -<p>But the orthodox Turk must do more than -observe the prayers. The fast of Ramazan is -a very important part of his religious routine. -Every one knows this terrible month -of day-fasting and night-feasting. It tells -most severely on the poor, who keep it -strictly, and are compelled to work during -the day exactly as when not fasting. Women -also of all classes observe the fast religiously. -But there are very few among the -higher officials, or the gentlemen who have -enrolled themselves under the banner of <i>La -Jeune Turquie</i>, who take any notice of it, -except in public, where they are obliged to -show outward respect to the prejudices of -the people.</p> - -<p>This fast-month is a sort of revival-time to -the Moslems. They are supposed to devote -more time to the careful study of the Koran -and to the minute practice of its ordinances. -Charity, peacefulness, hospitality, almsgiving, -are among the virtues which they specially -cultivate at this time; and though the -theory is not put in practice to the letter, and -hospitality not carried out as originally intended—the -rich man standing at his door at -sunset, bringing in and setting at his table all -the poor that happened to pass by, and sending -them away with presents of money—it is -still very largely practised.</p> - -<p>I have often partaken of an <i>Iftar</i>, or Ramazan -dinner. It is very curious to observe -the physiognomy of the <i>Terriakis</i>, or great -smokers and coffee-drinkers, who, as the moment -of indulgence approaches, become restless -and cross, now sighing for the firing of -the gun that proclaims the fast at an end, -now indulging in bad language to the people -who gather round and tease them. As the -sun approaches the horizon, a tray is brought -in laden with all sorts of sweets, salads, salt -fish, Ramazan cakes, fruit and olives, contained -in the tiniest coffee-saucers, together -with goblets of delicious iced sherbet. -When the gun is fired every one utters a -<i>Bismillah</i> and takes an olive, that fruit being -considered five times more blessed than water -to break the fast with. After the contents -of the tray have been sparingly partaken of, -dinner is announced, and all gather round -the <i>sofra</i>; few, however, eat with appetite, -or relish the dinner half so much as they do -the cup of coffee and cigarettes that follow.</p> - -<p>During Ramazan night is turned into day, -and the streets then remind one of carnival -time in Catholic countries. The wealthy sit -up all night, receiving and returning calls, -giving evening parties, spending the time in -a round of feasts and entertainments. At -Stamboul, when the prayer of the <i>Terravi</i>—which -is recited two hours after sunset—is -over in the mosque, all the people betake -themselves to the esplanade of the Sulimanieh, -and hundreds of elegant carriages containing -Turkish beauties may be seen cutting -their way through the dense crowd of promenaders. -The bazars are illuminated, and all -the fruit and refreshment shops are open. -Eating, drinking sherbet, and smoking, is -the order of the evening, besides a great -amount of flirtation. I cannot say that there -is much taste or refinement in this unusual -but tacitly recognized passing intercourse. -The ladies all appear in high spirits, and tolerate, -and even seem amused by, the acts of -gross impertinence to which they are subjected -by male passers-by. Some of the fast -men and <i>mauvais sujets</i> indulge in acts and -language that would certainly obtain the interference -of the police in an orderly society.</p> - -<p>I accompanied some friends, the family of -one of the ministers, to this evening entertainment. -We had six servants round the -carriage, but they were no protection against -the heaps of rubbish in the shape of lighted -cigarette ends, parched peas, capsicums, and -fruit of all kinds thrown into it, not to speak -of the licentious little speeches addressed to -us by passing beaux. My friends advised me -to be on my guard, as action is often added -to word, and the arms and hands of the occupants -of the vehicles made to smart from -the liberties taken with them. Thus forewarned, -I took care to shut the window on -my side of the carriage; a little scream from -my companions every now and then, when -we found ourselves in the densest part of the -crowd, followed by a shower of abuse from -the negress sitting opposite us, showed that -my precaution had not been needless. The -little respect paid to women in this indiscriminate -<i>mêlée</i>, where the dignity of the Sultana -was no more regarded than the modesty -of the lowly pedestrian, struck me forcibly. -It made the greater impression upon me as it -contrasted strongly with the respect paid to -her under other circumstances. In steam-boats, -for example, an unattended Turkish -woman is seldom known to be insulted, even -when her conduct gives provocation.</p> - -<p>Three hours before dawn, drums are beaten -and verses sung through the streets to warn -the people to prepare for the <i>sahor</i>, or supper, -after which an hour’s leisure is accorded -for smoking and coffee-drinking, when the -firing of a gun announces the moment for rinsing -the mouth and sealing it against food till -sunset. All business is put off by the wealthy -during the day, which is filled up by sleep; -while the poor go through the day’s work -unrefreshed.</p> - -<p>Pilgrimages, though less practised now -than formerly in Turkey, are still considered -the holiest actions of a Mohammedan’s life. -The most perfect is the one embracing the -visit to the four sacred spots of Islam—Damascus, -Jerusalem, Mekka, and Medina; -but the long journey that this would entail, -the dangers and difficulties that surround it, -are checks upon all but the most zealous of -pilgrims, and only a few hardy and enterprising -individuals perform the duty in full. -The pilgrims, collected from all parts of the -country, leave Constantinople in a body fifteen -days before the fast of Ramazan. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -Government facilitates this departure by giving -free passages and other grants. Those -pilgrims that go <i>viâ</i> Damascus are the -bearers of the Imperial presents to the holy -shrines. Every Hadji on returning from -Mekka bears a token of his pilgrimage in a -tattoo mark on his arm and between his -thumb and forefinger.</p> - -<p>I cannot close a chapter on Islam in Turkey -without referring to a belief which, -though but vaguely introduced into the original -faith of Mohammed, has come to mean -everything to the Turk. I mean <i>Kismet</i>. It -is not, of course, the belief in an inevitable -destiny that is remarkable: all nations have -their share in that, and modern Christianity -has sometimes carefully formulated the doctrine -of the fatalist. It is rather the intensity -of the Turk’s belief, and his dogged insistance -on its logical results, that make it so -extraordinary. Many people besides Turks -believe in destiny, but their belief does not -prevent them from consulting their doctor or -avoiding infection. With the Turk all such -precautions are vain: if it is kismet that -a thing shall happen, happen it will, and -what then is the good of trying to avert it? -Everything in Turkey is controlled by kismet. -If a man suffers some trifling loss, it -is kismet; if he die, it is also kismet. He -marries by kismet, and shortly divorces his -wife by the same influence. He succeeds in -life, or he fails: it is kismet. Sultans succeed -one another—again kismet. Armies go -forth to conquer or to be conquered—Fate -rules the event. It is useless to fight against -the decrees of kismet. That Fate helps him -who helps himself is a doctrine incomprehensible -to the Turk. He lies passive in the -hand of destiny: it would be impious to -rebel.</p> - -<p>The effects of this doctrine lie on the surface. -Not only are lives constantly sacrificed, -and wealth and happiness lost by this -fatal principle of passivity, but the whole -character of the nation is enfeebled. The -Turk has no rightful ambition: if it is kismet -he should succeed, well and good; but -if not, no efforts of his own can avail him. -Hence he smokes his chibouk and makes no -efforts at all. Something might be done with -him if he would only show some energy of -character; but this doctrine has sapped that -energy at the root, and there is no vitality -left.</p> - -<p>This is the main disastrous result of fatalism: -it has destroyed the vigor of a once -powerful nation. But every day brings forth -instances of lesser evils flowing from the same -source. It is hardly necessary to point out -in how many ways a fatalist injures himself -and all belonging to him. One or two common -cases will be enough. I have already -referred to the neglect of all sanitary precautions -as one of the results of the belief in kismet. -This neglect is shown in a thousand -ways; but one or two instances that I remember -may point the moral. Turkey is -especially liable to epidemics, and of course -the havoc they create is terrible among a passive -population. In all district towns the -Turks manifest the greatest possible dislike -and opposition to every species of quarantine: -they regard quarantine regulations as -profane interference with the decrees of God, -and systematically disregard them. The doctor -of the first quarantine establishment at -Broussa was assaulted in the street by several -hundred Turkish women, who beat him -nearly to death, from which he was only -saved by the police. Small-pox is among the -most fatal of the scourges that invade the -people, and Turkish children are frequently -victims to it; yet it is with the utmost difficulty -that a Turk can be induced to vaccinate -his child, though, happily, the precaution -is now more practised than it used to be.</p> - -<p>Separation in sickness is another of the -measures Turks can never be made to take. -A short time ago a girl of fourteen, the -daughter of our <i>kavass</i>, was seized with an -attack of quinsy. As soon as I heard of it I -begged our doctor to accompany me to the -Mohammedan quarter and visit the invalid. -We found her lying on a clean <i>shelté</i>, or mattress, -on the floor, which was equally occupied -by her young brothers and sisters, who -were playing round and trying to amuse her. -The doctor’s first care was to send away the -children, and recommend that they should on -no account be allowed to come near her, as her -throat was in a most terrible condition. Both -parents declared that it would be impossible -to keep them away; besides, if it was their -kismet to be also visited by the disease, nothing -could avert it. The room occupied by -the sick girl was clean and tidy; the doors -and windows, facing the sea, fronted by a -veranda, were open, and the house being -situated in the highest part of the town, under -the ruins of the old walls, the sharp April -air was allowed free access to the chamber -most injuriously to the invalid. On the attention -of the parents being drawn to the -fact, they simply answered that the feverish -state of the child needed the cool air to such -an extent that twice during the preceding -night she had left her room and gone down to -the yard to repose upon the cold stone slabs -in order to cool herself!</p> - -<p>In spite of every effort to save her, she -died on the third night from exhaustion -caused by her refusal to take the medicines -and nourishment provided for her, and to be -kept in her chamber, which she had abandoned, -taking up her quarters on the balcony, -where we saw her on the last day. On visiting -the family after the sad event, we found -the unhappy parents distracted with sorrow, -but still accepting it with fatalistic resignation, -saying that “her <i>edjel</i> had come to call -her away from among the living.”</p> - -<p>Our attention was next attracted by three -of the children. The youngest, a baby, appeared -choking from the effects of the same -complaint, and died the same night. The -other two, a boy and girl, also attacked, were -playing about, although in high fever and -with dreadfully swollen throats. The doctor -begged that they should be sent to bed, -to which they both refused to submit, while -the parents phlegmatically said that it would -be a useless measure, as they could not be -kept there, and that if it should be their kismet -to recover they would do so. I am glad -to say they did recover, though I am afraid -their recovery did not convert the doctor and -me to a belief in kismet.</p> - -<p>Owing to this fatal and general way of -treating sickness, the prescriptions of physicians, -neither believed in nor carried out, -are useless; besides, they are always interfered -with and disputed by quacks and old -women, and the muskas, prayers, and blowings -of saintly Hodjas.</p> - -<p>When the patient survives this extraordinary -combination of nursing, it is simply -stated that his <i>edjel</i> or death-summons has -not yet arrived.</p> - -<p>If a man die away from his home and -country, his kismet is supposed to have summoned -him to die on the spot that received -his body.</p> - -<p>Kismet thus being the main fountain -whence the Mohammedan draws with equanimity -both the good and the evil it may -please Providence to pour forth upon him, -he receives both with the stoicism of the -born-and-bred fatalist, who looks upon every -effort of his own to change the decrees of -destiny as vain and futile. Hence he becomes -<i>Moslem</i>, or “resigned,” in the most -literal sense. His character gains that quality -of inertness which we associate with the -Oriental, and his nation becomes, what a nation -cannot become and live—stagnant.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">CHRISTIANITY IN TURKEY.</span></h2> - -<p>The Greek or Holy Orthodox Church—Its Character -under Ottoman Rule—Its Service to the Greek Nation—Superstitious -Doctrines and -Rites—Improvement—Revenues—Bishops—Patriarchs—The Higher -Clergy—Schools—Parish -Priests—Fatal Influence of Connection -with the State—Monasteries—Mount Athos—The -Five Categories of Monks—Government of the “Holy -Mountain”—Pilgrims—The Bulgarian Church—Popular -Interest in the Church Question—Sketch of the -History of the Schism—The Armenian Church—St. -Gregory—Creed—Church Polity—influence of Russia—Contest -between the Czar and the Catholicos—Ritual—Clergy.</p> - -</div> - -<p>It has long been the custom to fling a good -deal of contumely on the Holy Orthodox or -Greek Church. Judging from the descriptions -of trustworthy writers, from conversations -I have often held with persons of -authority on the subject, and from personal -observation, I feel convinced that if part of -the abuse heaped upon the Greek Church is -well founded, the greater portion is due to -the rivalry and hatred of the Western Church, -and to the antipathy felt by the Reformed -Church towards her superstitions and formalities; -but a still stronger reason may be -found in the errors the church still harbors, -and in the ignorance in which her clergy remained -so long plunged. Taking this as a -general rule, and lamenting its consequences, -we should on the other hand bear in mind -the great antiquity of the church and its -early services to Christianity. Some of its -rites and ceremonies are certainly superstitious -and superfluous, but there is none of -the intolerance of the Romish Church, nor -are religious persecutions to be laid to its -charge. Its clergy, stigmatized as venal and -ignorant tools in the hands of the Turks, -have nevertheless had their virtues and redeeming -points counterbalancing their evil -repute. The rivalry of the upper clergy -originated principally in the corrupt system -of bribery pursued by them in their relations -with the Porte for the grant of <i>berats</i> or diplomas -installing the Patriarchs in their respective -seats, and the practice indulged in -by the Patriarchs of selling bishoprics at a -price in proportion to the wealth of the diocese. -Yet in the midst of this darkness there -were still found men to carry on the work of -culture and uphold the dignity of the church. -Nor have the Greek clergy always been the -cringing servants of the Porte, or the go-betweens -of the Turks and the rayahs; in -the list of the Patriarchs we find many who, -in the midst of difficulties inevitable in serving -a government foreign to their church and -hostile to the hopes and aspirations of their -people, hesitated not in moments of supreme -need to sacrifice position, fortune, and even -life, under most horrible circumstances, for -the sake of the church. With memories of -such martyrdoms ever present in the minds -of a dependent clergy, it is not surprising to -find this section of the Greek nation apparently -so subservient to their rulers. The -past, however, with all its blots, is rapidly -passing away; the rules now followed by -the Patriarchate in fixed salaries and written -regulations with regard to certain contributions -have put an end to many former -abuses. The theological schools, rapidly increasing -in number and importance in Turkey -as well as in Greece, have also a beneficial -effect on the training of the clergy, who -daily attaining a higher standard in morality, -mental development, and social position, have -of late years been enabled not only to maintain -a more determined and independent -attitude before the civil authorities, but -also largely to increase their influence in -promoting the education of their flocks. The -old class of clergy is dying out, and gradually -a new and different set of men is coming -forward.</p> - -<p>The commonest charge that is brought -against the Greek Church is its accumulation -of superstitions. But the people are beginning -to drop the more absurd ceremonies -and treat the more preposterous superstitions -with indifference. It is true that the church -itself is not yet taking the lead in this matter, -as how should it? I have often talked -on this subject with ecclesiastics of the Eastern -faith, and they admit both the absurdity<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> -of many of the rites practised and the beliefs -inculcated, and also the tendency of the -people to neglect these rites and to disbelieve -these superstitions; but they say that any -action on the part of the church would lead -to the serious injury both of itself and the -Greek nation; for a general synod would -have to be held to deliberate on the necessary -reforms; schisms would at once arise, and -the Greek Church, and hence the Greek nation, -would be disintegrated. However, I -believe there are too many sensible men -among the Greek clergy for this weak position -to be maintained long. The church -must reform if it is to remain the church of -the Greeks.</p> - -<p>At present, however, the priests are afraid -to move. They dare not admit the falsity of -parts of their doctrine and the absurdity of -their practices, for fear of wider consequences. -For example, a miraculous fire -is supposed to spring from the supposed -tomb of Christ on Easter Sunday. The -Greek clergy do not actually assert it to be a -miracle—at least not to Westerns—but if -questioned about it they invariably give an -evasive answer; and the priest still continues -solemnly to light his taper from the tomb and -present it to the congregation saying, “Take, -then, the flame from the Eternal Light, -and praise Christ who is risen from the -dead.”<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> A similar ceremony is observed on -a small scale in every Greek church at Easter, -when the congregation light their tapers from -the altar and the same formula is used.</p> - -<p>It is needless to say anything here about -the doctrines of the Greek Church: every -one knows the insignificant differences which -separate it from the Church of Rome. The -rites are less generally known; but unfortunately -they are too numerous and various to -be described here. The general impression -produced by a Greek service is gorgeousness. -The rites are essentially Oriental, and have -been little changed since the early days of -the Eastern Empire. The ceremonies are -endless; fast and feast days, with their distinctive -rites, are always occurring, and -though generally disregarded by the upper -classes are scrupulously observed by the -peasantry, to whom the fasts (on which they -work as usual) cause actual physical injury, -and the feasts sometimes produce almost -equally disastrous effects. Some parts of the -service are very beautiful and impressive; -but the prayers are generally intoned in a -hurried and irreverent manner, which renders -them hard to be understood. These things, -however, are mending: the lower clergy pay -more attention to the ordinary rules of decorum -in the conduct of the services, and bishops -are now not consecrated unless they are -somewhat educated. Formerly the lives of -the saints were the topics of sermons, now -they are becoming more practical and exhortatory; -but political subjects are strictly -excluded.</p> - -<p>Since the conquest the Greek Church and -its clergy in the Ottoman Empire have never -been supported by the Government, nor have -its ministers ever received any grant either -for themselves or the churches and schools -under their care. An imperial order confirms -the nomination of patriarchs, metropolitans, -archbishops, and bishops. The last -received from each family in their diocese a -portion of the produce of its fields: from a -peasant, for example, from half a kilo of corn -and hay to a whole kilo, according to his -means. This was considered a loyal donation -from each household to its spiritual -guide. Besides this the archbishops enjoyed -special benefits from the celebration of marriages, -funerals, and other religious ceremonies -to which they were invited. But unfortunately -these emoluments eventually became -subject to some abuses, which excited -murmurs from the community. Another -custom was that a bishop should receive -from his diocese, at his consecration, a sum -sufficient to defray his immediate expenses -during the first year. This sum, as well as -the offerings in kind, was fixed by the elders -of the town in which the metropolitan resided; -the local authorities never interfered -in these arrangements, except when the -bishops demanded their assistance for the recovery -of their dues. These usages continued -in force until 1860; Feizi Pasha and his two -supporters, Ali Pasha and Fouad Pasha, had -previously tried every means to induce the -Patriarch of Constantinople and his Synod, -together with the higher classes of the Greek -nation, to accept the funds of their church -from the Ottoman Government. The Porte, -in order to obtain the end it had in view, -showed itself liberal by promising large fees -to the higher clergy. But for religious, political, -and social reasons, the patriarch and -the nation in general rejected the proposal. -After the Crimean War a Constitutional -Assembly, composed of bishops and lay deputies -from all the provinces, was convened -by order of the Porte, to deliberate upon the -settlement of some administrative affairs -connected with the œcumenical throne of -Constantinople, the cathedrals, and the -bishops. This assembly also regulated, -among other things, the revenues of the -patriarch and all the archbishops. Each -province, proportionately to its extent, its -political importance, and its Christian population, -was ordered to pay a fixed sum. The -annual minimum is 30,000 piastres, and the -maximum 90,000 piastres. The patriarch -receives thirty per cent on this. The fees -fixed by the elders of each province are paid -annually by each family: the maximum of -this contribution does not exceed twenty -piastres each, which, in the aggregate, constitutes -the revenues of the bishops and the -pay of their subordinates. The extra revenues -are regulated in the same manner, the -ancient customs concerning their receipt having -been abolished. The fees and extra -emoluments of the lower clergy of cities, -towns, and villages are received after the -same fashion. An annual sum is paid by -each family to the priest, which in many -villages rarely exceeds three or four piastres. -The archbishops also receive their stipend -from their diocese, and are very seldom -obliged to request the assistance of the -authorities, who show great repugnance to -interfering in the matter.</p> - -<p>The social influence of a bishop proceeds -from many circumstances. He is considered -the spiritual guide of all Orthodox Christians, -presiding over the vestry and corporation -intrusted with public affairs—such as -schools, philanthropical establishments, and -churches. He hears and judges, conjointly -with a council composed of laymen, all the -dissensions which arise between the members -of the community. To a certain extent, -and when there is no intervention of the local -courts, he judges in cases of divorce, and in -disputes relative to the payment of dowries, -as well as in cases of inheritance; but the -local courts have the right of interfering. In -these cases the canonical laws are more or -less well interpreted according to the pleasure -of the Kadi. The bishop judges all that relates -to the aforesaid cases in right of a privilege -granted to him by the patriarch. He -can also decide other matters which belong -to the local courts in a friendly way when -the disputants agree to it; but when one of -them appears dissatisfied he may refer it to -the local court, and the sentence or the bishop -is nullified by that of this tribunal.</p> - -<p>The bishop enjoys the political position of -Ἐθνάρχη and permanent member of the Government -Council of the province. In addition -to his spiritual duties, in the fulfilment -of which he has sometimes to call in the assistance -of the local authorities, the bishop -acts as intermediary between the Christians -and the civil government when they ask for -his intervention and counsel. But this is -not always successful, as the bishop is invested -with no regular power, and the local -authorities, as well as the central administration, -make use of it as they choose and when -convenient to them, always acting for the direct -interest of their government.</p> - -<p>In the Council the influence of the bishop -is <i>nil</i>; for his vote, as well as those of all the -other Christian members, is lost in the majority -gained by the Mussulmans, to which -is added the arbitrary influence of the Pasha -and the President. Very small benefit is derived -from the presence of these Christian -representatives at the councils. Liberty of -speech, reasonable discussion, and all that -might contribute to the proper direction of -affairs, are entirely unknown.</p> - -<p>The Greek Church is governed by four -patriarchs residing at Constantinople, Jerusalem, -Antioch, and Alexandria; the last -three are equal and independent, but the -authority of the first is supreme in the regulation -of spiritual affairs, and in his hands -rests the power of appointing, dismissing, or -punishing any of the prelates. He is elected -by a majority of votes of a synod of the metropolitan -and neighboring bishops, and is presented -to the Sultan for institution, a favor -seldom obtained without the payment of -several thousand pounds—a long-standing -instance of the habitual simony of the -Church. The Sultan, however, retains the -unmitigated power of deposing, banishing, -or executing him. These penalties were frequently -inflicted in former times, but the -ecclesiastical body within the last half century -has gained much in influence and substance.</p> - -<p>In spite of the general ignorance and corruption -of the higher clergy since the occupation -of the country by the Ottomans, their -ranks have never lacked men who were as -famous for their knowledge as for their virtue -and piety. There were many who shunned -ecclesiastical dignity in order to pass their -lives in instructing the rising generation of -their time.</p> - -<p>No religious schools then existed: the ecclesiastics -received their elementary education -in the Ottoman establishments, and were -subsequently sent to the colleges of Germany -or Italy to complete their studies. It was -only about the year 1843 that the first school -for the teaching of theology was founded in -the island of Chalcis, so that most of the -present archbishops in the Empire studied -there; but many priests still go to Athens to -complete their education. Schools were also -established for the lower clergy, but the -teaching in them was so deficient that most -of the priests were sent to study only in the -national schools, where they learn next to -nothing.</p> - -<p>The higher ranks of the clergy are entirely -recruited from the monastic order: hence -they are always unmarried, and hence the -too often vicious character of their lives. An -attempt, partly successful, was made to put -some check upon their conduct by the law -that no bishop or archbishop can hold more -than three sees during his lifetime. If, -therefore, he scandalizes the population of -two dioceses, he is at least bound to be prudent -in the third.</p> - -<p>No distinction exists between the priests of -the cities and those of the country villages. -All are equal; nominated and elected in the -same manner; remunerated for their services -after the mode already explained. -Nearly all of them are married; but those -who are not stand on the same footing as -those who are. Historically, these parish -priests have done some service to the Greek -nation: they helped to remind it of its national -existence, and by their simple, hard-working -lives taught their flocks that the -Greeks had still a church that was not wholly -given over to cringing to the Turks, that -had not altogether bowed the knee to Baal. -But that is all that can be said for them. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -is impossible to conceive a clergy more ignorant -than these parish priests; they are not -only absolutely without training in their own -profession, knowing nought of theology, but -they have not a common elementary education. -If, on the one hand, this ignorance -puts them more on a sympathetic level with -their parishioners, it must not be forgotten -that it renders them incapable of raising -their flocks one jot above the stage of rustic -barbarism in which they found them. There -is no ambition (unlike the rest of the Greek -race) in these homely priests; for they cannot -attain any high position in the Church. -Their association seldom benefits the people -with much religious instruction, for their -studies are restricted to the external formalities -of their services. Many of the abuses -attributed to them for exactions are exaggerated: -their condition of poverty and modest -way of living, in no way superior to the -common people, is the best proof of this fact. -They are accused of bargaining for the price -of performing certain rites, but any abuse of -the kind can be prevented by consulting the -established table of fees for all such matters; -so that this infringement cannot be carried on -to any great extent.</p> - -<p>There is no manner of doubt that the only -hope for the Orthodox Church lies in its separation -from Moslem government. So long -as its high dignitaries have to purchase their -appointments from Turkish ministers and -Sultans, so long will it retain its character -for truckling and corruption, so long will it -lack the one thing needful in a church—moral -force. Not less are the lower clergy -affected by this unhappy connection between -church and state. The government -puts every obstacle in the way of the establishment -of schools for priests: it is aware -that its influence over the mass of the clergy -can last only so long as that clergy is -ignorant and knows not the energy for -freedom which education must bring. Let -the Church be severed from the control of the -Porte, let it be assured of the integrity of the -Greek nation, and the end of the necessity for -conciliating the Turks, and then we may -hope for reforms—for the regeneration of the -priesthood and the destruction of the web of -deadly superstition which it has so long -found profitable to weave round the hearts of -the people.</p> - -<p>Any account, however brief, of the Greek -church would be very incomplete without -some notice of the monasteries which the -traveller sees scattered over the country in -the most beautiful and commanding positions, -perched on the summit of precipitous -rocks, on the steep slopes of hills, or nestled -in the shady seclusion of the glens. The -most renowned are the twenty monasteries -of Mount Athos, called Ἅγιος Ὄρος, or -Monte Santo. The population of this peninsula -is quite unique of its kind. The community -of monks is divided into five classes. -The first comprises those who are as it were -independent, and are subjected to no severe -rules. It is impossible for a man without -fortune to live in these monasteries, because -the common fund provides only the rations -of bread, wine, oil, etc. Every other outlay -in the way of dress or the choice of better -food is at his own expense. Each prepares -his meals in his cell and need not fast unless -he chooses, but cannot indulge in meat, as -its use is strictly prohibited.</p> - -<p>Eight monasteries are called independent -(Idiorrhythmic), on account of the manner -in which their occupants live. The greatest -of these and the first founded is Μεγίστη -Λαὺρα, or Great Lavra: and the others are -Xeropotamu, Docheiareiu, Pantokratoros, -Stavroniketa, Philotheu, Iveron, and Vatopedi. -But these monasteries occasionally -change their <i>régime</i> from the stricter to the -laxer discipline, or again from the Idiorrhythmic -to the Cenobite.</p> - -<p>The second category comprises the monasteries -in which the recluses live in common. -This life, which is one of great austerity, was -founded by the organizers of the religious -orders of the Orthodox Church, and represents, -as nearly as possible, the rule of the -ascetics of ancient times. Community of -goods is the regulation in these convents: all -is equal, frugal, and simple. There is but -one treasury, one uniform, one table, one -class of food, and the discipline is very rigid. -Whoever wishes to enter one of these monastic -establishments must give all that he possesses -in the way of money or raiment to the -Father Superior or chief elected by the members -of the institution. The neophyte is submitted -to a year’s noviciate; and if, during -this time, he can bear the life, he is admitted -into the order and consecrated a monk. If, -on the contrary, the rigid and austere life disheartens -him, he is allowed to retire. Each -monk possesses a camp-bed in his cell, besides -a jug of water and his clothing; but he -is strictly forbidden, under pain of severe -ecclesiastical punishment, to have money or -any kind of food, or even the utensils necessary -for making coffee.</p> - -<p>Should a monk find some object on his -path, he is obliged to deliver it to the Father -Superior, to whom he ought to carry all his -sufferings, physical and moral, in order to -receive consolation and relief. Every monk -belonging to this order must, without shrinking, -execute the commands of the Father -Superior concerning the exterior and interior -affairs of the monastery. One third of the -night is consecrated to prayer in the principal -church, where all the brotherhood are -expected to attend, with the exception of -the sick and infirm. The ritual of prayers is -the same as in all the monasteries of Mount -Athos, except those of the communal ascetics. -Vigils are very frequent, the prayers commencing -at sunset and continuing till sunrise.</p> - -<p>The following may be mentioned as belonging -to this class: St. Paul, St. Dionysius, -St. Gregory, St. Simopetra, and St. -Panteleemon, called the Russian monasteries -on account of their being principally -inhabited by Russian and Greek monks. -Xenophu, Konstamonitu, and Zographu, are -inhabited by Bulgarian monks, and Chilandari -by Bulgarians and Servians. The other -monasteries are Sphigmenu, Karakallu, and -Kutlumusi.</p> - -<p>The third category is composed of monks -who live in solitude. Their rules resemble -those already described, but they may be -considered to lead a life of still greater austerity. -Their groups of small houses, which -contain two or three little rooms and a -chapel, are called sketés (σκητή); they are -surrounded by gardens of about an acre in -extent. In the midst of these groups of, -buildings is a church called Κυριακόν, where -mass is celebrated on Sundays and feast-days, -at which service all the monks are expected -to be present; on other days they -perform their devotions in their own chapels. -In each of these habitations two or three -monks lead a very frugal life; their food -consists of fresh or dry vegetables, which can -only be prepared with oil on Saturday and -Sunday, when they are allowed to eat fish, -but very seldom eggs or cheese. The inhabitants -of the σκητή support themselves entirely -by their manual labor; each monk is required -to follow some trade by which he can -earn sufficient for his food and clothing. -This consists mostly in the manufacture of -cowls, stockings, and other articles of dress, -which are sold in the neighborhood; with -the addition of carvings in wood in the shape -of crosses, spoons, etc., with which a small -commerce is carried on with the pilgrims -that visit the peninsula. Each σκητή ought -to go to Karias once a year, where a fair is -held, to sell his wares, and with the proceeds -buy his supply of food. There are a great -many monks who, with the exception of this -annual journey, go nowhere, and possess not -the remotest idea of what is passing in the -world outside the restricted limits of their -mountain. On the whole, their life is a time -of continual toil in order to procure what is -strictly necessary for their support, and of -endless prayer for the eternal welfare of their -souls.</p> - -<p>The fourth category comprises the recluses -known as Κελλιώται. Their pretty houses are -sometimes sufficiently spacious and kept in -good order. Each contains from four to five -rooms and a chapel, besides possessing large -extents of garden planted with vines, and -olive and nut trees. These dwellings are tenanted -by five or six recluses, and belong to -convents that sell them to the monks. But -the right of possession is not complete, as the -purchasers are subjected to the payment of a -small rent, and are not allowed to transfer -their purchase to other persons without the -consent of the monastery. The buyer, being -the chief of those who live with him, considers -them his servants or subordinates, and -they can acquire no privileges without long -years of service. The Superior may inscribe -the names of two other persons on the title-deeds, -who succeed according to their order -in the hierarchy. Such property is never -made over to persons of different religions, -the law on this point being very strict. A -new regulation is, that no Greek monastery -should be granted to foreigners, such as -Russians, Bulgarians, Servians, or Wallachians; -as they, being richer than the Greeks, -might easily make themselves masters of the -whole.</p> - -<p>The recluses live on the produce of their -lands and seldom by the labor of their hands. -Many among them have amassed a little fortune -by the sale of their oil, wine, and nuts. -Their mode of living and their food and -clothing are the same as in the other monasteries; -their ritual is also similar, with the -exception that their devotions are performed -with more brevity.</p> - -<p>Take away their solitary life and their continual -prayers, and they then might be considered -as industrial companies belonging to -the world.</p> - -<p>The fifth category comprises the anchorites, -whose rules are the most sublime and -severe. These holy men do not work, but -pass their time in prayer, the hard earth -serves for their bed, and a stone for their -pillow; their raiment consists only of a few -rags.</p> - -<p>Never quitting their grottoes, they pass -their days and nights in prayer; their food -is always dry bread, with fresh water once a -week. If the abode of the anchorite be situated -in an inaccessible spot, he lets down a -basket, into which the passers-by throw the -bread which is his sole nourishment. Others -have friends in some distant monastery, who -alone know the secret of their retreat and -bring them provisions. These solitary -beings shun the sight and sound of man, -their life having for its sole object the mortification -of the flesh, meditation, and prayer. -The population of Mount Athos is estimated -at between six and seven thousand souls, two-thirds -of whom are Greeks from different -parts of the Ottoman empire, and the other -third Russians, Bulgarians, and Servians. -Their government is a representative assembly -in which deputies from the twenty monasteries -take part, except the σκητή and the -κελλιώται, who are dependants of the others. -The twenty monasteries are divided into four -parts, which are again subdivided into five. -Each year a representative from each division -is called upon to take part in the government -of the peninsula. Their duties consist principally -in superintending the police and the -administration of justice. These four governors -are called <i>nazarides</i>, a Turkish word -which signifies inspectors.</p> - -<p>Twice a year regularly, and each time a -serious case occurs, a kind of parliament is -called, consisting of the twenty deputies, -who, with the four nazarides, occupy themselves -with current affairs and common -wants. Each monastery acts independently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> -of the others in the administration of its -affairs. The chief inspector, judge, and -spiritual chief, who decides all disputes that -arise in the monasteries is the Patriarch of -Constantinople. The authority of the Turkish -government is represented by a Kaimakam, -who acts as intermediary between the -parliament and the Porte; he fulfils rather -the duties of a superintendent than that of -a governor. There is also a custom-house -officer to watch over the importations and -exportations of “The Holy Mountain.”</p> - -<p>Some of the monasteries contain fine libraries -and rich church ornaments, which are -the only wealth they possess. Each convent -is under the protection of a patron saint, who -is generally represented by some λείψανα, or -relics. The anniversaries of these patron -saints are held in great veneration by the -Greeks, crowds resorting to the convents to -celebrate them. Caravans may be seen -wending their way along the mountain paths -leading to the convent, some mounted on -horses or mules, some on foot, while dozens -of small heads may be seen peeping above -the brims of large panniers carried by horses. -On entering the church attached to the edifice -the pilgrims light tapers, which they -deposit before the shrine of the tutelar saint, -cross themselves repeatedly, and then join -the rest of the company in dedicating the -evening to feasting and merry-making. -These gatherings, though blamable perhaps -as being occasioned by superstitious rites, are -otherwise harmless, and even beneficial to the -masses; to the townspeople in the break in -their sedentary habits, and to the country-people -in introducing among them more enlightened -and liberal ideas, and in facilitating -social intercourse between them in these Arcadian -gatherings under the shade of spreading -plane-trees, and stimulated by the circulation -of the wine-cup. I have often visited -these Panaghias and experienced real pleasure -in witnessing the happy gambols of the children -and the gay dances and songs executed -by the young people, and in listening to the -conversation or those of more mature years. -At meal times all the assembled company -unite in an immense picnic, feasting to their -hearts’ content on the good fare with which -they come provided, and to the special profit -of the numerous hawkers of “<i>scimitiers</i>,” -“<i>petas</i>,” parched peas, popped corn, stale -sugar-plums, gum mastic, fruits, flowers, -little looking-glasses, rouge, etc.; the last two -articles for the benefit of the young beauties, -who may be found adding to their charms -hidden behind the trunk of a tree. The -merriment is kept up to a late hour, and at -dawn the slumberers are awakened by the -sound of the monastery bell calling them to -mass. This is generally read by the Egumenos, -or Prior, except when the bishop of the -diocese is invited to celebrate it, in which -case the ceremony is naturally more imposing -and the expenses incurred by the community -increased to a slight extent. Money, -however, is not extorted from the worshippers, -each individual giving to the monastery -according to his means and his feelings of devotion. -Kind and open hospitality is afforded -to all by the good monks, whose retired and -simple mode of life receives no variety but -from these gatherings.</p> - -<p>Women and animals of the feminine gender -are not allowed to enter the precincts of -the “Holy Mountain.” This prohibition -seems to be in some way connected with the -curiosity of Lot’s wife, whose punishment is -expected to befall the adventurous daughter -of Eve who should thus transgress. This -superstition has, however, lost much of its -force since Lady Stratford’s visit to the monasteries -during the Crimean War, when some -of the monks tremblingly watched for the -transformation, till they had the satisfaction -of seeing her Ladyship quit the dangerous -precincts in the full possession of the graces -that characterized her.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to say whether the adoption -of the Orthodox Creed by the Bulgarians has -been a blessing or a curse to them; for the -friendly union that sprang up from the assimilation -of faith between the two rival nations -was not of long duration. Their amicable -relations were often disturbed by jealousies, -in the settlement of which Christianity -was often used as a cloak to cover -many ugly sins on both sides, and its true -spirit was seldom allowed free scope for its -sublime mission of peace, light, and charity. -Religion was the subject that occupied, after -the Crimean War, the minds of the small enlightened -class of the modern Bulgarians, -spread over all parts of Bulgaria, but existing -in greater numbers in the eyalet of Philippopolis, -where the honest, wealthy, and educated -men who had in foreign lands imbibed -the progressive ideas of the day, raised their -voices against the then subjected condition of -their church to that of Constantinople, and -put forward a just claim for its separation or -independence. As already mentioned, the religious -ties existing between the Greeks and -Bulgarians do not appear at any time to have -formed a bond of union between the two nations, -or promoted social or friendly feelings -among them. After the Turkish conquest, -Bulgarians and Greeks, crushed by the same -blow, ceased their animosity; but bore in -mind that one was to serve in promoting Panslavistic -interests, and the other those of Panhellenism. -The proximity of these two distinct -elements, and the mixture of the one -people with the other by their geographical -position, render the two extremely diffident -of each other and jealously careful of their -own interests, although direct and open action -on either side has not been prominent.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarians, during the 13th century, -had separated themselves from the Church of -Constantinople. This was a serious measure -which the mother church naturally resented -and used every means in her power to abolish. -In this she finally succeeded in 1767, -when the Bulgarian Church was once more -placed under the immediate spiritual jurisdiction -of the See of Constantinople. The -Bulgarian bishops were dismissed and their -dioceses transferred to Greeks, the monasteries -seized and their revenues applied to -the Greek Church. This was doubtless an -unjust blow which the nation never forgot, -nor did they cease to reproach the Greeks -with the injury done to them. The latter -had, no doubt, a double interest in the act, -and the first and less worthy was the material -profit the clergy and Greek communities -obtained by the appropriation of the Bulgarian -Church revenues. The second was a -strong political motive; for the right of possessing -an independent Bulgarian Church -and cultivating the Bulgarian language -meant nothing less than raising and developing -the future organ of Panslavism in districts -the Greeks consider they have a hereditary -right to; their national interests were, -in fact, at stake. The men to whom was -intrusted the duty of protecting these interests -were unscrupulous as to the means they -used in the fulfilment of their task, and a -perpetual struggle ensued, resulting in persecution -and other crimes besides the unjust -dealing with which the Bulgarians charge -their rivals. Both parties, from their own -point of view, are right; and there is nothing -for them but to keep up the conflict till -some decisive victory, or perhaps arbitration, -settles the dispute.</p> - -<p>The Bulgarian Church question re-commenced -in 1858 and lasted until 1872, during -which time the bitter strife was renewed between -the two nations, inducing the Bulgarians -to demand from the Porte the fulfilment -of the promises made in decreed reforms to -guarantee liberty of religious worship and the -church reforms indicated in the Hatti-scherif -of Gulhané.</p> - -<p>These demands were just and reasonable, -and at first limited to the request that the -Porte would grant permission that Bulgarians, -or at least men capable of speaking -their language, should alone be appointed -bishops; that the service in their churches, -instead of being performed in the ancient -Greek, a tongue unknown to the Bulgarians, -should be performed in the native language, -and other similar demands, which the Greek -patriarch very unwisely refused to listen to. -Previously to this, in 1851, the Porte had -obliged the patriarch to consecrate a Bulgarian -bishop.</p> - -<p>In a church which the Bulgarians had -erected by permission of the Porte at Constantinople, -in 1860, during the celebration -of Easter, the Bulgarian bishop, at the request -of the congregation, omitted from the -customary prayer the name of the patriarch. -This was the first decisive step towards the -accomplishment of the schism that took place -subsequently. The example set by this bishop -was followed in many parts of Bulgaria; -occasionally the name of the Sultan was substituted -for that of the patriarch. The excitement -this movement caused in Bulgaria was -intense, and acted upon the dormant minds -of the people with a force that pushed them -at least ten years in advance of what they -had been, and opened their eyes to things -they had failed previously to observe.</p> - -<p>The Porte, alarmed by this sudden effervescence -of public feeling in Bulgaria, despatched -the Grand Vizir on a tour in that -country to study the feeling of the people. -At his approach the inhabitants of every -town flocked to his presence and brought -their grievances under his notice. The Vizir’s -action was as just and impartial as circumstances -would allow; he listened to the -grievances of the people, righted many of -their wrongs, imprisoned some officials and -dismissed others; but, notwithstanding, the -Bulgarians failed to obtain on this occasion -any great material amelioration either of their -condition or with regard to the Church question.</p> - -<p>At this stage all true Bulgarians, including -those of the rural districts, were fully -aroused; and, reminded by their respective -chieftains, or heads of communities, of the -importance of the pending question, and the -necessity of united action, they determined -to fight the battle with the patriarch and -overcome the opposition they continued to -meet with from that quarter. Help of any -description was desirable for them, and even -foreign agency was prudently courted. The -Porte was given to understand that it possessed -no subjects more faithful and devoted -than the Bulgarians, and that the rights they -demanded could be only obtained from it, -and if their Sultan decided in their favor he -would secure their eternal gratitude and devotion. -Rome began to take an interest in -the matter, and the Government of Napoleon -III., stimulated by the Uniate Propaganda, -headed by some Polish dignitaries established -in Paris, endeavored to secure a hold upon -the people by means of the priests and agents -sent into Bulgaria, and people were made to -believe that the whole of Bulgaria was ready -to adopt Roman Catholicism and place itself -under the protection of France. (See the next -chapter.)</p> - -<p>Russia, alarmed by these rumors, also began -to show signs of active interest in the -matter, and by her promises of assistance, -her efforts to counteract the Uniate movement, -and the pressure she finally began to -enforce upon the Porte in favor of the Bulgarian -church movement, ended in gaining to -her side a small but influential body of Bulgarians -in the Danubian districts. There -was a critical moment when the Bulgarians, -thinking all was lost for them, turned their -hopes and even appealed to England for help, -promising that if this were granted they -would become Protestants. The missionaries -of the Evangelical and other Protestant -societies were led to believe in the possibility -of such a conversion, and became doubly -zealous in their efforts to enlighten the people.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> -In the midst of this conflicting state of -affairs, when each party tried to enforce its -own views and derive the most profit, the -church of Constantinople remained inflexible, -the Porte took to compromising, and the -Bulgarians, doggedly and steadily working -on, by degrees became more venturesome in -their action, more pressing in their demands, -and more independent in their proceedings. -Greek bishops were ejected from their dioceses -in Bulgaria and driven away by the -people. In Nish and other places monasteries -were seized, and their incomes reappropriated -by the Bulgarian communities. Personal -encounters and struggles of a strangely -unchristian nature were frequent between the -contending parties, sometimes taking place -even within the precincts of the churches. -The struggle for independence continued, in -spite of the anathemas hurled against the -Bulgarians by the Patriarchate, and was encouraged -by the desertion of two Bishops to -their side. The exile of these by the Porte, -at the instigation of the Patriarch, and a variety -of other incidents ensued, until in 1868 -Fouad and Ali Pashas took up the Bulgarian -cause, and the exiled Bishops were recalled -(February 28th, 1870).</p> - -<p>Through the instrumentality of the latter a -Firman was issued constituting a Bulgarian -Exarch, and permission was given to the Bulgarians -to elect their spiritual chief, the election -to be confirmed by a Berat of the Sultan.</p> - -<p>Ali Pasha’s death, however, in 1871, caused -new difficulties, and the enforcement of this -measure was, under different pretexts, delayed -during the ministry of his successor, -Mahmoud Pasha, and ultimately only fulfilled -in consequence of the proportions the -question had assumed, and the active interest -taken in it by Russia as shown in the policy -of General Ignatieff. This policy was -not approved of by the majority of thinking -Bulgarians, who, with good reason, dreaded -the consequences of Russian influence based -on the solid assistance it had rendered to the -Bulgarian church. Russia from all times -has made use of the churches and monasteries -in Bulgaria, largely endowing them with -sacerdotal gifts, in order to consolidate her -influence and gain the faith and confidence -of the people.</p> - -<p>All now is confusion, darkness, and uncertainty -in Bulgaria. Their churches, inaugurated -with so much hope and confidence, -have been polluted with every crime and -stained with the blood of innumerable victims. -Centuries must pass before the wrongs -and misfortunes of late years can be forgotten -by this unhappy people.</p> - -<p>There is yet another Christian Church in -Turkey which must have a place in this -chapter. St. Gregory the Illuminator, the -patron saint of Armenia, is looked upon as -the effective bearer of that heavenly light -that was to extinguish the beacons of the -fire-worshippers and found the Armenian -Church. In the beginning of the fourth century -of our era this saint preached in court -of Tiridates, who, evidently little disposed at -the time to accept the new faith, vented his -ill-humor against it by ordering the martyrdom -of its preacher. The most agonizing -tortures, say the Armenian annals, inflicted -upon St. Gregory failed in the desired effect. -Finally, after having been made to walk on -pointed nails, and having melted lead poured -down his throat, he was cast into a cistern, -among snakes and scorpions, where he lived -fourteen years, daily fed by an angel, who -brought him bread and water. At the end -of this period he was allowed to issue from -his dismal abode, and was called upon to -baptize the penitent king and his nobles, converted -through the instrumentality of the -king’s sister, to whom the Christian religion -was revealed in a vision. Such is the legendary -origin of Christianity in Armenia. The -new faith enforced by royalty was soon -spread through the country. St. Gregory -was appointed Patriarch of Armenia, and -after creating a number of churches, bishoprics, -and convents, and regulating the canons -of each, he retired into the solitude of a hermitage, -where he was put to death by order -of the king’s son. It was the beginning of a -long course of misfortunes. There is something -grand in the sacrifice that the ignorant -and stout-hearted Asiatics made in the cause -of religion. Nowhere was persecution so -long or so cruel, martyrdoms so terrible, -self-denial so complete as among the people -of the land where the human race is fabled -to have had its origin.</p> - -<p>St. Gregory was succeeded in the Patriarchal -chair by his son Aristogus, who, having -taken part in the Council of Nice in 335 -<span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, brought back with him some of its decrees, -and caused the first schism in the -church. The terrible religious dissensions -that raged for so many centuries made themselves -as deeply felt in Armenia as elsewhere. -Every dogma of Christianity was in turn examined, -adopted, or rejected, until the Monophysitic -views, gaining the majority of the -people, caused the schism that finally separated -the Armenian from the primitive -church.</p> - -<p>The two parties, though differing but -slightly from each other, cease not, even to -the present day, their antagonism. The -schismatics affirm the absorption of the human -nature of Christ into the Divine—the -procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father -alone—redemption from original sin by -the sacrifice of Christ, redemption from actual -sin by auricular confession and penance. -They adhere to the seven sacraments, perform -baptism by trine immersion, believe in -the mediation of saints, the adoration of pictures, -and transubstantiation, and administer -the sacrament in both kinds to laymen; they -deny purgatorial penance and yet invoke the -prayers of the pious for the benefit of the -souls of the departed.</p> - -<p>The Armenian Church differs from the Latin -in seven points. Its doctrine is contained -in the following formula, which the candidates -for priestly office are obliged to profess -before ordination: “We believe in Jesus -Christ, one person and a double nature, and -in conformity with the Holy Fathers we reject -and detest the Council of Chalcedon, the -letter of St. Leon to Flavian; we say anathema -to every sect that denies the two natures.”</p> - -<p>In Church polity, after long quarrels and -bickerings between three patriarchs, each -following his own interest, rivalries, and rites, -the supremacy has at last been vested in one -who is called Catholicos, chosen from among -the Armenian archbishops and appointed by -the Emperor of Russia. The seat of the -Patriarchate is the famous convent of Echmiadzin -at Erivan, in Russian territory. -This convent contains a magnificent library, -is extremely wealthy, and exercises supreme -power over the others in spiritual matters. -It alone has the right to ordain archbishops -to the forty-two archbishoprics under its -control, and to settle points of dogma. -Among the pretended relics it possesses are -the dead hand of St. Gregory, used for consecrating -his successors in the Patriarchate, -and the lance with which Christ was pierced. -This convent of Echmiadzin is to the Armenians -what Mount Athos has been to the -Greeks. In both, Russia has spared neither -expense nor effort to establish her influence -and spread it by means of these channels all -over the Christian populations of the East. -Her too stirring policy at Mount Athos, as -shown by the publication of “Les Responsabilités,” -and her attempt to enforce upon the -Catholicos of Echmiadzin the decree for the -suppression of the Armenian language in the -churches and schools, and replacing it by -Russian, had an equally unfortunate result.</p> - -<p>The efforts of the Russian Government to -improve the condition of this country are -said to have met with a certain amount of -success; commerce and industry, encouraged -by the creation of roads and other facilities, -have been the principal temptations held out -to emigrants from Turkish territory. Of all -the European powers Russia alone could help -to civilize and improve the degraded condition -of the Christians of those distant regions. -Her influence would have been stronger and -more beneficial to them if her policy had -been a more straightforward and liberal one, -and more in accordance with the national -rights of the people whose good-will and confidence -she will fail to secure so long as she -follows the old system of trying to Russianize -them by the suppression of their privileges.</p> - -<p>The Armenian churches are not unlike -those of the Greeks; they are similar in decoration—pictures -of Christ, the Virgin, and -the saints being the principal ornaments of -their altars. These pictures are slightly superior -to the expressionless ones used by the -Greeks. The pious often decorate parts of -these with a silver or gold coating on the -hands, or as an aureole, and sometimes over -the whole body. The Armenians have faith -in the efficacy of prayers addressed to these -images, as well as in the laying of hands on -the sick or distressed, who are often taken to -the church and left through the night before -the altar of some special saint. The Armenian -patriarchs and bishops enjoy the same -rights and privileges as the Greeks, and administer -justice to their respective communities -on the same conditions.</p> - -<p>Like the Greek, the Armenian clergy are of -two orders, secular and monastic; the former -are allowed to marry, but never occupy -a high position in the church. They are -usually very poor, even poorer and more retired -than the Greek parish priests, living -like the lower orders of the people, who look -upon them as their friends. Although ignorant, -they are much respected for the morality -of their lives, but knowing nothing more -than the routine of their office they are unable -to give any religious instruction to their -parishioners beyond that contained in the -books of prayer used in the church; a passage -from the lives or writings of the saints is -read in place of a sermon.</p> - -<p>This drawback to the propagation of more -practical religion is being by degrees removed -since the introduction of excellent religious -books published by the Mechitarist College -at Venice, and by the American Missionary -societies. The latter especially have done -much to stimulate the dormant spirit of inquiry; -the large circulation of Bibles, which -by their low price are brought within the -reach of all, encourages the propensity shown -by the Armenians to admit Protestant ideas, -which are being daily more extensively -spread among the community. “In Central -Turkey alone there are now no less than -twenty-six organized churches, with some -2500 members, and audiences amounting in -the aggregate to 5000 or 6000 steady attendants.”</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII.<br /> -<span class="smaller">RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE AND MISSIONARY -WORK.</span></h2> - -<p>Turkish Tolerance—High Disdain for Christians—American -Mission Work—Roman Catholic Missionaries—Catholic -Establishments—The Uniates—United -Armenians—Mechitar—The Two Parties—Persecutions—European -Interference—The Hassounists—The -Hope for Armenia.</p> - -</div> - -<p>From the time of the Ottoman conquest -spiritual liberty has been allowed to all creeds -in Turkey, and the external observances and -ceremonies of religion have, in most places, -been permitted by the Moslems, though in -some even funeral ceremonies were often -molested, and the use of church bells was -forbidden. Certain rights and privileges -were granted to each church, to which the -Christians clung with great tenacity—as to a -sacred banner, round which they would one -day rally and march to freedom.</p> - -<p>By the concessions granted to the vanquished -by their conquerors, they were allowed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> -to retain those churches that had escaped -destruction or were not converted into -mosques, and permitted to worship according -to the dictates of their own consciences -so long as the sound of their bell calling the -infidels to prayer did not offend the ear of -the faithful. The internal administration -was not interfered with; each congregation -was free to choose its own clergy, ornament -the interior of its church as it saw fit, perform -its pilgrimages and bury its dead, without -interference from the authorities. These -privileges, though looked upon as sacred by -the poor, could not compensate in the sight -of the rich and once powerful for social and -material losses; thus many Christians renounced -their faith and adopted that of their -masters.</p> - -<p>Time and succeeding events have softened -down some of the outstanding wrongs; fanatical -outbreaks and religious persecutions -have become of less frequent occurrence; -and the various Hattis proclaiming freedom -of worship and religious equality to all Ottoman -subjects before the law, are guarantees -that no arbitrary action on the part of the -government can interfere with the religious -privileges of the Christians, or deprive them -of their rights. Though this guarantee is a -proof of the sincerity of the Porte in its -efforts to give satisfaction to its Christian -subjects, it cannot remove the evil or lessen -its consequences, which remain in all their -force of danger and uncertainty. Every -movement of discontent in Turkey receives a -strong impulse from that religious zeal which -stimulates the Mohammedan to acts of fanatical -barbarity, and the Christian to a superstitious -belief in miraculous powers that will -protect him in the hour of danger. Thus, in -times of disturbance the timorous bulk of the -population of a town or village will rush to -the church for safety, there pouring out mingled -prayers and tears to God and all the -saints that the threatened danger may be -averted. Rarely, it would seem, are such -prayers heard, for the first place to which -the excited Mussulman rushes is the church, -and thither the brigand chief will lead his -band, and perpetrate acts of the most revolting -barbarity. The armed peasant, the undisciplined -soldier, or the cruel and licentious -Bashi-Bazouk will all attack the sacred edifice, -break it open, and destroy or pollute all -that falls into their hands. These are the -ever-recurring evils that no Imperial law will -be able to prevent, no measures eradicate, so -long as the two rival creeds continue to exist -face to face, and be used as the principal motives -in the struggle, past and present, for -supremacy on one side, freedom and independence -on the other. The Mussulmans, -under pressure, will grant every concession -demanded of them, and to a great extent -carry them out; but it would be utterly erroneous -to suppose for a moment that under -any pressure or in any degree of civilization, -the Turk would be able to disabuse himself -of the deeply-rooted disdain the most liberal-minded -of his race feels for strangers to his -creed and nation.</p> - -<p>The experiences of all thoroughly acquainted -with the character of the Ottoman tallies -with mine on this point. I have seen the -disdain felt by the Mohammedan towards -the Christian portrayed on the faces of the -most liberal, virtuous, and well-disposed, as -well as on those of the most bigoted. A -Christian, be he European or Asiatic, is an infidel -in the Moslem’s sight. He will receive -him graciously, converse with him in the -most amicable manner, and at the same time -mumble prayers for pardon for his sin in -holding communication with an unbeliever.</p> - -<p>The religious freedom enjoyed by the members -of the Protestant and Roman Catholic -churches is far more extensive than that enjoyed -by the Eastern. Both, upheld by the -powerful support of European powers, enjoy a -liberty of action and license of speech rarely -found in other countries. Both are aliens and -owe their origin to the proselytizing efforts -of the missionaries. The Church of Rome, -being the older and more enterprising, naturally -commands a much vaster field than the -Protestant; she is supported by France and -other Roman Catholic countries, who jealously -watch over her rights and privileges. -The Protestants are protected by England -and America; their missionaries entered Turkey -at a later date and gradually established -themselves over the country. At first -the extremely reserved attitude of the missionaries, -their conscientious method of making -converts, and the extreme severity of -their regulations, gave them but a poor -chance of success. Gradually, however, the -esteem and regard of the people for them increased; -stringent opposition, promoted by -sectarian dissensions, died out, and mission -stations, with numerous churches, some of -considerable importance and promise, were -established, especially in Armenia. The -principal cause of the encouragement they -met with was the wise policy, lately adopted, -of promoting missionary work by education.</p> - -<p>The extensive body of Protestant missionaries -now found in Turkey is almost entirely -American. The meetings of the Board are -held in Constantinople; it controls the administration -of the different missions and directs -the large American College at Bebek—the -best foreign institute for education in the -country.</p> - -<p>When a community of Protestant converts -numbers a few families it is given a church -and school, and one of the principal men is -elected as chief of the society. This person -is presented officially to the authorities by -one of the consuls of the protecting powers—generally -the English; he is recognized as -chief of his community, obtains a seat in the -local court, and is intrusted with all the interests -of his co-religionists. In difficult or -complicated cases the missionaries themselves -share the responsibilities of this chief, and -through consular or ambassadorial agency -generally settle all matters calling for redress -and justice in a satisfactory manner.</p> - -<p>The few English missionaries who are established -in Turkey are intrusted with the -fruitless task of endeavoring to convert the -Jews.</p> - -<p>The Roman Catholic missionaries, from -the date of the separation of the Eastern and -Western Churches, have ever been actively -and diligently employed in making converts. -Thus a great portion of the population of -Syria, yielding to their influence, has become -Roman Catholic, as have the Bosnians, a -portion of the Albanians, some of the Greeks -inhabiting the islands, the Armenians of Constantinople, -and of later years a small portion -of the Bulgarians. The action of the missionaries -of late years has not, however, been -so much directed towards making new converts -as it has to consolidating and strengthening -the tie binding the few scattered communities -to the mother-church. This religious -body recruits itself chiefly from France -and Italy, and consists of priests, monks, and -Sisters of Charity, belonging chiefly to the orders -of St. Benois, the Jesuits, Lazarists, and -St. Vincent de Paul. Their extensive establishments -are situated in the Frank quarters -of the towns, and consist of well-built and -spacious churches, monasteries, schools, -orphan asylums, and foundling hospitals. -Pera and Galata contain a goodly number of -these establishments, as do the principal -towns of European and Asiatic Turkey. -These missions are evidently well furnished -with funds, for their establishments have -everywhere a prosperous appearance, and -are provided with every requisite for the purposes -for which they are intended. The religious -instruction given in them is, however, -extremely illiberal, bigoted, and imparted -on Jesuitical principles. Exclusiveness -and intolerance towards other creeds are -openly prescribed. “Point de salut hors de -l’Eglise” is their doctrine. Considerable -laxity is allowed in moral points so long as -they do not interfere with the external duties -of the community to the church. Should an -individual belonging to another creed die -among the community, the rite of burial will -be refused to him by the Roman Catholic -priests, but those of the Orthodox Church -will often in that case consent to perform it. -Even the marriage ceremony, unless performed -in their churches, is considered by -the more bigoted portion of the Roman Catholic -clergy as not binding. This strange -statement was made in my presence before a -large gathering of persons belonging to different -creeds, by the superior of a Lazarist -establishment at A⸺. It was on the occasion -of the marriage of two members of the -Latin community of that town, when the service -was terminated by the following short -address to the married couple: “Twice -happy are you to belong to the Holy Church -of Rome and to be united in the sacred ties -of matrimony within her bosom: for in the -same manner as there is no hope after life -for those who do not belong to her, so marriage -is not binding out of her, but every -woman who so gives herself is not a legal -wife but a concubine!” In many cases the -sacrament is refused to ladies united in marriage -to persons belonging to other creeds.</p> - -<p>The secular teaching given in the schools -of these missions is limited, and, based on the -same principles as the religion, is illiberal and -narrow-minded. Much time is consecrated -by the pupils to religious recitations, prayers, -and penances of no possible profit to the -children. Thus from an early age, imbued -with narrow ideas and made to lose sight of -the spirit of Christianity, the Roman Catholic -communities, be they of European, Greek, -or Armenian nationality, are the most bigoted, -intolerant, and exclusive of all the Christian -communities of the East.</p> - -<p>The missionaries belonging to this Church -are unsurpassed in the admirable manner in -which their charitable establishments are arranged. -The homes and asylums for the -poor and orphan children are for the girls -under the control of the Sisters of Charity, -and for the boys under that of the priests and -monks. These are well kept, and very orderly, -the food is good and abundant, and -the dress of the children solid and befitting -their condition. Hospitals are attached to -each establishment, where the sick are well -cared for and destitute Europeans admitted -irrespective of creed. The good Sisters of -Charity take upon themselves the duty of -watching over the patients night and day. -A dispensary is included in each mission station, -where medicines and medical advice are -given gratuitously. The children reared in -these establishments are placed in situations -on leaving them; but I regret to be obliged -to say that comparatively few of either sex -are known to turn out honest and respectable.</p> - -<p>The retired lives led by these active servants -of Rome do not prevent their being -very intimately connected with their respective -communities or using their all-powerful -influence for good or for evil in all family -concerns. They are hardy, active, and most -persevering; their personal wants are small -and their mode of living modest and unassuming. -But in spite of this they are worldly-wise, -crafty, and unscrupulous as to the -means they use in obtaining their ends. -Their mode of action is based upon the principle -that the end justifies the means; few, -therefore, are the scruples that will arrest -their action or the dangers and difficulties -that will damp their courage or check their -ardor in their work.</p> - -<p>All the internal regulations and arrangements -of the Catholic community are made -without the Porte troubling itself much -about them—indeed, to do the Turk justice, -in his high contempt for things Christian, he -keeps as much as possible out of the religious<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span> -dissensions of his subjects, and when by -chance he does appear on the scene of action, -by turns persecutor, protector, or peacemaker, -he is generally prompted in the matter -by one of the interested parties. An -amusing incident witnessed by one of my -friends at Jerusalem well illustrates this fact. -This gentleman accompanied one of the -peacemaking governors-general to the Holy -City at the time the quarrel of the possession -of the little door leading to the Sepulchre -was at its highest. All the interested parties -loaded the Pasha with acts of politeness and -civility, which he received with great urbanity; -but when the great question was delicately -broached in the course of conversation, he -at once turned round and exclaimed, Turkish -fashion, “Oh, my soul! I pray do not open -that door to me!”</p> - -<p>There is little to be said about the Uniates, -or Bulgarian Catholic converts in Turkey. -The movement in its commencement, effects, -and results may be compared to Midhat -Pasha’s Constitution—a farce and imposition -from beginning to end. Like the Constitution, -the Uniate movement broke out in the -midst of a hot fever of excitement and discontent; -the first was created as a palliative -for Turkish misrule, the second emanated -from the mismanagement of a church. The -disputes between the Greeks and Bulgarians -on the church question was at its height -when a certain number of Bulgarians, carried -away by the hope of ameliorating the actual -condition of things and ultimately obtaining -their end, viz., the emancipation of the Bulgarian -Church from the Greek, accepted the -nominal supremacy of the Romish Church, -and by a fictitious conversion became attached -to it under the denomination of Uniates. -Their number, at first small, would -probably have remained so had it not been -that some effective arguments and causes -gave it a momentary impetus, bringing it -under public notice. The sensational part of -the incident was due to the exaggerated accounts -given by the agents of the Propaganda -and other societies of the future triumphs -of Rome in this new field of action, and to -the political advantage which the government -of Napoleon III. tried to derive from it. -Monsieur Bouré, the ambassador at that time -in Turkey, greatly favored the movement, -while some of the consular agents, overstepping -their instructions, held out to the Bulgarian -people the open support and protection -of the French Government in favor of -the anticipated converts: “C’est ici,” said -one of those zealous agents, “C’est ici au -consulat de France que la nation Bulgare doit -dorénavant tourner son regard, porter ses -plaintes et demander protection!”</p> - -<p>The most telling argument with the Bulgarian -peasant to abjure his faith was not the -future benefit his soul would derive from -the change nor the value of French influence -and protection, but simply the prospect of -freeing himself from all future Church impositions, -and having his children educated -at the schools of the Propaganda free of -cost. These conditions were very enticing, -and some thousands, yielding to the further -influence of a few of their superiors who had -declared themselves Uniates, blindly followed -these as sheep following their shepherd -in search of food. They knew nothing -of the dogmatic side of the question, and -cared not to inquire. The name of the Pope -was substituted for that of the Patriarch of -Constantinople; the ignorant Greek or Bulgarian -priests were superseded by Polish -preachers well versed in the Bulgarian -tongue, whose sermons were composed with -a view to impressing the people with a sense -of the material rather than the spiritual benefits -to be derived from their apostasy. The -proselytizing centres were Adrianople, Monastir, -and Salonika, where large establishments -belonging to the Roman Catholic Societies -undertook the work of conversion in a -very zealous manner, and established branches -in places of smaller importance in order to -give more weight to the affair and increase -the confidence of the Bulgarians in its stability. -A Bulgarian monk, the best that could -be got, was pounced upon by the Fathers and -sent to Rome to be consecrated primate of -the Uniates. This individual, unprepossessing -in appearance and utterly ignorant and -stupid, remained at Rome in order to receive -the homage due to him as the future primate -of the Uniates, and then returned to Bulgaria, -where every effort was made by the agents -of the Propaganda to give importance to the -event and establish the authority of the new -primate. The poor Bulgarian Uniates, closely -watched and pressed on both sides by the -Greeks and the Bulgarians, found it very -hard to stand their ground. They began to -show signs of laxity of zeal, and gradually -dropped out of the newly-formed flock. This -reaction took a very decided turn after the -formation of the Bulgarian national church, -when the converts <i>en bloc</i> returned to it, leaving -a few of the faithful to occupy the -benches of the deserted churches, and some -orphans and beggars to people the schools attached -to them.</p> - -<p>Thus began and ended an affair which was -nothing but a joke to those who were on the -spot and behind the scenes; while the Catholic -world, judging from all the wild tales of -the press on the subject, seemed to lose their -reason over it to the extent of exciting the -curiosity of some governments and greatly -alarming others, until the thing died out, to -make room for more important matters.</p> - -<p>However successful the work of conversion -may be in the East when it is carried on -(as with the Romish Church) with the object -of entirely denationalizing a community and -absorbing it into the proselytizing church, it -will prove a failure in the long run. In the -case of the United or Catholic Armenians, -one sees another instance of the tendency of -all the subject races of the Porte whenever a -question of religion or political liberty is -raised; it is to the West that one and all -look for the settlement of these questions, for -support, and for protection. European interference -has been systematically imposed -upon the Porte, and has obtained ascendancy -over it in proportion as the Turk has become -weak and incapable of resistance.</p> - -<p>The Armenian nation seems to have remained -united and at peace with the Church -of its adoption until the year 1587, when -Pope Sixtus sent the Bishop of Sidon as ambassador -to the Armenian Melkhites, Jacobites, -and Chaldean communities, to recover -them from their heresy and establish papal -authority over them; but the utmost the -legate obtained at the time was the consent -of the Armenian Patriarch of Cilicia to sign -a confession of the Catholic faith according to -the statutes of the Council of Florence. In -the meanwhile numerous missionaries belonging -to the order of the Jesuits and others -had settled in the country with the object of -carrying on the work of conversion. It was -one of these, a Jesuit, who, a century later, -converted Mechitar, the illustrious founder -of the United Armenian community, which -now numbers over 40,000 souls. Mechitar -united in his person the qualities of the theologian, -the scholar, and the patriot. Yielding -to persuasion, he adopted the Catholic -creed and directed all his energies to propagating -it among his countrymen. His ideas -were, however, those of an enlightened man -who wished to combine conversion with -mental development and liberal ideas based -upon the sound foundation of separating the -civil from the religious rights, founding a -Church, Catholic in faith, but Armenian in -nationality, with a constitution free from the -direct control and interference of the See of -Rome. It is impossible to say how far the -project of the intrepid convert was feasible; -his enterprise met with very decided opposition -from the head of the propaganda, -whose efforts were directed with fanatical -tenacity and ardor towards denationalizing -and Latinizing the new converts. Thus the -community in its very origin found itself divided -into two branches—the liberal, professing -the views of Mechitar, proud of the name -of Armenian, and desirous of promoting the -interests of their fatherland; and the Ultramontanes, -bigoted and holding Rome as the -sole pivot on which their social, moral, and -religious existence turned. These divisions -soon caused dissensions, and Mechitar, finding -the opposition of the Fathers too strong -for him in his native land, left it and went to -Constantinople, where he hoped to find more -liberty and a more extended field for action. -Here, also, bitter disappointment awaited -him, for he found the pressure of the European -Fathers put upon the new Church; -mild persuasion and exhortation were set -aside and an earnest policy of intolerance and -exclusiveness was preached to the new community, -forbidding its members to enter the -churches of their fathers, which were represented -as “sanctuaries of the devil,” holding -its liturgy up to execration, and refusing absolution -to those unwilling to submit to these -severe doctrines. This system of intolerance -succeeded so well with the retrograde party -as to widen the breach already separating it -from the liberal, and sowed at the same time -the seeds of that mortal hatred between the -United and the Gregorian Armenians that -has more than once well-nigh caused their -common destruction. At this stage, while -party dissensions rendered union among the -Armenian Catholics impossible, the work of -proselytism marched on, until the Gregorians, -alarmed at its rapid progress, rose in a -body, and by means of hypocrisy and intrigue, -headed by their uncompromising -patriarch Ephraim, obtained a firman from -the Porte ordering the banishment of all the -Armenian Catholics from Constantinople. -Thus the sparks of persecution kindled by -this patriarch soon spread into a general conflagration -under his successor Avidic, who, -gaining the ear and support of the Grand -Mufti Feizallah, obtained decree after decree -for the persecution, confiscation, and expatriation -of all their opponents in the empire, -including the Fathers. The blow was too -strong, and the sensation it created too great, -for it to be passed over by the Western powers -belonging to the same Church. A French -ambassador consequently raised his voice so -loudly and effectively at the Porte as to have -the obnoxious patriarch expelled and exiled -to Chios; the ill-fated dignitary, however, -was not allowed to expiate his evil-doing -in peace and solitude, but, waylaid, it is believed, -by some equally unchristian Jesuit -Fathers, he was kidnapped and taken to the -Isle of St. Margaret, where he died the death -of a martyr.</p> - -<p>The Porte, in its desire to right the wronged, -felt ill-requited by this act. The abduction -of the Patriarch, together with other grievances, -magnified by the Gregorians, increased -its discontent, and, casting its mask of reconciliation -aside, it became the open and direct -persecutor of the suspected community. -The Jesuits’ house at Galata was put under -surveillance, the Armenian printing establishment -was closed, and proselytism was -forbidden on pain of exile. A Hatti ordered -the arrest of all the Armenian adherents of -the Romish Church. What remained of the -community continued in hiding, awaiting a -favorable time for its reappearance. Mechitar -himself, suspected, distrusted, and disliked -by all parties save his own, fled from -Constantinople, and, after many vicissitudes -and an unsuccessful attempt to found a monastery -at Medon, finally succeeded in doing -so in the Isle of St. Lazarus, granted to him -by the republic of Venice. The monastery -he there founded was of the order of St. Benedict, -and was later on approved of by a bull -of Clement XI. In this quiet refuge the -learned monk established his order, which -took the name of Mechitarists after him, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -has become the college, not of orthodox -catholicism, as understood and practised by -the Latinized converts, but of learning, patriotism, -and liberal views and ideas in religious -matters. Scarcely had the United Armenians -recovered from the shock of this -persecution than they were again, in 1759, -subjected to a fresh one set on foot as before -by the Gregorians, who forced upon them -religious forms repulsive to them, backed by -the active support of the Porte. But the -most critical moment for the very existence -of the community, including a considerable -proportion of Franks, was the time of the -battle of Navarino. All the ill-humor and -exasperation of the Turks fell upon the unfortunate -Armenian Catholics, who, represented -to the credulous Turks as traitors and -spies of the Franks, were treated accordingly, -and persecution and exile, ruin and -death, were once more their lot. The principal -actors in this last were an obscure -sheikh who had a tekké at Stamboul, and -who by some freak of fortune had risen to -the rank of Kadi Asker, becoming far famed -as Khalet Effendi, and an individual who -was pipe-bearer in the Duz-Oglou family, -one of the wealthiest of the United Armenian -families.</p> - -<p>The Porte declared that it recognized only -one Armenian nation and one Armenian religion, -and invited all schismatics to abjure -their apostasy and return to the bosom of -their own church and nation, on which conditions -they could alone be pardoned. This -was the climax of the evils and sufferings of -the United Armenians. The Governments -of Western Europe, indignant at this rigorous -treatment and the miseries it brought -upon an unfortunate community, took up its -cause, and after a prolonged dispute between -the French Government and the Porte, the -determined conduct of the representative of -the former power triumphed over the intrigues -of the Gregorian Armenians and the -ill-will and cruelty of the Porte; the exiles -were recalled, their property restored, and -they were recognized as a separate community -under a patriarch of their own. We -need not follow all the difficulties and complications -that had to be overcome before these -salutary results could be obtained. Since that -epoch this community was formed into a -separate body, and owing its welfare, security, -and subsequent prosperity to the protection -of France has enjoyed in peace the -same rights and privileges as the Gregorians. -These privileges were further granted by the -Porte under the same pressure to the other -Catholic communities. The grant of these -concessions constituted France the moral -supporter and religious protector of all the -Catholics of the East, and for some years -French influence in favor of the Catholic rayahs -was supreme at the Porte.</p> - -<p>In 1831 the community began once more to -consolidate itself by the scattered members -returning to their homes and re-assuming the -ordinary business of life. Much had been done -in their favor, but much remained to be done -by the community itself. The first step was -to frame a general assembly, composed of -representatives of the various classes of the -community by whom the national interests -were discussed and debated upon with much -freedom. The result was the election of a -president who was confirmed by the Porte, -and invested with temporal authority alone. -The spiritual power was conferred on a primate -appointed by the Pope. This measure -was adopted in the hope of preventing one -authority from encroaching upon the other; -the patriarch’s seal was divided into three -parts, which were intrusted respectively to -the patriarch, the primate, and the president -of the council. Other measures were also -adopted which established the interests and -influence of the Church on a solid basis, increased -the privileges of the community at -large, and greatly heightened its prestige. -But dissensions and jealousies crept in, destroyed -the passing dignity of the Church, -and brought it to the low level of its adherents, -making it a centre of bigotry and intolerance -on one side and of struggling efforts -for enlightenment and emancipation on the -other.</p> - -<p>Mechitar’s views and principles are held in -increasing veneration by the liberal and progressive -Armenians, who believe that the -future prosperity of their country is dependent -on them. Imbued with these ideas, it is -not astonishing to find that this party and -that of the Propaganda and Latinized Armenians -are in a state of continual contention, -undermining the peace and prospects of the -community.</p> - -<p>In 1846, Father Minassian, a Mechitarist -monk, proposed the establishment of a society -for the reconciliation of the two divisions -of the nation with the view of the furthering -education and ultimate political emancipation -of the Armenians. The Conservative party, -with the patriarch at its head, rejected his -plan, which, warmly taken up by the Liberal -(or as it is now called Anti-Hassounist) party -led to fresh disputes and dissensions, keeping -this community for years in a continual -state of religious agitation and setting families -at variance. The Anti-Hassounist party -comprises some of the most wealthy and influential -families, while the Hassounists, on -the other hand, boast of the influence of their -patriarch, the approval and protection of -Rome, and the assistance and co-operation of -the Propaganda; accordingly, of late years, -both parties have sallied forth from their former -reserved attitude and offered to the -world of Constantinople the spectacle of a -pitched battle—one side armed with all the -power that spiritual help can afford, the other -bracing itself with the force of argument and -the protection and favor of the Porte.</p> - -<p>Hassoun and his party accepted the doctrine -of the Infallibility of the Pope, and committed -their spiritual welfare and worldly concerns -into the keeping of the mother Church, trusting -to her maternal care for unlimited patronage. -The Anti-Hassounists, led by Kupelian, -rebelled against this despotic arrangement, -denied the Infallibility and the right of the -Church of Rome to interfere in the social -and religious organization of the community; -they actually went so far as to break out -into open rebellion, and, supported and protected -by Hossein Aoni Pasha and some of -his colleagues, denied the authority of the -patriarch, drove his adherents out of the -schools, closed the churches, and sent away -the priests under his control, finally effecting -the schism which lies under Papal excommunication, -but prospers nevertheless, -and must ultimately, as the nation advances, -triumph over opposition and attain equality, -independent of the powerful and absorbing -influence of the Church of Rome.</p> - -<p>The spiritual authority of this new sect is -in the keeping of a patriarch whose election -by the community is confirmed by the Porte. -He enjoys the same rights and privileges as -the patriarchs of the other communities. -The patriarch of the United Armenians receives -a stipend of 5000 piastres per month, -exclusive of the salaries of the officers of -his chancery. The expenses of the <i>bairat</i>, -amounting to 500 piastres, are defrayed by -the community and furnished by a proportionate -tax levied by the National Council. -The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy consists of the -Patriarchs of Cilicia, the Primate of Constantinople, -the bishops, and the monastic -and secular clergy. The principal see is -solely supported by funds provided by the -Propaganda of Rome and the “œuvres des -missions.”</p> - -<p>The priests are divided into <i>Vartabieds</i>, or -doctors, and <i>derders</i>, or ordinary priests. -Some of the former may be found at the -head of small churches, aided by derders -or acolytes. They occupy a modest position -in rich families, where they are employed -as religious instructors of youth and -general counsellors of the family. As a -class, however, their voice in the Church is -overruled by that of the clergy of the Propaganda. -The Vartabieds carry a crosier; no -regular stipend is allotted to them, but they -derive their support from church fees. The -regular clergy consists of Mechitarist and -Antonine monks, who have colleges at Venice, -Constantinople, and Mount Lebanon.</p> - -<p>The national council of the United Armenians -is composed of twelve lay members -called Bairatlis; their election is confirmed -by the Porte. They are unpaid, and their -period of office is limited to two years, six -retiring and six resuming office annually. -This council works in conjunction with -the Patriarch; it regulates all matters concerning -the civil and financial affairs of the -community; it is the arbitrator and judge of -all disputes among the United Armenians. -This community at Constantinople alone -numbers about 20,000 souls, forming seven -parishes in different parts of the city.</p> - -<p>In Pera, annexed to the church of St. -John Chrysostom, they possess an infirmary -for the poor and a lunatic asylum; each -parish has a primary school, and some institutes -for female education exists. One of -these, founded in 1850 by the family of -Duz-Oglou, is conducted by a French lady -and placed under French control; the instruction -afforded is in the French and Armenian -languages.</p> - -<p>The unfortunate duality ever present in -the Church makes itself felt in the educational -department as well, and greatly impedes -its progress. The Mechitarist Fathers -of St. Lazarus include in the religious and -literary instruction given in their schools the -records of past Armenian glory, inculcate a -love of country, teach its language, and render -its illustrious authors familiar to the rising -generation; the current language in -their institution is the Armenian. The opposition -abuse and ridicule all that is Armenian, -and replace the native language by -Latin and Italian, or French; their principle -is, “Let nationality perish rather than -doctrine, the holy pulpit was never established -to teach patriotism, but gospel truth.” -The tutelar saints of the Armenians, treated -with the same disrespect, are replaced by -saints from the Roman calendar.</p> - -<p>In character and disposition the United -Armenians are peaceable, regular in their -habits, industrious, and fond of amassing -wealth; parsimonious and even miserly in -their ideas, the love of ostentation and -good-feeding has yet a powerful effect upon -their purse-strings. They are, however, considerably -in advance of the Gregorian Armenians. -The youth of the better classes are -for the most part conversant with European -languages and the external forms of good society, -affect European manners, and profess -liberal views. Owing to the higher educational -privileges they enjoy, they have made -more progress in the arts and professions than -the Gregorian Armenians. The school of -Mechitar has produced scholars of considerable -merit, but the vocation they seem specially -made for is that of banking. In all careers -their success has been signal. There -was a time when the increasing wealth and -prosperity of the United Armenians was the -cause of much envy and jealousy, when no -European banking houses existed in Turkey, -and the financial affairs of the Ottomans were -left entirely in the hands of the Armenian -bankers, who directed the mint and regulated -the finances of the government and of the -Pashas. On the change of system, the ruin -of the State as well as that of most of these -families, once so wealthy, became inevitable. -Should Armenia, however, eventually become -a principality, should the Mechitarist -school triumph over sectarian susceptibilities, -and an understanding be arrived at leading to -a national union between the United and the -Gregorian Armenians, a considerable number -of wealthy, intelligent, and earnest men, fit<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -to be placed at the head of a nation, and able -to control it with wisdom, prudence, and -moderation, will not be wanting in both -branches of this widely scattered nation. -The critical moment in the destinies of this -country has, I believe, arrived. The Armenians, -detesting the Ottoman rule, are ready -to cast themselves into the arms of any -power that will offer them protection and -guarantee their future emancipation. The -turning-point reached, Russia or England -will have to face them and listen to their -claims. If their cause is taken up in good -time they will be saved; and the name and -prestige of England, already pretty widely -spread in Armenia, will become all-powerful.</p> - -<p class="titlepage">THE END.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="footnotes"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FOOTNOTES">FOOTNOTES</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> <i>Leromenos</i> signifies <i>soiled</i>, which among the -Greeks is the highest title of a brigand bravo, evinced -in the filth of his long-worn and unwashed <i>fustanella</i>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> “Brigand Albanian!” “Bath-boy!”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> “Very well, we shall see, it may be done.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Turkish ethnology divides the human race into -seventy-seven and a half nations, the Jews representing -the half, and the gypsies being entirely excluded. -This is clearly an improvement upon Mohammed’s -estimate of the number of different sects in Islam, etc.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> In August, 1875, the law of inheritance on vakouf -lands was modified and improved.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> Boghcha, bundle.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> Leyen, basin.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> Ibrik, jug.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Pastes for soup and pilaf.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> Molasses made from grapes.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> Preserves made with molasses from fresh or dried -fruits.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Starch made from wheat, much used for making -sweets.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> “How do you do?”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> “Valley-lord,” or feudal chief.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> Generally a European, who often attains to high -rank and fortune.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> In polite language, “child of unknown paternity.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> A few years ago the mother of Sultan Abdul-Aziz, -desirous of further reducing this number, brought forward -an old palace regulation, that every seraglio -woman found <i>enceinte</i> should be subjected to the -operation of artificial abortion, with the exception of -the first four wives.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Under-superintendent of the harem.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Should the father be unacquainted with the form -of prayer, an Imam is called in, who reads the prayer -over the infant, outside the door.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> Old women, whose mission it is to be the bearer -of invitations to all ceremonies.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Wonderful! Let it be long-lived and happy!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> The Italian expression “<i>Multi Saluti</i>” is the -nearest approach to a correct interpretation of this -word.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> “Baron” signifies Mr.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Wonderful!</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Giving rise to the Greek saying of “καμαρώνει -σά νύμφἤ.”</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> The best man and head bridesmaid, whose duty -it is subsequently to be the godfather and godmother -of the children: <a href="#Page_40"><i>see</i> p. 40</a>.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> The following is a translation of this distich:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“O Maldever! O Stardever! why do you wait outside?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Dismount thy steed and enter thy husband’s house, O bride!”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> These crosses are of three classes, and range in -value from 100 to 500 piastres—14<i>s.</i> to 3<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> Blind or lame, is he or she acceptable?</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> Sourah lvii. v. 19.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> Sourah xxxv. v. 44.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> Sourah ii. v. 275.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> The evil being is supposed to be of immense size, -his upper lip touching heaven, and his lower earth; -and he holds in his hand a huge iron cudgel.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> In some inland towns the relations continue to -chant the Myriologia all the way to the church, and -afterwards to the burial-ground.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> H⸺ Bey, on visiting London, finding to his surprise -that “sinking underground” entered into the -routine of every-day life, on returning home, said to -his mother, “<i>Hanoum yerin dibineh batunméh? Ben -batum da chiktum.</i>” (“Have you ever sunk underground? -I have done so, and risen again.”)</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> This is referred to in the first verse of a popular -song:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Φεγγαράκι μοῦ λαμπρό</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Φέγγι μοῦ νὰ προπατῶ</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Νὰ πεγαίνω’ς τὸ σχολεῖο</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Νὰ μαθαίνω γράμματα</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Τοῦ θεοῦ τὰ πράγματα</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> Those who wish to have some idea of Bulgarian -poetry will find an interesting account of it in a work -on Slav poetry by Madame Dora d’Istria.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Δεῦτέ λάβετε φῶς ἐκ τοῦ ἀνεσπέρου φωτὸς καὶ -δοξάσατε Χριστὸν τὸν ἀναστάντα ἐκ νεκρῶν.</p> - -</div> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TWENTY YEARS' RESIDENCE AMONG THE PEOPLE OF TURKEY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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