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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..216d038 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67517 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67517) diff --git a/old/67517-0.txt b/old/67517-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 35043a4..0000000 --- a/old/67517-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8558 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Apes and Monkeys: Their Life and -Language, by Richard Lynch Garner - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Apes and Monkeys: Their Life and Language - -Author: Richard Lynch Garner - -Release Date: February 27, 2022 [eBook #67517] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APES AND MONKEYS: THEIR LIFE -AND LANGUAGE *** - - - - [Illustration: R. L. Garner.] - - - - - APES AND MONKEYS - - _THEIR LIFE AND LANGUAGE_ - - BY - R. L. GARNER - - WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY - EDWARD EVERETT HALE - - BOSTON, U.S.A., AND LONDON - GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS - The Athenæum Press - - - - - ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL - - COPYRIGHT, 1900 - BY GINN & COMPANY - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - 24.12 - - - - -PREFACE - - -This volume is the natural product of many years devoted by the author -to studying the speech and habits of monkeys. That naturally led him -up to the study of the great apes. The matter contained in this work -is chiefly a record of the tabulated facts gleaned from his special -field of research. The aim in view is to convey to the casual reader a -more correct idea than now prevails concerning the physical, mental, -and social habits of apes and monkeys and to prepare him for a wider -appreciation of animals in general. - -The favorable conditions under which the writer has been placed, in the -study of these animals in the freedom of their native jungle, have not -hitherto been enjoyed by any other student of nature. - -A careful aim to avoid all technical terms and scientific phraseology -has been studiously adhered to, and the subject is treated in the -simplest style consistent with its dignity. Tedious details are -relieved by an ample supply of anecdotes taken from the writer’s own -observations. Most of the acts related are those of his own pets. A -few of them are of apes in a wild state. The author has carefully -refrained from abstruse theories or rash deductions, but has sought -to place the animals here treated of in the light to which their own -conduct entitles them, allowing the reader to draw his own conclusions. - -The author frankly confesses to his own belief in the psychic unity of -all animate nature. Believing in a common source of life, a common law -of living, and a common destiny for all creatures, he feels that to -dignify the apes is not to degrade man but rather to exalt him. - -Believing that a more perfect knowledge of these animals will bring -man into closer fellowship and deeper sympathy with nature, and with -an abiding trust that it will widen the bounds of humanity and cause -man to realize that he and they are but common links in the one great -chain of life, the author gives this work to the world. When once man -is impressed with the consciousness that in some degree, however small, -all creatures think and feel, it will lessen his vanity and ennoble his -heart. - - THE AUTHOR - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION xi - - - CHAPTER I - - Monkeys, Apes, and Men--Comparative Anatomy--Skulls--The - Law of Cranial Projection 1 - - - CHAPTER II - - Early Impression--What is Speech?--First Efforts--The Phonograph--The - First Record of Monkey Speech--Monkey Words--Phonetics--Human - Speech and Monkey Speech 12 - - - CHAPTER III - - Monkey Friends--Jokes--The Sound of Alarm--Jennie 24 - - - CHAPTER IV - - Monkey Ethics--Sense of Color--Monkeys Enumerate--First - Principles of Art 30 - - - CHAPTER V - - Pedro’s Speech Recorded--Delivered to Puck through the - Phonograph--Little Darwin Learns a New Word 38 - - - CHAPTER VI - - Five Little Brown Cousins: Mickie, McGinty, Nemo, Dodo, and - Nigger--Nemo Apologizes to Dodo 45 - - - CHAPTER VII - - Meeting with Nellie--Nellie was my Guest--Her Speech and - Manners--Helen Keller and Nellie--One of Nellie’s Friends--Her - Sight and Hearing--Her Toys and how She Played with - Them 52 - - - CHAPTER VIII - - Caged in an African Jungle--The Cage and its Contents--Its - Location--Its Purpose--The Jungle--The Great Forest--Its - Grandeur--Its Silence 60 - - - CHAPTER IX - - Daily Life and Scenes in the Jungle--How I Passed the Time--What - I Had to Eat--How it was Prepared--How I Slept--My - Chimpanzee Companion 73 - - - CHAPTER X - - The Chimpanzee--The Name--Two Species--The - Kulu-Kamba--Distribution--Color and Complexion 85 - - - CHAPTER XI - - Physical Qualities of the Chimpanzee--His Social Habits--Mental - Characteristics 92 - - - CHAPTER XII - - The Speech of Chimpanzees--A New System of Phonetic Symbols--Some - Common Words--Gestures 108 - - - CHAPTER XIII - - Moses--His Capture--His Character--His Affections--His Food--His - Daily Life--Anecdotes of Him 117 - - - CHAPTER XIV - - The Character of Moses--He Learns a Human Word--He Signs - His Name to a Document--His Illness--Death 134 - - - CHAPTER XV - - Aaron--His Capture--Mental Powers--Acquaintance with Moses--His - Conduct during Moses’ Illness 144 - - - CHAPTER XVI - - Aaron and Elisheba--Their Characteristics--Anecdotes--Jealousy - of Aaron 153 - - - CHAPTER XVII - - Illness of Elisheba--Aaron’s Care of Her--Her Death--Illness - and Death of Aaron 167 - - - CHAPTER XVIII - - Other Chimpanzees--The Village Pet--A Chimpanzee as Diner-Out--Notable - Specimens in Captivity 175 - - - CHAPTER XIX - - Other Kulu-Kambas--A Knotty Problem--Instinct or Reason--Various - Types 202 - - - CHAPTER XX - - The Gorilla--His Habitat--Skeleton--Skull--Color--Structural - Peculiarities 211 - - - CHAPTER XXI - - Habits of the Gorilla--Social Traits--Government--Justice--Mode - of Attack--Screaming and Beating--Food 231 - - - CHAPTER XXII - - Othello and Other Gorillas--Othello and Moses--Gorilla - Visitors--Gorilla Mother and Child--Scarcity of Gorillas--Unauthentic - Tales 247 - - - CHAPTER XXIII - - Other Apes--The Apes in History--Habitat--The Orangs--The - Gibbon 266 - - - CHAPTER XXIV - - The Treatment of Apes in - Captivity--Temperature--Building--Food--Occupation 278 - - - INDEX 287 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - PORTRAIT OF R. L. GARNER Frontispiece - - PELVIS OF THE CHIMPANZEE 5 - - DIAGRAM NO. 1 (CRANIO-FACIAL ANGLES) 8 - - DIAGRAM NO. 2 (CRANIO-FACIAL ANGLES) 9 - - DIAGRAM NO. 3 (CRANIO-FACIAL ANGLES) 9 - - DIAGRAM NO. 4 (CRANIO-FACIAL ANGLES) 10 - - MONKEY LEARNING TO COUNT 33 - - NATIVE VILLAGE AT GLASS GABOON 61 - - A NATIVE CANOE 63 - - THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE 65 - - IN THE JUNGLE 67 - - WAITING AND WATCHING IN THE CAGE 69 - - STARTING FOR A STROLL 74 - - A PEEP AT MY CAGE 75 - - PREPARING FOR THE NIGHT 83 - - KANJO NTYIGO-CHIMPANZEE DANCE 103 - - NATIVE CARRIER BOY 119 - - A STROLL IN THE JUNGLE--MR. GARNER, MOSES, AND NATIVE - BOY 127 - - ELISHEBA AND AARON 169 - - NATIVE VILLAGE, INTERIOR OF NYANZA 176 - - CONSUL II RIDING A TRICYCLE 194 - - MR. CROWLEY, LATE OF THE NEW YORK ZOÖLOGICAL GARDEN 199 - - SKULLS OF GORILLAS--FRONT VIEW 220 - - SKULLS OF GORILLAS--PROFILE VIEW 220 - - NATIVES SKINNING A GORILLA 222 - - YOUNG GORILLA WALKING 226 - - SALLY JONES (YOUNG GORILLA) CAUGHT NAPPING 243 - - GORILLA MOTHER WITH YOUNG 257 - - PLAIN AND EDGE OF FOREST IN THE COUNTRY OF THE APES 271 - - YOUNG ORANGS 275 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -Mr. Garner’s book needs no introduction. By this I mean that I think -that no intelligent person will open into it without wishing to read -more and more. The book is its own introduction. - -I write these lines, not so much to explain what the book is as to -introduce Mr. Garner himself to people who do not know him, that they -may thank him for the step forward which he has made and is making. - -It is hardly half a century since one of the highest authorities in -the Church of England told us that animals have no rights whatever, -and that men should be kind to them simply for the reason that it was -desirable that men should improve their own characters. If I tied a tin -pail to a dog’s tail, I injured my character. If I patted the dog on -the head, I improved my character. “See all things for my use,”--this -was really the motto of a book of ethics somewhat famous in its day. - -Happily the world has lived beyond such a crusty selfishness as -this,--happily, perhaps, not for mankind only. Happily for our thought -of the universe in which we live, men have found out that they have -duties towards animals as they have duties towards each other,--say -that in a certain sense we are the gods of animals, to whom they look -up as we look up to our Father in heaven; let us, at least, treat them -as we would be treated. - -How shall we do this? How shall we come at some understanding of their -life, of their needs, of their hopes and fears? How can we be just to -them? - -Mr. Garner has set to work in this business with systematic -perseverance and a real comprehension of the position. Of all the -inferior animals, these monkeys and apes, it seems, have more machinery -for thought, if I may use so clumsy an expression, than have any -others. The book will tell the reader why it is easier to come at some -notion of the language of the Capuchin monkey than it is to apprehend -the method by which the horse communicates with the horse, or the -blackbird with the blackbird. With scientific precision, Mr. Garner has -availed himself of this fact, is availing himself of it at the moment -when I write. He has selected animals, which are certainly animals and -not men. He has selected these as those where his study can be precise, -and where it is most easy to arrive at correct conclusions; and it is -not in the study merely of speech and of listening; it is study of -what I may call the principles which underlie animal life, to which -this explorer in a new field has devoted himself. The reader of this -book will understand why it is that he gives up years of life to such -society as that his dear little Moses gave him; why he plunges into - - The multitudinous abyss - Where nature joys in secret bliss, - -that he may come at some of the secrets of those beings who are at home -there. - -Mr. Garner does not ask himself, and I do not propose that the reader -shall ask, what changes may ensue in the trade of the world from his -discovery. He does not pretend that there will be more palm oil, or -more Manila hemp, because we understand monkeys and apes and gorillas -and orangs better than our fathers. But he believes, and those who -have followed him with sympathy believe, that we shall know more of -ourselves, that we shall know more of the universe in which we live, -that we shall know more of God, the I Am, who is the life of this -universe, than our fathers knew, if this brave explorer is able to -carry on farther such investigations as this book describes. - -May his life be prolonged for such study; it has been long enough now -for us to owe him a large debt of gratitude for the lifelong sacrifice -and determination with which he has prosecuted these studies thus far. - - EDWARD E. HALE. - - October 26, 1900. - - - - - APES AND MONKEYS - - - - -CHAPTER I - -Monkeys, Apes, and Men--Comparative Anatomy--Skulls--The Law of Cranial -Projection - - -From time immemorial monkeys have been subjects of interest to the old -and to the young. The wise and the simple are alike impressed with -their human looks and manners. There are no other creatures that so -charm and fascinate the beholder as do these little effigies of the -human race. With equal delight, patriarchs and children watch their -actions and compare them to those of human beings. Until recent years -monkeys have served to amuse rather than to instruct the masses. But -now that the search-light of science is being thrown into every nook -and crevice of nature, human interest in them is greatly increased and -the savants of all civilized lands are wrestling with the problem of -their possible relationship to mankind. With the desire of learning -as much as possible concerning their habits, faculties, and mental -resources, they are being studied from every point of view, and each -characteristic is seriously compared in detail to the corresponding one -in man. Concurrent with this desire, we shall note the chief points of -resemblance and of difference between them. - -In order to appreciate more fully the value of the lessons to be drawn -from the contents of this volume we must know the relative planes -that men and monkeys occupy in the scale of nature. Within the limits -of this work, however, we can only compare them in a general way. -Since monkeys differ so widely among themselves, it is evident that -all of them cannot in the same degree resemble man; and as the degree -of interest in them is approximately measured by their likeness or -unlikeness to man, it is apparent that all cannot be of equal interest -as subjects of comparative study. But since each forms an integral part -of one great scale, each one is equally important in tracing out the -continuity of the order to which all belong. - -The vast family of simians has perhaps the widest range of types of -any single family of animals. Beginning with the great apes, which -in size, form, and structure so closely resemble man, we descend the -scale until it ends in the lemurs, which are almost on the level of -rodents. The descent is so gradual that it is difficult to draw a line -of demarcation at any point between the two extremes. There is now, -however, an effort being made to separate this family into smaller and -more distinct groups; but the lines between them are not sharply drawn, -and the literature of the past has a tendency to retard the effort. But -we shall not here assume to discuss the problems with which zoölogy may -in the future have to contend; we shall accept the current system of -classification and proceed along that line. - -In the language of the masses all the varied types that belong to the -simian family are known as _monkeys_. This term is so broad in its -application as to include many forms which are not to be considered in -this work, and many of them should be known under other names. Some -of these resemble man more than they resemble each other. By the word -_monkey_, we mean to refer only to those of the simian tribe that have -long tails and short faces, while the word _baboon_ refers only to the -dog-like forms having tails of medium length and long projecting faces. -The term _ape_ will be applied only to those having no tails at all. -While all of these animals are called simians, they are not all monkeys. - -The simian family is divided into two great classes, known as _old -world monkeys_ and _new world monkeys_. The chief point of distinction -is in the structure of the nose. All of the monkeys belonging to the -old world stock have long, straight noses with vertical nostrils, -separated by a narrow thin wall, or septum, and from this fact they are -technically known as _catarrhini_. The new world stock have short, flat -noses with oblique nostrils set wide apart, and on this account they -are known as _platarrhini_. There are many other marks that distinguish -genera and species, but these are the two grand divisions of the simian -race. We shall not here attempt to classify the many genera and species -of either of these divisions. But we shall point out some of the most -salient anatomical features of men and apes, and then those of monkeys. - -Among the simians, erroneously called monkeys, are the four kinds -that constitute the anthropoid, or manlike, group of apes. In certain -respects they differ from each other as much as any one of them differs -from man. The four apes here alluded to and named in the order of -their physical resemblance to man are: the gorilla, the chimpanzee, -the orang, and the gibbon; but if placed in the order of their mental -and social characteristics they stand as follows: the chimpanzee, -which is next to man, the gorilla, the gibbon, and, last, the orang. -It is possible, however, that it may yet be found that the gibbon is -intellectually the highest of this group. - -As the skeleton is the framework of the physical structure, it will -serve for the basis upon which to build up the comparisons; and as, on -the whole, the chimpanzee is the nearest approach to man, we select and -use him as the standard of comparison. The skeleton of the chimpanzee -may be said to be an exact duplicate of that of man. The assertion, -however, should be qualified by a few facts of minor importance; but -since they are facts, they should not be ignored. The general plan, -purpose, and structure of the skeletons of man and chimpanzee are the -same. There is no part of the one which is not duplicated in the other, -and there is no function discharged by any part of the one that is not -discharged by a like part of the other. The chief point in which they -differ is in the structure of one bone. To this we shall pay special -attention. - -Near the base of the spinal column is a large compound bone, known -as the _sacrum_. It is a constituent part of the column, but in its -singular form and structure it differs slightly from the corresponding -bone in man. The general outline of this bone has the form of an -isosceles triangle. It fits in between the two large bones that spread -out towards the hips and articulate with the thigh bones. In man, -about halfway between the center and the edge along each side is a row -of four nearly round holes. Across the surface of the bone is a dim, -transverse line, or seam, between each pair of holes, from which it is -seen that five smaller sections of the spinal column have anchylosed, -or grown together, to form the sacrum. The holes coincide with the -open spaces between the transverse processes, or lateral projections, -of the other bones of the spinal column above this. In the chimpanzee -this bone has the same general form as in man, except that instead of -four holes in each row it has five. They are connected by transverse -seams the same as in man, thus indicating that six of the vertebræ, -instead of five, are united. In compensation for this, the ape has one -vertebra less in the portion of the spinal column just above, which is -called the lumbar. In man there are five free lumbar vertebræ and five -united sections of the sacrum, while in the ape there are only four -free lumbar vertebræ and six united sections forming the sacrum. But -regarding each section of the sacrum as a separate bone and counting -the whole number of vertebræ in the spinal column there are found to be -exactly the same number in each. - -[Illustration: Pelvis of the Chimpanzee - - _A, sacrum; B, fourth lumbar vertebra; C, coccyx; D, ilium or hip bone; - E, femur or thigh bone._] - -Some writers have put great stress upon the difference in the -structure of this bone, and have pointed out as impossible a common -origin for man and ape; but one fact remains to be explained, and that -is, that while these appear to be fixed and constant characteristics -of man and ape there are many exceptions known in human anatomy. In -the splendid collection of human spinal columns in the museum of the -Harvard Medical School are no less than eighteen specimens of the human -sacrum having six united segments; and I have found in the collections -of various museums a total of more than thirty others. These facts -show that this characteristic is not confined to the ape. It is true -that in some of these abnormal specimens there remain five _lumbar_ -vertebræ. This seems to indicate that this portion of the spinal column -is the most susceptible to variation. I have never seen an instance, -however, of variation in the sacrum of the chimpanzee. In this respect -he appears to be, in his structural type, more constant than man. - -One reason why this bone is so formed in the ape is this. At that point -the greatest weight and strain are laid upon the spinal column, and -the crouching habit of the animal has a tendency to depress the lowest -lumbar vertebra between the points of the hip bones and thus arrest -its lateral movement. Since the flexure of this part is lessened, the -cartilage that lies between the two segments becomes rigid and then -ossifies. The erect posture of man allows more play in the region of -the loins, and hence this motion prevents the two bones from uniting. - -Another bone that may be said to vary somewhat is the sternum, or -breastbone. It is the thin, soft bone to which the ribs are joined -in the front of the body. In the young of both man and ape it is -a mere cartilage. This slowly ossifies as the animal matures. The -process appears to begin at five different segments, the first nucleus -appearing near the top. This bone never becomes quite perfect either -in man or ape. It always remains somewhat porous, and even in advanced -age the outline of the lower portion is not defined by a smooth, sharp -line, but is irregular in contour and merges into the cartilages that -unite the ribs to it. - -In an adult human being this bone is usually found to be in two -segments, while in the ape it varies. In some specimens it is the same -as in man. In others it is sometimes found to be in three, four, or -even five sections. But the sternum in each is regarded as one bone, -and is developed from one continuous cartilage. The separate parts are -not considered distinct bones. The reason, no doubt, that this bone -remains in separate sections in the ape is due to the stooping habit -of the animal, by which the part is constantly flexed and alternately -straightened, and therefore discharges its function better than it -otherwise could. - -With these trifling exceptions the skeletons of man and ape may be -truly said to be exact counterparts of each other, having the same -number of bones, of the same general model, arranged in the same order, -articulated in the same manner, and performing the same functions. -In other words, the corresponding bone in each is the same in design -and purpose. The frame of the ape is, as a rule, more massive in its -proportions than that of man; but while this is true of certain kinds -of apes, the reverse is true of others. - -In man the sacrum is more curved in the plane of the hips than it is -in the ape, while the bones of the digits in man are less curved. The -arms of man are shorter than the legs, while in the ape the comparative -length of these features is reversed. In the cranial types it is -readily seen that the skull of man is more spherical and the face -almost or quite vertical. The skull of the ape is elongated and the -chin projects. Thus his face is at an angle from a vertical line. These -facts deserve more notice than the mere mention. - -[Illustration: Diagram No. 1] - -In the scheme of nature there appears to be a fixed law of cranial -projection. The cranio-facial angle in man, ABC (as shown in diagram -No. 1), is a right angle, and the gnathic angle ADE is approximately -the same. The line FG represents the axis of the facial plane, and -the line HI is the cervical axis. Reckoned from the vertical line KL -it will be seen that the angles formed by the facial axis FG and the -cervical axis HI are about the same on opposite sides of the vertical -line KL. It will be observed that these lines and angles are those of -man whose posture is upright. In diagram No. 2 it will be seen that -both the facial axis FG and the cervical axis HI form a greater angle -from the vertical line than in man. It will also be seen that the -cranio-facial angle ABC is increased by about one-half of the angle of -the facial axis GML. The gnathic angle ADE is increased in about the -same degree. These are the lines and angles of the anthropoid apes. - -[Illustration: Diagram No. 2] - -[Illustration: Diagram No. 3] - -Diagram No. 3 represents the lines and angles of monkeys, in which the -angles widened in a degree measured by the tendency of the animal to -assume a horizontal posture. - -In diagram No. 4 we have the lines and angles of reptiles. In these -it will be seen that the facial axis FG and the cervical axis HI are -almost horizontal. The cranio-facial and gnathic angles have been -correspondingly widened. - -[Illustration: Diagram No. 4] - -Man standing erect has the greatest range of vocal powers of any -animal. He also has the greatest control over them. In vocal range the -apes come next in order. As we descend the scale from man through apes, -monkeys, lemurs, and lemuroids, ultimately ending in the reptilian -forms, we find the vocal powers restricted in scope and degraded in -quality, until in the lowest reptiles they are lost in a mere hiss. - -Concurrent with the variations described, the longitudinal, vertical, -and transverse axes of the brain also change their proportion in a like -degree. The angles formed by the plane of the vocal cords with the axis -of the larynx undergo a corresponding change. A just deduction from -these facts is, that the gnathic index ADE is a true vocal index. - -This rough outline of the law of cranial projection does not purport -to be a full treatment of the many lines and angles correlated to the -powers of speech, but the suggestions may lead the craniologist into -new fields of thought. - - - - -CHAPTER II - - Early Impression--What is Speech--First Efforts--The Phonograph--The - First Record of Monkey Speech--Monkey Words--Phonetics--Human Speech - and Monkey Speech - - -Among the blue hills and crystal waters of the Appalachian Mountains, -remote from the artificialities of the great cities, the conditions of -life under which I grew up were more primitive and less complex than -they are in the busy centers of vast population. There nature was the -earliest teacher of my childhood, and domestic animals were among my -first companions. Among such environments my youth was passed, and -among them I first conceived the idea that animals talk. As a child, I -believed that all animals of the same kind could understand each other, -and I recall many instances in which they really did so. - -My elders said that animals could communicate with each other, but -denied that they could talk. As a boy, I could not forego the belief -that the sounds they used were speech; and I still ask: In what respect -are they not speech? This question leads us to ask another. - -What is speech? Any oral sound, voluntarily made, for the purpose of -conveying a preconceived idea from the mind of the speaker to the -mind of another, is speech. Any oral sound so made and so discharging -this function in the animal economy is speech. It is true that the -vocabularies of animals, when compared with those of man, are very -limited; but the former are none the less real. The conception in the -mind of an animal may not be so vivid as it is in the human mind, but -the same conception is not always equally clear in two human minds. The -fact of its being vague does not lessen its reality. - -Expression is the materialized form of thought, and speech is one mode -of expression. Every animal is capable of expressing any thought that -he is capable of conceiving, and such expression will be found to be -as distinct as the thought which it expresses. It is inconsistent with -every view of nature to suppose that any creature is endowed with the -faculty of thought and forbidden the means of expressing it. - -It is true that there are some oral sounds which express emotion--such -as pain or pleasure. These may not properly be called speech, although -from them we may infer the state of mind attending them; but while they -are not truly speech, they appear to be the cytula from which speech -is developed. While emotions are not voluntary, they do not exist -apart from mind. They are produced by external causes, and the line of -demarcation which separates them from more definite forms of thought is -a vague and wavering one. Thought may be involuntary, but expression -arises from desire, and this is the sole motive of speech. - -It is not the purpose of this work to discuss the problems of -psychology, except to state the grounds upon which we base the claim -that animals possess the faculty of speech; but this is intended as a -record of observed facts and from them the psychologist may make his -own deductions. - -With the ever-present belief that animals could talk to each other, I -observed from year to year certain things which tended to confirm it. -About sixteen years ago an instance occurred which forever removed -from my mind all doubt or wavering. Prior to that time I had observed -that animals of the higher orders appeared to have the better types of -speech and, concurrent with this belief, I tabulated many facts. In -1884 I made a visit to the Cincinnati Zoölogical Garden, where I was -deeply impressed with the conduct of a school of monkeys occupying a -cage which also contained a large mandrill. This savage baboon was an -evident source of terror to the smaller inmates of the cage. A brick -wall separated the cage into two compartments. The one was intended -for summer and the other for winter occupancy. Through this wall was -a small doorway, large enough to admit the passage of the occupants. -I observed that two or three of the monkeys kept continual watch over -the conduct of the baboon and reported to the other monkeys every -movement that he made. When he was lying still, the monkeys passed back -and forth without fear, but the instant he rose to his feet or gave -any sign of disquiet the fact was promptly reported by the monkeys -on watch to those in the adjoining compartment, and they acted in -accordance with the warning. I was not able to determine the exact -thing they reported, but the nature of the report was evident, and I -resolved to learn more fully its meaning. After spending some hours -watching their conduct and listening to the sound which controlled it, -I became convinced that what they said was sufficiently definite to -guide the actions of those to whom it was addressed. In fact I should -have been willing to intrust my own safety to those warnings. After a -brief study of those sounds I was able to understand the attitude of -the baboon towards his neighbors; and while the warning contained no -elaborate detail that I could understand, the nature of his actions was -made evident. I observed that a certain sound of warning caused them -to act in a certain way, and a certain other sound caused them to act -differently. - -From this start I determined to learn the speech of monkeys. I did not -suspect that the task would be so great as it has proved to be. I did -not foresee the difficulties that have since become apparent. Year -by year, as new ideas came to me, new barriers arose and the horizon -continually widened. Yet I was not discouraged at the poor success of -my first efforts. From time to time I visited the various collections -of monkeys in this country and even availed myself of those found with -traveling shows, hand organs, and elsewhere. - -After some years of casual study it occurred to me that the phonograph -would be a great aid in solving this problem. It would enable me to -make more accurate comparisons of the sounds made by different monkeys; -and after duly considering the matter I went to Washington and made my -purpose known to Dr. Baker, of the Smithsonian Institution. This at -first evoked from him a smile, but after explaining the means by which -it was hoped to accomplish the end he looked upon the novel feat as a -new step in the science of speech. - -Having secured a phonograph, I repaired to the animal house then -adjoining the Smithsonian Institution. At that time there were but two -live monkeys there, and these were the nucleus around which has grown -the present National Zoölogical Park at Washington. These two monkeys -were of different species, but had for some time occupied the same -cage. I had the female removed from the cage and carried into another -room. Then the phonograph was placed near her cage, and by various -means she was induced to utter a few sounds which were recorded upon -the wax cylinder. The machine was then placed near the cage containing -the male and the record repeated to him. His conduct plainly showed -that he recognized the sound and understood the nature of it. He -searched the horn from which the sounds proceeded and appeared to be -perplexed at not finding the monkey that had made them. He traced the -sound to its proper source, but, failing to find his mate, he thrust -his arm into the horn and felt around the sides of it in the vain hope -of finding her. The expression of his face was a study worthy of the -best efforts of the physiognomist. - -Then a few sounds of his voice were recorded upon another cylinder and -were delivered to the female, who showed signs of recognition; but as -this record was very indistinct it did not evoke from her the interest -which the other had evoked from him. - -This is doubtless the first instance in the history of speech that an -attempt was ever made to reduce the speech of monkeys to record. While -this first experiment was crude and the results were not conclusive, it -pointed in the right direction and it inspired to further efforts to -find the fountain head from which flows the great river of human speech. - -Some critic at that time declared that this experiment could be of no -scientific value, because the monkey had been provoked to make the -sounds recorded, and the sounds so evoked were only sounds of anger or -profanity. It was not a matter of concern to me whether these words -were moral or profane, so long as they were speech sounds of a monkey -and were so recognized by other monkeys. If a monkey uses profanity, he -doubtless has some other forms of speech. - -Shortly after this experiment I went to Chicago and made a record of a -brown _Cebus_ monkey. This record was of a sound most commonly used by -that species. I had no exact idea as to its meaning, but its frequent -use caused me to select it as one of their most important words. Having -secured this, I returned to New York. There I selected a monkey of the -same species and to him reproduced the record. He instantly gave signs -of understanding it and replied to it. Again and again this sound was -reproduced and he repeatedly answered it. He looked at the horn from -which it came, then at the moving instrument, and drew back from them. -But as the sound continued to proceed from the horn his interest seemed -to awaken. He approached the horn and cautiously peeped into it. The -sound was repeated. He thrust his arm into the horn and peeped around -the outside to see if he had scared the monkey out. Failing to find -him, he again retired from the horn, but responded to the sounds. He -appeared to regard the thing with a kind of superstition. He seemed -conscious of the fact that there should be a monkey there, but failing -to find it he evinced suspicion. I do not know to what extent he -regarded this as a spook, but he evidently realized that it was some -unusual thing. - -In this experiment certain facts may be observed. The record delivered -to him nothing but the cold, mechanical sound. The elements of gesture, -etc., were entirely eliminated as factors in the problem, so that the -monkey had nothing to interpret except the sound. This would indicate -that the speech sound of a monkey as well as that of man carried -with it a fixed and constant meaning. This conclusion has since been -confirmed by ample and varied experiments with mechanical devices of -many kinds. - -Among the defects observed in this experiment was the fact that I -had not provided a means of recording the sound made in reply to the -record. Subsequently I secured another instrument to do this. In -this manner I obtained a reply, and thus I had the two cylinders for -comparison. In like manner I repeated the experiment of delivering the -record with one machine and recording the reply with another, until -I had secured records of the speech sounds of nearly all the monkeys -in captivity in this country. Taking these records at my leisure, I -carefully compared and studied them, until I was able to interpret nine -sounds of the speech of the Capuchin monkeys, and, incidentally, a few -sounds of a great number of other species. - -It is quite impossible to represent the sounds of monkey speech by -any literal formula, and it is difficult to translate them into their -exact equivalent of human speech; but, in order to convey some idea -of the nature and scope of that speech, I shall describe a word or -two. In the tongue of the brown Capuchin monkey the most important -word somewhat resembles the word “who,” uttered like “wh-oo-w.” The -phonetic effect is rich and musical. The vowel element which dominates -it is a pure vocal “u.” The radical meaning of this sound is food, -which is the central thought of every monkey’s life. It does not only -mean food in the concrete sense, referring to the thing to be eaten, -but it sometimes refers to the act of eating, in which sense it has -the character of a verb. At other times it refers to the desire to -eat or to the sensation of hunger, in which instance it may be said -to have the character of an adjective. But grammatical values depend -upon structure, and since the speech of monkeys is _monophrastic_ it -cannot truly be said to have grammatical form. All the sounds of this -species, so far as I have seen, are monosyllables; and most of them -contain but one distinct phonetic. I have therefore described them as -“monophonetic.” The word above described is sometimes used with the -apparent purpose of expressing friendship, or something of that kind. - -Another word which refers to drink, or liquid, begins with a faint -guttural “ch,” gliding through a sound resembling the French diphthong -“eu,” and ending with a vanishing “y.” The sound is used with -reference to drink in much the same way as the other sound is used with -reference to food. - -So far I have not found any trace of the vowels “a,” “e,” “i,” or “o,” -sounded long, but in one sound of alarm emitted under stress of great -fear or in case of assault, the vowel element resembles short “i.” This -sound is uttered in a pitch about two octaves above a human female -voice. - -All of the sounds made by monkeys and, so far as I have observed, by -other animals, refer to their natural physical wants. They are not -capable of expressing intricate or abstract thoughts, for the animal -himself has no such thoughts. Their simple modes of life do not require -complex thoughts. - -A striking point of resemblance between human speech and that of the -simian is found in a word that “Nellie” (one of my pets) used in -warning me of the approach of danger. It is not that sound elsewhere -described as the alarm sound used in case of imminent danger. This -sound is used in case of remote danger or in announcing something -unusual. As nearly as can be represented by letters it resembles -“e-c-g-k.” With this word I have often been warned by these little -friends. Nellie’s cage occupied a place near my desk. At night she -would always stay awake as long as the light was kept burning. Having -always kept late hours myself, I did not violate the rule of my life in -order to give her a good night’s rest. About two o’clock one morning, -when about to retire, I found Nellie wide awake. I drew a chair near -her cage and sat watching her pranks. She tried to entertain me with -bells and toys. Without letting her see it, I tied a long thread to a -glove and placed it in the corner of the room at a distance of several -feet away. Holding one end of the string, I drew the glove obliquely -across the floor. When I first tightened the string, which was drawn -across one knee and under the other, the glove slightly moved. This -her quick eye caught at the first motion. Standing almost on tiptoe, -her mouth half open, she cautiously peeped at the glove. Then in a -low undertone, verging on a whisper, she uttered the sound “e-c-g-k!” -Every second or so she repeated it, at the same time watching to see -whether or not I was aware of the approach of this goblin. Her actions -were very human-like. Her movements were as stealthy as those of a -cat. As the glove came closer and closer she became more and more -demonstrative. When at last she saw the monster climbing the leg of -my trousers she uttered the sound in a loud voice and very rapidly. -She tried to get to the object. She evidently thought it was a living -thing. She detected the thread with which the glove was drawn across -the floor, but she seemed in doubt as to what part it played in the -matter. Her eyes several times followed the thread from my knee to the -glove, but I do not think she discovered what caused the glove to move. -Having repeated this a few times, with about the same result each time, -I relieved her anxiety by allowing her to examine the glove. She did -this with marked interest for a moment and then turned away. I tried -the same thing again, but failed to elicit from her the slightest -interest after she had once examined the glove. - -When Nellie first discovered the glove moving on the floor, she -attempted to call my attention in a low tone. As the object approached -she became more earnest and uttered the sound somewhat more loudly. -When she discovered the monster--as she regarded it--climbing up my -leg, she uttered the warning in a voice sufficiently loud for the -distance over which the warning was conveyed. These facts indicate that -her perception of sound was well defined. Her purpose was to warn me of -the approaching danger without alarming the object against which the -warning was intended. As the danger increased, the warning became more -urgent. When she saw the danger at hand, she no longer concealed or -restrained her alarm. - -Nellie was an affectionate little creature. She hated to be left alone, -even when supplied with toys and a super-abundance of food. When she -saw me put on my overcoat or take my hat, she foresaw that she would -be left alone. Then she began to plead and beg and chatter. I often -watched her through a small hole in the door. When quite alone, in -perfect silence she played with her toys. Sometimes for hours together -she did not utter a word. She was not an exception to the rule that -monkeys do not talk when alone. - -Although their speech is inferior to human speech, yet in it there is -an eloquence that soothes and a meaning that appeals to the human heart. - -Briefly stated, the speech of monkeys and human speech resemble each -other in all essential points. The speech sounds of monkeys are -voluntary, deliberate, and articulate. They are addressed to others -with the evident purpose of being understood. The speaker shows that -he is conscious of the meaning which he desires to convey through the -medium of speech. He awaits and expects a reply. If it is not given, -the sound is repeated. The speaker usually looks at the one addressed. -Monkeys do not habitually utter these sounds when alone. They -understand the sounds made by others of their own kind. They understand -the sounds when imitated by a human being, by a phonograph, or by other -mechanical means. They understand the sounds without the aid of signs -or gestures. They interpret the same sound in the same way at all -times. Their sounds are made by their vocal organs and are modulated by -the teeth, the tongue, the palate, and the lips. Their speech is shaded -into dialects, and the higher forms of animals have higher types of -speech than the lower ones. The higher types are slightly more complex -and somewhat more exact in meaning than the lower ones. The present -state of monkey speech appears to have been reached by development -from lower forms. Each race or species of monkey has a form of speech -peculiar to its kind. When caged together for a time they learn the -meaning of each other’s sounds, but seldom try to utter them. Their -faculty of speech is commensurate with their mental and social status. -They utter their speech sounds loud or soft as the condition requires, -which indicates that they are conscious of the values. The more -pronounced the gregarious habits of any species, the higher the type of -speech it has. So far as I am able to discern, there is no intrinsic -difference between the speech of monkeys and the speech of men. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -Monkey Friends--Jokes--The Sound of Alarm--Jennie - - -A few years ago there lived in Charleston, S. C., a fine specimen of -the brown Cebus. His name is Jokes. He was naturally shy of strangers, -but on my first visit to him I addressed him in his native tongue, and -he seemed to regard me very kindly. He ate from my hand and allowed me -to handle and caress him. He watched me with evident curiosity, and -invariably responded to the sound that I uttered in his own language. -On one occasion I tried the effect of the peculiar sound of “alarm” or -“assault” which I had learned from one of his species. It cannot be -spelled or represented by letters. While he was eating from my hand I -gave the peculiar, piercing note. He instantly sprang to a perch in the -top of the cage, thence almost wild with fear he ran in and out of his -sleeping apartment. As the sound was repeated his fears increased. No -amount of coaxing would induce him to return to me or to accept from -me any overtures of peace. I retired to the distance of a few feet -from his cage, and his master finally induced him to descend from the -perch; but he did so with great reluctance. I again gave the sound from -where I stood, and it produced a similar result. The monkey gave out a -singular sound in response to my efforts to appease him, but he refused -to become reconciled. - -After the lapse of eight or ten days I had not been able to reinstate -myself in his good graces or to induce him to accept anything from -me. At this juncture I resorted to harsher means of bringing him to -terms; I threatened him with a rod. At first he resented this; but -at length he yielded, and merely through fear he came down from his -perch. When finally induced to approach, he placed the side of his -head on the floor, put out his tongue, and uttered a plaintive sound -having a slightly interrogative inflection. At first this act quite -defied interpretation; but during the same period I was visiting a -little monkey called Jack, and in him I found a clue to the meaning -of this conduct. For strangers, Jack and I were very good friends. He -allowed me many liberties, which the family assured me he had uniformly -refused to others. On a certain visit to him he displayed his temper -and made an attack upon me, because I refused to let go a saucer from -which he was drinking milk. I jerked him up by the chain and slapped -him; whereupon he instantly laid the side of his head on the floor, put -out his tongue, and made just such a sound as Jokes had made on the -occasion mentioned. It occurred to me that it was a sign of surrender. -Subsequent tests confirmed this opinion. - -Mrs. M. French Sheldon, in her journey through East Africa, shot a -small monkey in a forest near Lake Charla. She graphically describes -how the little fellow stood high up in the bough of a tree and -chattered to her in a clear, musical voice until at the discharge of -her gun he fell mortally wounded. When he was laid dying at her feet, -he turned his bright little eyes pleadingly upon her as if to ask -for pity. Touched by his appeal, she took the little creature in her -arms and tried to soothe him. Again and again he touched his tongue -to her hand as if kissing it, and seemed to wish in the hour of death -to be caressed by the hand that had taken from him without reward -that sweet life which could be of no value except it were spared to -the wild forest where his kindred live. From her description of the -actions of that monkey, his conduct was identical with that of the -Cebus, and may justly be interpreted to mean “Pity me!” or “Spare me!” -A Scotch naturalist, commenting on my description of this act and its -interpretation, quite agrees with me, and states that he has observed -the same thing in other species of monkeys. - -During a period of many weeks I visited Jokes almost daily; but after -the lapse of more than two months I had not won him back nor quieted -his suspicions against me. On my approach he usually manifested fear -and went through the act of humiliation above described. - -Observing that he entertained an intense hatred for a negro boy who -teased and vexed him, I had the boy come near the cage. Jokes fairly -raved with anger. I took a stick and pretended to beat the boy. This -greatly delighted Jokes. I held the boy near enough to the cage to -allow the monkey to scratch and pull his clothes. This filled his -little simian soul with joy. Releasing the boy, I drove him away by -throwing wads of paper at him. This gave Jokes infinite pleasure. I -repeated this a number of times, and by such means we again became good -friends. After each encounter with the boy, Jokes came to the bars, -touched my hand with his tongue, chattered, played with my fingers, -and showed every sign of confidence and friendship. He always warned me -of the approach of any one, and his conduct at such times was largely -governed by my own. After this he never failed to salute me with the -proper sound. - -During this time I paid a few visits to another little monkey of the -same species. Her name was Jennie. Her master had warned me in advance -that she was not well disposed towards strangers. At my request he had -her chained in a small side yard, which he forbade any of the family -entering. On approaching the little lady for the first time, I gave her -the usual salutation, which she responded to and seemed to understand. -I sat down by her side and fed her from my hands. She viewed me with -evident interest and curiosity. I studied her with equal interest. -During the process of this mutual investigation a negro girl, who -lived with the family, stealthily entered the yard and came up within -a few feet of us. I determined to sacrifice this girl upon the altar -of science. Placing her between the monkey and myself, I vigorously -sounded the “alarm” or “warning.” Jennie flew into a fury. I continued -to sound the alarm and at the same time pretended to attack the girl -with a club and some paper wads. The purpose was to make the monkey -believe that the girl had uttered the alarm and made the assault. -With a great display of violence I drove the girl from the yard. For -days afterward she could not feed or approach the little simian. This -further confirmed the opinion as to the meaning of this sound. This -sound can be fairly imitated by placing the back of the hand gently -on the mouth and kissing it with great force, prolonging the sound. -This imitation, however, is indifferent, but the quality of the sound -is especially noticeable when analyzed on the phonograph. The pitch -corresponds to the highest “F” sharp on a piano, while the word “drink” -is about two octaves lower, and the word “food” is nearly three. - -On one occasion I visited the Zoölogical Garden in Cincinnati, where -I found in a cage a small Capuchin to whom I gave the name Banquo. It -was near night and the visitors had left the house. The little monkey, -worried out by the annoyance of visitors, sat quietly in the back of -his cage, as though glad that another day was done. I approached the -cage and uttered the sound which I have translated “drink.” The first -effort caught his attention and caused him to turn and look at me. He -rose and answered with the same word. He then came to the front of the -cage and looked at me as if in doubt. I repeated the word. He again -responded, and turned to a small pan in the cage. He took it up and -placed it near the door through which the keeper passed food to him. He -then turned to me and again uttered the word. I asked the keeper for -some milk; but he brought me some water instead. The efforts of the -little simian to secure the glass were very earnest, and his pleading -manner and tone gave evidence of his thirst. I allowed him to dip his -hand into the glass and lick the water from his fingers. When the glass -was kept out of the reach of his hand he repeated the sound and looked -beseechingly at me as if to say: “Please give me more.” This caused -me to suspect that the word which I had translated “milk” also meant -“water.” From this and other tests I finally determined that it meant -“drink” in a broad sense and possibly also meant “thirst.” It evidently -expressed his desire for something with which to allay his thirst. The -sound is very difficult to imitate and quite impossible to write, but -an idea of it is given elsewhere. - -On one of my visits to the Chicago Garden I stood with my side to a -cage containing a small Capuchin. I uttered the sound which had been -translated “milk.” It caused him to turn and look at me, and on my -repeating the sound a few times he answered very distinctly, using the -same sound. Picking up the pan from which he usually drank, he brought -it to the front of the cage, set it down, came up to the bars, and -distinctly uttered the word. He had not been shown any milk or other -kind of food. The man in charge then brought some milk, which I gave to -the monkey, who drank it with great delight. I again held up his pan -and repeated the sound. He used the same sound each time when he wanted -milk. During this visit I tried many experiments with the word which -I am now convinced means “food” or “hunger.” I was led to the belief -that he used the same word for apple, carrot, bread, and banana. Later -experiments, however, have caused me to modify this view, because the -phonograph shows slight variations of the sound, and it is probable -that these faint inflections may indicate different kinds of food. They -usually recognize this sound, even when poorly imitated. In this word -may be found a clue to the great secret of speech. And while I have -taken but one short step toward its solution, these facts point out the -way that leads to it. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -Monkey Ethics--Sense of Color--Monkeys Enumerate--First Principles of -Art - - -Monkeys have a simple code of ethics. It is not by any means to be -supposed that their sense of propriety or appreciation of color, form, -dimension, or quality is of a high order; but that they have the -rudiments upon which the higher cults of human society are based there -is no doubt. Among the experiments that I performed along this line -were some designed to ascertain the strength of these latent faculties -or the degree to which these have been developed. - -In order to ascertain whether or not monkeys have any choice of colors, -I selected some bright-colored balls, marbles, candies, and bits of -ribbon. Taking a piece of pasteboard, I placed on it a few pieces of -candy of different colors. This was offered to a monkey to see if he -would select a certain color. In order to avoid confusing him, I used -only two colors at a time, but frequently shifted their places. This -was to determine whether the color was chosen merely for convenience or -for the sake of the color itself. By repeating this with a series of -bright colors and frequent changing of their order it was ascertained -in many instances that certain monkeys had a distinct choice of color. -It was found that all monkeys do not select the same color, and also -that the same monkey does not at all times choose the same. But, as a -rule, bright green appeared to be the favorite color of the Capuchins, -and their second choice was white. In a few instances white appeared -to be their preference. This experiment was not confined to candies, -nuts, or other eatables. They appeared to use about the same taste in -selecting their toys. From the use of artificial flowers, it appeared -that the choice of green was possibly associated with their selection -of food. On one occasion I kept a cup for a monkey to drink milk from. -On one side of this was a picture of some bright flowers and green -leaves. The monkey would sometimes quit drinking the milk and try to -pick the flowers off the side of the cup. The fact that she could -not remove the flowers appeared to annoy her, and she seemed not to -understand why she could not get hold of them. - -In one test I used a board about two feet long, upon which were a few -pieces of white and pink candies, mixed and arranged in four different -places on the board. The monkey selected the white from each pile -before taking the pink, except in one instance, in which the pink -was taken first. In another experiment I took a white paper ball in -one hand and a pink one in the other and held my hands out to the -monkey. He selected the white one almost every time, although from -time to time I changed hands with the balls. It was not a mere matter -of convenience with the monkey, for he would sometimes reach over the -hand containing the pink ball in order to obtain the white one. Most of -these experiments were performed with the Capuchins, but some of them -were made with the Rhesus. The fact that monkeys generally seem to be -attracted by brilliant colors is doubtless due to the readiness with -which these catch the attention; but when reduced to a choice between -two colors, they do not seem to give preference to brilliant ones. - -A unique but simple experiment was made in order to ascertain whether -or not monkeys enumerate. I placed on a small platter one nut and a -small piece of apple or carrot cut in the shape of a cube. On another -platter were placed two or three such articles of like color and size. -Holding the two just out of reach of the monkey, and changing hands -from time to time, I observed that he tried to reach the platter -containing the greater number, thus indicating that he discerned which -contained the greater quantity or number of articles. It was long a -matter of doubt as to whether it was by number or by quantity that his -choice was controlled. But by taking one piece larger than the others -and of different shape, it was ascertained that he appreciated the -difference of quantity. Then, by taking a platter containing one piece -and another platter containing several similar pieces, it was seen that -he could distinguish singular from plural. - -[Illustration: Monkey Learning to Count] - -Another experiment was to determine to what extent he was able to -enumerate. To this end I constructed a small square box and made a -hole in one side of it. The box was cushioned inside so that the -contents would not rattle. In the box were placed three marbles of the -same size and color. The hole was just large enough for the monkey to -withdraw his hand with one marble at a time. After letting him play -with these for a while, putting them into the box and taking them out, -I abstracted one of the marbles and left the other two for him to play -with. On taking them out of the box, he missed the absent one, felt in -the box for it, rose, and looked where he had been sitting. Again he -put his hand into the box and looked at me as if to say he had lost -something. Failing to find it, he soon became reconciled to the loss -and began to play with the remaining two. When he had become quite -content with these, I abstracted a second one. Thereupon he instituted -search and was quite unwilling to proceed without finding the lost -marbles. He put his hand into the box, evidently in the hope of finding -them. He would not continue to play with the one. I restored one of the -marbles, and when he discovered that I could find the lost marble, he -appealed to me in each instance to assist him. Then with his little, -dirty, black fingers he insisted upon opening my lips to see if it was -concealed in my mouth--the place where monkeys usually conceal stolen -goods. I repeated this experiment many times, until quite convinced of -his ability to count three. Another marble was then added to the number -and he was allowed to play with the four until he became familiar with -that number. But when one was taken from the four he did not appear to -be greatly impressed with the loss. At times he seemed to be in doubt, -but he did not worry much about it, though seeming to realize that -something was wrong. - -It is not to be supposed that monkeys have names for numerals, but they -surely have a more or less distinct conception of plurality. The same -fact is true of birds. It is said that all birds are able to count the -eggs in their nests. This is certainly true of those that lay only -three or four eggs. - -During the time that these experiments were being made with monkeys in -this country, the late Professor Romanes was making certain experiments -with a chimpanzee in London. He succeeded in teaching her to count -seven, so that she would count and deliver to him on demand any number -from one up to seven. This she did without prompting, and usually -without mistake. - -Among different specimens of monkeys there seems to be a wide range -of tastes. In this respect they vary much the same as human beings do. -The same is true of their mental powers in general. With some monkeys -the choice of color is much more definite and of dimension much more -certain than in others, and most of them appear to assign to different -numbers a difference of value. - -Some monkeys are talkative and others taciturn. Some of them are -vicious and some stolid, while others are as playful as kittens and as -cheerful as sunshine. I regard the Cebus as the most intelligent of -monkeys. In fact I have called him “The Caucasian of monkeys.” The new -world monkeys seem to be more intelligent and more loquacious than the -old world stock, but this remark does not include the anthropoid apes. - -As a test of the musical taste of monkeys, I took three little bells -and suspended them by a like number of strings. The bells were all -alike except that from two of them the clappers had been removed. -Dropping the bells through the meshes of the cage at a distance of ten -or twelve inches apart, the monkey was allowed to play with them. He -soon discovered the one containing the clapper. He played with it and -became quite absorbed with it. He was then attracted to another part of -the cage, during which time the position of the bells was changed. On -his return he found his favorite bell without a clapper. He then turned -to another, and then another, until he found the one with the clapper. -This indicated that the sound emitted by the bell was at least a part -of its attraction. - -During the time that I used the phonograph in studying the monkeys, -I repeated many musical records to them and found that some evinced -fondness for the music, others were indifferent to it, and a few showed -aversion to it. It appeared that the monkeys that were most attracted -by musical sounds enjoy the repetition of a single note rather than the -melody. It is possible that music, as we understand it, is too high an -order of sense culture for them. The single note of a certain pitch -seems to attract and afford pleasure to some of them, but they do not -seem to appreciate rhythm or melody. - -As monkeys discern the larger of two pieces of food, they may be -said to have the perceptive faculty which enables them to appreciate -dimension. As they are able to discern singular from plural, and -two from three or more, they have, in that degree, the faculty of -enumeration. As they are able to distinguish and select colors, they -possess the first rudiment of art as dealing with color. As they are -attracted or repelled by musical sounds, they may be said to possess -the first rudiment of music. It must not be understood, however, that -any claim is made that monkeys possess a high degree of mental culture; -but it will be admitted that they possess the germs of mathematics as -dealing with form, dimension, and number; of art, as dealing with form -and color; of music, as dealing with tone and time. It is not probable -that they have any names for any of these sensations, nor that they -have any abstract ideas that are not drawn directly from experience. -But as the concrete must precede the abstract in the development of -reason, it is more than probable that these creatures now occupy a -mental horizon such as man has once passed through in the course of -his evolution. It does not require a great effort of the mind to -appreciate the possibility that these feeble faculties, in constant -use and under changed conditions, may develop into a higher degree of -strength and usefulness. In fact we find in these creatures the embryo -of every faculty of the human being, including those of reason and -speech, through the exercise of which are developed the higher moral -and social traits of man. They appear to have at least the raw material -from which are made the highest attributes of the human mind, and I -shall not contest with them the right of exclusive possession. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -Pedro’s Speech Recorded--Delivered to Puck through the -Phonograph--Little Darwin Learns a New Word - - -In the Washington collection there was once a Capuchin monkey by the -name of Pedro. When I first visited this bright little fellow he -occupied a cage in common with several other monkeys of different -kinds. All of them seemed to impose upon little Pedro, and a -mischievous young spider-monkey found special delight in catching him -by the tail and dragging him about the floor of the cage. I interfered -on behalf of Pedro and drove the spider-monkey away. Pedro appreciated -this and began to look upon me as a benefactor. When he saw me he would -scream to attract my attention and then beg for me to come to him. -I induced the keeper to place him by himself in a small cage. This -seemed to please him very much. When I went to record his sounds on -the phonograph, I held him on my arm. He took the tube into his tiny, -black hands, held it close up to his mouth and talked into it just like -a good little boy who knew what to do and how to do it. He sometimes -laughed, and he frequently chattered to me as long as he could see me. -He would sit on my hand and kiss my cheeks, put his mouth up to my ear -and chatter just as though he knew what my ears were for. He was quite -fond of the head-keeper and also of the director; but he entertained a -great dislike for one of the assistant keepers. He often told me some -very bad things about that man, though I could not understand what he -said. I shall long remember how this dear little monkey used to cuddle -under my chin and try to make me understand some sad story which seemed -to be the burden of his life. He readily understood the sounds of his -own speech when repeated to him, and I made some of the best records of -his voice that I ever succeeded in making of any monkey. Some of them -I preserved for a long time. They displayed a wide range of sounds, -and I studied them with special care and pleasure, because I knew -that they were addressed to me. Being aware that the little creature -was uttering these sounds to me with the hope that I would understand -them, I was more anxious to learn just what he really meant than if it -had contained only something addressed to another. This little simian -was born in the Amazon Valley, in Brazil, and was named for the late -emperor, Dom Pedro. - -At one time I borrowed from a dealer a little Capuchin called Puck, and -had him sent to my apartments, where I had a phonograph. I placed the -cage in front of the machine, upon which had been adjusted the record -of my little friend Pedro. I concealed myself in an adjoining room, -where, through a small hole in the door, I could watch the conduct of -Puck. A string was attached to the lever of the machine, drawn taut, -and passed through another hole in the door. By this means the machine -could be started without attracting the attention of the monkey through -his seeing anything move. When everything in the room was quiet the -machine was set in motion, and Puck was treated to a phonographic -recital by Pedro. This speech was distinctly delivered through the -horn to the monkey. From his actions it was evident that he recognized -it as the voice of one of his tribe. He looked with surprise at the -horn, made a sound or two, glanced around the room, and again uttered -two or three sounds. Apparently somewhat afraid, he retired from the -horn. Again the horn delivered some sounds of pure Capuchin speech. -Puck seemed to regard them as sounds of some importance. He advanced -cautiously and made a feeble response; but a quick, sharp sound from -the horn startled him; and failing to find anything indicating a -monkey, except the sound of the voice, he looked with evident suspicion -at the horn, and scarcely ventured to answer any sound it made. - -When the contents of the record had been delivered to him I entered the -room. This relieved his fear of the horn. A little later the apparatus -was again adjusted, and a small mirror was hung just above the mouth of -the horn. Again retiring from the room, I left him to examine his new -surroundings. He soon discovered the monkey in the glass, and began to -caress it and chatter to it. Again the phonograph was started by means -of the string, and when the horn began to deliver its simian oration, -it greatly disconcerted and perplexed Puck. He looked at the image in -the glass and then into the horn. He retired with a feeble grunt and an -inquisitive grin, showing his little white teeth, and acting as though -in doubt whether to regard the affair as a joke, or to treat it as a -grim and scientific fact. His voice and actions were like those of a -child, declaring in words that he was not afraid, and at the same -time betraying fear in every act. Puck did not cry, but his intense -fear made the grin on his face rather ghastly. Again he approached the -mirror and listened to the sounds which came from the horn. His conduct -betrayed the conflict in his little soul. It was evident that he did -not believe the monkey which he saw in the glass was making the sounds -which came from the horn. He repeatedly put his mouth to the glass and -caressed the image, but tried at the same time to avoid the monkey -which he heard in the horn. His conduct in this instance was a source -of surprise, as the sounds contained in the record were all uttered -in a mood of anxious, earnest entreaty, which contained no sound of -anger, warning, or alarm, but, on the contrary, appeared to be a kind -of love-speech. I had not learned the exact meaning of any one of the -sounds contained in this cylinder, but in a collective and general way -had ascribed such meaning to them. From Puck’s conduct it was to be -inferred that this was some kind of complaint against those monkeys -occupying the other cage. They had made life a burden to little Pedro. -It was evident that Puck interpreted the actions of the monkey seen in -the glass to mean one thing, and the sounds that came from the horn to -mean quite another. - -Their language is not capable of relating narratives or giving details -in a complaint, but in general terms of grievance it may have conveyed -to Puck the idea of a monkey in distress, and hence his desire to avoid -it. The image in the glass presented to him a picture of a monkey in a -happy mood, and he therefore had no cause to shun it. - -The speech used by monkeys is not of a high order, but it appears to -have been developed from an inferior type. Some species among them have -much more copious and expressive forms of speech than others. From -many experiments with the phonograph I conclude that some have much -higher phonetic types than others. I have found slight inflections that -seem to modify the values of their sounds. Certain monkeys do not make -certain inflections at all, although in other respects the phonation -of a species is generally uniform. In some cases it appears that the -inflections differ slightly in the same species, but long and constant -association tends in some degree to unify these dialects much the same -as like causes blend and unify the dialects of human speech. - -I observed one instance in which a Capuchin had acquired two sounds -which strictly belonged to the tongue of the white-faced Cebus. At -first I suspected that these sounds were common to the speech of both -varieties; but on inquiry it was found that this brown Cebus had been -confined for some years in a cage with the white-face, during which -time he had acquired them. - -The most interesting case that I have to record is one in which a young -white-faced Cebus acquired the Capuchin sound for food. This occurred -under my own observation, and, being attended by such conditions as to -show that the monkey had a motive in learning the sound, I regard it as -most noteworthy. - -In the room where the monkeys were kept by a dealer in Washington, -there was a cage containing the young Cebus in question. He was of -rather more than average intelligence. He was a quiet, sedate, and -thoughtful little monkey. His gray hair and beard gave him quite a -venerable aspect, and for this reason I called him Darwin. For some -reason he was afraid of me, and I gave him but little attention. In -an adjacent cage lived the little brown Cebus, called Puck. The cages -were only separated by an open wire partition, through which they could -easily see and hear each other. For some weeks I visited Puck almost -daily, and in response to his sound for food, I supplied him with nuts, -bananas, or other food. I never gave him anything to eat unless he -asked me for it in his own speech. - -On one occasion my attention was attracted by little Darwin, who was -making a strange sound, such as I had never before heard one of his -species utter. At first I did not recognize the sound, but finally -discovered that it was intended to imitate the sound of the brown -monkey, in response to which I always gave him some nice morsel of -food. Darwin had observed that when Puck made this sound he was -always rewarded with something to eat, and his own evident motive -was to secure a like reward. After this I gave him a bit of food in -acknowledgment of his efforts. From day to day he improved in making -the sound, until at length it could scarcely be detected from that -made by Puck. This was accomplished within a period of less than six -weeks from the time of my first visit. In this instance, at least, I -have witnessed one step taken by a monkey, in learning the speech of -another. This was doubly interesting to me in view of the fact that I -had long believed, and had announced the belief, that no monkey ever -tried to acquire the sounds made by one of another species. This -instance alone was sufficient to cause me to recede from a conclusion -thus rendered untenable; and the short time in which the feat was -accomplished would indicate that the difficulty is not so great as it -had been regarded. As a rule, monkeys do not learn each other’s speech; -but the rule is not without exceptions. I had previously observed, -and called attention to the fact, that when two monkeys of different -species are caged together, each one learns to understand the speech -of the other, but does not try to speak it. When he replies at all, it -is in his own vernacular. Monkeys do not essay to carry on a connected -conversation. Their speech is usually limited to a single sound or -word, and it is answered in the same manner. To suppose that they -converse in an elaborate manner is to go beyond the bounds of reason. -In this respect, the masses fail to understand the real nature of the -speech of monkeys or other animals. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -Five Little Brown Cousins, Mickie, McGinty, Nemo, Dodo, and -Nigger--Nemo Apologizes to Dodo - - -During the winter of 1891 there lived in Central Park five little brown -monkeys, all of the same kind and occupying the same cage. They were -all of more or less interest, and all of them were my friends. I paid -them frequent visits and spent much time with them. I have the vanity -to believe that I was always a welcome guest. We found much pleasure in -each other’s society. As the monkey house was open to the public after -nine o’clock, I usually made my visits about sunrise in order to be -alone with my little friends. - -One of the most cunning and happiest of all little monkeys was in this -group. His name was Mickie, and he was the boss of the school. He was -not very talkative except when he wished for food or drink, but he was -very playful and we had many a merry romp. Whenever I entered the cage -Mickie perched himself above the door to surprise me by jumping on my -neck. He then affectionately threw his arms around my neck and licked -my cheeks, pulled my ears, and chattered in his sweet, plaintive tones. -The other inmates of the cage were jealous of him, but none contested -his right to do as he pleased. I am sorry to say that Mickie was not -always as kind to his little cousins as he might have been. He was -like some people I have known who are selfish and sometimes cruel; but -his habitual good nature made amends in some degree for his sudden -fits of anger. Mickie did not belong to the park. He was only kept as -a guest of the city during the absence of his master in Europe. He had -a genuine sense of humor and sometimes played pranks upon the others, -very much to their annoyance. On one occasion Mickie got the tail of -another monkey around one of the bars of the cage. He sat down and held -to it while its owner screamed with rage and scuffled to get away. -During this time Mickie’s face wore a broad, satanic grin, and he did -not release his hold until he had tired of the fun. - -Another one of these little cousins was named McGinty. McGinty was -very fond of me; but he was afraid of Mickie, who was much larger -and stronger than himself. McGinty always wanted to be counted in -the game. He did not like to have Mickie monopolize my attentions. -He often climbed upon my shoulders and caressed me very fondly, if -not interrupted by Mickie; but whenever the latter came, poor little -McGinty retired in disgust, pouted for a time, and even refused to -accept food from me. By and by he would yield to my overtures and again -join in the play. He seemed always to wish to find something that would -divert my attention from Mickie. - -Another inmate of the cage was a fine little monkey that belonged to -Mr. G. Scribner, of Yonkers, N. Y. At the time of my visits I did not -know the name of this little creature nor who owned him. I called him -Nemo. He was timid and taciturn, but quite intelligent. He was gentle -in manner, kind in disposition, and he possessed a great amount of -diplomacy. He was thoughtful and peaceable, but “full of guile.” He -always sought to keep the peace with Mickie, to whom he played the -sycophant. He would put his little arms about Mickie’s neck in a most -affectionate manner and hang on to him like a last hope. In all broils -that concerned Mickie, Nemo was his partisan. If Mickie was diverted, -Nemo laughed. I have sometimes thought that he would do so if he were -suffering with the toothache. He seemed to be as completely under the -control of Mickie as was the curl in Mickie’s tail. When Nemo saw -Mickie bite my fingers in play, he thought it was done in anger and he -lost no chance of biting them; but his little teeth were not strong -enough to hurt very much. At last he discovered that Mickie was only -biting me in fun, and after that Nemo did it apparently as a duty. -It scarcely seems that a monkey can be capable of such far-reaching -purpose or of such diplomacy, but by a careful study of his actions I -could find no other motive. - -One singular thing in the conduct of this monkey was his apologetic -manner towards another inmate of the cage. Nemo had a soft musical -voice and remarkable power of facial expression. On two occasions -he appeared to apologize to a companion called Dodo. This was done -in a very humble manner. I tried in vain to secure a record of this -particular speech. His manner, voice, and face expressed contrition; -but I was never able to learn either the exact cause or the extent of -his humiliation. He sat in a crouching position, with the left hand -clasped around the right wrist, and delivered his speech in a most -energetic, though humble, manner. After each effort he made a brief -pause and repeated what appeared to me to be the same thing. This was -done three or four times. When he had quite finished this speech, Dodo, -to whom it had been addressed and who had quietly listened, delivered -with her right hand a sound blow upon the left side of the face of the -little penitent. To this he responded with a soft cry, but without -resentment. The keeper assured me that he had many times witnessed this -act, but he had no idea of its meaning. As to the details of this act, -I have no theory; but the state of mind and the purpose were evident. -They expressed regret, penitence, or submission. I have witnessed -something similar in other monkeys, but nothing equal in point of -finish or pathos to that scene between Nemo and Dodo. - -Dodo had a bright face and a symmetrical figure. In her I witnessed one -of the most interesting acts that I have ever seen in any monkey. Her -combined speech and actions bordered on the histrionic. Her monologue -was addressed to her keeper, of whom she was especially fond. At almost -any hour of the day Dodo would stand erect and deliver to her keeper -the most touching and impassioned address. The keeper went into the -cage with me, to see if he could handle her. After a little coaxing -she allowed him to take her into his arms. After he had caressed -her for a while and assured her that no harm was meant, she put her -slender little arms about his neck and like an injured child cuddled -her head up under his chin. She caressed him by licking his cheeks, -and chattered in a voice full of sympathy. Her display of affection -was worthy of a human being. During most of this time she continued -her pathetic speech. She was not willing he should leave her. The -only time at which she made any show of anger or threatened me with -assault was when I attempted to lay hands on her keeper or to release -him from her embrace. At such times she would fly at me and attempt to -tear my clothes off. On these occasions she would not allow any other -inmate of the cage to approach him or to receive his caresses. The -sounds which she uttered were at times pitiful, and the tale she told -seemed to be full of sorrow. I have not, so far, been able to translate -these sounds, but their import cannot be misunderstood. Her speech was -doubtless a complaint against the other monkeys in the cage, and she -was probably begging her keeper not to leave her alone in that great -iron prison with all those big, bad monkeys who were so cruel to her. -One reason for believing this to be the nature of her speech is that -in all cases where I have heard this kind of speech and seen these -gestures, the conditions were such as to indicate that such was their -nature. It looks, however, very much like a love-making scene of the -most intense kind. - -It is difficult to describe either the sounds or the gestures made -on these occasions The monkey stood erect upon her feet, crossed her -hands over her heart, and in the most touching and graceful manner went -through a series of singular contortions. She swayed her body from side -to side, turned her head in a coquettish manner, and moved her folded -hands dramatically. Meanwhile her face was adorned with a broad grin, -and the soft, rich notes of her voice were perfectly musical. She bent -her body first into one curve and then into another, moved her feet -with the grace of the minuet, and continued her fervent speech as long -as the object of her adoration appeared to be touched by her appeals. -Her voice ranged from pitch to pitch and from key to key, through the -whole gamut of simian vocals, and with her arms folded she glided with -the skill of a ballet girl across the floor of her cage. At times she -stood with her eyes fixed upon her keeper, and held her face in such a -position as not for a moment to lose sight of him. Meanwhile she turned -her body entirely around in her tracks. This was accomplished with a -skill such as no contortionist has ever attained. During these orations -her eyes moistened as if in tears, showing that she felt the sentiment -which her speech was intended to convey. - -These little creatures do not shed tears as human beings do; but their -eyes moisten as a result of the same causes that move the human eyes to -tears. - -These sounds appeal directly to our better feelings. What there is in -the sound itself we do not really know, but it touches some chord in -the human heart which vibrates in response to it. It has impressed me -with the poetic thought that all our senses are like the strings of -a great harp, each chord having a certain tension, so that any sound -produced through an emotion finds a response in that chord with which -it is in unison. Possibly our emotions and sensations are like the -diatonic scale in music, and the organs through which they act respond -in tones and semitones. Each multiple of any fundamental tone affects -the chord in unison, as the strings upon a musical instrument are -affected. The logical deduction is that our sympathies and affections -are the chords, and our aversions the discords, of that great harp of -passion. - -The last of this quintette was a frail little fellow called Nigger. -He was not of much interest, as he was in poor health. He kept mostly -to himself, because his companions were unkind to him and he was not -strong enough to defend himself. He was gentle and affectionate. He -was fond of being caressed and often evinced a sense of gratitude. He -had a touch of humor which sometimes was very funny. He occasionally -created a riot in the cage and then stole away to his corner and left -the others to fight it out. He was the last of the five left in the -park, but he was the first of them to die. The others were taken away -by their owners; but poor little Nigger died in that dismal cage from -whose windows he could see the beautiful trees and warm sunshine of -springtime, though to him they were only a dream that saddened rather -than cheered. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - - Meeting with Nellie--Nellie was my Guest--Her Speech and - Manners--Helen Keller and Nellie--One of Nellie’s Friends--Her Sight - and Hearing--Her Toys and how She Played with Them - - -One of the most intelligent of my brown Capuchin friends was little -Nellie. When she arrived in Washington, I was invited to visit her. I -introduced myself by speaking to her the sound of food. To that she -promptly replied. She was rather informal, and we were soon engaged -in a chat on that subject--the one that above all others interests a -monkey. On my second visit she acted like an old acquaintance, and we -had a fine time. On a later visit she allowed me to put my hands into -her cage to handle and caress her. On another visit I took her out of -the cage and we had a real jolly romp. This continued for some days, -during which time she answered me when I gave the word for food or -drink. She had grown quite fond of me, and always recognized me when I -entered the door. - -About this time there came to Washington a little girl who was deaf, -dumb, and blind. It was little Helen Keller. She was accompanied by -her teacher, who acted as her interpreter. A great desire of Helen’s -life was to see a live monkey--that is, to see one with her fingers. -The owner sent for me to come and show one to her. When any one except -myself had put hands upon Nellie, she had growled and scolded and -showed temper. I took her from the cage. When the little blind girl -first put her hands on Nellie, the shy little monkey did not like it. -I stroked the child’s hair and cheeks with my own hand and then with -Nellie’s. She looked up at me and uttered one of those soft, flute-like -sounds. Then she began to pull at the cheeks and ears of the child. -Within a few minutes they were like old friends and playmates, and for -nearly an hour they afforded each other great pleasure. At the end of -that time they separated with reluctance. The little simian acted as -if conscious of the sad affliction of the child, but seemed at perfect -ease with her. She would decline the tenderest approach of others. She -looked at the child’s eyes, and then at me, as if to indicate that -she was aware that the child was blind. The little girl appeared not -to be aware that monkeys could bite. It was a beautiful and touching -scene, and one in which the lamp of instinct shed its feeble light on -all around. Helen has now grown into womanhood. I recently paid her a -visit, and she assured me that she still pleasantly remembered this -dear little monkey friend. - -One day Nellie escaped from her cage and climbed upon a shelf occupied -by some bird cages. As she climbed over the light wicker cages, some of -them, with their little yellow occupants, fell to the floor. I tried -to induce Nellie to return to me; but the falling cages, the cry of -the birds, the screeching of the parrots, and the vociferous chatter -of other monkeys frightened poor Nellie almost out of her wits. She, -thinking I was the cause of all this trouble, because I was present, -screamed with fright at my approach. Such is the rule that governs -monkeydom. Monkeys suspect every one of doing wrong except themselves. -I had her removed to my apartments. She was supplied with bells and -toys, and was fed on the fat of the land. By this means we finally -knitted together again the broken bones of our friendship. When once a -monkey has grown suspicious of you, it seldom entirely recovers from -aversion. In every act thereafter you are suspected of mischief. I made -some good records of the speech of this amiable monkey and studied them -with special care. - -A frequent and welcome visitor to my study was a little boy about six -years old. For him Nellie entertained great fondness. At the sight of -the boy, Nellie went into perfect raptures, and when leaving him she -called him so earnestly and whined so pitifully that one could not -refrain from sympathy. On his return she would laugh audibly and give -every sign of extreme joy. She never tired of his company, nor gave -any attention to others while he was present. Some children next door -found great delight in calling to see Nellie, and she always evinced -great pleasure at their visits. On these occasions she consciously -entertained them and showed herself to the best advantage. In order -to make a good record of her sounds, and especially of her laughter, -I brought the little boy to my aid. The boy would conceal himself in -the room, and after Nellie had called him a few times he would jump -out and surprise her. This would cause her to laugh till she could be -heard throughout the whole house. In this manner I secured some of the -best records I have ever made of the laughter of monkeys. When the boy -concealed himself again, I secured the peculiar sound which she used -when trying to attract his attention. - -Nellie had spent much of her life in captivity, and had been used to -the society of children. She rarely ever betrayed any aversion to them. -She delighted to pat their cheeks, pull their ears, and tangle their -hair. She took great pleasure in cleaning one’s finger-nails. She did -this with the skill of a manicure. She found pleasure in picking the -shreds, ravelings, or specks from one’s clothing. She was not selfish -in selecting her friends. She was influenced neither by age nor by -beauty. - -To be out of her cage and supplied with toys was all she demanded to -make her happy. I have sometimes thought she preferred such a life to -the freedom of her Amazon forests. It is to be regretted that monkeys -are so destructive that one dare not turn them loose in a room where -there is anything that can be torn or broken. They enjoy such mischief. -Nellie often begged me so piteously to be taken from her little iron -prison that I could not refuse her request, even at the cost of much -trouble in preparing the room for her. - -As we retain these little captives against their will and treat them -worse than slaves by keeping them in close confinement, we should at -least try to amuse them. It is true that they do not have to toil; -but it would be more humane to make them work in the open air than to -confine them so closely and deprive them of every means of pleasure. -As an act of humanity and simple justice, I would impress upon those -who have the charge of these little pets the importance of keeping -them supplied with toys. In this respect they are just like children. -For a trifle one can furnish them with such toys as they need. It is -absolutely cruel to keep these little creatures confined in solitude -and deny them the simple pleasure they find in playing with a bell, a -ball, or a few marbles. A trifling outlay in this way will very much -prolong their lives. Monkeys are always happy if they have plenty to -eat and something to play with. I recall no investment of mine which -ever yielded a greater return in pleasure than one little pocket -match-safe, costing twenty-five cents, which one evening I gave to -Nellie to play with. I had put into it a small key to make it rattle, -and also some bits of candy. She rattled the box and found much -pleasure in the noise it made. I showed her how to press the spring in -order to open the box; but her little black fingers were not strong -enough to release the spring and make the lid fly open. However, she -caught the idea and knew that the spring was the secret which held the -box closed. When she found that she could not open it with her fingers, -she tried it with her teeth. Failing in this, she turned to the wall, -and standing upright on the top of her cage, she took the box in both -hands and struck the spring against the wall until the lid flew open. -She was perfectly delighted at the result, and for the hundredth time, -at least, I closed the box for her to open it again. On the following -day some friends came in to visit her. I gave her the match-safe to -open. On this occasion she was in her cage, and through its meshes she -could not reach the wall. She had nothing against which to strike the -spring to force it open. After looking around her and striking the -box a few times against the wires of her cage, she discovered a block -of wood about six inches square. She took this and mounted her perch. -Balancing the block on the perch, she held it with the left foot, while -with the right foot she held to the perch. With her tail wound around -the meshes of the cage to steady herself, she carefully adjusted the -match-box in such a manner as to protect her fingers from the blow. -Then she struck the spring against the block of wood and the lid flew -open. She fairly screamed with delight and held up the box with pride. -The lid was again closed in order that she might open it. - -The late hours which I kept were beginning to tell on Nellie, and from -time to time during the day I caught her taking a nap. I determined to -use some curtains to avoid disturbing her rest. Drawing them around -the cage, I lapped them over and pinned them down in front. Then I -turned down the light and kept quiet for a little while to allow her -to go to sleep. After the lapse of a few minutes I quietly turned up -the light and resumed writing. In an instant the curtains rustled. -Looking around, I saw her little brown eyes peeping through the folds -of the curtains, which she gracefully held apart with her little black -hands. When she saw what had caused the disturbance she chattered in -her soft, rich tones, and tried to pull the curtains farther apart. I -arranged them so she could not look around the room. To see her holding -the curtains apart in that coquettish manner, turning her head from -side to side, peeping and smiling at me and talking in such low sweet -tones, was like a real flirtation. One who has not witnessed such a -scene cannot fully appreciate it. Only those who have experienced the -warm and unselfish friendship of these little creatures can realize how -strong the attachment becomes. The love of these little creatures is -proof against gossip, and their tongues are free from it. - -Among the many captives of the simian race who spend their lives in -iron prisons, adding to the wealth and gratifying the cruelty of -man,--not to expiate any crime,--I have many little friends. I am -attached to them. So far as I can see, their devotion to me is as warm -and sincere as that of any human being. I must confess that I am too -obtuse to discern in what way the love they have for me differs from my -own for them. I cannot see in what respect their love is less sublime -than human love. I cannot discern in what respect the affection of a -dog for a kind master differs from that of a child for a kind parent. I -fail to see in what respect the sense of fear of a cruel master differs -from that of the child toward a cruel parent. It is mere sentiment -that ascribes to the passion of a child a higher source than the same -passion in the dog or the monkey. The dog could have loved or feared -another master just as well. Filial love or fear reaches out its -tendrils just as far when all the ties of kindred blood are removed. -It has been said that for one we are able to assign a reason _why_, -while the other feeling is a mere impulse. I am too dull to understand -how reason actuates to love, and instinct to mere attachment. I do not -believe that in the intrinsic nature of these passions there is any -essential difference. Whether it be reason or instinct in man, the -affections of the lower animals are actuated by the same motives, -governed by the same conditions, and guided by the same reasons as -those of man. I shall long remember some of my monkey friends, and I -feel sure that, far away in the silent niches of their memory, some of -them have my image enshrined. Sometimes after long months of absence I -see them again. They always recognize me at sight and often scream with -pleasure at my return. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - - Caged in an African Jungle--The Cage and its Contents--Its - Location--Its Purpose--The Jungle--The Great Forest--Its Grandeur--Its - Silence - - -It will be of interest to the reader to know the manner in which I -have pursued the study of monkeys in a state of nature, and the means -employed to that end. I, therefore, give a brief outline of my life in -a cage in the heart of the African jungle, where I went in order to -watch the denizens of the forest when free from all restraint. - -Having for several years devoted much time to the study of the speech -and the habits of monkeys in captivity, I formulated a plan of going to -their native haunts to study them under more favorable conditions. - -In the course of my labors up to that time, I had found that monkeys of -the highest physical types have also higher types of speech than those -of the inferior kinds. In accordance with this fact, it was logical -to infer that in the anthropoid apes--they being next to man in the -scale of nature--would be found the faculty of speech developed in a -higher degree than in the monkeys. The chief object of my study was -to learn the language of animals. The great apes appeared to be the -best subjects for that purpose, so I turned my attention to them. The -gorilla was said to be the most nearly like man, and the chimpanzee -next. There were none of the former in captivity, and but few of the -latter; and those few were kept under conditions that forbade all -efforts to do anything in the line of scientific study of their speech. -As the gorilla and the chimpanzee could both be found in the same -section of tropical Africa, that region was selected as the best field -of operation; and, in order to carry out the task assumed, I prepared -for a journey thither. - -[Illustration: NATIVE VILLAGE AT GLASS GABOON (From a Photograph.)] - -The locality chosen was along the equator and about two degrees south -of it. This region is infested with fevers, insects, serpents, and wild -beasts of divers kinds. To ignore such dangers would be folly; but -there was no way to see these apes in their freedom, except to go and -live among them. To lessen in a degree the dangers incurred by such an -adventure, I devised a cage of steel wire woven into a lattice with a -mesh one inch and a half wide. This was made in twenty-four panels, -each three feet and three inches square, set in frames of narrow iron -strips. Each side of the panels was provided with lugs or half hinges, -so arranged as to fit any side of any other panel. These could be -quickly bolted together with small iron rods, and when so joined they -formed a cage of cubical shape, six feet and six inches square. - -Any one or more of the panels could be used as a door. The whole -structure was painted a dingy green, so that when erected in the forest -it was almost invisible in the foliage. - -[Illustration: A NATIVE CANOE (From a Photograph.)] - -While this cage was not strong enough to withstand a prolonged attack, -it afforded a certain degree of immunity from being surprised by -the fierce and stealthy beasts of the jungle, and would allow its -occupant time to kill an assailant before the wires would yield to an -assault from anything except elephants. It was not, indeed, designed -as a protection against them; but, as they rarely attack a man unless -provoked to it, there was little danger from that source. Besides, -there are not many of those huge brutes in the part where this strange -domicile was set up. - -Through this open fabric one could see on all sides without -obstruction, and yet feel a certain sense of safety from being devoured -by leopards or panthers. - -Over this frail fortress was spread a roof of bamboo leaves. It was -provided with curtains of canvas, to be hung up in case of rain. The -floor was of thin boards, steeped in tar. The structure was elevated -about two feet from the ground and supported by nine small posts or -stakes, firmly driven into the earth. It was furnished with a bed made -of heavy canvas. This was supported by two poles of bamboo attached to -its edges. One of these poles was lashed fast to the side of the cage, -and the other was suspended at night by strong wire hooks hung from -the top of the cage. During the day the bed was rolled up on one of -the poles, so as to be out of the way. I had a light camp chair, which -folded up. A table was improvised from a broad, short board hung on -wires. When not in use this was set up by the side of the cage. To this -outfit a small kerosene stove and a swinging shelf were added. A few -tin cases contained my wearing apparel, blankets, a pillow, a camera -and photographic supplies, medicines, and an ample store of canned -meats, crackers, etc. There were also some tin platters, cups, and -spoons. A magazine rifle, a revolver, ammunition, and a few useful -tools, such as hammer, saw, pliers, files, and a heavy bush-knife, -completed my stock. The tin plates served for cooking vessels and also -for table use, instead of dishes, which are heavier and more fragile. - -[Illustration: THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE (From a Photograph.)] - -With this equipment I sailed from New York on the 9th of July, 1892, -_via_ England, to the port of Gaboon, the site of the colonial -government on the French Congo. This place is within a few miles of -the equator, and near the borders of the country in which the gorilla -lives. I arrived there on the 19th of October of that year, and after a -delay of some weeks in that locality I set out to find the object of my -search. - -Leaving that place, I went up the Ogowé River about two hundred or two -hundred and fifty miles, and thence through the lake region on the -south side of it. After some weeks of travel and inquiry, I arrived on -the south side of Lake Ferran Vaz, in the territory of the Nkami tribe. -The lake is about thirty miles long, by ten or twelve miles wide, and -is interspersed with a few islands of various sizes, covered with a -dense growth of tropical vegetation. The country about the lake is -mostly low and marshy, traversed by creeks, lagoons, and rivers. Most -of the land is covered by a deep and dreary jungle, intersected at -intervals by small, sandy plains, covered with a thin growth of long, -tough grass. - -It is difficult to convey in words an adequate idea of what the jungle -really is. To those who have never seen one it is almost impossible -to describe it. But in order that you may have some conception of the -place in which I lived so long, I shall endeavor to picture some -characteristic spots. - -[Illustration: IN THE JUNGLE (From a Photograph.)] - -Spread over a vast extent of the low delta region near the coast is -a growth of gigantic trees, from five to eight feet in diameter near -the base and growing to a height of eighty or a hundred feet, having -long, spreading boughs and broad, dark foliage. This growth of trees -is sufficiently dense to constitute a great forest. The intertwining -boughs and the dense leaves form an impenetrable canopy, spreading for -miles in all directions. This is called the “great forest”. Between -the stalks and under the boughs of this forest is another growth of -trees varying in diameter from one to two feet at the base and reaching -to a height of forty, fifty, or sixty feet. This growth alone would -constitute another forest as dense as were those of North America -before the visitation of the white man. This growth is called the -“middle forest”. Under this is another growth, consisting of palms, -vines, shrubs, and bushes of almost every kind. This growth is so -dense, so matted and so intertwined as to be in places quite impassable -by any living creature, except by slimy reptiles, small rodents, -venomous insects, and creeping things of many kinds. This is called the -“under forest.” The three combined growths together properly constitute -_the jungle_. From the boughs of the taller trees hang long pendants -of moss and vines, and from bough to bough hang graceful festoons of -the same. These are frequently adorned with delicate ferns and great -clusters of gorgeous orchids. So dense and luxuriant is the vegetation -in many parts of the forest that no ray of sunlight ever penetrates -it, and in its dark, damp grottoes, even at midday, it is almost -like a twilight. Here and there are found places more open, and from -these can be had better views of its grandeur. Standing alone in the -midst of this great wilderness, one cannot fail to be impressed with -its sublime and awful beauty. From certain points of view the banks -of leaves rise like terraces, one above another, giving almost the -appearance of artificial work. From other points are seen groups of -flowering trees, rising in huge mounds almost to the top of the forest. -So many and so beautiful are the views from various points that one -becomes almost lost in a perfect maze of colors, lights, and shadows. -At times not a sound of any living thing is heard, and the unspeakable -silence only makes the scene the more impressive. While it is true that -this great forest teems with life, there are times when it appears to -be an endless, voiceless solitude. But, remaining for a time within its -dreary shades, one will behold its many denizens creeping through the -tangled meshes in quest of food. - -Within this vast empire of shadows the fierce wild beasts contend for -mastery. Among its dark green bowers soar many birds of brilliant -plumage, and through its silvan naves shriek the wild winds of the -tornado. Within its deep shadows crouches the leopard awaiting his -victim, and through its dismal labyrinth the stealthy serpent wends -his tortuous way. Every breeze is laden with the effluvia of decaying -plants, and every leaf exhales the odors of death. - -In the depths and the gloom of such a forest the gorilla dwells in -safety and seclusion. In the same wilderness the chimpanzee makes his -abode. But he is less timid and retiring. - -On the south side of this lake, not quite two degrees below the -equator, and within about twenty miles of the ocean, is the place at -which I located, in the heart of the primeval forest. Here I erected my -little fortress and gave it the name of Fort Gorilla. On the 27th of -April, 1893, I took up my abode in this desolate spot, and began a long -and solitary vigil. - -My sole companion was a young chimpanzee that I named Moses. From time -to time I had a native boy as a servant. But I found it better to be -alone and, therefore, when the boy had done his chores he was dismissed -until such time as his services might be desired. - -[Illustration: WAITING AND WATCHING IN THE CAGE (From a Photograph.)] - -Seated in this cage in the silence of the great forest, I have seen the -gorilla in all his majesty, strolling at leisure through his sultry -domain. Under like conditions I have seen the chimpanzee, and the -happy, chattering monkeys in the freedom of their jungle home. - -In this novel hermitage I remained most of the time for one hundred and -twelve days and nights. - -During this period I had opportunities of watching the animals -following, in perfect freedom, the pursuits of their daily life. With -such an experience I trust that I shall not be charged with vanity in -saying that I have seen more of those animals in a state of nature than -any other white man ever saw, and under conditions more favorable for -a careful study of their manners and habits than could otherwise be -possible. Hence what I have to say concerning them is the result of an -experience which no other man can justly claim. - -I do not mean to ignore or impugn what others have said on this -subject; but the sum of my labors in this field leads me to doubt much -that has been said and accepted as true. I regret that it devolves upon -me to controvert many of the stories told about the great apes, but -finding no germ of truth in some of them, I cannot evade the duty of -denying them. I regret it all the more, because many of them have been -woven into the fabric of natural history, have become integral parts of -our literature, and received the seal of scientific approval; but time -will justify and sustain me in the denial. I am aware that bigots of -certain schools will challenge me for pointing out their mistakes; and -some will assume to know more about these apes than fishes know about -swimming; but the simple truth should have precedence over all theories. - -Before proceeding with an account of the apes I shall relate some of -the incidents of my hermitage. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - - Daily Life and Scenes in the Jungle--How I Passed the Time--What I Had - to Eat--How it was Prepared--How I Slept--My Chimpanzee Companion - - -I am so frequently asked about the details of my daily life in the -cage, how the time was occupied, and what I saw besides the apes, that -I deem it of interest to relate a few of the events of my sojourn in -that wild spot. I shall, therefore, recount the incidents of a single -day and night; but from day to day of course this routine varied. - -About six o’clock, as the sun first peeps into the forest, it finds -me with a tin cup of coffee just made on a little kerosene stove. It -is black and dreggy, but with a little sugar it is not bad. With a -few dry crackers I break my fast of twelve hours and am now ready for -the task of the day. My bed having been rolled up out of the way and -Moses helped to a banana or two, I take my rifle, Moses climbs upon -my shoulder, and we set out for a walk in the bush. When we return we -bring from the spring, some three hundred yards away, a supply of water -for the day. Then Moses climbs about in the bushes and amuses himself, -while I watch for gorillas. Silence is the order of the day. And here -I sit alone,--sometimes for hours,--in a stillness almost as great as -that of a tomb. - -[Illustration: STARTING FOR A STROLL (From a Photograph.)] - -Presently a rustle of the leaves is heard, and a porcupine comes -waddling into view. He pokes his nose about in search of food, but -he has not yet discovered my presence. He comes closer. The scent or -sight of me startles him, and away he goes. Now a civet comes stealing -through the bush, till he observes me and hastily departs. - -After an hour of patient waiting the sound of clashing boughs is -heard. A few minutes later is seen a school of monkeys, led by a -solemn-looking old pilot, who doubtless knows every palm tree that -bears nuts within many miles around. They are now coming to inspect my -cage and see what new thing this is set up in monkeydom. - -[Illustration: A Peep at My Cage] - -As they draw nearer they become more cautious. They find a strong -bough in the top of a big tree, and the grave old pilot perches himself -far out on it in order to get a good peep at my cage. Just behind him -sits the next in rank, resting his hands on the shoulder of the leader, -while a dozen more occupy similar attitudes behind each other along the -limb. Each one pushes the one just in front of him to make him move up -a little closer, but none of them except the pilot seems to want the -front seat. - -They look on in silence, occasionally turning their little heads from -side to side, as if to be certain it is not an illusion. Again they -nudge each other, and move up a little closer, meanwhile squinting -their bright eyes, as if in doubt about the strange sight before them. -They have made such calls before, but have not yet fully determined -what kind of an animal it is that occupies the cage. At each successive -visit they come a little nearer, until they are now not a hundred -feet away. Now they take alarm at something and hurry off in another -direction. - -Next comes a pangolin, prowling about for insects among the leaves. He -catches a glimpse of the cage, stands motionless for a moment to see -what it is, and then like a flash he is gone. During this time birds -of divers kinds are flying in all directions. Some of them perch on -the limbs near by, some pick nuts from the palm trees, while others -scream and screech like so many tin whistles or brass horns. The most -conspicuous among them are the noisy toucans and parrots. Many of them -have brilliant and beautiful plumage. - -It is now ten o’clock. Not a breath of air stirs a leaf of the great -forest. The heat is sweltering and oppressive. The voices of the birds -grow less and less frequent. Even the insects do not appear to be so -busy as they were in the earlier hours of the day. Moses has abandoned -his rambles in the bush, and sits on a fallen tree, with his arms -folded, as if he had finished work for the day. - -Along towards this hour everything in the forest seems to become -quiet and inactive, and continues so until about two o’clock in the -afternoon. I was impressed upon more than one occasion with this -universal rest during the hottest part of the day, and the same thing -seems to prevail among aquatic animals. - -I now prepare my repast for midday by opening a can of meat or fish, -and warming it on a tin plate on the little stove. I have no vegetables -or dessert, but with a few crackers broken up and stirred into the -grease, and plenty of water to drink, I make an ample meal. When it -is finished, Moses coils up in his little hammock, swung by my side, -and takes his siesta. The boy, when there, stretches out on the floor -and does likewise. During the hours about noon, few things are astir, -though during that time I have seen some interesting sights. - -It must not be supposed that the change is sudden at the beginning or -at the end of this period, for such is not the case. There is no fixed -time for anything to cease activity. It is by slow degrees that one -thing after another becomes quiescent, until life appears to be for a -time almost extinct; but as the sun descends the western sky, life and -activity revive, and by three o’clock everything is again astir. Now, a -lone gorilla comes stalking through the bush, looking for the red fruit -of the _batuna_, a peculiar fruit that grows near the root of the -plant. He plucks a bud of some kind, tears it apart with his fingers, -smells it, and then throws it aside. Now he takes hold of a tall -sapling, looks up at its shaking branches and turns away. He pauses -and looks around as if suspicious of danger. He listens to see if -anything is approaching, but being reassured he resumes his search for -food. Now he gently parts the tangled vines that intercept his way and -creeps noiselessly through them. He hesitates, looks carefully around -him, and then again proceeds. He is coming this way. I see his black -face as he turns his head from side to side, looking for food. What a -brutal visage! It has a scowl upon it, as if he were at odds with all -his race. He is now within a few yards of the cage, but is not aware of -my presence. He plucks a tendril from a vine, smells it, and puts it -into his mouth. He plucks another and another. I shall note that vine -and ascertain what it is. Now he is in a small open space where the -bush has been cut away so as to afford a better view. He seems to know -that this is an unusual thing to find in the jungle. He surveys it with -caution. He comes nearer. Now he has detected me. He sits down upon the -ground and looks at me as if in utter surprise. A moment more he turns -aside, looks over his shoulders, and hurries away into the dense jungle. - -It is now four o’clock. I hear a wild pig rooting among the fallen -leaves. I see a small rodent that looks like a diminutive hedgehog. He -is gnawing the bark from a dead limb, possibly to capture some insect -secreted under it. But as rodents usually live upon vegetable diet, he -may have some other reason for this. - -It is five o’clock and the shadows in the forest are beginning to -deepen. I see two little gray monkeys playing in the top of a very -tall tree. The birds become monotonous and tiresome. Yonder is a small -snake twined around the limb of a bushy tree. He is probably hunting -for a nest of young birds. The low muttering sound of distant thunder -is heard. Little by little it grows louder. It is the familiar voice of -the coming tornado. I must prepare for it. - -The stove is now lighted and a shallow pan of water is set upon it. -Into it is stirred an ounce of desiccated soup. It is heated to the -boiling point, and is then set on the swinging table. A can of mutton -is emptied into another pan of the same kind, and a few crackers are -broken and stirred into the mutton. The soup is eaten while the meat -is being warmed. This is now ready, and the flame of the stove is -turned off. The second course of dinner is now served. It consists of -canned mutton, crackers, and water. The dishes, consisting of three tin -platters and a cup, are thrust into the adjacent bush. The ants and -other insects will clean them during the night. - -Moses has now had his supper and has gone to his own little house, to -find shelter from the approaching storm. The curtains are hung up on -the side of the cage towards which the tornado is coming. The leaves -of the forest begin to rustle. It is the first cool breath of the day, -but it is the herald of the furious wind that is rapidly advancing. -The tree-tops begin to sway. Now they are lashing each other as if in -anger. The strong trees are bending from the wind. The lightning is so -vivid that it is blinding. The thunder is terrific. One shaft after -another, the burning bolts are hurled through the moaning forest. - -Down the frail wires of my cage the water runs in little rivulets. -Acting as a prism, it refracts the vivid lightning and makes the -whole fabric look like a latticework of molten fire trickling down -from the overhanging boughs. Like invisible demons the shrieking -winds rush through the bending forest, and the unceasing roar of the -thunder reverberates from the dark recesses of the jungle. Amid the -din of storming forces is heard the dull thud of falling trees, and -the crackling limbs are dropping all around. All nature is in a rage. -Every bird and every beast now seeks a place of refuge from the warring -elements. No sign of life is visible. No sound is audible save the -voice of the storm. How unspeakably desolate the jungle is at such -an hour no fancy can depict. How utterly helpless against the wrath -of nature a living creature is no one can realize, except by living -through such an hour in such a place. - -On one occasion five large trees were blown down within a radius of a -few hundred feet of my cage. Scores of limbs were broken off by the -wind and scattered like straws. Some of them were six or eight inches -in diameter and ten or twelve feet long. One of them broke the corner -of the bamboo roof over my cage. The limb was broken off a huge cotton -tree near by and fell from a height of about sixty feet. It was carried -by the wind some yards out of a vertical line as it fell, and just -passed far enough to spare my cage. Had it struck the body of it, the -cage would have been partly demolished; the main stem of the bough -was about six inches in diameter and ten feet long. This particular -tornado lasted for nearly three hours and was the most violent of all I -saw during the entire year. - -Now the storm subsides, but the darkness is impenetrable. I have no -light of any kind, for that would alarm the inhabitants of the jungle -and attract a vast army of insects from all quarters. Moses is fast -asleep, while I sit listening to the many strange and weird sounds -heard in the jungle at night. The bush crackles near by. A huge leopard -is creeping through it. He is coming this way. Slowly, cautiously, he -approaches. I cannot see him in the deep shadows of the foliage, but -I can locate him by sound, and identify him by his peculiar tread. -Perhaps when he gets near enough he will attack the cage. He is -creeping up closer. He evidently smells prey and is bent on seizing it. -My rifle stands by my elbow. I silently raise it and lay it across my -lap. The brute is now crouching within a few yards of me, but I cannot -see to shoot him. I hear him move again, as if adjusting himself to -spring upon the cage. He surely cannot see it, but by means of scent he -has located me. I hear a low rustling of the leaves as he swishes his -tail preparatory to a leap. If I could only touch a button and turn on -a bright electric light! He remains crouching near, while I sit with -the muzzle of the rifle turned towards him. My hand is on the lock. It -is a trying moment. If he should spring with such force as to break the -frail network that is between us, there could be but one fate for me. - -In the brief space of a few seconds a thousand things run through -one’s mind. They are not necessarily prompted by fear, but rather by -suspense. Is it best to fire into the black shadows or to wait for the -leopard’s attack? What is his exact pose? What does he intend? How big -is he? Can he see me? A category of similar questions rises at this -critical moment. - -A clash of bushes and he is gone; not with the stealthy, cautious steps -with which he advanced, but in hot haste. He has taken alarm, abandoned -his purpose, and far away can be heard the dry twigs crashing as he -hurries to some remote nook. He flees as if he thought he was being -pursued. He is gone, and I feel a sense of relief. - -It is ten o’clock. The low rumbling of distant thunder is all that -remains of the tornado that swept over the forest a few hours ago. The -stars are shining, but the foliage of the forest is so dense, that one -can only see here and there a star peeping through the tangled boughs -overhead. I hear some little waif among the dead leaves, but what it is -or what it wants can only be surmised. - -Another hour has passed, and I retire for the night. The sounds of -nocturnal birds are fewer now. I hear a strange, tremulous sound from -the boughs of the bushes near the cage. The leaves are vibrating. The -sound ceases and again begins at intervals. I listen with attention, -for it is a singular sound. It is the movement of a huge python in -search of birds. He reaches out his head, stretches his neck, grasps -the bough of a slender bush, releases his coil from another, and by -contraction draws his slimy body forward. The pliant bough yields to -his heavy weight. The abrasion causes it to tremble and the leaves to -quake. - -[Illustration: PREPARING FOR THE NIGHT (From a Photograph.)] - -I fall asleep and rest in comfort, while the dew that has fallen upon -the leaves gathers itself into huge drops; their weight bends the -leaves, and they fall from their lofty place, striking with a sharp, -popping sound the big leaves far below them. The hours fly by; but in -the stillness of early morning is heard a most unearthly scream. It is -the voice of a king gorilla. He makes every leaf in the forest tremble -with the sound of his piercing shrieks. - -Thus another night is erased from the calendar of time and another -day begins. The dawn awakes to life the teeming forest, and all its -denizens again go forth to join the universal chase for food. - -All of the incidents here cited are true in every detail, but they did -not occur every day, nor did all of them occur on the same day, as -might be inferred from the manner in which they are related. But this -recital gives a fair idea of the daily routine in the bosom of the -great forest, although this is a mere glimpse of the scenes of life in -the jungle. By going out for a day or two at a time, hunting on the -plains a few miles away, I often relieved the monotony. My menu was -occasionally varied by a mess of parrot soup, a piece of goat, fish, -or porcupine; but the general average of it was about as has been -described. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -The Chimpanzee--The Name--Two Species--The Kulu-Kamba -Distribution--Color and Complexion - - -Next to man the chimpanzee occupies the highest plane in the scale of -nature. His mental and social traits, together with his physical type, -assign him to this place. - -In his distribution he is confined to equatorial Africa. His habitat, -roughly outlined, is from the fourth parallel north of the equator -to the fifth parallel south of it, along the west coast, and extends -eastward a little more than halfway across the continent. His range -cannot be defined with precision, for its exact limits are not yet -known. Its boundary on the north is defined by the Cameroon valley, -slightly curving towards the north; but its extent eastward is a matter -of some doubt. He does not appear to be found anywhere north of that -river, and it is quite certain that the few specimens attributed to the -north coast of the Gulf of Guinea do not belong to that territory. On -the south the boundary of his habitat starts from the coast, at a point -near the fifth parallel, curves slightly northward, crosses the Congo -near Stanley Pool, pursues a northeasterly course to about the middle -of the Congo State, and again curves southward across the Upper Congo, -not far from the north end of Lake Tanganyika. Its limits appear to -conform more to isothermal lines than to the rigid lines of geography. -Specimens are sometimes secured by collectors beyond these limits, but, -so far as I have been able to ascertain, they have been captured within -the territory thus bounded. There are several centers of population. -This ape is not strictly confined to any definite topography, but -occupies alike the upland forests or the low basin lands. - -In one section he is known to the natives by one name, and in another -by a name entirely different. The name _chimpanzee_ is of native -origin. In the Fiote tongue the name of the ape is _chimpan_, which -is a slight corruption of the true name. It is properly a compound -word. The first syllable is from the Fiote word _tyi_, which white -men erroneously pronounce like “chee.” It means “small,” or inferior, -and it is found in many of the native compounds. The last syllable is -from _mpa_, a bushman; hence the word literally means, in the Fiote -tongue, “a small bushman,” or inferior race. The name really implies -the idea of a lower order of human being. Among other tribes a common -name of the ape is _ntyigo_. The latter is derived from the Mpongwe -word _ntyia_, blood, race, or breed, and the word _iga_, the forest. It -literally means the “breed of the forest.” The same idea of its being -a low type of humanity is involved in the two names. Both convey the -oblique suggestion that the animal is more nearly allied to man than -other animals are. - -There are two distinct types of this ape. They are now regarded as -two species. One of them is distributed throughout the entire habitat -described, while the other is only known south of the equator and -between the second and fifth parallels north of the Congo and west -of Stanley Pool. Both kinds are found within this district, but the -variety which is confined to that region is called, by the tribes that -know the ape, the _kulu-kamba_, in contradistinction from the other -kind known as _ntyigo_. This name is derived from _kulu_, the onomatope -of the sound made by the animal and the native verb, _kamba_, to speak; -hence the name literally means “the thing that speaks kulu.” - -In certain respects the common variety differs from the _kulu-kamba_ -in a degree that would indicate that they belong to distinct species; -but the skulls and the skeletons are so nearly alike that no one can -identify them from the skeletons alone. In life, however, it is not -difficult to distinguish them. The _ntyigo_ has a longer face and more -prominent nose than the _kulu_. His complexion is of all shades of -brown, from a light tan to a dark, dingy, mummy color. He has a thin -coat of short, black hair, which is often erroneously described as -brown; but that effect is due to the blending of the color of his skin -with that of his suit. In early life his hair is quite black, but in -advanced age the ends are tipped with a dull white, giving them a dingy -gray color. The change is due to the same causes that produce gray -hairs on the human body. But there is one point in which they greatly -differ. The entire hair of the human becomes white with age, while only -the outer end of it does so in the chimpanzee. In the human one hair -becomes white, while others retain their natural color; but in this -ape all the hairs appear to undergo the same change. In very aged -specimens the outer part of the hair often assumes a dirty, brownish -color. This is due to the want of vascular action to supply the color -pigment. The same effect is often seen in preserved specimens, for the -same reason that the hair of an Egyptian mummy is brown, though in life -it had been, doubtless, a jet black. In this ape the hair is uniformly -black, except the small tuft of white at the base of the spinal column -and a few white hairs on the lower lip and the chin. I have examined -about sixty living specimens, and I have never found any other color -among them, except from the cause mentioned. The normal color of both -sexes is the same. The _kulu_ has, as a rule, but little hair on the -top of the head; but that on the back of it and on the neck is much -longer than elsewhere on the body, and on these parts it is longer than -that on other apes. - -Much stress is laid by some writers on the bald head of one ape and the -parted hair on the head of another. These features cannot be relied -upon as having any specific meaning, unless there are as many species -as there are apes. Sometimes a specimen has no hair on the crown of the -head, while another differs from it in this respect alone by having -a suit of hair more or less dense; and yet in every other respect -they are alike. Some of them have their hair growing almost down to -the eyebrows, and all hairs appear to diverge from a common center, -like the radii of a sphere; another of the same species may have the -hair parted in the middle as neatly as if it had been combed; another -may have it in wild disorder. The same thing is noticed in certain -monkeys, and it is equally true of the human being. As a factor in -classifying, it signifies nothing. It may be remarked that the _kulu_ -is inclined to have but little hair upon the crown of the head. - -Between the two species there is a close alliance. The males differ -more than the females. This is especially true in the structure of -certain organs. The face of the young _ntyigo_ is free from hairs, but -in the adult state there is in both sexes a tendency to the growth of -a light down upon the cheeks. The color of the skin is not uniform -in all parts of the body. This is especially true of the face. Some -specimens have patches of dark color set in a lighter ground. Sometimes -certain parts of the face are dark and other parts light. I have seen -one specimen quite freckled. It is said by some that the skin is light -in color when young, and becomes darker with age; but I find no reason -to believe that such is the case. It is true that the skin darkens a -few shades as the cuticle hardens, but there is no transition from one -color to another, and this slight change of shade is chiefly on the -exposed parts. - -The _kulu_ has a short, round face, much like that of a human. In early -life it is quite free from hairs, but, like the other, a slight down -appears with age. He has on his body a heavy suit of black hair. It -is coarser and longer than that of the _ntyigo_. It is also inclined -to wave, thus having a fluffy aspect. The color is jet black, except -a small tuft of white about the base of the spine. I have seen two in -which this tuft was perfectly black. The skin varies in color less than -in the _ntyigo_, and the darker shades are seldom found. The eyes are a -shade darker, and in both species the parts of the eye which are white -in man are brown in them. But this gradually shades off into a yellow -near the base of the optic nerve. As a rule, the _kulu_ has a clear, -open visage, with a kindly expression. It is confiding and affectionate -to a degree beyond any other animal. It is more intelligent than its -_confrère_, and displays the faculty of reason almost like a human -being. - -One important point in which these two types of ape differ is in the -scope and quality of their voices. The _kulu_ makes a greater range of -vocal sounds. Some of them are soft and musical; but those uttered by -the _ntyigo_ are fewer in number and harsher in quality. One of these -sounds resembles the bark of a dog, and another is a sharp, screaming -sound. The _kulu_ evinces a certain sense of gratitude, while the -_ntyigo_ appears to be almost devoid of that sentiment. There are many -traits in which they differ, but human beings, even within the same -family circle, also differ in these qualities. The points in which they -coincide are many, and, after a brief review of them, we may consider -the question of making two species of them or assigning them to the -same. - -The skeletons--as we have noted--are the same in form, size, and -proportion. Their muscular, nervous, and veinous systems are for the -most part the same. The character of their food and the mode of eating -are the same in each. In captivity they appear to regard each other as -one of their own kind; but whether they inter-cross or not remains to -be learned. - -Such is the sum of the likenesses and the differences between the two -extreme types of this genus. With so many points in common, and so -few in which they differ, it is a matter of serious doubt whether they -can be said to constitute two distinct species or only two varieties -of a common species. This doubt is further emphasized by the fact that -all the way between these two extremes are gradations of intermediate -types, so that it is next to impossible to say where one ends and -another begins. - -In view of all these facts, I believe them to be two well-defined -varieties of the same species. They are the white man and the negro -of a common stock. They are the patrician and the plebeian of one -race, or the nobility and the yeomanry of one tribe. They are like -different phases of the same moon. The _kulu-kamba_ is simply a high -order of chimpanzee. It is quite true that two varieties of one species -usually have the same vocal characteristics, and this appears to be the -strongest point in favor of assigning them to separate species, but it -is not impossible that even this may be waived. Leaving this question -for others to decide as they find the evidence to sustain them, we -shall for the present regard them as one kind, and consider their -physical, social, and mental characteristics. - -Whether they are all of one species, or divided into many, the same -habits, traits, and modes of life prevail throughout the entire group, -so that one description will apply to all, so far as we have to deal -with them as a whole. Elsewhere will be related certain incidents which -apply to individuals of the two kinds mentioned; but in treating of -them collectively the term _chimpanzee_ is meant to include the whole -group, except where it is otherwise specified. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -Physical Qualities of the Chimpanzee--His Social Habits--Mental -Characteristics - - -Physically considered, the chimpanzee very closely resembles man, but -there are certain points in which he differs both from man and from -other apes. We may notice a few of these points. The model of the -ear of the chimpanzee closely resembles that of man, but the organ -is larger in size and thinner in proportion. It is very sensitive to -sound, but dull to touch. The surface is not well provided with nerves. -He cannot erect his ear, as most animals do, by the use of the muscles -at the base; but, like the human ear, the muscles are useless, and in -this respect the ear is fixed and helpless. - -The hand of the chimpanzee is long and narrow. The finger bones are -larger, in proportion to their size, than those of the human hand. One -thing peculiar to the hand of the chimpanzee is that the tendons inside -of the hand (those called the flexors), which are designed to close the -finders, are shorter than the line of the bones. On this account the -fingers of the ape are always held in a curve. He cannot straighten -them. This is probably due to the habit of climbing, in which he -indulges to such a great extent. He also indulges in the practice of -hanging suspended by the hands. In making his way through the bush -he often swings himself by the arms from bough to bough. Sometimes he -suspends himself by one arm, while he uses the other to pluck and eat -fruit. This characteristic is transmitted to the young, and is found in -the first stages of infancy. The thumb is not truly opposable, but is -inclined to close towards the palm of the hand. It is of little use to -him. His nails are thick, dark in color, and not quite so flat as those -of man. - -The great toe, instead of being in line with the others, projects at -an angle from the side of the foot, something after the manner of the -human thumb. The foot itself is quite flexible and has great prehensile -power. In climbing, and in many other ways, it is used as a hand. The -tendons in the sole of the foot are equal in length to the line of the -bones, and the digits of the foot can be straightened; but from the -habitual use of them in climbing, the ape is predisposed to close the -digits, wherefore the foot is naturally inclined to curve into an arch, -especially in the line of the first and second digits. - -His habit of walking is peculiar. The greater part of the weight is -borne upon the legs. The sole of the foot is placed almost flat on the -ground, but the pressure is greatest along the outer edge, in the line -of the last digit. This is easily noticed where he walks over plastic -ground. In the act of walking he always uses the hands, but he does -not place the palms on the ground. He uses the backs of the fingers -instead. Sometimes only the first joints or phalanges, resting upon the -nails, are placed on the ground. At other times the first and second -joints are used. I have seen one specimen that, when walking, employed -the backs of all his fingers, from the knuckles to the nails. The -integument on these parts is not callous, like that of the palm. The -color pigment is distributed the same as on other exposed parts of the -body. These facts show that the weight of the body is not borne on the -fore limbs, as it is in the case of a true quadruped, but indicate that -the hand is only used to balance the body while in the act of walking -and to shift the weight from foot to foot. The weight is, therefore, -not equally distributed between the hands and the feet, and the animal -cannot truly be said to be a quadruped in habit. - -His waddling gait is caused by his short legs, stooping habit, and -heavy body. All animals having stout bodies and short legs are -predisposed to a waddling motion, which is due to the wide angle -between the weight and the changing center of gravity. This motion -is more conspicuous in bipeds than in quadrupeds, because the base -supporting the weight is reduced to a single point. - -The chimpanzee is neither a true quadruped nor a true biped, but -combines the habits of both. It appears to be a transition state from -the former to the latter. Vestiges of this mixed habit are still to be -found in man. In the act of walking his arms alternate in motion with -his legs. This suggests the idea that he may have had, at some time, a -similar habit of locomotion. Such a fact does not necessarily show that -he was ever an ape, but it does point to the belief that he has once -occupied a horizon in nature like that now occupied by the ape, and -that having emerged from it, he still retains traces of the habit. This -peculiarity is still more easily observed in children than in adults. -In early infancy all children are inclined to be bow-legged. In their -first efforts at walking they invariably press most of their weight on -the outer edge of the foot and curve the toes inward, as if to grasp -the surface on which the foot is placed. The instinct of prehension -cannot be mistaken. It differs in degree in different races, and is -vastly more pronounced in negro infants than in white ones. - -There is another peculiar feature in the walk of the chimpanzee. The -arms and legs do not alternate in motion with the same degree of -regularity that they do in man or quadrupeds. This ape uses his arms -more like crutches. They are moved forward, not quite, but almost at -the same instant, and the motion of the legs is not at equal intervals. -To be more explicit: the hands are placed almost opposite each other; -the right foot is advanced about three times its length; the left -foot is then placed about one length in front of the right; the arms -are again moved; the right foot is again advanced about three lengths -forward of the left; and the left again brought about one length in -front of that. The same animal does not always use the same foot to -make the long stride. It will be seen by this that each foot moves -through the same space, and that, in a line, the tracks of either foot -are the same distance apart; but the distance from the track of the -right foot to that of the left is about three times as great as the -distance from the track of the left foot to that of the right. Or the -reverse may be the case. The distance from the track of either foot to -the succeeding track of the other is never the same between the right -and left tracks, except where the animal is walking at great leisure. - -There is, perhaps, no animal more awkward than the chimpanzee, when he -attempts to run. He sometimes swings his body with such force between -his arms as to lose his balance and fall backward on the ground. -Sometimes when he rights himself again, he is half his length backward -of his starting point. - -The chimpanzee is doubtless a better climber than the gorilla. He finds -much of his food in trees; but he is not, in the proper sense of the -term, arboreal. To be arboreal, the animal must be able to sleep in a -tree or on a perch. The chimpanzee cannot do so. He sleeps the same as -a human being does. He lies down on his back or side, and frequently -uses his arms for a pillow. I do not believe it possible for him to -sleep on a perch. He may sometimes doze in that way, but the grasp of -his foot is only brought into use when he is conscious. I have often -known Moses to climb down from the trees and lie upon the ground to -take a nap. I never saw him so much as doze in any other position. - -I may here call attention to one fact concerning the arboreal habit. -There appears to be a rule to which this habit conforms. Among apes -and monkeys the habit is in keeping with the size of the animal. The -largest monkeys are found only among the lowest trees, and the small -monkeys among the taller trees. It is a rare thing to see a large -monkey in the top of a tall tree. He may venture there for food or -to make his escape, but it is not his proper element. The same rule -appears to hold good among the apes. The gibbon has the arboreal -habit in a more pronounced degree than any other true ape. The orang -appears to be next; the chimpanzee comes in for third place, and the -gorilla last. It must not be understood that all of these apes do not -frequently climb, even to the tops of the highest trees; but that is -not their normal mode of life, any more than the top of a mast is the -habitual place for a sailor on a ship. - -The chimpanzee is nomadic in habit, and, like the gorilla, seldom or -never passes two nights in the same spot. As to his building huts or -nests in trees or elsewhere, I am not prepared to believe that he ever -does that. For months I hunted in vain and made diligent inquiry in -several tribes, but failed to find a specimen of any kind of shelter -built by an ape. I do not assert that it is absolutely untrue that he -does this, but I have never been able to obtain any evidence of it, -except the statement of the natives. On the contrary, certain facts -point to the opposite belief. If the ape built himself a permanent -home, the natives would soon discover it and there would be no -difficulty in having it pointed out. If he built a new one every night, -however rude and primitive it might be, there would be so many of them -in the forest that there would be no difficulty in finding them. The -nomadic habit plainly shows that he does not build the former kind, and -the utter absence of them shows that he does not build the latter kind. -The whole story appears to be without foundation. - -In addition to these facts, one thing to be noticed is that few or none -of the mammals of the tropics ever build any kind of home. The animals -that in other climates have the habit of burrowing do not appear to -do so in the tropics, This is due, no doubt, to the warm climate, in -which they are not in need of shelter. Of course birds and other -oviparous animals build nests, as they do elsewhere. The period of -incubation makes this necessary. - -The longevity of these apes is largely a matter of conjecture, but -from a cursory study of their dentition and other facts of their -development, it appears that the male reaches the adult stage at an -age ranging from eight to ten years, while the female matures between -six and eight. These appear to be the periods at which they pass from -the state of adolescence. Some of them live to be perhaps forty years -of age, or upwards, but the average life is probably not more than -twenty-one to twenty-three years. The average of life is, doubtless, -more uniform with them than with man. These figures are not mere -guesswork, but are deduced from reliable data. - -The period of gestation in both these apes is a matter that cannot be -stated with certainty. Some of the natives say that it is nine months, -while others believe that it is seven months or less. There are some -facts to support each of these claims, but nothing is quite conclusive. -The sum of the evidence that I could find rather points to a term of -four and a half months, or thereabouts, as the true period. During -the months of January and February the male gorillas are vociferous -in their screaming, the young adults separate from the families, and -other things indicate that this is the season of pairing and breeding. -They may not be strictly confined to this period, but the inference -that they are so is well founded. It is quite certain that the season -of bearing the young is from the beginning of May to the end of June. -It is about this time that the dry season begins, and it continues -for four months. It would appear that nature has selected this period -of the year because it is more favorable for rearing the young. During -this season food is more abundant and can be secured with less effort. -The lowlands are drier, and this enables the mother to retire with her -young to the dense jungle, where she is less exposed to danger than -she would be in the more open forest. It is uncertain whether or not -the periods are the same with both apes. Native reports differ on this -point. But it is probable that they are the same. The average of this -season is about four and a half moons, or eighteen weeks. - -From a social point of view the chimpanzee appears to be of a little -higher caste than other apes. In his marital ideas he is polygamous, -but is in a certain degree loyal to his family. The paternal instinct -is a trifle more refined in him than in other simians. He seems to -appreciate better the relationship of parent and child and to retain -it longer than others do. Most male animals become estranged from -their young and discard them at a very early age. The chimpanzee keeps -his children with him until they are old enough to go away and rear -families of their own. - -The family of the chimpanzee frequently consists of three or four wives -and ten or twelve children, with one adult male. There are known cases -in which two or three adult males have been seen in the same family, -but each one having his own wives and children. In such an event there -seems to be one who is supreme. This fact suggests the idea that -among them a form of patriarchal government prevails. The wives and -children do not apparently question the authority of the patriarch or -rebel against it. The male parent often plays with his children and is -seemingly very fond of them. - -There is one universal error that I desire here to correct. It is the -common idea that animals are so strongly possessed of the paternal -instinct that they nobly sacrifice their own lives in defense of their -young. I do not wish to dispel any belief that tends to dignify or -ennoble animals, for I am their friend and champion. But truth demands -that this statement be qualified. It is quite true that many have -lost their lives in such acts of defense, but it was not a voluntary -sacrifice. It is not alone in the defense of their young, but in many -cases it is an act of self-defense. In other instances it is from a -lack of judgment. These apes have often been frightened away from -their young and the latter captured while the parents were fleeing -from the scene. This may have been the result of sagacity rather than -of depravity; but the parental instinct in both sexes and in many -instances has failed to restrain them from flight. If it be a foe -that appears to come within the measure of their own power, they will -defend their young, and this sometimes results in the loss of their own -lives; but if it be one of such formidable aspect as to appear quite -invincible, the parents leave the young to their fate. This is true of -all animals, including mankind. - -I have no desire to detract from the heroic quality of this instinct -or to dim the glory it sheds upon the noble deeds ascribed to it, but -the fact that a parent incurs the risk of its own life in the defense -of its young is not a true test of the strength or quality of this -instinct. It is only in the few isolated cases of a voluntary sacrifice -of the parent, foreknowing the result, that it can be said the act was -due to instinct. In most such cases the parent acts under a belief -in its own ability to rescue the one in danger, the parent not being -wholly aware of its own peril. I doubt if any animal except man ever -deliberately offered its own life as a ransom for that of another. Such -instances in human history are so rare as to immortalize the actor. - -To whatever extent the instinct may be found, it is much stronger in -the female than in the male, and it appears to be stronger in domestic -animals than in wild ones. To what extent this is due to their contact -with man, it is difficult to say. The germ may be inherent, but it -responds to culture. - -The fact that the ape deserts its offspring under certain conditions -may be taken as an evidence of superior intelligence affording it a -higher appreciation of life and danger, rather than a low, brutish -impulse. It is the exercise of superior judgment that causes man to act -with more prudence than other animals. It does not detract from his -nobleness. - -Within the family circle of the chimpanzee the father is supreme; -but he does not degrade his royalty by being a tyrant. Each member -of the family seems to have certain rights that are not impugned by -others. Possession is the right of ownership. When one ape procures -a certain article of food, the others do not try to dispossess him. -It is probably from this source that man inherits the idea of private -ownership. It is the same principle, amplified, by which nations claim -the right of territory. Nations often violate this right, and so do -chimpanzees, when not held in check by something more potent than a -mere abstract sense of justice. With all due respect, I do not think -the ape so much abuses the right by urging his claim beyond his real -needs as nations sometimes do. - -When a member of a family of apes is ill, the others are quite -conscious of the fact and evince a certain amount of solicitude. Their -conduct indicates that they have, in a small degree, the passion of -sympathy, but the emotion is feeble and wavering. So far as I know, -they do not essay any treatment, except to soothe and comfort the -sufferer. They surely have some definite idea of what death is, and -I have sometimes had reason to believe that they have a name for it. -They do not readily abandon their sick, but when one of them is unable -to travel with the band the others rove about for days, keeping within -call of it; but they do not minister to its wants. It is said that if -one of them is wounded the others will rescue it if possible and convey -it to a place of safety. I cannot vouch for this, as such an incident -has never come within my own experience. - -One of the most remarkable of all the social habits of the chimpanzee -is the _kanjo_, as it is called in the native tongue. The word does -not mean “dance” in the sense of saltatory gyrations, but it implies -more the idea of “carnival.” It is believed that more than one family -take part in these festivities. Here and there in the jungle is found -a small spot of sonorous earth. It is irregular in shape and about two -feet across. The surface is of clay and is artificial. The clay is -superimposed upon a kind of peat bed, which, being porous, acts as a -resonance cavity and intensifies the sound. This constitutes a kind of -drum. It yields rather a dead sound, but this is of considerable volume. - -[Illustration: KANJO NTYIGO-CHIMPANZEE DANCE] - -This queer drum is thus made by the chimpanzees. They secure the clay -along the banks of some stream in the vicinity. They carry it by hand, -deposit it while in a plastic state, spread it over the place selected, -and let it dry. I have placed in the museum of Buffalo, N. Y., a part -of one of these drums that I brought home with me from the Nkami -forest. It shows the finger-prints of the apes. They were impressed in -it while the mud was yet soft. - -After the drum is quite dry, the chimpanzees assemble by night in great -numbers and the carnival begins. One or two of them beat violently on -this dry clay, while others jump up and down in a wild and grotesque -manner. Some of them utter long, rolling sounds, as if trying to sing. -When one tires of beating the drum, another relieves him, and in this -fashion the festivities continue for hours. I know of nothing like this -in the social system of any other animal, but what it signifies or what -its origin was is quite beyond my knowledge. They do not indulge in -this _kanjo_ in all parts of their domain, nor does it occur at regular -intervals. - -The chimpanzee is averse to solitude. He is fond of the society of man -and is, therefore, easily domesticated. If allowed to go at liberty, -he is well disposed, and is strongly attached to man. If confined, he -becomes vicious and ill-tempered. All animals, including man, have the -same tendency. Mentally the chimpanzee occupies a high plane within -his own sphere of life, but within those limits the faculties of the -mind are not called into frequent exercise and, therefore, they are not -so active as they are in man. - -It is difficult to compare the mental status of the ape to that of -man, because there is no common basis upon which the two rest. Their -modes of life are so unlike as to afford no common unit of measure. -Their faculties are developed along different lines. The two have but -few problems in common to solve. While the scope of the human mind -is vastly wider than that of the ape, it does not follow that it can -act in all things with more precision. There are, perhaps, instances -in which the mind of the ape excels that of man by reason of its -adaptation to certain conditions. It is not a safe and infallible guide -to measure all things by the standard of man’s opinion of himself. -It is quite true that, by such a unit of measure, the comparison is -much in favor of man; but the conclusion is neither just nor adequate. -It is a problem of great interest, however, to compare them in this -manner, and the result indicates that a fair specimen of adult ape -is in about the same mental horizon as a child of one year old. But -if the operation were reversed and man were placed under the natural -conditions of the ape, the comparison would prove much less in favor of -man. There is no common mental unit between them. - -On problems that concern his own comfort or safety the chimpanzee -exercises the faculty of reason with a fair degree of precision. He -is quick to interpret motives or to discern intents, and he is a rare -judge of character. He is inquisitive, but not so imitative as monkeys -are. He is more observant of the relations of cause and effect. In his -actions he is controlled by more definite motives. He is docile and -quickly learns anything that lies within the range of his own mental -plane. - -The opinion has long prevailed that these apes subsist upon a vegetable -diet. That is a mistake. In this respect their habits are much the same -as those of man, except that the latter has learned to cook, but the -former eats his food raw. Their natural tastes are greatly diversified, -and they are not all equally fond of the same articles of food. Most -of them are partial to the wild mango, which grows in abundance in -certain localities in the forest. This is often available when other -kinds of food are scarce. It thus becomes, as it were, a staple article -of food. There are many kinds of nuts to be found in their domain, but -the nut of the oil palm is a great favorite. They sometimes eat the -kola nut, but they are not partial to it. Several kinds of small fruits -and berries also form part of their diet. They eat the stalks of some -plants, the tender buds of others, and the tendrils of certain vines. -The names of these vines I do not know. - -Most of the fruits and plants that are relished by them are either -acidulous or bitter in taste. They are not especially fond of sweet -fruits. They prefer those having the flavors mentioned. They eat -bananas, pineapples, or other sweet fruits, but rarely do so from -choice. Most of them appear to prefer a lime to an orange, a plantain -to a banana, a kola nut to a sweet mango. In captivity they acquire a -taste for sweet foods of all kinds. - -In addition to these articles they devour birds, lizards, and small -rodents. They rob birds of their eggs and their young. They make havoc -of many kinds of large insects. Those that I have owned were fond of -cooked meats and salt fish, either raw or cooked. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -The Speech of Chimpanzees--A New System of Phonetic Symbols--Some -Common Words--Gestures - - -The speech of chimpanzees (as of other simians) is limited to a few -sounds, and these chiefly relate to their natural wants. The entire -vocabulary of their language embraces perhaps not more than twenty-five -or thirty words. Many of them are vague or ambiguous, but they express -the concept of the ape with as much precision as it is defined to his -mind, and quite distinctly enough for his purpose. - -During my researches I have learned ten words of the speech of this -ape, so that I can understand them and make myself understood by them. -In tone, pitch, and modulation most of the sounds are within the -compass of the human voice. Two of them are much greater in volume than -it is possible for the human lungs to reach, and one of them rises to -a pitch more than an octave higher than a human voice of middle pitch. -These two sounds are audible at a great distance, but they do not -properly fall within the limits of speech. - -The vocal organs of the chimpanzee resemble those of man as closely -as other physical features have been shown to resemble. They differ -slightly in one respect that is worthy of notice. Just above the -opening called the glottis (which is the opening between the vocal -cords) are two small sacs or ventricles. In the ape these are larger -and more flexible than in man. In the act of speaking they are inflated -by the air passing out of the lungs into the long tube called the -larynx. The function of these ventricles is to control and modify the -sound by increasing or decreasing the pressure of the air that is -jetted through the tube. They serve at the same time as a reservoir and -as a gauge. - -In the louder sounds uttered by the chimpanzee these ventricles greatly -distend. This intensifies the voice or increases its volume. It is -partly due to these little sacs that the ape is able to make such a -loud and piercing scream. But the pitch and volume of his voice cannot -be alone due to this cause, for the gorilla (in which these ventricles -are much smaller) can make a vastly louder sound. We may be mistaken, -however, about the sound commonly ascribed to him. - -Although the sounds made by the chimpanzee can be imitated by the -human voice, they cannot be expressed or represented by any system of -phonetic symbols in use among men. Alphabets have been deduced from -pictographs, and the conventional symbol that is used to represent a -given sound has no reference to the organs of speech that produced it. -The few rigid lines that have survived and that now form the alphabets -are within themselves meaningless, but they have been so long used to -represent the elementary sounds of speech that it would be difficult to -supplant them with others. - -As no literal formula can be made to represent the phonetic elements -of the speech of chimpanzees, I have taken a new step in the art of -writing. I suggest a system of symbols which is rational in method and -simple in device. - -The organs of speech always act in harmony. A certain movement of the -lips is always attended by a certain movement of the internal organs of -speech. This is true of the ape as well as of man. In order to utter -the same sounds, each would employ the same organs and use them in the -same manner. - -By this means deaf-mutes are able to distinguish the sounds of speech -and to reproduce them, although they do not hear them. By close study -and long practice they learn to distinguish the most delicate shades of -sound. - -In this plain fact lies the clue to the method I offer for -consideration. As yet it is only in the infant stage, but it is -possible to be made, with a very few symbols, to represent the whole -range of vocal sounds made by man or other animals. - -The chief symbols I employ are the parentheses used in common print. -The two curved lines placed with the convex sides opposite, thus, (), -represent the open glottis, in which position the voice utters the -broad sound of “A,” as in “father.” The glottis about half closed -utters the sound of “O.” To represent this sound a period is inserted -between the two curved lines, thus, (.). When the aperture is still -more contracted it produces the sound of “U,” like “[=oo]” in “woo.” -To represent this sound a colon is placed between the lines, thus, -(:). When the aperture is restricted to a still smaller compass the -sound of “U” short is uttered, as in “but.” To represent this sound an -apostrophe is placed between the lines, thus, (.). When the vocal cords -are brought to a greater tension, and the aperture is almost closed, -it utters the short sound of “E,” as in “met.” To represent this sound -a hyphen is inserted between the lines, thus, (-). These are the -main vowel sounds of all animals, although in man they are sometimes -modified, and to them is added the sound of “E” long, while in the ape -the long sounds of “O” and “E” are rarely heard. - -From this vowel basis all other sounds may be developed, and by the use -of diacritics to indicate the movements of the organs of speech the -consonant elements are indicated. - -A single parenthesis, with the concave side to the left, will represent -the initial sound of “W,” which sometimes occurs in the sounds of -animals. When used, it is placed on the left side of the leading -symbol, thus,)(), and this symbol, as it stands, is pronounced nearly -like “O-A,” the “O” being suppressed until almost inaudible. Turning -the concave side to the right, and placing it on the right side of -the symbol, thus, ()(, it represents the vanishing sound of “W.” -This symbol reads “A-O,” with the latter vocal suppressed into the -terminal sound of “O.” The apostrophe placed before or after the symbol -will represent “F” or “V.” The grave accent, thus, è, represents the -breathing sound of “H,” whether placed before or after the symbol, and -the acute accent, thus, é, represents the aspirate sound of that letter. - -When the symbol is written with a numeral exponent, it indicates the -degree of pitch. If there is no figure, the sound is such as would be -made by the human voice in ordinary speech. The letter “X” indicates a -repetition of the sound, and the numeral placed after it will show the -number of times repeated, instead of the pitch. For example, we will -write the sound (.), which is equivalent to long “O,” made in a normal -tone; the same symbol written thus (.)^2 indicates that the sound is -made with greater energy, and about five semitones higher. To write -it thus, (.)^2X, indicates that the sound is five semitones above the -normal pitch of the human voice and is once repeated. - -I shall not subject the reader to the tedium of elaborate details -of the system here outlined. This brief _exposé_ of the method of -representing the sounds of animals is sufficient to convey an idea of -the means by which it is possible to write the sounds of all animals, -so that the student of phonetics will recognize at once the character -of the sound, even if he cannot reproduce it by natural means. - -It may be of interest to describe the character and use of some of -the sounds uttered by the chimpanzee. The most frequent sound made by -animals is that referring to food, and therefore it may claim the first -attention. This word in the language of the chimpanzee begins with the -short sound of the vowel “U,” which blends into a strong breathing -sound of “H.” The lips are compressed at the sides, and the aperture of -the mouth is nearly round. It is not difficult to imitate, and the ape -readily understands it even when poorly made. By the method of writing -above described it is expressed thus, (^I)`. - -A sound that is of frequent use among them is that used for calling. -The vowel element is “[=U]” long, slightly sharpened. It merges into -a distinct vanishing “W.” Expressed in symbols, it is (:)(. The food -sound is often repeated two or three times in succession, but the call -is rarely repeated, except at long intervals. - -One sound which is rather soft and musical is an expression of -friendship or amity. It appears to soften in tone and lengthen in -duration in a degree commensurate with the intensity of the sentiment. -The vowel element is a long “U.” It blends into an aspirated “H.” It is -fairly represented by the symbol (:)´. - -The most complex sound that I have so far heard made by them is the one -elsewhere described as meaning “good.” They often use it in very much -the same sense as man uses the expression “thanks,” or “thank you.” It -is not probable that they use it as a polite term, yet the same idea is -present. - -One of the words of warning or alarm contains a vowel element closely -resembling the short sound of “E.” It terminates with the breathing -sound of “H.” It is used to announce the approach of anything that the -animal is familiar with, and not afraid of. If the warning is intended -to apprise you of the approach of an enemy, or something strange, the -same vowel element is used, but terminates with the aspirate sound -of “H” pronounced with energy and distinctness. The vowel element is -the same in both words, but they differ in the time required to utter -them, and the final breathing and aspirate effects. There is also a -difference in the manner of the speaker in the act of delivering the -word. It plainly indicates that he knows the use and value of the -sounds. At the approach of danger the latter word is often given -almost in a whisper, and at long intervals apart, increasing in -loudness as the danger approaches. The other word is usually spoken -distinctly, and frequently repeated. It is worthy of note that the -natives use a similar word in the same manner and for the same purpose. - -There are other sounds which are easily identified but difficult to -describe, such as that used to signify “cold” or “discomfort”; another -for “drink” or “thirst,” another referring to “illness,” and still -another which I have reason to believe means “dead” or “death.” There -are perhaps a dozen more words that can readily be distinguished, but -as yet I have not been able to determine their exact meanings. I have -an opinion concerning some of them, but have not yet reached a final -conclusion about them. - -The chimpanzee makes use of a few signs which may be regarded as -auxiliary factors of expression. He makes a negative sign by moving -the head from side to side in the same manner as man does, but the -gesture is not frequent or pronounced. Another negative sign, which is -more common, is a wave-like motion of the hand from the body towards -the person or thing addressed. This sign is sometimes made with great -emphasis. There is no question as to its meaning. The manner of making -this sign is not uniform. Sometimes it is done by an urgent motion of -the hand. Bringing it from his opposite side, with the back forward, it -is thrust towards the person or thing approaching. The interpretation -is, that the ape objects to the approach. The same sign is often made -as a refusal of anything offered him. Another way of making this sign -is with the arm extended forward, the hand hanging down, and the back -towards the person approaching or the thing refused. In addition to -these negative signs there is one which may be regarded as affirmative. -It is made simply by extending one arm towards the person or thing -desired. It sometimes serves the purpose of beckoning. In this act -there is no motion of the hand. These signs appear to be innate, and -are very similar in character to those used by men to signify the same -idea. - -It must not be inferred from this small list of words and signs that -there is nothing left to learn. So far only the first step, as it -were, has been taken in the study of the speech of apes. As we grow -more familiar with their sounds, the difficulty of understanding them -becomes correspondingly less. I have not been disappointed in what I -hoped to learn from these animals. The total number of words that I -have been able to distinguish up to this time is about one hundred. -Of these I have interpreted about thirty. Of late I have given no -attention to the small monkeys. I shall resume the study of them at -some future day, as it forms an essential part of the task which I have -assumed. The fact that animals are able to interpret human speech is -of itself proof that they possess the speech instinct. But a careful -study of their habits reveals the further proof that they possess -and exercise the faculty of speech. In addition to these facts they -sometimes acquire new speech sounds. This is progress. If an ape can -take one step in the development of speech, why may he not take two? -One instance which is cited in the chapter treating of Moses, my ape -companion, I regard as the climax of all my efforts in the study or -training of apes, and that is the fact that I succeeded in teaching him -one word of human speech. This alone is sufficient to demonstrate that -the animal has within him the resources of speech. - -In conclusion I again assert that the sounds uttered by these apes -have the characteristics of human speech. The speaker is conscious of -the meaning of the sound used. The pitch and volume of the voice are -regulated to suit the condition under which it is used. The ape knows -the value of sound as a medium of conveying thought. These and many -other facts show that their sounds are truly speech. - -To compare the mental faculties of the wild ape to the domesticated dog -is not a fair standard by which to measure their respective abilities. -The dog has acquired much by his long and intimate association with -man. If the ape were placed under domestication, and kept there as long -as the dog has been, he would be as far superior to the dog in point of -sagacity as he is by nature above the wild progenitors of the canine -race. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -Moses--His Capture--His Character--His Affections--His Food--His Daily -Life--Anecdotes of Him - - -During my sojourn in the forest I had a fine young chimpanzee, which -was of ordinary intelligence, and he was of more than ordinary -interest, because of his history. I gave him the name Moses,--not in -derision of the historic Israelite of that name, but owing to the -circumstances of his capture and his life. He was found all alone in -a wild papyrus swamp of the Ogowé River. No one knew who his parents -were. The low bush in which he was crouched when discovered was -surrounded by water, and thus the poor little waif was cut off from the -adjacent dry land. As the native approached to capture him, the timid -little ape tried to climb up among the vines above him and escape; -but the agile hunter seized him. At first the chimpanzee screamed and -struggled to get away, because he had perhaps never before seen a man; -but when he found that he was not going to be hurt, he put his frail -arms around his captor and clung to him as a friend. Indeed, he seemed -glad to be rescued from such a dreary place, even by such a strange -creature as a man. For a moment the man feared that the cries of his -young prisoner might call its mother to the rescue, and possibly a -band of others; but if she heard, she did not respond; so he tied the -baby captive with a thong of bark, put him into a canoe, and brought -him away to the village. There he supplied him with food and made him -quite cosy. The next day he was sold to a trader. About this time I -passed up the river on my way to the jungle in search of the gorilla -and other apes. Stopping at the station of the trader, I bought the -young chimpanzee and took him along with me. We soon became the best of -friends and constant companions. - -It was supposed that the mother chimpanzee had left her babe in the -tree while she went off in search of food, and had wandered so far away -that she lost her bearings and could not again find him. He appeared -to have been for a long time without food, and may have been crouching -there in the forks of that tree for a day or two; but this was only -inferred from his hunger, as there was no way to determine how long he -had remained, or even how he got there. - -I designed to bring Moses up in the way that good chimpanzees ought to -be brought up; so I began to teach him good manners, in the hope that -some day he would be a shining light to his race, and aid me in my work -among them. To that end I took great care of him, and devoted much time -to the study of his natural manners, and to improving them as much as -his nature would allow. - -I built him a neat little house within a few feet of my cage. It was -enclosed with a thin cloth, and at the door I hung a curtain to keep -out mosquitoes and other insects. It was supplied with plenty of soft, -clean leaves, and some canvas bed-clothing. It was covered over with -a bamboo roof, and was suspended a few feet from the ground, so as to -keep out the ants. - -Moses soon learned to adjust the curtain and go to bed without my -aid. He would lie in bed in the morning until he heard me or the boy -stirring about the cage, when he would poke his little black head out -and begin to jabber for his breakfast. Then he would climb out and come -to the cage to see what was going on. He was not confined at all, but -quite at liberty to go about in the forest, climb the trees and bushes, -and have a good time of it. He was jealous of the boy, and the boy -was jealous of him, especially when it came to a question of eating. -Neither of them seemed to want the other to eat anything that they -mutually liked, and I had to act as umpire in many of their disputes -on that grave subject, which seemed to be the central thought of both -of them. I frequently allowed Moses to dine with me, and I never knew -him to refuse, or to be late in coming, on such occasions; but his -table etiquette was not of the best order. I gave him a tin plate and -a wooden spoon. He did not like to use the latter, but seemed to think -that it was pure affectation for any one to eat with such an awkward -thing. He always held it in one hand while he ate with the other or -drank his soup out of the plate. It was such a task to get washing done -in that part of the world, that I resorted to all means of economy in -that matter, and for a tablecloth I used a leaf of newspaper, when I -had one. To tear that paper afforded Moses an amount of pleasure that -nothing else would, and in this act his conduct was more like that of -a naughty child than in anything else he did, When he would first -take his place at the table, he would behave in a nice and becoming -manner; but having eaten till he was quite satisfied, he usually became -rude and saucy. He would slyly put his foot up over the edge of the -table, and catch hold of the corner of the paper, meanwhile watching -me closely, to see if I was going to scold him. If I remained quiet, -he would tear the paper just a little and wait to see the result. If -no notice was taken of that, he would tear it a little more, but keep -watching my face to see when I observed him. If I raised my finger -to him, he quickly let go, drew his foot down, and began to eat. If -nothing more was done to stop him, the instant my finger and eyes were -dropped, that dexterous foot was back on the table and the mischief -was resumed with more audacity than before. When he carried his fun -too far, I made him get down from the table and sit on the floor. This -humiliation he did not like, at best; but when the boy grinned at him -for it, he would resent it with as much temper as if he had been poked -with a stick. He certainly was sensitive on this point, and evinced an -undoubted dislike to being laughed at. - -[Illustration: NATIVE CARRIER BOY (From a Photograph.)] - -Another habit that Moses had was putting his fingers in the dish to -help himself. He had to be watched all the time to prevent this, and -seemed unable to grasp any reason why he should not be allowed to do -so. He always appeared to think my spoon, knife, and fork were better -than his own. On one occasion he persisted in begging for my fork until -I gave it to him. He dipped it into his soup, held it up, and looked -at it as if disappointed. He again stuck it into his soup. Then he -examined it, as if to see how I lifted my food with it. He did not -seem to notice that I used it in lifting meat instead of soup. After -repeating this three or four times he licked the fork, smelt it, and -then deliberately threw it on the floor,--as if to say, “That’s a -failure.” He then leaned over and drank his soup from the plate. - -The only thing that he cared much to play with was a tin can in which -I kept some nails. For this he had a kind of mania. He never tired of -trying to remove the lid. When given the hammer and a nail, he knew -what they were for, and would set to work to drive the nail into the -floor of the cage or into the table; but he hurt his fingers a few -times, and after that he stood the nail on its flat head, removed -his fingers, and struck it with the hammer; but of course he never -succeeded in driving it into anything. - -A bunch of sugarcane was kept for Moses to eat when he wanted it. To -aid him in tearing the hard shell away from it, I kept a club to bruise -it. Sometimes he would go and select a stalk of cane, carry it to the -block, take the club in both hands, and try to mash the cane; but as -the jar of the stroke often hurt his hands, he learned to avoid this by -letting go as the club descended. He never succeeded in crushing the -cane, but would continue his efforts until some one came to his aid. At -other times he would drag a stalk of the cane to the cage and poke it -through the wires, then bring the club and poke it through to get me to -mash the cane for him. - -From time to time I received newspapers sent me from home. Moses could -not understand what induced me to sit holding that thing before me, -but he wished to try it and see. He would take a leaf of it, and hold -it up before him with both hands, just as he saw me do; but instead of -looking at the paper, he kept his eyes, most of the time, on me. When -I turned my paper over, he did the same thing with his, but half the -time it was upside down. He did not appear to care for the pictures, or -notice them, except a few times he tried to pick them off the paper. -One large cut of a dog’s head, when held at a short distance from him, -he appeared to regard with a little interest, as if he recognized it as -that of an animal of some kind; but I cannot say just what his ideas -concerning it really were. - -Chimpanzees are not usually so playful or so funny as monkeys, but they -have a certain degree of mirth in their nature, and at times display -a marked sense of humor. Moses was fond of playing peek-a-boo. He -did not try to conceal his body from view, but put his head behind a -box or something to hide his eyes. Then he would cautiously peep at -me. He would often put his head behind one of the large tin boxes in -the cage, leaving his whole body visible. In this attitude he would -utter a peculiar sound, then draw his head out and look to see if I -were watching him. If not, he would repeat the act a few times and -then resort to some other means of amusing himself. But if he could -gain attention the romp began. He found great pleasure in this simple -pastime. He would roll over, kick up his heels, and grin with evident -delight. His favorite hour for this sport was in the early part of the -afternoon. I spent much time in entertaining him in this way and in -many others, feeling amply repaid by the gratification it afforded him. -I could not resist his overtures to play, as he was my only companion; -and, living in that solitary manner, we found mutual pleasure in such -diversions. - -Another occasion on which he used to peep at me was when he lay down to -take his midday nap. For this I had made him a little hammock. It was -suspended by wires hooked in the top of my cage, so as to be removable -when not in use. I always hung this near me, so I could swing him to -sleep like a child. He liked this very much, and I liked equally well -to indulge him in it. When he was laid in this little hammock, he was -usually covered up with a small piece of canvas, and in spreading it -over him I sometimes laid the edge of it over his eyes. But this caused -him to suspect me of having some motive in doing so. Then he would -reach his finger up, catch the edge of the cloth and gently draw it -down, so as to see what I was doing. If he found that he was detected, -he quickly released the cloth, and cuddled down as though he had drawn -it down by accident; but the little rogue knew just as well as I did -that it was not fair to peep. - -I also made him another hammock, which was hung a few yards from the -cage. It was intended that he should get into this without bothering -me. But he did not seem to care for it, until I brought a young gorilla -to live with us in our jungle home. As Moses had never used this -hammock, I assigned it to the new member of the household. Whenever -the gorilla got into the hammock there was a small row about it. Moses -would never allow him to occupy it in peace. He seemed to know that it -was his own by right, and the gorilla was regarded as an intruder. He -would push and shove the gorilla, grunt and whine and quarrel until he -got him out of it. But after doing so he would leave the hammock and -climb up into the bushes, or go scouting about, hunting something to -eat. He only wanted to dispossess the intruder, for whom he nursed an -inordinate jealousy. He never went about the gorilla’s little house, -which was near another side of my cage. Even after the gorilla died -Moses kept aloof from its house. - -As a rule, I took Moses with me in my rambles into the forest, and I -found him to be quite useful in one way. His eyes were like the lens -of a camera; nothing escaped them. When he discovered anything in the -jungle, he always made it known by a peculiar sound. He could not point -it out with his finger, but by watching his eyes the object could often -be located. Frequently during these tours the ape rode on my shoulders. -At other times the boy carried him; but occasionally he was put down -on the ground to walk. If we traveled at a very slow pace, and allowed -him to stroll along at leisure, he was content to do so; but if hurried -beyond a certain gait, he always made a display of temper. He would -turn on the boy and attack him if possible; but if the boy escaped, the -angry little ape would throw himself down on the ground, scream, kick, -and beat the earth with his own head and hands, in the most violent and -persistent manner. He sometimes did the same way when not allowed to -have what he wanted. His conduct was exactly like that of a spoiled or -ugly child. - -He had a certain amount of ingenuity, and often evinced a degree of -reason which was rather unexpected. It was not a rare thing for him to -solve some problem that involved a study of cause and effect, but this -was always in a limited degree. I would not be understood to mean that -he could work out any abstract problem, such as belongs to the realm of -mathematics, but only simple, concrete problems, the object of which -was present. - -On one occasion while walking through the forest, we came to a small -stream of water. The boy and myself stepped across it, leaving Moses -to get over without help. He disliked getting his feet wet, and paused -to be lifted across. We walked a few steps away and waited. He looked -up and down the branch to see if there was any way to avoid it. He -walked back and forth a few yards, but found no way to cross. He sat -down on the bank and declined to wade. After a few moments he waddled -along the bank about ten or twelve feet to a clump of tall, slender -bushes growing by the edge of the stream. Here he halted, whined, and -looked up thoughtfully into them. At length he began to climb one of -them that leaned over the water. As he climbed up, the stalk bent with -his weight, and in an instant he was swung safely across the little -brook. He let go the plant, and came hobbling along to me with a look -of triumph on his face that plainly indicated he was fully conscious of -having performed a very clever feat. - -[Illustration: A STROLL IN THE JUNGLE--MR. GARNER, MOSES, AND NATIVE BOY - -(From a Photograph.)] - -One dark, rainy night I felt something pulling at my blanket and -mosquito bar. I could not for a moment imagine what it was, but knew -that it was something on the outside of my cage. I lay for a few -seconds, and then I felt another strong pull. In an instant some cold, -damp, rough thing touched my face. I found it was his hand poked -through the meshes and groping about for something. I spoke to him, -and he replied with a series of plaintive sounds which assured me that -something must be wrong. I rose and lighted a candle. His little brown -face was pressed up against the wires, and wore a sad, weary look. He -could not tell me in words what troubled him, but every sign, look, and -gesture bespoke trouble. Taking the candle in one hand and my revolver -in the other, I stepped out of the cage and went to his domicile. There -I discovered that a colony of ants had invaded his quarters. These ants -are a great pest when they attack anything, and when they make a raid -on a house the only thing to be done is to leave it until they have -devoured everything about it that they can eat. When they leave a house -there is not a roach, rat, bug, or insect left in it. As the house of -Moses was so small, it was not difficult to dispossess the ants by -saturating it with kerosene. This was quickly done, and the little -occupant was allowed to return and go to bed. He watched the procedure -with evident interest, and seemed perfectly aware that I could rid -him of his savage assailants. In a wild state he would doubtless have -abandoned his claim and fled to some other place, without an attempt to -drive the ants away; but in this instance he had acquired the idea of -the rights of possession. - -Moses was especially fond of corned beef and sardines, and would -recognize a can of either as far away as he could see it. He also -knew the instrument used in opening the cans. But he did not appear -to appreciate the fact that when the contents had once been taken out -it was useless to open the can again; so he often brought the empty -cans that had been thrown into the bush, got the can-opener down, and -wanted me to use it for him! I never saw him try to open a can himself -otherwise than with his fingers. Sometimes, when about to prepare my -own meals, I would open the case in which I kept stored a supply of -canned meats and allow Moses to select a can for the purpose. He never -failed to pull out one of the cans of beef bearing the blue label. If I -put it back, he would again select the same kind, and he could not be -deceived in his choice. It was not accidental, because he would hunt -until he found the right sort. I don’t know what he thought when his -choice was not served for dinner. I often exchanged it for another kind -without consulting him. - -I kept my supply of water in a large jug, which was placed in the shade -of the bushes near the cage. I also kept a small pan for Moses to drink -out of. He would sometimes ask for water by using his own word for it. -He would place his pan by the side of the jug and repeat the sound a -few times. If he was not attended to, he proceeded to help himself. He -could take the cork out of the jug quite as well as I could. He would -then put his eye to the mouth of the vessel and look down into it to -see if there was any water. Of course the shadow of his head would -darken the interior of the jug so that he could not see anything. Then, -removing his eye from the mouth of it, he would poke his hand into it. -But I reproved him for this until I broke him of the habit. After a -careful examination of the jug he would try to pour the water out. He -knew how it ought to be done, but was not able to handle the vessel. -He always placed the pan on the lower side of the jug; then he leaned -the jug towards the pan and let go. He would rarely ever get the water -into the pan, but always turned the jug with the neck down grade. As a -hydraulic engineer he was not a great success, but he certainly knew -the first principles of the science. - -I tried to teach Moses to be cleanly, but it was a hard task. He would -listen to my precepts as if they had made a deep impression, but he -would not wash his hands of his own accord. He would permit me or the -boy to wash them, but when it came to taking a bath or even wetting -his face, he was a rank heretic on the subject, and no amount of logic -would convince him that he needed it. When he was given a bath he would -scream and fight during the whole process. When it was finished he -would climb upon the roof of the cage and spread himself out in the -sun. These were the only occasions on which I ever knew him to get upon -the roof. I don’t know why he disliked the bath so much. He did not -mind getting wet in the rain, but rather seemed to like that. - -He had a great dislike for ants and certain large bugs. Whenever one -such came near him he would talk like a magpie, and brush at the insect -with his hands until he got rid of it. He always used a certain sound -for this kind of annoyance; it differed slightly from those I have -described as warning. - -Moses tried to be honest, but he was affected with a species of -kleptomania and could not resist the temptation to purloin anything -that came in his way. The small stove upon which I prepared my food was -placed on a shelf in one corner of the cage, about halfway between the -floor and the top. Whenever anything was set on the stove to cook, he -had to be watched to keep him from climbing up the side of the cage, -reaching his arm through the meshes, and stealing the food. He was -sometimes very persevering in this matter. One day I set a tin can of -water on the stove to heat, in order to make some coffee. He silently -climbed up, reached his hand through, stuck it in the can, and began to -search for anything it might contain. I threw out the water, refilled -the can, and drove him away. In a few minutes he returned and repeated -the act. I had a piece of canvas hung up on the outside of the cage -to keep him away. The can of water was placed on the stove for the -third time, but within a minute he found his way by climbing up under -the curtain, and between that and the cage. I determined to teach him -a lesson. He was allowed to explore the can, but finding nothing, he -withdrew his hand and sat there clinging to the side of the cage. -Again he tried, but found nothing. The water was getting warmer, but -was still not hot. At length, for the third or fourth time, he stuck -his hand in it up to the wrist. By this time the water was so hot that -it scalded his hand. It was not severe enough to do him any harm, but -quite enough so for a good lesson. He jerked his hand out with such -violence that he threw the cup over and spilt the water all over that -side of the cage. From that time to the end of his life he always -refused anything that had steam or smoke about it. If anything having -steam or smoke was offered him at the table, he would climb down at -once and retire from the scene. Poor little Moses! I knew beforehand -what would happen. I did not wish to see him hurt, but nothing else -would serve to impress him with the danger and keep him out of mischief. - -Anything that he saw me eat he never failed to beg. No matter what -he had himself, he wanted to try everything else that he saw me eat. -One thing in which these apes appear to be wiser than man is, that -when they eat or drink enough to satisfy their wants they quit. Men -sometimes do not. Apes never drink water or anything else during their -meal, but having finished eating, they want, as a rule, something to -drink. The native custom is the same. I have never known the native -African to use any kind of diet drink, but always when he has finished -eating he takes a draught of water. - -Moses knew the use of nearly all the tools that I carried with me in -the jungle. He could not use them for the purpose for which they were -intended, and I do not know to what extent he appreciated their use; -but he knew quite well the manner of using them. I have mentioned the -incident of his using the hammer and nails; but he also knew the way -to use the saw; however, he always applied the back of it, because the -teeth were too rough; but he gave it the motion. When allowed to have -it, he would put the back of it across a stick and saw with the energy -of a man on a big salary. When given a file, he would file everything -that came in his way. If he had applied himself in learning to talk -human words as closely and with as much zeal as he tried to use my -pliers, he would have succeeded in a very short time. - -Whether these creatures are actuated by reason or by instinct in such -acts as I have mentioned, the caviller may settle for himself; but the -actions accomplish the purpose of the actors in a logical and practical -manner, and they are perfectly conscious of the fact. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -The Character of Moses--He Learns a Human Word--He Signs His Name to a -Document--His Illness--Death - - -I know of nothing in the way of affection and loyalty among animals -that can exceed the devotion of my Moses. Not only was he tame and -tractable, but he never tired of caressing me and being caressed by -me. For hours together he would cling to my neck, play with my ears, -lips, and nose, bite my cheek, and hug me like a last hope. He was -never willing for me to put him down from my lap, never willing for me -to leave my cage without him, never willing for me to caress anything -else but himself, and never willing for me to discontinue caressing -him. He would cry and fret for me whenever we were separated; and I -must confess that my absence from him during a journey of three weeks -hastened his sad and untimely death. - -From the second day after we became associated he appeared to regard -me as the one in authority. He would not resent anything I did to him. -I could take his food out of his hands, but he would permit no one -else to do so. He would follow me and cry after me like a child. As -time went by, his attachment grew stronger and stronger. He gave every -evidence of pleasure at my attentions, and evinced a certain degree of -appreciation and gratitude in return. He would divide any morsel of -food with me. This is, perhaps, the highest test of the affection of -any animal. I cannot affirm that such an act was genuine benevolence, -or an earnest of affection in a true sense of the term; but nothing -except deep affection or abject fear impels such actions in animals; -and certainly fear was not his motive. - -There were others whom he liked and made himself familiar with; there -were some that he feared, and others that he hated; but his manner -towards me was that of deep affection. It was not alone in return for -the food he received, for my boy gave him food more frequently than -I did, and many others from time to time fed him. His attachment was -like an infatuation that had no apparent motive; it was unselfish and -supreme. - -The chief purpose of my living among the animals being to study the -sounds they utter, I gave strict attention to those made by Moses. -For a time it was difficult to detect more than two or three distinct -sounds, but as I grew more and more familiar with them I could detect a -variety of them, and by constantly watching his actions and associating -them with his sounds I learned to interpret certain ones to mean -certain things. - -In the course of my sojourn with him I learned one sound that he always -uttered when he saw anything that he was familiar with,--such as a man -or a dog,--but he could not tell me which of the two it was. If he -saw anything strange to him, he could tell me; but not so that I knew -whether it was a snake, or a leopard, or a monkey; yet I knew that it -was some strange creature. I learned a certain word for food, hunger, -eating, etc., but he could not go into any details about it, except -that a certain sound indicated “good” or “satisfaction,” and another -meant the opposite. - -Among the sounds that I learned was one that is used by a chimpanzee -in calling another to come to it. Some of the natives assured me that -the mothers always use it in calling their young to them. When Moses -wandered away from the cage into the jungle, he would sometimes call me -with this sound. I cannot express it in letters of the alphabet, nor -describe it so as to give a very clear idea of its character. It is a -single sound, or word of one syllable, and can be easily imitated by -the human voice. At any time that I wanted Moses to come to me I used -this word, and the fact that he always obeyed it by coming confirmed my -opinion as to its meaning. I do not think that when he addressed it to -me he expected me to come to him, but he perhaps wanted to locate me in -order to be guided back to the cage by means of the sound. As he grew -more familiar with the surrounding forest he used it less frequently, -but he always employed it in calling me or the boy. When he was called -by it he answered with the same sound; but one fact that we noticed -was, that if he could see the one who called he never made any reply. -He would obey the call, but not answer. He probably thought that if -he could see the one who called he could be seen by him, and it was -therefore useless to reply. - -The speech of these animals is very limited, but it is sufficient -for their purpose. It is none the less real because of its being -restricted, but it is more difficult for man to learn, because his -modes of thought are so much more ample and distinct. Yet when one is -reduced to the necessity of making his wants known in a strange tongue -he can express many things in a very few words. I was once thrown among -a tribe of whose language I knew less than fifty words, but with little -difficulty I succeeded in conversing with them on two or three topics. -Much depends upon necessity, and more upon practice. In talking to -Moses I used his own language mostly, and was surprised at times to -see how readily we understood each other. I could repeat about all the -sounds he made except one or two, but I was not able in the time we -were together to interpret all of them. These sounds were more than a -mere series of grunts or whines, and he never confused them in their -meaning. When any one of them was properly delivered to him, he clearly -understood and acted upon it. - -It had never been any part of my purpose to teach a monkey to talk; -but after I became familiar with the qualities and range of the voice -of Moses, I determined to see if he might not be taught to speak a -few simple words of human speech. To effect this in the easiest way -and shortest time, I carefully observed the movements of his lips and -vocal organs in order to select such words for him to try as were best -adapted to his ability. - -I selected the word _mamma_, which may be considered almost a universal -word of human speech; the French word _feu_, fire; the German word -_wie_, how; and the native Nkami word _nkgwe_, mother. Every day I -took him on my lap and tried to induce him to say one or more of these -words. For a long time he made no effort to learn them; but after -some weeks of persistent labor and a bribe of corned beef, he began -to see dimly what I wanted him to do. The native word quoted is very -similar to one of the sounds of his own speech, which means “good” or -“satisfaction.” The vowel element differs in them, and he was not able -in the time he was under tuition to change them; but he distinguished -them from other words. - -In his attempt to say _mamma_ he worked his lips without making any -sound, although he really tried to do so. I believe that in the course -of time he would have succeeded. He observed the movement of my lips -and tried to imitate it, but he seemed to think that the lips alone -produced the sound. With _feu_ he succeeded fairly well, except that -the consonant element, as he uttered it, resembled “v” more than “f,” -so that the sound was more like _vu_, making the “u” short as in “nut.” -It was quite as nearly perfect as most people of other tongues ever -learn to speak the same word in French, and, if it had been uttered in -a sentence, any one knowing that language would recognize it as meaning -fire. In his efforts to pronounce _wie_ he always gave the vowel -element like German “u” with the _umlaut_, but the “w” element was more -like the English than the German sound of that letter. - -Taking into consideration the fact that he was only a little more than -a year old, and was in training less than three months, his progress -was all that could have been desired, and vastly more than had been -hoped for. It is my belief that, had he lived until this time, he -would have mastered these and other words of human speech to the -satisfaction of the most exacting linguist. If he had only learned one -word in a whole lifetime, he would have shown at least that the race is -capable of being improved and elevated in some degree. - -Another experiment that I tried with him was one that I had used before -in testing the ability of a monkey to distinguish forms. I cut a round -hole in one end of a board and a square hole in the other, and made a -block to fit into each one of them. The blocks were then given to him -to see if he could fit them into the proper holes. After being shown a -few times how to do this, he fitted the blocks in without difficulty; -but when he was not rewarded for the task by receiving a morsel of -corned beef or a sardine, he did not attempt it. He did not care to -work for the fun alone. - -In colors he had but little choice, unless it was something to eat; but -he could distinguish them with ease if the shades were pronounced. I -had no means of testing his taste for music or sense of musical sounds. - -I must here take occasion to mention one incident in the life of Moses, -such as perhaps never before occurred in the life of any chimpanzee. -While it may not be of scientific value, it is at least amusing. - -While living in the jungle I received a letter enclosing a contract to -be signed by myself and a witness. Having no means of finding a witness -to sign the paper, I called Moses from the bushes, placed him at the -table, gave him a pen, and had him sign the document as witness. He did -not write his name himself, as he had not mastered the art of writing; -but he made his cross mark between the names, as many a good man had -done before him. I wrote in the blank the name, - - _His_ - “MOSES X NTYIGO” - _mark_ - -(the cross mark being omitted), and had him with his own hand make the -cross as it is legally done by persons who cannot write. With this -signature the contract was returned in good faith to stand the test -of the law courts of civilization; and thus for the first time in the -history of the race a chimpanzee signed his name. - - * * * * * - -When I prepared to start on a journey across the Esyira country, it was -not practicable for me to take Moses along, so I arranged to leave him -in charge of a missionary. Shortly after my departure the man was taken -with fever, and the chimpanzee was left to the care of a native boy -belonging to the mission. The little prisoner was kept confined by a -small rope attached to his cage. This was done in order to keep him out -of mischief. It was during the dry season, when the dews are heavy and -the nights chilly; and the winds at that season are fresh and frequent. - -Within a week after I had left him he contracted a severe cold. This -soon developed into acute pulmonary troubles of a complex type, and -he began to decline. After an absence of three weeks and three days I -returned and found him in a condition beyond the reach of treatment. -He was emaciated to a living skeleton; his eyes were sunken deep into -their orbits, and his steps were feeble and tottering; his voice -was hoarse and piping; his appetite was gone, and he was utterly -indifferent to everything around him. - -During my journey I had secured a companion for him, and when I -disembarked from the canoe I hastened to him with this new addition to -our little family. I had not been told that he was ill, and, of course, -was not prepared to see him looking so ghastly. When he discovered me -approaching, he rose up and began to call me, as he had been wont to -do before I left him; but his weak voice was like a death-knell to my -ears. My heart sunk within me as I saw him trying to reach out his -long, bony arms to welcome my return. Poor, faithful Moses! I could not -repress the tears of pity and regret at this sudden change, for to me -it seemed the work of a moment. I had last seen him in the vigor of a -strong and robust youth, but now I beheld him in the decrepitude of a -feeble senility. What a transformation! - -I diagnosed his case as well as I was able and began to treat him, but -it was evident that he was so far gone that I could not expect him to -recover. My conscience smote me for having left him, yet I felt that I -had not done wrong. It was not neglect or cruelty for me to leave him -while I went in pursuit of the chief object of my search, and I had -no cause to reproach myself for having done so. But emotions that are -stirred by such incidents are not to be controlled by reason or hushed -by argument, and the pain caused me was more than I can tell. - -If I had done wrong, the only restitution possible for me to make was -to nurse him patiently and tenderly to the end, or till health and -strength should return. This was conscientiously done, and I have the -comfort of knowing that the last sad days of his life were soothed -by every care that kindness could suggest. Hour after hour during -that time he lay silent and content upon my lap. That appeared to be -a panacea to all his pains. He would roll up his dark brown eyes and -look into my face, as if to be assured that I had been restored to -him. With his long fingers he stroked my face as if to say that he -was again happy. He took the medicines I gave him as if he knew their -purpose and effect. His suffering was not intense, and he bore it like -a philosopher. He seemed to have some vague idea of his own condition, -but I do not know that he foresaw the result. He lingered on from -day to day for a whole week, slowly sinking and growing feebler; but -his love for me was manifest to the last, and I dare confess that I -returned it with all my heart. - -Is it wrong that I should requite such devotion and fidelity with -reciprocal emotion? No. I should not deserve the love of any creature -if I were indifferent to the love of Moses. That affectionate little -creature had lived with me in the dismal shadows of that primeval -forest for many long days and dreary nights; had romped and played with -me when far away from the pleasures of home; and had been a constant -friend, alike through sunshine and storm. To say that I did not love -him would be to confess myself an ingrate and unworthy of my race. - -The last spark of life passed away in the night. Death was not attended -by acute pain or struggling; but, falling into a deep and quiet sleep, -he woke no more. - -Moses will live in history. He deserves to do so, because he was the -first of his race that ever spoke a word of human speech; because he -was the first that ever conversed in his own language with a human -being; and because he was the first that ever signed his name to any -document. Fame will not deny him a niche in her temple among the heroes -who have led the races of the world. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -Aaron--His Capture--Mental Powers--Acquaintance with Moses--His Conduct -during Moses’ Illness - - -Having arranged my affairs in Ferran Vaz so as to make a journey across -the great forest that lies to the south of the Nkami country and -separates it from that of the Esyira tribe, I set out by canoe to a -point on the Rembo about three days’ journey from the place where I had -so long lived in my cage. At a village called Tyimba I disembarked and, -after a journey of five days and a delay of three more days, caused by -an attack of fever, I arrived at a trading station near the head of a -small river called Noogo. It empties into the sea at Sette Kama, about -four degrees south of the equator. The trading post is about a hundred -miles inland, at a native village called Ntyi-ne-nye-ni,--which, -strange to say, means, in the native tongue, “Some Other Place.” - -About the time I reached the trading post, two Esyira hunters arrived -from a distant village and brought with them a smart young chimpanzee -of the kind known in that country as the kulu-kamba. He was quite the -finest specimen of his race that I have ever seen. His frank, open -countenance, big brown eyes, and shapely physique, free from mark or -blemish of any kind, would attract the notice of any one not absolutely -stupid. It is not derogatory to the memory of Moses that I should say -this, nor does it lessen my affection for him. Our passions are not -moved by visible forces nor measured by fixed units. They disdain all -laws of logic, spurn the narrow bounds of reason, and conform to no -theory of action. - -As soon as I saw this little ape I expressed a desire to own him. So -the trader in charge bought him and presented him to me. As it had -been intended that he should be the friend and ally of Moses, although -not his brother, I conferred upon him the name of Aaron. The two names -are so intimately associated in history that the mention of one always -suggests the other. - -Aaron was captured in the Esyira jungle by the hunters, about one day’s -journey from the place where I secured him; and with this event began a -series of sad scenes in the brief but varied life of this little hero -such as seldom come within the experience of any creature. - -At the time of his capture his mother was killed in the act of -defending him from the cruel hunters. When she fell to the earth, -mortally wounded, this brave little fellow stood by her trembling body -defending it against her slayers, until he was overcome by superior -force, seized by his captors, bound with strips of bark, and carried -away into captivity. No human can refrain from admiring his conduct in -this act, whether it was prompted by the instinct of self-preservation -or by a sentiment of loyalty to his mother, for he was exercising that -prime law of nature which actuates all creatures to defend themselves -against attack, and his wild, young heart throbbed with sensations like -to those of a human under similar ordeal. - -I do not wish to appear sentimental by offering a rebuke to those who -indulge in the sport of hunting; but much cruelty could be obviated -without losing any of the pleasure of the hunt. I have always made -it a rule to spare the mother with her young. Whether or not animals -feel the same degree of mental and physical pain as man, they do, -in these tragic moments, evince for one another a certain amount of -concern. This imparts a tinge of sympathy that must appeal to any one -who is not devoid of every sense of mercy. It is true that it is often -difficult--and sometimes impossible--to secure the young by other -means; but the manner of getting them often mars the pleasure of having -them; and while Aaron was to me a charming pet and a valuable subject -for study, I confess the story of his capture always touched me in a -tender spot. - -I may here mention that the few chimpanzees that reach the civilized -parts of the world are but a small percentage of the great number that -are captured. Some die on their way to the coast, others die after -reaching it, and scores of them die on board the ships to which they -have been consigned for various ports of Europe and other countries. -Death results not often from neglect or cruelty, but usually from a -change of food, climate, or condition; yet the creature suffers just -the same whether the cause is from design or accident. One fruitful -source of death among them is pulmonary trouble of various types. - -One look at the portrait of Aaron will impress any one with the high -mental qualities of this little captive; but to see and study them in -life would convince a heretic of his superior character. In every look -and gesture there was a touch of the human that no one could fail to -observe. The range of facial expression surpassed that of any other -animal I have ever studied. In repose his quaint face wore a look of -wisdom becoming to a sage; while in play it was crowned with a grin -of genuine mirth. The deep, searching look he gave to a stranger was -a study for the psychologist. The serious, earnest look of inquiry -when he was perplexed would have amused a stoic. All these changing -moods were depicted in his mobile face with such intensity as to leave -no room to doubt the activity of certain faculties of the mind to a -degree far beyond that of animals in general; and his conduct in many -instances showed the exercise of mental powers of a higher order than -that limited agency known as instinct. In addition to these facts, his -voice was of better quality and more flexible than that of any other -specimen I have ever known. It was clear and smooth in uttering sounds -of any pitch within its scope, while the voices of most of them are -inclined to be harsh or husky, especially in sounds of high pitch. - -Before leaving the village where I secured him, I made a kind of sling -for him to be carried in. It consisted of a short canvas sack, having -two holes cut in the bottom for his legs to pass through. To the top -of this was attached a broad band of the same cloth by which to hang -it over the head of the carrier boy to whom the little prisoner was -consigned. This afforded the ape a comfortable seat, and at the same -time reduced the labor of carrying him. It left his arms and legs free, -so he could change his position and rest, while it also allowed the boy -the use of his own hands in passing any difficult place in the jungle -along the way. - -From the trading post to the Rembo was a journey of five days on foot. -Along the way were a few straggling villages; but most of the route lay -through a wild and desolate forest, traversed by low, broad marshes, -through which wind shallow sloughs of filthy, greenish water, seeking -its way among bending roots and fallen leaves. From the foul bosom of -these marshes rise the effluvia of decaying plants, breeding pestilence -and death. Here and there across the dreary tracts is found the trail -of elephants, where the great beasts have broken their tortuous way -through the dense barriers of bush and vine. These trails serve as -roads for the native traveler and afford the only way of crossing -these otherwise trackless jungles. The only means of passing the -dismal swamps is to wade through the thin, slimy mud, often more than -knee-deep, and sometimes extending many hundred feet in width. The -traveler is intercepted at almost every step by the tangled roots of -mangrove trees under foot or clusters of vines hanging from the boughs -overhead. - -Such was the route we came. But Aaron did not realize how severe was -the task of his carrier in trudging his way through such places, and -the little rogue often added to the labor by seizing hold of limbs -or vines that hung within his reach in passing. Thus he retarded the -progress of the boy, who strongly protested against the ape’s amusing -himself in this manner. The latter seemed to know of no reason why -he should not do so, and the former did not deign to give one. So -the quarrel went on until we reached the river; but by that time -each of them had imbibed a hatred for the other that nothing in the -future ever allayed. Neither of them ever forgot it while they were -associated, and both of them evinced their aversion on all occasions. -The boy gave vent to his dislike by making ugly faces at the ape, and -the latter showed his resentment by screaming and trying to bite him. -Aaron refused to eat any food given him by the boy, and the boy would -not give him a morsel except when required to do so. At times the feud -became ridiculous. It ended only with their final separation. The last -time I ever saw the boy, I asked him if he wanted to go with me to my -country to take care of Aaron; but he shook his head and said: “He’s -a bad man.” This was the only person for whom I ever knew Aaron to -conceive a deep and bitter dislike, but the boy he hated with his whole -heart. - -On my return to Ferran Vaz, where I had left Moses, I found him in a -feeble state of health, as related elsewhere. When Aaron was set down -before him, he merely gave the little stranger a casual glance, but -held out his long, lean arms for me to take him in mine. His wish was -gratified, and I indulged him in a long stroll. When we returned I -set him down by the side of his new friend, who evinced every sign of -pleasure and interest. He was like a small boy when there is a new baby -in the house. He cuddled up close to Moses and made many overtures to -become friends; but, while the latter did not repel them, he treated -them with indifference. Aaron tried in many ways to attract the -attention of Moses, or to elicit from him some sign of approval, but it -was in vain. - -No doubt Moses’ manners were due to his sickness, and Aaron seemed to -realize it. He sat for a long time holding a banana in his hand and -looking with evident concern into the face of his little sick cousin. -At length he lifted the fruit to the lips of the invalid and uttered a -low sound; but the kindness was not accepted. The act was purely one of -his own volition, to which he was not prompted by any suggestion from -others. Every look and motion indicated a desire to relieve or comfort -his friend. His manner was gentle and humane, and his face was an image -of pity. - -Failing to get any sign of attention from Moses, Aaron moved up closer -to his side and put his arms around him in the manner that is shown -in the picture of him with Elisheba. During the days that followed, -he sat hour after hour in the same attitude, and refused to allow any -one except myself to touch his patient; but on my approach he always -resigned him to me, while he watched with interest to see what I did -for him. - -Among other things, I gave Moses twice a day a tabloid of quinine and -iron. This was dissolved in a little water and given to him in a small -tin cup kept for the purpose. When not in use, the cup was hung upon -a tall post. Aaron soon learned to know the use of it, and whenever I -went to Moses, Aaron would climb up the post and bring me the cup to -administer the medicine. It is not to be inferred that he knew anything -about the nature or effect of the medicine, but he knew the use, and -the only use, to which that cup was put. - -Aaron displayed a marked interest during the act of administering -the dose, and seemed to realize that it was intended for the good of -the patient. He would sit close up to one side of the sick one and -watch every movement of his face, as if to see what effect was being -produced, while the changing expressions of his own visage plainly -showed that he was not indifferent to the actions of the patient. - -While I was present with the sick one, Aaron appeared to feel a certain -sense of relief from the care of him, and frequently went climbing -about as if to rest and recreate himself by a change of routine. -Whenever I took Moses for a walk, or sat with him on my lap, his little -nurse was perfectly content; but the instant they were left alone, -Aaron would again fold him in his arms, as if he felt it a duty to do -so. - -It was only natural that Moses, in such a state of health, should be -cross and peevish at times, as human beings in a like condition are; -but I never once saw Aaron resent anything Moses did, or display the -least ill-temper towards him. On the contrary, his conduct was so -patient and forbearing that it was hard to forego the belief that it -was prompted by the same motives of kindness and sympathy that move -the human heart to deeds of tenderness and mercy. At night, when they -were put to rest, they lay cuddled up in each other’s arms, and in the -morning they were always found in the same close embrace. - -But on the morning Moses died the conduct of Aaron was unlike anything -I had observed before. When I approached their snug little house and -drew aside the curtain, I found him sitting in one corner of the cage. -His face wore a look of concern, as if he were aware that something -awful had occurred. When I opened the door he neither moved nor uttered -any sound. I do not know whether or not apes have any name for death, -but they surely know what it is. - -Moses was dead. His cold body lay in its usual place; but it was -entirely covered over with the piece of canvas kept in the cage for -bed-clothing. I do not know whether or not Aaron had covered him up, -but he seemed to realize the situation. I took him by the hand and -lifted him out of the cage, but he was reluctant. I had the body -removed and placed on a bench about thirty feet away, in order to -dissect it and prepare the skin and the skeleton for preservation. - -When I proceeded to do this, I had Aaron confined to the cage, lest he -should annoy and hinder me at the work; but he cried and fretted until -he was released. It is not meant that he shed tears over the loss of -his companion, for the lachrymal glands and ducts are not developed in -these apes; but they manifest concern and regret, which are motives of -the passion of sorrow. But being left alone was the cause of Aaron’s -sorrow. When released he came and took his seat near the dead body, -where he sat the whole day long and watched the operation. - -After this Aaron was never quiet for a moment if he could see or hear -me, until I secured another of his kind as a companion for him; then -his interest in me abated in a measure, but his affection for me -remained intact. His conduct towards Moses always impressed me with the -belief that he appreciated the fact that the sick one was in distress -or pain, and while he may not have foreseen the result, when he saw -death he certainly knew what it was. Whether it is instinct or reason -that causes man to shrink from death, the same influence works to the -same end in the ape; and the demeanor of this ape towards his later -companion, Elisheba, only confirmed this opinion. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -Aaron and Elisheba--Their Characteristics--Anecdotes--Jealousy of Aaron - - -Four days after the death of Moses I secured passage on a trading -boat that came into the lake. The boat was a small affair, intended -for towing canoes, and not in any way prepared to carry passengers -or cargo; but I found room in one of the canoes to set the cage I -had provided for Aaron, stowed the rest of my effects wherever space -permitted, and embarked for the coast. - -Our progress was slow and the journey tedious. The only passage out of -the lake at that season is through a long, narrow, winding creek beset -by sand bars, rocks, logs, and snags, and in some places overhung by -low, bending trees. But the wild, weird scenery is grand and beautiful. -Long lines of bamboo, broken here and there by groups of pendanus or -stately palms; islands of lilies, and long sweeps of papyrus spreading -away from the banks on either side; the gorgeous foliage of aquatic -plants, drooping along the margin like a massive fringe and relieved by -clumps of tall, waving grass, forms a perfect Eden for the birds and -the monkeys that dwell among those scenes of eternal summer. - -After a delay of eight days at Cape Lopez, we secured passage on a -small French gunboat called the _Komo_, by which we came to Gaboon. -There I found another kulu-kamba. She was in the hands of a generous -friend, Mr. Adolph Strohm, who presented her to me. I gave her to Aaron -as a wife and called her Elisheba,--after the name of the wife of the -great high-priest. Elisheba had been captured on the head-waters of the -Nguni River, in about the same latitude that Aaron was found in, but -more than a hundred miles to the east of that point and a few minutes -north of it. I did not learn the history of her capture. - -It would be difficult to find any two human beings more unlike in -taste and temperament than these two apes were. Aaron was one of the -most amiable of creatures; he was affectionate and faithful to those -who treated him kindly; he was merry and playful by nature, and often -evinced a marked sense of humor; he was fond of human society and -strongly averse to solitude or confinement. - -Elisheba was a perfect shrew. She often reminded me of certain women -that I have seen who had soured on the world. She was treacherous, -ungrateful, and cruel in every thought and act; she was utterly devoid -of affection; she was selfish, sullen, and morose at all times; she was -often vicious and always obstinate; she was indifferent to caresses, -and quite as well content when alone as in the best of company. It is -true that she was in poor health, and had been badly treated before she -fell into my hands; but she was by nature endowed with a bad temper and -depraved instincts. - -It is not at all rare to see a vast difference of manners, -intelligence, and temperament among specimens that belong to one -species. In these respects they vary as much in proportion to their -mental scope as human beings do; but I have never seen, in any two -apes of the same species, the two extremes so widely removed from one -another. - -While waiting at Gaboon for a steamer I had my own cage erected for the -apes to live in, as it was large and gave them ample room for play and -exercise. In one corner of it was suspended a small, cosy house for -them to sleep in. It was furnished with a good supply of clean straw -and some pieces of canvas for bedclothes. In the center of the cage was -a swing, or trapeze, for them to use at their pleasure. Aaron found -this a means of amusement, and often indulged in a series of gymnastics -that might evoke the envy of a king of athletic sports. - -Elisheba had no taste for such pastime, but her depravity could never -resist the impulse to interrupt Aaron in his jolly exercise. She would -climb up and contend for possession of the swing, until she would drive -him away. Then she would perch herself on it and sit there for a time -in stolid content; but she would neither swing nor play. Frequently -during the day, when Aaron was lying quietly on the straw, she would -go into the snug little house and raise a row with him by pulling the -straw from under him, a handful at a time, and throwing it out of the -box till there was none left in it. No matter what kind or quantity of -food was given them, she always wanted the piece he had, and would fuss -with him to get it; but having got it, she would sit holding it in her -hand without eating it; for there were some things that he liked which -she would not eat at all. - -When we went out for a walk, no matter which way we started, Elisheba -always contended to go some other way. If I yielded, she would again -change her mind and start off in some other direction. If forced to -submit, she would scream and struggle as if for life. I cannot forego -the belief that these freaks were due to a base and perverse nature, -and I could find no higher motive in her stubborn conduct. - -Aaron was very fond of her and rarely ever opposed her inflexible will. -He clung to her and let her lead the way. I have often felt vexed at -him because he complied so readily with her wishes. The only case in -which he took sides against her was in her conduct towards me. - -When I first secured her she had the temper of a demon, and with the -smallest pretext she would assault me and try to bite me or tear my -clothes. In these attacks Aaron was always with me, and the loyal -little champion would fly at her in the greatest fury. He would strike -her over the head and back with his hands, and bite her and flog her -till she desisted. If she returned the blow he would grasp her hand and -bite it, or strike her in the face. He would continue to fight till she -submitted. Then he would celebrate his victory by jumping up and down -in a most grotesque fashion, stamping his feet, slapping his hands on -the ground, and grinning like a mask. He seemed as conscious of what he -had done and as proud of it as any human could have been; but no matter -what she did to others, he was always on her side of the question. If -any one else annoyed her, he would always resent it with violence. - -About the premises there were natives all the time passing to and fro, -and these two little captives were objects of special interest to -them. They would stand by the cage hour after hour and watch them. The -ruling impulse of nearly all natives appears to be cruelty, and they -cannot resist the temptation to tease and torture anything that is -not able to retaliate. They were so persistent in poking sticks at my -chimpanzees that I had to keep a boy on watch all the time to prevent -it; but the boy could not be trusted, so I had to watch _him_. - -In the rear of the room that I occupied was a window through which, -from time to time, I watched the boy and the natives, and when -anything went wrong I would call out to the boy. Aaron soon observed -this and found that he could get my attention himself by calling out -when any one annoyed him, and he also knew that the boy was put there -as a protector. Whenever any of the natives came about the cage he -would call for me in his peculiar manner, which I well understood and -promptly responded to. The boy also knew what the call meant and would -rush to the rescue. If I were away from the house and the boy were -aware of the fact, he was apt to be tardy in coming to the relief of -the ape, and sometimes he did not come at all. In the latter event the -two would crawl into their house and pull down the curtain so that they -could not be seen. Here they would remain until the natives had left or -some one came to their aid. - -Neither of the apes ever resented anything the natives did to them, -unless they could see me about; but whenever I came in sight they -would make battle with their tormentors, and, if liberated from the -big cage, they would chase the last one of them out of the yard. Aaron -knew perfectly well that they were not allowed to molest him or his -companion; and when he knew that he had my support he was ready to -carry on the war to a finish. But it was really funny to see how meek -and patient he was when left to defend himself alone against the native -with a stick, and then to note the change in him when he knew that he -was backed up by a friend upon whom he could rely. - -Mr. Strohm, the trader, previously mentioned, with whom I found -hospitality at this place, kept a cow in the lot where the cage was. -She was a small black animal, the first cow that Aaron had ever seen. -He never ceased to contemplate her with wonder and with fear. If she -came near the cage when no one was about, he hurried into his box and -from there peeped out in silence until she went away. The cow was -equally amazed at the cage and its strange occupants, though she was -less afraid than they, and frequently came near to inspect them. She -would stand a few yards away with her head lifted high, her eyes arched -and her ears thrown forward, waiting for them to come out of that -mysterious box. But they would not venture out of their asylum while -she remained. At last, tired of waiting, she would switch her tail, -shake her head, and turn away. - -When taken out of the cage Aaron had special delight in driving the cow -away; and if she was around he would grasp me by the hand and start -towards her. He would stamp the ground with his foot, strike with all -force with his long arm, slap the ground with his hand, and scream at -her at the top of his voice. If she moved away, he would let go my hand -and rush towards her as though he intended to tear her up; but if the -cow turned suddenly towards him, the little fraud would run to me, -grasp my leg, and scream with fright. The cow was afraid of a man, and -as long as she was followed by one she would continue to go; but when -she discovered the ape to be alone in the pursuit, she would turn and -look as if trying to determine what manner of thing it was. Elisheba -never seemed to take any special notice of the cow except when she -approached too near the cage, and then it was due to the conduct of -Aaron that she made any fuss about it. - -On board the steamer in which we sailed for home there was a young -elephant that had been sent by a trader, for sale. He was kept on -deck in a strong stall built for his quarters. There were wide cracks -between the boards, and the elephant had the habit of reaching his -trunk through them in search of anything he might find. With his long, -flexible proboscis extended, he would twist and coil it in all manner -of writhing forms. This was the crowning terror of the lives of those -two apes; it was the bogie-man of their existence, and nothing could -induce either of them to go near it. If they saw me approach it, they -would scream and yell until I came away. If Aaron could get hold of me -without getting too near the elephant, he clung to me until he almost -tore my clothes, to keep me away from it. It was the one thing that -Elisheba was afraid of, and the only one against which she ever gave me -warning. - -They did not manifest the same concern for others, but sat watching -them without offering any protest. Even the stowaway who fed them and -attended to their cage was permitted to approach the elephant; but -their solicitude for me was remarked by every man on board. I was never -able to tell what their opinion of the thing was. They were much less -afraid of the elephant when they could see all of him, than they were -of the trunk when they saw that alone. They may have thought the latter -to be a big snake; but this is only a conjecture. - -At the beginning of the voyage I took six panels of my own cage and -made a small cage for them. I taught them to drink water from a beer -bottle with a long neck that could be put through a mesh of the wires. -They preferred this mode of drinking and appeared to look upon it as an -advanced idea. Elisheba always insisted on being served first; being -a female, her wish was complied with. When she had finished, Aaron -would climb up by the wires and take his turn. There is a certain -sound, or word, which the chimpanzee always uses to express “good” or -“satisfaction,” and he made frequent use of it. He would drink a few -swallows of the water and then utter the sound, whereupon Elisheba -would climb up again and taste. She seemed to think it something better -than she was drinking, but finding it the same as she had had, she -would again give way for him. Every time he used the sound she would -take another taste and turn away; but she never failed to try it if he -uttered the sound. - -The boy who cared for them on the voyage was disposed to play tricks on -them. One of these ugly pranks was to turn the bottle up so that when -they had finished drinking and took their lips away, the water would -spill out and run down over them. Several times they declined to drink -from the bottle while he was holding it, but when he let it go, it hung -in such a position that they could not get the water out of it at all. -At length Aaron solved the problem by climbing up one side of the cage -and getting on a level with the bottle; then he reached across the -angle formed by the two sides of the cage and drank. In this position -it was no matter to him how much the water ran out; it couldn’t touch -him. Elisheba watched him until she quite grasped the idea; then she -climbed up in the same manner and slaked her thirst. I scolded the -boy for serving them with such cruel tricks; but it taught me another -lesson of value concerning the mental resources of the chimpanzee, for -no philosopher could have found a much better scheme to obviate the -trouble than did this cunning little sage in the hour of necessity. - -I have never regarded the training of animals as the true measure of -their mental powers. The real test is to reduce the animal to his own -resources, and see how he will conduct himself under conditions that -present new problems. Animals may be taught to do many things in a -mechanical way, and without any motive that relates to the action; but -when they can work out the solution without the aid of man, it is only -the faculty of reason that can guide them. - -One thing that Aaron could never figure out was--what became of the -chimpanzee that he saw in a mirror. I have seen him hunt for that -mysterious ape an hour at a time. He once broke a piece off a mirror I -had in trying to find the other fellow, but he never succeeded. I have -held the glass firmly before him, while he put his face up close to -it--sometimes almost in contact. He would quietly gaze at the image and -then reach his hand around the glass to feel for it. Not finding it, he -would peep around the side of the glass and then look into it again. He -would take hold of it and turn it around, lay it on the ground, look at -the image again, and put his hand under the edge of the glass. The look -of inquiry in that quaint face was so striking as to make one pity him. -But he was hard to discourage. He resumed the search whenever he had -the mirror. - -Elisheba never worried herself much about it. When she saw the image in -the glass she seemed to recognize it as one of her kind; but when it -vanished she let it go without trying to find it. In fact, she often -turned away from it as though she did not admire it. She rarely ever -took hold of the glass, and she never felt behind it for the other ape. - -Altogether Elisheba was an odd specimen of her tribe--eccentric and -whimsical beyond anything I have ever known among animals; yet, with -all her freaks, Aaron was fond of her and she afforded him company; but -he was extremely jealous of her, and permitted no stranger to take any -liberties with her with impunity. He did not object to their doing so -with him. He rarely took offense at any degree of familiarity, for he -would make friends with any one who was gentle with him; but he could -not tolerate their attentions to her. She betrayed no sign of affection -for him except when some one annoyed or vexed him; but in that event -she never failed to take his part against all odds. At such times she -became frantic with rage, and if the cause was prolonged, she often -for hours afterwards refused to eat. - -On the voyage homeward there was on board another chimpanzee, belonging -to a sailor who was bringing him home for sale. This one was about -two years older than Aaron and fully twice as large. He was tame and -gentle, but was kept in a close cage by himself. He saw the others -roaming about the deck and tried to make up with them; but they evinced -no desire to become intimate with one who was confined in such a manner. - -One bright Sunday morning, as we rode the calm waters near the Canary -Islands, I induced the sailor to release his prisoner on the main deck -with my own, to see how they would act towards each other. He did so, -and in a moment the big ape came ambling along the deck towards Aaron -and Elisheba, who were sitting on the top of a hatch, absorbed in -gnawing some turkey bones. - -As the stranger came near he slackened his pace and gazed earnestly -at the others. Aaron ceased eating and stared at the visitor with a -look of surprise, but Elisheba barely noticed him. He scanned Aaron -from head to foot, and Aaron did the same with him. He advanced until -his nose almost touched that of Aaron, and in this position the two -remained for some seconds. Then the big one proceeded to salute -Elisheba in the same manner, but she gave him little attention. She -continued to gnaw the bone in her hand, and he had no reason to feel -flattered at the impression he appeared to have made on her. Aaron -watched him with deep concern, but without uttering a sound. - -Turning again to Aaron, the big ape reached out for his turkey bone; -but the hospitality of the little host was not equal to the demand. -He drew back with a shrug of his shoulder, holding the bone closer to -himself, and then he resumed eating. Then a steward gave a bone to the -visitor. He climbed upon the hatch and took a seat on the right of -Elisheba, Aaron being seated at her left. As soon as the big one had -taken his seat, Aaron resigned his place and crowded himself in between -them. The three sat for a few moments in this order, till the big one -got up and deliberately walked around to the other side of Elisheba and -sat down again beside her. Again Aaron forced himself in between them. - -This act was repeated six or eight times; then Elisheba left the hatch -and took a seat on a spar that lay on deck. The big ape immediately -moved over and sat down near her; but by the time he was seated Aaron -again got in between them, and as he did so he struck his rival a smart -blow on the back. They sat in this manner for a minute or so. Then -Aaron drew back his hand and struck again. He continued his blows, all -the while increasing them in force and frequency; but the other did -not resent them. His manner was one of dignified contempt, as if he -regarded the inferior strength of his assailant unworthy of his own -prowess. It would be absurd to suppose that he was constrained by any -principle of honor, but his demeanor was patronizing and forbearing, -like that of a considerate man towards a small boy. - -One amusing feature of the affair was the half-serious and half-jocular -manner of Aaron. When striking, he did not turn his face to look at -his rival, and the instant the blow was delivered he withdrew his hand -as if to avoid being detected. He gave no sign of anger though he made -no effort to conceal his jealousy; and the other seemed to be aware of -the cause of his disquietude. The smirk of indifference on the little -lover’s face belied the state of mind that impelled his action, and it -was patent to all who witnessed the tilt that Aaron was jealous of his -guest. From time to time Elisheba would change her seat. Then a similar -scene would ensue. - -The whole affair was so comical and yet so real that one could not -repress the laughter it evoked. It was the drama of “love’s young -dream” in real life, in which every man, at some period of his young -career, has played each part the same as these two rivals played. Every -detail of plot and line was the duplicate of a like incident in the -experience of boyhood. - -Elisheba did not seem to encourage the suit of this simian beau, but -she did not rebuff him as a true and faithful spouse should do, and I -never blamed Aaron for not liking it. She had no right to tolerate the -attentions of a total stranger; but she was feminine, and, perhaps, -endowed with all the vanity of her sex, and fond of adulation. However, -my sympathies for the devoted little Aaron were too strong for me to -permit him to be imposed upon by a rival twice as big and three times -as strong as himself; so I took him and Elisheba away to the after -deck, where they had a good time alone. - -Elisheba was never very much devoted to me, but in the early part of -her career she began to realize the fact that I was her master and her -friend. She had no gratitude in her nature, but she had sense enough -to see that all her food and comfort were due to me, and as a matter -of policy she became submissive; but she was never tractable. She was -doubtless a plebeian among her own race and was not capable of being -brought up to a high standard of culture. She could not be controlled -by kindness alone, for she was by nature sordid and perverse. I was -never cruel or severe in dealing with her, but it was necessary to be -strict and firm. Her poor health, however, often caused me to indulge -her in whims that otherwise would have brought her under a more rigid -discipline. The patient conduct of Aaron appeared to be tempered by the -same consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -Illness of Elisheba--Aaron’s Care of Her--Her Death--Illness and Death -of Aaron - - -At the end of forty-two long days at sea we arrived at Liverpool. It -was near the end of autumn. The weather was cold and foggy. Elisheba -was failing in health, as I feared she would do, having come from the -warm, humid climate along the equator, and, at the same time, having -undergone a change of food. - -On arriving at the end of our long and arduous voyage, I secured -quarters for the apes and quickly had them stowed away in a warm, -sunny cage. Elisheba began to recover from the fatigue and worry of -the journey, and for a while was more cheerful than she had been at -any time since I had known her. Her appetite returned, the symptoms of -fever passed away, and she seemed benefited rather than injured by the -voyage. Aaron was in the best of health and had shown no signs of any -evil results from the trip. - -On reaching the landing-stage in Liverpool, some friends who met us -there expressed a desire to see the apes, and for that purpose I opened -their cage in the waiting-room. When they beheld the throng of huge -figures with white faces, long skirts, and big coats, they were almost -frantic with fear. They had never before seen anything like it, and -they crouched back in the corner of the cage, clinging to each other -and screaming in terror. When they saw me standing by them, they rushed -to me, seized me by the legs, and climbed up to my arms. Finding they -were safe here, they stared for a moment, as if amazed at the crowd; -then Elisheba buried her face under my chin and refused to look at any -one. They were both trembling with fright, and I could scarcely get -them into their cage again; but after they were installed in their -quarters with Dr. Cross, who was to have charge of them, they became -reconciled to the sight of strangers in such costumes. In their own -country they had never seen anything like it, for the natives, to whom -they were accustomed, wear, as a rule, no clothing except a small piece -of cloth tied round the waist, and the few white men they had seen -were mostly dressed in white; but here was a great crowd of creatures -in skirts and overcoats, and I have no doubt that to them it was a -startling sight when seen for the first time. - -During the first two weeks after arriving at Liverpool, Elisheba -improved in health and temper, until she was not like the same -creature; but about the end of that time she contracted a severe cold. -A deep, dry cough, attended by pains in the chest and sides, together -with a piping hoarseness, betrayed the nature of her disease and gave -just cause for apprehension. During frequent paroxysms of coughing she -pressed her hands upon her breast or side, to arrest the shock and thus -lessen the pain it caused. When quiet, she sat holding her hands on her -throat, her head bowed down and her eyes drooping or closed. Day by day -the serpent of disease drew his deadly coils closer and closer about -her wasting form; but she bore it with a patience worthy of a human -being. - -[Illustration: ELISHEBA AND AARON (From a Photograph.)] - -The sympathy and forbearance of Aaron were again called into action, -and the demand was not in vain. Hour after hour he sat holding her -locked in his arms, as he is seen in the portrait given herewith. He -was not posing for a picture, nor was he aware how deeply his manners -touched the human heart. Even the brawny men who work about the place -paused to watch him in his tender offices to her, and his staid keeper -was moved to pity by his kindness and his patience. For days she -lingered on the verge of death. She became too feeble to sit up; but -as she lay on her bed of straw, he sat by her side, resting his folded -arms upon her and refusing to allow any one to touch her. His look of -deep concern showed that he felt the gravity of her case in a degree -that bordered on grief. He was grave and silent, as if he foresaw the -sad end that was near at hand. My frequent visits were a source of -comfort to him, and he evinced a pleasure in my coming that bespoke his -confidence in me and his faith in my ability to relieve his suffering -companion; but, alas! she was beyond the aid of human skill. - -On the morning of her decease I found him sitting by her as usual. -At my approach he quietly rose to his feet and advanced to the front -of the cage. Opening the door, I put my arm in and caressed him. He -looked into my face and then at the prostrate form of his mate. The -last dim sparks of life were not yet gone out, as the slight motion of -the breast betrayed; but the limbs were cold and limp. While I leaned -over to examine more closely, he crouched down by her side and watched -with deep concern to see the result. I laid my hand upon her heart to -ascertain if the last hope was gone; he looked at me, and then placed -his own hand by the side of mine, and held it there as if he knew the -purport of the act. Of course to him this had no real meaning, but it -was an index to the desire which prompted it. He seemed to think that -anything that I did would be good for her, and his purpose, doubtless, -was to aid me. When I removed my hand, he removed his; when I returned -mine, he did the same; and to the last he gave evidence of his faith in -my friendship and good intentions. His ready approval of anything I did -showed that he had a vague idea of my purpose. - -At length the breast grew still, and the feeble beating of the heart -ceased. The lips were parted, and the dim eyes were halfway closed; -but he sat by as if she were asleep. The sturdy keeper came to remove -the body from the cage; but Aaron clung to it and refused to allow him -to touch it. I took the little mourner in my arms, but he watched the -keeper jealously and did not want him to remove or disturb the body. It -was laid on a bunch of straw in front of the cage, and he was returned -to his place; but he clung to me so firmly that it was difficult to -release his hold. He cried in a piteous tone and fretted and worried, -as if he fully realized the worst. The body was then removed from view, -but poor little Aaron was not consoled. How I pitied him! How I wished -that he was again in his native land, where he might find friends of -his own race! - -After this he grew more attached to me than ever. When I went to visit -him he was happy and cheerful in my presence; but the keeper said that -while I was away he was often gloomy and morose. As long as he could -see me or hear my voice, he would fret and cry for me to come to him. -When I had left him, he would scream as long as he had any hope of -inducing me to return. - -A few days after the death of Elisheba the keeper put a young monkey -in the cage with him, for company. This gave him some relief from the -monotony of his own society, but never quite filled the place of the -lost one. With this little friend, however, he amused himself in many -ways. He nursed it so zealously and hugged it so tightly that the poor -little monkey was often glad to escape from him in order to have a -rest. But the task of catching it again afforded him almost as much -pleasure as he found in nursing it. - -Thus for a few weeks he passed his time; then he was seized by a sudden -cold, which in a few days developed into an acute type of pneumonia. -I was in London at the time and was not aware of his sickness; but -feeling anxious about him, I wrote to Dr. Cross, in whose care he was -left, and received a note in reply, stating that Aaron was very ill -and not expected to live. I prepared to go to visit him the next day, -but just before I left the hotel I received a telegram stating that he -was dead. The news contained in the letter was a greater shock to me -than that in the telegram, for which in part the former had prepared -me; but no one can imagine how deeply these evil tidings affected me. I -could not bring myself to a full sense of the fact. I was unwilling to -believe that I had been thus deprived of my devoted friend. I could not -realize that fate could be so cruel to me; but, alas! it was true. - -Not having been present during his short illness or at the time of -his death, I cannot relate any of the scenes accompanying them; but -the kind old keeper who attended him declares that he never became -reconciled to the death of Elisheba, and that his loneliness preyed -upon him almost as much as the disease. When I looked upon his cold, -lifeless body, I felt that I was indeed bereft of one of the dearest -and most loyal pets that any mortal had ever known. His fidelity to me -had been shown in a hundred ways, and his affections had never wavered. -How could any one requite such integrity with anything unkind? - -To those who possess the higher instincts of humanity it will not be -thought absurd in me to confess that the conduct of these creatures -awoke in me a feeling more exalted than a mere sense of kindness. It -touched some chord of nature that yields a richer tone. But only those -who have known such pets as I have known them can feel towards them as -I have felt. - -I have no desire to bias the calm judgment or bribe the sentiment of -him who scorns the love of nature, by clothing these humble creatures -in the garb of human dignity; but to him who is not so imbued with -self-conceit as to be blind to all evidence and deaf to all reason, -it must appear that they are gifted with faculties and passions like -to those of man; differing in degree, but not in kind. Moved by such -conviction, who could fail to pity that poor, lone captive in his iron -cell, far from his native land, slowly dying? It may be a mere freak of -sentiment that I regret not having been with him to soothe and comfort -his last hours, but I do regret it deeply. He had the right to expect -it of me, as a duty. - -Poor little Aaron! In the brief span of half a year he had seen his own -mother die at the hands of the cruel hunters; he had been seized and -sold into captivity; he had seen the lingering torch of life go out -of the frail body of Moses; he had watched the demon of death binding -his cold shackles on Elisheba; and now he had himself passed through -the deep shadows of that ordeal. What a sad and vast experience for -one short year! He had shared with me the toils and the dangers of sea -and land over many a weary mile. He seemed to feel that the death of -his two friends had been a common loss to us; and if there is any one -thing which more than another knits the web of sympathy about two alien -hearts, it is the experience of a common grief. - -Thus ended the career of my kulu-kamba friend, the last of my -chimpanzee pets. In him were centered many cherished hopes; but they -did not perish with him, for I shall some day find another one of his -kind in whom I may realize all that I had hoped for in him. I cannot -expect to find a specimen of superior qualities, for he was certainly -one of the jolliest and one of the wisest of his race. However fine and -intelligent his successor may be, he can never supplant either Moses or -Aaron in my affections; for these two little heroes shared with me so -many of the sad vicissitudes of time and fortune that I should be an -ingrate to forget them or allow the deeds of others to dim the glory of -their memory. I have all of them preserved, and when I look at them the -past comes back to me, and I recall so vividly the scenes in which they -played the leading _rôles_; it is like the panorama of their lives. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII - -Other Chimpanzees--The Village Pet--A Chimpanzee as Diner-Out--Notable -Specimens in Captivity - - -Among the number of chimpanzees that I have seen are some whose actions -are worthy of record; but as many of them were the repetitions of -similar acts of other specimens which are elsewhere described, I shall -omit mention of them and relate only such other acts as may tend to -widen the circle of our knowledge, and more fully illustrate the mental -range of this interesting tribe of apes. - -In passing through the country of the Esyira tribe I came to a small -village, where I halted for a rest. On entering the open space between -two rows of bamboo huts, I saw a group of native children at the -opposite end of the space, and among them was a fine big chimpanzee, -sharing in their play. When they discovered the presence of a white -man in the town, they left their sport and came to inspect me. The ape -also came, and he showed as much interest in the matter as any one else -did. I was seated in a native chair in front of the king’s hut, and the -people, as usual, stood around me at a respectful distance, looking on -as if I had been some wild beast captured in the jungle. - -The ape was aware that I was not a familiar kind of thing, and he -appeared in doubt as to how he should act towards me. He sat down on -the ground among the people and stared at me in surprise, from time to -time glancing at those around him as if to ascertain what they thought -of me. As they became satisfied with looking they retired one by one -from the scene, until most of them had gone; but the ape remained. -He changed his place a few times, but only to get a better view. The -people were amused at his manner, but no one molested him. - -[Illustration: Native Village, Interior of Nyanza (From a Photograph.)] - -At length I spoke to him in his own language, using the sound which -they use for calling one another. He looked as if he knew what it -meant, but made no reply. I repeated the sound, and he rose up and -stood on his feet, as if he intended to come to me. Again I uttered -it, and he came a few feet closer, but shied to one side as if to -flank my position and get behind me. He stopped again to look, and I -repeated the word, in response to which he came up near my right side -and began to examine my clothing. He plucked at my coat sleeve a few -times, then at the leg of my trousers and at the top of my boot. He -was getting rather familiar for a stranger; but I felt myself to blame -for having given him the license to do so. For a while he continued -his investigations, then he deliberately put his left hand on my right -shoulder, his right foot on my knee, and climbed into my lap. He now -began to examine my helmet, ears, nose, chin, and mouth. He became a -little rough, and I tried to get him down out of my lap, but he was not -disposed to go. Finally I told my boy--who acted as interpreter--to -tell the native lads to come and take the ape away. This amused them -very much, for they saw that I was bigger than the ape, and they -thought I ought, therefore, to manage him myself. They complied, -however; but his apeship declined to go until one of the men of the -town interfered and compelled him to do so. - -As he got down from my lap one of the boys bantered him to play. He -accepted the challenge and ran after the lad until they reached the -end of the open space between the houses, when the boy fell upon the -ground, and the ape fell on him. They rolled and wallowed on the ground -for a time. Then the ape released himself and ran away to the other end -of the opening, the boy pursuing him. When they reached the end of the -street they again fell upon each other, and another scuffle ensued. -It was plain to be seen that the boy could run much faster than the -ape, but the ape did not try to elude him. The other children crowded -around them or followed them, looking on, laughing and shouting in the -greatest glee. First one boy and then another took his turn in the -play, but the ape did not lose interest in me. He stopped from time to -time to take another survey, but did not try again to get upon my lap. - -After a long time at this sport the ape quit playing and sat down by -the wall of a house, with his back against it; the children tried in -vain to induce him to resume; but he firmly declined, and sat there -like a tired athlete, picking his teeth with a bamboo splinter which -he had pulled off the side of the house. His conduct was so much like -that of the children with whom he was playing that one could not have -distinguished him from them except by his physique. He enjoyed the -game as much as they did and showed that he knew how to gain or use an -advantage over his adversary. In a scuffle he was stronger and more -active than the boys, but in the race they were the more fleet. He -screamed and yelled with delight, and in every way appeared to enter -into the spirit of the fun. - -This ape was about five years old, and his history, as it was given to -me, showed that he had been captured, when quite young, in the forest -near that place and ever since that time had lived in the village. -He had been the constant playmate of the children, ate with them, -and slept in the same houses with them. He was perfectly tame and -harmless; he knew by name every one in the village, and knew his own -name. - -The king’s son--to whom he belonged--assured me that the ape could -talk, and that he himself could understand what the animal said; but -he declined to gratify my request to hear it. However, he called the -ape by name, telling him to come, and the ape obeyed. The man then gave -him a long-necked gourd and told him to go to the spring and bring -some water. The animal hesitated, but after the command had been two -or three times repeated he reluctantly obeyed. After a few minutes he -returned with the gourd about half filled with water. In carrying the -vessel he held it by the neck, but this deprived him of the use of one -hand. He waddled along on his feet, using the other hand, but now and -then he set the gourd on the ground, still holding to it, and using it -something after the manner of a short stick. On delivering the gourd -of water to his master, he gave evidence of knowing that he had done a -clever thing. - -I expressed a desire to see him fill the gourd at the spring. The -water was then emptied out, and the gourd was again given to him. On -this occasion we followed him to the place where he got the water. -On arriving he leaned over the spring and pressed the gourd into the -water, but the mouth of it was turned down so that the water could -not flow into it. As he lifted the gourd out it turned to one side, -and a small quantity flowed into it. He repeated the act a number of -times and seemed to know how it ought to be done, although he was very -awkward in trying to do it. Whenever the water in the mouth of the -gourd bubbled, he dipped it back again and was evidently aware that it -was not filled. Finally, raising the vessel, he turned and offered it -to his master, who declined to relieve him of it. We turned to go back -into the town, and the ape followed us with the gourd; but all the way -along he continued to mutter a sound of complaint. - -He was next sent into the edge of the forest to bring firewood. He had -been gone only a few minutes when he returned with a small branch of -dead wood which he had picked up from the ground. He was again sent, -together with three or four children. When he returned on this occasion -he had three sticks in his hand. The man explained to me that when the -ape went alone he would never bring but one twig at a time, and this -was sometimes not bigger than a lead pencil; but if the children went -with him and brought wood, he would bring as much as he could grasp in -one hand. He also told me that the animal would sit down on the ground -and lay the sticks across one arm in the same manner as the children -did, but he invariably dropped them when he rose up. Then he would -seize what he could hold in one hand and bring it along. The man also -said that, in carrying a single stick, the ape always used only the -hand in which he held it; but that if he had three or four pieces he -always curved his arm inwards, holding the wood against his side, and -hobbled along with his feet and the other hand. - -The next thing with which the man entertained me was sending the ape -to call some one in the village. He first sent him to bring a certain -one of the man’s wives. She was several doors away from where we sat. -The ape went to one house, sat down at the door for a moment, looking -inside, and then moved slowly along to the next, which he entered. -Within a minute he appeared at the door, holding the cloth that the -woman wore tied around her, and in this manner led her to his master. -He was next sent to bring a certain boy. This he did in a similar -manner, except that the boy had on no clothing of any kind, and the ape -held him by the leg. - -During all these feats the man talked to him, as far as I could tell, -in the native language only; though he declared to me that some of the -words that he had used were those of the ape’s own speech. However, -he said that many words that the ape knew were of the native speech, -and that the ape had no such words in his language. One thing that -especially impressed me was a sound which I have elsewhere described -as meaning “good” or “satisfaction,” which this man said was the word -which these apes use to mean “mother.” My own servant had told me the -same thing, but I am still of the opinion that they are mistaken in -the meaning of the sound, although it is almost exactly the same as -the word for mother in the native speech. The difference being in the -vowel element only, it is possible, I grant, that the word may have -both meanings. A little later one of the women came to the door of -a house and said, in the native language, that something was ready -to eat; whereupon the children and the ape at once started. In the -mean time she set in front of the house an earthen pot, containing -boiled plantains, from which all the children and the ape alike -helped themselves. In brief, the ape was a part of the family and was -so regarded by all in the town. I do not know to what extent those -natives may have played upon my credulity, but so far as I could -discern, their statements concerning the animal were verified. - -I proposed to buy the ape, but the price asked was nearly twice that -of a slave. I could have bought any child in the town at a smaller -cost. I have never seen any other chimpanzee that I so much coveted. -When standing in an upright position, he was quite four feet in height, -strongly built and well proportioned. He was in a fine, healthy -condition and in the very prime of his life. He was not handsome in the -face, but his coat of hair was of good color and texture. He was of the -common variety, but a fine specimen. - -Mr. Otto Handmann, formerly the German consul at Gaboon, had a very -fair specimen of this same species of chimpanzee. He was a rough, burly -creature, but was well disposed and had in his face a look of wisdom -that was almost comical. He had been for some months a captive in a -native town, during which time he had become quite tame and docile. By -nature he was not humorous, but he appeared to acquire a sense of fun -as he grew older and became more familiar with the manners of men. - -On my return from the interior I was invited by the consul to take -breakfast with himself and a few friends; but owing to a prior -engagement, I was not able to be present. It was proposed by some one -of the guests that my vacant seat at the table should be filled by the -chimpanzee. He was brought into the room and permitted to occupy the -seat. He behaved himself with becoming gravity and was not abashed -in the presence of so many guests. He was served with such things as -were best suited to his liking, and his demeanor was such as to amuse -all present. On the proposal of a toast all the guests beat with their -hands upon the table, and in this the chimpanzee joined with apparent -pleasure. After a few rounds of this kind, one of the guests occupying -the seat next to the chimpanzee failed to respond with the usual -beating; the chimpanzee observed the fact, turned upon the guest, and -began to claw, scream, and pound him on the back and arm until the -gentleman proceeded to beat; whereupon the ape resumed his place and -joined in the applause. On this occasion he acquitted himself with -credit; but an hour later he had fallen into disgrace by drinking beer -until he was actually drunk, when he awkwardly climbed off the chair, -crawled under the table, and went to sleep. - -One of the clerks in the employ of the consul had a fair specimen of -this species. It was a female, perhaps two years younger than the one -just described, but equally addicted to the habit of drinking beer. It -is the custom among people on the coast to offer to a guest something -to drink, and on these occasions this young lady ape always expected to -partake with the others. If she was overlooked in pouring out the beer, -she always set up a complaint until she got her glass. If it was not -given to her, she would go from one to another, holding out her hand -and begging for a drink. If she failed to secure it, she watched her -opportunity, and while the guest was not looking would stealthily reach -up, take his glass off the table, drink the contents, and return the -glass to its place. She would do this with each one in turn until she -had taken the last glass; but if a glass was given to her at the same -time that the others were served, she was content with it and made no -attempt to steal that of another. In this act she evinced a skill and -caution worthy of a confirmed thief; she would secrete herself under -the table or behind a chair and watch her chance. She made no attempt -to steal the glass while it was being watched, but the instant she -discovered that she was not observed, or thought she was not, the theft -was committed. - -Her master frequently gave her a glass and a bottle of beer so that she -might help herself. She could pour the beer with dexterity. She often -spilt a portion of it and sometimes filled the glass to overflowing, -but she always set the bottle right end up, lifted the glass with both -hands, drained it, and refilled it as long as there was any in the -bottle. She could also drink from the bottle and would resort to this -method if no glass were given her. She knew an empty bottle from one -that contained beer. I may remark here that I have known at least five -or six chimpanzees that were fond of beer, and whenever they could get -it would drink until they were drunk. I have never seen one, that I am -aware of, that would drink spirits. - -This ape was very much attached to her master, would follow him and cry -after him like a child. She was affectionate to him; but she had been -so much annoyed by strangers that her temper was spoiled, and she was -irritable. - -Arriving on the south side of Lake Izanga, I found a young chimpanzee -at the house of a white trader. It was tied to a post in the yard, -where it was annoyed by the natives who came to the place to trade. On -approaching it for the first time, I spoke to it in its own language, -using the word for food. It recognized the sound at once and responded -to it. As I came nearer, it advanced as far towards me as the string -with which it was tied would allow. Standing erect and holding out its -hands, it repeated the sound two or three times. I gave it some dried -fish. This it ate with relish, and we at once became friends. Its -master permitted me to release it on the condition that I should not -allow it to escape. I untied the cord and took the little captive in my -arms. It put its arms around my neck as if I had been the only friend -it had on earth. It clung to me and would not consent for me to leave -it. I could but pity the poor, neglected creature. There it was, tied -in the hot sun, hungry, lonely, and exposed to the tortures of every -heartless native that chose to tease it. When it was not in my arms -it followed me around and would not leave me for a moment. Its master -cared but little for it and left it to the charge of his boy, who, like -all other natives, had no thought or concern for the comfort of any -creature but himself. I tried to purchase it, but the price was too -much, and after two days our friendship was broken forever. But I was -glad to learn soon after this that another of the traders had secretly -released it and let it escape into the forest. The man who did this -told me that he did it as an act of mercy. I often recall this little -prisoner to mind, and always feel a sense of gladness at knowing that -he was set at liberty by a humane friend. Whatever may have been his -fate in the forest, it could have been no worse than to be confined, -starved, and tormented, as he was while in captivity. - -Another small specimen which I saw at Gaboon was not of much interest -except from one fact, and that was it was broken out with an -eruptive disease prevalent among the natives. This disease is called -_craw-craw_, or _kra-kra_. It is said to originate from the water, -either by external or internal use of that fluid. This animal was -infected in the same way and on the same parts of the body as men are -affected by the same disease, and is another instance of apes being -subject to the same maladies as those of man. The specimen itself also -exemplified the difference in intellect among these animals, for this -one had in its face a look of mental weakness, and every act confirmed -the fact. It was silent, inactive, and obtuse. - -During my residence in the cage I saw fewer chimpanzees than gorillas; -but from those I did see it was an easy matter to determine that they -are much less shy and timid than the gorillas. - -On one occasion I heard a chimpanzee in the bush not far away from the -cage. I called him with the usual sound. He answered, but did not come -to the cage. It is probable that he could see it and was afraid of it. -I tried to induce Moses to call him, and he did once utter the sound; -but he appeared to regret having made the attempt. I called again and -the stranger answered, and from the manner in which Moses behaved it -was evident that the call had been understood. Moses would not attempt -the call again, but clung to my neck with his face buried under my -chin. It was probably jealousy that caused him to refuse, because he -did not want the other to share my attentions. I gave the food sound, -but I could not induce the visitor to come nearer. I failed to get a -view of him so as to tell how large he was, but from his voice I judged -that he must have been about full-grown. Whether he was quite alone or -not I was not able to tell; but only the one voice could be heard. - -Another time while I was sitting quite alone, a young chimpanzee, -perhaps five or six years old, appeared at the edge of a small opening -of the bush. He plucked a bud or leaf from a small plant. He raised it -to his nose and smelt it. He picked three or four buds of different -kinds, one or two of which he put in his mouth. He turned aside the -dead leaves that were lying on the ground, as if he expected to -find something under them. I spoke to him, using the call sound; he -instantly turned his eyes towards me, but made no reply. I uttered -the food sound, and he replied but did not move. He betrayed no sign -of fear and but little of surprise. He surveyed the cage and myself. -I repeated the sound two or three times. He refused to approach any -nearer. He turned his head from side to side for a moment, as if in -doubt which way to go; then he turned aside and disappeared in the -bush. He did not run or start away as if in great fear, but by the -sound of the shaking bushes it could be told that he increased his -speed after he had once disappeared from view. - -One day I had been for a stroll with Moses and the boy. As we returned -to the cage we saw a chimpanzee about half grown; he was crossing a -rugged little path about thirty yards away from us. He paused for a -moment to look at us, and we stopped. I tried to induce Moses to call -out to him, but he declined to do so. As the stranger turned aside I -called to him myself, but he neither stopped nor answered. This one -appeared to be quite brown, but the boy assured me the hair was jet -black, and that the light skin gave the appearance of brown color. To -satisfy myself, I had Moses placed in the same attitude and position, -and, looking at him from the same distance, I became convinced that the -boy was right. - -One morning, having started with Moses for a walk, we had gone only -some forty yards away from the cage when he made a sound of warning. I -instantly looked up and saw a large chimpanzee standing in the bush not -more than twenty yards away. I paused to observe him. He stood for a -moment, looking straight at us. I spoke to him, but he made no reply; -he moved off in a line almost parallel to the little path we were in, -and I returned towards the cage. He did not come any nearer to us, -but kept his course almost parallel with ours. From time to time he -turned his head to look, but gave no sign of attack. I called to him -several times, but he made no answer. When I had reached a place in -front of the cage I called again, and after the lapse of a few seconds -he stopped. By this time he was concealed from view. He halted only -for a moment, changed his course, and resumed his journey. This was -the largest chimpanzee I saw in the forest. Once, while sitting in the -cage, I heard the sound of something making its way through the bush -not more than twenty yards away; presently a chimpanzee came into -view. As it crossed the path near by, I called three or four times, but -it neither stopped nor answered. As well as I could tell, it appeared -to be a female and quite grown. - -I may take occasion to remark that, while the chimpanzee is mostly -found in large family groups,--as I have reason to believe, from native -accounts of them and from what has been told me by white men,--I have -never been able to see a family of them together. Each of these that I -have mentioned, so far as I could tell, was quite alone. Whether or not -the others were scattered through the forest in like manner, hunting -for food, and all came together after this, I cannot say. - -Another thing worthy of mention is the fact that both these apes, the -chimpanzee and the gorilla, live in the same forest, and twice on the -same day I have seen both kinds. This is contrary to the common idea -that they do not inhabit the same jungle. It appears that where there -is a great number of the one kind there are but a few of the other. -The natives say that in combat between the chimpanzee and the gorilla -the former is always victor, and on this account the gorilla fears the -chimpanzee. I believe this to be true, because the chimpanzee, although -not so strong as the gorilla, is more active and more intelligent. - -The chimpanzee will not approach or attack man if he can avoid him, but -he does not shrink from him as the gorilla does. One instance that will -illustrate this phase of his character I shall relate. On one occasion -recently, while I was on the coast, a native boy started across a small -plain near the trading station. With him was a dog that belonged to -the white trader of the place. The dog was in advance of the boy, and -as the latter emerged from a small clump of the bush he heard the dog -bark in a playful manner, and discovered him not more than thirty yards -away, prancing, jumping, and barking in a jolly way with a chimpanzee -which appeared to be five or six years old. The ape was standing in the -path along which the boy was proceeding. He was slapping at the dog -with his hands and did not seem to relish the sport; yet he was not -resenting it in anger. The dog thought the ape was playing with him, -and he was taking the whole thing in fun. The boy looked at them for a -few moments and retreated. As soon as he disappeared the dog desisted -and followed him to the house. The boy was afraid of the ape and made -no attempt to capture him. The ape was taken by surprise by the dog and -the boy, and thus had no time to escape. He did not strike to harm the -dog, but only to ward him off. The dog made no attempt to bite the ape, -but would jump up against him and knock him out of balance, and this -annoyed him. The ape didn’t seem to understand just what the dog meant. - -I shall not describe those apes that have been kept in captivity and -are well known; but I will mention some of them. The largest specimen -of the chimpanzee that I have ever seen was Chico, who belonged to Mr. -James A. Bailey of New York. He was as large perhaps as these apes ever -become, although he was less than ten years old when he died. - -Perhaps the most valuable specimen for scientific use that has ever -been in captivity is Johanna, who belongs to the same gentleman. The -history that is given of her, however, is hardly to be taken in full -faith. Her age cannot be determined with certainty, but it is said that -she is about thirteen years old. I have reason to doubt that, although -I cannot positively deny it. Whatever may be her exact age, it is -certain that she has now reached a complete adult state. She has grown -to be quite as large as Chico was at the time of his death. She is not -of amiable temper, but is much less vicious than he was. She has some -of the marks of a kulu-kamba. - -In order to justify my doubts upon the subject of Johanna’s age, I may -state that Chico was hardly ten years of age when he died, but he had -reached the adult period; and as males of any genus of the primates do -not reach that state sooner than the females, it is not probable, since -he was mature at ten, that she was not so until twelve. In the next -place, her captors claim to have seen her within a few hours after her -birth, and state that they watched her and her mother from time to time -until she was one year old. Then they killed the mother and captured -the babe. The claim is absurd. These apes are nomadic in habit and are -rarely ever seen twice in the same place. They claim that she was born -on January 19, but, from what I know of these apes, I conclude that -is not their season of bearing. I doubt if any of them _were_ ever -born during that month. Again, it is claimed that she was captured by -Portuguese explorers in the Congo, but the Portuguese do not possess -along that river any territory in which these apes are ever found. They -claim the territory around Kabinda, which would indicate that she came -from the Loango valley instead of the Congo; but the cupidity of the -average Portuguese would never allow anything to go at liberty for a -year if it could be sold before that time. - -Johanna is accredited with a great deal of intelligence, but I do not -regard her as being above the average of her race. Since the death -of her companion, Chico, she has received the sole attention of her -keeper, and since that time has been taught a few things which are -neither marvelous nor difficult. In point of intellect she cannot be -regarded as an extraordinary specimen of her tribe. I do not mean to -detract from her reputation, but I have failed to discover in her any -high order of mental qualities. - -The reason why Johanna may be regarded as the most valuable specimen -for study is the fact that she is the only female of her race that has -ever, in captivity, reached the state of puberty. She has done so, -and this fact enables us to determine certain things which have never -heretofore been known. This affords the zoologists an opportunity for -the study of her sexual developments which may not again present itself -in many years to come. From this important point of view she presents -the student with many new problems in that branch of science. I have -elsewhere stated my opinion that the female chimpanzee reaches the -age of puberty at seven to nine years, and I have many reasons which -I will not here recount that cause me to adhere to that belief. But -the uncertainty of the age of this ape does not destroy her value as a -subject of scientific study. - -The most sagacious specimen of the race that I have been brought in -contact with is Consul II, who is now an inmate of the Bellevue Garden -in Manchester, England. He has not been educated to perform mere tricks -to gratify the visitor, in the way that animals are usually trained, -but most of the feats that he performs are prompted by his own desire -and for his own pleasure. There is a vast difference in the motives -that prompt animals in the execution of these feats. I have elsewhere -mentioned the fact that animals that are caused to act from fear do so -mechanically, and the acts are not a true index to their intellect. -While Consul and a few other apes that I have seen do many things by -imitation, they do not do them by coercion. They seem to understand the -purpose and foresee the result, and these impel them to act. - -Some of the feats performed by this ape I have never seen attempted by -any other. One accomplishment is the riding of a tricycle. He knows the -machine by the name of “bike,” although it is not really a bicycle. He -can adjust it and mount it with the skill of an acrobat. The ease and -grace with which he rides are sufficient to provoke the envy of any -boy in England. He propels it with great skill and steers it with the -accuracy of an expert. He guides it around angles and obstacles with -absolute precision. He is allowed to go at liberty a great deal of his -time; and this is the proper way to treat these apes in captivity. He -rides the wheel for his own diversion. He does not do it to gratify -strangers or to “show off.” - -[Illustration: CONSUL II RIDING A TRICYCLE (From a Photograph.)] - -Another accomplishment which Consul has is that of smoking a pipe, -a cigar, or a cigarette. This may not be commended from a moral -standpoint, but it appears to afford him quite as much pleasure as it -does the average boy when he first acquires the habit. He has also -formed the habit of spitting as he smokes,--but he has the good manners -not to spit on the floor. When Consul has his pipe lighted he usually -sits on the floor to enjoy a smoke, and he spreads down before him a -sheet of paper to spit on. When he has finished smoking he rolls up -the paper and throws it into some corner, out of the way. When playing -about the grounds he often finds a cigar stub. He knows what it is, -picks it up, puts it into his mouth, and at once goes to his keeper for -a light. He will not attempt to light his pipe or cigar, because he is -afraid of burning his fingers; but he will light a match and hand it to -his keeper to hold while lighting the pipe. He sometimes takes a piece -of paper, lights it in the fire, and hands it to some one else to light -his pipe for him. He is afraid of the fire and will not hold the paper -while it is burning. If any one hesitates to take it, he throws it at -him and then gets out of the way. He is not fond of cigarettes, because -he gets the tobacco in his mouth, and he does not like the taste of it. - -When Consul is furnished with a piece of chalk he begins to draw some -huge figure on the wall or the floor. He never attempts to make a small -design with chalk, but if given a pencil and paper, he executes some -peculiar figure of smaller design. Those made with the chalk or the -pencil are usually round or oval in shape, but if given a pen and ink, -he at once begins to make a series of small figures containing many -acute angles. Whether these results are from design or accident I -cannot say, but he appears to have a well-defined idea as to the use of -the instrument. Whether he can distinguish between writing and drawing -I am unable to say. - -The only abstract thing that his keeper has tried to teach him is to -select from the letters of the alphabet. He has learned to distinguish -the first three. These are made upon the faces of cubical blocks of -wood; each block contains one letter on each of its faces. He selects -with very few mistakes the letter asked for, and errors appear to -result from indifference rather than from ignorance. - -Consul is very fond of play, and he makes friends with some strangers -on sight, but to others he takes an aversion without any apparent -cause; and, while he is not disposed to be vicious when not annoyed, he -resents with anger the approaches of certain persons. He is the only -ape I have seen that can use a knife and fork with very much skill; -but he cuts up his food with almost as much ease as a boy of the same -age would do, and he uses his fork in eating. He has been taught to do -this, until he rarely uses his fingers in the act. He is fond of coffee -and beer, but does not care for spirits. - -There is nothing that so much delights Consul as to get into the large -cage of monkeys and baboons kept in the garden. Most of them are afraid -of him. But one large Guinea baboon is not so, and on every occasion he -shows his dislike for the ape. The latter takes many chances in teasing -him, but always manages to evade his attack. He displays much skill and -a great degree of caution in playing these pranks upon the baboon when -at close range. Upon the approach of the ape the other animals in the -cage all seek some refuge, and he finds great diversion in stealing up -to their place of concealment to frighten them. Consul is very strong -and can lift objects of surprising weight. It is awkward for him to -stand in an upright position, but he does so with more ease than any -other chimpanzee that I have ever seen. If any one will take hold of -his hand, he will stroll for a long time and without apparent fatigue. - -Owing to the sudden changes of temperature in that part of England -where he is kept, he is provided with a coat and is often required to -wear it when going out of doors. He does not like to be hampered with -such a garment, and if for a moment he is not watched, he removes it -and sometimes hides it to keep from wearing it. He is also provided -with trousers; these he dislikes more if possible than his coat, but, -above all other articles of wearing apparel, he dislikes shoes. His -keeper often puts them on him, but whenever he gets out of sight he -unties and removes them. He cannot tie the laces, but can untie them -in an instant. He does not evince so much aversion to a hat or a cap -and will sometimes put one on without being told; but he has a perfect -mania for a silk hat and, if allowed to do so, he would demolish that -of every stranger who comes to the garden. He has a decided vein of -humor and a love of approbation. When he does anything that is funny -or clever, he is perfectly aware of the fact; and when by any act he -evokes a laugh from any one, he is happy and recognizes the approval by -a broad chimpanzee grin. - -In the corner of the monkey house is a room set apart for the keeper, -and in this room supplies of food for the inmates are kept. In a small -cupboard in one corner is kept a supply of bananas and other fruits. -Consul knows this and has tried many times to burglarize it. On one -occasion he secured a large screw-driver and attempted to prise open -the door. He found the resistance to be greatest at the place where the -door locked, and at this point he forced the instrument in the crevice -and broke off a piece of the wood, about an inch wide, from the edge -of the door. At this juncture he was discovered and reproved for his -conduct; but he never fails to stick his fingers in this crack and try -to open the door. He has not been able to unlock it when the key is -given him, although he knows the use of the key and has often tried it; -but his keeper has never imparted the secret to him, and his method of -using the key has been to prise with it or pull it, instead of turning -it after putting it in the keyhole. - -The young keeper, Mr. Webb, deserves great credit for his untiring -attention to this valuable young ape, and the results of his zeal are -worthy of the recognition of every man who is interested in the study -of animals. - -Another specimen that may be regarded as an intermediate type was -recently kept in Bellevue Gardens at Manchester. He was playful and -full of mischief. He had been taught to use a stick or broom in fight, -and with such a weapon in his hand he would run all over the building, -hunting some one to attack. He did not appear to be serious in his -assault, but treated it as fun. It is a bad thing to teach to apes, -because they grow pugnacious as they grow older, and all animals kept -closely confined acquire a bad temper. - -[Illustration: MR. CROWLEY, LATE OF THE NEW YORK ZOÖLOGICAL GARDEN -(Taken from Life.)] - -In an adjoining cage was kept a young orang, and the two ate at the -same table. The chimpanzee appeared to entertain a species of contempt -for the orang. The keeper had taught him to pass the bread to his -neighbor, but he obeyed with such reluctance that his manner betrayed -more disgust than kindness. A few small pieces of bread were placed on -a tin plate, and the kulu was required to lift the plate in his hand -and offer it to the orang before he himself was allowed to eat. He -would lift the plate a few inches above the table and hold it before -the orang’s face; when the latter had taken a piece of the bread, the -chimpanzee withdrew the plate, held it for a moment, and dropped it. -Meanwhile he kept his eyes fixed on the orang. The manner in which he -dropped the plate looked as if he did so in contempt. When the meal was -finished, the kulu would drink his milk from a cup, wipe his mouth with -the serviette, and then get down from the table. The orang would slowly -climb down and go back to his cage. We shall not describe the details -of their home life, but they were two jolly young bachelors, one of -which was as stupid as the other was bright. - -The specimens that were kept in the Gardens in New York were very -fine. One of them was mentally equal to any other specimen hitherto -in captivity. There were two kept in the Cincinnati Gardens which -were also very fine. So far as I am aware, there have never been but -nine of these apes brought to America; but six of these lived longer, -and four of them grew to be larger, than any other specimens of this -race have ever done in captivity. For some reason they never survive -long in England or other parts of Europe. This is probably due to -some condition of the atmosphere. It cannot be from a difference of -treatment. - -I have seen a large number of chimpanzees; most of them were in -captivity; yet I have seen enough of them in a wild state to gain some -idea of their habits and manner. Those described will be sufficient to -show the mental character of the genus. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX - -Other Kulu-Kambas--A Knotty Problem--Instinct or Reason--Various Types - - -Whether the kulu-kamba is a distinct species of ape, or only a -well-marked variety of the chimpanzee, he is by far the finest -representative of his genus. Among those that I have seen are some very -good specimens, and the clever things that I have witnessed in them are -sufficient to stamp them as the highest type of all apes. - -On board a small river steamer that plies the Ogowé was a young female -kulu that belonged to the captain. Her face was not by any means -handsome, and her complexion was darker than that of any other kulu -I have ever seen. It was almost a coffee color. There were two or -three spots yet darker in shade, but not well defined in outline. The -dark spots looked as if they had been artificially put on the face. -The color was not solid, but looked as if dry burnt umber had been -rubbed or sprinkled over a surface of lighter brown. Although she was -young (perhaps not more than two years old), her face looked almost -like that of a woman of forty. Her short, flat nose, big, flexible -lips, protruding jaws, and prominent arches over the eyes, with a low, -receding forehead, conspired to make her look like a certain type of -human being one frequently sees. This gave her what is known as a -dish-face, or concave profile. - -She had a habit of compressing her nose by contracting the muscles of -the face, curling her lips as if in scorn and at the same time glancing -at those around her as if to express the most profound contempt. -Whatever may have been the sentiment in her mind, her face was a -picture of disdain, and the circumstances under which she made use of -these grimaces certainly pointed to the fact that she felt just as -she looked. At other times her visage would be covered with a perfect -smile. It was something more than a grin, and the fact that it was -used only at a time when she was pleased or diverted showed that the -emotion which gave rise to it was perfectly in keeping with the face -itself. In repose her face was neither pretty nor ugly. It did not -strongly depict a high mental status, nor yet portray the instincts of -a brute; but her countenance was a safe index to her mind. This is true -of the chimpanzee more, perhaps, than of any other ape. The gorilla -doubtless feels the sense of pleasure, but his face does not yield -to the emotion, while the opposite passions are expressed with great -intensity, and with the common chimpanzee it is the same way, but not -to the same extent. - -The kulu in question was more a coquette than a shrew. She plainly -showed that she was fond of flattery; not perhaps in the same sense -that a human being is, but she was certainly conscious of approbation -and fond of applause. When she accomplished anything difficult, she -seemed aware of it; and when she succeeded in doing a thing which she -ought not to do, she never failed to express herself in the manner -described above. She always appeared to be perfectly conscious of being -observed by others, but she was defiant and composed. There is nothing -known in the catalogue of mischief that she was not ready to tackle at -any moment and take her chances on the result. From the stokehole to -the funnel, from the jack-staff to the rudder, she explored that boat. -To keep her out of mischief, she was tied on the saloon deck with a -long line; but no one aboard the vessel was able to tie a knot in the -line which she could not untie with dexterity and ease. Her master, who -was a sailor and an expert in the art of tying knots, exhausted his -efforts in trying to make one that would defy her skill. - -On one occasion I was aboard the little steamer when the culprit was -brought up from the main deck, where she had been in some mischief, and -was tied to one of the rails along the side of the boat. The question -of tying her was discussed, and at length a new plan was devised. In -the act of untying a knot she always began with the part of the knot -that was nearest to her. It was now agreed to tie the line around one -of the rails on the side of the deck, about halfway between the two -stanchions that supported it, then to carry the loose ends of the line -to the stanchion, and make them fast in the angle of the stanchion -and the rail. As soon as she was left alone she began to examine the -knots. She made no attempt at first to untie them, but she felt them, -as if to see how firmly they were made. She then climbed upon the iron -rail around which the middle of the line was tied and slackened the -knot. She pulled first at one strand and then at the other; but one -end was tied to the stanchion and the other to her neck, and she could -find no loose end to draw through. First one way and then the other -she drew this noose. She saw that in some way it was connected with -the stanchion. She drew the noose along the rail until it was near the -post; she climbed down upon the deck, then around the post and back -again; she climbed up over the rails and down on the outside, and again -carefully examined the knot; she climbed back, then through between the -rails and back, then under the rails and back, but she could find no -way to get this first knot out of the line. For a moment she sat down -on the deck and viewed the situation with evident concern. She slowly -rose to her feet and again examined the knot; she moved the noose back -to its place in the middle of the rail, climbed up by it, and again -drew it out as far as the strands would allow. Again she closed it; -she took one strand in her hand and traced it from the loop to the -stanchion; then she took the other end in the same manner and traced it -from the loop to her neck. She looked at the loop and then slowly drew -it out as far as it would come. She sat for a while holding it in one -hand, and with the other moved each strand of the knot. She was in a -deep study and did not even deign a glance at those who were watching -her. At length she took the loop in both hands, deliberately put it -over her head and crawled through it. The line thus released dropped -to the deck; she quickly descended, took hold of it near her neck, and -found that it was untied; she gathered it up as she advanced towards -the other end that was tied to the post, and at once began to loosen -the knots about it. In a minute more the last knot was released. She -then gathered the whole line into a bundle, looked at those around her -with that look of contempt which we have described, and departed at -once in search of other mischief. Her air of triumph and content was -enough to convince any one of her opinion of what she had done. - -If this feat was the result of instinct, the lexicons must give another -definition for that word. There were six white men who witnessed the -act, and the verdict of all of them was that she had solved a problem -which few children of her own age could have done. Every movement -was controlled by reason. The tracing out of cause and effect was -too evident for any one to doubt. Almost any animal can be taught to -perform certain feats, but that does not show innate capacity. The -only true measure of the faculty of reason is to reduce the actor to -his own resources and see how he will handle himself under some new -condition; otherwise the act will be, at least in part, mechanical or -imitative. In all my efforts to study the mental caliber of animals I -have confined them strictly to their own judgment, and left them to -work out the problem alone. By this means only can we estimate to what -extent they apply the faculty of reason. No one doubts that all animals -have minds which are receptive in some degree. But it has often been -said that they are devoid of reason and controlled alone by some vague -attribute called instinct. Such is not the case. It is the same faculty -of the mind that men employ to solve the problems that arise in every -sphere of life, the one which sages and philosophers have used in every -phase of science, differing only in degree. - -This kulu-kamba knew the use of a corkscrew. This knowledge she had -acquired from seeing it applied by men. While she could not use it -herself with success, she often tried, and she never applied it to -a wrong purpose. She would take the deck broom and scrub the deck, -unless there were water on it; in that event she always left the job. -She did not seem to know the purpose of sweeping the deck, and never -swept the dirt before the broom. The action was doubtless imitative. -She only grasped the idea that a broom was used to scrub the deck, but -she failed to observe the effect produced. However, it cannot be said -with certainty to what extent she was aware of the effect, but it is -inferred from the fact that she did not try to remove the dirt. She -knew what coal was intended for, and she often climbed into the bunker -and threw it down by the furnace door. The furnace door and steam gauge -were two things that escaped her busy fingers. I do not know how she -learned the danger of them, but she never touched them. She had to be -watched to keep her from seizing the machinery. For this she seemed to -have a strong desire, but did not know the danger she might incur. - -I was aboard a ship when a trader brought off from the beach a young -kulu to be sent to England. The little captive sat upright on the deck -and seemed aware that he was being sent away. At any rate, his face -wore a look of deep concern, as if he had no friend to whom he could -appeal. On approaching him I spoke to him, using his own word for food. -He looked up and promptly answered it. He looked as if in doubt as to -whether I was a big ape or something else. I repeated the sound, and -he repeated the answer and came towards me. As he approached me I again -gave the sound. He came up and sat by my feet for a moment, looking -into my face. I uttered the sound again, when he took hold of my leg -and began to climb up as if it had been a tree. He climbed up to my -neck and began to play with my lips, nose, and ears. We at once became -friends, and I tried to buy him; but the price asked was more than I -desired to pay. I regretted to part with him, but he was taken back to -the beach, and I never saw him again. - -On another occasion one was brought aboard, and after speaking to him -I gave him an orange; he began to eat it and at the same time caught -hold of the leg of my trousers as if he did not wish me to leave him. I -petted and caressed him for a moment and turned away, but he held on to -me. He waddled about over the deck, holding on to my clothes, and would -not release me. He was afraid of his master and the native boy who had -him in charge. He was a timid creature, but was quite intelligent, and -I felt sorry for him because he seemed to realize his situation. - -On the same voyage I saw one in the hands of a German trader. It was a -young male, about one year old. He promptly answered the food sound. -Then I called him to come to me; but this sound he neither answered nor -complied with. He looked at me as if to ask where I had learned his -language. I repeated the sound several times, but elicited no answer. -I have elsewhere called attention to the fact that these apes do not -answer the call when they can see the one who makes it, and they do -not always comply with it. In this respect they behave very much like -young children, and it may be remarked that one difficulty in all apes -is to secure fixed attention. This is exactly the same with young -children. Even when they clearly understand, sometimes they betray no -sign of having heard. At other times they show that they both hear and -understand, but do not comply. - -Another specimen that was brought aboard a ship when I was present -was a young male, something less than two years old. He was sullen -and morose. He did not resent my approaches, but he did not encourage -them. I first spoke to him with the food sound, but he gave no heed. -I retired a little distance from him and called him, but he paid no -attention. I then used the sound of warning; he raised his head and -looked in the direction from which the sound came. I repeated it, and -he looked at me for a moment and turned his head away. I repeated it -again. He looked at me, then looked around as if to see what it meant, -and again resumed his attitude of repose. - -On my last voyage to the coast I saw a very good specimen in the Congo. -It was a female, a little more than two years old. She was also of a -dark complexion, but quite intelligent. She had been captured north of -there, and within the limits elsewhere described. At the time I saw her -she was ill and under treatment; but her master, the British consul, -told me that when she was well she was bright and sociable. I made no -attempt to talk with her, except some time after having left her I gave -the call sound. She answered by looking around the corner of the house. -I do not know whether she would have come or not, as she was tied and -could not have come had she desired to do so. - -I have seen a few specimens of this ape, and most of them appear to -be of a somewhat higher order than the ordinary chimpanzee; but there -is among them a wide range of intelligence. It would be a risk to say -whether the lowest specimen of kulu is higher or lower than the highest -specimen of the common chimpanzee, but taken as a whole they are much -superior. I shall not describe the specimens which have been known in -captivity, since most of them have been amply described by others. - -If proper conditions were afforded to keep a pair of kulus in training -for some years, it is difficult to say what they might not be taught. -They are not only apt in learning what they are taught, but they are -well disposed and can apply their accomplishment to some useful end. -We cannot say to what extent they may be able to apply what they learn -from man, because the necessity of using such knowledge is removed by -the attention given to them. - - - - -CHAPTER XX - -The Gorilla--His Habitat--Skeleton--Skull--Color--Structural -Peculiarities - - -In the order of nature the gorilla occupies the second place below man. -His habitat is the lowlands of tropical West Africa, and it is confined -to very narrow limits. The vague lines which bound his realm cannot be -defined with absolute precision, but those generally given in books -that treat of him are not correct. If he ever occupied any part of the -coast north of the equator, he has long since become extinct in that -part; but there is nothing to show that he ever did exist there. So -far as I have been able to trace the lines that define the extent of -his native haunts, they appear to confine him to the low delta country -lying between the equator and the Loango valley along the coast, and -reaching eastward to the interior--an average distance of less than -one hundred miles. The eastern boundary is very irregular. The extreme -limit on the north side is about the Gaboon River, eastward to the -foothills of the Crystal Mountains; thence southward to the Ogowé River -to the vicinity of the mouth of the Nguni; thence up that river twenty -or thirty miles; thence by a zigzag line along the western base of the -dividing lands between the Congo basin and the Atlantic watershed, to -the head-waters of the Chi Loango River, and with that valley to the -coast. Beyond these lines I have found no reliable trace of him, and -along this boundary only now and then is he found, except along the -coast. - -I have seen two adult skulls and two infant skulls of the gorilla -that were brought by Mr. Wm. S. Cherry from the Kisanga valley, which -lies on the north side of the middle Congo, into which the Kisanga -River flows. The skulls are the only evidence I have found of this ape -existing so far eastward; but they were said to have come from that -part of the valley lying directly under the equator. Mr. Cherry himself -did not collect them. He secured them from natives, and he does not -claim to have seen any of those apes alive. - -There appear to be three centers of gorilla population. The first is in -the basin of Izanga Lake; the second is on the south side of the basin -of Lake Nkami; and the third is in the basin of the lake east of Sette -Kama and west of the Nkami River. The gorilla is rarely, if ever, found -in high or hilly districts. He appears to be restricted to the hummock -lands, which are elevated only a few feet above tide-level. This is -all the more singular from the fact that the ape appears to have a -morbid dislike for water, and it is doubtful whether or not he can -swim. It is true that he has one peculiar characteristic that belongs -to aquatic animals. He has a kind of web between the digits; but its -purpose cannot be to aid in swimming. I have been told that the gorilla -can swim, and the statement may be true; but I have never observed -anything in his habits to confirm this, and I have noted many facts -that controvert it. - -I know of no valid reason why he should be confined to the limits -mentioned, unless it be on account of climatic conditions which are -peculiar to this district. South of it the climate along the coast is -much cooler. The country east of it is hilly and comparatively barren. -North of the equator is a land of almost perpetual rain. Within this -district dry and rainy seasons are more equally divided and more -uniform in temperature. - -The gorilla appears to be an indigenous product which does not bear -transplanting. He thrives only in a low, hot, and humid region, -infested by malaria, miasma, and fevers. It is doubtful if he can long -survive in a pure atmosphere. The only specimen that I have ever heard -of north of the equator was one on the south side of the Komo River, -which is the north branch of the Gaboon. The point at which I heard of -his being was within a few miles of the equator. I also heard of five -having been seen a few miles southwest from Njole, which is located on -the equator on the north bank of the Ogowé, a little way east of the -Nguni. They were said to be the first and only ones ever seen in that -region within the memory of man. As to their being found between Gaboon -and Cameroon, I find no trace along the coast of one ever having been -seen in that part. - -Certain writers have mentioned the fact that, in 1851 and 1852, -gorillas came in great numbers from the interior to the coast. The -fact is that then the gorilla was practically unknown to science. He -had been reported by Ford, Savage, and others, but prior to that time -there are no data to show whether or not they were more numerous -in the years mentioned. There had never been a specimen brought to -civilization. It was about that time that Dr. Ford sent a skeleton -to America, and one had been previously sent to England. Some years -earlier Dr. Savage had announced the existence of such a creature and -had sent sketches of a skull, but it was more than ten years after the -period in question that Paul du Chaillu brought out the first skins of -gorillas and gave detailed accounts of their character, habits, and -geographical distribution. From these facts it is not rash to conclude -that the migrations of 1851 and 1852 are mere matters of fancy. - -Gorillas are found in the Ogowé delta, about one degree south latitude; -but not one has ever been known to come from the Crystal Mountains. At -the time above mentioned neither traders nor missionaries had ascended -the Gaboon River above Parrot Island (which is less than twenty miles -from the mouth), except to make a flying trip by canoe. Nothing was -known of those parts except what was learned from the natives, and that -was very little. During my first voyage I went up the river as far as -Nenge Nenge, about seventy-five miles from the coast. At that place I -spent two days with a white trader, who had been stationed there for a -year. I was assured by him that there were no gorillas in that section. -The natives report that they have been found in the lowlands south -of there, in the direction of the Ogowé basin; but their reports are -conflicting, and none of them, so far as I could learn, claims that -they are found north of there, nor in the mountains eastward. I admit -that they may have been found in, and may yet inhabit, the strip of -land between the Gaboon and the Ogowé; but I repeat that there is no -tangible proof that they were ever found north of the Gaboon. With due -respect to Sir Richard Owen and other writers who have never been in -that country, I insist that they are mistaken. It is true that one of -the tribes living north of the Gaboon has a name for this animal; but -it does not follow that the ape lives in that country. The Orungu tribe -has a name for lion, but there is not such a beast within two hundred -miles of their country. Not one of that tribe ever saw a lion. - -A number of specimens of gorillas have been secured at Gaboon, but -they have been brought there from far away. It is the chief town of -the colony, and there are more white men there than elsewhere to buy -them. It is not possible for a stranger to ascertain what part of the -country a specimen is brought from. The native hunter will not tell the -truth, lest some one else should find the game and thus deprive him of -its capture and sale. I saw a specimen at Cameroon, and was told it had -been captured in that valley, fifty miles from the coast; but I hunted -up its history and found with absolute certainty that it was captured -near Mayumba, two hundred miles south of Gaboon. - -Even with the greatest care in hunting up the history of a specimen, -one may fail, and often does fail, in tracing it to its true source; -but every one, so far, that I have followed up has been brought from -somewhere within the limits I have laid down. Contrary to the statement -of some authorities that these apes “have never been seen on the coast -since 1852,” I assert that by far the greatest number of them are found -near the coast. I do not mean to say that they sit on the sand along -the beach, or bathe in the surf, but they live in the jungle of the low -coast belt. Along the lower Congo the gorilla is known only by name, -and scores of the natives do not know even that. The nearest point to -that river that I have been able to locate the gorilla as a native is -in the territory about sixty or seventy miles northwest of Stanley Pool. - -I am much indebted to the late Carl Steckelman, who was an old resident -of the coast, a good explorer, a careful observer, and an extensive -traveler. He was drowned at Mayumba in my presence in October, 1895. -I knew him well and secured from him much information concerning the -gorilla. On a map he traced out for me what he believed to be the south -and southeast limits of the gorilla’s habitat. Not thirty minutes -before the accident in which he lost his life I had closed arrangements -with him to make an expedition from Mayumba to the Congo, near Stanley -Pool, by one route and return by another, but his death prevented the -fulfillment of this plan. - -Dr. Wilson, who was the first missionary at Gaboon, located there in -1842. About six years after that time he wrote a lexicon of the native -language. In this the name of the gorilla does not appear at all. If -the ape had been so very common, it is not probable that his name would -have been omitted from this lexicon. Eight years later Dr. Walker, in -a revision of the book, gave the definition, “a monkey larger than a -man.” But he had never seen a specimen of the ape, except the skulls -and a skeleton which had been brought from other parts. It is true -that at Gaboon Dr. Savage first learned about the gorilla and there -secured a skull. From this he made drawings, on which account his name -was attached to that of the animal in natural history. It was still a -few years later that Dr. Ford sent the first skeleton to America, and -Captain Harris sent the first to England. The former skeleton is in the -Museum of Zoölogy at Philadelphia. Both of these specimens may have -come from any place a hundred miles away from Gaboon. - -It is possible that at this early date the gorilla may have occupied -the peninsula south of the Gaboon River in greater numbers than he -has since done, because up to that time there had been no demand for -specimens. If this was true at that time, it is not so now; and if -he is not extinct in that part, he is so rare as to make it doubtful -whether or not he is found there at all as a native. In four journeys -along the Ogowé River and the lakes of that valley I made careful -inquiries at many of the towns, and the natives always assured me -that the gorillas lived on the south side of that river. I spent five -days at the village of Moiro, which is located on the north side of -the river and about fifty miles from the coast. There I was told by -the native woodsmen that no gorillas lived on the north side of the -river, but that there were plenty of them along the lakes south of the -river. They said that in the forest back of their town were plenty of -chimpanzees, and that they were sometimes mistaken for gorillas, but -there were absolutely none of the latter in that part. - -In view of these and countless other facts I deem it safe to say -that few or no gorillas can be found at any point north of the Ogowé -River; and I doubt if the specimen heard of on the Komo was a genuine -gorilla. The natives sometimes claim to have something of the kind -for sale, in order to get a bonus from some trader, when in truth they -may not have anything of the kind. The only point north of the Ogowé -at which I have had any reason to believe a gorilla was ever found -was in the neighborhood of a small lake called Inenga. This lake is -nearly due west from the mouth of the Nguni River and something more -than a hundred miles from the coast. Certain reports along that part -appeared to have a flavor of truth; but there was no evidence except -the statement of the natives. - -In the lake region south of the river they are fairly abundant as far -south as the head-waters of the Rembo, Nkami, and through the low -country of the Esyira tribe; but they are very rare in the remote -forests and unknown in the highlands and plains of that country. South -of the Chi Loango they are quite unknown, and south of the Congo they -are never heard of. - -There are no possible means of estimating their number; but they are -not so numerous as has been supposed, and from the reckless slaughter -carried on by the natives in order to secure specimens for white men, -they may ultimately become extinct. Up to this time their ferocity -alone has saved them from such a fate. But the use of improved arms -will soon overcome that barrier. - -The skeleton of the gorilla is so nearly the same as that of -the chimpanzee--which has elsewhere been compared to the human -skeleton--that we shall not review the comparison at length; but we -must note one marked feature in the external form of the skull, which -differs alike from other apes and from man. - -The skull of the young gorilla is much like that of the chimpanzee and -remains so until it approaches the adult state. At this period the -ridge above the eyes becomes more prominent, and at the same time a -sharp, bony ridge begins to develop along the temples and continues -around the back of the head on that part of the skull called the -occiput. At this point it is intersected by another ridge at right -angles to it. This is called the sagittal ridge. It runs along the top -of the head towards the face; but on the forehead it flattens nearly to -the level of the skull and divides into two very low ridges, which turn -off to a point above the eyes and merge into that ridge. These form a -continuous part of the skull and are not joined to it by sutures. The -mesial crest in a very old specimen rises to the height of nearly two -inches above the surface of the skull, and imparts to it a fierce and -savage aspect; but in the living animal the crests are not seen, as the -depressions between them are filled with large muscles, which make the -head look very much larger than it otherwise would. These crests affect -only the exterior of the skull and do not appear to alter the form or -size of the brain cavity, which is slightly larger in proportion than -that of the chimpanzee. These crests are peculiar to the male gorilla. -The female skull shows no trace of them. - -There is at least one case in which the male gorilla has failed to -develop this crest. In the series of skulls found in the cuts given -herewith, No. 6 is that of an adult male gorilla. I know it to be such, -for I dissected the animal and prepared the skeleton for preservation. -He was killed in the basin of Lake Ferran Vaz, not more than three or -four hours’ walk from my cage, and his body was at once brought to me. -A good idea of his size can be obtained by reference to another cut -given herewith. This cut is copied from a photograph taken by me. It -shows some natives in the act of skinning the gorilla. - -[Illustration: SKULLS OF GORILLAS--FRONT VIEW (From a Photograph in -Buffalo Museum.)] - -[Illustration: SKULLS OF GORILLAS--PROFILE VIEW (From a Photograph in -Buffalo Museum.)] - -In this picture the gorilla is sitting flat on the sand; his body is -limp and is somewhat shorter than it was in life. Yet it can be seen -that the top of his head is higher than the hip of the man who is -holding him. In the foreground, on the left of the gorilla, sits the -man who killed him. He is sitting on a log and is thereby a little more -elevated than the gorilla. It did not occur to me to place them side -by side in order to make a comparison. As he sits, the body and head -of this gorilla measure nearly four feet from the base of the spinal -column to the top of the head. I had no means of weighing him, but made -an estimate by lifting him. I estimate that he weighed at least two -hundred and forty pounds. He was not an old specimen, but comparing the -skull with No. 7, in which the crests are well developed, it is found -to be larger, and other things point to the conclusion that he was -older than No. 7. - -I am aware that one specimen does not of itself establish anything, but -in this case it shows that the male gorilla does not always develop -the crest. The head of this specimen was surmounted by the red crown -which I have elsewhere described. No. 1, which is the skull of my pet, -Othello, had the same mark. He was captured near the place where No. 6 -was killed. - -No. 2 is the skull of a female nearly four years old. She had the same -mark. She was also captured in the same basin, but on the opposite -side of the lake. The facial bones of No. 6 show that he had received a -severe blow early in life; but the fragments had knit together, and the -effect could not be seen in the face of the ape while alive. - -No. 8 is the skull of a large male from Lake Izanga, which is on the -south side of the Ogowé River, more than a hundred miles from the -coast. This is one of the three centers of population mentioned. I do -not know the history of this specimen. It was presented to me by Mr. -James Deemin, an English trader, with whom I traveled many days on the -Ogowé River, and who extended to me many courtesies. - -No. 5 is the skull of an adult female. By comparing it in profile with -No. 6, it will be seen that they resemble each other closely, except -that the muzzle of the latter projects a little more, and the curvature -of the skull across the top is less; but the transverse distance is a -little greater. Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 are females; the others are males. - -[Illustration: NATIVES SKINNING A GORILLA (From a Photograph.)] - -While this series is not complete in either sex, it is an excellent one -for comparative study. I do not know whether or not the heads of those -with the crests were the same color as No. 6, but the _ntyii_, which -I have mentioned as possibly a new specimen of the gorilla, does not -have this crown of red. His ears are also said to be larger than those -of the gorilla, but smaller than the chimpanzee’s. He is reputed to -grow to a larger size than either of them. The skin of the gorilla is a -dull black or mummy color over the body; but over the face it is a jet -black, quite smooth and soft. It looks almost like velvet. - -One fact peculiar to this ape is that the palms of both the hands -and the feet are perfectly black. In other animals these are usually -lighter in color than the exposed parts. In most other apes, monkeys, -baboons, and lemurs, as in all races of men, the palms are lighter -than the backs of the hands and feet. The thumb of the gorilla is more -perfect than that of the chimpanzee, yet it is smaller in proportion to -the hand than in man. The hand is very large, but has more the shape of -the hand of a woman than that of a man. The fingers taper in a graceful -manner, but by reason of the web alluded to they appear much shorter -than they really are. It is not really a web in the true sense, but the -integument between the fingers is extended down almost to the second -joint. The forward edge of this is concave when the fingers are spread. -When the fingers are brought together the skin on the knuckles becomes -wrinkled, and the web almost disappears. This is more readily noticed -in the living animal than in the dead. The texture of the skin in the -palms is coarsely granulated, and the palmar lines are indistinct. The -great toe sets at an angle from the side of the foot, thus resembling -a thumb. It has more prehension than the corresponding member of the -hand. The foot is less flexible than the hand, but it has greater -strength and prehension. - -At this point I wish to draw attention to one important fact. The -tendons of the foot, which open and close the digits, are imbedded in -the palm in a deep layer of coarse, gristly matter, which forms a pad, -as it were, under the soles of the foot and prevents it from bending. -Therefore it is not possible for a gorilla to sleep on a perch. In -this respect he resembles man more than the chimpanzee does, but it -is quite certain that neither of them has the true arboreal habit. -The gorilla is an expert climber, but he cannot sleep in a tree. In -the hand the tendons which close the fingers are the same length as -the line of the bones, and this permits him to open the fingers to a -straight line, which the chimpanzee cannot do. - -One other important point I desire to mention. The muscles in the leg -of the gorilla will not permit the animal to stand or walk erect. The -large muscle at the back of the leg is shorter than the line of the -bones of the leg above and below the knee. When this muscle is brought -to a tension, those bones form an angle of from 130° to 160°, or -thereabouts. So long as the sum of two sides of a triangle is greater -than the other side, a gorilla can never bring his leg into a straight -line. In the infant state, while the muscles are elastic and the bones -less rigid, the leg can be forced nearly straight. The habit of hanging -by the arms and walking with them in a straight line develops the -corresponding muscle in those members so that the bones can be brought -in line and the limbs straightened. - -The gorilla can stand upon his feet alone and walk a few steps in that -position; but his motion is very awkward; his knees turn outward, -forming an angle of 40° or 50° on either side of the mesial plane. He -never attempts to walk in this position except at perfect leisure, and -then he holds on to something with his hands. - -[Illustration: YOUNG GORILLA WALKING (From a Drawing.)] - -The leg of the gorilla from the knee to the ankle is almost the same -in size. In the human leg there is what is called the “calf” of the -leg, but in the apes this is very small. However, there is a tendency -in the ape to develop that feature. In the human species the calf of -the leg appears to belong to the higher types of men. As we descend -from the highest races of mankind this characteristic decreases, and -it almost disappears in the lowest savage. The pygmies and the bushmen -have smaller calves than any other men. It is not to be inferred from -this that apes would ever have this feature developed in them by their -elevation to a higher plane. So long as they remain apes they will -retain this characteristic, which is one of the distinctive features -of their apehood. One thing which makes the calf appear smaller in -the gorilla is the large size of the muscles about the ankle and the -flexibility of that joint. Also the fact that the joint of the knee is -larger in proportion to the leg makes it appear smaller than it really -is. The corresponding parts of the arm are more like those of the human -body. - -In a sitting posture the gorilla rests his body upon the ischial bones -and sits with his legs extended or crossed. The chimpanzee usually -squats, resting the ischial bones upon his heels. He sometimes sits, -but more frequently he squats. When in either of these attitudes both -kinds usually fold their arms across their breasts. - -The hair of the gorilla is irregular in growth. It is more dense than -that of the chimpanzee, but less uniform in size and distribution. -On the breast it is very sparse, while on the back it is dense and -interspersed with long, coarse hairs. The hair on the arms is long and -coarse. The ground color is black, but the extreme end of the hair -is tipped with pale white. This is so even in early youth. With age -the white encroaches, until in extreme age the animal becomes quite -gray. The top of the head is covered with a growth of short hair. In -certain specimens this crest is of a dark tan color. It looks almost -like a wig. This mark seems to be peculiar to certain localities. It is -uniform among those captured in the Ferran Vaz basin. - -A white trader living on Ferran Vaz Lake claims to have seen a gorilla -which was perfectly white. It was said to have been seen on a plain -near the lake in company with three or four others. It was thought to -be an albino. In my opinion it was only a very aged specimen turned -gray. A few of them have been secured that were almost white. It is -not, however, such a shade of white as would be found in an animal -whose normal color is white. I cannot vouch for the color of this ape -seen on the plain, but there must have been something peculiar in it to -attract attention among the natives. They regarded it as something very -extraordinary. - -So far, only one species of this ape is known to science; but there -are certain reasons to believe that two species exist. In the forest -regions of Esyira the natives described to me another kind of ape, -which they averred was a half-brother to the gorilla. They know the -gorilla by the native name _njina_, and the other type by the name -_ntyii_. They do not confuse this with the native name _ntyigo_, -which is the name of the chimpanzee. Neither is it a local name for -the _kulu-kamba_. All of those apes are known to the natives. They -described in detail, and quite correctly, the three known kinds of ape. -In addition they gave me a minute account of the appearance and habits -of a fourth kind, which I believe to be another species of the gorilla. -They claim that he is more intelligent and human-like than any one of -the others. They say that his superior wisdom makes him more alert and, -therefore, more difficult to find. He is said always to live in parts -of the forest more remote from human habitation. On my next voyage I -mean to hunt for this new species. - -The dental formula of the gorilla is the same as that of man; but the -teeth are larger and stronger, and the canine teeth are developed into -tusks. One thing to be remarked is the great variety of malformations -in the teeth of this animal. It is a rare thing to find among them a -perfect set of teeth, except in infancy. The cause of this deficiency -appears to be violence. - -The eyes of the gorilla are large, dark, and expressive, but there -is no trace of white in them. That part of the eye which is white in -man is a dark coffee-brown in the gorilla. It becomes lighter as it -approaches the base of the optic nerve. The taxidermist or the artist -who often furnishes him with a white spot in the corner of his eye does -violence to the subject. Those who pose him with his mouth opened like -a fly-trap, and his arms raised like a lancer, ought to be banished -from good society. It is true that such things lend an aspect of -ferocity to the creature, but they are caricatures of the thing they -mean to portray. - -The ears of the gorilla are very small and lie close to the sides of -the head. The model of them is much like the human ear. The lower lip -is massive, and the animal frequently relaxes it, so that a small red -line is visible between the lips. The usual height of the adult male -gorilla, if standing quite erect, is about five feet ten inches. The -tallest specimen that has ever been taken is a trifle more than six -feet two inches. - -I shall not pursue the comparison into minute details, but shall leave -that to the specialist, in whose hands it will be treated with more -skill and greater scope. As my especial line of research has been -in the study of the speech and the habits of these animals, I shall -confine myself to that. But the general comparison made is necessary to -a better understanding of these subjects. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI - -Habits of the Gorilla--Social Traits--Government--Justice--Mode of -Attack--Screaming and Beating--Food - - -Studying the habits of the gorilla in a wild state is attended with -much difficulty, but the results obtained during my sojourn of nearly -four months among them in the forest are an ample reward for the -efforts made. In captivity the habits of animals are made to conform -in a measure to their surroundings, and since those are different from -their natural environment, many of their habits differ in a like degree -from the normal. Some are foregone, others modified, and new ones are -acquired. Therefore, it is difficult to know exactly what the animal -was in a state of nature. - -In the social life of the gorilla there are certain things in which he -differs from the chimpanzee, but there are others in which they closely -resemble each other. From the native accounts of the modes of life -of these two apes there would appear to be a much greater difference -than a systematic study of them reveals. The native version of things -frequently has a germ of truth which may serve as a clue to the facts -in the case; and while we cannot safely rely upon all the details of -the tales they relate, we forgive their mendacity and make use of the -suggestions they furnish. - -The gorilla is polygamous in habit, and he has an incipient idea of -government. Within certain limits he has a faint perception of order -and justice, if not of right and wrong. I do not mean to ascribe to him -the highest attributes of man or to exalt him above the plane to which -his faculties justly assign him; but there are reasons to justify the -belief that he occupies a higher social and mental sphere than other -animals, except the chimpanzee. - -In the beginning of his career of independent life the young gorilla -selects a wife with whom thereafter he appears to sustain the conjugal -relation, and he maintains a certain degree of marital fidelity. From -time to time he adopts a new wife, but does not discard the old one. In -this manner he gathers around him a numerous family, consisting of his -wives and children. Each mother nurses and cares for her own young, but -all of them grow up together as the children of one family. The mother -sometimes corrects and sometimes chastises her young. This presupposes -some idea of propriety. - -The father exercises the function of patriarch in the sense of a -ruler, and the natives call him _ikomba njina_, which means “gorilla -chief.” This term is derived from the third person singular of the verb -_kamba_, “to speak”--_i kamba_, “he speaks.” Hence “spokesman,” or one -that speaks for others. To him all the others show a certain amount of -deference. Whether this is due to fear or respect is not certain; but -here is at least the first principle of dignity. - -The gorilla family of one adult male and a number of females and -their young practically constitutes within itself a nation. There do -not appear to be any social relations between different families, -but within the same household there is apparent harmony. The gorilla -is nomadic and rarely ever spends two nights in the same place. Each -family roams about from place to place in the bush in search of food, -and wherever they may be when night comes on, there they select a place -to sleep. - -The largest family of gorillas that I ever heard of was estimated to -contain twenty members. The usual number is rarely ever more than ten -or twelve. The chimpanzees appear to go in somewhat larger groups than -these. Sometimes in a single group of chimpanzees as many as three, -or even four, adult males have been seen. When the young gorilla -approaches the adult state he leaves the family group, finds himself -a mate, and sets out in the world for himself. I observe that, as a -rule, when one gorilla is seen alone in the forest it is usually a -young male about reaching the state of manhood. It is probable that -he has then set out for himself, and that he is in search of a wife. -When two only are seen together they usually prove to be a young male -and a young female. It sometimes occurs that three adults are seen -with two or three children. In large families are seen young ones of -different ages, from one year old to five or six years old. The older -children are always fewer in number than the younger ones. I have once -seen a large female quite alone except for her babe. Whether she lived -alone or was only temporarily absent from her family I had no means of -ascertaining. - -The gorilla chief does not provide food for his family. On the -contrary, it is said that they provide for him. I have been informed, -on two occasions and from different sources, that the gorilla chief -has been seen sitting quietly eating under the shade of a tree while -the others collected and brought to him his food. I have never myself -witnessed such a scene, but it seems probable that the same story -coming from two sources has some foundation of fact. - -In the matter of government the gorilla appears to be somewhat more -advanced than most animals. The chief leads the others on the march -and selects their feeding grounds and their places to sleep. He breaks -camp, and the others all obey him in these respects. Other gregarious -animals do the same, but, in addition to these things, the gorillas -from time to time hold a rude form of court, or council, in the jungle. -It is said that the king presides on these occasions; that he sits -alone in the center, while the others stand or sit in a semicircle -about him and talk in an excited manner. Sometimes all of them are -talking at once. Many of the natives claim to have witnessed these -proceedings; but what they mean or allude to no native undertakes -to say, except that there appears to be something of the nature of -a quarrel. To what extent the chief gorilla exercises the judicial -function is a matter of doubt, but there appears to be some real ground -for the story. - -As to the succession of the kingship there is no authoritative -information as yet to be had; but from the meager data upon this point -the belief is that on the death of the _ikomba_ if there be an adult -male he assumes the royal prerogative; otherwise the family disbands -and eventually becomes absorbed by or attached to other families. -Whether this new leader is elected in the manner in which other animals -appoint a leader, or assumes it by reason of his age, cannot now be -stated. There is no doubt that in many instances families remain intact -for a long time after the death of their _ikomba_. - -It has been stated by many writers that the gorilla builds a rude hut -for himself and family. I have found no evidence that such is the fact. -The natives declare that he does this, and some white men affirm the -same. During my travels through the country of the gorilla I offered -frequent and liberal rewards to any native who would show me a specimen -of this simian architecture; but I was never able to find a trace of -one made or occupied by any ape. Sometimes they take shelter from -the tornadoes, but it is usually under some fallen tree or a cluster -of broad leaves. There is absolutely nothing to indicate that they -rearrange any part of tree or leaves. So far as I could find, there is -absolutely no proof that any gorilla ever put two sticks together with -the idea of building a shelter. As to his throwing sticks or stones at -an enemy, there is nothing to verify it, but much to controvert it. It -is a mere freak of fancy. - -The current opinion that a gorilla will attack a man without being -provoked to it is another popular error. He is shy and timid. He -shrinks alike from man and from other large animals. When he is in a -rage he is both fierce and powerful; but his ferocity and strength are -rated above their value. In combat no doubt he is a stubborn foe, but -no one I have ever met has seen him thus engaged. His mode of attack, -as described by certain travelers, is a mere theory. It is said that -in this act he walks erect, furiously beats upon his breast, roars, -and yells. In this manner he first terrorizes and then seizes his -adversary, tears open his breast and drinks the blood. I have never -seen a large gorilla in the act of assault. - -During my stay in the jungle I had a young gorilla in captivity. I made -use of him in studying the habits of his race. I kept him tied with a -long line which allowed him room to play or climb about in the bushes, -and at the same time prevented him from escaping into the forest, as he -always tried to do the instant he was released. I frequently released -him for the purpose of watching his mode of attack when recaptured. -While being pursued he rarely looked back, but when overtaken he -invariably assailed his captor. This gave me an opportunity of seeing -his method of attack. In this he displayed both skill and judgment. As -my native boy approached him he calmly turned one side to the foe and, -without facing the boy, rolled his eyes in such a manner as to see him -and at the same time conceal his own purpose. When the boy came within -reach, the gorilla grasped him by thrusting the arm to one side and -obliquely backwards. When he had seized his adversary by the leg, he -instantly swung the other arm around with a long sweep, so as to strike -the boy a hard blow. Then he used his teeth. He seemed to depend more -upon the blow than upon the grasp, but the latter served to hold the -object of attack within reach. In every case he kept one arm and one -leg in reserve until he had seized his adversary. - -It is true that these attacks were made upon an enemy in pursuit, but -his mode of doing this appeared to be natural to him. He struck a -severe blow and showed no sign of tearing or scratching his opponent. -In these attacks he made no sound. I do not say that other gorillas -never scream or tear their victims, but I take it that the habits of -the young are much, if not quite, the same as those of their elders; -and from a study of this specimen I am forced to modify many opinions -imbibed from reading or from pictures and museum specimens which I -have seen. Many of them represent the gorilla in absurd and sometimes -impossible attitudes. They certainly do not represent him as I have -seen him in his native wilds. I had a young female gorilla as a subject -for study for a short time. Her mode of attack was about the same as -that just described, but she was too large to risk very far in such -experiments. - -When the chimpanzee attacks,--so far as I have seen among my own -specimens,--he approaches his enemy and strikes with both hands, one -slightly in advance of the other. After striking a few blows he grasps -his opponent and uses his teeth. Then, shoving him away, he again uses -the hands. Usually, on beginning the attack, he accompanies the assault -with a loud, piercing scream. Neither he nor the gorilla closes the -hand to strike or uses any weapon except the hands and the teeth. - -I have read and heard descriptions of the sounds made by gorillas, but -nothing ever conveyed to my mind an adequate idea of their real nature -until I heard them myself within about a hundred feet of my cage in -the dead of night. By some it has been called roaring, and by others -howling; but it is neither a roar nor a howl. They utter a peculiar -combination of sounds, beginning in a low, smooth tone, which rapidly -increases in pitch and frequency, until it becomes a terrific scream. -The first sound of the series and each alternate sound are made by -expiration; the intermediate ones appear to be by inspiration. How this -is accomplished it is difficult to say. The sound as a whole resembles -the braying of an ass, except that the notes are shorter, the climax is -higher, and the sound is louder. A gorilla does not yell in this manner -every night, but when he does so it is usually between two and five -o’clock in the morning. I have never heard the sound during the day nor -in the early part of the night. When screaming he repeats the series -from ten to twenty times, at intervals of one or two minutes apart. I -know of nothing in the way of vocal sounds that can inspire such terror -as the voice of the gorilla. It can be heard over a distance of three -or four miles. I can assign no definite meaning to it unless it is -intended to alarm some intruder. - -One morning, between three and four o’clock, I heard two of them -screaming at the same time. I do not mean at the same instant, but at -intervals during the same period of time. One of them was within about -a third of a mile of me, and the other in another direction, perhaps -a mile away. The points we respectively occupied formed a scalene -triangle. The sounds made by the two apes did not appear to have any -reference to each other. Sometimes they would alternate, and at other -times they would interrupt each other. They were both made by giants of -their kind, and every leaf in the forest vibrated with the sound. This -was during the latter part of May. They scream in this way from time to -time throughout the year, but it is most frequent and violent during -February and March. - -This wild screaming is sometimes accompanied by a peculiar beating -sound. It has been vaguely and variously described by travelers, and -currently believed to be made by the animal beating with his hands upon -his breast; but that is not the fact. The sound cannot be made by that -means. The quality of the sound shows that such cannot be the means -employed. I have several times heard this beating and have paid marked -attention to its character. At a great distance it would be difficult -to determine its exact quality. - -On one occasion, while passing the night in a native town, I was -aroused from sleep by a gorilla screaming and beating within a few -hundred yards of the village. I drew on my boots, took my rifle, and -cautiously crossed the open ground between the village and the forest. -This brought me within about two hundred yards of the animal. The moon -was faintly shining, but I could not see the beast, and I had no desire -to approach nearer at such a time. I distinctly heard every stroke. I -believe the sound was made by beating upon a log or piece of dead wood. -He was beating with both hands. The alternating strokes were made with -great rapidity. The order of the strokes was not unlike that produced -by the natives in beating their drums, except that in this instance -each hand made the same number of strokes, and the strokes were in a -constant series, rising and falling from very soft to very loud, and -_vice versa_. A number of these runs followed one another during the -time the voice continued. Between the first and second strokes the -interval was slightly longer than that between the second and third, -and so on through the scale. As the beating increased in loudness the -interval shortened in an inverse degree, while in descending the scale -the intervals lengthened as the beating softened, and the author of the -sound was conscious of the fact. - -I could trace no relation in time or harmony between the sound of the -voice and the beating, except that they began at the same time and -ended at the same time. The same series of vocal sounds was repeated -each time, beginning on the low note and ending in each case with the -note of the highest pitch, while the rise and fall of the series of -the beaten sounds were not measured by the duration of the voice. The -series each time began with a soft note, but ended at any part of the -scale at which it happened to be at the time the voice ceased. The -coinciding notes were not the same in every case. - -No doubt the gorilla sometimes beats upon his breast. He has been seen -to do this in captivity, but the sounds described above were not so -made. Since the gorilla makes these sounds only at night, it is not -probable that any man ever saw him in the act. It does not require -a delicate sense of hearing to distinguish a sound made by beating -the breast from that made by beating on dead wood or other similar -substance. - -I have attributed the above sound to the gorilla, because I have been -assured by many white men and scores of natives that it was made by -him; but since my return from Africa I have had time to consider and -digest certain facts tabulated on my first voyage, and, as a result of -these reflections, I doubt whether this sound is made by the gorilla. -There are reasons to believe that it is made by the chimpanzee. - -I observed that my own chimpanzees made a sound exactly the same as -that I heard in the forest, except that it was less in volume. This was -due to the age of the apes that made it. I could induce them at any -time to make the sound, and frequently did so in order to study it. -After my arrival in New York I found that Chico--the big chimpanzee -belonging to Mr. Bailey--frequently made the same sound. This he -always did at night. The cry was said to be so loud and piercing -that it fairly shook the stately walls of Madison Square Garden. -From reading the description given by the late Professor Romanes of -the sound made by “Sally” in the London Gardens, it appears that she -made the same sound. It is well known to the natives that chimpanzees -beat on some sonorous body, which the natives call a drum. In 1890 I -called attention to the beating practiced by the two chimpanzees in -the Cincinnati Gardens. They frequently indulged in beating with their -knuckles upon the floor of their cage. This was done chiefly by the -male. The late E. J. Glave described to me the same thing as being done -by the chimpanzees in the middle Congo basin. - -It is not probable that two animals of different genera utter the -same exact sound, and this is more especially true of a sound that is -complex or prolonged. Neither is it likely that the two would have a -common habit, such as beating on any sonorous body. Since it is certain -that one of these apes does make the sound described, it is more -than probable that the other does not. The same logic applies to the -beating. Many things that are known to the chimpanzee are taken for -granted in the gorilla; but it is erroneous to suppose that in such -habits as these they would be identical. In view of the facts I am -inclined to believe the sounds described are made by the chimpanzee and -not by the gorilla. - -There is another case in which the gorilla is wrongly portrayed. The -female gorilla is represented as carrying her young clinging to her -waist. I have seen the mother in the forest, with her young mounted -upon her back, its arms around her neck, and its feet hooked in her -armpits. I have never seen the male carry the young, but in a number -of specimens of advanced age I have seen and called attention to the -mark upon the back and sides which indicates that he does this. It is -in the same place that the young one rests upon the back of the mother. -In form it is like an inverted Y, with the base resting on the neck and -the prongs reaching under the arms. This mark is not one of nature. It -is the imprint of something carried there. In some specimens the hair -is worn off until the skin is almost bare. The prongs are more worn -than the stem of the figure. This is due to the fact that the abrasion -is greater upon those parts than elsewhere. I do not assert that such -is the cause, but I do assert that such is the fact. - -The gorilla is averse to human society. In captivity he is morose and -sullen. He frets and pines for his liberty. His face appears to be -incapable of expressing anything resembling a smile, but when in repose -it is not repugnant. In anger his visage depicts the savage instincts -of his nature. He does not seem to bear captivity well, even when not -removed from his native climate. The longest any one of them has ever -been known to live in captivity was about three and a half years. The -one shown in the accompanying cut belonged to a trader by the name of -Jones. The name of the gorilla was Sally, and I have called her Sally -Jones. She lived with her master three years and a half and died of -grief at his absence. - -[Illustration: SALLY JONES (YOUNG GORILLA) CAUGHT NAPPING (From a -Photograph.)] - -The gorilla which lived with me for a time in the forest was a sober, -solemn, stoical creature, and nothing could arouse in him a spirit of -mirth. The only pastime he cared to indulge in was turning somersaults. -Almost every day, at intervals of an hour or so, he would stand up for -a moment, then put his head upon the ground, turn over, rise to his -feet again, and look at me as if expecting my applause. His actions in -this feat were very much like those of a boy. He frequently repeated -this act a dozen times or more, but never smiled or evinced any sign of -pleasure. He was selfish, cruel, vindictive, and retiring. - -One peculiar habit of the gorilla, both wild and in captivity, is that -of relaxing the lower lip when in repose. It is not done when the -creature is in a sullen mood, but frequently, when perplexed or in a -deep study, this occurs. Another habit is that of protruding the end -of the tongue between the lips, until it is about even with the outer -edge of them. The end of the tongue is somewhat more blunted than that -of the human. This habit is so frequent with the young gorilla that it -would appear to have some meaning; but I cannot suggest what it is. - -In sleeping, the habit of the gorilla is to lie upon the back or side, -with one or both arms placed under the head as a pillow. He cannot -sleep on a perch,--as we have already noted,--but lies upon the ground -at night. I had pointed out to me the place at the base of a large tree -where a school of them had slept the night before. One imprint was -quite distinct. The stories told about the king gorilla, or _ikomba_, -placing his family in a tree while he sits on watch at the base is -another case of supposition. - -The food of the gorilla is not confined to plants and fruits. He is -fond of meat and eats it either raw or cooked. He secures a supply of -this kind of food by catching small rodents of various kinds, lizards, -toads, etc. It is also well known that he robs the nests of birds, -taking the eggs or the young. A native once pointed out to me the -quills and bones of a porcupine which had been left by a gorilla who -had eaten the carcass. It is not at all rare for them to do this. The -fruits and plants upon which they chiefly live are acidulous in taste, -and some of them are bitter. They often eat the fruit of the plantain, -but they prefer the stalk of that plant; this they twist or break open -and eat the succulent heart. They do the same with the batuna, which -grows all through the forest. The fruit of this plant is a red pod -filled with seeds imbedded in a soft pulp. It is slightly acid and -astringent. The wild mangrove, which forms a staple article of food -for the chimpanzee, is rarely if ever eaten by the gorilla. I once -saw a gorilla try to seize a dog, but whether or not it was for the -purpose of eating the flesh I cannot say. One, however, did catch and -devour a small dog on board the steamer Nubia, while on a voyage home -from Africa. Both animals belonged to Captain Button, and from him I -learned of the incident. Gorillas have no fixed hours for eating, but -they usually eat in the early morning or the late afternoon. In a few -instances I have seen them refuse meat. They are perhaps less devoted -to eating flesh than the chimpanzee is. - -In the act of drinking, the gorilla takes a cup, places the rim in his -mouth, and drinks in the same manner as a human being does. He does -this without being taught, while the chimpanzee prefers to put both -lips in the vessel. I have never known a gorilla that would drink beer, -spirits, coffee, or soup. Their drink is limited to milk or water. The -chimpanzee drinks beer and various other things. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII - - Othello and Other Gorillas--Othello and Moses--Gorilla - Visitors--Gorilla Mother and Child--Scarcity of Gorillas--Unauthentic - Tales - - -While I was living in my cage in the jungle I secured the young gorilla -to whom I gave the name Othello. He was about six months old, strong, -hardy, and robust. I found him to be a fine subject for study and made -the best use of him for that purpose. I have elsewhere described his -character, but his illness and death are matters of interest. - -At noon on the day of his decease he appeared to be quite well and in -fine humor. He was turning somersaults and playing like a child with -a native boy. He evinced much interest in his play, and his actions -indicated that it gave him pleasure; but his face never once betrayed -the fact. It was amusing to see him with the actions of a romping child -and the face of a cynic. - -He was supplied with plenty of his favorite food, had a good appetite, -and ate with a relish. Just after noon I sent the boy on an errand. -Near the middle of the afternoon I observed that Othello was ill. He -declined to eat or drink and lay on his back on the ground, with his -arms under his head as a pillow. I tried to induce him to walk with -me, to play, or to sit up, but he refused. By four o’clock he was -very ill. He rolled from side to side and groaned in evident pain. He -kept one hand upon his stomach, where the pain appeared to be located. -He displayed all the symptoms of gastric poisoning, and I have reason -to believe now that the boy had given him poison. I should regret to -foster this suspicion against an innocent person, but it is based upon -certain facts that I have learned since that time. - -While I sat in my cage watching Othello, who lay on the ground a short -distance away, I discovered a native approaching him from the jungle. -The man had an uplifted spear in his hand, as if in the act of hurling -it at something. He had not seen me, but it did not for a moment occur -to me that he had designs upon my pet. I spoke to him in the native -language, whereupon he explained that he had seen the young gorilla and -suspected that there was an old one close at hand, and being in fear of -an attack, he was prepared. He said he was not afraid of a little one, -but desired to capture him. I informed him that the gorilla was ill. He -made an examination and assured me that Othello would die. - -The man departed, and Othello continued to grow worse. His sighing and -groaning were really touching. I gave him an emetic, which produced -good results. I also used some vaporoles to resuscitate him, but my -skill was not sufficient to meet the demands of his case. His conduct -was so like that of a human being that it deeply impressed me, and -being alone with him in the silence of the dreary forest at the time of -his death, the scene had a touch of sadness that impressed me with a -deeper sense of its reality. Moses watched the dying ape as if he knew -what death meant. He showed no signs of regret, but his manner was such -as to suggest that he knew it was a trying hour. - -Othello died just before sunset, but for a long time prior to this he -was unconscious. The only movements made by him were spasmodic actions -caused by pain. The fixed and vacant stare of his eyes in his last -hour was so like that of man in the hour of dissolution that no one -could look upon the scene and fail to realize the solemn fact that this -was death. The next day I dissected him and prepared the skin and the -skeleton to bring home with me. They are now, with those of Moses and -others, in the Museum of the University of Toronto. - -When I first secured this ape and brought him to my house in the bush, -he was placed on the ground a few feet from my cage. Near him were laid -some bananas and sugarcane belonging to Moses, who had not yet seen the -stranger. The gorilla was in a box with one side open, so that he could -easily be seen. My purpose was to see how each would act on discovering -the other. When Moses observed the food he proceeded to help himself. -On seeing the gorilla he paused a moment and gave me an alarm. He was -not himself deterred from taking a banana. He seized one and retreated. -While he was eating the banana, I took the gorilla from the cage and -set him on the ground by it. I petted him and gave him some food. Moses -looked on but did not interfere. - -When I returned to my cage Moses proceeded to investigate the new ape. -He approached slowly and cautiously within about three feet of it. He -walked around the gorilla a couple of times, keeping his face towards -it, and gradually getting a little nearer. At length he came up within -a few inches of one side of the gorilla and stopped. He stood almost -on tiptoe, with only the ends of his fingers touching the ground. The -gorilla continued to eat his food without so much as giving Moses a -look. Moses placed his mouth near the ear of the gorilla and gave -one terrific yell. The gorilla did not flinch or even turn his eyes. -Moses stood for a moment looking as if in surprise that he had made -no impression. After this time he made some friendly overtures to the -gorilla, but the latter did not entertain them with favor, beyond -maintaining terms of peace. They never quarreled, but Othello always -treated Moses as an inferior. I do not know if he entertained a real -feeling of contempt, but his manner was haughty and condescending. - -There were but few articles of food that he and Moses liked in common, -and, therefore, they had no occasion to quarrel; but they never played -together or cultivated any friendly terms, as the chimpanzees did among -themselves. This may have been due to the fact that the gorilla was -so exclusive in his demeanor towards the chimpanzee as to forbid all -attempts of the latter to become intimate. The chimpanzee by nature is -more sociable and is fond of human society. He imitates the actions -of man in many things and quickly adapts himself to new conditions, -while the gorilla is selfish and retiring. He can seldom be reconciled -to human society. He does not imitate man nor readily yield to the -influence of civilization. - -One special trait of the gorilla which I wish to emphasize is that -he is one of the most taciturn of all the family. This fact does not -confirm my theory as to their faculty of speech; but it is a fact, so -far as I observed, although the natives say that he is as loquacious -as the chimpanzee. Among the specimens that I have studied, both wild -and in captivity, I have never heard but four sounds that differed from -each other, and of these only two could properly be defined as speech. -I do not include the screaming sound described in another chapter. I -have not been able, so far, to translate the sounds that I have heard, -and they cannot be spelled with our letters. - -There is one sound which Othello often used. It was not a speech -sound, but a kind of whine, always coupled with a deep sigh. When left -alone for a time he became oppressed with solitude. At such times he -often heaved a deep sigh and uttered this strange sound. The tone and -manner strongly appealed to the feelings of others, and while he did -not appear to address it to any one or have any design in making it, -it always touched a sympathetic chord, and I was sometimes tempted to -release him. Another sound which was not within the pale of speech was -a kind of grumbling sound. This frequently occurred when he was eating. -It was not exactly a growl, but a kind of complaint. Twice I heard -this same sound made by wild ones in the forest near my cage. The only -thing that I can compare it to is the habit that cats have of growling -while eating. It appears to be done only when something is near. It is -possibly intended to deter others from trying to take the food. - -During my life in the cage I saw twenty-two gorillas; but I shall -describe only a few of them, as their actions in most instances were -similar. The first one that I had the pleasure of seeing in the jungle -came within a few yards of the cage before it was yet in order to -receive. He was exactly half grown. He must have been attracted by the -noise made in putting the cage together. He advanced with caution, -and when I discovered him he was peering through the bushes, as if to -ascertain the cause of the sounds. When he saw me, he tarried only a -few seconds and hurried off into the jungle. I did not disturb or shoot -at him, because I desired him to return. - -On the third day after I went to live in the cage a family of ten -gorillas was seen to cross an open space along the back of a batch of -plantains near one of the villages. A small native boy was within about -twenty yards of them when they crossed the path in front of him. A few -minutes later I was notified of their vicinity. I took my rifle and -followed them into the jungle until I lost the trail. A few hours after -this they were again seen by some natives not far away from my cage, -but they did not come near enough to be seen or heard. The next day a -family came within some thirty yards of the cage. The bush was so dense -that I could not see them, but I could distinguish four or five voices. -They seemed to be engaged in a broil of some kind. I suppose it was the -family that had been seen the day before. The second night after that I -heard the screams of one in the forest some distance from me, but I do -not know whether it was the king of this family or another. - -One day as I sat alone a young gorilla, perhaps five years old, came -within six or seven yards of the cage and took a peep. I do not know -whether or not he was aware of its being there until he was so near. He -stood for a time, almost erect, with one hand holding on to a bough. -His lower lip was relaxed, showing the red line mentioned elsewhere, -and the end of his tongue could be seen between his parted lips. He did -not evince either fear or anger, but rather appeared to be amazed. I -heard him creeping through the bush a few seconds before I saw him. As -a rule, they move so stealthily as not to be heard. I know of no other -animal of equal size that makes so little noise in going through the -forest. During the short time he stood gazing at me I sat still as a -statue, and I think he was in doubt as to whether or not I was alive. -He did not run away, but after a brief pause turned off at an angle and -quietly departed. He lost no time, but made no great haste. The only -sound he made was a low grunt, and this he did not repeat. - -At another time I heard two making a noise among the plantains near me. -I could obtain only a glimpse of them, but as well as I could see they -were of good size, being almost grown. They were making a low sound -from time to time, something such as I have described; but I could -not see them well enough to frame any opinion as to what it meant. -They were certainly not quarreling, and I was not sure that they were -eating. I afterwards went and looked to see if I could find where they -had broken any of the stalks. Their trail was visible through the grass -and weeds, but I could find no broken stalk. They were moving at a -very leisurely gait and must have been within hearing distance some ten -or twelve minutes. They were quite alike in color and appeared to be so -in size, although the adult male attains a much greater size than the -female. - -On one occasion I was standing outside of the cage some twenty yards -away, and Moses was sitting on a dead log near by. I turned to him -and was in the act of sitting down by him when he gave alarm. This he -did in an undertone, apparently to avoid attracting the attention of -the thing against which the warning was intended. I looked around, -and discovered a gorilla standing not twenty yards away. He had just -discovered us. He gazed for a moment and started on, moving obliquely -towards the cage. I turned to retreat. At this instant Moses gave one -of his piercing screams, which frightened the gorilla and he fled. He -changed his course almost at right angles. He was going at a good rate -before Moses screamed, but he at once increased his pace. - -One day I heard three sounds which a native boy assured me were made -by gorillas; they were in different directions from the cage. It was -not a scream nor a howl, but somewhat resembled the human voice calling -out with a sound like “he-oo!” These sounds were repeated at intervals, -but did not appear to be in the relation of call and answer; and the -animals making them did not approach each other while calling. The -sounds were the same except in volume. One of them appeared to be -made by an animal much larger than the animals that had made the two -other sounds. I should state that this sound rarely occurred within my -hearing during my stay in that part, and with one exception I never -heard a gorilla make any loud sound during the day. - -Another interesting specimen came prowling through the jungle as if he -had lost his way. He found a small opening, or tunnel, which I had cut -through the foliage in order to get a better view. Turning into that, -he came a few steps towards the cage before he discovered it. Suddenly -he stopped and squatted on the ground. He did not sit flat down. For -a few seconds he was motionless. So was I. He slowly raised one arm -till his hand was above his head, in which position he sat for a few -moments. Then he moved his hand quickly forward, as if to motion at me. -He did not drop his hand to the ground, but held it for a short time -at an angle from his face. Then he slowly let it down till it reached -the ground. During this time he kept his eyes fixed on me. At length -he raised the other arm and seized hold of a strong bush, by which he -slowly drew himself to a half-standing position. Thus he stood for a -few seconds, with one hand resting on the ground. Suddenly he turned -to one side, parted the bushes, and disappeared. He uttered no sound -whatever. Another came within about thirty yards of my retreat. When he -discovered me he stopped and stared in a perplexed manner. He turned -away to retreat, but, after going a few feet, turned round and sat -down on the ground. He remained in that attitude for more than half a -minute; then he rose and retired in the direction from which he had -come. - -The finest specimen of which I ever had a view, and at the same time -the best subject for study, was a large female that came within a -trifle more than three yards of me. A dog that belonged to one of the -native villages had become attached to me and had found its way through -the bush to my cage. He frequently came to visit me, and I was always -glad to welcome him. One afternoon about three o’clock he came, and I -let him into the cage for a while, to pass the usual greetings. I had a -bone which I had saved from my last meal, and I threw this out to him -in the bush a few feet away from the cage. He seized the bone and began -to gnaw it where it lay. His body was in the opening of a rough path -cut through the jungle near the cage, but his head was concealed under -a clump of leaves. All at once I caught a glimpse of some moving object -at the edge of the path on the opposite side of the cage. It was a huge -female gorilla carrying a young one on her back. - -When I first saw her she was not more than fifty feet away. She was -creeping along the edge of the bushes and watching the dog. He was busy -with the bone. Her tread was so stealthy that I could not hear the -rustling of a leaf. She advanced a few feet, crouched under the edge -of the bushes, and cautiously peeped at the dog. Again she advanced -a little way, halted, crouched, and peeped. It was evident that her -purpose was to attack the dog. Her approach was so wary as to leave -no doubt of her dexterity in attacking a foe. Every movement was the -embodiment of stealth. Her face wore a look of anxiety with a touch of -ferocity. Her movements were quick but accurate, and her advance was -not delayed by any indecision. The dog had not discovered her approach. -The smell of the bone and the noise he was making with it prevented -him from either smelling or hearing her. I could not warn him without -alarming her. If he could have seen her before she made the attack, -I should have left him to take his chances by flight or by battle. I -should have been glad of an opportunity to witness such a combat and to -study the actions of the belligerents, but I could not consent to see a -friendly dog taken at such disadvantage. She was now rapidly covering -the distance between them, and the dog had not yet discovered her. - -[Illustration: GORILLA MOTHER WITH YOUNG] - -When she reached a point within about ten feet of him I determined to -break the silence. I cocked my rifle. The click of the trigger caught -her attention. I think this was the first that she was aware of my -presence. She instantly stopped, turned her face and body towards the -cage, and sat down on the ground in front of it. She gave me such a -look that I almost felt ashamed for having interfered. She sat for -more than a minute staring at me as if she had been transfixed. There -was no trace of anger or fear, but the look of surprise was on every -feature. I could see her eyes move from my head to my feet. She scanned -me as closely as if her purpose had been to purchase me. At length she -glanced at the dog who was still gnawing the bone, then turned her head -uneasily, as if to search for some way of escape. She then rose and -retraced her steps with moderate haste. She did not run, although she -lost no time. From time to time she glanced back to see that she was -not pursued. She uttered no sound of any kind. - -From the time this ape came in view until she departed was about -four minutes, and during that time I was afforded an opportunity -of studying her in a way that no one else has ever been able to do. -I watched every movement of her body, face, and eyes. Being in the -cage, I sat with perfect composure and studied her without the fear -of attack. With due respect for the temerity of men, I do not believe -that any sane man could calmly sit and watch one of these huge beasts -approach so near him without feeling a tremor of fear, unless he were -protected as I was. Any man would either shoot or retreat, and he could -not possibly study the subject with equanimity. - -The temptation to shoot her was almost too great to resist, and the -desire to capture her babe made it all the more so. But I refrained -from firing my gun anywhere within a radius of half a mile or so of my -cage, and the natives had agreed to the same thing. My purpose in doing -so was to avoid frightening the apes away from the locality. I had been -told by the native hunters that if I wounded one of the apes the others -would leave the vicinity and perhaps not return for weeks. It is said -that if you kill one the others do not notice it so much as if you -merely wounded it. Although they seem to be conscious of the fact of -the killing, and for the time depart, they will return within a short -time. - -I could have shot this one with perfect ease and safety. As she -approached, her head and breast were towards me; just before she -discovered me her left side was in plain view, and when she sat down -her breast was perfectly exposed. I could have shot her in the heart, -the breast, or the head. Her baby hung upon her back, with its arms -embracing her neck and its feet caught under her arms. The cunning -little imp saw me long before the mother did, but it gave her no -warning of danger. It lay with its cheek resting on the back of her -head. Its black face looked as smooth and soft as velvet. Its big, -brown eyes were looking straight at me, but it betrayed no sign of fear -or even of concern. It really had a pleased expression and wore the -nearest approach to a smile I have ever seen on the face of a gorilla. -I believe that this is their method of carrying the young and have -elsewhere assigned other reasons for this belief. In this case it is -not a matter of belief, but one of knowledge, and everything that I -have observed conspires to show that this is not an exception to the -rule. - -During my sojourn of nearly four months in the jungle, where, it was -said, a greater number of gorillas could be found than in any other -place in the basin of that lake, I saw a total of only twenty-two. I -saw one other at a time while I was hunting in the forest. I caught -only a glimpse of him, and should not even have done that had not the -native guide discovered and pointed him out to me. I believe that no -other white man has ever seen an equal number of these animals in a -wild state, and it is certain that no other has ever seen them under -such favorable conditions for study. I have compared notes with many -white men along that part of the coast, but I have never found any -reliable man who claims to have seen an equal number. All of them admit -that my cage is the best possible means of seeing the apes. I know men -who have lived in that part for years and who frequently hunt in the -forest for days at a time, but never yet have seen a live gorilla. I -met one man on my last voyage who has lived on the edge of the gorilla -country forty-nine years, making frequent journeys through the bush -and along the water-courses in the interest of trade. This man told me -himself that in all that time he had never seen a wild gorilla. - -I would cite Mr. James A. Deemin as an expert woodsman and a cool, -daring hunter. I have enjoyed several hunts with him. He had traveled, -traded, and hunted through the gorilla country for more than thirteen -years. He told me that with two exceptions he had never seen a wild -gorilla. The first he ever saw was a young one, and he once saw a -school of them at a distance. On this latter occasion he was in a canoe -and under the cover of the bushes along the side of a river. Unobserved -he came near them. - -Another man, whose name I am at liberty to mention, is Mr. J. H. Drake -of Liverpool. By those who know him Mr. Drake has never been suspected -of lacking courage in the hunt or of being given to romance. Yet in -many years on the coast he saw but one school of these apes, and that -was the same one that Mr. Deemin saw when the two men were traveling -together. Others could be cited who testify that it is a rare thing for -the most expert woodsman ever to see one of these creatures, and many -of the stories told by the casual traveler cannot be received at par. -I do not mean to impeach the veracity of others, but the temptation to -romance is too great for some people to resist. While we cannot prove -the negative by direct evidence, we must be permitted to doubt whether -or not these apes are so frequently met in the jungle as they are -alleged to be. I will give some reasons for being a sceptic on this -subject. - -Almost every yarn told by the novice is about the same in substance, -and much the same in detail, as those related by others. It seems that -most of them meet the same old gorilla, still beating his breast and -screaming just as he did forty years ago. The number of gun-barrels -that he is accused of having chewed up would make an arsenal sufficient -to arm the volunteers. What becomes of all those that are attacked by -this fierce monarch of the jungle? Not one of them ever gets killed, -and not one of them ever kills the gorilla. Does he merely do this as -a bluff and then recede from the attack? Or does he follow it up and -seize his victim, tear him open, and drink his blood, as he is supposed -to do? How does the victim escape? What becomes of the assailant? Who -lives to tell the tale? - -The gorilla has good ears, good eyes, and is a skillful bushman. One -man walking through the jungle will make more noise than half a dozen -gorillas make. The gorilla almost always sees and hears a man before -he is seen or heard by him. He is shy and will not attack a man unless -wounded or provoked to it. He is always on the alert for danger and -rarely comes into the open parts of the bush except for food. He can -conceal himself with more ease than a man can and has every advantage -in making his escape. I do not believe that he will ever approach a man -if he can evade him, but I quite believe that he will make a strong -defense if surprised or attacked. I do not believe it possible for any -one to see a great number of gorillas in any length of time unless he -goes to some one place and remains there, as I have done. Even then -he must sometimes wait for days without a trace of one. Silence and -patience alone will enable him to see them. When the gorilla sees a -man, he retires as soon as he discovers the nature of the thing before -him. He does not always flee in haste, as some other animals do, but is -more deliberate and cool about it. He will retreat in good order and -always starts in time, if possible, to escape without being observed. I -trust that I may be pardoned for not being able to believe that every -stranger who visits that country is attacked by a gorilla. - -Many people labor under the popular delusion that they have seen a -gorilla with some itinerant menagerie, and it may be cruel of me to -undeceive them. Up to this time there has been but one gorilla landed -alive in America. This one arrived in Boston in the autumn of 1897. -It was a mere baby and lived only five days. It was exhibited to the -public during only a part of two days. The many alleged gorillas -offered by mendacious showmen are vile fakes, and the exhibitors should -be dealt with as impostors. - -I regret that I have been compelled to deny much that has been said, -but I make no apology for having done so. In this work I have sought to -place these apes before the reader as I have seen them in their native -forests. I have not clothed them in fine raiment or invested them with -glamour. But I trust that this contribution may be found worthy of the -approval of all men who love nature and respect fidelity. - -I have the vanity to believe that the methods of study which I have -employed will be made the means of farther research by more able -students than the writer. In addition to those apes that I have seen in -a wild state, I have seen about ten in captivity. Two of those were my -own. They were good subjects for study, and I made the best use of them -during the time I had them. - -While in the jungle I accomplished one thing, in which I feel a just -sense of pride, and that was making a gorilla take a portrait of -himself. This will interest the amateur in the art of snapshots, and I -shall relate it. - -I selected a place in the forest where I found some tracks of the -animal along the edge of a dense thicket of batuna. Under cover of the -foliage I set up two pairs of stakes which were crossed at the tops, -and to them was lashed a short pole forming something like a sawbuck. -To this was fastened the camera, to which had been attached a trigger -made of bamboo splits. One end of a string was fastened to the trigger, -and the other end carried under a yoke to a distance of eight feet -from the lens. At this point were attached a fresh plantain stalk -and a nice bunch of the red fruit of the batuna. Upon this point the -camera was focused, the trigger was set, and it was left to await the -gorilla. That afternoon I returned to find that something had taken the -bait, broken the string, sprung the trigger, and snapped the camera. -I developed the plate, but could find no image of anything except the -leaves in front of it. I repeated the experiment, with similar results, -but could not understand how anything could steal the bait and yet not -be shown in the picture. The third time I did this I was gratified to -find the image of a gorilla, and also to discover the cause why the -other experiments had not succeeded. - -The deep shadows of the forest make it difficult to take a photograph -without giving it a time exposure, and when the sun is under a cloud or -on the wrong side of an object success is quite impossible. The leaves -which were shown in the first two plates were only those which were -most exposed to the light, and all the lower part of the picture was -without detail. In the third trial it could be seen that the sun was -shining at the instant of exposure. A part of the body of the gorilla -was in the light, but most of it was in the shadow of the leaves above -it. The left side of the head and face was quite distinct, so likewise -were the left shoulder and arm. The hand and the bait could not have -been distinguished except by their context. The right side of the head, -the arm, and most of the body were lost in the view. The picture showed -that the gorilla had taken the bait with his left hand, and that he was -in a crouching posture at the moment. - -While the photograph was very poor as a work of art, it was full of -interest as an experiment. Although it did not result in getting a good -picture, I did not regard the effort as a failure. It shows at least -that such a thing is possible, and by careful efforts, often repeated, -it could be made a means of obtaining some novel pictures. A little -ingenuity would widen the scope of this device and make it possible to -photograph birds, elephants, and everything else in the forest. When I -return to that place on a like journey I shall carry the scheme into -better effect. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -Other Apes--The Apes in History--Habitat--The Orangs--The Gibbon - - -In the various records that constitute the history of these apes are -found many novel and incoherent tales, but most of them appear to -rest upon some basis of truth. In order to arrive at a more definite -knowledge concerning them, we may review the data at our command. - -In the annals of the world, the first record that alludes to these -manlike apes is that of Hanno, who made a voyage from Carthage to the -west coast of Africa, nearly five hundred years before the Christian -era. He described an ape which was found in the locality about Sierra -Leone. It is singular that the description which he gave of those apes -should coincide so fully with the apes known at the present day; but it -is quite certain that the apes of which he gave an account were neither -gorillas nor chimpanzees. There is nothing to show that either of these -apes ever occupied that part of the world, or that any similar type has -done so. - -The ape described by Hanno was certainly not an anthropoid, but a large -dog-faced monkey or baboon, technically called _cynocephalus_. These -animals are found all along the north coast of the Gulf of Guinea, -but there is no trustworthy evidence of any true ape living north of -Cameroon valley. The river that waters it empties into the sea about -four degrees north of the equator. Here begins the first trace of the -chimpanzee. As we pass along the windward coast, casual reports are -current to the effect that gorillas and chimpanzees occupy the interior -north of there; but when these reports are sifted down to solid facts, -it turns out to be a big baboon or a monkey upon which the story rests. -Its likeness to man, as described by Hanno, was doubtless the work of -fancy, and the name _troglodytes_ which he gave to it shows that he -knew but little of its habits, or cared but little for the exactness of -his statements. - -The account given by Henry Battel, in 1590, contains a thread of truth -woven into a web of fantasy. He must have heard the stories he relates, -or seen some specimens along the coast north of the Congo. There are -certain facts which point to this conclusion. The name _pongo_ which -he gave to one of them belongs to the Fiote tongue, which is spoken -by the native tribes around Loango. Those people use the name, and it -is commonly understood to be synonymous with the name _njina_, used -by the tribes north of there. It is always applied to the gorilla. To -me, however, it appears to coincide with the name _ntyii_, as used by -the Esyira people for another ape, which is described in the chapter -devoted to gorillas. It was from Loango that Dr. Falkenstein, in 1876, -secured an ape under that name. It is singular that Baron Wurmb, in -1780, makes use of the name _pongo_ for an orang. I have not been able -to learn where he acquired this name, but it appears to be a native -Fiote name for more than four hundred years, and the history of their -language is fairly well known. - -The name _enjocko_, given by Battel to another ape, is beyond a doubt -a corruption of the native name _ntyigo_ (_ntcheego_), and this name -belongs north of the Congo from Mayumba to Gaboon. He may have inferred -that these apes occupied Angola, but there is not a vestige of proof -that any ape exists in that part of Africa. Even the native tribes -of that part have no indigenous name for either of these apes. Other -parts of his account are erroneous, and while he may have believed -that these apes “go in bodies to kill many natives that travel in -the wood,” and the natives may have told him such a thing, the apes -do not practice such a habit. With all their sagacity, they have no -idea of unity of action. If a band of them were attacked, they would -no doubt act together in defense, but it is not to be believed that -they ever preconcert any plan of attack. Neither do these apes ever -assault an elephant. He is the one animal they hold in mortal dread. I -have incidentally mentioned elsewhere the conduct of my two _kulus_ on -board the ship when they saw a young elephant. Chico, the big ape that -has also been mentioned, was often vicious and stubborn. Whenever he -refused to obey his keeper or became violent, an elephant was brought -in sight of his cage. On seeing it he became as meek as a lamb and -showed every sign of the most intense fear. Mr. Bailey himself told me -of the dread both of his apes had of an elephant. Battel was also wrong -in the mode he described of the mother carrying her young, and that of -the apes in using sticks and clubs. - -The ape known as _Mafuka_, which was exhibited in Dresden in 1875, -was also brought from the Loango coast, and it is possible that this -is the ape to which the native name _pongo_ really belonged. This -specimen in many respects conforms to the description of the _ntyii_ -given, but the idea suggested by certain writers that _Mafuka_ was a -cross between the gorilla and the chimpanzee is not, to my mind, a -tenable supposition. It would be difficult to believe that two apes of -different species in a wild state would cross, but to believe that two -that belonged to different genera would do so is yet more illogical. -I may state, however, that some of the Esyira people advance such a -theory concerning the _ntyii_, but the belief is not general, and those -best skilled in woodcraft regard them as distinct species. - -To quote, in “pidjin” English, the exact version of their relationship, -as it was given to me by my interpreter while in that country, may -be of interest to the reader. I may remark, by way of explaining the -nature of the “pidjin” English, that it is a literal translation of the -native mode of thought into English words. The statement was:-- - -“_Ntyii_ ’e one; _njina_ ’e one; all two ’e one, one. _Ntyii_ ’e one -mudder; _njina_ ’e one mudder; all two ’e one, one. _Ntyii_ ’e one -fader; _njina_ ’e one fader. All two ’e one.” By which the native means -to say that the _ntyii_ has one mother, and the _njina_ has one mother, -so that the two have two mothers, but both have one father, therefore -they are half-brothers. - -The other version given in denial of this statement is as follows:-- - -“_Ntyii_ ’e one mudder; _njina_, ’e one mudder. ’E one, one. _Ntyii_ -’e one fader; _njina_ ’e one fader. ’E one, one. All two ’e one, one. -_Ntyii_ ’e one mudder; _njina_ ’e one mudder. All two ’e one, one. ’E -brudder. _Ntyii_ ’im fader; _njina_ ’im ’e brudder. All two ’e one, -one.” The translation is that the _ntyii_ has a mother, and the _njina_ -has a mother, which are not the same, but are sisters. The _ntyii_ has -a father, and the _njina_ has a father, which are not the same, but are -brothers; and therefore the two apes are only cousins, which in the -native esteem is a remote degree of kinship. - -The ape described by Lopez certainly belonged to the territory north of -the Congo, which coast he explored, and gave his name to a cape about -forty miles south of the equator. It still bears the name Cape Lopez. -However, it is probable that at that time most of the low country now -occupied by these apes was covered with water; that the lakes of that -region were then all embraced in one great estuary, reaching from -Ferran Vaz to Nazavine Bay, and extending eastward to the foothills -below Lamberene. There is abundant evidence to show that such a state -has once existed there, but it is not probable that these apes have -ever changed their latitude. - -The name _soko_ appears to be a local name for the ordinary type of -chimpanzee found throughout the whole range of their domain, and known -in other parts by other names. In Malimbu the name _kulu_ appears to -apply to the same species, while in the southwestern part of their -habitat that name, coupled with the verb _kamba_, is confined strictly -to the other type. Along the northern borders of the district to -which that species belongs, but where he is very seldom found and -little known to the natives, he is called by the Nkami tribe _kanga -ntyigo_, to distinguish him from the common variety, to which the -latter name only is applied. - -[Illustration: PLAIN AND EDGE OF FOREST IN THE COUNTRY OF THE APES] - -The etymology of the name _kanga_ as applied to this ape is rather -obscure. In common use it is a verb, with the normal meaning “to parch” -or “fry,” and hence the secondary meaning “to prepare.” Since this -ape is said to be of a higher order of the race, the term is used to -signify that he is “better prepared” than the other; that is to say, he -is prepared to think and talk in a better manner. But another history -of this word appears to be more probable. The ape to which the name -is applied lives between the Nkami country and the Congo. The name is -possibly a perversion of _kongo_ and implies the kind of _ntyigo_ that -lives towards the great river of that name. The etymology of African -names is always difficult because there is no record of them; but many -of them can be traced out with great precision, and some of them are -unique. - -The name _M’Bouve_, as given by Du Chaillu, I have not been able to -identify. In one part of the country I was told that the word meant -the “chief” or head of a family. In another part it was said to mean -something like an advocate or champion, and was applied to only one -ape in a family group. The Rev. A. C. Goode, a missionary who recently -died near Batanga, was stationed for twelve years at Gaboon. During -that time he traveled all through the Ogowé and Gaboon valleys. He was -familiar with the languages of that part, and he explained the word in -about the same way. - -Whatever may be said concerning the veracity of Paul du Chaillu, there -is one thing that must be said to his credit. He gave to the world more -knowledge of these apes than all other men had ever done before; and -while he may have given a touch of color to many incidents, and related -some native yarns, he told a vast amount of valuable truth; and I can -forgive him for whatever he may have misstated, except one thing; that -is, the starting of that story about gorillas chewing up gun-barrels. -It has been a staple yarn, in stock ever since, and the instant you ask -a native any question about the habits of the gorilla he begins with a -stereotype edition of that improbable story. - -In view of the fact that I have made careful and methodic efforts to -determine the exact boundary of the habitat and the real habits of -these two apes, I feel at liberty to speak with an air of authority. -I have acquired my knowledge on the subject by going to their own -country and living in their own jungle, and I have thus obtained their -secrets from first-hand. With due respect to those who write books and -speak freely upon subjects of which they know but little, I beg leave -to suggest that if the authors had gone into the jungle and lived -among those animals, instead of consulting others who know less than -themselves about the subject, many of them would have written in a very -different strain. I do not mean this as a rebuke to any one, but seeing -the same old stories repeated year after year, and knowing that there -is no truth in them, I feel it incumbent as a duty to challenge them. - -I believe that in the future it will be shown that there are two types -of gorilla as distinct from each other as the two chimpanzees are. This -second variety of gorilla will be found between the third and fifth -parallels south and east of the delta district, but west of the Congo. -I believe it was represented in the ape _Mafuka_. - -My researches among the apes have been confined chiefly to the -two kinds heretofore described, but I have seen and studied in a -superficial way the orang and the gibbon. I am not prepared as yet to -discuss the habits of those two apes, but, as they form a part of the -group of anthropoids, we cannot dismiss them without honorable mention. - -The orang-outang, as he is commonly called, is known to zoölogy by the -first of these terms alone. He is a native of Borneo and Sumatra, and -opinions differ as to whether there are two species or only one. - -The general plan of the skeleton of the orang is very much the same as -that of the other apes. The chief points of difference are that it has -one bone more in the wrist and one joint less in the spinal column than -is found in man. He has thirteen pairs of ribs, which appear to be more -constant in their number than in man. His arms are longer, and his legs -shorter, in proportion to his body than the other two apes. The type of -the skull is peculiar and combines to a certain extent more human-like -form in one part with a more beast-like form in another. The usual -height of an adult male is about fifty-one inches. - -I have never had an opportunity of studying this ape in a wild state -and have had access to only a few of them in captivity. All of these -were young, and most of them were inferior specimens. He is the most -stupid and obtuse of the four great apes. Except for his skeleton -alone, he would be assigned a place below the gibbon, for in point -of speech and mental caliber he is far inferior. Perhaps the best -authorities upon the habits of this ape in a wild state are Messrs. W. -T. Hornaday and Alfred R. Wallace. - -[Illustration: Young Orangs (From a Photograph.)] - -The smallest and last in order of the anthropoid apes is the gibbon. -He is much smaller in size, greater in variety, and more active than -any other of the group. His habitat is in the southeast of Asia; its -outline is vaguely defined, but it includes the Malay Peninsula and -many of the contiguous islands east and south of it. - -In model and texture the skeleton of the gibbon is the most delicate -and graceful of all the apes, and in this respect is superior to that -of man. He is the only one of the four apes that can walk in an erect -position. In doing this the gibbon is awkward and often uses his arms -to balance himself. Sometimes he touches his hands to the ground. At -other times he raises them above his head or extends them on either -side. The length of them is such that he can touch the fingers to the -ground while the body is nearly or quite erect. In the spinal column -he has two, and sometimes three, sections more than man. His digits -are very much longer, but his legs are nearly the same length, in -proportion to his body, as those of man. He has fourteen pairs of ribs. - -The gibbon is the most active and probably the most intelligent of all -apes. He is more arboreal in habit than any other. Many stories are -told of his agility in climbing, and leaping from limb to limb. One -authentic report credits one of these apes with leaping a distance of -forty-two feet, from the limb of one tree to that of another. Perhaps -a better term is to call it swinging, rather than leaping, as these -flights are performed chiefly by the arms. Another account is that a -gibbon swinging by one hand propelled himself a horizontal distance of -eighteen feet through the air, seized a bird in flight, and alighted -safely upon another limb, with his prey in hand. - -There are several known species of this ape. The largest of these is -about three feet high; but the usual height is not more than thirty -inches. The voice of one species is remarkable for its strength, scope, -and quality, being in these regards superior to that of all other -apes. Most of the members of this genus are endowed with better vocal -qualities than other animals. - -This ends the list of the manlike apes. Next in order after them come -the monkeys, then the baboons, and, last, the lemurs. - -The descent, as we have elsewhere observed, from the highest ape to the -lowest monkey presents one unbroken scale of imbricating planes. We -have seen in what degree man is related to the higher apes. From thence -we may discern in what degree his physical nature is the same as that -of all the order to which he belongs. No matter in what respect man may -differ in his mental and moral nature, his likeness to them should at -least restrain his pride, evoke his sympathy, and cause him to share -the bounty of his benevolence. Let him realize in full extent that he -is one in nature with the rest of animate creatures, and they will -receive the benign influence of his dignity without impairing it, while -he will elevate himself by having given it. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV - -The Treatment of Apes in -Captivity--Temperature--Building--Food--Occupation - - -In conclusion I deem it in order to offer a few remarks with regard to -the causes of death among these apes, and to say something regarding -the treatment of animals in captivity. We know so little and assume so -much concerning them that we often violate the very laws which we are -trying to enforce. - -We have already noticed the fact that the gorilla is confined by -nature to a low, humid region, reeking with miasma and the effluvia of -decaying vegetation. The atmosphere in which he thrives is one in which -human life can hardly exist. We know in part why man cannot live in -such an atmosphere and under such conditions, but we cannot say with -certainty why the ape does do so. It would seem that the very element -that is fatal to man gives strength and vitality to the gorilla. We -know that all forms of animal life are not affected in the same way by -the same causes; and while it may be said in round numbers that what is -good for man is good for apes, that is not a fact. - -The human race is the most widely distributed of any genus of mammals, -and, as a race, it can undergo greater extremes of change in climate, -food, or condition than any other kind of animal. Man’s migratory -habits, both inherent and acquired, have fitted him for a life of -vicissitudes, and such a life inures him, as an individual, to all -extremes. On the other hand, the gorilla, as a genus, is confined to a -small habitat, which is uniform in climate, products, and topography. -Having been so restricted to these conditions he is unfitted for any -radical change, and when such is forced upon him the result must always -be to his injury. - -In certain parts of the American tropics there is found a rich gray -moss growing in great profusion in these localities and on certain -kinds of trees. It is not confined to any special level, but thrives -best on low elevations. Under favorable conditions it grows at -altitudes far above the surrounding swamps. Its character and quantity, -however, are measured by the altitude at which it grows. It is an -aërial plant, and it may be detached from the boughs of one tree and -transplanted upon those of another. It may be taken with safety to a -great distance, so long as an atmosphere is supplied to it that is -suited to its nature, but when removed from its normal conditions and -placed in a purer air it begins to languish and soon dies. If returned -in time, however, to its former place or one of like character, it will -revive and continue to grow. - -What element this plant extracts from the impure air is unknown. It -cannot be carbonic acid gas, which is the chief food of plants, nor can -it be any form of nitrogen. It is well known that the plant cannot long -survive in a pure atmosphere. Whatever the ingredient extracted may -be, it is certain that it is one that is deadly to human life and one -that other plants refuse. Moisture and heat alone will not account for -it. We have another striking instance in the eucalyptus, which lives -upon the poison of the air around it. There are many other such cases -in vegetable life; and while the animal is a higher organism than the -plant, there are certain laws of life that obtain in both kingdoms and -involve the same principles. - -Between the case of the gorilla and that of the plant there is some -analogy. It may not be the same element that sustains them both, but it -is possible that the very microbes which germinate disease and prove -fatal to man sustain the life of the ape in the prime of health. The -poison which destroys life in man preserves it in the ape. - -The chimpanzee is distributed over a much greater range than the -gorilla and is capable of undergoing a much greater degree of change -in food and temperature. The history of these apes in captivity shows -that in that state the chimpanzee lives much the longer and requires -much less care. From my own observation I assert that all these apes -can undergo a greater range of temperature than of humidity. The latter -appears to be one of the essential things to the life of a gorilla. -One fatal mistake made in treating him is furnishing him with a dry, -warm atmosphere and depriving him of the poison contained in the -malarious air in which he naturally spends his life. Both of these apes -need humidity. In a dry air the chimpanzee will live longer than the -gorilla, but neither of them can long survive it; and it would appear -that a salt atmosphere is best for the gorilla. - -I believe that one of these apes could be kept in good condition for -any length of time if he were supplied with a normal humidity in an -atmosphere laden with miasma and allowed to vary in its temperature. A -constant degree of heat is not good for any animal. There is no place -in all the earth where nature sustains a uniform degree of heat. We -need not go to either extreme, but a change is requisite to bring into -play all the organs of the body. - -The treatment which I would recommend for the care of apes is to build -them a house entirely apart from that of other animals. It should be -eighteen or twenty feet wide by thirty-five or forty feet long, and at -least fifteen feet high. It should have no floor except earth, and that -should be of sandy loam or vegetable earth. In one end of this building -there should be a pool of water twelve or fifteen feet in diameter; -and, imbedded in mold under the water, there should be a steam coil -to regulate the temperature as may be desired. In this pool should be -grown a dense crop of water plants such as are found in the marshes of -the country in which the gorilla lives. This pool should not be cleaned -out nor the water changed; but the plants should be allowed to grow and -decay in a natural way. Neither the pool nor the house should be kept -at a uniform heat, but the temperature should be allowed to vary from -60° to 90°. - -In addition to the things above mentioned, the place should be provided -with the means of giving it a spray of tepid water, which should be -turned on once or twice a day and allowed to continue for at least -an hour at a time. The water for this purpose should be taken from -the pool, but should never be warmer than the usual temperature of -tropical rain. The animal should not be required to take a bath in this -way, but should be left to his own choice about it. - -The house should contain a thin partition that could be removed at -will, and the end of the building farthest from the pool should be -occupied by a strong tree, either dead or alive, to afford the inmates -proper exercise. The south side of the house should be of glass, and -at least half of the top should be of the same. These parts should -be provided with heavy canvas curtains, to be drawn over them so as -to adjust or regulate the sunlight. In the summer time the building -should be kept quite open, so as to admit the air and the rain. The -rule that strangers or visitors should not annoy or tease them should -be enforced without respect to person, time, or rank. No visitor should -be allowed on any terms to give them any kind of food. The reasons for -these precautions are obvious to any one familiar with the keeping of -animals; but in the case of the gorilla their observance cannot be -waived with impunity. - -The ape does not need to be pampered. On the contrary, he should be -permitted to rough it. Half of the gorillas that have ever been in -captivity have died from overnursing. By nature they are strong and -robust if the proper conditions exist; but when these are changed they -become frail and tender creatures. They should not be restricted to -a vegetable diet nor limited to a few articles of food, but should -be allowed to select such things as they prefer to eat. I have grave -doubts as to the wisdom of limiting the quantity. One mistake is -often committed in the treatment of animals, and that is to continue -the same diet at all times and to limit that to one or two items. It -may be observed that the higher the form of organism the more diverse -the taste becomes. Very hardy animals or those of low forms may be -restricted to one kind of staple food. The higher form demands a change. - -One thing above all others that I would inhibit is the use of straw -of any kind in the cage, for beds or for any other purpose. If it -be desired to furnish them with such a comfort, nothing should ever -be used but dead leaves, if they can be supplied. In their absence -a canvas mattress or wire matting should be used. There are certain -kinds of dust given off by the dry straw of all cereal plants. This is -deleterious to the health of man, but vastly more so to these apes. -It is taken into the lungs and through them acts upon other parts of -the body by suppressing the circulation and respiration. No matter -how clean the straw may be, the effect will be the same in the end. -Hay is less harmful than straw, but even the use of hay should not be -permitted. - -Another thing which is necessary is to entertain or amuse the apes in -some way, otherwise they become despondent and gloomy. It is believed -by those who are familiar with these creatures that loneliness or -solitude is a fruitful cause of death. This is especially true of the -gorilla. - -Another important fact, little known, is that tobacco smoke is usually -fatal to a gorilla. Every native hunter that I met in Africa testifies -that this simple thing will kill any gorilla in the forest if he is -subjected to the fumes for a sufficient time. I have reason to believe -that this is true. It may not invariably prove fatal, but it will be -so in many instances. The chimpanzee is not so much affected by it, -although he dislikes it. The gorilla detests it and shows at all times -his strong aversion to it. I have no doubt that this is one of the -reasons why these apes die on board the ships by which they are brought -from Africa. - -Both of these apes are possessed, in a degree, of savage and resentful -instincts; but these are much stronger in the gorilla than in the -chimpanzee. The gorilla, therefore, requires firm and consistent -treatment. This can be used without severity or cruelty, but the -intellect of the gorilla must not be underrated. He studies with a keen -perception the motives and intentions of man, and is seldom mistaken -in his interpretation of them. He often manifests a violent dislike -for certain persons, and when this is discovered to be the case, the -object of his dislike should not be permitted in his presence, for the -result is to enrage the ape and excite his nervous nature. When he -becomes sullen or obstinate, he should not be coaxed or indulged, nor -yet used with harshness. He should either be left alone for a time or -be diverted by a change of treatment. - - - - -INDEX - - - “Aaron” - his intelligent expression, 144, 146, 147 - his capture, 145 - on the journey, 147, 148 - his tricks, 148 - ” one aversion, 148, 149 - ” sympathy for Moses, 149-152 - realization of death, 151, 152 - loses his mate, 170 - his illness and death, 172-174 - - “Aaron” with “Elisheba” - acts as a protector, 156 - his reliance on human aid, 157, 158-159 - driving the cow, 158, 159 - we start for Liverpool, 159 - the bogie on the steamer, 159 - solicitude of the apes, 159-160 - their ingenuity, 161 - the ape in the mirror, 161-162 - Aaron’s jealousy, 162-165 - the rivals, 163-165 - arrival at Liverpool, 167, 168 - Elisheba’s illness, 168 - Aaron again becomes nurse, 170 - - Abstract ideas in simians, Lack of, 20, 36 - - Affection in animals not mere instinct, 58-59, 173 - - Age of maturity in apes, 98, 191, 192 - - Amusement (of captives) - captives should have, 55-56, 283 - means of, 20-21, 33, 35, 54-56 - - _Angola_, 268 - - Anthropoid or manlike apes (see also _Chimpanzee_, _Gorilla_, - _Gibbon_, _Orang_, and references under _Chimpanzee captives_) - the group, 3 - superior intelligence, 35, 60 - - Apes (see also _Simians_ and references under _Anthropoid apes_) - resemblance to man, 2 - described, 3, 92-98, 223 ff. - anthropoid or manlike group, 3 - skeleton a duplicate of man’s, 4, 7 - superior intelligence of anthropoid, 35, 60 - travelers’ stories untrue, 71-72, 235-236, 266 ff. - do not act in concert, 268 - - Approval, Apes’ love of, 197, 203 - - Arboreal habit, The, 96-97, 224-225, 245 - - - Baboon, The, 3, 14, 15, 196-197, 224, 266, 277 - relative plane, 3, 277 - - Bailey, Mr. James A., New York City - his valuable apes, 190-191 - corroborative testimony, 268 - - “Banquo,” 28-29 - - Battel, Henry (1590), 267, 268 - - _Batuna_ (plant), 77, 245 - - Bellevue Gardens, Manchester, England (see also _Consul II_) - Consul II, 193 - a pugnacious ape, 198-200 - chimpanzee and orang, 200 - - Borneo, 274 - - Buffalo (N. Y.) Museum, Specimens in, 104 - - - Cage in the jungle, The - idea first conceived, 60 - exceptional opportunities it afforded, 60, 71, 260 - its construction, 62-64 - its furniture, 64-66 - date of occupancy, 71 - length of occupancy, 71 - my chimpanzee companion, 71 - (see also _Moses_) - the native boy, 71, 120, 121, 125, 148-149 - program for the day, 73 ff. - my menu, 73, 77, 79, 84 - wild visitors, 75 ff., 186-190, 252-260 - the tornado, 79 ff. - - _Cameroon_ (valley), 85, 213, 215, 267 - - Capuchin monkey, The (see also under _Monkey_), 18-19, 28, 29, 38, 39, - 42, 52 - - Care of simian captives - amusement of, 20-21, 33, 35, 54-56, 283 - their short lives, 146, 200, 201 - effects of confinement, 231 - cannot live in pure air, 280, 281 - condition compared to a certain - tropical moss, 279-280 - humidity essential, 280-282 - diet, 282-283 - dust of straw injurious, 283 - tobacco fatal to the gorilla, 283-284 - - Catarrhini, 3 - - “Caucasian of monkeys, The,” 35 - - Cebus monkey, The (see also under _Monkey_) - brown species, 17, 24, 42 - experiments with, 17, 18 - superior intelligence, 35 - white-faced species, 42 - - _Charla_ (lake), 25 - - Charleston, S. C., Experiments at, 24 ff. - - Cherry, Mr. William S., African traveler, 212 - - Chicago Gardens, Experiments at, 17, 29 - - “Chico” - his unusual size, 190 - ” scream, 241 - ” fear of an elephant, 268 - - _Chi Loango_ (river), 211, 218 - - Chimpanzee, The (see also _Kulu-kamba_, _Ntyigo_, and references - under _Chimpanzee captives_) - order of intelligence, 4, 60, 85, 99, 105-106 - perception of number, 34 - resemblance to man (see also _Skeleton_), 60-62, 92 - in native haunts, 70, 71, 186-190 - habitat, 85-87, 280 - derivation and meaning of name, 86 - two species, 86 ff. - described in detail, 92-98, 188 - position in sleep, 96 - longevity, 98 - age of maturity, 98, 191, 192 - breeding season, 98-99 - social traits and government, 99-105 - reasoning power and mental status, 105, 116, 206 - does not bear captivity well, 146 - pulmonary trouble common, 146 - maladies resemble man’s, 186 - seen from the cage, 186-190 - climate of America favorable, 200-201 - mode of attack, 237 - scream and beating sound, 240-242 - disposition, 250, 284 - - Chimpanzees, Speech of - extent of vocabulary, 108, 115, 136 - number of words interpreted, 108, 115 - pitch of voice, 108, 109, 111, 112, 116 - vocal organs, 108-110 - phonetic symbols invented by author, 109-113 - method of producing sounds, 110-111 - character and meaning of sounds, 112-115, 123, 125, 130, 135-137 - quality of voice, 113 - use of gestures, 114-115 - possibility of development, 139 - resemblance to human speech, 116 - constant meanings of sounds, 136, 137 - - Chimpanzee captives, Some (see _Aaron_; _Elisheba_; _Sailor’s pet_; - _Village pet_; _Gaboon, captives at_; _Izanga_; _Chico_; _Johanna_; - _Consul II_; _Clever kulu_; _Five young kulus_; _Sally_) - - Cincinnati Zoölogical Garden, Experiments at, 14, 28, 200, 241 - - Classification of simians, 2-4 - - Clever kulu, A - her color, 202 - facial expression, 203, 206 - love of approval, 203, 204 - always in mischief, 204 - unties complicated knots, 204-206 - evidence of reasoning power, 206 - - Color, Simians’ perception of, 30-32, 35, 36, 139 - - Concrete ideas, Simians can express only, 36 - - _Congo_ (river), 66, 85, 191, 209, 211, 212, 216, 218, 241, 267, 268, - 270, 272 - - Constant meanings of sounds in simian speech, 15, 18, 23, 135-137 - - “Consul II” - his remarkable sagacity, 193 - rides a “bike,” 193 - smokes a pipe, 193-195 - draws with chalk or pencil, 195, 196 - distinguishes three letters, 196 - love of teasing, 196-197 - aversion to being clothed, 197 - loves approval, 197 - attempts at burglary, 198 - his keeper’s zeal, 198 - - Cranio-facial angles - of man, 8 - ” apes, 9 - ” monkeys, 9 - ” reptiles, 10 - - Cross, Dr., Liverpool, England - guardian of Aaron and Elisheba, 168, 172 - - Cruelty - unnecessary in hunting, 146 - inherent in natives, 157, 184-185 - - Crystal Mountains, 211, 214 - - Cynocephalus, 266 - - - “Darwin” - learns Puck’s sound for “food,” 43 - - Deaf-mutes, Method of teaching applied to simian speech, 110 - - Death, Apes’ realization of, 151, 152, 170, 259 - - Deemin, Mr. James, English trader, 223, 261 - - Descriptions of simians - of monkeys, 3, 224 - ” chimpanzee, 92-98, 224 - ” gorilla, 223 ff. - - Development of “calf” a means of comparison, 227 - - Dexterity and ingenuity - of apes, 122, 126, 129, 130, 132, 161, 184, 193-198, 204-206 - of monkeys, 56-57 - - Dialects (see _types_ under _Monkeys, Speech of_) - - Dimension, Simians’ perception of, 30, 36 - - “Dodo” - Nemo’s apologetic speech, 47 - her appeal to her keeper, 48-50 - - Drake, Mr. J. H., African traveler, 261 - - Drum, The (see _Kanjo_) - - Du Chaillu, Paul, African traveler, 214, 272, 273 - - - Early reports of apes (see _Ford_, _Savage_, _Wilson_, _Walker_, - _Hanno_, _Battel_, _Du Chaillu_) - - “Elisheba” (see also _Aaron with Elisheba_) - where captured, 154 - her shrewish temper, 154-156 - her selfishness and perversity, 155-156 - her champion and slave, 156, 162-165 - a suitor rebuffed, 163-165 - submissive only from policy, 166 - her illness and death, 168-171 - - Eloquence of monkeys’ speech, 22, 47-50 - - Emotions, Simians display human - sympathy, 149-152, 170-171 - aversion, 26, 148-149 - sorrow, 50, 152, 170 - jealousy, 46, 125, 162-165, 186 - contempt, 203, 206, 250 - affection, 58-59, 134-135, 173, 174 - - _Enjocko_, 268 - - Enumeration (see _Number, Perception of_) - - _Esyira_ (tribe and country), 140, 144, 145, 218, 228, 267, 269 - - Ethics, Monkeys’ code of, 30 - - Etymology of native names, 232, 272 - - Evolution, 36 - - Expression (see also _Facial expression_) - defined, 13 - speech a means of, 13 - animals’ limit of, 13, 23 - - - Facial expression of simians, 1, 16, 46, 47, 126, 146-147, 150, 162, - 170, 182, 197, 202-204, 206, 207, 229 - - Falkenstein, Dr., 267 - - Ferocity of apes exaggerated, 229, 235-236 - - _Ferran Vaz_ (lake), 66, 144, 149, 219, 228, 270 - - _Fiote_ (tribe and language), 86, 267 - - Five young kulus, 207-210 - - Food - of chimpanzee, 106-107, 128-129, 132 - of gorilla, 245-246 - - Ford, Dr., African traveler, 214, 217 - - Form, Simians’ perception of, 30, 139, 196 - - Fort Gorilla, 71 - - - _Gaboon_ (town and river), 66, 153, 155, 182, 211, 214-217, 268, 272 - - Gaboon, Some captives at, 182 ff. - their table manners, 182-184 - their love of beer, 183-184 - their dexterity, 184 - maladies resemble man’s, 186 - - Gibbon, The - order of intelligence, 4 - arboreal habit, 96, 276 - size and activity, 275-276 - skeleton, 276 - can stand erect, 276 - wonderful leaping power, 276 - several known species, 277 - vocal qualities, 277 - - Glave, E. J., African traveler, 241 - - Goode, Rev. A. C., late missionary at Batanga, 272 - - Gorilla, The - order of intelligence, 4, 211, 232 - resemblance to man, 60 - in native haunts, 70, 71 - seen from the cage, 71, 77-78, 186, 252-260 - his scream and beating sound, 84, 109, 237-242 - arboreal habit, 96-97, 224-225, 245 - nomadic, 97, 233 - habitat, 211 ff., 273, 278-279 - early reports of (see references under _Early reports_) - skeleton, 218-223 - described in detail, 223 ff. - cannot walk erect, 225 - the “calf” as means of comparison, 227 - species, 228, 274 - compared with other apes and with man, 228-231 - social traits and government, 231 ff. - derivation of name, 232 - in council, 234 - ferocity exaggerated, 235-236, 262, 273 - mode of attack, 236-237 - sounds wrongly attributed to, 109, 240-242 - method of carrying young, 242, 259 - disposition, 242, 250-251, 284 - food, 245-246, 282-283 - stealthiness, 253, 262 - calling sound, 254 - difficult to find, 260-263 - only one ever brought to America, 263 - a wild gorilla takes his own photograph, 264-265 - care in captivity, 278 ff. - - Great forest, The, 68 - - Guinea, Gulf of, 85, 266 - - - Habitat - of gorilla, 211 ff., 273, 278-279 - of chimpanzee, 85-87, 280 - of orang, 274 - of gibbon, 276 - - Handmann, Mr. Otto, German consul at Gaboon, 182 - - Hanno, 500 B.C., earliest mention of the ape, 266-267 - - Harris, Captain, African traveler, 217 - - Harvard Medical School Collection, 6 - - Hornaday, W. T., authority on orang, 275 - - Human faculties, embryo of all, exists in simians, 37 - - - _Ikomba njina_, 232, 234, 235 - - _Inenga_ (lake), 218 - - Ingenuity of simians (see _Dexterity_) - - _Izanga_ (lake), 184, 212, 223 - an unhappy captive at, 184-185 - an act of mercy, 185 - - - “Jack,” 25 - - “Jennie,” 27 - - “Johanna” - her value for scientific use, 190, 192 - probable age, 191 - size, 191 - intellectual plane, 192 - - “Jokes” 24 ff. - his fright, 24 - the reconciliation, 26 - - Journeys in the jungle - to the chimpanzee country, 66 - a five days’ journey on foot, 148 - to the coast, 153 - - Jungle, the African - described, 66-70, 153 - daily life in, 73 ff. - the quiet hour, 77 - a tornado, 79 ff. - - - _Kabinda_ (town), 191 - - _Kanga ntyigo_ - etymology of the name, 272 - - _Kanjo_, The, 102-104 - the drum, 104, 241 - - Keller, Helen - with Nellie, 52-53 - - _Kisanga_ (valley and river), 212 - - _Komo_ (river, also name of gunboat), 153, 213, 217 - - _Kongo_, 272 - - _Kulu-kamba_ (see also under _Chimpanzee_, and references under - _Chimpanzee captives_) - its habitat, 87 - described and compared with _ntyigo_, 87-91 - Moses’ successor, 144 - highest type of all apes, 202, 210 - name applied to different types, 270 - - - _Lamberene_ (town), 270 - - Lemur, 2, 224 - relative plane, 2, 277 - - _Loango_ (valley), 192, 211, 267, 269 - - Longevity of chimpanzee, 98 - - Lopez, African explorer, 270 - - Lopez, Cape, 153, 270 - - - _Mafuka_, 269, 274 - - Maladies of simians - pulmonary trouble common, 146 - resemble man’s, 186 - - Malay Peninsula, 276 - - Mandrill, The, 14 - - _Mayumba_ (town), 215, 216, 268 - - _M’Bouve_, 272 - - “McGinty” - his jealousy, 45, 46 - - Meanings of certain sounds in simian speech (see also under _Monkeys, - Speech of_, and _Chimpanzees, Speech of_) - sound meaning “food,” 19, 28, 29, 43, 112-113 - sound meaning “drink,” 19, 28, 29 - sound meaning “warning,” 14, 20, 27, 113 - sound meaning “alarm,” 24, 27, 113 - sound meaning “friendship,” 113 - sound meaning “good,” 160, 181 - calling sound, 112-113, 136 - - Mental power and status of simians (see also under _Ape_, - _Chimpanzee_, _Monkey_, _Gorilla_, “_Aaron_,” “_Moses_,” etc.) - compared to man, 105 - compared to the dog, 116 - - Menu, My daily, 73, 77, 79, 84 - - Mesial crest (see _Gorilla, Skeleton of_) - - “Mickie” - the boss of the school, 45-46 - his tricks, 46 - - Middle forest, The, 68 - - Mirror, Experiments with, 40-41, 161-162 - - Mode of attack - of chimpanzee, 237 - of gorilla, 236-237 - - _Moiro_, 217 - - Monkey, The (see also _Simians_) - human appearance, 1 - relative plane, 2, 277 - relationship to man, 2, 277 - all simians not monkeys, 2-3 - described, 3, 224 - old world and new world, 3 - cranio-facial angles, 9 - Cebus species (see _Cebus_) - Capuchin species (see _Capuchin_) - perception of sound, color, form, dimension, quality, number, music, - etc., 30-37 - code of ethics, 30 - Rhesus species (see _Rhesus_) - difference in traits and tastes, 35 - express emotion, 50 - affection not mere instinct, 58-59 - - Monkeys, Laughter of, 38, 54-55 - - Monkeys, Speech of - study of, 14 ff. - poor success of first efforts, 15 - sound meaning “alarm” or “warning,” 14, 20, 24, 27 - phonograph first used, 16-18 - sounds have constant meanings, 15, 18, 23 - number of sounds interpreted, 18 - sounds described, 19-20 - speech monophrastic and monophonetic, 19, 44 - pitch of voice, 20, 28, 50 - resemblance to human speech, 20, 22-23 - each species has its own speech, 23, 44 - sign of surrender, 25 ff. - sound meaning “food,” 19, 28, 29 - sound meaning “drink,” 19, 28, 29 - musical quality of voices, 19, 25, 45, 47, 50, 53, 57 - eloquence, 22, 47-50 - types of speech and inflections, 23, 42, 60 - - “Moses” - my sole companion in the cage, 71 - his breakfast, 73 - his amusements, 73, 120, 122-124 - his siesta, 77, 124 - position in sleep, 96 - learns a word of human speech, 115-116, 137-138 - his capture, 117-118 - his moral training, 118, 120-121, 130-132 - his tricks, 120-121, 123-124, 131 - dexterity and ingenuity, 122, 126, 129-130, 132-133 - reading the newspaper, 123 - his jealousy and temper, 125, 186 - our walks in the jungle, 125 - understood rights of possession, 125, 128 - preferences in food, 128, 129, 132 - meaning of sounds, 123, 125, 135-137 - his quick vision, 125 - a severe lesson, 131-132 - reasoning power, 133 - his devotion, 134-135 - perception of form, color, music, etc., 139 - he signs a legal document, 139-140 - last illness, 140-142, 149-151 - his chimpanzee nurse, 149-152 - his death, 142, 151, 152 - his claims to fame, 143 - - _Mpongwe_, 86 - - Music, Simians’ perception of, 35-36 - - - Native explanation of relationships, 269-270 - - Native reports unreliable, 215, 231 - - _Nazavine_ (bay), 270 - - “Nellie” - her love of companionship, 20, 22 - warns me of danger, 21 ff. - her perception of sound, 22 - with Helen Keller, 52-53 - her ingenuity, 56-57 - - “Nemo” - his diplomacy, 47 - his abject apology, 47-48 - - _Nenge Nenge_ (town), 214 - - New world monkeys, 3 - their superior intelligence, 35 - - New York Zoölogical Gardens, Experiments at, 45-51 - - _Nguni_ (river), 154, 211, 213, 218 - - “Nigger,” 45, 51 - - _Njina_, 228, 267, 269, 270 - - _Njole_ (town), 213 - - _Nkami_ (tribe, lake, and river), 66, 144, 212, 218, 272 - - _Noogo_ (river), 144 - - Nose a distinguishing feature, The, 3 - - _Ntcheego_, 268 - - _Ntyigo_ (see also under _Chimpanzee_) - its habitat, 87 - described, 87-90 - compared with _kulu-kamba_, 90-91 - distinguished from _ntyii_, 228 - - _Ntyii_, 223, 228, 267, 269-270 - - _Ntyi-ne-nye-ni_ (village), 144 - - Number, Perception of - by simians, 32-34, 36 - by birds, 34 - - - _Ogowé_ (river, delta, and basin), 66, 117, 202, 211, 213, 214, 215, - 217, 218, 223, 272 - - Old world monkeys, 3 - - Orang, The - order of intelligence, 4 - arboreal habit, 97 - a captive at Bellevue, 200 - compared, 274, 275 - - _Orungu_ (tribe), 215 - - “Othello” - place of capture, 221 - absence of humor, 244 - illness and death, 247-249 - with Moses, 249, 250 - his speech sounds, 251 - - Owen, Sir Richard, writer on Africa, 215 - - - Parrot Island, 214 - - Paternal instinct in animals, 100 - - “Pedro” - his troubles, 38 - appreciation of kindness, 38 - recording his sounds, 38, 39 - his tale of woe, 39, 41 - speech repeated to Puck, 39-41 - - Philadelphia Museum of Zoölogy, Specimens at, 217 - - Phonograph as a means of recording speech of monkeys, 15 ff. - first experiments, 16 ff. - behavior of monkeys on hearing, 16-18 - speech and reply recorded, 18 - Pedro’s speech recorded, 38 - experiment with Puck, 39-41 - - Pitch of voice - in monkeys, 20, 28 - in apes, 108, 109, 111-112 - - Platarrhini, 3 - - _Pongo_, 267, 269 - - Program, A day’s, 73 ff. - - “Puck,” his perplexity on hearing phonograph, 39-41 - - - Quality, Simians’ perception of, 30 - - Quantity, Simians’ perception of, 32 - - - Reasoning power in simians, Evidences of, 16-18, 33-34, 36, 37, 105, - 133, 161, 206 - - Records of speech sounds (see _Phonograph_) - - _Rembo_ (river), 144, 218 - - Resemblances between simians and man - in body, 1, 2, 4-8, 60, 92, 186, 277 - in speech, 20, 22-23, 116 - in affections, 58-59, 173, 174 - - Rhesus monkey, 32 - - Romanes, Professor - experiments with chimpanzee, 34 - experiments with “Sally,” 241 - - Sacrum (see _Skeleton_) - - Sagittal ridge (see _Gorilla, Skeleton of_) - - Sailor’s pet, A - his suit rejected, 163-165 - - “Sally,” 241 - - “Sally Jones,” 244 - - Savage, Dr., African traveler, 213, 214, 216 - - Scream of gorilla and chimpanzee, 84, 109, 237-242 - - _Sette Kama_ (town), 144, 212 - - Sheldon, Mrs. M. French, African traveler, 25 - - Sierra Leone, 266 - - Simians (see _Apes_, _Monkeys_, etc.) - wide range of types, 2 - different forms described, 3 - two grand divisions, how distinguished, 3 - - Simian speech (see _Monkeys, Speech of_, and _Chimpanzees, Speech of_) - - Size of apes, 96, 190, 191, 221, 230 - - Skeleton, The - as basis of comparison, 4 - chief point of difference, 4 - sacrum, peculiarities of, 4-6, 8 - vertebræ, number of, 5-6 - causes of difference in sacrum and vertebræ, 6 - sternum, differences in, 6, 7 - skull, differences in, 8 - general comparison, 7-8 - of gorilla, 218-223 - of gibbon, 276 - - Smithsonian Institution, Experiments at, 15 ff., 38 - - Snapshot, A unique, 264-265 - - Social traits and government - of chimpanzee, 99-105 - of gorilla, 231 ff. - - _Soko_, 270 - - Speech defined, 12 - - Speech of animals (see also _Monkeys, Speech of_, and _Chimpanzees, - Speech of_) - author’s interest in, 12 - grounds of belief in, 12, 13 - vocabularies limited, 13 - can express what they conceive, 13, 23 - development of interest, 14 - - Spider-monkey, 38 - - Stanley Pool, 216 - - Steckelman, Carl, African explorer, 216 - - Sternum (see _Skeleton_) - - Stories of travelers and writers often untrue, 71-72, 235-236, - 261-263, 267, 268, 273 - - Strohm, Mr. Adolph, trader at Gaboon, 154, 158 - - Sumatra, 274 - - - Threadbare story, A, 262, 273 - - Tornado in the jungle, 79 ff. - - Translations of native reports, Literal, 269, 270 - - Troglodytes, 267 - - _Tyimba_ (village), 144 - - - Under forest, The, 68 - - University of Toronto Collection, 249 - - - Village pet, A - the children’s playmate, 175-178 - understood names and commands, 179 - brought water and wood, 179-180 - brought persons named, 180-181 - price double that of a slave, 182 - - Vocabularies of animals (see _Speech of Animals_; _Monkeys, Speech - of_, and _Chimpanzees, Speech of_) - - - Walker, Dr., revises Wilson’s lexicon of native language, 216 - - Wallace, Mr. Alfred R., authority on orang, 275 - - Webber, Mr., keeper of ape at Bellevue - his success in training, 198 - - Wild visitors to the cage, 75 ff., 81-82, 186-190, 252-260 - did not usually evince fear, 253 - retreated in good order, 253, 255, 258 - Moses frightens one away, 254 - a gorilla beckons, 255 - a narrow escape, 256-258 - an exceptional opportunity, 258-259 - a brave baby, 260 - a gorilla takes his own photograph, 264-265 - - Wilson, Dr., first missionary at Gaboon - wrote lexicon of native language, 216 - - Wurmb, Baron, 267 - - - - -Books on Out-of-Door Life - - - WAYS OF WOOD FOLK - - By William J. 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L. Garner—A Project Gutenberg eBook - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; - text-indent: 1em; -} -.p1 {margin-top: 1em;} -.p2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.p0 {text-indent: 0em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -abbr[title] { - text-decoration: none; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} -@media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } - -hr.r5 {width: 5%; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 47.5%; margin-right: 47.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -ul.index { list-style-type: none; -margin-top: 3em;} -li.ifrst { - margin-top: 1em; - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 1em; -} -li.isuba { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 2em; -} -li.isubb { - text-indent: -2em; - padding-left: 3em; -} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; - font-size: 1.1em; - width: 90%;} -table.autotable td, -table.autotable th { padding: 4px; } -.x-ebookmaker table {width: 95%;} - -.tdr {text-align: right;} -.tdc {text-align: center;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; -} /* page numbers */ - -.heading { - font-size: 1.1em; -} - - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} -img.w75 {width: 75%;} -.w50 {width: 50%;} - - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - - - - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -/* .poetry {display: inline-block;} */ -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} - - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Apes and Monkeys: Their Life and Language, by Richard Lynch Garner</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Apes and Monkeys: Their Life and Language</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Richard Lynch Garner</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 27, 2022 [eBook #67517]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APES AND MONKEYS: THEIR LIFE AND LANGUAGE ***</div> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img001"> - <img src="images/001.jpg" class="w50" alt="R. L. Garner." /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">R. L. Garner.<br /></p> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h1>APES AND MONKEYS<br /><br /> -<em><small>THEIR LIFE AND LANGUAGE</small></em></h1> - -<p class="center p2 p0"><small>BY</small></p> -<p class="center p1 p0"> -<big>R. L. GARNER</big></p> - -<p class="center p2 p0"> <span class="smcap">With an Introduction by</span></p> -<p class="center p1 p0"> -<big>EDWARD EVERETT HALE</big></p> - -<hr class="r5" /> - -<p class="center p2 p0"> <span class="smcap">Boston, U.S.A., and London</span><br /> -<big>GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS</big><br /> - The Athenæum Press -</p> - -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<p class="center p0"> <span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers’ Hall</span></p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center p0"><small><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1900</span></small><br /> -<span class="smcap">By</span> GINN & COMPANY</p> -<hr class="r5" /> -<p class="center p0"><small>ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</small></p> - -<p class="center p0">24.12 -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>This volume is the natural product of many years devoted by the author -to studying the speech and habits of monkeys. That naturally led him -up to the study of the great apes. The matter contained in this work -is chiefly a record of the tabulated facts gleaned from his special -field of research. The aim in view is to convey to the casual reader a -more correct idea than now prevails concerning the physical, mental, -and social habits of apes and monkeys and to prepare him for a wider -appreciation of animals in general.</p> - -<p>The favorable conditions under which the writer has been placed, in the -study of these animals in the freedom of their native jungle, have not -hitherto been enjoyed by any other student of nature.</p> - -<p>A careful aim to avoid all technical terms and scientific phraseology -has been studiously adhered to, and the subject is treated in the -simplest style consistent with its dignity. Tedious details are -relieved by an ample supply of anecdotes taken from the writer’s own -observations. Most of the acts related are those of his own pets. A -few of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</span> them are of apes in a wild state. The author has carefully -refrained from abstruse theories or rash deductions, but has sought -to place the animals here treated of in the light to which their own -conduct entitles them, allowing the reader to draw his own conclusions.</p> - -<p>The author frankly confesses to his own belief in the psychic unity of -all animate nature. Believing in a common source of life, a common law -of living, and a common destiny for all creatures, he feels that to -dignify the apes is not to degrade man but rather to exalt him.</p> - -<p>Believing that a more perfect knowledge of these animals will bring -man into closer fellowship and deeper sympathy with nature, and with -an abiding trust that it will widen the bounds of humanity and cause -man to realize that he and they are but common links in the one great -chain of life, the author gives this work to the world. When once man -is impressed with the consciousness that in some degree, however small, -all creatures think and feel, it will lessen his vanity and ennoble his -heart.</p> - -<p class="p0 right"> -THE AUTHOR<br /> -</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<th> -</th> -<th class="tdr"> -PAGE -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#INTRODUCTION"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_xi">xi</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Monkeys, Apes, and Men—Comparative Anatomy—Skulls—The Law of Cranial Projection -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_1">1</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Early Impression—What is Speech?—First Efforts—The Phonograph—The - First Record of Monkey Speech—Monkey Words—Phonetics—Human - Speech and Monkey Speech -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_12">12</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Monkey Friends—Jokes—The Sound of Alarm—Jennie -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_24">24</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - Monkey Ethics—Sense of Color—Monkeys Enumerate—First - Principles of Art -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_30">30</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Pedro’s Speech Recorded—Delivered to Puck through the Phonograph—Little - Darwin Learns a New Word -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_38">38</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Five Little Brown Cousins: Mickie, McGinty, Nemo, Dodo, and - Nigger—Nemo Apologizes to Dodo <span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_45">45</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Meeting with Nellie—Nellie was my Guest—Her Speech and Manners—Helen - Keller and Nellie—One of Nellie’s Friends—Her - Sight and Hearing—Her Toys and how She Played with - Them -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_52">52</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Caged in an African Jungle—The Cage and its Contents—Its - Location—Its Purpose—The Jungle—The Great Forest—Its - Grandeur—Its Silence -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_60">60</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Daily Life and Scenes in the Jungle—How I Passed the Time—What - I Had to Eat—How it was Prepared—How I Slept—My - Chimpanzee Companion -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_73">73</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -The Chimpanzee—The Name—Two Species—The Kulu-Kamba—Distribution—Color - and Complexion -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_85">85</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Physical Qualities of the Chimpanzee—His Social Habits—Mental - Characteristics -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_92">92</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -The Speech of Chimpanzees—A New System of Phonetic Symbols—Some - Common Words—Gestures -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_108">108</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Moses—His Capture—His Character—His Affections—His Food—His - Daily Life—Anecdotes of Him -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_117">117</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -The Character of Moses—He Learns a Human Word—He Signs - His Name to a Document—His Illness—Death<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_134">134</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Aaron—His Capture—Mental Powers—Acquaintance with Moses—His - Conduct during Moses’ Illness -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_144">144</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Aaron and Elisheba—Their Characteristics—Anecdotes—Jealousy - of Aaron -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_153">153</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Illness of Elisheba—Aaron’s Care of Her—Her Death—Illness - and Death of Aaron -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_167">167</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Other Chimpanzees—The Village Pet—A Chimpanzee as Diner-Out—Notable - Specimens in Captivity -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_175">175</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Other Kulu-Kambas—A Knotty Problem—Instinct or Reason—Various - Types -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_202">202</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -The Gorilla—His Habitat—Skeleton—Skull—Color—Structural - Peculiarities -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_211">211</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Habits of the Gorilla—Social Traits—Government—Justice—Mode - of Attack—Screaming and Beating—Food -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_231">231</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -Othello and Other Gorillas—Othello and Moses—Gorilla Visitors—Gorilla - Mother and Child—Scarcity of Gorillas—Unauthentic - Tales <span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_247">247</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> - Other Apes—The Apes in History—Habitat—The Orangs—The - Gibbon -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_266">266</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdc" colspan="2"> -<a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -The Treatment of Apes in Captivity—Temperature—Building—Food—Occupation -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_278">278</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Index</span></a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#Page_287">287</a> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<th> -</th> -<th class="tdr"> -PAGE -</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img001"><span class="smcap">Portrait of R. L. Garner</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img001">Frontispiece</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img002"><span class="smcap">Pelvis of the Chimpanzee</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img002">5</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img003"><span class="smcap">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1</span> (<span class="smcap">Cranio-facial Angles</span>)</a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img003">8</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img004"><span class="smcap">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 2</span> (<span class="smcap">Cranio-facial Angles</span>)</a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img004">9</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img005"><span class="smcap">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 3</span> (<span class="smcap">Cranio-facial Angles</span>)</a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img005">9</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img006"><span class="smcap">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 4</span> (<span class="smcap">Cranio-facial Angles</span>)</a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img006">10</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img007"><span class="smcap">Monkey Learning to Count</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img007">33</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img008"><span class="smcap">Native Village at Glass Gaboon</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img008">61</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img009"><span class="smcap">A Native Canoe</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img009">63</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img010"><span class="smcap">The Edge of the Jungle</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img010">65</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img011"><span class="smcap">In the Jungle</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img011">67</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img012"><span class="smcap">Waiting and Watching in the Cage</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img012">69</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img013"><span class="smcap">Starting for a Stroll</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img013">74</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img014"><span class="smcap">A Peep at My Cage</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img014">75</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img015"><span class="smcap">Preparing for the Night</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img015">83</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img016"><span class="smcap">Kanjo Ntyigo-Chimpanzee Dance</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img016">103</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img017"><span class="smcap">Native Carrier Boy</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img017">119</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img018"><span class="smcap">A Stroll in the Jungle—<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Garner, Moses, and Native - Boy</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img018">127</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img019"><span class="smcap">Elisheba and Aaron</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img019">169</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img020"><span class="smcap">Native Village, Interior of Nyanza</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img020">176</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img021"><span class="smcap">Consul II Riding a Tricycle</span></a> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img021">194</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img022"><span class="smcap"><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Crowley, Late of the New York Zoölogical Garden</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img022">199</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img023"><span class="smcap">Skulls of Gorillas—Front View</span> </a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img023">220</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img024"><span class="smcap">Skulls of Gorillas—Profile View</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img024">220</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img025"><span class="smcap">Natives Skinning a Gorilla</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img025">222</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img026"><span class="smcap">Young Gorilla Walking</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img026">226</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img027"><span class="smcap">Sally Jones (Young Gorilla) Caught Napping</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img027">243</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img028"><span class="smcap">Gorilla Mother with Young</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img028">257</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img029"><span class="smcap">Plain and Edge of Forest in the Country of the Apes</span></a> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img029">271</a> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td> -<a href="#img030"><span class="smcap">Young Orangs</span></a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span> -</td> -<td class="tdr"> -<a href="#img030">275</a> -</td> -</tr> -</table> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Garner’s book needs no introduction. By this I mean that I think -that no intelligent person will open into it without wishing to read -more and more. The book is its own introduction.</p> - -<p>I write these lines, not so much to explain what the book is as to -introduce <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Garner himself to people who do not know him, that they -may thank him for the step forward which he has made and is making.</p> - -<p>It is hardly half a century since one of the highest authorities in -the Church of England told us that animals have no rights whatever, -and that men should be kind to them simply for the reason that it was -desirable that men should improve their own characters. If I tied a tin -pail to a dog’s tail, I injured my character. If I patted the dog on -the head, I improved my character. “See all things for my use,”—this -was really the motto of a book of ethics somewhat famous in its day.</p> - -<p>Happily the world has lived beyond such a crusty selfishness as -this,—happily, perhaps, not for mankind only. Happily for our thought -of the universe in which we live, men have found out that they have -duties towards animals as they have duties towards each other,—say -that in a certain sense we are the gods of animals, to whom they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span> look -up as we look up to our Father in heaven; let us, at least, treat them -as we would be treated.</p> - -<p>How shall we do this? How shall we come at some understanding of their -life, of their needs, of their hopes and fears? How can we be just to -them?</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Garner has set to work in this business with systematic -perseverance and a real comprehension of the position. Of all the -inferior animals, these monkeys and apes, it seems, have more machinery -for thought, if I may use so clumsy an expression, than have any -others. The book will tell the reader why it is easier to come at some -notion of the language of the Capuchin monkey than it is to apprehend -the method by which the horse communicates with the horse, or the -blackbird with the blackbird. With scientific precision, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Garner has -availed himself of this fact, is availing himself of it at the moment -when I write. He has selected animals, which are certainly animals and -not men. He has selected these as those where his study can be precise, -and where it is most easy to arrive at correct conclusions; and it is -not in the study merely of speech and of listening; it is study of -what I may call the principles which underlie animal life, to which -this explorer in a new field has devoted himself. The reader of this -book will understand why it is that he gives up years of life to such -society as that his dear little Moses gave him; why he plunges into</p> - -<p class="poetry p0"> -The multitudinous abyss<br /> -Where nature joys in secret bliss,<br /> -</p> - -<p class="p0">that he may come at some of the secrets of those beings who are at home -there.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Garner does not ask himself, and I do not propose that the reader -shall ask, what changes may ensue in the trade of the world from his -discovery. He does not pretend that there will be more palm oil, or -more Manila hemp, because we understand monkeys and apes and gorillas -and orangs better than our fathers. But he believes, and those who -have followed him with sympathy believe, that we shall know more of -ourselves, that we shall know more of the universe in which we live, -that we shall know more of God, the I Am, who is the life of this -universe, than our fathers knew, if this brave explorer is able to -carry on farther such investigations as this book describes.</p> - -<p>May his life be prolonged for such study; it has been long enough now -for us to owe him a large debt of gratitude for the lifelong sacrifice -and determination with which he has prosecuted these studies thus far.</p> - -<p class="right"> -EDWARD E. HALE.<br /> -</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>October 26, 1900.</p> -</blockquote> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="APES_AND_MONKEYS">APES AND MONKEYS</h2> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I -</h2> -</div> -<p class="center heading p0">Monkeys, Apes, and Men—Comparative Anatomy—Skulls—The Law of Cranial -Projection</p> - - -<p>From time immemorial monkeys have been subjects of interest to the old -and to the young. The wise and the simple are alike impressed with -their human looks and manners. There are no other creatures that so -charm and fascinate the beholder as do these little effigies of the -human race. With equal delight, patriarchs and children watch their -actions and compare them to those of human beings. Until recent years -monkeys have served to amuse rather than to instruct the masses. But -now that the search-light of science is being thrown into every nook -and crevice of nature, human interest in them is greatly increased and -the savants of all civilized lands are wrestling with the problem of -their possible relationship to mankind. With the desire of learning -as much as possible concerning their habits, faculties, and mental -resources, they are being studied from every point of view, and each -characteristic is seriously compared in detail to the corresponding one -in man. Concurrent with this desire, we shall note the chief points of -resemblance and of difference between them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</span></p> - -<p>In order to appreciate more fully the value of the lessons to be drawn -from the contents of this volume we must know the relative planes -that men and monkeys occupy in the scale of nature. Within the limits -of this work, however, we can only compare them in a general way. -Since monkeys differ so widely among themselves, it is evident that -all of them cannot in the same degree resemble man; and as the degree -of interest in them is approximately measured by their likeness or -unlikeness to man, it is apparent that all cannot be of equal interest -as subjects of comparative study. But since each forms an integral part -of one great scale, each one is equally important in tracing out the -continuity of the order to which all belong.</p> - -<p>The vast family of simians has perhaps the widest range of types of -any single family of animals. Beginning with the great apes, which -in size, form, and structure so closely resemble man, we descend the -scale until it ends in the lemurs, which are almost on the level of -rodents. The descent is so gradual that it is difficult to draw a line -of demarcation at any point between the two extremes. There is now, -however, an effort being made to separate this family into smaller and -more distinct groups; but the lines between them are not sharply drawn, -and the literature of the past has a tendency to retard the effort. But -we shall not here assume to discuss the problems with which zoölogy may -in the future have to contend; we shall accept the current system of -classification and proceed along that line.</p> - -<p>In the language of the masses all the varied types that belong to the -simian family are known as <em>monkeys</em>. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span> term is so broad in -its application as to include many forms which are not to be considered -in this work, and many of them should be known under other names. Some -of these resemble man more than they resemble each other. By the word -<em>monkey</em>, we mean to refer only to those of the simian tribe that -have long tails and short faces, while the word <em>baboon</em> refers -only to the dog-like forms having tails of medium length and long -projecting faces. The term <em>ape</em> will be applied only to those -having no tails at all. While all of these animals are called simians, -they are not all monkeys.</p> - -<p>The simian family is divided into two great classes, known as <em>old -world monkeys</em> and <em>new world monkeys</em>. The chief point of -distinction is in the structure of the nose. All of the monkeys -belonging to the old world stock have long, straight noses with -vertical nostrils, separated by a narrow thin wall, or septum, and -from this fact they are technically known as <em>catarrhini</em>. The -new world stock have short, flat noses with oblique nostrils set wide -apart, and on this account they are known as <em>platarrhini</em>. There -are many other marks that distinguish genera and species, but these are -the two grand divisions of the simian race. We shall not here attempt -to classify the many genera and species of either of these divisions. -But we shall point out some of the most salient anatomical features of -men and apes, and then those of monkeys.</p> - -<p>Among the simians, erroneously called monkeys, are the four kinds -that constitute the anthropoid, or manlike, group of apes. In certain -respects they differ from each other as much as any one of them differs -from man. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> four apes here alluded to and named in the order of -their physical resemblance to man are: the gorilla, the chimpanzee, -the orang, and the gibbon; but if placed in the order of their mental -and social characteristics they stand as follows: the chimpanzee, -which is next to man, the gorilla, the gibbon, and, last, the orang. -It is possible, however, that it may yet be found that the gibbon is -intellectually the highest of this group.</p> - -<p>As the skeleton is the framework of the physical structure, it will -serve for the basis upon which to build up the comparisons; and as, on -the whole, the chimpanzee is the nearest approach to man, we select and -use him as the standard of comparison. The skeleton of the chimpanzee -may be said to be an exact duplicate of that of man. The assertion, -however, should be qualified by a few facts of minor importance; but -since they are facts, they should not be ignored. The general plan, -purpose, and structure of the skeletons of man and chimpanzee are the -same. There is no part of the one which is not duplicated in the other, -and there is no function discharged by any part of the one that is not -discharged by a like part of the other. The chief point in which they -differ is in the structure of one bone. To this we shall pay special -attention.</p> - -<p>Near the base of the spinal column is a large compound bone, known as -the <em>sacrum</em>. It is a constituent part of the column, but in its -singular form and structure it differs slightly from the corresponding -bone in man. The general outline of this bone has the form of an -isosceles triangle. It fits in between the two large bones that spread -out towards the hips and articulate with the thigh bones. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> man, -about halfway between the center and the edge along each side is a row -of four nearly round holes. Across the surface of the bone is a dim, -transverse line, or seam, between each pair of holes, from which it is -seen that five smaller sections of the spinal column have anchylosed, -or grown together, to form the sacrum. The holes coincide with the -open spaces between the transverse processes, or lateral projections, -of the other bones of the spinal column above this. In the chimpanzee -this bone has the same general form as in man, except that instead of -four holes in each row it has five. They are connected by transverse -seams the same as in man, thus indicating that six of the vertebræ, -instead of five, are united. In compensation for this, the ape has one -vertebra less in the portion of the spinal column just above, which is -called the lumbar. In man there are five free lumbar vertebræ and five -united sections of the sacrum, while in the ape there are only four -free lumbar vertebræ and six united sections forming the sacrum. But -regarding each section of the sacrum as a separate bone and counting -the whole number of vertebræ in the spinal column there are found to be -exactly the same number in each.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img002"> - <img src="images/002.jpg" class="w75" alt="Pelvis of the Chimpanzee" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Pelvis of the Chimpanzee<br /> -<em>A, sacrum; B, fourth lumbar vertebra; C, coccyx; D, ilium or hip bone; -E, femur or thigh bone.</em> -</p> - -<p>Some writers have put great stress upon the difference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> in the -structure of this bone, and have pointed out as impossible a common -origin for man and ape; but one fact remains to be explained, and that -is, that while these appear to be fixed and constant characteristics -of man and ape there are many exceptions known in human anatomy. In -the splendid collection of human spinal columns in the museum of the -Harvard Medical School are no less than eighteen specimens of the human -sacrum having six united segments; and I have found in the collections -of various museums a total of more than thirty others. These facts show -that this characteristic is not confined to the ape. It is true that -in some of these abnormal specimens there remain five <em>lumbar</em> -vertebræ. This seems to indicate that this portion of the spinal column -is the most susceptible to variation. I have never seen an instance, -however, of variation in the sacrum of the chimpanzee. In this respect -he appears to be, in his structural type, more constant than man.</p> - -<p>One reason why this bone is so formed in the ape is this. At that point -the greatest weight and strain are laid upon the spinal column, and -the crouching habit of the animal has a tendency to depress the lowest -lumbar vertebra between the points of the hip bones and thus arrest -its lateral movement. Since the flexure of this part is lessened, the -cartilage that lies between the two segments becomes rigid and then -ossifies. The erect posture of man allows more play in the region of -the loins, and hence this motion prevents the two bones from uniting.</p> - -<p>Another bone that may be said to vary somewhat is the sternum, or -breastbone. It is the thin, soft bone to which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> the ribs are joined -in the front of the body. In the young of both man and ape it is -a mere cartilage. This slowly ossifies as the animal matures. The -process appears to begin at five different segments, the first nucleus -appearing near the top. This bone never becomes quite perfect either -in man or ape. It always remains somewhat porous, and even in advanced -age the outline of the lower portion is not defined by a smooth, sharp -line, but is irregular in contour and merges into the cartilages that -unite the ribs to it.</p> - -<p>In an adult human being this bone is usually found to be in two -segments, while in the ape it varies. In some specimens it is the same -as in man. In others it is sometimes found to be in three, four, or -even five sections. But the sternum in each is regarded as one bone, -and is developed from one continuous cartilage. The separate parts are -not considered distinct bones. The reason, no doubt, that this bone -remains in separate sections in the ape is due to the stooping habit -of the animal, by which the part is constantly flexed and alternately -straightened, and therefore discharges its function better than it -otherwise could.</p> - -<p>With these trifling exceptions the skeletons of man and ape may be -truly said to be exact counterparts of each other, having the same -number of bones, of the same general model, arranged in the same order, -articulated in the same manner, and performing the same functions. -In other words, the corresponding bone in each is the same in design -and purpose. The frame of the ape is, as a rule, more massive in its -proportions than that of man; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> while this is true of certain kinds -of apes, the reverse is true of others.</p> - -<p>In man the sacrum is more curved in the plane of the hips than it is -in the ape, while the bones of the digits in man are less curved. The -arms of man are shorter than the legs, while in the ape the comparative -length of these features is reversed. In the cranial types it is -readily seen that the skull of man is more spherical and the face -almost or quite vertical. The skull of the ape is elongated and the -chin projects. Thus his face is at an angle from a vertical line. These -facts deserve more notice than the mere mention.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img003"> - <img src="images/003.jpg" class="w75" alt="Diagram No. 1" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1<br /></p> - -<p>In the scheme of nature there appears to be a fixed law of cranial -projection. The cranio-facial angle in man, <span class="allsmcap">ABC</span> (as shown in -diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1), is a right angle, and the gnathic angle <span class="allsmcap">ADE</span> -is approximately the same. The line <span class="allsmcap">FG</span> represents the axis -of the facial plane, and the line <span class="allsmcap">HI</span> is the cervical axis. -Reckoned from the vertical line <span class="allsmcap">KL</span> it will be seen that the -angles formed by the facial axis <span class="allsmcap">FG</span> and the cervical axis -<span class="allsmcap">HI</span> are about the same on opposite sides of the vertical line -<span class="allsmcap">KL</span>. It will be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> observed that these lines and angles are those -of man whose posture is upright. In diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 2 it will be seen that -both the facial axis <span class="allsmcap">FG</span> and the cervical axis <span class="allsmcap">HI</span> form -a greater angle from the vertical line than in man. It will also be -seen that the cranio-facial angle <span class="allsmcap">ABC</span> is increased by about -one-half of the angle of the facial axis <span class="allsmcap">GML</span>. The gnathic -angle <span class="allsmcap">ADE</span> is increased in about the same degree. These are the -lines and angles of the anthropoid apes.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img004"> - <img src="images/004.jpg" class="w75" alt="Diagram No. 2" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 2<br /></p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img005"> - <img src="images/005.jpg" class="w75" alt="Diagram No. 3" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 3<br /></p> - -<p>Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 3 represents the lines and angles of monkeys, in which the -angles widened in a degree measured by the tendency of the animal to -assume a horizontal posture.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span></p> - -<p>In diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 4 we have the lines and angles of reptiles. In these it -will be seen that the facial axis <span class="allsmcap">FG</span> and the cervical axis -<span class="allsmcap">HI</span> are almost horizontal. The cranio-facial and gnathic angles -have been correspondingly widened.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img006"> - <img src="images/006.jpg" class="w75" alt="Diagram No. 4" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Diagram <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 4<br /></p> - -<p>Man standing erect has the greatest range of vocal powers of any -animal. He also has the greatest control over them. In vocal range the -apes come next in order. As we descend the scale from man through apes, -monkeys, lemurs, and lemuroids, ultimately ending in the reptilian -forms, we find the vocal powers restricted in scope and degraded in -quality, until in the lowest reptiles they are lost in a mere hiss.</p> - -<p>Concurrent with the variations described, the longitudinal, vertical, -and transverse axes of the brain also change their proportion in a like -degree. The angles formed by the plane of the vocal cords with the axis -of the larynx undergo a corresponding change. A just deduction from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -these facts is, that the gnathic index <span class="allsmcap">ADE</span> is a true vocal -index.</p> - -<p>This rough outline of the law of cranial projection does not purport -to be a full treatment of the many lines and angles correlated to the -powers of speech, but the suggestions may lead the craniologist into -new fields of thought.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="center heading p0">Early Impression—What is Speech—First Efforts—The Phonograph—The -First Record of Monkey Speech—Monkey Words—Phonetics—Human Speech -and Monkey Speech</p> - - -<p>Among the blue hills and crystal waters of the Appalachian Mountains, -remote from the artificialities of the great cities, the conditions of -life under which I grew up were more primitive and less complex than -they are in the busy centers of vast population. There nature was the -earliest teacher of my childhood, and domestic animals were among my -first companions. Among such environments my youth was passed, and -among them I first conceived the idea that animals talk. As a child, I -believed that all animals of the same kind could understand each other, -and I recall many instances in which they really did so.</p> - -<p>My elders said that animals could communicate with each other, but -denied that they could talk. As a boy, I could not forego the belief -that the sounds they used were speech; and I still ask: In what respect -are they not speech? This question leads us to ask another.</p> - -<p>What is speech? Any oral sound, voluntarily made, for the purpose of -conveying a preconceived idea from the mind of the speaker to the -mind of another, is speech. Any oral sound so made and so discharging -this function<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> in the animal economy is speech. It is true that the -vocabularies of animals, when compared with those of man, are very -limited; but the former are none the less real. The conception in the -mind of an animal may not be so vivid as it is in the human mind, but -the same conception is not always equally clear in two human minds. The -fact of its being vague does not lessen its reality.</p> - -<p>Expression is the materialized form of thought, and speech is one mode -of expression. Every animal is capable of expressing any thought that -he is capable of conceiving, and such expression will be found to be -as distinct as the thought which it expresses. It is inconsistent with -every view of nature to suppose that any creature is endowed with the -faculty of thought and forbidden the means of expressing it.</p> - -<p>It is true that there are some oral sounds which express emotion—such -as pain or pleasure. These may not properly be called speech, although -from them we may infer the state of mind attending them; but while they -are not truly speech, they appear to be the cytula from which speech -is developed. While emotions are not voluntary, they do not exist -apart from mind. They are produced by external causes, and the line of -demarcation which separates them from more definite forms of thought is -a vague and wavering one. Thought may be involuntary, but expression -arises from desire, and this is the sole motive of speech.</p> - -<p>It is not the purpose of this work to discuss the problems of -psychology, except to state the grounds upon which we base the claim -that animals possess the faculty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> of speech; but this is intended as a -record of observed facts and from them the psychologist may make his -own deductions.</p> - -<p>With the ever-present belief that animals could talk to each other, I -observed from year to year certain things which tended to confirm it. -About sixteen years ago an instance occurred which forever removed -from my mind all doubt or wavering. Prior to that time I had observed -that animals of the higher orders appeared to have the better types of -speech and, concurrent with this belief, I tabulated many facts. In -1884 I made a visit to the Cincinnati Zoölogical Garden, where I was -deeply impressed with the conduct of a school of monkeys occupying a -cage which also contained a large mandrill. This savage baboon was an -evident source of terror to the smaller inmates of the cage. A brick -wall separated the cage into two compartments. The one was intended -for summer and the other for winter occupancy. Through this wall was -a small doorway, large enough to admit the passage of the occupants. -I observed that two or three of the monkeys kept continual watch over -the conduct of the baboon and reported to the other monkeys every -movement that he made. When he was lying still, the monkeys passed back -and forth without fear, but the instant he rose to his feet or gave -any sign of disquiet the fact was promptly reported by the monkeys -on watch to those in the adjoining compartment, and they acted in -accordance with the warning. I was not able to determine the exact -thing they reported, but the nature of the report was evident, and I -resolved to learn more fully its meaning.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> After spending some hours -watching their conduct and listening to the sound which controlled it, -I became convinced that what they said was sufficiently definite to -guide the actions of those to whom it was addressed. In fact I should -have been willing to intrust my own safety to those warnings. After a -brief study of those sounds I was able to understand the attitude of -the baboon towards his neighbors; and while the warning contained no -elaborate detail that I could understand, the nature of his actions was -made evident. I observed that a certain sound of warning caused them -to act in a certain way, and a certain other sound caused them to act -differently.</p> - -<p>From this start I determined to learn the speech of monkeys. I did not -suspect that the task would be so great as it has proved to be. I did -not foresee the difficulties that have since become apparent. Year -by year, as new ideas came to me, new barriers arose and the horizon -continually widened. Yet I was not discouraged at the poor success of -my first efforts. From time to time I visited the various collections -of monkeys in this country and even availed myself of those found with -traveling shows, hand organs, and elsewhere.</p> - -<p>After some years of casual study it occurred to me that the phonograph -would be a great aid in solving this problem. It would enable me to -make more accurate comparisons of the sounds made by different monkeys; -and after duly considering the matter I went to Washington and made my -purpose known to <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Baker, of the Smithsonian Institution. This at -first evoked from him a smile, but after explaining the means by which -it was hoped to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span> accomplish the end he looked upon the novel feat as a -new step in the science of speech.</p> - -<p>Having secured a phonograph, I repaired to the animal house then -adjoining the Smithsonian Institution. At that time there were but two -live monkeys there, and these were the nucleus around which has grown -the present National Zoölogical Park at Washington. These two monkeys -were of different species, but had for some time occupied the same -cage. I had the female removed from the cage and carried into another -room. Then the phonograph was placed near her cage, and by various -means she was induced to utter a few sounds which were recorded upon -the wax cylinder. The machine was then placed near the cage containing -the male and the record repeated to him. His conduct plainly showed -that he recognized the sound and understood the nature of it. He -searched the horn from which the sounds proceeded and appeared to be -perplexed at not finding the monkey that had made them. He traced the -sound to its proper source, but, failing to find his mate, he thrust -his arm into the horn and felt around the sides of it in the vain hope -of finding her. The expression of his face was a study worthy of the -best efforts of the physiognomist.</p> - -<p>Then a few sounds of his voice were recorded upon another cylinder and -were delivered to the female, who showed signs of recognition; but as -this record was very indistinct it did not evoke from her the interest -which the other had evoked from him.</p> - -<p>This is doubtless the first instance in the history of speech that an -attempt was ever made to reduce the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span> speech of monkeys to record. While -this first experiment was crude and the results were not conclusive, it -pointed in the right direction and it inspired to further efforts to -find the fountain head from which flows the great river of human speech.</p> - -<p>Some critic at that time declared that this experiment could be of no -scientific value, because the monkey had been provoked to make the -sounds recorded, and the sounds so evoked were only sounds of anger or -profanity. It was not a matter of concern to me whether these words -were moral or profane, so long as they were speech sounds of a monkey -and were so recognized by other monkeys. If a monkey uses profanity, he -doubtless has some other forms of speech.</p> - -<p>Shortly after this experiment I went to Chicago and made a record of -a brown <em>Cebus</em> monkey. This record was of a sound most commonly -used by that species. I had no exact idea as to its meaning, but its -frequent use caused me to select it as one of their most important -words. Having secured this, I returned to New York. There I selected -a monkey of the same species and to him reproduced the record. He -instantly gave signs of understanding it and replied to it. Again and -again this sound was reproduced and he repeatedly answered it. He -looked at the horn from which it came, then at the moving instrument, -and drew back from them. But as the sound continued to proceed from -the horn his interest seemed to awaken. He approached the horn and -cautiously peeped into it. The sound was repeated. He thrust his arm -into the horn and peeped around the outside to see if he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> had scared -the monkey out. Failing to find him, he again retired from the horn, -but responded to the sounds. He appeared to regard the thing with a -kind of superstition. He seemed conscious of the fact that there should -be a monkey there, but failing to find it he evinced suspicion. I do -not know to what extent he regarded this as a spook, but he evidently -realized that it was some unusual thing.</p> - -<p>In this experiment certain facts may be observed. The record delivered -to him nothing but the cold, mechanical sound. The elements of gesture, -etc., were entirely eliminated as factors in the problem, so that the -monkey had nothing to interpret except the sound. This would indicate -that the speech sound of a monkey as well as that of man carried -with it a fixed and constant meaning. This conclusion has since been -confirmed by ample and varied experiments with mechanical devices of -many kinds.</p> - -<p>Among the defects observed in this experiment was the fact that I -had not provided a means of recording the sound made in reply to the -record. Subsequently I secured another instrument to do this. In -this manner I obtained a reply, and thus I had the two cylinders for -comparison. In like manner I repeated the experiment of delivering the -record with one machine and recording the reply with another, until -I had secured records of the speech sounds of nearly all the monkeys -in captivity in this country. Taking these records at my leisure, I -carefully compared and studied them, until I was able to interpret nine -sounds of the speech of the Capuchin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> monkeys, and, incidentally, a few -sounds of a great number of other species.</p> - -<p>It is quite impossible to represent the sounds of monkey speech by -any literal formula, and it is difficult to translate them into their -exact equivalent of human speech; but, in order to convey some idea -of the nature and scope of that speech, I shall describe a word or -two. In the tongue of the brown Capuchin monkey the most important -word somewhat resembles the word “who,” uttered like “wh-oo-w.” The -phonetic effect is rich and musical. The vowel element which dominates -it is a pure vocal “u.” The radical meaning of this sound is food, -which is the central thought of every monkey’s life. It does not only -mean food in the concrete sense, referring to the thing to be eaten, -but it sometimes refers to the act of eating, in which sense it has -the character of a verb. At other times it refers to the desire to eat -or to the sensation of hunger, in which instance it may be said to -have the character of an adjective. But grammatical values depend upon -structure, and since the speech of monkeys is <em>monophrastic</em> it -cannot truly be said to have grammatical form. All the sounds of this -species, so far as I have seen, are monosyllables; and most of them -contain but one distinct phonetic. I have therefore described them as -“monophonetic.” The word above described is sometimes used with the -apparent purpose of expressing friendship, or something of that kind.</p> - -<p>Another word which refers to drink, or liquid, begins with a faint -guttural “ch,” gliding through a sound resembling the French diphthong -“eu,” and ending with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span> a vanishing “y.” The sound is used with -reference to drink in much the same way as the other sound is used with -reference to food.</p> - -<p>So far I have not found any trace of the vowels “a,” “e,” “i,” or “o,” -sounded long, but in one sound of alarm emitted under stress of great -fear or in case of assault, the vowel element resembles short “i.” This -sound is uttered in a pitch about two octaves above a human female -voice.</p> - -<p>All of the sounds made by monkeys and, so far as I have observed, by -other animals, refer to their natural physical wants. They are not -capable of expressing intricate or abstract thoughts, for the animal -himself has no such thoughts. Their simple modes of life do not require -complex thoughts.</p> - -<p>A striking point of resemblance between human speech and that of the -simian is found in a word that “Nellie” (one of my pets) used in -warning me of the approach of danger. It is not that sound elsewhere -described as the alarm sound used in case of imminent danger. This -sound is used in case of remote danger or in announcing something -unusual. As nearly as can be represented by letters it resembles -“e-c-g-k.” With this word I have often been warned by these little -friends. Nellie’s cage occupied a place near my desk. At night she -would always stay awake as long as the light was kept burning. Having -always kept late hours myself, I did not violate the rule of my life in -order to give her a good night’s rest. About two o’clock one morning, -when about to retire, I found Nellie wide awake. I drew a chair near -her cage and sat watching her pranks. She tried to entertain me with -bells<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span> and toys. Without letting her see it, I tied a long thread to a -glove and placed it in the corner of the room at a distance of several -feet away. Holding one end of the string, I drew the glove obliquely -across the floor. When I first tightened the string, which was drawn -across one knee and under the other, the glove slightly moved. This -her quick eye caught at the first motion. Standing almost on tiptoe, -her mouth half open, she cautiously peeped at the glove. Then in a -low undertone, verging on a whisper, she uttered the sound “e-c-g-k!” -Every second or so she repeated it, at the same time watching to see -whether or not I was aware of the approach of this goblin. Her actions -were very human-like. Her movements were as stealthy as those of a -cat. As the glove came closer and closer she became more and more -demonstrative. When at last she saw the monster climbing the leg of -my trousers she uttered the sound in a loud voice and very rapidly. -She tried to get to the object. She evidently thought it was a living -thing. She detected the thread with which the glove was drawn across -the floor, but she seemed in doubt as to what part it played in the -matter. Her eyes several times followed the thread from my knee to the -glove, but I do not think she discovered what caused the glove to move. -Having repeated this a few times, with about the same result each time, -I relieved her anxiety by allowing her to examine the glove. She did -this with marked interest for a moment and then turned away. I tried -the same thing again, but failed to elicit from her the slightest -interest after she had once examined the glove.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span></p> - -<p>When Nellie first discovered the glove moving on the floor, she -attempted to call my attention in a low tone. As the object approached -she became more earnest and uttered the sound somewhat more loudly. -When she discovered the monster—as she regarded it—climbing up my -leg, she uttered the warning in a voice sufficiently loud for the -distance over which the warning was conveyed. These facts indicate that -her perception of sound was well defined. Her purpose was to warn me of -the approaching danger without alarming the object against which the -warning was intended. As the danger increased, the warning became more -urgent. When she saw the danger at hand, she no longer concealed or -restrained her alarm.</p> - -<p>Nellie was an affectionate little creature. She hated to be left alone, -even when supplied with toys and a super-abundance of food. When she -saw me put on my overcoat or take my hat, she foresaw that she would -be left alone. Then she began to plead and beg and chatter. I often -watched her through a small hole in the door. When quite alone, in -perfect silence she played with her toys. Sometimes for hours together -she did not utter a word. She was not an exception to the rule that -monkeys do not talk when alone.</p> - -<p>Although their speech is inferior to human speech, yet in it there is -an eloquence that soothes and a meaning that appeals to the human heart.</p> - -<p>Briefly stated, the speech of monkeys and human speech resemble each -other in all essential points. The speech sounds of monkeys are -voluntary, deliberate, and articulate. They are addressed to others -with the evident purpose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> of being understood. The speaker shows that -he is conscious of the meaning which he desires to convey through the -medium of speech. He awaits and expects a reply. If it is not given, -the sound is repeated. The speaker usually looks at the one addressed. -Monkeys do not habitually utter these sounds when alone. They -understand the sounds made by others of their own kind. They understand -the sounds when imitated by a human being, by a phonograph, or by other -mechanical means. They understand the sounds without the aid of signs -or gestures. They interpret the same sound in the same way at all -times. Their sounds are made by their vocal organs and are modulated by -the teeth, the tongue, the palate, and the lips. Their speech is shaded -into dialects, and the higher forms of animals have higher types of -speech than the lower ones. The higher types are slightly more complex -and somewhat more exact in meaning than the lower ones. The present -state of monkey speech appears to have been reached by development -from lower forms. Each race or species of monkey has a form of speech -peculiar to its kind. When caged together for a time they learn the -meaning of each other’s sounds, but seldom try to utter them. Their -faculty of speech is commensurate with their mental and social status. -They utter their speech sounds loud or soft as the condition requires, -which indicates that they are conscious of the values. The more -pronounced the gregarious habits of any species, the higher the type of -speech it has. So far as I am able to discern, there is no intrinsic -difference between the speech of monkeys and the speech of men.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Monkey Friends—Jokes—The Sound of Alarm—Jennie</p> - - -<p>A few years ago there lived in Charleston, <abbr title="South Carolina">S. C.</abbr>, a fine specimen of -the brown Cebus. His name is Jokes. He was naturally shy of strangers, -but on my first visit to him I addressed him in his native tongue, and -he seemed to regard me very kindly. He ate from my hand and allowed me -to handle and caress him. He watched me with evident curiosity, and -invariably responded to the sound that I uttered in his own language. -On one occasion I tried the effect of the peculiar sound of “alarm” or -“assault” which I had learned from one of his species. It cannot be -spelled or represented by letters. While he was eating from my hand I -gave the peculiar, piercing note. He instantly sprang to a perch in the -top of the cage, thence almost wild with fear he ran in and out of his -sleeping apartment. As the sound was repeated his fears increased. No -amount of coaxing would induce him to return to me or to accept from -me any overtures of peace. I retired to the distance of a few feet -from his cage, and his master finally induced him to descend from the -perch; but he did so with great reluctance. I again gave the sound from -where I stood, and it produced a similar result. The monkey gave out a -singular sound in response to my efforts to appease him, but he refused -to become reconciled.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span></p> - -<p>After the lapse of eight or ten days I had not been able to reinstate -myself in his good graces or to induce him to accept anything from -me. At this juncture I resorted to harsher means of bringing him to -terms; I threatened him with a rod. At first he resented this; but -at length he yielded, and merely through fear he came down from his -perch. When finally induced to approach, he placed the side of his -head on the floor, put out his tongue, and uttered a plaintive sound -having a slightly interrogative inflection. At first this act quite -defied interpretation; but during the same period I was visiting a -little monkey called Jack, and in him I found a clue to the meaning -of this conduct. For strangers, Jack and I were very good friends. He -allowed me many liberties, which the family assured me he had uniformly -refused to others. On a certain visit to him he displayed his temper -and made an attack upon me, because I refused to let go a saucer from -which he was drinking milk. I jerked him up by the chain and slapped -him; whereupon he instantly laid the side of his head on the floor, put -out his tongue, and made just such a sound as Jokes had made on the -occasion mentioned. It occurred to me that it was a sign of surrender. -Subsequent tests confirmed this opinion.</p> - -<p>Mrs. M. French Sheldon, in her journey through East Africa, shot a -small monkey in a forest near Lake Charla. She graphically describes -how the little fellow stood high up in the bough of a tree and -chattered to her in a clear, musical voice until at the discharge of -her gun he fell mortally wounded. When he was laid dying at her feet, -he turned his bright little eyes pleadingly upon her as if<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> to ask -for pity. Touched by his appeal, she took the little creature in her -arms and tried to soothe him. Again and again he touched his tongue -to her hand as if kissing it, and seemed to wish in the hour of death -to be caressed by the hand that had taken from him without reward -that sweet life which could be of no value except it were spared to -the wild forest where his kindred live. From her description of the -actions of that monkey, his conduct was identical with that of the -Cebus, and may justly be interpreted to mean “Pity me!” or “Spare me!” -A Scotch naturalist, commenting on my description of this act and its -interpretation, quite agrees with me, and states that he has observed -the same thing in other species of monkeys.</p> - -<p>During a period of many weeks I visited Jokes almost daily; but after -the lapse of more than two months I had not won him back nor quieted -his suspicions against me. On my approach he usually manifested fear -and went through the act of humiliation above described.</p> - -<p>Observing that he entertained an intense hatred for a negro boy who -teased and vexed him, I had the boy come near the cage. Jokes fairly -raved with anger. I took a stick and pretended to beat the boy. This -greatly delighted Jokes. I held the boy near enough to the cage to -allow the monkey to scratch and pull his clothes. This filled his -little simian soul with joy. Releasing the boy, I drove him away by -throwing wads of paper at him. This gave Jokes infinite pleasure. I -repeated this a number of times, and by such means we again became good -friends. After each encounter with the boy, Jokes came to the bars, -touched my hand with his tongue, chattered, played with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> my fingers, -and showed every sign of confidence and friendship. He always warned me -of the approach of any one, and his conduct at such times was largely -governed by my own. After this he never failed to salute me with the -proper sound.</p> - -<p>During this time I paid a few visits to another little monkey of the -same species. Her name was Jennie. Her master had warned me in advance -that she was not well disposed towards strangers. At my request he had -her chained in a small side yard, which he forbade any of the family -entering. On approaching the little lady for the first time, I gave her -the usual salutation, which she responded to and seemed to understand. -I sat down by her side and fed her from my hands. She viewed me with -evident interest and curiosity. I studied her with equal interest. -During the process of this mutual investigation a negro girl, who -lived with the family, stealthily entered the yard and came up within -a few feet of us. I determined to sacrifice this girl upon the altar -of science. Placing her between the monkey and myself, I vigorously -sounded the “alarm” or “warning.” Jennie flew into a fury. I continued -to sound the alarm and at the same time pretended to attack the girl -with a club and some paper wads. The purpose was to make the monkey -believe that the girl had uttered the alarm and made the assault. -With a great display of violence I drove the girl from the yard. For -days afterward she could not feed or approach the little simian. This -further confirmed the opinion as to the meaning of this sound. This -sound can be fairly imitated by placing the back of the hand gently -on the mouth and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> kissing it with great force, prolonging the sound. -This imitation, however, is indifferent, but the quality of the sound -is especially noticeable when analyzed on the phonograph. The pitch -corresponds to the highest “F” sharp on a piano, while the word “drink” -is about two octaves lower, and the word “food” is nearly three.</p> - -<p>On one occasion I visited the Zoölogical Garden in Cincinnati, where -I found in a cage a small Capuchin to whom I gave the name Banquo. It -was near night and the visitors had left the house. The little monkey, -worried out by the annoyance of visitors, sat quietly in the back of -his cage, as though glad that another day was done. I approached the -cage and uttered the sound which I have translated “drink.” The first -effort caught his attention and caused him to turn and look at me. He -rose and answered with the same word. He then came to the front of the -cage and looked at me as if in doubt. I repeated the word. He again -responded, and turned to a small pan in the cage. He took it up and -placed it near the door through which the keeper passed food to him. He -then turned to me and again uttered the word. I asked the keeper for -some milk; but he brought me some water instead. The efforts of the -little simian to secure the glass were very earnest, and his pleading -manner and tone gave evidence of his thirst. I allowed him to dip his -hand into the glass and lick the water from his fingers. When the glass -was kept out of the reach of his hand he repeated the sound and looked -beseechingly at me as if to say: “Please give me more.” This caused -me to suspect that the word which I had translated “milk” also meant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -“water.” From this and other tests I finally determined that it meant -“drink” in a broad sense and possibly also meant “thirst.” It evidently -expressed his desire for something with which to allay his thirst. The -sound is very difficult to imitate and quite impossible to write, but -an idea of it is given elsewhere.</p> - -<p>On one of my visits to the Chicago Garden I stood with my side to a -cage containing a small Capuchin. I uttered the sound which had been -translated “milk.” It caused him to turn and look at me, and on my -repeating the sound a few times he answered very distinctly, using the -same sound. Picking up the pan from which he usually drank, he brought -it to the front of the cage, set it down, came up to the bars, and -distinctly uttered the word. He had not been shown any milk or other -kind of food. The man in charge then brought some milk, which I gave to -the monkey, who drank it with great delight. I again held up his pan -and repeated the sound. He used the same sound each time when he wanted -milk. During this visit I tried many experiments with the word which -I am now convinced means “food” or “hunger.” I was led to the belief -that he used the same word for apple, carrot, bread, and banana. Later -experiments, however, have caused me to modify this view, because the -phonograph shows slight variations of the sound, and it is probable -that these faint inflections may indicate different kinds of food. They -usually recognize this sound, even when poorly imitated. In this word -may be found a clue to the great secret of speech. And while I have -taken but one short step toward its solution, these facts point out the -way that leads to it.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Monkey Ethics—Sense of Color—Monkeys Enumerate—First Principles of -Art</p> - - -<p>Monkeys have a simple code of ethics. It is not by any means to be -supposed that their sense of propriety or appreciation of color, form, -dimension, or quality is of a high order; but that they have the -rudiments upon which the higher cults of human society are based there -is no doubt. Among the experiments that I performed along this line -were some designed to ascertain the strength of these latent faculties -or the degree to which these have been developed.</p> - -<p>In order to ascertain whether or not monkeys have any choice of colors, -I selected some bright-colored balls, marbles, candies, and bits of -ribbon. Taking a piece of pasteboard, I placed on it a few pieces of -candy of different colors. This was offered to a monkey to see if he -would select a certain color. In order to avoid confusing him, I used -only two colors at a time, but frequently shifted their places. This -was to determine whether the color was chosen merely for convenience or -for the sake of the color itself. By repeating this with a series of -bright colors and frequent changing of their order it was ascertained -in many instances that certain monkeys had a distinct choice of color. -It was found that all monkeys do not select the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> same color, and also -that the same monkey does not at all times choose the same. But, as a -rule, bright green appeared to be the favorite color of the Capuchins, -and their second choice was white. In a few instances white appeared -to be their preference. This experiment was not confined to candies, -nuts, or other eatables. They appeared to use about the same taste in -selecting their toys. From the use of artificial flowers, it appeared -that the choice of green was possibly associated with their selection -of food. On one occasion I kept a cup for a monkey to drink milk from. -On one side of this was a picture of some bright flowers and green -leaves. The monkey would sometimes quit drinking the milk and try to -pick the flowers off the side of the cup. The fact that she could -not remove the flowers appeared to annoy her, and she seemed not to -understand why she could not get hold of them.</p> - -<p>In one test I used a board about two feet long, upon which were a few -pieces of white and pink candies, mixed and arranged in four different -places on the board. The monkey selected the white from each pile -before taking the pink, except in one instance, in which the pink -was taken first. In another experiment I took a white paper ball in -one hand and a pink one in the other and held my hands out to the -monkey. He selected the white one almost every time, although from -time to time I changed hands with the balls. It was not a mere matter -of convenience with the monkey, for he would sometimes reach over the -hand containing the pink ball in order to obtain the white one. Most of -these experiments were performed with the Capuchins, but some of them -were made with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> the Rhesus. The fact that monkeys generally seem to be -attracted by brilliant colors is doubtless due to the readiness with -which these catch the attention; but when reduced to a choice between -two colors, they do not seem to give preference to brilliant ones.</p> - -<p>A unique but simple experiment was made in order to ascertain whether -or not monkeys enumerate. I placed on a small platter one nut and a -small piece of apple or carrot cut in the shape of a cube. On another -platter were placed two or three such articles of like color and size. -Holding the two just out of reach of the monkey, and changing hands -from time to time, I observed that he tried to reach the platter -containing the greater number, thus indicating that he discerned which -contained the greater quantity or number of articles. It was long a -matter of doubt as to whether it was by number or by quantity that his -choice was controlled. But by taking one piece larger than the others -and of different shape, it was ascertained that he appreciated the -difference of quantity. Then, by taking a platter containing one piece -and another platter containing several similar pieces, it was seen that -he could distinguish singular from plural.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img007"> - <img src="images/007.jpg" class="w75" alt="Monkey Learning to Count" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Monkey Learning to Count</p> - -<p>Another experiment was to determine to what extent he was able to -enumerate. To this end I constructed a small square box and made a -hole in one side of it. The box was cushioned inside so that the -contents would not rattle. In the box were placed three marbles of the -same size and color. The hole was just large enough for the monkey to -withdraw his hand with one marble at a time. After letting him play -with these for a while, putting them into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> box and taking them out, -I abstracted one of the marbles and left the other two for him to play -with. On taking them out of the box, he missed the absent one, felt in -the box for it, rose, and looked where he had been sitting. Again he -put his hand into the box and looked at me as if to say he had lost -something. Failing to find it, he soon became reconciled to the loss -and began to play with the remaining two. When he had become quite -content with these, I abstracted a second one. Thereupon he instituted -search and was quite unwilling to proceed without finding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> the lost -marbles. He put his hand into the box, evidently in the hope of finding -them. He would not continue to play with the one. I restored one of the -marbles, and when he discovered that I could find the lost marble, he -appealed to me in each instance to assist him. Then with his little, -dirty, black fingers he insisted upon opening my lips to see if it was -concealed in my mouth—the place where monkeys usually conceal stolen -goods. I repeated this experiment many times, until quite convinced of -his ability to count three. Another marble was then added to the number -and he was allowed to play with the four until he became familiar with -that number. But when one was taken from the four he did not appear to -be greatly impressed with the loss. At times he seemed to be in doubt, -but he did not worry much about it, though seeming to realize that -something was wrong.</p> - -<p>It is not to be supposed that monkeys have names for numerals, but they -surely have a more or less distinct conception of plurality. The same -fact is true of birds. It is said that all birds are able to count the -eggs in their nests. This is certainly true of those that lay only -three or four eggs.</p> - -<p>During the time that these experiments were being made with monkeys in -this country, the late Professor Romanes was making certain experiments -with a chimpanzee in London. He succeeded in teaching her to count -seven, so that she would count and deliver to him on demand any number -from one up to seven. This she did without prompting, and usually -without mistake.</p> - -<p>Among different specimens of monkeys there seems to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> be a wide range -of tastes. In this respect they vary much the same as human beings do. -The same is true of their mental powers in general. With some monkeys -the choice of color is much more definite and of dimension much more -certain than in others, and most of them appear to assign to different -numbers a difference of value.</p> - -<p>Some monkeys are talkative and others taciturn. Some of them are -vicious and some stolid, while others are as playful as kittens and as -cheerful as sunshine. I regard the Cebus as the most intelligent of -monkeys. In fact I have called him “The Caucasian of monkeys.” The new -world monkeys seem to be more intelligent and more loquacious than the -old world stock, but this remark does not include the anthropoid apes.</p> - -<p>As a test of the musical taste of monkeys, I took three little bells -and suspended them by a like number of strings. The bells were all -alike except that from two of them the clappers had been removed. -Dropping the bells through the meshes of the cage at a distance of ten -or twelve inches apart, the monkey was allowed to play with them. He -soon discovered the one containing the clapper. He played with it and -became quite absorbed with it. He was then attracted to another part of -the cage, during which time the position of the bells was changed. On -his return he found his favorite bell without a clapper. He then turned -to another, and then another, until he found the one with the clapper. -This indicated that the sound emitted by the bell was at least a part -of its attraction.</p> - -<p>During the time that I used the phonograph in studying the monkeys, -I repeated many musical records to them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> and found that some evinced -fondness for the music, others were indifferent to it, and a few showed -aversion to it. It appeared that the monkeys that were most attracted -by musical sounds enjoy the repetition of a single note rather than the -melody. It is possible that music, as we understand it, is too high an -order of sense culture for them. The single note of a certain pitch -seems to attract and afford pleasure to some of them, but they do not -seem to appreciate rhythm or melody.</p> - -<p>As monkeys discern the larger of two pieces of food, they may be -said to have the perceptive faculty which enables them to appreciate -dimension. As they are able to discern singular from plural, and -two from three or more, they have, in that degree, the faculty of -enumeration. As they are able to distinguish and select colors, they -possess the first rudiment of art as dealing with color. As they are -attracted or repelled by musical sounds, they may be said to possess -the first rudiment of music. It must not be understood, however, that -any claim is made that monkeys possess a high degree of mental culture; -but it will be admitted that they possess the germs of mathematics as -dealing with form, dimension, and number; of art, as dealing with form -and color; of music, as dealing with tone and time. It is not probable -that they have any names for any of these sensations, nor that they -have any abstract ideas that are not drawn directly from experience. -But as the concrete must precede the abstract in the development of -reason, it is more than probable that these creatures now occupy a -mental horizon such as man has once passed through in the course of -his evolution. It<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> does not require a great effort of the mind to -appreciate the possibility that these feeble faculties, in constant -use and under changed conditions, may develop into a higher degree of -strength and usefulness. In fact we find in these creatures the embryo -of every faculty of the human being, including those of reason and -speech, through the exercise of which are developed the higher moral -and social traits of man. They appear to have at least the raw material -from which are made the highest attributes of the human mind, and I -shall not contest with them the right of exclusive possession.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Pedro’s Speech Recorded—Delivered to Puck through the -Phonograph—Little Darwin Learns a New Word</p> - - -<p>In the Washington collection there was once a Capuchin monkey by the -name of Pedro. When I first visited this bright little fellow he -occupied a cage in common with several other monkeys of different -kinds. All of them seemed to impose upon little Pedro, and a -mischievous young spider-monkey found special delight in catching him -by the tail and dragging him about the floor of the cage. I interfered -on behalf of Pedro and drove the spider-monkey away. Pedro appreciated -this and began to look upon me as a benefactor. When he saw me he would -scream to attract my attention and then beg for me to come to him. -I induced the keeper to place him by himself in a small cage. This -seemed to please him very much. When I went to record his sounds on -the phonograph, I held him on my arm. He took the tube into his tiny, -black hands, held it close up to his mouth and talked into it just like -a good little boy who knew what to do and how to do it. He sometimes -laughed, and he frequently chattered to me as long as he could see me. -He would sit on my hand and kiss my cheeks, put his mouth up to my ear -and chatter just as though he knew what my ears were for. He was quite -fond of the head-keeper and also of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> director; but he entertained a -great dislike for one of the assistant keepers. He often told me some -very bad things about that man, though I could not understand what he -said. I shall long remember how this dear little monkey used to cuddle -under my chin and try to make me understand some sad story which seemed -to be the burden of his life. He readily understood the sounds of his -own speech when repeated to him, and I made some of the best records of -his voice that I ever succeeded in making of any monkey. Some of them -I preserved for a long time. They displayed a wide range of sounds, -and I studied them with special care and pleasure, because I knew -that they were addressed to me. Being aware that the little creature -was uttering these sounds to me with the hope that I would understand -them, I was more anxious to learn just what he really meant than if it -had contained only something addressed to another. This little simian -was born in the Amazon Valley, in Brazil, and was named for the late -emperor, Dom Pedro.</p> - -<p>At one time I borrowed from a dealer a little Capuchin called Puck, and -had him sent to my apartments, where I had a phonograph. I placed the -cage in front of the machine, upon which had been adjusted the record -of my little friend Pedro. I concealed myself in an adjoining room, -where, through a small hole in the door, I could watch the conduct of -Puck. A string was attached to the lever of the machine, drawn taut, -and passed through another hole in the door. By this means the machine -could be started without attracting the attention of the monkey through -his seeing anything move. When everything in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span> the room was quiet the -machine was set in motion, and Puck was treated to a phonographic -recital by Pedro. This speech was distinctly delivered through the -horn to the monkey. From his actions it was evident that he recognized -it as the voice of one of his tribe. He looked with surprise at the -horn, made a sound or two, glanced around the room, and again uttered -two or three sounds. Apparently somewhat afraid, he retired from the -horn. Again the horn delivered some sounds of pure Capuchin speech. -Puck seemed to regard them as sounds of some importance. He advanced -cautiously and made a feeble response; but a quick, sharp sound from -the horn startled him; and failing to find anything indicating a -monkey, except the sound of the voice, he looked with evident suspicion -at the horn, and scarcely ventured to answer any sound it made.</p> - -<p>When the contents of the record had been delivered to him I entered the -room. This relieved his fear of the horn. A little later the apparatus -was again adjusted, and a small mirror was hung just above the mouth of -the horn. Again retiring from the room, I left him to examine his new -surroundings. He soon discovered the monkey in the glass, and began to -caress it and chatter to it. Again the phonograph was started by means -of the string, and when the horn began to deliver its simian oration, -it greatly disconcerted and perplexed Puck. He looked at the image in -the glass and then into the horn. He retired with a feeble grunt and an -inquisitive grin, showing his little white teeth, and acting as though -in doubt whether to regard the affair as a joke, or to treat it as a -grim and scientific fact. His voice and actions were like those of a -child, declaring in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> words that he was not afraid, and at the same -time betraying fear in every act. Puck did not cry, but his intense -fear made the grin on his face rather ghastly. Again he approached the -mirror and listened to the sounds which came from the horn. His conduct -betrayed the conflict in his little soul. It was evident that he did -not believe the monkey which he saw in the glass was making the sounds -which came from the horn. He repeatedly put his mouth to the glass and -caressed the image, but tried at the same time to avoid the monkey -which he heard in the horn. His conduct in this instance was a source -of surprise, as the sounds contained in the record were all uttered -in a mood of anxious, earnest entreaty, which contained no sound of -anger, warning, or alarm, but, on the contrary, appeared to be a kind -of love-speech. I had not learned the exact meaning of any one of the -sounds contained in this cylinder, but in a collective and general way -had ascribed such meaning to them. From Puck’s conduct it was to be -inferred that this was some kind of complaint against those monkeys -occupying the other cage. They had made life a burden to little Pedro. -It was evident that Puck interpreted the actions of the monkey seen in -the glass to mean one thing, and the sounds that came from the horn to -mean quite another.</p> - -<p>Their language is not capable of relating narratives or giving details -in a complaint, but in general terms of grievance it may have conveyed -to Puck the idea of a monkey in distress, and hence his desire to avoid -it. The image in the glass presented to him a picture of a monkey in a -happy mood, and he therefore had no cause to shun it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p> - -<p>The speech used by monkeys is not of a high order, but it appears to -have been developed from an inferior type. Some species among them have -much more copious and expressive forms of speech than others. From -many experiments with the phonograph I conclude that some have much -higher phonetic types than others. I have found slight inflections that -seem to modify the values of their sounds. Certain monkeys do not make -certain inflections at all, although in other respects the phonation -of a species is generally uniform. In some cases it appears that the -inflections differ slightly in the same species, but long and constant -association tends in some degree to unify these dialects much the same -as like causes blend and unify the dialects of human speech.</p> - -<p>I observed one instance in which a Capuchin had acquired two sounds -which strictly belonged to the tongue of the white-faced Cebus. At -first I suspected that these sounds were common to the speech of both -varieties; but on inquiry it was found that this brown Cebus had been -confined for some years in a cage with the white-face, during which -time he had acquired them.</p> - -<p>The most interesting case that I have to record is one in which a young -white-faced Cebus acquired the Capuchin sound for food. This occurred -under my own observation, and, being attended by such conditions as to -show that the monkey had a motive in learning the sound, I regard it as -most noteworthy.</p> - -<p>In the room where the monkeys were kept by a dealer in Washington, -there was a cage containing the young Cebus in question. He was of -rather more than average<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span> intelligence. He was a quiet, sedate, and -thoughtful little monkey. His gray hair and beard gave him quite a -venerable aspect, and for this reason I called him Darwin. For some -reason he was afraid of me, and I gave him but little attention. In -an adjacent cage lived the little brown Cebus, called Puck. The cages -were only separated by an open wire partition, through which they could -easily see and hear each other. For some weeks I visited Puck almost -daily, and in response to his sound for food, I supplied him with nuts, -bananas, or other food. I never gave him anything to eat unless he -asked me for it in his own speech.</p> - -<p>On one occasion my attention was attracted by little Darwin, who was -making a strange sound, such as I had never before heard one of his -species utter. At first I did not recognize the sound, but finally -discovered that it was intended to imitate the sound of the brown -monkey, in response to which I always gave him some nice morsel of -food. Darwin had observed that when Puck made this sound he was -always rewarded with something to eat, and his own evident motive -was to secure a like reward. After this I gave him a bit of food in -acknowledgment of his efforts. From day to day he improved in making -the sound, until at length it could scarcely be detected from that -made by Puck. This was accomplished within a period of less than six -weeks from the time of my first visit. In this instance, at least, I -have witnessed one step taken by a monkey, in learning the speech of -another. This was doubly interesting to me in view of the fact that I -had long believed, and had announced the belief, that no monkey ever -tried to acquire the sounds made by one of another<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> species. This -instance alone was sufficient to cause me to recede from a conclusion -thus rendered untenable; and the short time in which the feat was -accomplished would indicate that the difficulty is not so great as it -had been regarded. As a rule, monkeys do not learn each other’s speech; -but the rule is not without exceptions. I had previously observed, -and called attention to the fact, that when two monkeys of different -species are caged together, each one learns to understand the speech -of the other, but does not try to speak it. When he replies at all, it -is in his own vernacular. Monkeys do not essay to carry on a connected -conversation. Their speech is usually limited to a single sound or -word, and it is answered in the same manner. To suppose that they -converse in an elaborate manner is to go beyond the bounds of reason. -In this respect, the masses fail to understand the real nature of the -speech of monkeys or other animals.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Five Little Brown Cousins, Mickie, McGinty, Nemo, Dodo, and -Nigger—Nemo Apologizes to Dodo</p> - - -<p>During the winter of 1891 there lived in Central Park five little brown -monkeys, all of the same kind and occupying the same cage. They were -all of more or less interest, and all of them were my friends. I paid -them frequent visits and spent much time with them. I have the vanity -to believe that I was always a welcome guest. We found much pleasure in -each other’s society. As the monkey house was open to the public after -nine o’clock, I usually made my visits about sunrise in order to be -alone with my little friends.</p> - -<p>One of the most cunning and happiest of all little monkeys was in this -group. His name was Mickie, and he was the boss of the school. He was -not very talkative except when he wished for food or drink, but he was -very playful and we had many a merry romp. Whenever I entered the cage -Mickie perched himself above the door to surprise me by jumping on my -neck. He then affectionately threw his arms around my neck and licked -my cheeks, pulled my ears, and chattered in his sweet, plaintive tones. -The other inmates of the cage were jealous of him, but none contested -his right to do as he pleased. I am sorry to say that Mickie was not -always as kind to his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span> little cousins as he might have been. He was -like some people I have known who are selfish and sometimes cruel; but -his habitual good nature made amends in some degree for his sudden -fits of anger. Mickie did not belong to the park. He was only kept as -a guest of the city during the absence of his master in Europe. He had -a genuine sense of humor and sometimes played pranks upon the others, -very much to their annoyance. On one occasion Mickie got the tail of -another monkey around one of the bars of the cage. He sat down and held -to it while its owner screamed with rage and scuffled to get away. -During this time Mickie’s face wore a broad, satanic grin, and he did -not release his hold until he had tired of the fun.</p> - -<p>Another one of these little cousins was named McGinty. McGinty was -very fond of me; but he was afraid of Mickie, who was much larger -and stronger than himself. McGinty always wanted to be counted in -the game. He did not like to have Mickie monopolize my attentions. -He often climbed upon my shoulders and caressed me very fondly, if -not interrupted by Mickie; but whenever the latter came, poor little -McGinty retired in disgust, pouted for a time, and even refused to -accept food from me. By and by he would yield to my overtures and again -join in the play. He seemed always to wish to find something that would -divert my attention from Mickie.</p> - -<p>Another inmate of the cage was a fine little monkey that belonged to -<abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> G. Scribner, of Yonkers, <abbr title="New York">N. Y.</abbr> At the time of my visits I did not -know the name of this little creature nor who owned him. I called him -Nemo. He was timid and taciturn, but quite intelligent. He was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> gentle -in manner, kind in disposition, and he possessed a great amount of -diplomacy. He was thoughtful and peaceable, but “full of guile.” He -always sought to keep the peace with Mickie, to whom he played the -sycophant. He would put his little arms about Mickie’s neck in a most -affectionate manner and hang on to him like a last hope. In all broils -that concerned Mickie, Nemo was his partisan. If Mickie was diverted, -Nemo laughed. I have sometimes thought that he would do so if he were -suffering with the toothache. He seemed to be as completely under the -control of Mickie as was the curl in Mickie’s tail. When Nemo saw -Mickie bite my fingers in play, he thought it was done in anger and he -lost no chance of biting them; but his little teeth were not strong -enough to hurt very much. At last he discovered that Mickie was only -biting me in fun, and after that Nemo did it apparently as a duty. -It scarcely seems that a monkey can be capable of such far-reaching -purpose or of such diplomacy, but by a careful study of his actions I -could find no other motive.</p> - -<p>One singular thing in the conduct of this monkey was his apologetic -manner towards another inmate of the cage. Nemo had a soft musical -voice and remarkable power of facial expression. On two occasions -he appeared to apologize to a companion called Dodo. This was done -in a very humble manner. I tried in vain to secure a record of this -particular speech. His manner, voice, and face expressed contrition; -but I was never able to learn either the exact cause or the extent of -his humiliation. He sat in a crouching position, with the left hand -clasped around the right wrist, and delivered his speech in a most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -energetic, though humble, manner. After each effort he made a brief -pause and repeated what appeared to me to be the same thing. This was -done three or four times. When he had quite finished this speech, Dodo, -to whom it had been addressed and who had quietly listened, delivered -with her right hand a sound blow upon the left side of the face of the -little penitent. To this he responded with a soft cry, but without -resentment. The keeper assured me that he had many times witnessed this -act, but he had no idea of its meaning. As to the details of this act, -I have no theory; but the state of mind and the purpose were evident. -They expressed regret, penitence, or submission. I have witnessed -something similar in other monkeys, but nothing equal in point of -finish or pathos to that scene between Nemo and Dodo.</p> - -<p>Dodo had a bright face and a symmetrical figure. In her I witnessed one -of the most interesting acts that I have ever seen in any monkey. Her -combined speech and actions bordered on the histrionic. Her monologue -was addressed to her keeper, of whom she was especially fond. At almost -any hour of the day Dodo would stand erect and deliver to her keeper -the most touching and impassioned address. The keeper went into the -cage with me, to see if he could handle her. After a little coaxing -she allowed him to take her into his arms. After he had caressed -her for a while and assured her that no harm was meant, she put her -slender little arms about his neck and like an injured child cuddled -her head up under his chin. She caressed him by licking his cheeks, -and chattered in a voice full of sympathy. Her display of affection -was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> worthy of a human being. During most of this time she continued -her pathetic speech. She was not willing he should leave her. The -only time at which she made any show of anger or threatened me with -assault was when I attempted to lay hands on her keeper or to release -him from her embrace. At such times she would fly at me and attempt to -tear my clothes off. On these occasions she would not allow any other -inmate of the cage to approach him or to receive his caresses. The -sounds which she uttered were at times pitiful, and the tale she told -seemed to be full of sorrow. I have not, so far, been able to translate -these sounds, but their import cannot be misunderstood. Her speech was -doubtless a complaint against the other monkeys in the cage, and she -was probably begging her keeper not to leave her alone in that great -iron prison with all those big, bad monkeys who were so cruel to her. -One reason for believing this to be the nature of her speech is that -in all cases where I have heard this kind of speech and seen these -gestures, the conditions were such as to indicate that such was their -nature. It looks, however, very much like a love-making scene of the -most intense kind.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to describe either the sounds or the gestures made -on these occasions The monkey stood erect upon her feet, crossed her -hands over her heart, and in the most touching and graceful manner went -through a series of singular contortions. She swayed her body from side -to side, turned her head in a coquettish manner, and moved her folded -hands dramatically. Meanwhile her face was adorned with a broad grin, -and the soft, rich notes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> of her voice were perfectly musical. She bent -her body first into one curve and then into another, moved her feet -with the grace of the minuet, and continued her fervent speech as long -as the object of her adoration appeared to be touched by her appeals. -Her voice ranged from pitch to pitch and from key to key, through the -whole gamut of simian vocals, and with her arms folded she glided with -the skill of a ballet girl across the floor of her cage. At times she -stood with her eyes fixed upon her keeper, and held her face in such a -position as not for a moment to lose sight of him. Meanwhile she turned -her body entirely around in her tracks. This was accomplished with a -skill such as no contortionist has ever attained. During these orations -her eyes moistened as if in tears, showing that she felt the sentiment -which her speech was intended to convey.</p> - -<p>These little creatures do not shed tears as human beings do; but their -eyes moisten as a result of the same causes that move the human eyes to -tears.</p> - -<p>These sounds appeal directly to our better feelings. What there is in -the sound itself we do not really know, but it touches some chord in -the human heart which vibrates in response to it. It has impressed me -with the poetic thought that all our senses are like the strings of -a great harp, each chord having a certain tension, so that any sound -produced through an emotion finds a response in that chord with which -it is in unison. Possibly our emotions and sensations are like the -diatonic scale in music, and the organs through which they act respond -in tones and semitones. Each multiple of any fundamental<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> tone affects -the chord in unison, as the strings upon a musical instrument are -affected. The logical deduction is that our sympathies and affections -are the chords, and our aversions the discords, of that great harp of -passion.</p> - -<p>The last of this quintette was a frail little fellow called Nigger. -He was not of much interest, as he was in poor health. He kept mostly -to himself, because his companions were unkind to him and he was not -strong enough to defend himself. He was gentle and affectionate. He -was fond of being caressed and often evinced a sense of gratitude. He -had a touch of humor which sometimes was very funny. He occasionally -created a riot in the cage and then stole away to his corner and left -the others to fight it out. He was the last of the five left in the -park, but he was the first of them to die. The others were taken away -by their owners; but poor little Nigger died in that dismal cage from -whose windows he could see the beautiful trees and warm sunshine of -springtime, though to him they were only a dream that saddened rather -than cheered.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="center heading p0">Meeting with Nellie—Nellie was my Guest—Her Speech and -Manners—Helen Keller and Nellie—One of Nellie’s Friends—Her Sight -and Hearing—Her Toys and how She Played with Them</p> - - - -<p>One of the most intelligent of my brown Capuchin friends was little -Nellie. When she arrived in Washington, I was invited to visit her. I -introduced myself by speaking to her the sound of food. To that she -promptly replied. She was rather informal, and we were soon engaged -in a chat on that subject—the one that above all others interests a -monkey. On my second visit she acted like an old acquaintance, and we -had a fine time. On a later visit she allowed me to put my hands into -her cage to handle and caress her. On another visit I took her out of -the cage and we had a real jolly romp. This continued for some days, -during which time she answered me when I gave the word for food or -drink. She had grown quite fond of me, and always recognized me when I -entered the door.</p> - -<p>About this time there came to Washington a little girl who was deaf, -dumb, and blind. It was little Helen Keller. She was accompanied by -her teacher, who acted as her interpreter. A great desire of Helen’s -life was to see a live monkey—that is, to see one with her fingers. -The owner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span> sent for me to come and show one to her. When any one except -myself had put hands upon Nellie, she had growled and scolded and -showed temper. I took her from the cage. When the little blind girl -first put her hands on Nellie, the shy little monkey did not like it. -I stroked the child’s hair and cheeks with my own hand and then with -Nellie’s. She looked up at me and uttered one of those soft, flute-like -sounds. Then she began to pull at the cheeks and ears of the child. -Within a few minutes they were like old friends and playmates, and for -nearly an hour they afforded each other great pleasure. At the end of -that time they separated with reluctance. The little simian acted as -if conscious of the sad affliction of the child, but seemed at perfect -ease with her. She would decline the tenderest approach of others. She -looked at the child’s eyes, and then at me, as if to indicate that -she was aware that the child was blind. The little girl appeared not -to be aware that monkeys could bite. It was a beautiful and touching -scene, and one in which the lamp of instinct shed its feeble light on -all around. Helen has now grown into womanhood. I recently paid her a -visit, and she assured me that she still pleasantly remembered this -dear little monkey friend.</p> - -<p>One day Nellie escaped from her cage and climbed upon a shelf occupied -by some bird cages. As she climbed over the light wicker cages, some of -them, with their little yellow occupants, fell to the floor. I tried -to induce Nellie to return to me; but the falling cages, the cry of -the birds, the screeching of the parrots, and the vociferous chatter -of other monkeys frightened poor Nellie almost out of her<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> wits. She, -thinking I was the cause of all this trouble, because I was present, -screamed with fright at my approach. Such is the rule that governs -monkeydom. Monkeys suspect every one of doing wrong except themselves. -I had her removed to my apartments. She was supplied with bells and -toys, and was fed on the fat of the land. By this means we finally -knitted together again the broken bones of our friendship. When once a -monkey has grown suspicious of you, it seldom entirely recovers from -aversion. In every act thereafter you are suspected of mischief. I made -some good records of the speech of this amiable monkey and studied them -with special care.</p> - -<p>A frequent and welcome visitor to my study was a little boy about six -years old. For him Nellie entertained great fondness. At the sight of -the boy, Nellie went into perfect raptures, and when leaving him she -called him so earnestly and whined so pitifully that one could not -refrain from sympathy. On his return she would laugh audibly and give -every sign of extreme joy. She never tired of his company, nor gave -any attention to others while he was present. Some children next door -found great delight in calling to see Nellie, and she always evinced -great pleasure at their visits. On these occasions she consciously -entertained them and showed herself to the best advantage. In order -to make a good record of her sounds, and especially of her laughter, -I brought the little boy to my aid. The boy would conceal himself in -the room, and after Nellie had called him a few times he would jump -out and surprise her. This would cause her to laugh till she could be -heard throughout the whole house. In this manner I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> secured some of the -best records I have ever made of the laughter of monkeys. When the boy -concealed himself again, I secured the peculiar sound which she used -when trying to attract his attention.</p> - -<p>Nellie had spent much of her life in captivity, and had been used to -the society of children. She rarely ever betrayed any aversion to them. -She delighted to pat their cheeks, pull their ears, and tangle their -hair. She took great pleasure in cleaning one’s finger-nails. She did -this with the skill of a manicure. She found pleasure in picking the -shreds, ravelings, or specks from one’s clothing. She was not selfish -in selecting her friends. She was influenced neither by age nor by -beauty.</p> - -<p>To be out of her cage and supplied with toys was all she demanded to -make her happy. I have sometimes thought she preferred such a life to -the freedom of her Amazon forests. It is to be regretted that monkeys -are so destructive that one dare not turn them loose in a room where -there is anything that can be torn or broken. They enjoy such mischief. -Nellie often begged me so piteously to be taken from her little iron -prison that I could not refuse her request, even at the cost of much -trouble in preparing the room for her.</p> - -<p>As we retain these little captives against their will and treat them -worse than slaves by keeping them in close confinement, we should at -least try to amuse them. It is true that they do not have to toil; -but it would be more humane to make them work in the open air than to -confine them so closely and deprive them of every means of pleasure. -As an act of humanity and simple justice, I would impress<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> upon those -who have the charge of these little pets the importance of keeping -them supplied with toys. In this respect they are just like children. -For a trifle one can furnish them with such toys as they need. It is -absolutely cruel to keep these little creatures confined in solitude -and deny them the simple pleasure they find in playing with a bell, a -ball, or a few marbles. A trifling outlay in this way will very much -prolong their lives. Monkeys are always happy if they have plenty to -eat and something to play with. I recall no investment of mine which -ever yielded a greater return in pleasure than one little pocket -match-safe, costing twenty-five cents, which one evening I gave to -Nellie to play with. I had put into it a small key to make it rattle, -and also some bits of candy. She rattled the box and found much -pleasure in the noise it made. I showed her how to press the spring in -order to open the box; but her little black fingers were not strong -enough to release the spring and make the lid fly open. However, she -caught the idea and knew that the spring was the secret which held the -box closed. When she found that she could not open it with her fingers, -she tried it with her teeth. Failing in this, she turned to the wall, -and standing upright on the top of her cage, she took the box in both -hands and struck the spring against the wall until the lid flew open. -She was perfectly delighted at the result, and for the hundredth time, -at least, I closed the box for her to open it again. On the following -day some friends came in to visit her. I gave her the match-safe to -open. On this occasion she was in her cage, and through its meshes she -could not reach the wall. She had nothing against which to strike the -spring<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> to force it open. After looking around her and striking the -box a few times against the wires of her cage, she discovered a block -of wood about six inches square. She took this and mounted her perch. -Balancing the block on the perch, she held it with the left foot, while -with the right foot she held to the perch. With her tail wound around -the meshes of the cage to steady herself, she carefully adjusted the -match-box in such a manner as to protect her fingers from the blow. -Then she struck the spring against the block of wood and the lid flew -open. She fairly screamed with delight and held up the box with pride. -The lid was again closed in order that she might open it.</p> - -<p>The late hours which I kept were beginning to tell on Nellie, and from -time to time during the day I caught her taking a nap. I determined to -use some curtains to avoid disturbing her rest. Drawing them around -the cage, I lapped them over and pinned them down in front. Then I -turned down the light and kept quiet for a little while to allow her -to go to sleep. After the lapse of a few minutes I quietly turned up -the light and resumed writing. In an instant the curtains rustled. -Looking around, I saw her little brown eyes peeping through the folds -of the curtains, which she gracefully held apart with her little black -hands. When she saw what had caused the disturbance she chattered in -her soft, rich tones, and tried to pull the curtains farther apart. I -arranged them so she could not look around the room. To see her holding -the curtains apart in that coquettish manner, turning her head from -side to side, peeping and smiling at me and talking in such low sweet -tones, was like a real flirtation. One who has not witnessed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span> such a -scene cannot fully appreciate it. Only those who have experienced the -warm and unselfish friendship of these little creatures can realize how -strong the attachment becomes. The love of these little creatures is -proof against gossip, and their tongues are free from it.</p> - -<p>Among the many captives of the simian race who spend their lives in -iron prisons, adding to the wealth and gratifying the cruelty of -man,—not to expiate any crime,—I have many little friends. I am -attached to them. So far as I can see, their devotion to me is as warm -and sincere as that of any human being. I must confess that I am too -obtuse to discern in what way the love they have for me differs from my -own for them. I cannot see in what respect their love is less sublime -than human love. I cannot discern in what respect the affection of a -dog for a kind master differs from that of a child for a kind parent. I -fail to see in what respect the sense of fear of a cruel master differs -from that of the child toward a cruel parent. It is mere sentiment -that ascribes to the passion of a child a higher source than the same -passion in the dog or the monkey. The dog could have loved or feared -another master just as well. Filial love or fear reaches out its -tendrils just as far when all the ties of kindred blood are removed. It -has been said that for one we are able to assign a reason <em>why</em>, -while the other feeling is a mere impulse. I am too dull to understand -how reason actuates to love, and instinct to mere attachment. I do not -believe that in the intrinsic nature of these passions there is any -essential difference. Whether it be reason or instinct in man, the -affections of the lower animals are actuated by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> the same motives, -governed by the same conditions, and guided by the same reasons as -those of man. I shall long remember some of my monkey friends, and I -feel sure that, far away in the silent niches of their memory, some of -them have my image enshrined. Sometimes after long months of absence I -see them again. They always recognize me at sight and often scream with -pleasure at my return.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="center heading p0">Caged in an African Jungle—The Cage and its Contents—Its -Location—Its Purpose—The Jungle—The Great Forest—Its Grandeur—Its -Silence</p> - - -<p>It will be of interest to the reader to know the manner in which I -have pursued the study of monkeys in a state of nature, and the means -employed to that end. I, therefore, give a brief outline of my life in -a cage in the heart of the African jungle, where I went in order to -watch the denizens of the forest when free from all restraint.</p> - -<p>Having for several years devoted much time to the study of the speech -and the habits of monkeys in captivity, I formulated a plan of going to -their native haunts to study them under more favorable conditions.</p> - -<p>In the course of my labors up to that time, I had found that monkeys of -the highest physical types have also higher types of speech than those -of the inferior kinds. In accordance with this fact, it was logical -to infer that in the anthropoid apes—they being next to man in the -scale of nature—would be found the faculty of speech developed in a -higher degree than in the monkeys. The chief object of my study was -to learn the language of animals. The great apes appeared to be the -best subjects for that purpose, so I turned my attention to them. The -gorilla was said to be the most nearly like man, and the chimpanzee<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -next. There were none of the former in captivity, and but few of the -latter; and those few were kept under conditions that forbade all -efforts to do anything in the line of scientific study of their speech. -As the gorilla and the chimpanzee could both be found in the same -section of tropical Africa, that region was selected as the best field -of operation; and, in order to carry out the task assumed, I prepared -for a journey thither.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img008"> - <img src="images/008.jpg" class="w75" alt="NATIVE VILLAGE AT GLASS GABOON (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">NATIVE VILLAGE AT GLASS GABOON <br />(From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>The locality chosen was along the equator and about two degrees south -of it. This region is infested with fevers, insects, serpents, and wild -beasts of divers kinds. To ignore such dangers would be folly; but -there was no way to see these apes in their freedom, except to go and -live among them. To lessen in a degree the dangers incurred by such an -adventure, I devised a cage of steel wire woven into a lattice with a -mesh one inch and a half wide. This was made in twenty-four panels, -each three feet and three inches square, set in frames of narrow iron -strips. Each side of the panels was provided with lugs or half hinges, -so arranged as to fit any side of any other panel. These could be -quickly bolted together with small iron rods, and when so joined they -formed a cage of cubical shape, six feet and six inches square.</p> - -<p>Any one or more of the panels could be used as a door. The whole -structure was painted a dingy green, so that when erected in the forest -it was almost invisible in the foliage.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img009"> - <img src="images/009.jpg" class="w75" alt="A NATIVE CANOE (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">A NATIVE CANOE <br />(From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>While this cage was not strong enough to withstand a prolonged attack, -it afforded a certain degree of immunity from being surprised by -the fierce and stealthy beasts of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span> the jungle, and would allow its -occupant time to kill an assailant before the wires would yield to an -assault from anything except elephants. It was not, indeed, designed -as a protection against them; but, as they rarely attack a man unless -provoked to it, there was little danger from that source. Besides, -there are not many of those huge brutes in the part where this strange -domicile was set up.</p> - -<p>Through this open fabric one could see on all sides without -obstruction, and yet feel a certain sense of safety from being devoured -by leopards or panthers.</p> - -<p>Over this frail fortress was spread a roof of bamboo leaves. It was -provided with curtains of canvas, to be hung up in case of rain. The -floor was of thin boards, steeped in tar. The structure was elevated -about two feet from the ground and supported by nine small posts or -stakes, firmly driven into the earth. It was furnished with a bed made -of heavy canvas. This was supported by two poles of bamboo attached to -its edges. One of these poles was lashed fast to the side of the cage, -and the other was suspended at night by strong wire hooks hung from -the top of the cage. During the day the bed was rolled up on one of -the poles, so as to be out of the way. I had a light camp chair, which -folded up. A table was improvised from a broad, short board hung on -wires. When not in use this was set up by the side of the cage. To this -outfit a small kerosene stove and a swinging shelf were added. A few -tin cases contained my wearing apparel, blankets, a pillow, a camera -and photographic supplies, medicines, and an ample store of canned -meats, crackers, etc. There were also some tin platters, cups, and -spoons. A magazine rifle,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> a revolver, ammunition, and a few useful -tools, such as hammer, saw, pliers, files, and a heavy bush-knife, -completed my stock. The tin plates served for cooking vessels and also -for table use, instead of dishes, which are heavier and more fragile.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img010"> - <img src="images/010.jpg" class="w75" alt="THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">THE EDGE OF THE JUNGLE<br />(From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>With this equipment I sailed from New York on the 9th of July, 1892, -<em>via</em> England, to the port of Gaboon, the site of the colonial -government on the French Congo. This place is within a few miles of -the equator, and near the borders of the country in which the gorilla -lives. I arrived there on the 19th of October of that year, and after a -delay of some weeks in that locality I set out to find the object of my -search.</p> - -<p>Leaving that place, I went up the Ogowé River about two hundred or two -hundred and fifty miles, and thence through the lake region on the -south side of it. After some weeks of travel and inquiry, I arrived on -the south side of Lake Ferran Vaz, in the territory of the Nkami tribe. -The lake is about thirty miles long, by ten or twelve miles wide, and -is interspersed with a few islands of various sizes, covered with a -dense growth of tropical vegetation. The country about the lake is -mostly low and marshy, traversed by creeks, lagoons, and rivers. Most -of the land is covered by a deep and dreary jungle, intersected at -intervals by small, sandy plains, covered with a thin growth of long, -tough grass.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to convey in words an adequate idea of what the jungle -really is. To those who have never seen one it is almost impossible -to describe it. But in order that you may have some conception of the -place in which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> I lived so long, I shall endeavor to picture some -characteristic spots.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img011"> - <img src="images/011.jpg" class="w50" alt="IN THE JUNGLE (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">IN THE JUNGLE<br />(From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>Spread over a vast extent of the low delta region near the coast is -a growth of gigantic trees, from five to eight feet in diameter near -the base and growing to a height of eighty or a hundred feet, having -long, spreading boughs and broad, dark foliage. This growth of trees -is sufficiently dense to constitute a great forest. The intertwining -boughs and the dense leaves form an impenetrable canopy, spreading -for miles in all directions. This is called the “great forest”. -Between the stalks and under the boughs of this forest is another -growth of trees varying in diameter from one to two feet at the base -and reaching to a height of forty, fifty, or sixty feet. This growth -alone would constitute another forest as dense as were those of North -America before the visitation of the white man. This growth is called -the “middle forest”. Under this is another growth, consisting of -palms, vines, shrubs, and bushes of almost every kind. This growth -is so dense, so matted and so intertwined as to be in places quite -impassable by any living creature, except by slimy reptiles, small -rodents, venomous insects, and creeping things of many kinds. This is -called the “under forest.” The three combined growths together properly -constitute <em>the jungle</em>. From the boughs of the taller trees hang -long pendants of moss and vines, and from bough to bough hang graceful -festoons of the same. These are frequently adorned with delicate ferns -and great clusters of gorgeous orchids. So dense and luxuriant is the -vegetation in many parts of the forest that no ray of sunlight ever -penetrates it, and in its dark, damp grottoes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> even at midday, it is -almost like a twilight. Here and there are found places more open, and -from these can be had better views of its grandeur. Standing alone in -the midst of this great wilderness, one cannot fail to be impressed -with its sublime and awful beauty. From certain points of view the -banks of leaves rise like terraces, one above another, giving almost -the appearance of artificial work. From other points are seen groups of -flowering trees, rising in huge mounds almost to the top of the forest. -So many and so beautiful are the views from various points that one -becomes almost lost in a perfect maze of colors, lights, and shadows. -At times not a sound of any living thing is heard, and the unspeakable -silence only makes the scene the more impressive. While it is true that -this great forest teems with life, there are times when it appears to -be an endless, voiceless solitude. But, remaining for a time within its -dreary shades, one will behold its many denizens creeping through the -tangled meshes in quest of food.</p> - -<p>Within this vast empire of shadows the fierce wild beasts contend for -mastery. Among its dark green bowers soar many birds of brilliant -plumage, and through its silvan naves shriek the wild winds of the -tornado. Within its deep shadows crouches the leopard awaiting his -victim, and through its dismal labyrinth the stealthy serpent wends -his tortuous way. Every breeze is laden with the effluvia of decaying -plants, and every leaf exhales the odors of death.</p> - -<p>In the depths and the gloom of such a forest the gorilla dwells in -safety and seclusion. In the same wilderness the chimpanzee makes his -abode. But he is less timid and retiring.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span></p> - -<p>On the south side of this lake, not quite two degrees below the -equator, and within about twenty miles of the ocean, is the place at -which I located, in the heart of the primeval forest. Here I erected my -little fortress and gave it the name of Fort Gorilla. On the 27th of -April, 1893, I took up my abode in this desolate spot, and began a long -and solitary vigil.</p> - -<p>My sole companion was a young chimpanzee that I named Moses. From time -to time I had a native boy as a servant. But I found it better to be -alone and, therefore, when the boy had done his chores he was dismissed -until such time as his services might be desired.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img012"> - <img src="images/012.jpg" class="w50" alt="WAITING AND WATCHING IN THE CAGE (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">WAITING AND WATCHING IN THE CAGE<br />(From a Photograph.)</p> - - -<p>Seated in this cage in the silence of the great forest, I have seen the -gorilla in all his majesty, strolling at leisure through his sultry -domain. Under like conditions I have seen the chimpanzee, and the -happy, chattering monkeys in the freedom of their jungle home.</p> - -<p>In this novel hermitage I remained most of the time for one hundred and -twelve days and nights.</p> - -<p>During this period I had opportunities of watching the animals -following, in perfect freedom, the pursuits of their daily life. With -such an experience I trust that I shall not be charged with vanity in -saying that I have seen more of those animals in a state of nature than -any other white man ever saw, and under conditions more favorable for -a careful study of their manners and habits than could otherwise be -possible. Hence what I have to say concerning them is the result of an -experience which no other man can justly claim.</p> - -<p>I do not mean to ignore or impugn what others have said<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> on this -subject; but the sum of my labors in this field leads me to doubt much -that has been said and accepted as true. I regret that it devolves upon -me to controvert many of the stories told about the great apes, but -finding no germ of truth in some of them, I cannot evade the duty of -denying them. I regret it all the more, because many of them have been -woven into the fabric of natural history, have become integral parts of -our literature, and received the seal of scientific approval; but time -will justify and sustain me in the denial. I am aware that bigots of -certain schools will challenge me for pointing out their mistakes; and -some will assume to know more about these apes than fishes know about -swimming; but the simple truth should have precedence over all theories.</p> - -<p>Before proceeding with an account of the apes I shall relate some of -the incidents of my hermitage.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Daily Life and Scenes in the Jungle—How I Passed the Time—What I Had -to Eat—How it was Prepared—How I Slept—My Chimpanzee Companion</p> - - - -<p>I am so frequently asked about the details of my daily life in the -cage, how the time was occupied, and what I saw besides the apes, that -I deem it of interest to relate a few of the events of my sojourn in -that wild spot. I shall, therefore, recount the incidents of a single -day and night; but from day to day of course this routine varied.</p> - -<p>About six o’clock, as the sun first peeps into the forest, it finds -me with a tin cup of coffee just made on a little kerosene stove. It -is black and dreggy, but with a little sugar it is not bad. With a -few dry crackers I break my fast of twelve hours and am now ready for -the task of the day. My bed having been rolled up out of the way and -Moses helped to a banana or two, I take my rifle, Moses climbs upon -my shoulder, and we set out for a walk in the bush. When we return we -bring from the spring, some three hundred yards away, a supply of water -for the day. Then Moses climbs about in the bushes and amuses himself, -while I watch for gorillas. Silence is the order of the day. And here -I sit alone,—sometimes for hours,—in a stillness almost as great as -that of a tomb.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span></p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img013"> - <img src="images/013.jpg" class="w50" alt="STARTING FOR A STROLL (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">STARTING FOR A STROLL<br />(From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span></p> - -<p>Presently a rustle of the leaves is heard, and a porcupine comes -waddling into view. He pokes his nose about in search of food, but -he has not yet discovered my presence. He comes closer. The scent or -sight of me startles him, and away he goes. Now a civet comes stealing -through the bush, till he observes me and hastily departs.</p> - -<p>After an hour of patient waiting the sound of clashing boughs is -heard. A few minutes later is seen a school of monkeys, led by a -solemn-looking old pilot, who doubtless knows every palm tree that -bears nuts within many miles around. They are now coming to inspect my -cage and see what new thing this is set up in monkeydom.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img014"> - <img src="images/014.jpg" class="w75" alt="A Peep at My Cage" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">A Peep at My Cage</p> - - -<p>As they draw nearer they become more cautious. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> find a strong -bough in the top of a big tree, and the grave old pilot perches himself -far out on it in order to get a good peep at my cage. Just behind him -sits the next in rank, resting his hands on the shoulder of the leader, -while a dozen more occupy similar attitudes behind each other along the -limb. Each one pushes the one just in front of him to make him move up -a little closer, but none of them except the pilot seems to want the -front seat.</p> - -<p>They look on in silence, occasionally turning their little heads from -side to side, as if to be certain it is not an illusion. Again they -nudge each other, and move up a little closer, meanwhile squinting -their bright eyes, as if in doubt about the strange sight before them. -They have made such calls before, but have not yet fully determined -what kind of an animal it is that occupies the cage. At each successive -visit they come a little nearer, until they are now not a hundred -feet away. Now they take alarm at something and hurry off in another -direction.</p> - -<p>Next comes a pangolin, prowling about for insects among the leaves. He -catches a glimpse of the cage, stands motionless for a moment to see -what it is, and then like a flash he is gone. During this time birds -of divers kinds are flying in all directions. Some of them perch on -the limbs near by, some pick nuts from the palm trees, while others -scream and screech like so many tin whistles or brass horns. The most -conspicuous among them are the noisy toucans and parrots. Many of them -have brilliant and beautiful plumage.</p> - -<p>It is now ten o’clock. Not a breath of air stirs a leaf of the great -forest. The heat is sweltering and oppressive.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> The voices of the birds -grow less and less frequent. Even the insects do not appear to be so -busy as they were in the earlier hours of the day. Moses has abandoned -his rambles in the bush, and sits on a fallen tree, with his arms -folded, as if he had finished work for the day.</p> - -<p>Along towards this hour everything in the forest seems to become -quiet and inactive, and continues so until about two o’clock in the -afternoon. I was impressed upon more than one occasion with this -universal rest during the hottest part of the day, and the same thing -seems to prevail among aquatic animals.</p> - -<p>I now prepare my repast for midday by opening a can of meat or fish, -and warming it on a tin plate on the little stove. I have no vegetables -or dessert, but with a few crackers broken up and stirred into the -grease, and plenty of water to drink, I make an ample meal. When it -is finished, Moses coils up in his little hammock, swung by my side, -and takes his siesta. The boy, when there, stretches out on the floor -and does likewise. During the hours about noon, few things are astir, -though during that time I have seen some interesting sights.</p> - -<p>It must not be supposed that the change is sudden at the beginning or -at the end of this period, for such is not the case. There is no fixed -time for anything to cease activity. It is by slow degrees that one -thing after another becomes quiescent, until life appears to be for a -time almost extinct; but as the sun descends the western sky, life and -activity revive, and by three o’clock everything is again astir. Now, a -lone gorilla comes stalking through the bush, looking for the red fruit -of the <em>batuna</em>, a peculiar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> fruit that grows near the root of the -plant. He plucks a bud of some kind, tears it apart with his fingers, -smells it, and then throws it aside. Now he takes hold of a tall -sapling, looks up at its shaking branches and turns away. He pauses -and looks around as if suspicious of danger. He listens to see if -anything is approaching, but being reassured he resumes his search for -food. Now he gently parts the tangled vines that intercept his way and -creeps noiselessly through them. He hesitates, looks carefully around -him, and then again proceeds. He is coming this way. I see his black -face as he turns his head from side to side, looking for food. What a -brutal visage! It has a scowl upon it, as if he were at odds with all -his race. He is now within a few yards of the cage, but is not aware of -my presence. He plucks a tendril from a vine, smells it, and puts it -into his mouth. He plucks another and another. I shall note that vine -and ascertain what it is. Now he is in a small open space where the -bush has been cut away so as to afford a better view. He seems to know -that this is an unusual thing to find in the jungle. He surveys it with -caution. He comes nearer. Now he has detected me. He sits down upon the -ground and looks at me as if in utter surprise. A moment more he turns -aside, looks over his shoulders, and hurries away into the dense jungle.</p> - -<p>It is now four o’clock. I hear a wild pig rooting among the fallen -leaves. I see a small rodent that looks like a diminutive hedgehog. He -is gnawing the bark from a dead limb, possibly to capture some insect -secreted under it. But as rodents usually live upon vegetable diet, he -may have some other reason for this.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span></p> - -<p>It is five o’clock and the shadows in the forest are beginning to -deepen. I see two little gray monkeys playing in the top of a very -tall tree. The birds become monotonous and tiresome. Yonder is a small -snake twined around the limb of a bushy tree. He is probably hunting -for a nest of young birds. The low muttering sound of distant thunder -is heard. Little by little it grows louder. It is the familiar voice of -the coming tornado. I must prepare for it.</p> - -<p>The stove is now lighted and a shallow pan of water is set upon it. -Into it is stirred an ounce of desiccated soup. It is heated to the -boiling point, and is then set on the swinging table. A can of mutton -is emptied into another pan of the same kind, and a few crackers are -broken and stirred into the mutton. The soup is eaten while the meat -is being warmed. This is now ready, and the flame of the stove is -turned off. The second course of dinner is now served. It consists of -canned mutton, crackers, and water. The dishes, consisting of three tin -platters and a cup, are thrust into the adjacent bush. The ants and -other insects will clean them during the night.</p> - -<p>Moses has now had his supper and has gone to his own little house, to -find shelter from the approaching storm. The curtains are hung up on -the side of the cage towards which the tornado is coming. The leaves -of the forest begin to rustle. It is the first cool breath of the day, -but it is the herald of the furious wind that is rapidly advancing. -The tree-tops begin to sway. Now they are lashing each other as if in -anger. The strong trees are bending from the wind. The lightning is so -vivid that it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> blinding. The thunder is terrific. One shaft after -another, the burning bolts are hurled through the moaning forest.</p> - -<p>Down the frail wires of my cage the water runs in little rivulets. -Acting as a prism, it refracts the vivid lightning and makes the -whole fabric look like a latticework of molten fire trickling down -from the overhanging boughs. Like invisible demons the shrieking -winds rush through the bending forest, and the unceasing roar of the -thunder reverberates from the dark recesses of the jungle. Amid the -din of storming forces is heard the dull thud of falling trees, and -the crackling limbs are dropping all around. All nature is in a rage. -Every bird and every beast now seeks a place of refuge from the warring -elements. No sign of life is visible. No sound is audible save the -voice of the storm. How unspeakably desolate the jungle is at such -an hour no fancy can depict. How utterly helpless against the wrath -of nature a living creature is no one can realize, except by living -through such an hour in such a place.</p> - -<p>On one occasion five large trees were blown down within a radius of a -few hundred feet of my cage. Scores of limbs were broken off by the -wind and scattered like straws. Some of them were six or eight inches -in diameter and ten or twelve feet long. One of them broke the corner -of the bamboo roof over my cage. The limb was broken off a huge cotton -tree near by and fell from a height of about sixty feet. It was carried -by the wind some yards out of a vertical line as it fell, and just -passed far enough to spare my cage. Had it struck the body of it, the -cage would have been partly demolished; the main stem of the bough -was about six inches in diameter and ten feet long.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> This particular -tornado lasted for nearly three hours and was the most violent of all I -saw during the entire year.</p> - -<p>Now the storm subsides, but the darkness is impenetrable. I have no -light of any kind, for that would alarm the inhabitants of the jungle -and attract a vast army of insects from all quarters. Moses is fast -asleep, while I sit listening to the many strange and weird sounds -heard in the jungle at night. The bush crackles near by. A huge leopard -is creeping through it. He is coming this way. Slowly, cautiously, he -approaches. I cannot see him in the deep shadows of the foliage, but -I can locate him by sound, and identify him by his peculiar tread. -Perhaps when he gets near enough he will attack the cage. He is -creeping up closer. He evidently smells prey and is bent on seizing it. -My rifle stands by my elbow. I silently raise it and lay it across my -lap. The brute is now crouching within a few yards of me, but I cannot -see to shoot him. I hear him move again, as if adjusting himself to -spring upon the cage. He surely cannot see it, but by means of scent he -has located me. I hear a low rustling of the leaves as he swishes his -tail preparatory to a leap. If I could only touch a button and turn on -a bright electric light! He remains crouching near, while I sit with -the muzzle of the rifle turned towards him. My hand is on the lock. It -is a trying moment. If he should spring with such force as to break the -frail network that is between us, there could be but one fate for me.</p> - -<p>In the brief space of a few seconds a thousand things run through -one’s mind. They are not necessarily prompted by fear, but rather by -suspense. Is it best to fire into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> black shadows or to wait for the -leopard’s attack? What is his exact pose? What does he intend? How big -is he? Can he see me? A category of similar questions rises at this -critical moment.</p> - -<p>A clash of bushes and he is gone; not with the stealthy, cautious steps -with which he advanced, but in hot haste. He has taken alarm, abandoned -his purpose, and far away can be heard the dry twigs crashing as he -hurries to some remote nook. He flees as if he thought he was being -pursued. He is gone, and I feel a sense of relief.</p> - -<p>It is ten o’clock. The low rumbling of distant thunder is all that -remains of the tornado that swept over the forest a few hours ago. The -stars are shining, but the foliage of the forest is so dense, that one -can only see here and there a star peeping through the tangled boughs -overhead. I hear some little waif among the dead leaves, but what it is -or what it wants can only be surmised.</p> - -<p>Another hour has passed, and I retire for the night. The sounds of -nocturnal birds are fewer now. I hear a strange, tremulous sound from -the boughs of the bushes near the cage. The leaves are vibrating. The -sound ceases and again begins at intervals. I listen with attention, -for it is a singular sound. It is the movement of a huge python in -search of birds. He reaches out his head, stretches his neck, grasps -the bough of a slender bush, releases his coil from another, and by -contraction draws his slimy body forward. The pliant bough yields to -his heavy weight. The abrasion causes it to tremble and the leaves to -quake.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img015"> - <img src="images/015.jpg" class="w50" alt="PREPARING FOR THE NIGHT (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">PREPARING FOR THE NIGHT<br />(From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>I fall asleep and rest in comfort, while the dew that has fallen upon -the leaves gathers itself into huge drops; their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> weight bends the -leaves, and they fall from their lofty place, striking with a sharp, -popping sound the big leaves far below them. The hours fly by; but in -the stillness of early morning is heard a most unearthly scream. It is -the voice of a king gorilla. He makes every leaf in the forest tremble -with the sound of his piercing shrieks.</p> - -<p>Thus another night is erased from the calendar of time and another -day begins. The dawn awakes to life the teeming forest, and all its -denizens again go forth to join the universal chase for food.</p> - -<p>All of the incidents here cited are true in every detail, but they did -not occur every day, nor did all of them occur on the same day, as -might be inferred from the manner in which they are related. But this -recital gives a fair idea of the daily routine in the bosom of the -great forest, although this is a mere glimpse of the scenes of life in -the jungle. By going out for a day or two at a time, hunting on the -plains a few miles away, I often relieved the monotony. My menu was -occasionally varied by a mess of parrot soup, a piece of goat, fish, -or porcupine; but the general average of it was about as has been -described.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">The Chimpanzee—The Name—Two Species—The Kulu-Kamba -Distribution—Color and Complexion</p> - - -<p>Next to man the chimpanzee occupies the highest plane in the scale of -nature. His mental and social traits, together with his physical type, -assign him to this place.</p> - -<p>In his distribution he is confined to equatorial Africa. His habitat, -roughly outlined, is from the fourth parallel north of the equator -to the fifth parallel south of it, along the west coast, and extends -eastward a little more than halfway across the continent. His range -cannot be defined with precision, for its exact limits are not yet -known. Its boundary on the north is defined by the Cameroon valley, -slightly curving towards the north; but its extent eastward is a matter -of some doubt. He does not appear to be found anywhere north of that -river, and it is quite certain that the few specimens attributed to the -north coast of the Gulf of Guinea do not belong to that territory. On -the south the boundary of his habitat starts from the coast, at a point -near the fifth parallel, curves slightly northward, crosses the Congo -near Stanley Pool, pursues a northeasterly course to about the middle -of the Congo State, and again curves southward across the Upper Congo, -not far from the north end of Lake Tanganyika.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> Its limits appear to -conform more to isothermal lines than to the rigid lines of geography. -Specimens are sometimes secured by collectors beyond these limits, but, -so far as I have been able to ascertain, they have been captured within -the territory thus bounded. There are several centers of population. -This ape is not strictly confined to any definite topography, but -occupies alike the upland forests or the low basin lands.</p> - -<p>In one section he is known to the natives by one name, and in another -by a name entirely different. The name <em>chimpanzee</em> is of native -origin. In the Fiote tongue the name of the ape is <em>chimpan</em>, -which is a slight corruption of the true name. It is properly a -compound word. The first syllable is from the Fiote word <em>tyi</em>, -which white men erroneously pronounce like “chee.” It means “small,” -or inferior, and it is found in many of the native compounds. The last -syllable is from <em>mpa</em>, a bushman; hence the word literally means, -in the Fiote tongue, “a small bushman,” or inferior race. The name -really implies the idea of a lower order of human being. Among other -tribes a common name of the ape is <em>ntyigo</em>. The latter is derived -from the Mpongwe word <em>ntyia</em>, blood, race, or breed, and the word -<em>iga</em>, the forest. It literally means the “breed of the forest.” -The same idea of its being a low type of humanity is involved in the -two names. Both convey the oblique suggestion that the animal is more -nearly allied to man than other animals are.</p> - -<p>There are two distinct types of this ape. They are now regarded as -two species. One of them is distributed throughout the entire habitat -described, while the other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> is only known south of the equator and -between the second and fifth parallels north of the Congo and west -of Stanley Pool. Both kinds are found within this district, but the -variety which is confined to that region is called, by the tribes -that know the ape, the <em>kulu-kamba</em>, in contradistinction from -the other kind known as <em>ntyigo</em>. This name is derived from -<em>kulu</em>, the onomatope of the sound made by the animal and the -native verb, <em>kamba</em>, to speak; hence the name literally means -“the thing that speaks kulu.”</p> - -<p>In certain respects the common variety differs from the -<em>kulu-kamba</em> in a degree that would indicate that they belong -to distinct species; but the skulls and the skeletons are so nearly -alike that no one can identify them from the skeletons alone. In life, -however, it is not difficult to distinguish them. The <em>ntyigo</em> -has a longer face and more prominent nose than the <em>kulu</em>. His -complexion is of all shades of brown, from a light tan to a dark, -dingy, mummy color. He has a thin coat of short, black hair, which is -often erroneously described as brown; but that effect is due to the -blending of the color of his skin with that of his suit. In early life -his hair is quite black, but in advanced age the ends are tipped with -a dull white, giving them a dingy gray color. The change is due to -the same causes that produce gray hairs on the human body. But there -is one point in which they greatly differ. The entire hair of the -human becomes white with age, while only the outer end of it does so -in the chimpanzee. In the human one hair becomes white, while others -retain their natural color; but in this ape all the hairs appear to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -undergo the same change. In very aged specimens the outer part of the -hair often assumes a dirty, brownish color. This is due to the want of -vascular action to supply the color pigment. The same effect is often -seen in preserved specimens, for the same reason that the hair of an -Egyptian mummy is brown, though in life it had been, doubtless, a jet -black. In this ape the hair is uniformly black, except the small tuft -of white at the base of the spinal column and a few white hairs on the -lower lip and the chin. I have examined about sixty living specimens, -and I have never found any other color among them, except from the -cause mentioned. The normal color of both sexes is the same. The -<em>kulu</em> has, as a rule, but little hair on the top of the head; but -that on the back of it and on the neck is much longer than elsewhere on -the body, and on these parts it is longer than that on other apes.</p> - -<p>Much stress is laid by some writers on the bald head of one ape and -the parted hair on the head of another. These features cannot be -relied upon as having any specific meaning, unless there are as many -species as there are apes. Sometimes a specimen has no hair on the -crown of the head, while another differs from it in this respect alone -by having a suit of hair more or less dense; and yet in every other -respect they are alike. Some of them have their hair growing almost -down to the eyebrows, and all hairs appear to diverge from a common -center, like the radii of a sphere; another of the same species may -have the hair parted in the middle as neatly as if it had been combed; -another may have it in wild disorder. The same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> thing is noticed in -certain monkeys, and it is equally true of the human being. As a factor -in classifying, it signifies nothing. It may be remarked that the -<em>kulu</em> is inclined to have but little hair upon the crown of the -head.</p> - -<p>Between the two species there is a close alliance. The males differ -more than the females. This is especially true in the structure of -certain organs. The face of the young <em>ntyigo</em> is free from hairs, -but in the adult state there is in both sexes a tendency to the growth -of a light down upon the cheeks. The color of the skin is not uniform -in all parts of the body. This is especially true of the face. Some -specimens have patches of dark color set in a lighter ground. Sometimes -certain parts of the face are dark and other parts light. I have seen -one specimen quite freckled. It is said by some that the skin is light -in color when young, and becomes darker with age; but I find no reason -to believe that such is the case. It is true that the skin darkens a -few shades as the cuticle hardens, but there is no transition from one -color to another, and this slight change of shade is chiefly on the -exposed parts.</p> - -<p>The <em>kulu</em> has a short, round face, much like that of a human. In -early life it is quite free from hairs, but, like the other, a slight -down appears with age. He has on his body a heavy suit of black hair. -It is coarser and longer than that of the <em>ntyigo</em>. It is also -inclined to wave, thus having a fluffy aspect. The color is jet black, -except a small tuft of white about the base of the spine. I have seen -two in which this tuft was perfectly black. The skin varies in color -less than in the <em>ntyigo</em>, and the darker shades are seldom found. -The eyes are a shade darker,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> and in both species the parts of the eye -which are white in man are brown in them. But this gradually shades -off into a yellow near the base of the optic nerve. As a rule, the -<em>kulu</em> has a clear, open visage, with a kindly expression. It is -confiding and affectionate to a degree beyond any other animal. It is -more intelligent than its <em xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">confrère</em>, and displays the faculty of -reason almost like a human being.</p> - -<p>One important point in which these two types of ape differ is in the -scope and quality of their voices. The <em>kulu</em> makes a greater -range of vocal sounds. Some of them are soft and musical; but those -uttered by the <em>ntyigo</em> are fewer in number and harsher in -quality. One of these sounds resembles the bark of a dog, and another -is a sharp, screaming sound. The <em>kulu</em> evinces a certain sense -of gratitude, while the <em>ntyigo</em> appears to be almost devoid of -that sentiment. There are many traits in which they differ, but human -beings, even within the same family circle, also differ in these -qualities. The points in which they coincide are many, and, after -a brief review of them, we may consider the question of making two -species of them or assigning them to the same.</p> - -<p>The skeletons—as we have noted—are the same in form, size, and -proportion. Their muscular, nervous, and veinous systems are for the -most part the same. The character of their food and the mode of eating -are the same in each. In captivity they appear to regard each other as -one of their own kind; but whether they inter-cross or not remains to -be learned.</p> - -<p>Such is the sum of the likenesses and the differences between the two -extreme types of this genus. With so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> many points in common, and so -few in which they differ, it is a matter of serious doubt whether they -can be said to constitute two distinct species or only two varieties -of a common species. This doubt is further emphasized by the fact that -all the way between these two extremes are gradations of intermediate -types, so that it is next to impossible to say where one ends and -another begins.</p> - -<p>In view of all these facts, I believe them to be two well-defined -varieties of the same species. They are the white man and the negro of -a common stock. They are the patrician and the plebeian of one race, -or the nobility and the yeomanry of one tribe. They are like different -phases of the same moon. The <em>kulu-kamba</em> is simply a high order -of chimpanzee. It is quite true that two varieties of one species -usually have the same vocal characteristics, and this appears to be the -strongest point in favor of assigning them to separate species, but it -is not impossible that even this may be waived. Leaving this question -for others to decide as they find the evidence to sustain them, we -shall for the present regard them as one kind, and consider their -physical, social, and mental characteristics.</p> - -<p>Whether they are all of one species, or divided into many, the same -habits, traits, and modes of life prevail throughout the entire group, -so that one description will apply to all, so far as we have to deal -with them as a whole. Elsewhere will be related certain incidents which -apply to individuals of the two kinds mentioned; but in treating of -them collectively the term <em>chimpanzee</em> is meant to include the -whole group, except where it is otherwise specified.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Physical Qualities of the Chimpanzee—His Social Habits—Mental -Characteristics</p> - - -<p>Physically considered, the chimpanzee very closely resembles man, but -there are certain points in which he differs both from man and from -other apes. We may notice a few of these points. The model of the -ear of the chimpanzee closely resembles that of man, but the organ -is larger in size and thinner in proportion. It is very sensitive to -sound, but dull to touch. The surface is not well provided with nerves. -He cannot erect his ear, as most animals do, by the use of the muscles -at the base; but, like the human ear, the muscles are useless, and in -this respect the ear is fixed and helpless.</p> - -<p>The hand of the chimpanzee is long and narrow. The finger bones are -larger, in proportion to their size, than those of the human hand. One -thing peculiar to the hand of the chimpanzee is that the tendons inside -of the hand (those called the flexors), which are designed to close the -finders, are shorter than the line of the bones. On this account the -fingers of the ape are always held in a curve. He cannot straighten -them. This is probably due to the habit of climbing, in which he -indulges to such a great extent. He also indulges in the practice of -hanging suspended by the hands. In making his way through the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> bush -he often swings himself by the arms from bough to bough. Sometimes he -suspends himself by one arm, while he uses the other to pluck and eat -fruit. This characteristic is transmitted to the young, and is found in -the first stages of infancy. The thumb is not truly opposable, but is -inclined to close towards the palm of the hand. It is of little use to -him. His nails are thick, dark in color, and not quite so flat as those -of man.</p> - -<p>The great toe, instead of being in line with the others, projects at -an angle from the side of the foot, something after the manner of the -human thumb. The foot itself is quite flexible and has great prehensile -power. In climbing, and in many other ways, it is used as a hand. The -tendons in the sole of the foot are equal in length to the line of the -bones, and the digits of the foot can be straightened; but from the -habitual use of them in climbing, the ape is predisposed to close the -digits, wherefore the foot is naturally inclined to curve into an arch, -especially in the line of the first and second digits.</p> - -<p>His habit of walking is peculiar. The greater part of the weight is -borne upon the legs. The sole of the foot is placed almost flat on the -ground, but the pressure is greatest along the outer edge, in the line -of the last digit. This is easily noticed where he walks over plastic -ground. In the act of walking he always uses the hands, but he does -not place the palms on the ground. He uses the backs of the fingers -instead. Sometimes only the first joints or phalanges, resting upon the -nails, are placed on the ground. At other times the first and second -joints are used. I have seen one specimen that, when walking, employed -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> backs of all his fingers, from the knuckles to the nails. The -integument on these parts is not callous, like that of the palm. The -color pigment is distributed the same as on other exposed parts of the -body. These facts show that the weight of the body is not borne on the -fore limbs, as it is in the case of a true quadruped, but indicate that -the hand is only used to balance the body while in the act of walking -and to shift the weight from foot to foot. The weight is, therefore, -not equally distributed between the hands and the feet, and the animal -cannot truly be said to be a quadruped in habit.</p> - -<p>His waddling gait is caused by his short legs, stooping habit, and -heavy body. All animals having stout bodies and short legs are -predisposed to a waddling motion, which is due to the wide angle -between the weight and the changing center of gravity. This motion -is more conspicuous in bipeds than in quadrupeds, because the base -supporting the weight is reduced to a single point.</p> - -<p>The chimpanzee is neither a true quadruped nor a true biped, but -combines the habits of both. It appears to be a transition state from -the former to the latter. Vestiges of this mixed habit are still to be -found in man. In the act of walking his arms alternate in motion with -his legs. This suggests the idea that he may have had, at some time, a -similar habit of locomotion. Such a fact does not necessarily show that -he was ever an ape, but it does point to the belief that he has once -occupied a horizon in nature like that now occupied by the ape, and -that having emerged from it, he still retains traces of the habit. This -peculiarity is still more easily observed in children than in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span> adults. -In early infancy all children are inclined to be bow-legged. In their -first efforts at walking they invariably press most of their weight on -the outer edge of the foot and curve the toes inward, as if to grasp -the surface on which the foot is placed. The instinct of prehension -cannot be mistaken. It differs in degree in different races, and is -vastly more pronounced in negro infants than in white ones.</p> - -<p>There is another peculiar feature in the walk of the chimpanzee. The -arms and legs do not alternate in motion with the same degree of -regularity that they do in man or quadrupeds. This ape uses his arms -more like crutches. They are moved forward, not quite, but almost at -the same instant, and the motion of the legs is not at equal intervals. -To be more explicit: the hands are placed almost opposite each other; -the right foot is advanced about three times its length; the left -foot is then placed about one length in front of the right; the arms -are again moved; the right foot is again advanced about three lengths -forward of the left; and the left again brought about one length in -front of that. The same animal does not always use the same foot to -make the long stride. It will be seen by this that each foot moves -through the same space, and that, in a line, the tracks of either foot -are the same distance apart; but the distance from the track of the -right foot to that of the left is about three times as great as the -distance from the track of the left foot to that of the right. Or the -reverse may be the case. The distance from the track of either foot to -the succeeding track of the other is never the same between the right -and left tracks, except where the animal is walking at great leisure.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span></p> - -<p>There is, perhaps, no animal more awkward than the chimpanzee, when he -attempts to run. He sometimes swings his body with such force between -his arms as to lose his balance and fall backward on the ground. -Sometimes when he rights himself again, he is half his length backward -of his starting point.</p> - -<p>The chimpanzee is doubtless a better climber than the gorilla. He finds -much of his food in trees; but he is not, in the proper sense of the -term, arboreal. To be arboreal, the animal must be able to sleep in a -tree or on a perch. The chimpanzee cannot do so. He sleeps the same as -a human being does. He lies down on his back or side, and frequently -uses his arms for a pillow. I do not believe it possible for him to -sleep on a perch. He may sometimes doze in that way, but the grasp of -his foot is only brought into use when he is conscious. I have often -known Moses to climb down from the trees and lie upon the ground to -take a nap. I never saw him so much as doze in any other position.</p> - -<p>I may here call attention to one fact concerning the arboreal habit. -There appears to be a rule to which this habit conforms. Among apes -and monkeys the habit is in keeping with the size of the animal. The -largest monkeys are found only among the lowest trees, and the small -monkeys among the taller trees. It is a rare thing to see a large -monkey in the top of a tall tree. He may venture there for food or -to make his escape, but it is not his proper element. The same rule -appears to hold good among the apes. The gibbon has the arboreal -habit in a more pronounced degree than any other true ape. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> orang -appears to be next; the chimpanzee comes in for third place, and the -gorilla last. It must not be understood that all of these apes do not -frequently climb, even to the tops of the highest trees; but that is -not their normal mode of life, any more than the top of a mast is the -habitual place for a sailor on a ship.</p> - -<p>The chimpanzee is nomadic in habit, and, like the gorilla, seldom or -never passes two nights in the same spot. As to his building huts or -nests in trees or elsewhere, I am not prepared to believe that he ever -does that. For months I hunted in vain and made diligent inquiry in -several tribes, but failed to find a specimen of any kind of shelter -built by an ape. I do not assert that it is absolutely untrue that he -does this, but I have never been able to obtain any evidence of it, -except the statement of the natives. On the contrary, certain facts -point to the opposite belief. If the ape built himself a permanent -home, the natives would soon discover it and there would be no -difficulty in having it pointed out. If he built a new one every night, -however rude and primitive it might be, there would be so many of them -in the forest that there would be no difficulty in finding them. The -nomadic habit plainly shows that he does not build the former kind, and -the utter absence of them shows that he does not build the latter kind. -The whole story appears to be without foundation.</p> - -<p>In addition to these facts, one thing to be noticed is that few or none -of the mammals of the tropics ever build any kind of home. The animals -that in other climates have the habit of burrowing do not appear to -do so in the tropics, This is due, no doubt, to the warm climate, in -which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> they are not in need of shelter. Of course birds and other -oviparous animals build nests, as they do elsewhere. The period of -incubation makes this necessary.</p> - -<p>The longevity of these apes is largely a matter of conjecture, but -from a cursory study of their dentition and other facts of their -development, it appears that the male reaches the adult stage at an -age ranging from eight to ten years, while the female matures between -six and eight. These appear to be the periods at which they pass from -the state of adolescence. Some of them live to be perhaps forty years -of age, or upwards, but the average life is probably not more than -twenty-one to twenty-three years. The average of life is, doubtless, -more uniform with them than with man. These figures are not mere -guesswork, but are deduced from reliable data.</p> - -<p>The period of gestation in both these apes is a matter that cannot be -stated with certainty. Some of the natives say that it is nine months, -while others believe that it is seven months or less. There are some -facts to support each of these claims, but nothing is quite conclusive. -The sum of the evidence that I could find rather points to a term of -four and a half months, or thereabouts, as the true period. During -the months of January and February the male gorillas are vociferous -in their screaming, the young adults separate from the families, and -other things indicate that this is the season of pairing and breeding. -They may not be strictly confined to this period, but the inference -that they are so is well founded. It is quite certain that the season -of bearing the young is from the beginning of May to the end of June. -It is about this time that the dry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span> season begins, and it continues -for four months. It would appear that nature has selected this period -of the year because it is more favorable for rearing the young. During -this season food is more abundant and can be secured with less effort. -The lowlands are drier, and this enables the mother to retire with her -young to the dense jungle, where she is less exposed to danger than -she would be in the more open forest. It is uncertain whether or not -the periods are the same with both apes. Native reports differ on this -point. But it is probable that they are the same. The average of this -season is about four and a half moons, or eighteen weeks.</p> - -<p>From a social point of view the chimpanzee appears to be of a little -higher caste than other apes. In his marital ideas he is polygamous, -but is in a certain degree loyal to his family. The paternal instinct -is a trifle more refined in him than in other simians. He seems to -appreciate better the relationship of parent and child and to retain -it longer than others do. Most male animals become estranged from -their young and discard them at a very early age. The chimpanzee keeps -his children with him until they are old enough to go away and rear -families of their own.</p> - -<p>The family of the chimpanzee frequently consists of three or four wives -and ten or twelve children, with one adult male. There are known cases -in which two or three adult males have been seen in the same family, -but each one having his own wives and children. In such an event there -seems to be one who is supreme. This fact suggests the idea that -among them a form of patriarchal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> government prevails. The wives and -children do not apparently question the authority of the patriarch or -rebel against it. The male parent often plays with his children and is -seemingly very fond of them.</p> - -<p>There is one universal error that I desire here to correct. It is the -common idea that animals are so strongly possessed of the paternal -instinct that they nobly sacrifice their own lives in defense of their -young. I do not wish to dispel any belief that tends to dignify or -ennoble animals, for I am their friend and champion. But truth demands -that this statement be qualified. It is quite true that many have -lost their lives in such acts of defense, but it was not a voluntary -sacrifice. It is not alone in the defense of their young, but in many -cases it is an act of self-defense. In other instances it is from a -lack of judgment. These apes have often been frightened away from -their young and the latter captured while the parents were fleeing -from the scene. This may have been the result of sagacity rather than -of depravity; but the parental instinct in both sexes and in many -instances has failed to restrain them from flight. If it be a foe -that appears to come within the measure of their own power, they will -defend their young, and this sometimes results in the loss of their own -lives; but if it be one of such formidable aspect as to appear quite -invincible, the parents leave the young to their fate. This is true of -all animals, including mankind.</p> - -<p>I have no desire to detract from the heroic quality of this instinct -or to dim the glory it sheds upon the noble deeds ascribed to it, but -the fact that a parent incurs the risk of its own life in the defense -of its young is not a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> true test of the strength or quality of this -instinct. It is only in the few isolated cases of a voluntary sacrifice -of the parent, foreknowing the result, that it can be said the act was -due to instinct. In most such cases the parent acts under a belief -in its own ability to rescue the one in danger, the parent not being -wholly aware of its own peril. I doubt if any animal except man ever -deliberately offered its own life as a ransom for that of another. Such -instances in human history are so rare as to immortalize the actor.</p> - -<p>To whatever extent the instinct may be found, it is much stronger in -the female than in the male, and it appears to be stronger in domestic -animals than in wild ones. To what extent this is due to their contact -with man, it is difficult to say. The germ may be inherent, but it -responds to culture.</p> - -<p>The fact that the ape deserts its offspring under certain conditions -may be taken as an evidence of superior intelligence affording it a -higher appreciation of life and danger, rather than a low, brutish -impulse. It is the exercise of superior judgment that causes man to act -with more prudence than other animals. It does not detract from his -nobleness.</p> - -<p>Within the family circle of the chimpanzee the father is supreme; -but he does not degrade his royalty by being a tyrant. Each member -of the family seems to have certain rights that are not impugned by -others. Possession is the right of ownership. When one ape procures -a certain article of food, the others do not try to dispossess him. -It is probably from this source that man inherits the idea of private -ownership. It is the same principle, amplified,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> by which nations claim -the right of territory. Nations often violate this right, and so do -chimpanzees, when not held in check by something more potent than a -mere abstract sense of justice. With all due respect, I do not think -the ape so much abuses the right by urging his claim beyond his real -needs as nations sometimes do.</p> - -<p>When a member of a family of apes is ill, the others are quite -conscious of the fact and evince a certain amount of solicitude. Their -conduct indicates that they have, in a small degree, the passion of -sympathy, but the emotion is feeble and wavering. So far as I know, -they do not essay any treatment, except to soothe and comfort the -sufferer. They surely have some definite idea of what death is, and -I have sometimes had reason to believe that they have a name for it. -They do not readily abandon their sick, but when one of them is unable -to travel with the band the others rove about for days, keeping within -call of it; but they do not minister to its wants. It is said that if -one of them is wounded the others will rescue it if possible and convey -it to a place of safety. I cannot vouch for this, as such an incident -has never come within my own experience.</p> - -<p>One of the most remarkable of all the social habits of the chimpanzee -is the <em>kanjo</em>, as it is called in the native tongue. The word -does not mean “dance” in the sense of saltatory gyrations, but it -implies more the idea of “carnival.” It is believed that more than one -family take part in these festivities. Here and there in the jungle -is found a small spot of sonorous earth. It is irregular in shape -and about two feet across. The surface is of clay and is artificial. -The clay is superimposed upon a kind of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> peat bed, which, being -porous, acts as a resonance cavity and intensifies the sound. This -constitutes a kind of drum. It yields rather a dead sound, but this is -of considerable volume.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img016"> - <img src="images/016.jpg" class="w75" alt="KANJO NTYIGO-CHIMPANZEE DANCE" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">KANJO NTYIGO-CHIMPANZEE DANCE</p> - -<p>This queer drum is thus made by the chimpanzees. They secure the clay -along the banks of some stream in the vicinity. They carry it by hand, -deposit it while in a plastic state, spread it over the place selected, -and let it dry. I have placed in the museum of Buffalo, <abbr title="New York">N. Y.</abbr>, a part -of one of these drums that I brought home with me from the Nkami -forest. It shows the finger-prints of the apes. They were impressed in -it while the mud was yet soft.</p> - -<p>After the drum is quite dry, the chimpanzees assemble by night in great -numbers and the carnival begins. One or two of them beat violently on -this dry clay, while others jump up and down in a wild and grotesque -manner. Some of them utter long, rolling sounds, as if trying to sing. -When one tires of beating the drum, another relieves him, and in this -fashion the festivities continue for hours. I know of nothing like this -in the social system of any other animal, but what it signifies or what -its origin was is quite beyond my knowledge. They do not indulge in -this <em>kanjo</em> in all parts of their domain, nor does it occur at -regular intervals.</p> - -<p>The chimpanzee is averse to solitude. He is fond of the society of man -and is, therefore, easily domesticated. If allowed to go at liberty, -he is well disposed, and is strongly attached to man. If confined, he -becomes vicious and ill-tempered. All animals, including man, have the -same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> tendency. Mentally the chimpanzee occupies a high plane within -his own sphere of life, but within those limits the faculties of the -mind are not called into frequent exercise and, therefore, they are not -so active as they are in man.</p> - -<p>It is difficult to compare the mental status of the ape to that of -man, because there is no common basis upon which the two rest. Their -modes of life are so unlike as to afford no common unit of measure. -Their faculties are developed along different lines. The two have but -few problems in common to solve. While the scope of the human mind -is vastly wider than that of the ape, it does not follow that it can -act in all things with more precision. There are, perhaps, instances -in which the mind of the ape excels that of man by reason of its -adaptation to certain conditions. It is not a safe and infallible guide -to measure all things by the standard of man’s opinion of himself. -It is quite true that, by such a unit of measure, the comparison is -much in favor of man; but the conclusion is neither just nor adequate. -It is a problem of great interest, however, to compare them in this -manner, and the result indicates that a fair specimen of adult ape -is in about the same mental horizon as a child of one year old. But -if the operation were reversed and man were placed under the natural -conditions of the ape, the comparison would prove much less in favor of -man. There is no common mental unit between them.</p> - -<p>On problems that concern his own comfort or safety the chimpanzee -exercises the faculty of reason with a fair degree of precision. He -is quick to interpret motives or to discern intents, and he is a rare -judge of character. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> is inquisitive, but not so imitative as monkeys -are. He is more observant of the relations of cause and effect. In his -actions he is controlled by more definite motives. He is docile and -quickly learns anything that lies within the range of his own mental -plane.</p> - -<p>The opinion has long prevailed that these apes subsist upon a vegetable -diet. That is a mistake. In this respect their habits are much the same -as those of man, except that the latter has learned to cook, but the -former eats his food raw. Their natural tastes are greatly diversified, -and they are not all equally fond of the same articles of food. Most -of them are partial to the wild mango, which grows in abundance in -certain localities in the forest. This is often available when other -kinds of food are scarce. It thus becomes, as it were, a staple article -of food. There are many kinds of nuts to be found in their domain, but -the nut of the oil palm is a great favorite. They sometimes eat the -kola nut, but they are not partial to it. Several kinds of small fruits -and berries also form part of their diet. They eat the stalks of some -plants, the tender buds of others, and the tendrils of certain vines. -The names of these vines I do not know.</p> - -<p>Most of the fruits and plants that are relished by them are either -acidulous or bitter in taste. They are not especially fond of sweet -fruits. They prefer those having the flavors mentioned. They eat -bananas, pineapples, or other sweet fruits, but rarely do so from -choice. Most of them appear to prefer a lime to an orange, a plantain -to a banana, a kola nut to a sweet mango. In captivity they acquire a -taste for sweet foods of all kinds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span></p> - -<p>In addition to these articles they devour birds, lizards, and small -rodents. They rob birds of their eggs and their young. They make havoc -of many kinds of large insects. Those that I have owned were fond of -cooked meats and salt fish, either raw or cooked.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">The Speech of Chimpanzees—A New System of Phonetic Symbols—Some -Common Words—Gestures</p> - - -<p>The speech of chimpanzees (as of other simians) is limited to a few -sounds, and these chiefly relate to their natural wants. The entire -vocabulary of their language embraces perhaps not more than twenty-five -or thirty words. Many of them are vague or ambiguous, but they express -the concept of the ape with as much precision as it is defined to his -mind, and quite distinctly enough for his purpose.</p> - -<p>During my researches I have learned ten words of the speech of this -ape, so that I can understand them and make myself understood by them. -In tone, pitch, and modulation most of the sounds are within the -compass of the human voice. Two of them are much greater in volume than -it is possible for the human lungs to reach, and one of them rises to -a pitch more than an octave higher than a human voice of middle pitch. -These two sounds are audible at a great distance, but they do not -properly fall within the limits of speech.</p> - -<p>The vocal organs of the chimpanzee resemble those of man as closely -as other physical features have been shown to resemble. They differ -slightly in one respect that is worthy of notice. Just above the -opening called<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> the glottis (which is the opening between the vocal -cords) are two small sacs or ventricles. In the ape these are larger -and more flexible than in man. In the act of speaking they are inflated -by the air passing out of the lungs into the long tube called the -larynx. The function of these ventricles is to control and modify the -sound by increasing or decreasing the pressure of the air that is -jetted through the tube. They serve at the same time as a reservoir and -as a gauge.</p> - -<p>In the louder sounds uttered by the chimpanzee these ventricles greatly -distend. This intensifies the voice or increases its volume. It is -partly due to these little sacs that the ape is able to make such a -loud and piercing scream. But the pitch and volume of his voice cannot -be alone due to this cause, for the gorilla (in which these ventricles -are much smaller) can make a vastly louder sound. We may be mistaken, -however, about the sound commonly ascribed to him.</p> - -<p>Although the sounds made by the chimpanzee can be imitated by the -human voice, they cannot be expressed or represented by any system of -phonetic symbols in use among men. Alphabets have been deduced from -pictographs, and the conventional symbol that is used to represent a -given sound has no reference to the organs of speech that produced it. -The few rigid lines that have survived and that now form the alphabets -are within themselves meaningless, but they have been so long used to -represent the elementary sounds of speech that it would be difficult to -supplant them with others.</p> - -<p>As no literal formula can be made to represent the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span> phonetic elements -of the speech of chimpanzees, I have taken a new step in the art of -writing. I suggest a system of symbols which is rational in method and -simple in device.</p> - -<p>The organs of speech always act in harmony. A certain movement of the -lips is always attended by a certain movement of the internal organs of -speech. This is true of the ape as well as of man. In order to utter -the same sounds, each would employ the same organs and use them in the -same manner.</p> - -<p>By this means deaf-mutes are able to distinguish the sounds of speech -and to reproduce them, although they do not hear them. By close study -and long practice they learn to distinguish the most delicate shades of -sound.</p> - -<p>In this plain fact lies the clue to the method I offer for -consideration. As yet it is only in the infant stage, but it is -possible to be made, with a very few symbols, to represent the whole -range of vocal sounds made by man or other animals.</p> - -<p>The chief symbols I employ are the parentheses used in common print. -The two curved lines placed with the convex sides opposite, thus, (), -represent the open glottis, in which position the voice utters the -broad sound of “A,” as in “father.” The glottis about half closed -utters the sound of “O.” To represent this sound a period is inserted -between the two curved lines, thus, (.). When the aperture is still -more contracted it produces the sound of “U,” like “[=oo]” in “woo.” -To represent this sound a colon is placed between the lines, thus, -(:). When the aperture is restricted to a still smaller compass the -sound of “U”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</span> short is uttered, as in “but.” To represent this sound an -apostrophe is placed between the lines, thus, (.). When the vocal cords -are brought to a greater tension, and the aperture is almost closed, -it utters the short sound of “E,” as in “met.” To represent this sound -a hyphen is inserted between the lines, thus, (-). These are the -main vowel sounds of all animals, although in man they are sometimes -modified, and to them is added the sound of “E” long, while in the ape -the long sounds of “O” and “E” are rarely heard.</p> - -<p>From this vowel basis all other sounds may be developed, and by the use -of diacritics to indicate the movements of the organs of speech the -consonant elements are indicated.</p> - -<p>A single parenthesis, with the concave side to the left, will represent -the initial sound of “W,” which sometimes occurs in the sounds of -animals. When used, it is placed on the left side of the leading -symbol, thus,)(), and this symbol, as it stands, is pronounced nearly -like “O-A,” the “O” being suppressed until almost inaudible. Turning -the concave side to the right, and placing it on the right side of -the symbol, thus, ()(, it represents the vanishing sound of “W.” -This symbol reads “A-O,” with the latter vocal suppressed into the -terminal sound of “O.” The apostrophe placed before or after the symbol -will represent “F” or “V.” The grave accent, thus, è, represents the -breathing sound of “H,” whether placed before or after the symbol, and -the acute accent, thus, é, represents the aspirate sound of that letter.</p> - -<p>When the symbol is written with a numeral exponent, it indicates the -degree of pitch. If there is no figure, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</span> sound is such as would be -made by the human voice in ordinary speech. The letter “X” indicates a -repetition of the sound, and the numeral placed after it will show the -number of times repeated, instead of the pitch. For example, we will -write the sound (.), which is equivalent to long “O,” made in a normal -tone; the same symbol written thus (.)<sup>2</sup> indicates that the sound is -made with greater energy, and about five semitones higher. To write -it thus, (.)<sup>2</sup>X, indicates that the sound is five semitones above the -normal pitch of the human voice and is once repeated.</p> - -<p>I shall not subject the reader to the tedium of elaborate details of -the system here outlined. This brief <em xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">exposé</em> of the method of -representing the sounds of animals is sufficient to convey an idea of -the means by which it is possible to write the sounds of all animals, -so that the student of phonetics will recognize at once the character -of the sound, even if he cannot reproduce it by natural means.</p> - -<p>It may be of interest to describe the character and use of some of -the sounds uttered by the chimpanzee. The most frequent sound made by -animals is that referring to food, and therefore it may claim the first -attention. This word in the language of the chimpanzee begins with the -short sound of the vowel “U,” which blends into a strong breathing -sound of “H.” The lips are compressed at the sides, and the aperture of -the mouth is nearly round. It is not difficult to imitate, and the ape -readily understands it even when poorly made. By the method of writing -above described it is expressed thus, (<sup>I</sup>)`.</p> - -<p>A sound that is of frequent use among them is that used for calling. -The vowel element is “[=U]” long, slightly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</span> sharpened. It merges into -a distinct vanishing “W.” Expressed in symbols, it is (:)(. The food -sound is often repeated two or three times in succession, but the call -is rarely repeated, except at long intervals.</p> - -<p>One sound which is rather soft and musical is an expression of -friendship or amity. It appears to soften in tone and lengthen in -duration in a degree commensurate with the intensity of the sentiment. -The vowel element is a long “U.” It blends into an aspirated “H.” It is -fairly represented by the symbol (:)´.</p> - -<p>The most complex sound that I have so far heard made by them is the one -elsewhere described as meaning “good.” They often use it in very much -the same sense as man uses the expression “thanks,” or “thank you.” It -is not probable that they use it as a polite term, yet the same idea is -present.</p> - -<p>One of the words of warning or alarm contains a vowel element closely -resembling the short sound of “E.” It terminates with the breathing -sound of “H.” It is used to announce the approach of anything that the -animal is familiar with, and not afraid of. If the warning is intended -to apprise you of the approach of an enemy, or something strange, the -same vowel element is used, but terminates with the aspirate sound -of “H” pronounced with energy and distinctness. The vowel element is -the same in both words, but they differ in the time required to utter -them, and the final breathing and aspirate effects. There is also a -difference in the manner of the speaker in the act of delivering the -word. It plainly indicates that he knows the use and value of the -sounds. At the approach of danger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</span> the latter word is often given -almost in a whisper, and at long intervals apart, increasing in -loudness as the danger approaches. The other word is usually spoken -distinctly, and frequently repeated. It is worthy of note that the -natives use a similar word in the same manner and for the same purpose.</p> - -<p>There are other sounds which are easily identified but difficult to -describe, such as that used to signify “cold” or “discomfort”; another -for “drink” or “thirst,” another referring to “illness,” and still -another which I have reason to believe means “dead” or “death.” There -are perhaps a dozen more words that can readily be distinguished, but -as yet I have not been able to determine their exact meanings. I have -an opinion concerning some of them, but have not yet reached a final -conclusion about them.</p> - -<p>The chimpanzee makes use of a few signs which may be regarded as -auxiliary factors of expression. He makes a negative sign by moving -the head from side to side in the same manner as man does, but the -gesture is not frequent or pronounced. Another negative sign, which is -more common, is a wave-like motion of the hand from the body towards -the person or thing addressed. This sign is sometimes made with great -emphasis. There is no question as to its meaning. The manner of making -this sign is not uniform. Sometimes it is done by an urgent motion of -the hand. Bringing it from his opposite side, with the back forward, it -is thrust towards the person or thing approaching. The interpretation -is, that the ape objects to the approach. The same sign is often made -as a refusal of anything offered him. Another way of making this sign<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</span> -is with the arm extended forward, the hand hanging down, and the back -towards the person approaching or the thing refused. In addition to -these negative signs there is one which may be regarded as affirmative. -It is made simply by extending one arm towards the person or thing -desired. It sometimes serves the purpose of beckoning. In this act -there is no motion of the hand. These signs appear to be innate, and -are very similar in character to those used by men to signify the same -idea.</p> - -<p>It must not be inferred from this small list of words and signs that -there is nothing left to learn. So far only the first step, as it -were, has been taken in the study of the speech of apes. As we grow -more familiar with their sounds, the difficulty of understanding them -becomes correspondingly less. I have not been disappointed in what I -hoped to learn from these animals. The total number of words that I -have been able to distinguish up to this time is about one hundred. -Of these I have interpreted about thirty. Of late I have given no -attention to the small monkeys. I shall resume the study of them at -some future day, as it forms an essential part of the task which I have -assumed. The fact that animals are able to interpret human speech is -of itself proof that they possess the speech instinct. But a careful -study of their habits reveals the further proof that they possess -and exercise the faculty of speech. In addition to these facts they -sometimes acquire new speech sounds. This is progress. If an ape can -take one step in the development of speech, why may he not take two? -One instance which is cited in the chapter treating of Moses, my ape -companion, I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</span> regard as the climax of all my efforts in the study or -training of apes, and that is the fact that I succeeded in teaching him -one word of human speech. This alone is sufficient to demonstrate that -the animal has within him the resources of speech.</p> - -<p>In conclusion I again assert that the sounds uttered by these apes -have the characteristics of human speech. The speaker is conscious of -the meaning of the sound used. The pitch and volume of the voice are -regulated to suit the condition under which it is used. The ape knows -the value of sound as a medium of conveying thought. These and many -other facts show that their sounds are truly speech.</p> - -<p>To compare the mental faculties of the wild ape to the domesticated dog -is not a fair standard by which to measure their respective abilities. -The dog has acquired much by his long and intimate association with -man. If the ape were placed under domestication, and kept there as long -as the dog has been, he would be as far superior to the dog in point of -sagacity as he is by nature above the wild progenitors of the canine -race.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Moses—His Capture—His Character—His Affections—His Food—His Daily -Life—Anecdotes of Him</p> - - -<p>During my sojourn in the forest I had a fine young chimpanzee, which -was of ordinary intelligence, and he was of more than ordinary -interest, because of his history. I gave him the name Moses,—not in -derision of the historic Israelite of that name, but owing to the -circumstances of his capture and his life. He was found all alone in -a wild papyrus swamp of the Ogowé River. No one knew who his parents -were. The low bush in which he was crouched when discovered was -surrounded by water, and thus the poor little waif was cut off from the -adjacent dry land. As the native approached to capture him, the timid -little ape tried to climb up among the vines above him and escape; -but the agile hunter seized him. At first the chimpanzee screamed and -struggled to get away, because he had perhaps never before seen a man; -but when he found that he was not going to be hurt, he put his frail -arms around his captor and clung to him as a friend. Indeed, he seemed -glad to be rescued from such a dreary place, even by such a strange -creature as a man. For a moment the man feared that the cries of his -young prisoner might call its mother to the rescue, and possibly a -band of others; but if she heard, she did not respond; so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</span> he tied the -baby captive with a thong of bark, put him into a canoe, and brought -him away to the village. There he supplied him with food and made him -quite cosy. The next day he was sold to a trader. About this time I -passed up the river on my way to the jungle in search of the gorilla -and other apes. Stopping at the station of the trader, I bought the -young chimpanzee and took him along with me. We soon became the best of -friends and constant companions.</p> - -<p>It was supposed that the mother chimpanzee had left her babe in the -tree while she went off in search of food, and had wandered so far away -that she lost her bearings and could not again find him. He appeared -to have been for a long time without food, and may have been crouching -there in the forks of that tree for a day or two; but this was only -inferred from his hunger, as there was no way to determine how long he -had remained, or even how he got there.</p> - -<p>I designed to bring Moses up in the way that good chimpanzees ought to -be brought up; so I began to teach him good manners, in the hope that -some day he would be a shining light to his race, and aid me in my work -among them. To that end I took great care of him, and devoted much time -to the study of his natural manners, and to improving them as much as -his nature would allow.</p> - -<p>I built him a neat little house within a few feet of my cage. It was -enclosed with a thin cloth, and at the door I hung a curtain to keep -out mosquitoes and other insects. It was supplied with plenty of soft, -clean leaves, and some canvas bed-clothing. It was covered over with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</span> -a bamboo roof, and was suspended a few feet from the ground, so as to -keep out the ants.</p> - -<p>Moses soon learned to adjust the curtain and go to bed without my -aid. He would lie in bed in the morning until he heard me or the boy -stirring about the cage, when he would poke his little black head out -and begin to jabber for his breakfast. Then he would climb out and come -to the cage to see what was going on. He was not confined at all, but -quite at liberty to go about in the forest, climb the trees and bushes, -and have a good time of it. He was jealous of the boy, and the boy -was jealous of him, especially when it came to a question of eating. -Neither of them seemed to want the other to eat anything that they -mutually liked, and I had to act as umpire in many of their disputes -on that grave subject, which seemed to be the central thought of both -of them. I frequently allowed Moses to dine with me, and I never knew -him to refuse, or to be late in coming, on such occasions; but his -table etiquette was not of the best order. I gave him a tin plate and -a wooden spoon. He did not like to use the latter, but seemed to think -that it was pure affectation for any one to eat with such an awkward -thing. He always held it in one hand while he ate with the other or -drank his soup out of the plate. It was such a task to get washing done -in that part of the world, that I resorted to all means of economy in -that matter, and for a tablecloth I used a leaf of newspaper, when I -had one. To tear that paper afforded Moses an amount of pleasure that -nothing else would, and in this act his conduct was more like that of -a naughty child than in anything else he did, When he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</span> would first -take his place at the table, he would behave in a nice and becoming -manner; but having eaten till he was quite satisfied, he usually became -rude and saucy. He would slyly put his foot up over the edge of the -table, and catch hold of the corner of the paper, meanwhile watching -me closely, to see if I was going to scold him. If I remained quiet, -he would tear the paper just a little and wait to see the result. If -no notice was taken of that, he would tear it a little more, but keep -watching my face to see when I observed him. If I raised my finger -to him, he quickly let go, drew his foot down, and began to eat. If -nothing more was done to stop him, the instant my finger and eyes were -dropped, that dexterous foot was back on the table and the mischief -was resumed with more audacity than before. When he carried his fun -too far, I made him get down from the table and sit on the floor. This -humiliation he did not like, at best; but when the boy grinned at him -for it, he would resent it with as much temper as if he had been poked -with a stick. He certainly was sensitive on this point, and evinced an -undoubted dislike to being laughed at.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img017"> - <img src="images/017.jpg" class="w50" alt="NATIVE CARRIER BOY (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">NATIVE CARRIER BOY (From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>Another habit that Moses had was putting his fingers in the dish to -help himself. He had to be watched all the time to prevent this, and -seemed unable to grasp any reason why he should not be allowed to do -so. He always appeared to think my spoon, knife, and fork were better -than his own. On one occasion he persisted in begging for my fork until -I gave it to him. He dipped it into his soup, held it up, and looked -at it as if disappointed. He again stuck it into his soup. Then he -examined it, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</span> if to see how I lifted my food with it. He did not -seem to notice that I used it in lifting meat instead of soup. After -repeating this three or four times he licked the fork, smelt it, and -then deliberately threw it on the floor,—as if to say, “That’s a -failure.” He then leaned over and drank his soup from the plate.</p> - -<p>The only thing that he cared much to play with was a tin can in which -I kept some nails. For this he had a kind of mania. He never tired of -trying to remove the lid. When given the hammer and a nail, he knew -what they were for, and would set to work to drive the nail into the -floor of the cage or into the table; but he hurt his fingers a few -times, and after that he stood the nail on its flat head, removed -his fingers, and struck it with the hammer; but of course he never -succeeded in driving it into anything.</p> - -<p>A bunch of sugarcane was kept for Moses to eat when he wanted it. To -aid him in tearing the hard shell away from it, I kept a club to bruise -it. Sometimes he would go and select a stalk of cane, carry it to the -block, take the club in both hands, and try to mash the cane; but as -the jar of the stroke often hurt his hands, he learned to avoid this by -letting go as the club descended. He never succeeded in crushing the -cane, but would continue his efforts until some one came to his aid. At -other times he would drag a stalk of the cane to the cage and poke it -through the wires, then bring the club and poke it through to get me to -mash the cane for him.</p> - -<p>From time to time I received newspapers sent me from home. Moses could -not understand what induced me to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</span> sit holding that thing before me, -but he wished to try it and see. He would take a leaf of it, and hold -it up before him with both hands, just as he saw me do; but instead of -looking at the paper, he kept his eyes, most of the time, on me. When -I turned my paper over, he did the same thing with his, but half the -time it was upside down. He did not appear to care for the pictures, or -notice them, except a few times he tried to pick them off the paper. -One large cut of a dog’s head, when held at a short distance from him, -he appeared to regard with a little interest, as if he recognized it as -that of an animal of some kind; but I cannot say just what his ideas -concerning it really were.</p> - -<p>Chimpanzees are not usually so playful or so funny as monkeys, but they -have a certain degree of mirth in their nature, and at times display -a marked sense of humor. Moses was fond of playing peek-a-boo. He -did not try to conceal his body from view, but put his head behind a -box or something to hide his eyes. Then he would cautiously peep at -me. He would often put his head behind one of the large tin boxes in -the cage, leaving his whole body visible. In this attitude he would -utter a peculiar sound, then draw his head out and look to see if I -were watching him. If not, he would repeat the act a few times and -then resort to some other means of amusing himself. But if he could -gain attention the romp began. He found great pleasure in this simple -pastime. He would roll over, kick up his heels, and grin with evident -delight. His favorite hour for this sport was in the early part of the -afternoon. I spent much time in entertaining him in this way and in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</span> -many others, feeling amply repaid by the gratification it afforded him. -I could not resist his overtures to play, as he was my only companion; -and, living in that solitary manner, we found mutual pleasure in such -diversions.</p> - -<p>Another occasion on which he used to peep at me was when he lay down to -take his midday nap. For this I had made him a little hammock. It was -suspended by wires hooked in the top of my cage, so as to be removable -when not in use. I always hung this near me, so I could swing him to -sleep like a child. He liked this very much, and I liked equally well -to indulge him in it. When he was laid in this little hammock, he was -usually covered up with a small piece of canvas, and in spreading it -over him I sometimes laid the edge of it over his eyes. But this caused -him to suspect me of having some motive in doing so. Then he would -reach his finger up, catch the edge of the cloth and gently draw it -down, so as to see what I was doing. If he found that he was detected, -he quickly released the cloth, and cuddled down as though he had drawn -it down by accident; but the little rogue knew just as well as I did -that it was not fair to peep.</p> - -<p>I also made him another hammock, which was hung a few yards from the -cage. It was intended that he should get into this without bothering -me. But he did not seem to care for it, until I brought a young gorilla -to live with us in our jungle home. As Moses had never used this -hammock, I assigned it to the new member of the household. Whenever -the gorilla got into the hammock there was a small row about it. Moses -would never allow him to occupy it in peace. He seemed to know that it -was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</span> his own by right, and the gorilla was regarded as an intruder. He -would push and shove the gorilla, grunt and whine and quarrel until he -got him out of it. But after doing so he would leave the hammock and -climb up into the bushes, or go scouting about, hunting something to -eat. He only wanted to dispossess the intruder, for whom he nursed an -inordinate jealousy. He never went about the gorilla’s little house, -which was near another side of my cage. Even after the gorilla died -Moses kept aloof from its house.</p> - -<p>As a rule, I took Moses with me in my rambles into the forest, and I -found him to be quite useful in one way. His eyes were like the lens -of a camera; nothing escaped them. When he discovered anything in the -jungle, he always made it known by a peculiar sound. He could not point -it out with his finger, but by watching his eyes the object could often -be located. Frequently during these tours the ape rode on my shoulders. -At other times the boy carried him; but occasionally he was put down -on the ground to walk. If we traveled at a very slow pace, and allowed -him to stroll along at leisure, he was content to do so; but if hurried -beyond a certain gait, he always made a display of temper. He would -turn on the boy and attack him if possible; but if the boy escaped, the -angry little ape would throw himself down on the ground, scream, kick, -and beat the earth with his own head and hands, in the most violent and -persistent manner. He sometimes did the same way when not allowed to -have what he wanted. His conduct was exactly like that of a spoiled or -ugly child.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</span></p> - -<p>He had a certain amount of ingenuity, and often evinced a degree of -reason which was rather unexpected. It was not a rare thing for him to -solve some problem that involved a study of cause and effect, but this -was always in a limited degree. I would not be understood to mean that -he could work out any abstract problem, such as belongs to the realm of -mathematics, but only simple, concrete problems, the object of which -was present.</p> - -<p>On one occasion while walking through the forest, we came to a small -stream of water. The boy and myself stepped across it, leaving Moses -to get over without help. He disliked getting his feet wet, and paused -to be lifted across. We walked a few steps away and waited. He looked -up and down the branch to see if there was any way to avoid it. He -walked back and forth a few yards, but found no way to cross. He sat -down on the bank and declined to wade. After a few moments he waddled -along the bank about ten or twelve feet to a clump of tall, slender -bushes growing by the edge of the stream. Here he halted, whined, and -looked up thoughtfully into them. At length he began to climb one of -them that leaned over the water. As he climbed up, the stalk bent with -his weight, and in an instant he was swung safely across the little -brook. He let go the plant, and came hobbling along to me with a look -of triumph on his face that plainly indicated he was fully conscious of -having performed a very clever feat.</p> - - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img018"> - <img src="images/018.jpg" class="w50" alt="A STROLL IN THE JUNGLE - MR. GARNER, MOSES, AND NATIVE BOY" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">A STROLL IN THE JUNGLE—<abbr title="mister">MR.</abbr> GARNER, MOSES, AND NATIVE BOY<br /> (From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>One dark, rainy night I felt something pulling at my blanket and -mosquito bar. I could not for a moment imagine what it was, but knew -that it was something on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</span> the outside of my cage. I lay for a few -seconds, and then I felt another strong pull. In an instant some cold, -damp, rough thing touched my face. I found it was his hand poked -through the meshes and groping about for something. I spoke to him, -and he replied with a series of plaintive sounds which assured me that -something must be wrong. I rose and lighted a candle. His little brown -face was pressed up against the wires, and wore a sad, weary look. He -could not tell me in words what troubled him, but every sign, look, and -gesture bespoke trouble. Taking the candle in one hand and my revolver -in the other, I stepped out of the cage and went to his domicile. There -I discovered that a colony of ants had invaded his quarters. These ants -are a great pest when they attack anything, and when they make a raid -on a house the only thing to be done is to leave it until they have -devoured everything about it that they can eat. When they leave a house -there is not a roach, rat, bug, or insect left in it. As the house of -Moses was so small, it was not difficult to dispossess the ants by -saturating it with kerosene. This was quickly done, and the little -occupant was allowed to return and go to bed. He watched the procedure -with evident interest, and seemed perfectly aware that I could rid -him of his savage assailants. In a wild state he would doubtless have -abandoned his claim and fled to some other place, without an attempt to -drive the ants away; but in this instance he had acquired the idea of -the rights of possession.</p> - -<p>Moses was especially fond of corned beef and sardines, and would -recognize a can of either as far away as he could<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</span> see it. He also -knew the instrument used in opening the cans. But he did not appear -to appreciate the fact that when the contents had once been taken out -it was useless to open the can again; so he often brought the empty -cans that had been thrown into the bush, got the can-opener down, and -wanted me to use it for him! I never saw him try to open a can himself -otherwise than with his fingers. Sometimes, when about to prepare my -own meals, I would open the case in which I kept stored a supply of -canned meats and allow Moses to select a can for the purpose. He never -failed to pull out one of the cans of beef bearing the blue label. If I -put it back, he would again select the same kind, and he could not be -deceived in his choice. It was not accidental, because he would hunt -until he found the right sort. I don’t know what he thought when his -choice was not served for dinner. I often exchanged it for another kind -without consulting him.</p> - -<p>I kept my supply of water in a large jug, which was placed in the shade -of the bushes near the cage. I also kept a small pan for Moses to drink -out of. He would sometimes ask for water by using his own word for it. -He would place his pan by the side of the jug and repeat the sound a -few times. If he was not attended to, he proceeded to help himself. He -could take the cork out of the jug quite as well as I could. He would -then put his eye to the mouth of the vessel and look down into it to -see if there was any water. Of course the shadow of his head would -darken the interior of the jug so that he could not see anything. Then, -removing his eye from the mouth of it, he would poke his hand into it. -But I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</span> reproved him for this until I broke him of the habit. After a -careful examination of the jug he would try to pour the water out. He -knew how it ought to be done, but was not able to handle the vessel. -He always placed the pan on the lower side of the jug; then he leaned -the jug towards the pan and let go. He would rarely ever get the water -into the pan, but always turned the jug with the neck down grade. As a -hydraulic engineer he was not a great success, but he certainly knew -the first principles of the science.</p> - -<p>I tried to teach Moses to be cleanly, but it was a hard task. He would -listen to my precepts as if they had made a deep impression, but he -would not wash his hands of his own accord. He would permit me or the -boy to wash them, but when it came to taking a bath or even wetting -his face, he was a rank heretic on the subject, and no amount of logic -would convince him that he needed it. When he was given a bath he would -scream and fight during the whole process. When it was finished he -would climb upon the roof of the cage and spread himself out in the -sun. These were the only occasions on which I ever knew him to get upon -the roof. I don’t know why he disliked the bath so much. He did not -mind getting wet in the rain, but rather seemed to like that.</p> - -<p>He had a great dislike for ants and certain large bugs. Whenever one -such came near him he would talk like a magpie, and brush at the insect -with his hands until he got rid of it. He always used a certain sound -for this kind of annoyance; it differed slightly from those I have -described as warning.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</span></p> - -<p>Moses tried to be honest, but he was affected with a species of -kleptomania and could not resist the temptation to purloin anything -that came in his way. The small stove upon which I prepared my food was -placed on a shelf in one corner of the cage, about halfway between the -floor and the top. Whenever anything was set on the stove to cook, he -had to be watched to keep him from climbing up the side of the cage, -reaching his arm through the meshes, and stealing the food. He was -sometimes very persevering in this matter. One day I set a tin can of -water on the stove to heat, in order to make some coffee. He silently -climbed up, reached his hand through, stuck it in the can, and began to -search for anything it might contain. I threw out the water, refilled -the can, and drove him away. In a few minutes he returned and repeated -the act. I had a piece of canvas hung up on the outside of the cage -to keep him away. The can of water was placed on the stove for the -third time, but within a minute he found his way by climbing up under -the curtain, and between that and the cage. I determined to teach him -a lesson. He was allowed to explore the can, but finding nothing, he -withdrew his hand and sat there clinging to the side of the cage. -Again he tried, but found nothing. The water was getting warmer, but -was still not hot. At length, for the third or fourth time, he stuck -his hand in it up to the wrist. By this time the water was so hot that -it scalded his hand. It was not severe enough to do him any harm, but -quite enough so for a good lesson. He jerked his hand out with such -violence that he threw the cup over and spilt the water all over that -side of the cage. From that time to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</span> end of his life he always -refused anything that had steam or smoke about it. If anything having -steam or smoke was offered him at the table, he would climb down at -once and retire from the scene. Poor little Moses! I knew beforehand -what would happen. I did not wish to see him hurt, but nothing else -would serve to impress him with the danger and keep him out of mischief.</p> - -<p>Anything that he saw me eat he never failed to beg. No matter what -he had himself, he wanted to try everything else that he saw me eat. -One thing in which these apes appear to be wiser than man is, that -when they eat or drink enough to satisfy their wants they quit. Men -sometimes do not. Apes never drink water or anything else during their -meal, but having finished eating, they want, as a rule, something to -drink. The native custom is the same. I have never known the native -African to use any kind of diet drink, but always when he has finished -eating he takes a draught of water.</p> - -<p>Moses knew the use of nearly all the tools that I carried with me in -the jungle. He could not use them for the purpose for which they were -intended, and I do not know to what extent he appreciated their use; -but he knew quite well the manner of using them. I have mentioned the -incident of his using the hammer and nails; but he also knew the way -to use the saw; however, he always applied the back of it, because the -teeth were too rough; but he gave it the motion. When allowed to have -it, he would put the back of it across a stick and saw with the energy -of a man on a big salary. When given a file, he would file everything -that came in his way. If he had applied himself in learning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</span> to talk -human words as closely and with as much zeal as he tried to use my -pliers, he would have succeeded in a very short time.</p> - -<p>Whether these creatures are actuated by reason or by instinct in such -acts as I have mentioned, the caviller may settle for himself; but the -actions accomplish the purpose of the actors in a logical and practical -manner, and they are perfectly conscious of the fact.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">The Character of Moses—He Learns a Human Word—He Signs His Name to a -Document—His Illness—Death</p> - - -<p>I know of nothing in the way of affection and loyalty among animals -that can exceed the devotion of my Moses. Not only was he tame and -tractable, but he never tired of caressing me and being caressed by -me. For hours together he would cling to my neck, play with my ears, -lips, and nose, bite my cheek, and hug me like a last hope. He was -never willing for me to put him down from my lap, never willing for me -to leave my cage without him, never willing for me to caress anything -else but himself, and never willing for me to discontinue caressing -him. He would cry and fret for me whenever we were separated; and I -must confess that my absence from him during a journey of three weeks -hastened his sad and untimely death.</p> - -<p>From the second day after we became associated he appeared to regard -me as the one in authority. He would not resent anything I did to him. -I could take his food out of his hands, but he would permit no one -else to do so. He would follow me and cry after me like a child. As -time went by, his attachment grew stronger and stronger. He gave every -evidence of pleasure at my attentions, and evinced a certain degree of -appreciation and gratitude in return. He would divide any morsel of -food with me.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</span> This is, perhaps, the highest test of the affection of -any animal. I cannot affirm that such an act was genuine benevolence, -or an earnest of affection in a true sense of the term; but nothing -except deep affection or abject fear impels such actions in animals; -and certainly fear was not his motive.</p> - -<p>There were others whom he liked and made himself familiar with; there -were some that he feared, and others that he hated; but his manner -towards me was that of deep affection. It was not alone in return for -the food he received, for my boy gave him food more frequently than -I did, and many others from time to time fed him. His attachment was -like an infatuation that had no apparent motive; it was unselfish and -supreme.</p> - -<p>The chief purpose of my living among the animals being to study the -sounds they utter, I gave strict attention to those made by Moses. -For a time it was difficult to detect more than two or three distinct -sounds, but as I grew more and more familiar with them I could detect a -variety of them, and by constantly watching his actions and associating -them with his sounds I learned to interpret certain ones to mean -certain things.</p> - -<p>In the course of my sojourn with him I learned one sound that he always -uttered when he saw anything that he was familiar with,—such as a man -or a dog,—but he could not tell me which of the two it was. If he -saw anything strange to him, he could tell me; but not so that I knew -whether it was a snake, or a leopard, or a monkey; yet I knew that it -was some strange creature. I learned a certain word for food, hunger, -eating, etc., but he could not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</span> go into any details about it, except -that a certain sound indicated “good” or “satisfaction,” and another -meant the opposite.</p> - -<p>Among the sounds that I learned was one that is used by a chimpanzee -in calling another to come to it. Some of the natives assured me that -the mothers always use it in calling their young to them. When Moses -wandered away from the cage into the jungle, he would sometimes call me -with this sound. I cannot express it in letters of the alphabet, nor -describe it so as to give a very clear idea of its character. It is a -single sound, or word of one syllable, and can be easily imitated by -the human voice. At any time that I wanted Moses to come to me I used -this word, and the fact that he always obeyed it by coming confirmed my -opinion as to its meaning. I do not think that when he addressed it to -me he expected me to come to him, but he perhaps wanted to locate me in -order to be guided back to the cage by means of the sound. As he grew -more familiar with the surrounding forest he used it less frequently, -but he always employed it in calling me or the boy. When he was called -by it he answered with the same sound; but one fact that we noticed -was, that if he could see the one who called he never made any reply. -He would obey the call, but not answer. He probably thought that if -he could see the one who called he could be seen by him, and it was -therefore useless to reply.</p> - -<p>The speech of these animals is very limited, but it is sufficient -for their purpose. It is none the less real because of its being -restricted, but it is more difficult for man to learn, because his -modes of thought are so much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</span> more ample and distinct. Yet when one is -reduced to the necessity of making his wants known in a strange tongue -he can express many things in a very few words. I was once thrown among -a tribe of whose language I knew less than fifty words, but with little -difficulty I succeeded in conversing with them on two or three topics. -Much depends upon necessity, and more upon practice. In talking to -Moses I used his own language mostly, and was surprised at times to -see how readily we understood each other. I could repeat about all the -sounds he made except one or two, but I was not able in the time we -were together to interpret all of them. These sounds were more than a -mere series of grunts or whines, and he never confused them in their -meaning. When any one of them was properly delivered to him, he clearly -understood and acted upon it.</p> - -<p>It had never been any part of my purpose to teach a monkey to talk; -but after I became familiar with the qualities and range of the voice -of Moses, I determined to see if he might not be taught to speak a -few simple words of human speech. To effect this in the easiest way -and shortest time, I carefully observed the movements of his lips and -vocal organs in order to select such words for him to try as were best -adapted to his ability.</p> - -<p>I selected the word <em>mamma</em>, which may be considered almost a -universal word of human speech; the French word <em xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">feu</em>, fire; the -German word <em xml:lang="de" lang="de">wie</em>, how; and the native Nkami word <em>nkgwe</em>, -mother. Every day I took him on my lap and tried to induce him to say -one or more of these words. For a long time he made no effort to learn -them;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</span> but after some weeks of persistent labor and a bribe of corned -beef, he began to see dimly what I wanted him to do. The native word -quoted is very similar to one of the sounds of his own speech, which -means “good” or “satisfaction.” The vowel element differs in them, and -he was not able in the time he was under tuition to change them; but he -distinguished them from other words.</p> - -<p>In his attempt to say <em>mamma</em> he worked his lips without making -any sound, although he really tried to do so. I believe that in the -course of time he would have succeeded. He observed the movement of -my lips and tried to imitate it, but he seemed to think that the lips -alone produced the sound. With <em xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">feu</em> he succeeded fairly well, -except that the consonant element, as he uttered it, resembled “v” -more than “f,” so that the sound was more like <em xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">vu</em>, making the -“u” short as in “nut.” It was quite as nearly perfect as most people -of other tongues ever learn to speak the same word in French, and, if -it had been uttered in a sentence, any one knowing that language would -recognize it as meaning fire. In his efforts to pronounce <em xml:lang="de" lang="de">wie</em> he -always gave the vowel element like German “u” with the <em xml:lang="de" lang="de">umlaut</em>, -but the “w” element was more like the English than the German sound of -that letter.</p> - -<p>Taking into consideration the fact that he was only a little more than -a year old, and was in training less than three months, his progress -was all that could have been desired, and vastly more than had been -hoped for. It is my belief that, had he lived until this time, he -would have mastered these and other words of human speech to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</span> -satisfaction of the most exacting linguist. If he had only learned one -word in a whole lifetime, he would have shown at least that the race is -capable of being improved and elevated in some degree.</p> - -<p>Another experiment that I tried with him was one that I had used before -in testing the ability of a monkey to distinguish forms. I cut a round -hole in one end of a board and a square hole in the other, and made a -block to fit into each one of them. The blocks were then given to him -to see if he could fit them into the proper holes. After being shown a -few times how to do this, he fitted the blocks in without difficulty; -but when he was not rewarded for the task by receiving a morsel of -corned beef or a sardine, he did not attempt it. He did not care to -work for the fun alone.</p> - -<p>In colors he had but little choice, unless it was something to eat; but -he could distinguish them with ease if the shades were pronounced. I -had no means of testing his taste for music or sense of musical sounds.</p> - -<p>I must here take occasion to mention one incident in the life of Moses, -such as perhaps never before occurred in the life of any chimpanzee. -While it may not be of scientific value, it is at least amusing.</p> - -<p>While living in the jungle I received a letter enclosing a contract to -be signed by myself and a witness. Having no means of finding a witness -to sign the paper, I called Moses from the bushes, placed him at the -table, gave him a pen, and had him sign the document as witness. He did -not write his name himself, as he had not mastered the art of writing; -but he made his cross mark between the names,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</span> as many a good man had -done before him. I wrote in the blank the name,</p> - -<p class="center p0"> -<small><em>His</em></small><br /> -“MOSES X NTYIGO”<br /> -<small><em>mark</em></small><br /> -</p> - -<p class="p0">(the cross mark being omitted), and had him with his own hand make the -cross as it is legally done by persons who cannot write. With this -signature the contract was returned in good faith to stand the test -of the law courts of civilization; and thus for the first time in the -history of the race a chimpanzee signed his name.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>When I prepared to start on a journey across the Esyira country, it was -not practicable for me to take Moses along, so I arranged to leave him -in charge of a missionary. Shortly after my departure the man was taken -with fever, and the chimpanzee was left to the care of a native boy -belonging to the mission. The little prisoner was kept confined by a -small rope attached to his cage. This was done in order to keep him out -of mischief. It was during the dry season, when the dews are heavy and -the nights chilly; and the winds at that season are fresh and frequent.</p> - -<p>Within a week after I had left him he contracted a severe cold. This -soon developed into acute pulmonary troubles of a complex type, and -he began to decline. After an absence of three weeks and three days I -returned and found him in a condition beyond the reach of treatment. -He was emaciated to a living skeleton; his eyes were sunken deep into -their orbits, and his steps were feeble<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</span> and tottering; his voice -was hoarse and piping; his appetite was gone, and he was utterly -indifferent to everything around him.</p> - -<p>During my journey I had secured a companion for him, and when I -disembarked from the canoe I hastened to him with this new addition to -our little family. I had not been told that he was ill, and, of course, -was not prepared to see him looking so ghastly. When he discovered me -approaching, he rose up and began to call me, as he had been wont to -do before I left him; but his weak voice was like a death-knell to my -ears. My heart sunk within me as I saw him trying to reach out his -long, bony arms to welcome my return. Poor, faithful Moses! I could not -repress the tears of pity and regret at this sudden change, for to me -it seemed the work of a moment. I had last seen him in the vigor of a -strong and robust youth, but now I beheld him in the decrepitude of a -feeble senility. What a transformation!</p> - -<p>I diagnosed his case as well as I was able and began to treat him, but -it was evident that he was so far gone that I could not expect him to -recover. My conscience smote me for having left him, yet I felt that I -had not done wrong. It was not neglect or cruelty for me to leave him -while I went in pursuit of the chief object of my search, and I had -no cause to reproach myself for having done so. But emotions that are -stirred by such incidents are not to be controlled by reason or hushed -by argument, and the pain caused me was more than I can tell.</p> - -<p>If I had done wrong, the only restitution possible for me to make was -to nurse him patiently and tenderly to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</span> the end, or till health and -strength should return. This was conscientiously done, and I have the -comfort of knowing that the last sad days of his life were soothed -by every care that kindness could suggest. Hour after hour during -that time he lay silent and content upon my lap. That appeared to be -a panacea to all his pains. He would roll up his dark brown eyes and -look into my face, as if to be assured that I had been restored to -him. With his long fingers he stroked my face as if to say that he -was again happy. He took the medicines I gave him as if he knew their -purpose and effect. His suffering was not intense, and he bore it like -a philosopher. He seemed to have some vague idea of his own condition, -but I do not know that he foresaw the result. He lingered on from -day to day for a whole week, slowly sinking and growing feebler; but -his love for me was manifest to the last, and I dare confess that I -returned it with all my heart.</p> - -<p>Is it wrong that I should requite such devotion and fidelity with -reciprocal emotion? No. I should not deserve the love of any creature -if I were indifferent to the love of Moses. That affectionate little -creature had lived with me in the dismal shadows of that primeval -forest for many long days and dreary nights; had romped and played with -me when far away from the pleasures of home; and had been a constant -friend, alike through sunshine and storm. To say that I did not love -him would be to confess myself an ingrate and unworthy of my race.</p> - -<p>The last spark of life passed away in the night. Death was not attended -by acute pain or struggling; but, falling into a deep and quiet sleep, -he woke no more.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</span></p> - -<p>Moses will live in history. He deserves to do so, because he was the -first of his race that ever spoke a word of human speech; because he -was the first that ever conversed in his own language with a human -being; and because he was the first that ever signed his name to any -document. Fame will not deny him a niche in her temple among the heroes -who have led the races of the world.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Aaron—His Capture—Mental Powers—Acquaintance with Moses—His Conduct -during Moses’ Illness</p> - - -<p>Having arranged my affairs in Ferran Vaz so as to make a journey across -the great forest that lies to the south of the Nkami country and -separates it from that of the Esyira tribe, I set out by canoe to a -point on the Rembo about three days’ journey from the place where I had -so long lived in my cage. At a village called Tyimba I disembarked and, -after a journey of five days and a delay of three more days, caused by -an attack of fever, I arrived at a trading station near the head of a -small river called Noogo. It empties into the sea at Sette Kama, about -four degrees south of the equator. The trading post is about a hundred -miles inland, at a native village called Ntyi-ne-nye-ni,—which, -strange to say, means, in the native tongue, “Some Other Place.”</p> - -<p>About the time I reached the trading post, two Esyira hunters arrived -from a distant village and brought with them a smart young chimpanzee -of the kind known in that country as the kulu-kamba. He was quite the -finest specimen of his race that I have ever seen. His frank, open -countenance, big brown eyes, and shapely physique, free from mark or -blemish of any kind, would attract the notice of any one not absolutely -stupid. It is not derogatory to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</span> the memory of Moses that I should say -this, nor does it lessen my affection for him. Our passions are not -moved by visible forces nor measured by fixed units. They disdain all -laws of logic, spurn the narrow bounds of reason, and conform to no -theory of action.</p> - -<p>As soon as I saw this little ape I expressed a desire to own him. So -the trader in charge bought him and presented him to me. As it had -been intended that he should be the friend and ally of Moses, although -not his brother, I conferred upon him the name of Aaron. The two names -are so intimately associated in history that the mention of one always -suggests the other.</p> - -<p>Aaron was captured in the Esyira jungle by the hunters, about one day’s -journey from the place where I secured him; and with this event began a -series of sad scenes in the brief but varied life of this little hero -such as seldom come within the experience of any creature.</p> - -<p>At the time of his capture his mother was killed in the act of -defending him from the cruel hunters. When she fell to the earth, -mortally wounded, this brave little fellow stood by her trembling body -defending it against her slayers, until he was overcome by superior -force, seized by his captors, bound with strips of bark, and carried -away into captivity. No human can refrain from admiring his conduct in -this act, whether it was prompted by the instinct of self-preservation -or by a sentiment of loyalty to his mother, for he was exercising that -prime law of nature which actuates all creatures to defend themselves -against attack, and his wild, young heart throbbed with sensations like -to those of a human under similar ordeal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</span></p> - -<p>I do not wish to appear sentimental by offering a rebuke to those who -indulge in the sport of hunting; but much cruelty could be obviated -without losing any of the pleasure of the hunt. I have always made -it a rule to spare the mother with her young. Whether or not animals -feel the same degree of mental and physical pain as man, they do, -in these tragic moments, evince for one another a certain amount of -concern. This imparts a tinge of sympathy that must appeal to any one -who is not devoid of every sense of mercy. It is true that it is often -difficult—and sometimes impossible—to secure the young by other -means; but the manner of getting them often mars the pleasure of having -them; and while Aaron was to me a charming pet and a valuable subject -for study, I confess the story of his capture always touched me in a -tender spot.</p> - -<p>I may here mention that the few chimpanzees that reach the civilized -parts of the world are but a small percentage of the great number that -are captured. Some die on their way to the coast, others die after -reaching it, and scores of them die on board the ships to which they -have been consigned for various ports of Europe and other countries. -Death results not often from neglect or cruelty, but usually from a -change of food, climate, or condition; yet the creature suffers just -the same whether the cause is from design or accident. One fruitful -source of death among them is pulmonary trouble of various types.</p> - -<p>One look at the portrait of Aaron will impress any one with the high -mental qualities of this little captive; but to see and study them in -life would convince a heretic of his superior character. In every look -and gesture there was a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</span> touch of the human that no one could fail to -observe. The range of facial expression surpassed that of any other -animal I have ever studied. In repose his quaint face wore a look of -wisdom becoming to a sage; while in play it was crowned with a grin -of genuine mirth. The deep, searching look he gave to a stranger was -a study for the psychologist. The serious, earnest look of inquiry -when he was perplexed would have amused a stoic. All these changing -moods were depicted in his mobile face with such intensity as to leave -no room to doubt the activity of certain faculties of the mind to a -degree far beyond that of animals in general; and his conduct in many -instances showed the exercise of mental powers of a higher order than -that limited agency known as instinct. In addition to these facts, his -voice was of better quality and more flexible than that of any other -specimen I have ever known. It was clear and smooth in uttering sounds -of any pitch within its scope, while the voices of most of them are -inclined to be harsh or husky, especially in sounds of high pitch.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the village where I secured him, I made a kind of sling -for him to be carried in. It consisted of a short canvas sack, having -two holes cut in the bottom for his legs to pass through. To the top -of this was attached a broad band of the same cloth by which to hang -it over the head of the carrier boy to whom the little prisoner was -consigned. This afforded the ape a comfortable seat, and at the same -time reduced the labor of carrying him. It left his arms and legs free, -so he could change his position and rest, while it also allowed the boy -the use of his own hands in passing any difficult place in the jungle -along the way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</span></p> - -<p>From the trading post to the Rembo was a journey of five days on foot. -Along the way were a few straggling villages; but most of the route lay -through a wild and desolate forest, traversed by low, broad marshes, -through which wind shallow sloughs of filthy, greenish water, seeking -its way among bending roots and fallen leaves. From the foul bosom of -these marshes rise the effluvia of decaying plants, breeding pestilence -and death. Here and there across the dreary tracts is found the trail -of elephants, where the great beasts have broken their tortuous way -through the dense barriers of bush and vine. These trails serve as -roads for the native traveler and afford the only way of crossing -these otherwise trackless jungles. The only means of passing the -dismal swamps is to wade through the thin, slimy mud, often more than -knee-deep, and sometimes extending many hundred feet in width. The -traveler is intercepted at almost every step by the tangled roots of -mangrove trees under foot or clusters of vines hanging from the boughs -overhead.</p> - -<p>Such was the route we came. But Aaron did not realize how severe was -the task of his carrier in trudging his way through such places, and -the little rogue often added to the labor by seizing hold of limbs -or vines that hung within his reach in passing. Thus he retarded the -progress of the boy, who strongly protested against the ape’s amusing -himself in this manner. The latter seemed to know of no reason why -he should not do so, and the former did not deign to give one. So -the quarrel went on until we reached the river; but by that time -each of them had imbibed a hatred for the other that nothing in the -future ever allayed.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</span> Neither of them ever forgot it while they were -associated, and both of them evinced their aversion on all occasions. -The boy gave vent to his dislike by making ugly faces at the ape, and -the latter showed his resentment by screaming and trying to bite him. -Aaron refused to eat any food given him by the boy, and the boy would -not give him a morsel except when required to do so. At times the feud -became ridiculous. It ended only with their final separation. The last -time I ever saw the boy, I asked him if he wanted to go with me to my -country to take care of Aaron; but he shook his head and said: “He’s -a bad man.” This was the only person for whom I ever knew Aaron to -conceive a deep and bitter dislike, but the boy he hated with his whole -heart.</p> - -<p>On my return to Ferran Vaz, where I had left Moses, I found him in a -feeble state of health, as related elsewhere. When Aaron was set down -before him, he merely gave the little stranger a casual glance, but -held out his long, lean arms for me to take him in mine. His wish was -gratified, and I indulged him in a long stroll. When we returned I -set him down by the side of his new friend, who evinced every sign of -pleasure and interest. He was like a small boy when there is a new baby -in the house. He cuddled up close to Moses and made many overtures to -become friends; but, while the latter did not repel them, he treated -them with indifference. Aaron tried in many ways to attract the -attention of Moses, or to elicit from him some sign of approval, but it -was in vain.</p> - -<p>No doubt Moses’ manners were due to his sickness, and Aaron seemed to -realize it. He sat for a long time holding<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</span> a banana in his hand and -looking with evident concern into the face of his little sick cousin. -At length he lifted the fruit to the lips of the invalid and uttered a -low sound; but the kindness was not accepted. The act was purely one of -his own volition, to which he was not prompted by any suggestion from -others. Every look and motion indicated a desire to relieve or comfort -his friend. His manner was gentle and humane, and his face was an image -of pity.</p> - -<p>Failing to get any sign of attention from Moses, Aaron moved up closer -to his side and put his arms around him in the manner that is shown -in the picture of him with Elisheba. During the days that followed, -he sat hour after hour in the same attitude, and refused to allow any -one except myself to touch his patient; but on my approach he always -resigned him to me, while he watched with interest to see what I did -for him.</p> - -<p>Among other things, I gave Moses twice a day a tabloid of quinine and -iron. This was dissolved in a little water and given to him in a small -tin cup kept for the purpose. When not in use, the cup was hung upon -a tall post. Aaron soon learned to know the use of it, and whenever I -went to Moses, Aaron would climb up the post and bring me the cup to -administer the medicine. It is not to be inferred that he knew anything -about the nature or effect of the medicine, but he knew the use, and -the only use, to which that cup was put.</p> - -<p>Aaron displayed a marked interest during the act of administering -the dose, and seemed to realize that it was intended for the good of -the patient. He would sit close up to one side of the sick one and -watch every movement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</span> of his face, as if to see what effect was being -produced, while the changing expressions of his own visage plainly -showed that he was not indifferent to the actions of the patient.</p> - -<p>While I was present with the sick one, Aaron appeared to feel a certain -sense of relief from the care of him, and frequently went climbing -about as if to rest and recreate himself by a change of routine. -Whenever I took Moses for a walk, or sat with him on my lap, his little -nurse was perfectly content; but the instant they were left alone, -Aaron would again fold him in his arms, as if he felt it a duty to do -so.</p> - -<p>It was only natural that Moses, in such a state of health, should be -cross and peevish at times, as human beings in a like condition are; -but I never once saw Aaron resent anything Moses did, or display the -least ill-temper towards him. On the contrary, his conduct was so -patient and forbearing that it was hard to forego the belief that it -was prompted by the same motives of kindness and sympathy that move -the human heart to deeds of tenderness and mercy. At night, when they -were put to rest, they lay cuddled up in each other’s arms, and in the -morning they were always found in the same close embrace.</p> - -<p>But on the morning Moses died the conduct of Aaron was unlike anything -I had observed before. When I approached their snug little house and -drew aside the curtain, I found him sitting in one corner of the cage. -His face wore a look of concern, as if he were aware that something -awful had occurred. When I opened the door he neither moved nor uttered -any sound. I do not know whether or not apes have any name for death, -but they surely know what it is.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</span></p> - -<p>Moses was dead. His cold body lay in its usual place; but it was -entirely covered over with the piece of canvas kept in the cage for -bed-clothing. I do not know whether or not Aaron had covered him up, -but he seemed to realize the situation. I took him by the hand and -lifted him out of the cage, but he was reluctant. I had the body -removed and placed on a bench about thirty feet away, in order to -dissect it and prepare the skin and the skeleton for preservation.</p> - -<p>When I proceeded to do this, I had Aaron confined to the cage, lest he -should annoy and hinder me at the work; but he cried and fretted until -he was released. It is not meant that he shed tears over the loss of -his companion, for the lachrymal glands and ducts are not developed in -these apes; but they manifest concern and regret, which are motives of -the passion of sorrow. But being left alone was the cause of Aaron’s -sorrow. When released he came and took his seat near the dead body, -where he sat the whole day long and watched the operation.</p> - -<p>After this Aaron was never quiet for a moment if he could see or hear -me, until I secured another of his kind as a companion for him; then -his interest in me abated in a measure, but his affection for me -remained intact. His conduct towards Moses always impressed me with the -belief that he appreciated the fact that the sick one was in distress -or pain, and while he may not have foreseen the result, when he saw -death he certainly knew what it was. Whether it is instinct or reason -that causes man to shrink from death, the same influence works to the -same end in the ape; and the demeanor of this ape towards his later -companion, Elisheba, only confirmed this opinion.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Aaron and Elisheba—Their Characteristics—Anecdotes—Jealousy of Aaron</p> - - -<p>Four days after the death of Moses I secured passage on a trading -boat that came into the lake. The boat was a small affair, intended -for towing canoes, and not in any way prepared to carry passengers -or cargo; but I found room in one of the canoes to set the cage I -had provided for Aaron, stowed the rest of my effects wherever space -permitted, and embarked for the coast.</p> - -<p>Our progress was slow and the journey tedious. The only passage out of -the lake at that season is through a long, narrow, winding creek beset -by sand bars, rocks, logs, and snags, and in some places overhung by -low, bending trees. But the wild, weird scenery is grand and beautiful. -Long lines of bamboo, broken here and there by groups of pendanus or -stately palms; islands of lilies, and long sweeps of papyrus spreading -away from the banks on either side; the gorgeous foliage of aquatic -plants, drooping along the margin like a massive fringe and relieved by -clumps of tall, waving grass, forms a perfect Eden for the birds and -the monkeys that dwell among those scenes of eternal summer.</p> - -<p>After a delay of eight days at Cape Lopez, we secured passage on a -small French gunboat called the <em>Komo</em>, by which we came to -Gaboon. There I found another kulu-kamba.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</span> She was in the hands of a -generous friend, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Adolph Strohm, who presented her to me. I gave her -to Aaron as a wife and called her Elisheba,—after the name of the wife -of the great high-priest. Elisheba had been captured on the head-waters -of the Nguni River, in about the same latitude that Aaron was found -in, but more than a hundred miles to the east of that point and a few -minutes north of it. I did not learn the history of her capture.</p> - -<p>It would be difficult to find any two human beings more unlike in -taste and temperament than these two apes were. Aaron was one of the -most amiable of creatures; he was affectionate and faithful to those -who treated him kindly; he was merry and playful by nature, and often -evinced a marked sense of humor; he was fond of human society and -strongly averse to solitude or confinement.</p> - -<p>Elisheba was a perfect shrew. She often reminded me of certain women -that I have seen who had soured on the world. She was treacherous, -ungrateful, and cruel in every thought and act; she was utterly devoid -of affection; she was selfish, sullen, and morose at all times; she was -often vicious and always obstinate; she was indifferent to caresses, -and quite as well content when alone as in the best of company. It is -true that she was in poor health, and had been badly treated before she -fell into my hands; but she was by nature endowed with a bad temper and -depraved instincts.</p> - -<p>It is not at all rare to see a vast difference of manners, -intelligence, and temperament among specimens that belong to one -species. In these respects they vary as much in proportion to their -mental scope as human beings do; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</span> I have never seen, in any two -apes of the same species, the two extremes so widely removed from one -another.</p> - -<p>While waiting at Gaboon for a steamer I had my own cage erected for the -apes to live in, as it was large and gave them ample room for play and -exercise. In one corner of it was suspended a small, cosy house for -them to sleep in. It was furnished with a good supply of clean straw -and some pieces of canvas for bedclothes. In the center of the cage was -a swing, or trapeze, for them to use at their pleasure. Aaron found -this a means of amusement, and often indulged in a series of gymnastics -that might evoke the envy of a king of athletic sports.</p> - -<p>Elisheba had no taste for such pastime, but her depravity could never -resist the impulse to interrupt Aaron in his jolly exercise. She would -climb up and contend for possession of the swing, until she would drive -him away. Then she would perch herself on it and sit there for a time -in stolid content; but she would neither swing nor play. Frequently -during the day, when Aaron was lying quietly on the straw, she would -go into the snug little house and raise a row with him by pulling the -straw from under him, a handful at a time, and throwing it out of the -box till there was none left in it. No matter what kind or quantity of -food was given them, she always wanted the piece he had, and would fuss -with him to get it; but having got it, she would sit holding it in her -hand without eating it; for there were some things that he liked which -she would not eat at all.</p> - -<p>When we went out for a walk, no matter which way we started, Elisheba -always contended to go some other way.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</span> If I yielded, she would again -change her mind and start off in some other direction. If forced to -submit, she would scream and struggle as if for life. I cannot forego -the belief that these freaks were due to a base and perverse nature, -and I could find no higher motive in her stubborn conduct.</p> - -<p>Aaron was very fond of her and rarely ever opposed her inflexible will. -He clung to her and let her lead the way. I have often felt vexed at -him because he complied so readily with her wishes. The only case in -which he took sides against her was in her conduct towards me.</p> - -<p>When I first secured her she had the temper of a demon, and with the -smallest pretext she would assault me and try to bite me or tear my -clothes. In these attacks Aaron was always with me, and the loyal -little champion would fly at her in the greatest fury. He would strike -her over the head and back with his hands, and bite her and flog her -till she desisted. If she returned the blow he would grasp her hand and -bite it, or strike her in the face. He would continue to fight till she -submitted. Then he would celebrate his victory by jumping up and down -in a most grotesque fashion, stamping his feet, slapping his hands on -the ground, and grinning like a mask. He seemed as conscious of what he -had done and as proud of it as any human could have been; but no matter -what she did to others, he was always on her side of the question. If -any one else annoyed her, he would always resent it with violence.</p> - -<p>About the premises there were natives all the time passing to and fro, -and these two little captives were objects of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</span> special interest to -them. They would stand by the cage hour after hour and watch them. The -ruling impulse of nearly all natives appears to be cruelty, and they -cannot resist the temptation to tease and torture anything that is -not able to retaliate. They were so persistent in poking sticks at my -chimpanzees that I had to keep a boy on watch all the time to prevent -it; but the boy could not be trusted, so I had to watch <em>him</em>.</p> - -<p>In the rear of the room that I occupied was a window through which, -from time to time, I watched the boy and the natives, and when -anything went wrong I would call out to the boy. Aaron soon observed -this and found that he could get my attention himself by calling out -when any one annoyed him, and he also knew that the boy was put there -as a protector. Whenever any of the natives came about the cage he -would call for me in his peculiar manner, which I well understood and -promptly responded to. The boy also knew what the call meant and would -rush to the rescue. If I were away from the house and the boy were -aware of the fact, he was apt to be tardy in coming to the relief of -the ape, and sometimes he did not come at all. In the latter event the -two would crawl into their house and pull down the curtain so that they -could not be seen. Here they would remain until the natives had left or -some one came to their aid.</p> - -<p>Neither of the apes ever resented anything the natives did to them, -unless they could see me about; but whenever I came in sight they -would make battle with their tormentors, and, if liberated from the -big cage, they would chase the last one of them out of the yard. Aaron -knew<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</span> perfectly well that they were not allowed to molest him or his -companion; and when he knew that he had my support he was ready to -carry on the war to a finish. But it was really funny to see how meek -and patient he was when left to defend himself alone against the native -with a stick, and then to note the change in him when he knew that he -was backed up by a friend upon whom he could rely.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Strohm, the trader, previously mentioned, with whom I found -hospitality at this place, kept a cow in the lot where the cage was. -She was a small black animal, the first cow that Aaron had ever seen. -He never ceased to contemplate her with wonder and with fear. If she -came near the cage when no one was about, he hurried into his box and -from there peeped out in silence until she went away. The cow was -equally amazed at the cage and its strange occupants, though she was -less afraid than they, and frequently came near to inspect them. She -would stand a few yards away with her head lifted high, her eyes arched -and her ears thrown forward, waiting for them to come out of that -mysterious box. But they would not venture out of their asylum while -she remained. At last, tired of waiting, she would switch her tail, -shake her head, and turn away.</p> - -<p>When taken out of the cage Aaron had special delight in driving the cow -away; and if she was around he would grasp me by the hand and start -towards her. He would stamp the ground with his foot, strike with all -force with his long arm, slap the ground with his hand, and scream at -her at the top of his voice. If she moved away, he would let go my hand -and rush towards her as though he intended<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</span> to tear her up; but if the -cow turned suddenly towards him, the little fraud would run to me, -grasp my leg, and scream with fright. The cow was afraid of a man, and -as long as she was followed by one she would continue to go; but when -she discovered the ape to be alone in the pursuit, she would turn and -look as if trying to determine what manner of thing it was. Elisheba -never seemed to take any special notice of the cow except when she -approached too near the cage, and then it was due to the conduct of -Aaron that she made any fuss about it.</p> - -<p>On board the steamer in which we sailed for home there was a young -elephant that had been sent by a trader, for sale. He was kept on -deck in a strong stall built for his quarters. There were wide cracks -between the boards, and the elephant had the habit of reaching his -trunk through them in search of anything he might find. With his long, -flexible proboscis extended, he would twist and coil it in all manner -of writhing forms. This was the crowning terror of the lives of those -two apes; it was the bogie-man of their existence, and nothing could -induce either of them to go near it. If they saw me approach it, they -would scream and yell until I came away. If Aaron could get hold of me -without getting too near the elephant, he clung to me until he almost -tore my clothes, to keep me away from it. It was the one thing that -Elisheba was afraid of, and the only one against which she ever gave me -warning.</p> - -<p>They did not manifest the same concern for others, but sat watching -them without offering any protest. Even the stowaway who fed them and -attended to their cage was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</span> permitted to approach the elephant; but -their solicitude for me was remarked by every man on board. I was never -able to tell what their opinion of the thing was. They were much less -afraid of the elephant when they could see all of him, than they were -of the trunk when they saw that alone. They may have thought the latter -to be a big snake; but this is only a conjecture.</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the voyage I took six panels of my own cage and -made a small cage for them. I taught them to drink water from a beer -bottle with a long neck that could be put through a mesh of the wires. -They preferred this mode of drinking and appeared to look upon it as an -advanced idea. Elisheba always insisted on being served first; being -a female, her wish was complied with. When she had finished, Aaron -would climb up by the wires and take his turn. There is a certain -sound, or word, which the chimpanzee always uses to express “good” or -“satisfaction,” and he made frequent use of it. He would drink a few -swallows of the water and then utter the sound, whereupon Elisheba -would climb up again and taste. She seemed to think it something better -than she was drinking, but finding it the same as she had had, she -would again give way for him. Every time he used the sound she would -take another taste and turn away; but she never failed to try it if he -uttered the sound.</p> - -<p>The boy who cared for them on the voyage was disposed to play tricks on -them. One of these ugly pranks was to turn the bottle up so that when -they had finished drinking and took their lips away, the water would -spill out and run down over them. Several times they declined to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</span> drink -from the bottle while he was holding it, but when he let it go, it hung -in such a position that they could not get the water out of it at all. -At length Aaron solved the problem by climbing up one side of the cage -and getting on a level with the bottle; then he reached across the -angle formed by the two sides of the cage and drank. In this position -it was no matter to him how much the water ran out; it couldn’t touch -him. Elisheba watched him until she quite grasped the idea; then she -climbed up in the same manner and slaked her thirst. I scolded the -boy for serving them with such cruel tricks; but it taught me another -lesson of value concerning the mental resources of the chimpanzee, for -no philosopher could have found a much better scheme to obviate the -trouble than did this cunning little sage in the hour of necessity.</p> - -<p>I have never regarded the training of animals as the true measure of -their mental powers. The real test is to reduce the animal to his own -resources, and see how he will conduct himself under conditions that -present new problems. Animals may be taught to do many things in a -mechanical way, and without any motive that relates to the action; but -when they can work out the solution without the aid of man, it is only -the faculty of reason that can guide them.</p> - -<p>One thing that Aaron could never figure out was—what became of the -chimpanzee that he saw in a mirror. I have seen him hunt for that -mysterious ape an hour at a time. He once broke a piece off a mirror I -had in trying to find the other fellow, but he never succeeded. I have -held the glass firmly before him, while he put his face up close<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</span> to -it—sometimes almost in contact. He would quietly gaze at the image and -then reach his hand around the glass to feel for it. Not finding it, he -would peep around the side of the glass and then look into it again. He -would take hold of it and turn it around, lay it on the ground, look at -the image again, and put his hand under the edge of the glass. The look -of inquiry in that quaint face was so striking as to make one pity him. -But he was hard to discourage. He resumed the search whenever he had -the mirror.</p> - -<p>Elisheba never worried herself much about it. When she saw the image in -the glass she seemed to recognize it as one of her kind; but when it -vanished she let it go without trying to find it. In fact, she often -turned away from it as though she did not admire it. She rarely ever -took hold of the glass, and she never felt behind it for the other ape.</p> - -<p>Altogether Elisheba was an odd specimen of her tribe—eccentric and -whimsical beyond anything I have ever known among animals; yet, with -all her freaks, Aaron was fond of her and she afforded him company; but -he was extremely jealous of her, and permitted no stranger to take any -liberties with her with impunity. He did not object to their doing so -with him. He rarely took offense at any degree of familiarity, for he -would make friends with any one who was gentle with him; but he could -not tolerate their attentions to her. She betrayed no sign of affection -for him except when some one annoyed or vexed him; but in that event -she never failed to take his part against all odds. At such times she -became frantic with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</span> rage, and if the cause was prolonged, she often -for hours afterwards refused to eat.</p> - -<p>On the voyage homeward there was on board another chimpanzee, belonging -to a sailor who was bringing him home for sale. This one was about -two years older than Aaron and fully twice as large. He was tame and -gentle, but was kept in a close cage by himself. He saw the others -roaming about the deck and tried to make up with them; but they evinced -no desire to become intimate with one who was confined in such a manner.</p> - -<p>One bright Sunday morning, as we rode the calm waters near the Canary -Islands, I induced the sailor to release his prisoner on the main deck -with my own, to see how they would act towards each other. He did so, -and in a moment the big ape came ambling along the deck towards Aaron -and Elisheba, who were sitting on the top of a hatch, absorbed in -gnawing some turkey bones.</p> - -<p>As the stranger came near he slackened his pace and gazed earnestly -at the others. Aaron ceased eating and stared at the visitor with a -look of surprise, but Elisheba barely noticed him. He scanned Aaron -from head to foot, and Aaron did the same with him. He advanced until -his nose almost touched that of Aaron, and in this position the two -remained for some seconds. Then the big one proceeded to salute -Elisheba in the same manner, but she gave him little attention. She -continued to gnaw the bone in her hand, and he had no reason to feel -flattered at the impression he appeared to have made on her. Aaron -watched him with deep concern, but without uttering a sound.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</span></p> - -<p>Turning again to Aaron, the big ape reached out for his turkey bone; -but the hospitality of the little host was not equal to the demand. -He drew back with a shrug of his shoulder, holding the bone closer to -himself, and then he resumed eating. Then a steward gave a bone to the -visitor. He climbed upon the hatch and took a seat on the right of -Elisheba, Aaron being seated at her left. As soon as the big one had -taken his seat, Aaron resigned his place and crowded himself in between -them. The three sat for a few moments in this order, till the big one -got up and deliberately walked around to the other side of Elisheba and -sat down again beside her. Again Aaron forced himself in between them.</p> - -<p>This act was repeated six or eight times; then Elisheba left the hatch -and took a seat on a spar that lay on deck. The big ape immediately -moved over and sat down near her; but by the time he was seated Aaron -again got in between them, and as he did so he struck his rival a smart -blow on the back. They sat in this manner for a minute or so. Then -Aaron drew back his hand and struck again. He continued his blows, all -the while increasing them in force and frequency; but the other did -not resent them. His manner was one of dignified contempt, as if he -regarded the inferior strength of his assailant unworthy of his own -prowess. It would be absurd to suppose that he was constrained by any -principle of honor, but his demeanor was patronizing and forbearing, -like that of a considerate man towards a small boy.</p> - -<p>One amusing feature of the affair was the half-serious and half-jocular -manner of Aaron. When striking, he did<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</span> not turn his face to look at -his rival, and the instant the blow was delivered he withdrew his hand -as if to avoid being detected. He gave no sign of anger though he made -no effort to conceal his jealousy; and the other seemed to be aware of -the cause of his disquietude. The smirk of indifference on the little -lover’s face belied the state of mind that impelled his action, and it -was patent to all who witnessed the tilt that Aaron was jealous of his -guest. From time to time Elisheba would change her seat. Then a similar -scene would ensue.</p> - -<p>The whole affair was so comical and yet so real that one could not -repress the laughter it evoked. It was the drama of “love’s young -dream” in real life, in which every man, at some period of his young -career, has played each part the same as these two rivals played. Every -detail of plot and line was the duplicate of a like incident in the -experience of boyhood.</p> - -<p>Elisheba did not seem to encourage the suit of this simian beau, but -she did not rebuff him as a true and faithful spouse should do, and I -never blamed Aaron for not liking it. She had no right to tolerate the -attentions of a total stranger; but she was feminine, and, perhaps, -endowed with all the vanity of her sex, and fond of adulation. However, -my sympathies for the devoted little Aaron were too strong for me to -permit him to be imposed upon by a rival twice as big and three times -as strong as himself; so I took him and Elisheba away to the after -deck, where they had a good time alone.</p> - -<p>Elisheba was never very much devoted to me, but in the early part of -her career she began to realize the fact that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</span> I was her master and her -friend. She had no gratitude in her nature, but she had sense enough -to see that all her food and comfort were due to me, and as a matter -of policy she became submissive; but she was never tractable. She was -doubtless a plebeian among her own race and was not capable of being -brought up to a high standard of culture. She could not be controlled -by kindness alone, for she was by nature sordid and perverse. I was -never cruel or severe in dealing with her, but it was necessary to be -strict and firm. Her poor health, however, often caused me to indulge -her in whims that otherwise would have brought her under a more rigid -discipline. The patient conduct of Aaron appeared to be tempered by the -same consideration.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Illness of Elisheba—Aaron’s Care of Her—Her Death—Illness and Death -of Aaron</p> - - -<p>At the end of forty-two long days at sea we arrived at Liverpool. It -was near the end of autumn. The weather was cold and foggy. Elisheba -was failing in health, as I feared she would do, having come from the -warm, humid climate along the equator, and, at the same time, having -undergone a change of food.</p> - -<p>On arriving at the end of our long and arduous voyage, I secured -quarters for the apes and quickly had them stowed away in a warm, -sunny cage. Elisheba began to recover from the fatigue and worry of -the journey, and for a while was more cheerful than she had been at -any time since I had known her. Her appetite returned, the symptoms of -fever passed away, and she seemed benefited rather than injured by the -voyage. Aaron was in the best of health and had shown no signs of any -evil results from the trip.</p> - -<p>On reaching the landing-stage in Liverpool, some friends who met us -there expressed a desire to see the apes, and for that purpose I opened -their cage in the waiting-room. When they beheld the throng of huge -figures with white faces, long skirts, and big coats, they were almost -frantic with fear. They had never before seen anything like it,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</span> and -they crouched back in the corner of the cage, clinging to each other -and screaming in terror. When they saw me standing by them, they rushed -to me, seized me by the legs, and climbed up to my arms. Finding they -were safe here, they stared for a moment, as if amazed at the crowd; -then Elisheba buried her face under my chin and refused to look at any -one. They were both trembling with fright, and I could scarcely get -them into their cage again; but after they were installed in their -quarters with <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Cross, who was to have charge of them, they became -reconciled to the sight of strangers in such costumes. In their own -country they had never seen anything like it, for the natives, to whom -they were accustomed, wear, as a rule, no clothing except a small piece -of cloth tied round the waist, and the few white men they had seen -were mostly dressed in white; but here was a great crowd of creatures -in skirts and overcoats, and I have no doubt that to them it was a -startling sight when seen for the first time.</p> - -<p>During the first two weeks after arriving at Liverpool, Elisheba -improved in health and temper, until she was not like the same -creature; but about the end of that time she contracted a severe cold. -A deep, dry cough, attended by pains in the chest and sides, together -with a piping hoarseness, betrayed the nature of her disease and gave -just cause for apprehension. During frequent paroxysms of coughing she -pressed her hands upon her breast or side, to arrest the shock and thus -lessen the pain it caused. When quiet, she sat holding her hands on her -throat, her head bowed down and her eyes drooping or closed. Day by day -the serpent of disease drew his deadly coils closer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</span> and closer about -her wasting form; but she bore it with a patience worthy of a human -being.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img019"> - <img src="images/019.jpg" class="w75" alt="ELISHEBA AND AARON (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">ELISHEBA AND AARON<br /> (From a Photograph.)</p> - - -<p>The sympathy and forbearance of Aaron were again called into action, -and the demand was not in vain. Hour after hour he sat holding her -locked in his arms, as he is seen in the portrait given herewith. He -was not posing for a picture, nor was he aware how deeply his manners -touched the human heart. Even the brawny men who work about the place -paused to watch him in his tender offices to her, and his staid keeper -was moved to pity by his kindness and his patience. For days she -lingered on the verge of death. She became too feeble to sit up; but -as she lay on her bed of straw, he sat by her side, resting his folded -arms upon her and refusing to allow any one to touch her. His look of -deep concern showed that he felt the gravity of her case in a degree -that bordered on grief. He was grave and silent, as if he foresaw the -sad end that was near at hand. My frequent visits were a source of -comfort to him, and he evinced a pleasure in my coming that bespoke his -confidence in me and his faith in my ability to relieve his suffering -companion; but, alas! she was beyond the aid of human skill.</p> - -<p>On the morning of her decease I found him sitting by her as usual. -At my approach he quietly rose to his feet and advanced to the front -of the cage. Opening the door, I put my arm in and caressed him. He -looked into my face and then at the prostrate form of his mate. The -last dim sparks of life were not yet gone out, as the slight motion of -the breast betrayed; but the limbs were cold and limp. While I leaned -over to examine more closely,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</span> he crouched down by her side and watched -with deep concern to see the result. I laid my hand upon her heart to -ascertain if the last hope was gone; he looked at me, and then placed -his own hand by the side of mine, and held it there as if he knew the -purport of the act. Of course to him this had no real meaning, but it -was an index to the desire which prompted it. He seemed to think that -anything that I did would be good for her, and his purpose, doubtless, -was to aid me. When I removed my hand, he removed his; when I returned -mine, he did the same; and to the last he gave evidence of his faith in -my friendship and good intentions. His ready approval of anything I did -showed that he had a vague idea of my purpose.</p> - -<p>At length the breast grew still, and the feeble beating of the heart -ceased. The lips were parted, and the dim eyes were halfway closed; -but he sat by as if she were asleep. The sturdy keeper came to remove -the body from the cage; but Aaron clung to it and refused to allow him -to touch it. I took the little mourner in my arms, but he watched the -keeper jealously and did not want him to remove or disturb the body. It -was laid on a bunch of straw in front of the cage, and he was returned -to his place; but he clung to me so firmly that it was difficult to -release his hold. He cried in a piteous tone and fretted and worried, -as if he fully realized the worst. The body was then removed from view, -but poor little Aaron was not consoled. How I pitied him! How I wished -that he was again in his native land, where he might find friends of -his own race!</p> - -<p>After this he grew more attached to me than ever. When I went to visit -him he was happy and cheerful in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</span> my presence; but the keeper said that -while I was away he was often gloomy and morose. As long as he could -see me or hear my voice, he would fret and cry for me to come to him. -When I had left him, he would scream as long as he had any hope of -inducing me to return.</p> - -<p>A few days after the death of Elisheba the keeper put a young monkey -in the cage with him, for company. This gave him some relief from the -monotony of his own society, but never quite filled the place of the -lost one. With this little friend, however, he amused himself in many -ways. He nursed it so zealously and hugged it so tightly that the poor -little monkey was often glad to escape from him in order to have a -rest. But the task of catching it again afforded him almost as much -pleasure as he found in nursing it.</p> - -<p>Thus for a few weeks he passed his time; then he was seized by a sudden -cold, which in a few days developed into an acute type of pneumonia. -I was in London at the time and was not aware of his sickness; but -feeling anxious about him, I wrote to <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Cross, in whose care he was -left, and received a note in reply, stating that Aaron was very ill -and not expected to live. I prepared to go to visit him the next day, -but just before I left the hotel I received a telegram stating that he -was dead. The news contained in the letter was a greater shock to me -than that in the telegram, for which in part the former had prepared -me; but no one can imagine how deeply these evil tidings affected me. I -could not bring myself to a full sense of the fact. I was unwilling to -believe that I had been thus deprived of my devoted friend. I could not -realize that fate could be so cruel to me; but, alas! it was true.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</span></p> - -<p>Not having been present during his short illness or at the time of -his death, I cannot relate any of the scenes accompanying them; but -the kind old keeper who attended him declares that he never became -reconciled to the death of Elisheba, and that his loneliness preyed -upon him almost as much as the disease. When I looked upon his cold, -lifeless body, I felt that I was indeed bereft of one of the dearest -and most loyal pets that any mortal had ever known. His fidelity to me -had been shown in a hundred ways, and his affections had never wavered. -How could any one requite such integrity with anything unkind?</p> - -<p>To those who possess the higher instincts of humanity it will not be -thought absurd in me to confess that the conduct of these creatures -awoke in me a feeling more exalted than a mere sense of kindness. It -touched some chord of nature that yields a richer tone. But only those -who have known such pets as I have known them can feel towards them as -I have felt.</p> - -<p>I have no desire to bias the calm judgment or bribe the sentiment of -him who scorns the love of nature, by clothing these humble creatures -in the garb of human dignity; but to him who is not so imbued with -self-conceit as to be blind to all evidence and deaf to all reason, -it must appear that they are gifted with faculties and passions like -to those of man; differing in degree, but not in kind. Moved by such -conviction, who could fail to pity that poor, lone captive in his iron -cell, far from his native land, slowly dying? It may be a mere freak of -sentiment that I regret not having been with him to soothe and comfort -his last hours, but I do regret it deeply. He had the right to expect -it of me, as a duty.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</span></p> - -<p>Poor little Aaron! In the brief span of half a year he had seen his own -mother die at the hands of the cruel hunters; he had been seized and -sold into captivity; he had seen the lingering torch of life go out -of the frail body of Moses; he had watched the demon of death binding -his cold shackles on Elisheba; and now he had himself passed through -the deep shadows of that ordeal. What a sad and vast experience for -one short year! He had shared with me the toils and the dangers of sea -and land over many a weary mile. He seemed to feel that the death of -his two friends had been a common loss to us; and if there is any one -thing which more than another knits the web of sympathy about two alien -hearts, it is the experience of a common grief.</p> - -<p>Thus ended the career of my kulu-kamba friend, the last of my -chimpanzee pets. In him were centered many cherished hopes; but they -did not perish with him, for I shall some day find another one of his -kind in whom I may realize all that I had hoped for in him. I cannot -expect to find a specimen of superior qualities, for he was certainly -one of the jolliest and one of the wisest of his race. However fine and -intelligent his successor may be, he can never supplant either Moses or -Aaron in my affections; for these two little heroes shared with me so -many of the sad vicissitudes of time and fortune that I should be an -ingrate to forget them or allow the deeds of others to dim the glory -of their memory. I have all of them preserved, and when I look at them -the past comes back to me, and I recall so vividly the scenes in which -they played the leading <em>rôles</em>; it is like the panorama of their -lives.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Other Chimpanzees—The Village Pet—A Chimpanzee as Diner-Out—Notable -Specimens in Captivity</p> - - -<p>Among the number of chimpanzees that I have seen are some whose actions -are worthy of record; but as many of them were the repetitions of -similar acts of other specimens which are elsewhere described, I shall -omit mention of them and relate only such other acts as may tend to -widen the circle of our knowledge, and more fully illustrate the mental -range of this interesting tribe of apes.</p> - -<p>In passing through the country of the Esyira tribe I came to a small -village, where I halted for a rest. On entering the open space between -two rows of bamboo huts, I saw a group of native children at the -opposite end of the space, and among them was a fine big chimpanzee, -sharing in their play. When they discovered the presence of a white -man in the town, they left their sport and came to inspect me. The ape -also came, and he showed as much interest in the matter as any one else -did. I was seated in a native chair in front of the king’s hut, and the -people, as usual, stood around me at a respectful distance, looking on -as if I had been some wild beast captured in the jungle.</p> - -<p>The ape was aware that I was not a familiar kind of thing, and he -appeared in doubt as to how he should act towards me. He sat down on -the ground among the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</span> people and stared at me in surprise, from time to -time glancing at those around him as if to ascertain what they thought -of me. As they became satisfied with looking they retired one by one -from the scene, until most of them had gone; but the ape remained. -He changed his place a few times, but only to get a better view. The -people were amused at his manner, but no one molested him.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img020"> - <img src="images/020.jpg" class="w75" alt="Native Village, Interior of Nyanza (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Native Village, Interior of Nyanza<br /> (From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>At length I spoke to him in his own language, using the sound which -they use for calling one another. He looked as if he knew what it -meant, but made no reply. I repeated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</span> the sound, and he rose up and -stood on his feet, as if he intended to come to me. Again I uttered -it, and he came a few feet closer, but shied to one side as if to -flank my position and get behind me. He stopped again to look, and I -repeated the word, in response to which he came up near my right side -and began to examine my clothing. He plucked at my coat sleeve a few -times, then at the leg of my trousers and at the top of my boot. He -was getting rather familiar for a stranger; but I felt myself to blame -for having given him the license to do so. For a while he continued -his investigations, then he deliberately put his left hand on my right -shoulder, his right foot on my knee, and climbed into my lap. He now -began to examine my helmet, ears, nose, chin, and mouth. He became a -little rough, and I tried to get him down out of my lap, but he was not -disposed to go. Finally I told my boy—who acted as interpreter—to -tell the native lads to come and take the ape away. This amused them -very much, for they saw that I was bigger than the ape, and they -thought I ought, therefore, to manage him myself. They complied, -however; but his apeship declined to go until one of the men of the -town interfered and compelled him to do so.</p> - -<p>As he got down from my lap one of the boys bantered him to play. He -accepted the challenge and ran after the lad until they reached the -end of the open space between the houses, when the boy fell upon the -ground, and the ape fell on him. They rolled and wallowed on the ground -for a time. Then the ape released himself and ran away to the other end -of the opening, the boy pursuing him.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</span> When they reached the end of the -street they again fell upon each other, and another scuffle ensued. -It was plain to be seen that the boy could run much faster than the -ape, but the ape did not try to elude him. The other children crowded -around them or followed them, looking on, laughing and shouting in the -greatest glee. First one boy and then another took his turn in the -play, but the ape did not lose interest in me. He stopped from time to -time to take another survey, but did not try again to get upon my lap.</p> - -<p>After a long time at this sport the ape quit playing and sat down by -the wall of a house, with his back against it; the children tried in -vain to induce him to resume; but he firmly declined, and sat there -like a tired athlete, picking his teeth with a bamboo splinter which -he had pulled off the side of the house. His conduct was so much like -that of the children with whom he was playing that one could not have -distinguished him from them except by his physique. He enjoyed the -game as much as they did and showed that he knew how to gain or use an -advantage over his adversary. In a scuffle he was stronger and more -active than the boys, but in the race they were the more fleet. He -screamed and yelled with delight, and in every way appeared to enter -into the spirit of the fun.</p> - -<p>This ape was about five years old, and his history, as it was given to -me, showed that he had been captured, when quite young, in the forest -near that place and ever since that time had lived in the village. -He had been the constant playmate of the children, ate with them, -and slept in the same houses with them. He was perfectly tame and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</span> -harmless; he knew by name every one in the village, and knew his own -name.</p> - -<p>The king’s son—to whom he belonged—assured me that the ape could -talk, and that he himself could understand what the animal said; but -he declined to gratify my request to hear it. However, he called the -ape by name, telling him to come, and the ape obeyed. The man then gave -him a long-necked gourd and told him to go to the spring and bring -some water. The animal hesitated, but after the command had been two -or three times repeated he reluctantly obeyed. After a few minutes he -returned with the gourd about half filled with water. In carrying the -vessel he held it by the neck, but this deprived him of the use of one -hand. He waddled along on his feet, using the other hand, but now and -then he set the gourd on the ground, still holding to it, and using it -something after the manner of a short stick. On delivering the gourd -of water to his master, he gave evidence of knowing that he had done a -clever thing.</p> - -<p>I expressed a desire to see him fill the gourd at the spring. The -water was then emptied out, and the gourd was again given to him. On -this occasion we followed him to the place where he got the water. -On arriving he leaned over the spring and pressed the gourd into the -water, but the mouth of it was turned down so that the water could -not flow into it. As he lifted the gourd out it turned to one side, -and a small quantity flowed into it. He repeated the act a number of -times and seemed to know how it ought to be done, although he was very -awkward in trying to do it. Whenever the water in the mouth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</span> of the -gourd bubbled, he dipped it back again and was evidently aware that it -was not filled. Finally, raising the vessel, he turned and offered it -to his master, who declined to relieve him of it. We turned to go back -into the town, and the ape followed us with the gourd; but all the way -along he continued to mutter a sound of complaint.</p> - -<p>He was next sent into the edge of the forest to bring firewood. He had -been gone only a few minutes when he returned with a small branch of -dead wood which he had picked up from the ground. He was again sent, -together with three or four children. When he returned on this occasion -he had three sticks in his hand. The man explained to me that when the -ape went alone he would never bring but one twig at a time, and this -was sometimes not bigger than a lead pencil; but if the children went -with him and brought wood, he would bring as much as he could grasp in -one hand. He also told me that the animal would sit down on the ground -and lay the sticks across one arm in the same manner as the children -did, but he invariably dropped them when he rose up. Then he would -seize what he could hold in one hand and bring it along. The man also -said that, in carrying a single stick, the ape always used only the -hand in which he held it; but that if he had three or four pieces he -always curved his arm inwards, holding the wood against his side, and -hobbled along with his feet and the other hand.</p> - -<p>The next thing with which the man entertained me was sending the ape -to call some one in the village. He first sent him to bring a certain -one of the man’s wives. She was several doors away from where we sat. -The ape went<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</span> to one house, sat down at the door for a moment, looking -inside, and then moved slowly along to the next, which he entered. -Within a minute he appeared at the door, holding the cloth that the -woman wore tied around her, and in this manner led her to his master. -He was next sent to bring a certain boy. This he did in a similar -manner, except that the boy had on no clothing of any kind, and the ape -held him by the leg.</p> - -<p>During all these feats the man talked to him, as far as I could tell, -in the native language only; though he declared to me that some of the -words that he had used were those of the ape’s own speech. However, -he said that many words that the ape knew were of the native speech, -and that the ape had no such words in his language. One thing that -especially impressed me was a sound which I have elsewhere described -as meaning “good” or “satisfaction,” which this man said was the word -which these apes use to mean “mother.” My own servant had told me the -same thing, but I am still of the opinion that they are mistaken in -the meaning of the sound, although it is almost exactly the same as -the word for mother in the native speech. The difference being in the -vowel element only, it is possible, I grant, that the word may have -both meanings. A little later one of the women came to the door of -a house and said, in the native language, that something was ready -to eat; whereupon the children and the ape at once started. In the -mean time she set in front of the house an earthen pot, containing -boiled plantains, from which all the children and the ape alike -helped themselves. In brief, the ape was a part of the family and was -so regarded by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</span> all in the town. I do not know to what extent those -natives may have played upon my credulity, but so far as I could -discern, their statements concerning the animal were verified.</p> - -<p>I proposed to buy the ape, but the price asked was nearly twice that -of a slave. I could have bought any child in the town at a smaller -cost. I have never seen any other chimpanzee that I so much coveted. -When standing in an upright position, he was quite four feet in height, -strongly built and well proportioned. He was in a fine, healthy -condition and in the very prime of his life. He was not handsome in the -face, but his coat of hair was of good color and texture. He was of the -common variety, but a fine specimen.</p> - -<p><abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Otto Handmann, formerly the German consul at Gaboon, had a very -fair specimen of this same species of chimpanzee. He was a rough, burly -creature, but was well disposed and had in his face a look of wisdom -that was almost comical. He had been for some months a captive in a -native town, during which time he had become quite tame and docile. By -nature he was not humorous, but he appeared to acquire a sense of fun -as he grew older and became more familiar with the manners of men.</p> - -<p>On my return from the interior I was invited by the consul to take -breakfast with himself and a few friends; but owing to a prior -engagement, I was not able to be present. It was proposed by some one -of the guests that my vacant seat at the table should be filled by the -chimpanzee. He was brought into the room and permitted to occupy the -seat. He behaved himself with becoming gravity and was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</span> not abashed -in the presence of so many guests. He was served with such things as -were best suited to his liking, and his demeanor was such as to amuse -all present. On the proposal of a toast all the guests beat with their -hands upon the table, and in this the chimpanzee joined with apparent -pleasure. After a few rounds of this kind, one of the guests occupying -the seat next to the chimpanzee failed to respond with the usual -beating; the chimpanzee observed the fact, turned upon the guest, and -began to claw, scream, and pound him on the back and arm until the -gentleman proceeded to beat; whereupon the ape resumed his place and -joined in the applause. On this occasion he acquitted himself with -credit; but an hour later he had fallen into disgrace by drinking beer -until he was actually drunk, when he awkwardly climbed off the chair, -crawled under the table, and went to sleep.</p> - -<p>One of the clerks in the employ of the consul had a fair specimen of -this species. It was a female, perhaps two years younger than the one -just described, but equally addicted to the habit of drinking beer. It -is the custom among people on the coast to offer to a guest something -to drink, and on these occasions this young lady ape always expected to -partake with the others. If she was overlooked in pouring out the beer, -she always set up a complaint until she got her glass. If it was not -given to her, she would go from one to another, holding out her hand -and begging for a drink. If she failed to secure it, she watched her -opportunity, and while the guest was not looking would stealthily reach -up, take his glass off the table, drink the contents, and return the -glass to its place. She would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</span> do this with each one in turn until she -had taken the last glass; but if a glass was given to her at the same -time that the others were served, she was content with it and made no -attempt to steal that of another. In this act she evinced a skill and -caution worthy of a confirmed thief; she would secrete herself under -the table or behind a chair and watch her chance. She made no attempt -to steal the glass while it was being watched, but the instant she -discovered that she was not observed, or thought she was not, the theft -was committed.</p> - -<p>Her master frequently gave her a glass and a bottle of beer so that she -might help herself. She could pour the beer with dexterity. She often -spilt a portion of it and sometimes filled the glass to overflowing, -but she always set the bottle right end up, lifted the glass with both -hands, drained it, and refilled it as long as there was any in the -bottle. She could also drink from the bottle and would resort to this -method if no glass were given her. She knew an empty bottle from one -that contained beer. I may remark here that I have known at least five -or six chimpanzees that were fond of beer, and whenever they could get -it would drink until they were drunk. I have never seen one, that I am -aware of, that would drink spirits.</p> - -<p>This ape was very much attached to her master, would follow him and cry -after him like a child. She was affectionate to him; but she had been -so much annoyed by strangers that her temper was spoiled, and she was -irritable.</p> - -<p>Arriving on the south side of Lake Izanga, I found a young chimpanzee -at the house of a white trader. It was tied to a post in the yard, -where it was annoyed by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</span> natives who came to the place to trade. On -approaching it for the first time, I spoke to it in its own language, -using the word for food. It recognized the sound at once and responded -to it. As I came nearer, it advanced as far towards me as the string -with which it was tied would allow. Standing erect and holding out its -hands, it repeated the sound two or three times. I gave it some dried -fish. This it ate with relish, and we at once became friends. Its -master permitted me to release it on the condition that I should not -allow it to escape. I untied the cord and took the little captive in my -arms. It put its arms around my neck as if I had been the only friend -it had on earth. It clung to me and would not consent for me to leave -it. I could but pity the poor, neglected creature. There it was, tied -in the hot sun, hungry, lonely, and exposed to the tortures of every -heartless native that chose to tease it. When it was not in my arms -it followed me around and would not leave me for a moment. Its master -cared but little for it and left it to the charge of his boy, who, like -all other natives, had no thought or concern for the comfort of any -creature but himself. I tried to purchase it, but the price was too -much, and after two days our friendship was broken forever. But I was -glad to learn soon after this that another of the traders had secretly -released it and let it escape into the forest. The man who did this -told me that he did it as an act of mercy. I often recall this little -prisoner to mind, and always feel a sense of gladness at knowing that -he was set at liberty by a humane friend. Whatever may have been his -fate in the forest, it could have been no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</span> worse than to be confined, -starved, and tormented, as he was while in captivity.</p> - -<p>Another small specimen which I saw at Gaboon was not of much interest -except from one fact, and that was it was broken out with an -eruptive disease prevalent among the natives. This disease is called -<em>craw-craw</em>, or <em>kra-kra</em>. It is said to originate from the -water, either by external or internal use of that fluid. This animal -was infected in the same way and on the same parts of the body as men -are affected by the same disease, and is another instance of apes being -subject to the same maladies as those of man. The specimen itself also -exemplified the difference in intellect among these animals, for this -one had in its face a look of mental weakness, and every act confirmed -the fact. It was silent, inactive, and obtuse.</p> - -<p>During my residence in the cage I saw fewer chimpanzees than gorillas; -but from those I did see it was an easy matter to determine that they -are much less shy and timid than the gorillas.</p> - -<p>On one occasion I heard a chimpanzee in the bush not far away from the -cage. I called him with the usual sound. He answered, but did not come -to the cage. It is probable that he could see it and was afraid of it. -I tried to induce Moses to call him, and he did once utter the sound; -but he appeared to regret having made the attempt. I called again and -the stranger answered, and from the manner in which Moses behaved it -was evident that the call had been understood. Moses would not attempt -the call again, but clung to my neck with his face buried under my -chin. It was probably jealousy that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</span> caused him to refuse, because he -did not want the other to share my attentions. I gave the food sound, -but I could not induce the visitor to come nearer. I failed to get a -view of him so as to tell how large he was, but from his voice I judged -that he must have been about full-grown. Whether he was quite alone or -not I was not able to tell; but only the one voice could be heard.</p> - -<p>Another time while I was sitting quite alone, a young chimpanzee, -perhaps five or six years old, appeared at the edge of a small opening -of the bush. He plucked a bud or leaf from a small plant. He raised it -to his nose and smelt it. He picked three or four buds of different -kinds, one or two of which he put in his mouth. He turned aside the -dead leaves that were lying on the ground, as if he expected to -find something under them. I spoke to him, using the call sound; he -instantly turned his eyes towards me, but made no reply. I uttered -the food sound, and he replied but did not move. He betrayed no sign -of fear and but little of surprise. He surveyed the cage and myself. -I repeated the sound two or three times. He refused to approach any -nearer. He turned his head from side to side for a moment, as if in -doubt which way to go; then he turned aside and disappeared in the -bush. He did not run or start away as if in great fear, but by the -sound of the shaking bushes it could be told that he increased his -speed after he had once disappeared from view.</p> - -<p>One day I had been for a stroll with Moses and the boy. As we returned -to the cage we saw a chimpanzee about half grown; he was crossing a -rugged little path about<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</span> thirty yards away from us. He paused for a -moment to look at us, and we stopped. I tried to induce Moses to call -out to him, but he declined to do so. As the stranger turned aside I -called to him myself, but he neither stopped nor answered. This one -appeared to be quite brown, but the boy assured me the hair was jet -black, and that the light skin gave the appearance of brown color. To -satisfy myself, I had Moses placed in the same attitude and position, -and, looking at him from the same distance, I became convinced that the -boy was right.</p> - -<p>One morning, having started with Moses for a walk, we had gone only -some forty yards away from the cage when he made a sound of warning. I -instantly looked up and saw a large chimpanzee standing in the bush not -more than twenty yards away. I paused to observe him. He stood for a -moment, looking straight at us. I spoke to him, but he made no reply; -he moved off in a line almost parallel to the little path we were in, -and I returned towards the cage. He did not come any nearer to us, -but kept his course almost parallel with ours. From time to time he -turned his head to look, but gave no sign of attack. I called to him -several times, but he made no answer. When I had reached a place in -front of the cage I called again, and after the lapse of a few seconds -he stopped. By this time he was concealed from view. He halted only -for a moment, changed his course, and resumed his journey. This was -the largest chimpanzee I saw in the forest. Once, while sitting in the -cage, I heard the sound of something making its way through the bush -not more than twenty yards away; presently a chimpanzee came into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</span> -view. As it crossed the path near by, I called three or four times, but -it neither stopped nor answered. As well as I could tell, it appeared -to be a female and quite grown.</p> - -<p>I may take occasion to remark that, while the chimpanzee is mostly -found in large family groups,—as I have reason to believe, from native -accounts of them and from what has been told me by white men,—I have -never been able to see a family of them together. Each of these that I -have mentioned, so far as I could tell, was quite alone. Whether or not -the others were scattered through the forest in like manner, hunting -for food, and all came together after this, I cannot say.</p> - -<p>Another thing worthy of mention is the fact that both these apes, the -chimpanzee and the gorilla, live in the same forest, and twice on the -same day I have seen both kinds. This is contrary to the common idea -that they do not inhabit the same jungle. It appears that where there -is a great number of the one kind there are but a few of the other. -The natives say that in combat between the chimpanzee and the gorilla -the former is always victor, and on this account the gorilla fears the -chimpanzee. I believe this to be true, because the chimpanzee, although -not so strong as the gorilla, is more active and more intelligent.</p> - -<p>The chimpanzee will not approach or attack man if he can avoid him, but -he does not shrink from him as the gorilla does. One instance that will -illustrate this phase of his character I shall relate. On one occasion -recently, while I was on the coast, a native boy started across a small -plain near the trading station. With him was a dog<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</span> that belonged to -the white trader of the place. The dog was in advance of the boy, and -as the latter emerged from a small clump of the bush he heard the dog -bark in a playful manner, and discovered him not more than thirty yards -away, prancing, jumping, and barking in a jolly way with a chimpanzee -which appeared to be five or six years old. The ape was standing in the -path along which the boy was proceeding. He was slapping at the dog -with his hands and did not seem to relish the sport; yet he was not -resenting it in anger. The dog thought the ape was playing with him, -and he was taking the whole thing in fun. The boy looked at them for a -few moments and retreated. As soon as he disappeared the dog desisted -and followed him to the house. The boy was afraid of the ape and made -no attempt to capture him. The ape was taken by surprise by the dog and -the boy, and thus had no time to escape. He did not strike to harm the -dog, but only to ward him off. The dog made no attempt to bite the ape, -but would jump up against him and knock him out of balance, and this -annoyed him. The ape didn’t seem to understand just what the dog meant.</p> - -<p>I shall not describe those apes that have been kept in captivity and -are well known; but I will mention some of them. The largest specimen -of the chimpanzee that I have ever seen was Chico, who belonged to <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -James A. Bailey of New York. He was as large perhaps as these apes ever -become, although he was less than ten years old when he died.</p> - -<p>Perhaps the most valuable specimen for scientific use that has ever -been in captivity is Johanna, who belongs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</span> to the same gentleman. The -history that is given of her, however, is hardly to be taken in full -faith. Her age cannot be determined with certainty, but it is said that -she is about thirteen years old. I have reason to doubt that, although -I cannot positively deny it. Whatever may be her exact age, it is -certain that she has now reached a complete adult state. She has grown -to be quite as large as Chico was at the time of his death. She is not -of amiable temper, but is much less vicious than he was. She has some -of the marks of a kulu-kamba.</p> - -<p>In order to justify my doubts upon the subject of Johanna’s age, I may -state that Chico was hardly ten years of age when he died, but he had -reached the adult period; and as males of any genus of the primates do -not reach that state sooner than the females, it is not probable, since -he was mature at ten, that she was not so until twelve. In the next -place, her captors claim to have seen her within a few hours after her -birth, and state that they watched her and her mother from time to time -until she was one year old. Then they killed the mother and captured -the babe. The claim is absurd. These apes are nomadic in habit and are -rarely ever seen twice in the same place. They claim that she was born -on January 19, but, from what I know of these apes, I conclude that is -not their season of bearing. I doubt if any of them <em>were</em> ever -born during that month. Again, it is claimed that she was captured by -Portuguese explorers in the Congo, but the Portuguese do not possess -along that river any territory in which these apes are ever found. They -claim the territory around Kabinda, which would indicate that she<span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</span> came -from the Loango valley instead of the Congo; but the cupidity of the -average Portuguese would never allow anything to go at liberty for a -year if it could be sold before that time.</p> - -<p>Johanna is accredited with a great deal of intelligence, but I do not -regard her as being above the average of her race. Since the death -of her companion, Chico, she has received the sole attention of her -keeper, and since that time has been taught a few things which are -neither marvelous nor difficult. In point of intellect she cannot be -regarded as an extraordinary specimen of her tribe. I do not mean to -detract from her reputation, but I have failed to discover in her any -high order of mental qualities.</p> - -<p>The reason why Johanna may be regarded as the most valuable specimen -for study is the fact that she is the only female of her race that has -ever, in captivity, reached the state of puberty. She has done so, -and this fact enables us to determine certain things which have never -heretofore been known. This affords the zoologists an opportunity for -the study of her sexual developments which may not again present itself -in many years to come. From this important point of view she presents -the student with many new problems in that branch of science. I have -elsewhere stated my opinion that the female chimpanzee reaches the -age of puberty at seven to nine years, and I have many reasons which -I will not here recount that cause me to adhere to that belief. But -the uncertainty of the age of this ape does not destroy her value as a -subject of scientific study.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</span></p> - -<p>The most sagacious specimen of the race that I have been brought in -contact with is Consul II, who is now an inmate of the Bellevue Garden -in Manchester, England. He has not been educated to perform mere tricks -to gratify the visitor, in the way that animals are usually trained, -but most of the feats that he performs are prompted by his own desire -and for his own pleasure. There is a vast difference in the motives -that prompt animals in the execution of these feats. I have elsewhere -mentioned the fact that animals that are caused to act from fear do so -mechanically, and the acts are not a true index to their intellect. -While Consul and a few other apes that I have seen do many things by -imitation, they do not do them by coercion. They seem to understand the -purpose and foresee the result, and these impel them to act.</p> - -<p>Some of the feats performed by this ape I have never seen attempted by -any other. One accomplishment is the riding of a tricycle. He knows the -machine by the name of “bike,” although it is not really a bicycle. He -can adjust it and mount it with the skill of an acrobat. The ease and -grace with which he rides are sufficient to provoke the envy of any -boy in England. He propels it with great skill and steers it with the -accuracy of an expert. He guides it around angles and obstacles with -absolute precision. He is allowed to go at liberty a great deal of his -time; and this is the proper way to treat these apes in captivity. He -rides the wheel for his own diversion. He does not do it to gratify -strangers or to “show off.”</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img021"> - <img src="images/021.jpg" class="w50" alt="CONSUL II RIDING A TRICYCLE (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">CONSUL II RIDING A TRICYCLE<br /> (From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>Another accomplishment which Consul has is that of smoking a pipe, -a cigar, or a cigarette. This may not be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</span> commended from a moral -standpoint, but it appears to afford him quite as much pleasure as it -does the average boy when he first acquires the habit. He has also -formed the habit of spitting as he smokes,—but he has the good manners -not to spit on the floor. When Consul has his pipe lighted he usually -sits on the floor to enjoy a smoke, and he spreads down before him a -sheet of paper to spit on. When he has finished smoking he rolls up -the paper and throws it into some corner, out of the way. When playing -about the grounds he often finds a cigar stub. He knows what it is, -picks it up, puts it into his mouth, and at once goes to his keeper for -a light. He will not attempt to light his pipe or cigar, because he is -afraid of burning his fingers; but he will light a match and hand it to -his keeper to hold while lighting the pipe. He sometimes takes a piece -of paper, lights it in the fire, and hands it to some one else to light -his pipe for him. He is afraid of the fire and will not hold the paper -while it is burning. If any one hesitates to take it, he throws it at -him and then gets out of the way. He is not fond of cigarettes, because -he gets the tobacco in his mouth, and he does not like the taste of it.</p> - -<p>When Consul is furnished with a piece of chalk he begins to draw some -huge figure on the wall or the floor. He never attempts to make a small -design with chalk, but if given a pencil and paper, he executes some -peculiar figure of smaller design. Those made with the chalk or the -pencil are usually round or oval in shape, but if given a pen and ink, -he at once begins to make a series of small figures containing many -acute angles. Whether these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</span> results are from design or accident I -cannot say, but he appears to have a well-defined idea as to the use of -the instrument. Whether he can distinguish between writing and drawing -I am unable to say.</p> - -<p>The only abstract thing that his keeper has tried to teach him is to -select from the letters of the alphabet. He has learned to distinguish -the first three. These are made upon the faces of cubical blocks of -wood; each block contains one letter on each of its faces. He selects -with very few mistakes the letter asked for, and errors appear to -result from indifference rather than from ignorance.</p> - -<p>Consul is very fond of play, and he makes friends with some strangers -on sight, but to others he takes an aversion without any apparent -cause; and, while he is not disposed to be vicious when not annoyed, he -resents with anger the approaches of certain persons. He is the only -ape I have seen that can use a knife and fork with very much skill; -but he cuts up his food with almost as much ease as a boy of the same -age would do, and he uses his fork in eating. He has been taught to do -this, until he rarely uses his fingers in the act. He is fond of coffee -and beer, but does not care for spirits.</p> - -<p>There is nothing that so much delights Consul as to get into the large -cage of monkeys and baboons kept in the garden. Most of them are afraid -of him. But one large Guinea baboon is not so, and on every occasion he -shows his dislike for the ape. The latter takes many chances in teasing -him, but always manages to evade his attack. He displays much skill and -a great degree of caution in playing these pranks upon the baboon when -at close range. Upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</span> the approach of the ape the other animals in the -cage all seek some refuge, and he finds great diversion in stealing up -to their place of concealment to frighten them. Consul is very strong -and can lift objects of surprising weight. It is awkward for him to -stand in an upright position, but he does so with more ease than any -other chimpanzee that I have ever seen. If any one will take hold of -his hand, he will stroll for a long time and without apparent fatigue.</p> - -<p>Owing to the sudden changes of temperature in that part of England -where he is kept, he is provided with a coat and is often required to -wear it when going out of doors. He does not like to be hampered with -such a garment, and if for a moment he is not watched, he removes it -and sometimes hides it to keep from wearing it. He is also provided -with trousers; these he dislikes more if possible than his coat, but, -above all other articles of wearing apparel, he dislikes shoes. His -keeper often puts them on him, but whenever he gets out of sight he -unties and removes them. He cannot tie the laces, but can untie them -in an instant. He does not evince so much aversion to a hat or a cap -and will sometimes put one on without being told; but he has a perfect -mania for a silk hat and, if allowed to do so, he would demolish that -of every stranger who comes to the garden. He has a decided vein of -humor and a love of approbation. When he does anything that is funny -or clever, he is perfectly aware of the fact; and when by any act he -evokes a laugh from any one, he is happy and recognizes the approval by -a broad chimpanzee grin.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</span></p> - -<p>In the corner of the monkey house is a room set apart for the keeper, -and in this room supplies of food for the inmates are kept. In a small -cupboard in one corner is kept a supply of bananas and other fruits. -Consul knows this and has tried many times to burglarize it. On one -occasion he secured a large screw-driver and attempted to prise open -the door. He found the resistance to be greatest at the place where the -door locked, and at this point he forced the instrument in the crevice -and broke off a piece of the wood, about an inch wide, from the edge -of the door. At this juncture he was discovered and reproved for his -conduct; but he never fails to stick his fingers in this crack and try -to open the door. He has not been able to unlock it when the key is -given him, although he knows the use of the key and has often tried it; -but his keeper has never imparted the secret to him, and his method of -using the key has been to prise with it or pull it, instead of turning -it after putting it in the keyhole.</p> - -<p>The young keeper, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Webb, deserves great credit for his untiring -attention to this valuable young ape, and the results of his zeal are -worthy of the recognition of every man who is interested in the study -of animals.</p> - -<p>Another specimen that may be regarded as an intermediate type was -recently kept in Bellevue Gardens at Manchester. He was playful and -full of mischief. He had been taught to use a stick or broom in fight, -and with such a weapon in his hand he would run all over the building, -hunting some one to attack. He did not appear to be serious in his -assault, but treated it as fun. It is a bad thing to teach to apes, -because they grow pugnacious as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</span> they grow older, and all animals kept -closely confined acquire a bad temper.</p> - - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img022"> - <img src="images/022.jpg" class="w50" alt="MR. CROWLEY, LATE OF THE NEW YORK ZOÖLOGICAL GARDEN" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption"><abbr title="mister">MR.</abbr> CROWLEY, LATE OF THE NEW YORK ZOÖLOGICAL GARDEN<br /> (Taken from Life.)</p> - -<p>In an adjoining cage was kept a young orang, and the two ate at the -same table. The chimpanzee appeared to entertain a species of contempt -for the orang. The keeper had taught him to pass the bread to his -neighbor, but he obeyed with such reluctance that his manner betrayed -more disgust than kindness. A few small pieces of bread were placed on -a tin plate, and the kulu was required to lift the plate in his hand -and offer it to the orang before he himself was allowed to eat. He -would lift the plate a few inches above the table and hold it before -the orang’s face; when the latter had taken a piece of the bread, the -chimpanzee withdrew the plate, held it for a moment, and dropped it. -Meanwhile he kept his eyes fixed on the orang. The manner in which he -dropped the plate looked as if he did so in contempt. When the meal was -finished, the kulu would drink his milk from a cup, wipe his mouth with -the serviette, and then get down from the table. The orang would slowly -climb down and go back to his cage. We shall not describe the details -of their home life, but they were two jolly young bachelors, one of -which was as stupid as the other was bright.</p> - -<p>The specimens that were kept in the Gardens in New York were very -fine. One of them was mentally equal to any other specimen hitherto -in captivity. There were two kept in the Cincinnati Gardens which -were also very fine. So far as I am aware, there have never been but -nine of these apes brought to America; but six of these lived longer, -and four of them grew to be larger, than any other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</span> specimens of this -race have ever done in captivity. For some reason they never survive -long in England or other parts of Europe. This is probably due to -some condition of the atmosphere. It cannot be from a difference of -treatment.</p> - -<p>I have seen a large number of chimpanzees; most of them were in -captivity; yet I have seen enough of them in a wild state to gain some -idea of their habits and manner. Those described will be sufficient to -show the mental character of the genus.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Other Kulu-Kambas—A Knotty Problem—Instinct or Reason—Various Types</p> - - -<p>Whether the kulu-kamba is a distinct species of ape, or only a -well-marked variety of the chimpanzee, he is by far the finest -representative of his genus. Among those that I have seen are some very -good specimens, and the clever things that I have witnessed in them are -sufficient to stamp them as the highest type of all apes.</p> - -<p>On board a small river steamer that plies the Ogowé was a young female -kulu that belonged to the captain. Her face was not by any means -handsome, and her complexion was darker than that of any other kulu -I have ever seen. It was almost a coffee color. There were two or -three spots yet darker in shade, but not well defined in outline. The -dark spots looked as if they had been artificially put on the face. -The color was not solid, but looked as if dry burnt umber had been -rubbed or sprinkled over a surface of lighter brown. Although she was -young (perhaps not more than two years old), her face looked almost -like that of a woman of forty. Her short, flat nose, big, flexible -lips, protruding jaws, and prominent arches over the eyes, with a low, -receding forehead, conspired to make her look like a certain type of -human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</span> being one frequently sees. This gave her what is known as a -dish-face, or concave profile.</p> - -<p>She had a habit of compressing her nose by contracting the muscles of -the face, curling her lips as if in scorn and at the same time glancing -at those around her as if to express the most profound contempt. -Whatever may have been the sentiment in her mind, her face was a -picture of disdain, and the circumstances under which she made use of -these grimaces certainly pointed to the fact that she felt just as -she looked. At other times her visage would be covered with a perfect -smile. It was something more than a grin, and the fact that it was -used only at a time when she was pleased or diverted showed that the -emotion which gave rise to it was perfectly in keeping with the face -itself. In repose her face was neither pretty nor ugly. It did not -strongly depict a high mental status, nor yet portray the instincts of -a brute; but her countenance was a safe index to her mind. This is true -of the chimpanzee more, perhaps, than of any other ape. The gorilla -doubtless feels the sense of pleasure, but his face does not yield -to the emotion, while the opposite passions are expressed with great -intensity, and with the common chimpanzee it is the same way, but not -to the same extent.</p> - -<p>The kulu in question was more a coquette than a shrew. She plainly -showed that she was fond of flattery; not perhaps in the same sense -that a human being is, but she was certainly conscious of approbation -and fond of applause. When she accomplished anything difficult, she -seemed aware of it; and when she succeeded in doing a thing which she -ought not to do, she never failed to express<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</span> herself in the manner -described above. She always appeared to be perfectly conscious of being -observed by others, but she was defiant and composed. There is nothing -known in the catalogue of mischief that she was not ready to tackle at -any moment and take her chances on the result. From the stokehole to -the funnel, from the jack-staff to the rudder, she explored that boat. -To keep her out of mischief, she was tied on the saloon deck with a -long line; but no one aboard the vessel was able to tie a knot in the -line which she could not untie with dexterity and ease. Her master, who -was a sailor and an expert in the art of tying knots, exhausted his -efforts in trying to make one that would defy her skill.</p> - -<p>On one occasion I was aboard the little steamer when the culprit was -brought up from the main deck, where she had been in some mischief, and -was tied to one of the rails along the side of the boat. The question -of tying her was discussed, and at length a new plan was devised. In -the act of untying a knot she always began with the part of the knot -that was nearest to her. It was now agreed to tie the line around one -of the rails on the side of the deck, about halfway between the two -stanchions that supported it, then to carry the loose ends of the line -to the stanchion, and make them fast in the angle of the stanchion -and the rail. As soon as she was left alone she began to examine the -knots. She made no attempt at first to untie them, but she felt them, -as if to see how firmly they were made. She then climbed upon the iron -rail around which the middle of the line was tied and slackened the -knot. She pulled first at one strand and then at the other; but one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</span> -end was tied to the stanchion and the other to her neck, and she could -find no loose end to draw through. First one way and then the other -she drew this noose. She saw that in some way it was connected with -the stanchion. She drew the noose along the rail until it was near the -post; she climbed down upon the deck, then around the post and back -again; she climbed up over the rails and down on the outside, and again -carefully examined the knot; she climbed back, then through between the -rails and back, then under the rails and back, but she could find no -way to get this first knot out of the line. For a moment she sat down -on the deck and viewed the situation with evident concern. She slowly -rose to her feet and again examined the knot; she moved the noose back -to its place in the middle of the rail, climbed up by it, and again -drew it out as far as the strands would allow. Again she closed it; -she took one strand in her hand and traced it from the loop to the -stanchion; then she took the other end in the same manner and traced it -from the loop to her neck. She looked at the loop and then slowly drew -it out as far as it would come. She sat for a while holding it in one -hand, and with the other moved each strand of the knot. She was in a -deep study and did not even deign a glance at those who were watching -her. At length she took the loop in both hands, deliberately put it -over her head and crawled through it. The line thus released dropped -to the deck; she quickly descended, took hold of it near her neck, and -found that it was untied; she gathered it up as she advanced towards -the other end that was tied to the post, and at once began to loosen -the knots about it. In<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</span> a minute more the last knot was released. She -then gathered the whole line into a bundle, looked at those around her -with that look of contempt which we have described, and departed at -once in search of other mischief. Her air of triumph and content was -enough to convince any one of her opinion of what she had done.</p> - -<p>If this feat was the result of instinct, the lexicons must give another -definition for that word. There were six white men who witnessed the -act, and the verdict of all of them was that she had solved a problem -which few children of her own age could have done. Every movement -was controlled by reason. The tracing out of cause and effect was -too evident for any one to doubt. Almost any animal can be taught to -perform certain feats, but that does not show innate capacity. The -only true measure of the faculty of reason is to reduce the actor to -his own resources and see how he will handle himself under some new -condition; otherwise the act will be, at least in part, mechanical or -imitative. In all my efforts to study the mental caliber of animals I -have confined them strictly to their own judgment, and left them to -work out the problem alone. By this means only can we estimate to what -extent they apply the faculty of reason. No one doubts that all animals -have minds which are receptive in some degree. But it has often been -said that they are devoid of reason and controlled alone by some vague -attribute called instinct. Such is not the case. It is the same faculty -of the mind that men employ to solve the problems that arise in every -sphere of life, the one which sages and philosophers have used in every -phase of science, differing only in degree.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</span></p> - -<p>This kulu-kamba knew the use of a corkscrew. This knowledge she had -acquired from seeing it applied by men. While she could not use it -herself with success, she often tried, and she never applied it to -a wrong purpose. She would take the deck broom and scrub the deck, -unless there were water on it; in that event she always left the job. -She did not seem to know the purpose of sweeping the deck, and never -swept the dirt before the broom. The action was doubtless imitative. -She only grasped the idea that a broom was used to scrub the deck, but -she failed to observe the effect produced. However, it cannot be said -with certainty to what extent she was aware of the effect, but it is -inferred from the fact that she did not try to remove the dirt. She -knew what coal was intended for, and she often climbed into the bunker -and threw it down by the furnace door. The furnace door and steam gauge -were two things that escaped her busy fingers. I do not know how she -learned the danger of them, but she never touched them. She had to be -watched to keep her from seizing the machinery. For this she seemed to -have a strong desire, but did not know the danger she might incur.</p> - -<p>I was aboard a ship when a trader brought off from the beach a young -kulu to be sent to England. The little captive sat upright on the deck -and seemed aware that he was being sent away. At any rate, his face -wore a look of deep concern, as if he had no friend to whom he could -appeal. On approaching him I spoke to him, using his own word for food. -He looked up and promptly answered it. He looked as if in doubt as to -whether I was a big ape<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</span> or something else. I repeated the sound, and -he repeated the answer and came towards me. As he approached me I again -gave the sound. He came up and sat by my feet for a moment, looking -into my face. I uttered the sound again, when he took hold of my leg -and began to climb up as if it had been a tree. He climbed up to my -neck and began to play with my lips, nose, and ears. We at once became -friends, and I tried to buy him; but the price asked was more than I -desired to pay. I regretted to part with him, but he was taken back to -the beach, and I never saw him again.</p> - -<p>On another occasion one was brought aboard, and after speaking to him -I gave him an orange; he began to eat it and at the same time caught -hold of the leg of my trousers as if he did not wish me to leave him. I -petted and caressed him for a moment and turned away, but he held on to -me. He waddled about over the deck, holding on to my clothes, and would -not release me. He was afraid of his master and the native boy who had -him in charge. He was a timid creature, but was quite intelligent, and -I felt sorry for him because he seemed to realize his situation.</p> - -<p>On the same voyage I saw one in the hands of a German trader. It was a -young male, about one year old. He promptly answered the food sound. -Then I called him to come to me; but this sound he neither answered nor -complied with. He looked at me as if to ask where I had learned his -language. I repeated the sound several times, but elicited no answer. -I have elsewhere called attention to the fact that these apes do not -answer the call when they can see the one who makes it, and they do -not always<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</span> comply with it. In this respect they behave very much like -young children, and it may be remarked that one difficulty in all apes -is to secure fixed attention. This is exactly the same with young -children. Even when they clearly understand, sometimes they betray no -sign of having heard. At other times they show that they both hear and -understand, but do not comply.</p> - -<p>Another specimen that was brought aboard a ship when I was present -was a young male, something less than two years old. He was sullen -and morose. He did not resent my approaches, but he did not encourage -them. I first spoke to him with the food sound, but he gave no heed. -I retired a little distance from him and called him, but he paid no -attention. I then used the sound of warning; he raised his head and -looked in the direction from which the sound came. I repeated it, and -he looked at me for a moment and turned his head away. I repeated it -again. He looked at me, then looked around as if to see what it meant, -and again resumed his attitude of repose.</p> - -<p>On my last voyage to the coast I saw a very good specimen in the Congo. -It was a female, a little more than two years old. She was also of a -dark complexion, but quite intelligent. She had been captured north of -there, and within the limits elsewhere described. At the time I saw her -she was ill and under treatment; but her master, the British consul, -told me that when she was well she was bright and sociable. I made no -attempt to talk with her, except some time after having left her I gave -the call sound. She answered by looking around the corner of the house. -I do not know whether she would have come or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</span> not, as she was tied and -could not have come had she desired to do so.</p> - -<p>I have seen a few specimens of this ape, and most of them appear to -be of a somewhat higher order than the ordinary chimpanzee; but there -is among them a wide range of intelligence. It would be a risk to say -whether the lowest specimen of kulu is higher or lower than the highest -specimen of the common chimpanzee, but taken as a whole they are much -superior. I shall not describe the specimens which have been known in -captivity, since most of them have been amply described by others.</p> - -<p>If proper conditions were afforded to keep a pair of kulus in training -for some years, it is difficult to say what they might not be taught. -They are not only apt in learning what they are taught, but they are -well disposed and can apply their accomplishment to some useful end. -We cannot say to what extent they may be able to apply what they learn -from man, because the necessity of using such knowledge is removed by -the attention given to them.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">The Gorilla—His Habitat—Skeleton—Skull—Color—Structural -Peculiarities</p> - - -<p>In the order of nature the gorilla occupies the second place below man. -His habitat is the lowlands of tropical West Africa, and it is confined -to very narrow limits. The vague lines which bound his realm cannot be -defined with absolute precision, but those generally given in books -that treat of him are not correct. If he ever occupied any part of the -coast north of the equator, he has long since become extinct in that -part; but there is nothing to show that he ever did exist there. So -far as I have been able to trace the lines that define the extent of -his native haunts, they appear to confine him to the low delta country -lying between the equator and the Loango valley along the coast, and -reaching eastward to the interior—an average distance of less than -one hundred miles. The eastern boundary is very irregular. The extreme -limit on the north side is about the Gaboon River, eastward to the -foothills of the Crystal Mountains; thence southward to the Ogowé River -to the vicinity of the mouth of the Nguni; thence up that river twenty -or thirty miles; thence by a zigzag line along the western base of the -dividing lands between the Congo basin and the Atlantic watershed, to -the head-waters of the Chi Loango River, and with that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</span> valley to the -coast. Beyond these lines I have found no reliable trace of him, and -along this boundary only now and then is he found, except along the -coast.</p> - -<p>I have seen two adult skulls and two infant skulls of the gorilla -that were brought by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> <abbr title="William">Wm.</abbr> S. Cherry from the Kisanga valley, which -lies on the north side of the middle Congo, into which the Kisanga -River flows. The skulls are the only evidence I have found of this ape -existing so far eastward; but they were said to have come from that -part of the valley lying directly under the equator. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Cherry himself -did not collect them. He secured them from natives, and he does not -claim to have seen any of those apes alive.</p> - -<p>There appear to be three centers of gorilla population. The first is in -the basin of Izanga Lake; the second is on the south side of the basin -of Lake Nkami; and the third is in the basin of the lake east of Sette -Kama and west of the Nkami River. The gorilla is rarely, if ever, found -in high or hilly districts. He appears to be restricted to the hummock -lands, which are elevated only a few feet above tide-level. This is -all the more singular from the fact that the ape appears to have a -morbid dislike for water, and it is doubtful whether or not he can -swim. It is true that he has one peculiar characteristic that belongs -to aquatic animals. He has a kind of web between the digits; but its -purpose cannot be to aid in swimming. I have been told that the gorilla -can swim, and the statement may be true; but I have never observed -anything in his habits to confirm this, and I have noted many facts -that controvert it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</span></p> - -<p>I know of no valid reason why he should be confined to the limits -mentioned, unless it be on account of climatic conditions which are -peculiar to this district. South of it the climate along the coast is -much cooler. The country east of it is hilly and comparatively barren. -North of the equator is a land of almost perpetual rain. Within this -district dry and rainy seasons are more equally divided and more -uniform in temperature.</p> - -<p>The gorilla appears to be an indigenous product which does not bear -transplanting. He thrives only in a low, hot, and humid region, -infested by malaria, miasma, and fevers. It is doubtful if he can long -survive in a pure atmosphere. The only specimen that I have ever heard -of north of the equator was one on the south side of the Komo River, -which is the north branch of the Gaboon. The point at which I heard of -his being was within a few miles of the equator. I also heard of five -having been seen a few miles southwest from Njole, which is located on -the equator on the north bank of the Ogowé, a little way east of the -Nguni. They were said to be the first and only ones ever seen in that -region within the memory of man. As to their being found between Gaboon -and Cameroon, I find no trace along the coast of one ever having been -seen in that part.</p> - -<p>Certain writers have mentioned the fact that, in 1851 and 1852, -gorillas came in great numbers from the interior to the coast. The -fact is that then the gorilla was practically unknown to science. He -had been reported by Ford, Savage, and others, but prior to that time -there are no data to show whether or not they were more numerous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</span> -in the years mentioned. There had never been a specimen brought to -civilization. It was about that time that <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Ford sent a skeleton -to America, and one had been previously sent to England. Some years -earlier <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Savage had announced the existence of such a creature and -had sent sketches of a skull, but it was more than ten years after the -period in question that Paul du Chaillu brought out the first skins of -gorillas and gave detailed accounts of their character, habits, and -geographical distribution. From these facts it is not rash to conclude -that the migrations of 1851 and 1852 are mere matters of fancy.</p> - -<p>Gorillas are found in the Ogowé delta, about one degree south latitude; -but not one has ever been known to come from the Crystal Mountains. At -the time above mentioned neither traders nor missionaries had ascended -the Gaboon River above Parrot Island (which is less than twenty miles -from the mouth), except to make a flying trip by canoe. Nothing was -known of those parts except what was learned from the natives, and that -was very little. During my first voyage I went up the river as far as -Nenge Nenge, about seventy-five miles from the coast. At that place I -spent two days with a white trader, who had been stationed there for a -year. I was assured by him that there were no gorillas in that section. -The natives report that they have been found in the lowlands south -of there, in the direction of the Ogowé basin; but their reports are -conflicting, and none of them, so far as I could learn, claims that -they are found north of there, nor in the mountains eastward. I admit -that they may have been found in, and may yet inhabit, the strip of -land between the Gaboon and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</span> the Ogowé; but I repeat that there is no -tangible proof that they were ever found north of the Gaboon. With due -respect to Sir Richard Owen and other writers who have never been in -that country, I insist that they are mistaken. It is true that one of -the tribes living north of the Gaboon has a name for this animal; but -it does not follow that the ape lives in that country. The Orungu tribe -has a name for lion, but there is not such a beast within two hundred -miles of their country. Not one of that tribe ever saw a lion.</p> - -<p>A number of specimens of gorillas have been secured at Gaboon, but -they have been brought there from far away. It is the chief town of -the colony, and there are more white men there than elsewhere to buy -them. It is not possible for a stranger to ascertain what part of the -country a specimen is brought from. The native hunter will not tell the -truth, lest some one else should find the game and thus deprive him of -its capture and sale. I saw a specimen at Cameroon, and was told it had -been captured in that valley, fifty miles from the coast; but I hunted -up its history and found with absolute certainty that it was captured -near Mayumba, two hundred miles south of Gaboon.</p> - -<p>Even with the greatest care in hunting up the history of a specimen, -one may fail, and often does fail, in tracing it to its true source; -but every one, so far, that I have followed up has been brought from -somewhere within the limits I have laid down. Contrary to the statement -of some authorities that these apes “have never been seen on the coast -since 1852,” I assert that by far the greatest number of them are found -near the coast. I do not mean to say<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</span> that they sit on the sand along -the beach, or bathe in the surf, but they live in the jungle of the low -coast belt. Along the lower Congo the gorilla is known only by name, -and scores of the natives do not know even that. The nearest point to -that river that I have been able to locate the gorilla as a native is -in the territory about sixty or seventy miles northwest of Stanley Pool.</p> - -<p>I am much indebted to the late Carl Steckelman, who was an old resident -of the coast, a good explorer, a careful observer, and an extensive -traveler. He was drowned at Mayumba in my presence in October, 1895. -I knew him well and secured from him much information concerning the -gorilla. On a map he traced out for me what he believed to be the south -and southeast limits of the gorilla’s habitat. Not thirty minutes -before the accident in which he lost his life I had closed arrangements -with him to make an expedition from Mayumba to the Congo, near Stanley -Pool, by one route and return by another, but his death prevented the -fulfillment of this plan.</p> - -<p><abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Wilson, who was the first missionary at Gaboon, located there in -1842. About six years after that time he wrote a lexicon of the native -language. In this the name of the gorilla does not appear at all. If -the ape had been so very common, it is not probable that his name would -have been omitted from this lexicon. Eight years later <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Walker, in -a revision of the book, gave the definition, “a monkey larger than a -man.” But he had never seen a specimen of the ape, except the skulls -and a skeleton which had been brought from other parts. It is true -that at Gaboon <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Savage first learned about the gorilla and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</span> there -secured a skull. From this he made drawings, on which account his name -was attached to that of the animal in natural history. It was still a -few years later that <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Ford sent the first skeleton to America, and -Captain Harris sent the first to England. The former skeleton is in the -Museum of Zoölogy at Philadelphia. Both of these specimens may have -come from any place a hundred miles away from Gaboon.</p> - -<p>It is possible that at this early date the gorilla may have occupied -the peninsula south of the Gaboon River in greater numbers than he -has since done, because up to that time there had been no demand for -specimens. If this was true at that time, it is not so now; and if -he is not extinct in that part, he is so rare as to make it doubtful -whether or not he is found there at all as a native. In four journeys -along the Ogowé River and the lakes of that valley I made careful -inquiries at many of the towns, and the natives always assured me -that the gorillas lived on the south side of that river. I spent five -days at the village of Moiro, which is located on the north side of -the river and about fifty miles from the coast. There I was told by -the native woodsmen that no gorillas lived on the north side of the -river, but that there were plenty of them along the lakes south of the -river. They said that in the forest back of their town were plenty of -chimpanzees, and that they were sometimes mistaken for gorillas, but -there were absolutely none of the latter in that part.</p> - -<p>In view of these and countless other facts I deem it safe to say -that few or no gorillas can be found at any point north of the Ogowé -River; and I doubt if the specimen heard of on the Komo was a genuine -gorilla. The natives<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</span> sometimes claim to have something of the kind -for sale, in order to get a bonus from some trader, when in truth they -may not have anything of the kind. The only point north of the Ogowé -at which I have had any reason to believe a gorilla was ever found -was in the neighborhood of a small lake called Inenga. This lake is -nearly due west from the mouth of the Nguni River and something more -than a hundred miles from the coast. Certain reports along that part -appeared to have a flavor of truth; but there was no evidence except -the statement of the natives.</p> - -<p>In the lake region south of the river they are fairly abundant as far -south as the head-waters of the Rembo, Nkami, and through the low -country of the Esyira tribe; but they are very rare in the remote -forests and unknown in the highlands and plains of that country. South -of the Chi Loango they are quite unknown, and south of the Congo they -are never heard of.</p> - -<p>There are no possible means of estimating their number; but they are -not so numerous as has been supposed, and from the reckless slaughter -carried on by the natives in order to secure specimens for white men, -they may ultimately become extinct. Up to this time their ferocity -alone has saved them from such a fate. But the use of improved arms -will soon overcome that barrier.</p> - -<p>The skeleton of the gorilla is so nearly the same as that of -the chimpanzee—which has elsewhere been compared to the human -skeleton—that we shall not review the comparison at length; but we -must note one marked feature in the external form of the skull, which -differs alike from other apes and from man.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</span></p> - -<p>The skull of the young gorilla is much like that of the chimpanzee and -remains so until it approaches the adult state. At this period the -ridge above the eyes becomes more prominent, and at the same time a -sharp, bony ridge begins to develop along the temples and continues -around the back of the head on that part of the skull called the -occiput. At this point it is intersected by another ridge at right -angles to it. This is called the sagittal ridge. It runs along the top -of the head towards the face; but on the forehead it flattens nearly to -the level of the skull and divides into two very low ridges, which turn -off to a point above the eyes and merge into that ridge. These form a -continuous part of the skull and are not joined to it by sutures. The -mesial crest in a very old specimen rises to the height of nearly two -inches above the surface of the skull, and imparts to it a fierce and -savage aspect; but in the living animal the crests are not seen, as the -depressions between them are filled with large muscles, which make the -head look very much larger than it otherwise would. These crests affect -only the exterior of the skull and do not appear to alter the form or -size of the brain cavity, which is slightly larger in proportion than -that of the chimpanzee. These crests are peculiar to the male gorilla. -The female skull shows no trace of them.</p> - -<p>There is at least one case in which the male gorilla has failed to -develop this crest. In the series of skulls found in the cuts given -herewith, <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 6 is that of an adult male gorilla. I know it to be such, -for I dissected the animal and prepared the skeleton for preservation. -He was killed in the basin of Lake Ferran Vaz, not more than three or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</span> -four hours’ walk from my cage, and his body was at once brought to me. -A good idea of his size can be obtained by reference to another cut -given herewith. This cut is copied from a photograph taken by me. It -shows some natives in the act of skinning the gorilla.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img023"> - <img src="images/023.jpg" class="w75" alt="SKULLS OF GORILLAS - FRONT VIEW" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">SKULLS OF GORILLAS—FRONT VIEW<br /> (From a Photograph in Buffalo Museum.)</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img024"> - <img src="images/024.jpg" class="w75" alt="SKULLS OF GORILLAS - PROFILE VIEW" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">SKULLS OF GORILLAS—PROFILE VIEW<br /> (From a Photograph in Buffalo Museum.)</p> - - -<p>In this picture the gorilla is sitting flat on the sand; his body is -limp and is somewhat shorter than it was in life. Yet it can be seen -that the top of his head is higher than the hip of the man who is -holding him. In the foreground, on the left of the gorilla, sits the -man who killed him. He is sitting on a log and is thereby a little more -elevated than the gorilla. It did not occur to me to place them side -by side in order to make a comparison. As he sits, the body and head -of this gorilla measure nearly four feet from the base of the spinal -column to the top of the head. I had no means of weighing him, but made -an estimate by lifting him. I estimate that he weighed at least two -hundred and forty pounds. He was not an old specimen, but comparing the -skull with <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 7, in which the crests are well developed, it is found -to be larger, and other things point to the conclusion that he was -older than <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 7.</p> - -<p>I am aware that one specimen does not of itself establish anything, but -in this case it shows that the male gorilla does not always develop -the crest. The head of this specimen was surmounted by the red crown -which I have elsewhere described. <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 1, which is the skull of my pet, -Othello, had the same mark. He was captured near the place where <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 6 -was killed.</p> - -<p><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 2 is the skull of a female nearly four years old. She had the same -mark. She was also captured in the same<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</span> basin, but on the opposite -side of the lake. The facial bones of <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 6 show that he had received a -severe blow early in life; but the fragments had knit together, and the -effect could not be seen in the face of the ape while alive.</p> - -<p><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 8 is the skull of a large male from Lake Izanga, which is on the -south side of the Ogowé River, more than a hundred miles from the -coast. This is one of the three centers of population mentioned. I do -not know the history of this specimen. It was presented to me by <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> -James Deemin, an English trader, with whom I traveled many days on the -Ogowé River, and who extended to me many courtesies.</p> - -<p><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 5 is the skull of an adult female. By comparing it in profile with -<abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 6, it will be seen that they resemble each other closely, except -that the muzzle of the latter projects a little more, and the curvature -of the skull across the top is less; but the transverse distance is a -little greater. <abbr title="Numbers">Nos.</abbr> 2, 3, 4, and 5 are females; the others are males.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img025"> - <img src="images/025.jpg" class="w75" alt="NATIVES SKINNING A GORILLA (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">NATIVES SKINNING A GORILLA<br /> (From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>While this series is not complete in either sex, it is an excellent one -for comparative study. I do not know whether or not the heads of those -with the crests were the same color as <abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> 6, but the <em>ntyii</em>, -which I have mentioned as possibly a new specimen of the gorilla, does -not have this crown of red. His ears are also said to be larger than -those of the gorilla, but smaller than the chimpanzee’s. He is reputed -to grow to a larger size than either of them. The skin of the gorilla -is a dull black or mummy color over the body; but over the face it is a -jet black, quite smooth and soft. It looks almost like velvet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</span></p> - -<p>One fact peculiar to this ape is that the palms of both the hands -and the feet are perfectly black. In other animals these are usually -lighter in color than the exposed parts. In most other apes, monkeys, -baboons, and lemurs, as in all races of men, the palms are lighter -than the backs of the hands and feet. The thumb of the gorilla is more -perfect than that of the chimpanzee, yet it is smaller in proportion to -the hand than in man. The hand is very large, but has more the shape of -the hand of a woman than that of a man. The fingers taper in a graceful -manner, but by reason of the web alluded to they appear much shorter -than they really are. It is not really a web in the true sense, but the -integument between the fingers is extended down almost to the second -joint. The forward edge of this is concave when the fingers are spread. -When the fingers are brought together the skin on the knuckles becomes -wrinkled, and the web almost disappears. This is more readily noticed -in the living animal than in the dead. The texture of the skin in the -palms is coarsely granulated, and the palmar lines are indistinct. The -great toe sets at an angle from the side of the foot, thus resembling -a thumb. It has more prehension than the corresponding member of the -hand. The foot is less flexible than the hand, but it has greater -strength and prehension.</p> - -<p>At this point I wish to draw attention to one important fact. The -tendons of the foot, which open and close the digits, are imbedded in -the palm in a deep layer of coarse, gristly matter, which forms a pad, -as it were, under the soles of the foot and prevents it from bending. -Therefore it is not possible for a gorilla to sleep on a perch.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</span> In -this respect he resembles man more than the chimpanzee does, but it -is quite certain that neither of them has the true arboreal habit. -The gorilla is an expert climber, but he cannot sleep in a tree. In -the hand the tendons which close the fingers are the same length as -the line of the bones, and this permits him to open the fingers to a -straight line, which the chimpanzee cannot do.</p> - -<p>One other important point I desire to mention. The muscles in the leg -of the gorilla will not permit the animal to stand or walk erect. The -large muscle at the back of the leg is shorter than the line of the -bones of the leg above and below the knee. When this muscle is brought -to a tension, those bones form an angle of from 130° to 160°, or -thereabouts. So long as the sum of two sides of a triangle is greater -than the other side, a gorilla can never bring his leg into a straight -line. In the infant state, while the muscles are elastic and the bones -less rigid, the leg can be forced nearly straight. The habit of hanging -by the arms and walking with them in a straight line develops the -corresponding muscle in those members so that the bones can be brought -in line and the limbs straightened.</p> - -<p>The gorilla can stand upon his feet alone and walk a few steps in that -position; but his motion is very awkward; his knees turn outward, -forming an angle of 40° or 50° on either side of the mesial plane. He -never attempts to walk in this position except at perfect leisure, and -then he holds on to something with his hands.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img026"> - <img src="images/026.jpg" class="w50" alt="YOUNG GORILLA WALKING (From a Drawing.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">YOUNG GORILLA WALKING<br /> (From a Drawing.)</p> - -<p>The leg of the gorilla from the knee to the ankle is almost the same -in size. In the human leg there is what<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</span> is called the “calf” of the -leg, but in the apes this is very small. However, there is a tendency -in the ape to develop that feature. In the human species the calf of -the leg appears to belong to the higher types of men. As we descend -from the highest races of mankind this characteristic decreases, and -it almost disappears in the lowest savage. The pygmies and the bushmen -have smaller calves than any other men. It is not to be inferred from -this that apes would ever have this feature developed in them by their -elevation to a higher plane. So long as they remain apes they will -retain this characteristic, which is one of the distinctive features -of their apehood. One thing which makes the calf appear smaller in -the gorilla is the large size of the muscles about the ankle and the -flexibility of that joint. Also the fact that the joint of the knee is -larger in proportion to the leg makes it appear smaller than it really -is. The corresponding parts of the arm are more like those of the human -body.</p> - -<p>In a sitting posture the gorilla rests his body upon the ischial bones -and sits with his legs extended or crossed. The chimpanzee usually -squats, resting the ischial bones upon his heels. He sometimes sits, -but more frequently he squats. When in either of these attitudes both -kinds usually fold their arms across their breasts.</p> - -<p>The hair of the gorilla is irregular in growth. It is more dense than -that of the chimpanzee, but less uniform in size and distribution. -On the breast it is very sparse, while on the back it is dense and -interspersed with long, coarse hairs. The hair on the arms is long and -coarse. The ground color is black, but the extreme end of the hair<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</span> -is tipped with pale white. This is so even in early youth. With age -the white encroaches, until in extreme age the animal becomes quite -gray. The top of the head is covered with a growth of short hair. In -certain specimens this crest is of a dark tan color. It looks almost -like a wig. This mark seems to be peculiar to certain localities. It is -uniform among those captured in the Ferran Vaz basin.</p> - -<p>A white trader living on Ferran Vaz Lake claims to have seen a gorilla -which was perfectly white. It was said to have been seen on a plain -near the lake in company with three or four others. It was thought to -be an albino. In my opinion it was only a very aged specimen turned -gray. A few of them have been secured that were almost white. It is -not, however, such a shade of white as would be found in an animal -whose normal color is white. I cannot vouch for the color of this ape -seen on the plain, but there must have been something peculiar in it to -attract attention among the natives. They regarded it as something very -extraordinary.</p> - -<p>So far, only one species of this ape is known to science; but there -are certain reasons to believe that two species exist. In the forest -regions of Esyira the natives described to me another kind of ape, -which they averred was a half-brother to the gorilla. They know the -gorilla by the native name <em>njina</em>, and the other type by the -name <em>ntyii</em>. They do not confuse this with the native name -<em>ntyigo</em>, which is the name of the chimpanzee. Neither is it a -local name for the <em>kulu-kamba</em>. All of those apes are known to -the natives. They described in detail, and quite correctly, the three -known kinds of ape. In addition they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</span> gave me a minute account of the -appearance and habits of a fourth kind, which I believe to be another -species of the gorilla. They claim that he is more intelligent and -human-like than any one of the others. They say that his superior -wisdom makes him more alert and, therefore, more difficult to find. He -is said always to live in parts of the forest more remote from human -habitation. On my next voyage I mean to hunt for this new species.</p> - -<p>The dental formula of the gorilla is the same as that of man; but the -teeth are larger and stronger, and the canine teeth are developed into -tusks. One thing to be remarked is the great variety of malformations -in the teeth of this animal. It is a rare thing to find among them a -perfect set of teeth, except in infancy. The cause of this deficiency -appears to be violence.</p> - -<p>The eyes of the gorilla are large, dark, and expressive, but there -is no trace of white in them. That part of the eye which is white in -man is a dark coffee-brown in the gorilla. It becomes lighter as it -approaches the base of the optic nerve. The taxidermist or the artist -who often furnishes him with a white spot in the corner of his eye does -violence to the subject. Those who pose him with his mouth opened like -a fly-trap, and his arms raised like a lancer, ought to be banished -from good society. It is true that such things lend an aspect of -ferocity to the creature, but they are caricatures of the thing they -mean to portray.</p> - -<p>The ears of the gorilla are very small and lie close to the sides of -the head. The model of them is much like the human ear. The lower lip -is massive, and the animal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</span> frequently relaxes it, so that a small red -line is visible between the lips. The usual height of the adult male -gorilla, if standing quite erect, is about five feet ten inches. The -tallest specimen that has ever been taken is a trifle more than six -feet two inches.</p> - -<p>I shall not pursue the comparison into minute details, but shall leave -that to the specialist, in whose hands it will be treated with more -skill and greater scope. As my especial line of research has been -in the study of the speech and the habits of these animals, I shall -confine myself to that. But the general comparison made is necessary to -a better understanding of these subjects.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXI">CHAPTER XXI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Habits of the Gorilla—Social Traits—Government—Justice—Mode of -Attack—Screaming and Beating—Food</p> - - -<p>Studying the habits of the gorilla in a wild state is attended with -much difficulty, but the results obtained during my sojourn of nearly -four months among them in the forest are an ample reward for the -efforts made. In captivity the habits of animals are made to conform -in a measure to their surroundings, and since those are different from -their natural environment, many of their habits differ in a like degree -from the normal. Some are foregone, others modified, and new ones are -acquired. Therefore, it is difficult to know exactly what the animal -was in a state of nature.</p> - -<p>In the social life of the gorilla there are certain things in which he -differs from the chimpanzee, but there are others in which they closely -resemble each other. From the native accounts of the modes of life -of these two apes there would appear to be a much greater difference -than a systematic study of them reveals. The native version of things -frequently has a germ of truth which may serve as a clue to the facts -in the case; and while we cannot safely rely upon all the details of -the tales they relate, we forgive their mendacity and make use of the -suggestions they furnish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</span></p> - -<p>The gorilla is polygamous in habit, and he has an incipient idea of -government. Within certain limits he has a faint perception of order -and justice, if not of right and wrong. I do not mean to ascribe to him -the highest attributes of man or to exalt him above the plane to which -his faculties justly assign him; but there are reasons to justify the -belief that he occupies a higher social and mental sphere than other -animals, except the chimpanzee.</p> - -<p>In the beginning of his career of independent life the young gorilla -selects a wife with whom thereafter he appears to sustain the conjugal -relation, and he maintains a certain degree of marital fidelity. From -time to time he adopts a new wife, but does not discard the old one. In -this manner he gathers around him a numerous family, consisting of his -wives and children. Each mother nurses and cares for her own young, but -all of them grow up together as the children of one family. The mother -sometimes corrects and sometimes chastises her young. This presupposes -some idea of propriety.</p> - -<p>The father exercises the function of patriarch in the sense of a ruler, -and the natives call him <em>ikomba njina</em>, which means “gorilla -chief.” This term is derived from the third person singular of the -verb <em>kamba</em>, “to speak”—<em>i kamba</em>, “he speaks.” Hence -“spokesman,” or one that speaks for others. To him all the others show -a certain amount of deference. Whether this is due to fear or respect -is not certain; but here is at least the first principle of dignity.</p> - -<p>The gorilla family of one adult male and a number of females and -their young practically constitutes within itself a nation. There do -not appear to be any social<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</span> relations between different families, -but within the same household there is apparent harmony. The gorilla -is nomadic and rarely ever spends two nights in the same place. Each -family roams about from place to place in the bush in search of food, -and wherever they may be when night comes on, there they select a place -to sleep.</p> - -<p>The largest family of gorillas that I ever heard of was estimated to -contain twenty members. The usual number is rarely ever more than ten -or twelve. The chimpanzees appear to go in somewhat larger groups than -these. Sometimes in a single group of chimpanzees as many as three, -or even four, adult males have been seen. When the young gorilla -approaches the adult state he leaves the family group, finds himself -a mate, and sets out in the world for himself. I observe that, as a -rule, when one gorilla is seen alone in the forest it is usually a -young male about reaching the state of manhood. It is probable that -he has then set out for himself, and that he is in search of a wife. -When two only are seen together they usually prove to be a young male -and a young female. It sometimes occurs that three adults are seen -with two or three children. In large families are seen young ones of -different ages, from one year old to five or six years old. The older -children are always fewer in number than the younger ones. I have once -seen a large female quite alone except for her babe. Whether she lived -alone or was only temporarily absent from her family I had no means of -ascertaining.</p> - -<p>The gorilla chief does not provide food for his family. On the -contrary, it is said that they provide for him. I have been informed, -on two occasions and from different<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</span> sources, that the gorilla chief -has been seen sitting quietly eating under the shade of a tree while -the others collected and brought to him his food. I have never myself -witnessed such a scene, but it seems probable that the same story -coming from two sources has some foundation of fact.</p> - -<p>In the matter of government the gorilla appears to be somewhat more -advanced than most animals. The chief leads the others on the march -and selects their feeding grounds and their places to sleep. He breaks -camp, and the others all obey him in these respects. Other gregarious -animals do the same, but, in addition to these things, the gorillas -from time to time hold a rude form of court, or council, in the jungle. -It is said that the king presides on these occasions; that he sits -alone in the center, while the others stand or sit in a semicircle -about him and talk in an excited manner. Sometimes all of them are -talking at once. Many of the natives claim to have witnessed these -proceedings; but what they mean or allude to no native undertakes -to say, except that there appears to be something of the nature of -a quarrel. To what extent the chief gorilla exercises the judicial -function is a matter of doubt, but there appears to be some real ground -for the story.</p> - -<p>As to the succession of the kingship there is no authoritative -information as yet to be had; but from the meager data upon this point -the belief is that on the death of the <em>ikomba</em> if there be an -adult male he assumes the royal prerogative; otherwise the family -disbands and eventually becomes absorbed by or attached to other -families. Whether this new leader is elected in the manner in which -other animals appoint a leader, or assumes it by reason of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</span> his age, -cannot now be stated. There is no doubt that in many instances families -remain intact for a long time after the death of their <em>ikomba</em>.</p> - -<p>It has been stated by many writers that the gorilla builds a rude hut -for himself and family. I have found no evidence that such is the fact. -The natives declare that he does this, and some white men affirm the -same. During my travels through the country of the gorilla I offered -frequent and liberal rewards to any native who would show me a specimen -of this simian architecture; but I was never able to find a trace of -one made or occupied by any ape. Sometimes they take shelter from -the tornadoes, but it is usually under some fallen tree or a cluster -of broad leaves. There is absolutely nothing to indicate that they -rearrange any part of tree or leaves. So far as I could find, there is -absolutely no proof that any gorilla ever put two sticks together with -the idea of building a shelter. As to his throwing sticks or stones at -an enemy, there is nothing to verify it, but much to controvert it. It -is a mere freak of fancy.</p> - -<p>The current opinion that a gorilla will attack a man without being -provoked to it is another popular error. He is shy and timid. He -shrinks alike from man and from other large animals. When he is in a -rage he is both fierce and powerful; but his ferocity and strength are -rated above their value. In combat no doubt he is a stubborn foe, but -no one I have ever met has seen him thus engaged. His mode of attack, -as described by certain travelers, is a mere theory. It is said that -in this act he walks erect, furiously beats upon his breast, roars, -and yells. In this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</span> manner he first terrorizes and then seizes his -adversary, tears open his breast and drinks the blood. I have never -seen a large gorilla in the act of assault.</p> - -<p>During my stay in the jungle I had a young gorilla in captivity. I made -use of him in studying the habits of his race. I kept him tied with a -long line which allowed him room to play or climb about in the bushes, -and at the same time prevented him from escaping into the forest, as he -always tried to do the instant he was released. I frequently released -him for the purpose of watching his mode of attack when recaptured. -While being pursued he rarely looked back, but when overtaken he -invariably assailed his captor. This gave me an opportunity of seeing -his method of attack. In this he displayed both skill and judgment. As -my native boy approached him he calmly turned one side to the foe and, -without facing the boy, rolled his eyes in such a manner as to see him -and at the same time conceal his own purpose. When the boy came within -reach, the gorilla grasped him by thrusting the arm to one side and -obliquely backwards. When he had seized his adversary by the leg, he -instantly swung the other arm around with a long sweep, so as to strike -the boy a hard blow. Then he used his teeth. He seemed to depend more -upon the blow than upon the grasp, but the latter served to hold the -object of attack within reach. In every case he kept one arm and one -leg in reserve until he had seized his adversary.</p> - -<p>It is true that these attacks were made upon an enemy in pursuit, but -his mode of doing this appeared to be natural to him. He struck a -severe blow and showed no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</span> sign of tearing or scratching his opponent. -In these attacks he made no sound. I do not say that other gorillas -never scream or tear their victims, but I take it that the habits of -the young are much, if not quite, the same as those of their elders; -and from a study of this specimen I am forced to modify many opinions -imbibed from reading or from pictures and museum specimens which I -have seen. Many of them represent the gorilla in absurd and sometimes -impossible attitudes. They certainly do not represent him as I have -seen him in his native wilds. I had a young female gorilla as a subject -for study for a short time. Her mode of attack was about the same as -that just described, but she was too large to risk very far in such -experiments.</p> - -<p>When the chimpanzee attacks,—so far as I have seen among my own -specimens,—he approaches his enemy and strikes with both hands, one -slightly in advance of the other. After striking a few blows he grasps -his opponent and uses his teeth. Then, shoving him away, he again uses -the hands. Usually, on beginning the attack, he accompanies the assault -with a loud, piercing scream. Neither he nor the gorilla closes the -hand to strike or uses any weapon except the hands and the teeth.</p> - -<p>I have read and heard descriptions of the sounds made by gorillas, but -nothing ever conveyed to my mind an adequate idea of their real nature -until I heard them myself within about a hundred feet of my cage in -the dead of night. By some it has been called roaring, and by others -howling; but it is neither a roar nor a howl. They utter a peculiar -combination of sounds, beginning in a low, smooth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</span> tone, which rapidly -increases in pitch and frequency, until it becomes a terrific scream. -The first sound of the series and each alternate sound are made by -expiration; the intermediate ones appear to be by inspiration. How this -is accomplished it is difficult to say. The sound as a whole resembles -the braying of an ass, except that the notes are shorter, the climax is -higher, and the sound is louder. A gorilla does not yell in this manner -every night, but when he does so it is usually between two and five -o’clock in the morning. I have never heard the sound during the day nor -in the early part of the night. When screaming he repeats the series -from ten to twenty times, at intervals of one or two minutes apart. I -know of nothing in the way of vocal sounds that can inspire such terror -as the voice of the gorilla. It can be heard over a distance of three -or four miles. I can assign no definite meaning to it unless it is -intended to alarm some intruder.</p> - -<p>One morning, between three and four o’clock, I heard two of them -screaming at the same time. I do not mean at the same instant, but at -intervals during the same period of time. One of them was within about -a third of a mile of me, and the other in another direction, perhaps -a mile away. The points we respectively occupied formed a scalene -triangle. The sounds made by the two apes did not appear to have any -reference to each other. Sometimes they would alternate, and at other -times they would interrupt each other. They were both made by giants of -their kind, and every leaf in the forest vibrated with the sound. This -was during the latter part of May. They scream in this way from time to -time throughout the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</span> year, but it is most frequent and violent during -February and March.</p> - -<p>This wild screaming is sometimes accompanied by a peculiar beating -sound. It has been vaguely and variously described by travelers, and -currently believed to be made by the animal beating with his hands upon -his breast; but that is not the fact. The sound cannot be made by that -means. The quality of the sound shows that such cannot be the means -employed. I have several times heard this beating and have paid marked -attention to its character. At a great distance it would be difficult -to determine its exact quality.</p> - -<p>On one occasion, while passing the night in a native town, I was -aroused from sleep by a gorilla screaming and beating within a few -hundred yards of the village. I drew on my boots, took my rifle, and -cautiously crossed the open ground between the village and the forest. -This brought me within about two hundred yards of the animal. The moon -was faintly shining, but I could not see the beast, and I had no desire -to approach nearer at such a time. I distinctly heard every stroke. I -believe the sound was made by beating upon a log or piece of dead wood. -He was beating with both hands. The alternating strokes were made with -great rapidity. The order of the strokes was not unlike that produced -by the natives in beating their drums, except that in this instance -each hand made the same number of strokes, and the strokes were in a -constant series, rising and falling from very soft to very loud, and -<em>vice versa</em>. A number of these runs followed one another during -the time the voice continued. Between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</span> the first and second strokes the -interval was slightly longer than that between the second and third, -and so on through the scale. As the beating increased in loudness the -interval shortened in an inverse degree, while in descending the scale -the intervals lengthened as the beating softened, and the author of the -sound was conscious of the fact.</p> - -<p>I could trace no relation in time or harmony between the sound of the -voice and the beating, except that they began at the same time and -ended at the same time. The same series of vocal sounds was repeated -each time, beginning on the low note and ending in each case with the -note of the highest pitch, while the rise and fall of the series of -the beaten sounds were not measured by the duration of the voice. The -series each time began with a soft note, but ended at any part of the -scale at which it happened to be at the time the voice ceased. The -coinciding notes were not the same in every case.</p> - -<p>No doubt the gorilla sometimes beats upon his breast. He has been seen -to do this in captivity, but the sounds described above were not so -made. Since the gorilla makes these sounds only at night, it is not -probable that any man ever saw him in the act. It does not require -a delicate sense of hearing to distinguish a sound made by beating -the breast from that made by beating on dead wood or other similar -substance.</p> - -<p>I have attributed the above sound to the gorilla, because I have been -assured by many white men and scores of natives that it was made by -him; but since my return from Africa I have had time to consider and -digest certain facts tabulated on my first voyage, and, as a result of -these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</span> reflections, I doubt whether this sound is made by the gorilla. -There are reasons to believe that it is made by the chimpanzee.</p> - -<p>I observed that my own chimpanzees made a sound exactly the same as -that I heard in the forest, except that it was less in volume. This was -due to the age of the apes that made it. I could induce them at any -time to make the sound, and frequently did so in order to study it. -After my arrival in New York I found that Chico—the big chimpanzee -belonging to <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Bailey—frequently made the same sound. This he -always did at night. The cry was said to be so loud and piercing -that it fairly shook the stately walls of Madison Square Garden. -From reading the description given by the late Professor Romanes of -the sound made by “Sally” in the London Gardens, it appears that she -made the same sound. It is well known to the natives that chimpanzees -beat on some sonorous body, which the natives call a drum. In 1890 I -called attention to the beating practiced by the two chimpanzees in -the Cincinnati Gardens. They frequently indulged in beating with their -knuckles upon the floor of their cage. This was done chiefly by the -male. The late E. J. Glave described to me the same thing as being done -by the chimpanzees in the middle Congo basin.</p> - -<p>It is not probable that two animals of different genera utter the -same exact sound, and this is more especially true of a sound that is -complex or prolonged. Neither is it likely that the two would have a -common habit, such as beating on any sonorous body. Since it is certain -that one of these apes does make the sound described, it is more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</span> -than probable that the other does not. The same logic applies to the -beating. Many things that are known to the chimpanzee are taken for -granted in the gorilla; but it is erroneous to suppose that in such -habits as these they would be identical. In view of the facts I am -inclined to believe the sounds described are made by the chimpanzee and -not by the gorilla.</p> - -<p>There is another case in which the gorilla is wrongly portrayed. The -female gorilla is represented as carrying her young clinging to her -waist. I have seen the mother in the forest, with her young mounted -upon her back, its arms around her neck, and its feet hooked in her -armpits. I have never seen the male carry the young, but in a number -of specimens of advanced age I have seen and called attention to the -mark upon the back and sides which indicates that he does this. It is -in the same place that the young one rests upon the back of the mother. -In form it is like an inverted Y, with the base resting on the neck and -the prongs reaching under the arms. This mark is not one of nature. It -is the imprint of something carried there. In some specimens the hair -is worn off until the skin is almost bare. The prongs are more worn -than the stem of the figure. This is due to the fact that the abrasion -is greater upon those parts than elsewhere. I do not assert that such -is the cause, but I do assert that such is the fact.</p> - -<p>The gorilla is averse to human society. In captivity he is morose and -sullen. He frets and pines for his liberty. His face appears to be -incapable of expressing anything resembling a smile, but when in repose -it is not repugnant. In anger his visage depicts the savage instincts -of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</span> nature. He does not seem to bear captivity well, even when not -removed from his native climate. The longest any one of them has ever -been known to live in captivity was about three and a half years. The -one shown in the accompanying cut belonged to a trader by the name of -Jones. The name of the gorilla was Sally, and I have called her Sally -Jones. She lived with her master three years and a half and died of -grief at his absence.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img027"> - <img src="images/027.jpg" class="w75" alt="SALLY JONES (YOUNG GORILLA) CAUGHT NAPPING (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">SALLY JONES (YOUNG GORILLA) CAUGHT NAPPING<br /> (From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>The gorilla which lived with me for a time in the forest was a sober, -solemn, stoical creature, and nothing could arouse in him a spirit of -mirth. The only pastime he cared to indulge in was turning somersaults. -Almost every day, at intervals of an hour or so, he would stand up for -a moment, then put his head upon the ground, turn over, rise to his -feet again, and look at me as if expecting my applause. His actions in -this feat were very much like those of a boy. He frequently repeated -this act a dozen times or more, but never smiled or evinced any sign of -pleasure. He was selfish, cruel, vindictive, and retiring.</p> - -<p>One peculiar habit of the gorilla, both wild and in captivity, is that -of relaxing the lower lip when in repose. It is not done when the -creature is in a sullen mood, but frequently, when perplexed or in a -deep study, this occurs. Another habit is that of protruding the end -of the tongue between the lips, until it is about even with the outer -edge of them. The end of the tongue is somewhat more blunted than that -of the human. This habit is so frequent with the young gorilla that it -would appear to have some meaning; but I cannot suggest what it is.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</span></p> - -<p>In sleeping, the habit of the gorilla is to lie upon the back or -side, with one or both arms placed under the head as a pillow. He -cannot sleep on a perch,—as we have already noted,—but lies upon -the ground at night. I had pointed out to me the place at the base of -a large tree where a school of them had slept the night before. One -imprint was quite distinct. The stories told about the king gorilla, or -<em>ikomba</em>, placing his family in a tree while he sits on watch at -the base is another case of supposition.</p> - -<p>The food of the gorilla is not confined to plants and fruits. He is -fond of meat and eats it either raw or cooked. He secures a supply of -this kind of food by catching small rodents of various kinds, lizards, -toads, etc. It is also well known that he robs the nests of birds, -taking the eggs or the young. A native once pointed out to me the -quills and bones of a porcupine which had been left by a gorilla who -had eaten the carcass. It is not at all rare for them to do this. The -fruits and plants upon which they chiefly live are acidulous in taste, -and some of them are bitter. They often eat the fruit of the plantain, -but they prefer the stalk of that plant; this they twist or break open -and eat the succulent heart. They do the same with the batuna, which -grows all through the forest. The fruit of this plant is a red pod -filled with seeds imbedded in a soft pulp. It is slightly acid and -astringent. The wild mangrove, which forms a staple article of food -for the chimpanzee, is rarely if ever eaten by the gorilla. I once -saw a gorilla try to seize a dog, but whether or not it was for the -purpose of eating the flesh I cannot say. One, however, did catch and -devour a small dog on board the steamer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</span> Nubia, while on a voyage home -from Africa. Both animals belonged to Captain Button, and from him I -learned of the incident. Gorillas have no fixed hours for eating, but -they usually eat in the early morning or the late afternoon. In a few -instances I have seen them refuse meat. They are perhaps less devoted -to eating flesh than the chimpanzee is.</p> - -<p>In the act of drinking, the gorilla takes a cup, places the rim in his -mouth, and drinks in the same manner as a human being does. He does -this without being taught, while the chimpanzee prefers to put both -lips in the vessel. I have never known a gorilla that would drink beer, -spirits, coffee, or soup. Their drink is limited to milk or water. The -chimpanzee drinks beer and various other things.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXII">CHAPTER XXII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Othello and Other Gorillas—Othello and Moses—Gorilla -Visitors—Gorilla Mother and Child—Scarcity of Gorillas—Unauthentic -Tales</p> - - -<p>While I was living in my cage in the jungle I secured the young gorilla -to whom I gave the name Othello. He was about six months old, strong, -hardy, and robust. I found him to be a fine subject for study and made -the best use of him for that purpose. I have elsewhere described his -character, but his illness and death are matters of interest.</p> - -<p>At noon on the day of his decease he appeared to be quite well and in -fine humor. He was turning somersaults and playing like a child with -a native boy. He evinced much interest in his play, and his actions -indicated that it gave him pleasure; but his face never once betrayed -the fact. It was amusing to see him with the actions of a romping child -and the face of a cynic.</p> - -<p>He was supplied with plenty of his favorite food, had a good appetite, -and ate with a relish. Just after noon I sent the boy on an errand. -Near the middle of the afternoon I observed that Othello was ill. He -declined to eat or drink and lay on his back on the ground, with his -arms under his head as a pillow. I tried to induce him to walk with -me, to play, or to sit up, but he refused. By four o’clock he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</span> was -very ill. He rolled from side to side and groaned in evident pain. He -kept one hand upon his stomach, where the pain appeared to be located. -He displayed all the symptoms of gastric poisoning, and I have reason -to believe now that the boy had given him poison. I should regret to -foster this suspicion against an innocent person, but it is based upon -certain facts that I have learned since that time.</p> - -<p>While I sat in my cage watching Othello, who lay on the ground a short -distance away, I discovered a native approaching him from the jungle. -The man had an uplifted spear in his hand, as if in the act of hurling -it at something. He had not seen me, but it did not for a moment occur -to me that he had designs upon my pet. I spoke to him in the native -language, whereupon he explained that he had seen the young gorilla and -suspected that there was an old one close at hand, and being in fear of -an attack, he was prepared. He said he was not afraid of a little one, -but desired to capture him. I informed him that the gorilla was ill. He -made an examination and assured me that Othello would die.</p> - -<p>The man departed, and Othello continued to grow worse. His sighing and -groaning were really touching. I gave him an emetic, which produced -good results. I also used some vaporoles to resuscitate him, but my -skill was not sufficient to meet the demands of his case. His conduct -was so like that of a human being that it deeply impressed me, and -being alone with him in the silence of the dreary forest at the time of -his death, the scene had a touch of sadness that impressed me with a -deeper sense of its reality.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</span> Moses watched the dying ape as if he knew -what death meant. He showed no signs of regret, but his manner was such -as to suggest that he knew it was a trying hour.</p> - -<p>Othello died just before sunset, but for a long time prior to this he -was unconscious. The only movements made by him were spasmodic actions -caused by pain. The fixed and vacant stare of his eyes in his last -hour was so like that of man in the hour of dissolution that no one -could look upon the scene and fail to realize the solemn fact that this -was death. The next day I dissected him and prepared the skin and the -skeleton to bring home with me. They are now, with those of Moses and -others, in the Museum of the University of Toronto.</p> - -<p>When I first secured this ape and brought him to my house in the bush, -he was placed on the ground a few feet from my cage. Near him were laid -some bananas and sugarcane belonging to Moses, who had not yet seen the -stranger. The gorilla was in a box with one side open, so that he could -easily be seen. My purpose was to see how each would act on discovering -the other. When Moses observed the food he proceeded to help himself. -On seeing the gorilla he paused a moment and gave me an alarm. He was -not himself deterred from taking a banana. He seized one and retreated. -While he was eating the banana, I took the gorilla from the cage and -set him on the ground by it. I petted him and gave him some food. Moses -looked on but did not interfere.</p> - -<p>When I returned to my cage Moses proceeded to investigate the new ape. -He approached slowly and cautiously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</span> within about three feet of it. He -walked around the gorilla a couple of times, keeping his face towards -it, and gradually getting a little nearer. At length he came up within -a few inches of one side of the gorilla and stopped. He stood almost -on tiptoe, with only the ends of his fingers touching the ground. The -gorilla continued to eat his food without so much as giving Moses a -look. Moses placed his mouth near the ear of the gorilla and gave -one terrific yell. The gorilla did not flinch or even turn his eyes. -Moses stood for a moment looking as if in surprise that he had made -no impression. After this time he made some friendly overtures to the -gorilla, but the latter did not entertain them with favor, beyond -maintaining terms of peace. They never quarreled, but Othello always -treated Moses as an inferior. I do not know if he entertained a real -feeling of contempt, but his manner was haughty and condescending.</p> - -<p>There were but few articles of food that he and Moses liked in common, -and, therefore, they had no occasion to quarrel; but they never played -together or cultivated any friendly terms, as the chimpanzees did among -themselves. This may have been due to the fact that the gorilla was -so exclusive in his demeanor towards the chimpanzee as to forbid all -attempts of the latter to become intimate. The chimpanzee by nature is -more sociable and is fond of human society. He imitates the actions -of man in many things and quickly adapts himself to new conditions, -while the gorilla is selfish and retiring. He can seldom be reconciled -to human society. He does not imitate man nor readily yield to the -influence of civilization.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</span></p> - -<p>One special trait of the gorilla which I wish to emphasize is that -he is one of the most taciturn of all the family. This fact does not -confirm my theory as to their faculty of speech; but it is a fact, so -far as I observed, although the natives say that he is as loquacious -as the chimpanzee. Among the specimens that I have studied, both wild -and in captivity, I have never heard but four sounds that differed from -each other, and of these only two could properly be defined as speech. -I do not include the screaming sound described in another chapter. I -have not been able, so far, to translate the sounds that I have heard, -and they cannot be spelled with our letters.</p> - -<p>There is one sound which Othello often used. It was not a speech -sound, but a kind of whine, always coupled with a deep sigh. When left -alone for a time he became oppressed with solitude. At such times he -often heaved a deep sigh and uttered this strange sound. The tone and -manner strongly appealed to the feelings of others, and while he did -not appear to address it to any one or have any design in making it, -it always touched a sympathetic chord, and I was sometimes tempted to -release him. Another sound which was not within the pale of speech was -a kind of grumbling sound. This frequently occurred when he was eating. -It was not exactly a growl, but a kind of complaint. Twice I heard -this same sound made by wild ones in the forest near my cage. The only -thing that I can compare it to is the habit that cats have of growling -while eating. It appears to be done only when something is near. It is -possibly intended to deter others from trying to take the food.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</span></p> - -<p>During my life in the cage I saw twenty-two gorillas; but I shall -describe only a few of them, as their actions in most instances were -similar. The first one that I had the pleasure of seeing in the jungle -came within a few yards of the cage before it was yet in order to -receive. He was exactly half grown. He must have been attracted by the -noise made in putting the cage together. He advanced with caution, -and when I discovered him he was peering through the bushes, as if to -ascertain the cause of the sounds. When he saw me, he tarried only a -few seconds and hurried off into the jungle. I did not disturb or shoot -at him, because I desired him to return.</p> - -<p>On the third day after I went to live in the cage a family of ten -gorillas was seen to cross an open space along the back of a batch of -plantains near one of the villages. A small native boy was within about -twenty yards of them when they crossed the path in front of him. A few -minutes later I was notified of their vicinity. I took my rifle and -followed them into the jungle until I lost the trail. A few hours after -this they were again seen by some natives not far away from my cage, -but they did not come near enough to be seen or heard. The next day a -family came within some thirty yards of the cage. The bush was so dense -that I could not see them, but I could distinguish four or five voices. -They seemed to be engaged in a broil of some kind. I suppose it was the -family that had been seen the day before. The second night after that I -heard the screams of one in the forest some distance from me, but I do -not know whether it was the king of this family or another.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</span></p> - -<p>One day as I sat alone a young gorilla, perhaps five years old, came -within six or seven yards of the cage and took a peep. I do not know -whether or not he was aware of its being there until he was so near. He -stood for a time, almost erect, with one hand holding on to a bough. -His lower lip was relaxed, showing the red line mentioned elsewhere, -and the end of his tongue could be seen between his parted lips. He did -not evince either fear or anger, but rather appeared to be amazed. I -heard him creeping through the bush a few seconds before I saw him. As -a rule, they move so stealthily as not to be heard. I know of no other -animal of equal size that makes so little noise in going through the -forest. During the short time he stood gazing at me I sat still as a -statue, and I think he was in doubt as to whether or not I was alive. -He did not run away, but after a brief pause turned off at an angle and -quietly departed. He lost no time, but made no great haste. The only -sound he made was a low grunt, and this he did not repeat.</p> - -<p>At another time I heard two making a noise among the plantains near me. -I could obtain only a glimpse of them, but as well as I could see they -were of good size, being almost grown. They were making a low sound -from time to time, something such as I have described; but I could -not see them well enough to frame any opinion as to what it meant. -They were certainly not quarreling, and I was not sure that they were -eating. I afterwards went and looked to see if I could find where they -had broken any of the stalks. Their trail was visible through the grass -and weeds, but I could find no broken stalk. They were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</span> moving at a -very leisurely gait and must have been within hearing distance some ten -or twelve minutes. They were quite alike in color and appeared to be so -in size, although the adult male attains a much greater size than the -female.</p> - -<p>On one occasion I was standing outside of the cage some twenty yards -away, and Moses was sitting on a dead log near by. I turned to him -and was in the act of sitting down by him when he gave alarm. This he -did in an undertone, apparently to avoid attracting the attention of -the thing against which the warning was intended. I looked around, -and discovered a gorilla standing not twenty yards away. He had just -discovered us. He gazed for a moment and started on, moving obliquely -towards the cage. I turned to retreat. At this instant Moses gave one -of his piercing screams, which frightened the gorilla and he fled. He -changed his course almost at right angles. He was going at a good rate -before Moses screamed, but he at once increased his pace.</p> - -<p>One day I heard three sounds which a native boy assured me were made -by gorillas; they were in different directions from the cage. It was -not a scream nor a howl, but somewhat resembled the human voice calling -out with a sound like “he-oo!” These sounds were repeated at intervals, -but did not appear to be in the relation of call and answer; and the -animals making them did not approach each other while calling. The -sounds were the same except in volume. One of them appeared to be -made by an animal much larger than the animals that had made the two -other sounds. I should state that this sound rarely occurred within my -hearing during my stay in that part,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</span> and with one exception I never -heard a gorilla make any loud sound during the day.</p> - -<p>Another interesting specimen came prowling through the jungle as if he -had lost his way. He found a small opening, or tunnel, which I had cut -through the foliage in order to get a better view. Turning into that, -he came a few steps towards the cage before he discovered it. Suddenly -he stopped and squatted on the ground. He did not sit flat down. For -a few seconds he was motionless. So was I. He slowly raised one arm -till his hand was above his head, in which position he sat for a few -moments. Then he moved his hand quickly forward, as if to motion at me. -He did not drop his hand to the ground, but held it for a short time -at an angle from his face. Then he slowly let it down till it reached -the ground. During this time he kept his eyes fixed on me. At length -he raised the other arm and seized hold of a strong bush, by which he -slowly drew himself to a half-standing position. Thus he stood for a -few seconds, with one hand resting on the ground. Suddenly he turned -to one side, parted the bushes, and disappeared. He uttered no sound -whatever. Another came within about thirty yards of my retreat. When he -discovered me he stopped and stared in a perplexed manner. He turned -away to retreat, but, after going a few feet, turned round and sat -down on the ground. He remained in that attitude for more than half a -minute; then he rose and retired in the direction from which he had -come.</p> - -<p>The finest specimen of which I ever had a view, and at the same time -the best subject for study, was a large<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</span> female that came within a -trifle more than three yards of me. A dog that belonged to one of the -native villages had become attached to me and had found its way through -the bush to my cage. He frequently came to visit me, and I was always -glad to welcome him. One afternoon about three o’clock he came, and I -let him into the cage for a while, to pass the usual greetings. I had a -bone which I had saved from my last meal, and I threw this out to him -in the bush a few feet away from the cage. He seized the bone and began -to gnaw it where it lay. His body was in the opening of a rough path -cut through the jungle near the cage, but his head was concealed under -a clump of leaves. All at once I caught a glimpse of some moving object -at the edge of the path on the opposite side of the cage. It was a huge -female gorilla carrying a young one on her back.</p> - -<p>When I first saw her she was not more than fifty feet away. She was -creeping along the edge of the bushes and watching the dog. He was busy -with the bone. Her tread was so stealthy that I could not hear the -rustling of a leaf. She advanced a few feet, crouched under the edge -of the bushes, and cautiously peeped at the dog. Again she advanced -a little way, halted, crouched, and peeped. It was evident that her -purpose was to attack the dog. Her approach was so wary as to leave -no doubt of her dexterity in attacking a foe. Every movement was the -embodiment of stealth. Her face wore a look of anxiety with a touch of -ferocity. Her movements were quick but accurate, and her advance was -not delayed by any indecision. The dog had not discovered her approach. -The smell of the bone<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</span> and the noise he was making with it prevented -him from either smelling or hearing her. I could not warn him without -alarming her. If he could have seen her before she made the attack, -I should have left him to take his chances by flight or by battle. I -should have been glad of an opportunity to witness such a combat and to -study the actions of the belligerents, but I could not consent to see a -friendly dog taken at such disadvantage. She was now rapidly covering -the distance between them, and the dog had not yet discovered her.</p> - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img028"> - <img src="images/028.jpg" class="w75" alt="GORILLA MOTHER WITH YOUNG" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">GORILLA MOTHER WITH YOUNG</p> - - -<p>When she reached a point within about ten feet of him I determined to -break the silence. I cocked my rifle. The click of the trigger caught -her attention. I think this was the first that she was aware of my -presence. She instantly stopped, turned her face and body towards the -cage, and sat down on the ground in front of it. She gave me such a -look that I almost felt ashamed for having interfered. She sat for -more than a minute staring at me as if she had been transfixed. There -was no trace of anger or fear, but the look of surprise was on every -feature. I could see her eyes move from my head to my feet. She scanned -me as closely as if her purpose had been to purchase me. At length she -glanced at the dog who was still gnawing the bone, then turned her head -uneasily, as if to search for some way of escape. She then rose and -retraced her steps with moderate haste. She did not run, although she -lost no time. From time to time she glanced back to see that she was -not pursued. She uttered no sound of any kind.</p> - -<p>From the time this ape came in view until she departed was about -four minutes, and during that time I was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</span> afforded an opportunity -of studying her in a way that no one else has ever been able to do. -I watched every movement of her body, face, and eyes. Being in the -cage, I sat with perfect composure and studied her without the fear -of attack. With due respect for the temerity of men, I do not believe -that any sane man could calmly sit and watch one of these huge beasts -approach so near him without feeling a tremor of fear, unless he were -protected as I was. Any man would either shoot or retreat, and he could -not possibly study the subject with equanimity.</p> - -<p>The temptation to shoot her was almost too great to resist, and the -desire to capture her babe made it all the more so. But I refrained -from firing my gun anywhere within a radius of half a mile or so of my -cage, and the natives had agreed to the same thing. My purpose in doing -so was to avoid frightening the apes away from the locality. I had been -told by the native hunters that if I wounded one of the apes the others -would leave the vicinity and perhaps not return for weeks. It is said -that if you kill one the others do not notice it so much as if you -merely wounded it. Although they seem to be conscious of the fact of -the killing, and for the time depart, they will return within a short -time.</p> - -<p>I could have shot this one with perfect ease and safety. As she -approached, her head and breast were towards me; just before she -discovered me her left side was in plain view, and when she sat down -her breast was perfectly exposed. I could have shot her in the heart, -the breast, or the head. Her baby hung upon her back, with its arms -embracing her neck and its feet caught under her arms.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</span> The cunning -little imp saw me long before the mother did, but it gave her no -warning of danger. It lay with its cheek resting on the back of her -head. Its black face looked as smooth and soft as velvet. Its big, -brown eyes were looking straight at me, but it betrayed no sign of fear -or even of concern. It really had a pleased expression and wore the -nearest approach to a smile I have ever seen on the face of a gorilla. -I believe that this is their method of carrying the young and have -elsewhere assigned other reasons for this belief. In this case it is -not a matter of belief, but one of knowledge, and everything that I -have observed conspires to show that this is not an exception to the -rule.</p> - -<p>During my sojourn of nearly four months in the jungle, where, it was -said, a greater number of gorillas could be found than in any other -place in the basin of that lake, I saw a total of only twenty-two. I -saw one other at a time while I was hunting in the forest. I caught -only a glimpse of him, and should not even have done that had not the -native guide discovered and pointed him out to me. I believe that no -other white man has ever seen an equal number of these animals in a -wild state, and it is certain that no other has ever seen them under -such favorable conditions for study. I have compared notes with many -white men along that part of the coast, but I have never found any -reliable man who claims to have seen an equal number. All of them admit -that my cage is the best possible means of seeing the apes. I know men -who have lived in that part for years and who frequently hunt in the -forest for days at a time, but never yet have seen a live gorilla.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</span> I -met one man on my last voyage who has lived on the edge of the gorilla -country forty-nine years, making frequent journeys through the bush -and along the water-courses in the interest of trade. This man told me -himself that in all that time he had never seen a wild gorilla.</p> - -<p>I would cite <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> James A. Deemin as an expert woodsman and a cool, -daring hunter. I have enjoyed several hunts with him. He had traveled, -traded, and hunted through the gorilla country for more than thirteen -years. He told me that with two exceptions he had never seen a wild -gorilla. The first he ever saw was a young one, and he once saw a -school of them at a distance. On this latter occasion he was in a canoe -and under the cover of the bushes along the side of a river. Unobserved -he came near them.</p> - -<p>Another man, whose name I am at liberty to mention, is <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> J. H. Drake -of Liverpool. By those who know him <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Drake has never been suspected -of lacking courage in the hunt or of being given to romance. Yet in -many years on the coast he saw but one school of these apes, and that -was the same one that <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Deemin saw when the two men were traveling -together. Others could be cited who testify that it is a rare thing for -the most expert woodsman ever to see one of these creatures, and many -of the stories told by the casual traveler cannot be received at par. -I do not mean to impeach the veracity of others, but the temptation to -romance is too great for some people to resist. While we cannot prove -the negative by direct evidence, we must be permitted to doubt whether -or not these apes are so frequently met in the jungle as they are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</span> -alleged to be. I will give some reasons for being a sceptic on this -subject.</p> - -<p>Almost every yarn told by the novice is about the same in substance, -and much the same in detail, as those related by others. It seems that -most of them meet the same old gorilla, still beating his breast and -screaming just as he did forty years ago. The number of gun-barrels -that he is accused of having chewed up would make an arsenal sufficient -to arm the volunteers. What becomes of all those that are attacked by -this fierce monarch of the jungle? Not one of them ever gets killed, -and not one of them ever kills the gorilla. Does he merely do this as -a bluff and then recede from the attack? Or does he follow it up and -seize his victim, tear him open, and drink his blood, as he is supposed -to do? How does the victim escape? What becomes of the assailant? Who -lives to tell the tale?</p> - -<p>The gorilla has good ears, good eyes, and is a skillful bushman. One -man walking through the jungle will make more noise than half a dozen -gorillas make. The gorilla almost always sees and hears a man before -he is seen or heard by him. He is shy and will not attack a man unless -wounded or provoked to it. He is always on the alert for danger and -rarely comes into the open parts of the bush except for food. He can -conceal himself with more ease than a man can and has every advantage -in making his escape. I do not believe that he will ever approach a man -if he can evade him, but I quite believe that he will make a strong -defense if surprised or attacked. I do not believe it possible for any -one to see a great number of gorillas in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</span> any length of time unless he -goes to some one place and remains there, as I have done. Even then -he must sometimes wait for days without a trace of one. Silence and -patience alone will enable him to see them. When the gorilla sees a -man, he retires as soon as he discovers the nature of the thing before -him. He does not always flee in haste, as some other animals do, but is -more deliberate and cool about it. He will retreat in good order and -always starts in time, if possible, to escape without being observed. I -trust that I may be pardoned for not being able to believe that every -stranger who visits that country is attacked by a gorilla.</p> - -<p>Many people labor under the popular delusion that they have seen a -gorilla with some itinerant menagerie, and it may be cruel of me to -undeceive them. Up to this time there has been but one gorilla landed -alive in America. This one arrived in Boston in the autumn of 1897. -It was a mere baby and lived only five days. It was exhibited to the -public during only a part of two days. The many alleged gorillas -offered by mendacious showmen are vile fakes, and the exhibitors should -be dealt with as impostors.</p> - -<p>I regret that I have been compelled to deny much that has been said, -but I make no apology for having done so. In this work I have sought to -place these apes before the reader as I have seen them in their native -forests. I have not clothed them in fine raiment or invested them with -glamour. But I trust that this contribution may be found worthy of the -approval of all men who love nature and respect fidelity.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</span></p> - -<p>I have the vanity to believe that the methods of study which I have -employed will be made the means of farther research by more able -students than the writer. In addition to those apes that I have seen in -a wild state, I have seen about ten in captivity. Two of those were my -own. They were good subjects for study, and I made the best use of them -during the time I had them.</p> - -<p>While in the jungle I accomplished one thing, in which I feel a just -sense of pride, and that was making a gorilla take a portrait of -himself. This will interest the amateur in the art of snapshots, and I -shall relate it.</p> - -<p>I selected a place in the forest where I found some tracks of the -animal along the edge of a dense thicket of batuna. Under cover of the -foliage I set up two pairs of stakes which were crossed at the tops, -and to them was lashed a short pole forming something like a sawbuck. -To this was fastened the camera, to which had been attached a trigger -made of bamboo splits. One end of a string was fastened to the trigger, -and the other end carried under a yoke to a distance of eight feet -from the lens. At this point were attached a fresh plantain stalk -and a nice bunch of the red fruit of the batuna. Upon this point the -camera was focused, the trigger was set, and it was left to await the -gorilla. That afternoon I returned to find that something had taken the -bait, broken the string, sprung the trigger, and snapped the camera. -I developed the plate, but could find no image of anything except the -leaves in front of it. I repeated the experiment, with similar results, -but could not understand how anything could steal the bait and yet not -be shown in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</span> picture. The third time I did this I was gratified to -find the image of a gorilla, and also to discover the cause why the -other experiments had not succeeded.</p> - -<p>The deep shadows of the forest make it difficult to take a photograph -without giving it a time exposure, and when the sun is under a cloud or -on the wrong side of an object success is quite impossible. The leaves -which were shown in the first two plates were only those which were -most exposed to the light, and all the lower part of the picture was -without detail. In the third trial it could be seen that the sun was -shining at the instant of exposure. A part of the body of the gorilla -was in the light, but most of it was in the shadow of the leaves above -it. The left side of the head and face was quite distinct, so likewise -were the left shoulder and arm. The hand and the bait could not have -been distinguished except by their context. The right side of the head, -the arm, and most of the body were lost in the view. The picture showed -that the gorilla had taken the bait with his left hand, and that he was -in a crouching posture at the moment.</p> - -<p>While the photograph was very poor as a work of art, it was full of -interest as an experiment. Although it did not result in getting a good -picture, I did not regard the effort as a failure. It shows at least -that such a thing is possible, and by careful efforts, often repeated, -it could be made a means of obtaining some novel pictures. A little -ingenuity would widen the scope of this device and make it possible to -photograph birds, elephants, and everything else in the forest. When I -return to that place on a like journey I shall carry the scheme into -better effect.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIII">CHAPTER XXIII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">Other Apes—The Apes in History—Habitat—The Orangs—The Gibbon</p> - - -<p>In the various records that constitute the history of these apes are -found many novel and incoherent tales, but most of them appear to -rest upon some basis of truth. In order to arrive at a more definite -knowledge concerning them, we may review the data at our command.</p> - -<p>In the annals of the world, the first record that alludes to these -manlike apes is that of Hanno, who made a voyage from Carthage to the -west coast of Africa, nearly five hundred years before the Christian -era. He described an ape which was found in the locality about Sierra -Leone. It is singular that the description which he gave of those apes -should coincide so fully with the apes known at the present day; but it -is quite certain that the apes of which he gave an account were neither -gorillas nor chimpanzees. There is nothing to show that either of these -apes ever occupied that part of the world, or that any similar type has -done so.</p> - -<p>The ape described by Hanno was certainly not an anthropoid, but a large -dog-faced monkey or baboon, technically called <em>cynocephalus</em>. -These animals are found all along the north coast of the Gulf of -Guinea, but there is no trustworthy evidence of any true ape living -north of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</span> Cameroon valley. The river that waters it empties into the -sea about four degrees north of the equator. Here begins the first -trace of the chimpanzee. As we pass along the windward coast, casual -reports are current to the effect that gorillas and chimpanzees occupy -the interior north of there; but when these reports are sifted down to -solid facts, it turns out to be a big baboon or a monkey upon which the -story rests. Its likeness to man, as described by Hanno, was doubtless -the work of fancy, and the name <em>troglodytes</em> which he gave to it -shows that he knew but little of its habits, or cared but little for -the exactness of his statements.</p> - -<p>The account given by Henry Battel, in 1590, contains a thread of -truth woven into a web of fantasy. He must have heard the stories he -relates, or seen some specimens along the coast north of the Congo. -There are certain facts which point to this conclusion. The name -<em>pongo</em> which he gave to one of them belongs to the Fiote tongue, -which is spoken by the native tribes around Loango. Those people use -the name, and it is commonly understood to be synonymous with the name -<em>njina</em>, used by the tribes north of there. It is always applied -to the gorilla. To me, however, it appears to coincide with the name -<em>ntyii</em>, as used by the Esyira people for another ape, which -is described in the chapter devoted to gorillas. It was from Loango -that <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr> Falkenstein, in 1876, secured an ape under that name. It is -singular that Baron Wurmb, in 1780, makes use of the name <em>pongo</em> -for an orang. I have not been able to learn where he acquired this -name, but it appears to be a native Fiote name for more than four<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</span> -hundred years, and the history of their language is fairly well known.</p> - -<p>The name <em>enjocko</em>, given by Battel to another ape, is beyond a -doubt a corruption of the native name <em>ntyigo</em> (<em>ntcheego</em>), -and this name belongs north of the Congo from Mayumba to Gaboon. He -may have inferred that these apes occupied Angola, but there is not a -vestige of proof that any ape exists in that part of Africa. Even the -native tribes of that part have no indigenous name for either of these -apes. Other parts of his account are erroneous, and while he may have -believed that these apes “go in bodies to kill many natives that travel -in the wood,” and the natives may have told him such a thing, the apes -do not practice such a habit. With all their sagacity, they have no -idea of unity of action. If a band of them were attacked, they would no -doubt act together in defense, but it is not to be believed that they -ever preconcert any plan of attack. Neither do these apes ever assault -an elephant. He is the one animal they hold in mortal dread. I have -incidentally mentioned elsewhere the conduct of my two <em>kulus</em> on -board the ship when they saw a young elephant. Chico, the big ape that -has also been mentioned, was often vicious and stubborn. Whenever he -refused to obey his keeper or became violent, an elephant was brought -in sight of his cage. On seeing it he became as meek as a lamb and -showed every sign of the most intense fear. <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Bailey himself told me -of the dread both of his apes had of an elephant. Battel was also wrong -in the mode he described of the mother carrying her young, and that of -the apes in using sticks and clubs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</span></p> - -<p>The ape known as <em>Mafuka</em>, which was exhibited in Dresden in -1875, was also brought from the Loango coast, and it is possible -that this is the ape to which the native name <em>pongo</em> really -belonged. This specimen in many respects conforms to the description -of the <em>ntyii</em> given, but the idea suggested by certain writers -that <em>Mafuka</em> was a cross between the gorilla and the chimpanzee -is not, to my mind, a tenable supposition. It would be difficult to -believe that two apes of different species in a wild state would cross, -but to believe that two that belonged to different genera would do so -is yet more illogical. I may state, however, that some of the Esyira -people advance such a theory concerning the <em>ntyii</em>, but the -belief is not general, and those best skilled in woodcraft regard them -as distinct species.</p> - -<p>To quote, in “pidjin” English, the exact version of their relationship, -as it was given to me by my interpreter while in that country, may -be of interest to the reader. I may remark, by way of explaining the -nature of the “pidjin” English, that it is a literal translation of the -native mode of thought into English words. The statement was:—</p> - -<p>“<em>Ntyii</em> ’e one; <em>njina</em> ’e one; all two ’e one, one. -<em>Ntyii</em> ’e one mudder; <em>njina</em> ’e one mudder; all two ’e one, -one. <em>Ntyii</em> ’e one fader; <em>njina</em> ’e one fader. All two ’e -one.” By which the native means to say that the <em>ntyii</em> has one -mother, and the <em>njina</em> has one mother, so that the two have two -mothers, but both have one father, therefore they are half-brothers.</p> - -<p>The other version given in denial of this statement is as follows:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</span></p> - -<p>“<em>Ntyii</em> ’e one mudder; <em>njina</em>, ’e one mudder. ’E one, -one. <em>Ntyii</em> ’e one fader; <em>njina</em> ’e one fader. ’E one, -one. All two ’e one, one. <em>Ntyii</em> ’e one mudder; <em>njina</em> ’e -one mudder. All two ’e one, one. ’E brudder. <em>Ntyii</em> ’im fader; -<em>njina</em> ’im ’e brudder. All two ’e one, one.” The translation is -that the <em>ntyii</em> has a mother, and the <em>njina</em> has a mother, -which are not the same, but are sisters. The <em>ntyii</em> has a father, -and the <em>njina</em> has a father, which are not the same, but are -brothers; and therefore the two apes are only cousins, which in the -native esteem is a remote degree of kinship.</p> - -<p>The ape described by Lopez certainly belonged to the territory north of -the Congo, which coast he explored, and gave his name to a cape about -forty miles south of the equator. It still bears the name Cape Lopez. -However, it is probable that at that time most of the low country now -occupied by these apes was covered with water; that the lakes of that -region were then all embraced in one great estuary, reaching from -Ferran Vaz to Nazavine Bay, and extending eastward to the foothills -below Lamberene. There is abundant evidence to show that such a state -has once existed there, but it is not probable that these apes have -ever changed their latitude.</p> - -<p>The name <em>soko</em> appears to be a local name for the ordinary type -of chimpanzee found throughout the whole range of their domain, and -known in other parts by other names. In Malimbu the name <em>kulu</em> -appears to apply to the same species, while in the southwestern part -of their habitat that name, coupled with the verb <em>kamba</em>, is -confined strictly to the other type. Along the northern borders of -the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</span> district to which that species belongs, but where he is very -seldom found and little known to the natives, he is called by the Nkami -tribe <em>kanga ntyigo</em>, to distinguish him from the common variety, -to which the latter name only is applied.</p> - - - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img029"> - <img src="images/029.jpg" class="w75" alt="PLAIN AND EDGE OF FOREST IN THE COUNTRY OF THE APES" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">PLAIN AND EDGE OF FOREST IN THE COUNTRY OF THE APES</p> - -<p>The etymology of the name <em>kanga</em> as applied to this ape is -rather obscure. In common use it is a verb, with the normal meaning -“to parch” or “fry,” and hence the secondary meaning “to prepare.” -Since this ape is said to be of a higher order of the race, the term -is used to signify that he is “better prepared” than the other; that -is to say, he is prepared to think and talk in a better manner. But -another history of this word appears to be more probable. The ape to -which the name is applied lives between the Nkami country and the -Congo. The name is possibly a perversion of <em>kongo</em> and implies -the kind of <em>ntyigo</em> that lives towards the great river of that -name. The etymology of African names is always difficult because there -is no record of them; but many of them can be traced out with great -precision, and some of them are unique.</p> - -<p>The name <em>M’Bouve</em>, as given by Du Chaillu, I have not been able -to identify. In one part of the country I was told that the word meant -the “chief” or head of a family. In another part it was said to mean -something like an advocate or champion, and was applied to only one -ape in a family group. The <abbr title="reverend">Rev.</abbr> A. C. Goode, a missionary who recently -died near Batanga, was stationed for twelve years at Gaboon. During -that time he traveled all through the Ogowé and Gaboon valleys. He was -familiar with the languages of that part, and he explained the word in -about the same way.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</span></p> - -<p>Whatever may be said concerning the veracity of Paul du Chaillu, there -is one thing that must be said to his credit. He gave to the world more -knowledge of these apes than all other men had ever done before; and -while he may have given a touch of color to many incidents, and related -some native yarns, he told a vast amount of valuable truth; and I can -forgive him for whatever he may have misstated, except one thing; that -is, the starting of that story about gorillas chewing up gun-barrels. -It has been a staple yarn, in stock ever since, and the instant you ask -a native any question about the habits of the gorilla he begins with a -stereotype edition of that improbable story.</p> - -<p>In view of the fact that I have made careful and methodic efforts to -determine the exact boundary of the habitat and the real habits of -these two apes, I feel at liberty to speak with an air of authority. -I have acquired my knowledge on the subject by going to their own -country and living in their own jungle, and I have thus obtained their -secrets from first-hand. With due respect to those who write books and -speak freely upon subjects of which they know but little, I beg leave -to suggest that if the authors had gone into the jungle and lived -among those animals, instead of consulting others who know less than -themselves about the subject, many of them would have written in a very -different strain. I do not mean this as a rebuke to any one, but seeing -the same old stories repeated year after year, and knowing that there -is no truth in them, I feel it incumbent as a duty to challenge them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</span></p> - -<p>I believe that in the future it will be shown that there are two types -of gorilla as distinct from each other as the two chimpanzees are. This -second variety of gorilla will be found between the third and fifth -parallels south and east of the delta district, but west of the Congo. -I believe it was represented in the ape <em>Mafuka</em>.</p> - -<p>My researches among the apes have been confined chiefly to the -two kinds heretofore described, but I have seen and studied in a -superficial way the orang and the gibbon. I am not prepared as yet to -discuss the habits of those two apes, but, as they form a part of the -group of anthropoids, we cannot dismiss them without honorable mention.</p> - -<p>The orang-outang, as he is commonly called, is known to zoölogy by the -first of these terms alone. He is a native of Borneo and Sumatra, and -opinions differ as to whether there are two species or only one.</p> - -<p>The general plan of the skeleton of the orang is very much the same as -that of the other apes. The chief points of difference are that it has -one bone more in the wrist and one joint less in the spinal column than -is found in man. He has thirteen pairs of ribs, which appear to be more -constant in their number than in man. His arms are longer, and his legs -shorter, in proportion to his body than the other two apes. The type of -the skull is peculiar and combines to a certain extent more human-like -form in one part with a more beast-like form in another. The usual -height of an adult male is about fifty-one inches.</p> - -<p>I have never had an opportunity of studying this ape in a wild state -and have had access to only a few of them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</span> in captivity. All of these -were young, and most of them were inferior specimens. He is the most -stupid and obtuse of the four great apes. Except for his skeleton -alone, he would be assigned a place below the gibbon, for in point -of speech and mental caliber he is far inferior. Perhaps the best -authorities upon the habits of this ape in a wild state are <abbr title="misters">Messrs.</abbr> W. -T. Hornaday and Alfred R. Wallace.</p> - -<p class="center p0 p2"><span class="figcenter" id="img030"> - <img src="images/030.jpg" class="w75" alt="Young Orangs (From a Photograph.)" /> -</span></p> -<p class="center p0 caption">Young Orangs (From a Photograph.)</p> - -<p>The smallest and last in order of the anthropoid apes is the gibbon. -He is much smaller in size, greater in variety,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</span> and more active than -any other of the group. His habitat is in the southeast of Asia; its -outline is vaguely defined, but it includes the Malay Peninsula and -many of the contiguous islands east and south of it.</p> - -<p>In model and texture the skeleton of the gibbon is the most delicate -and graceful of all the apes, and in this respect is superior to that -of man. He is the only one of the four apes that can walk in an erect -position. In doing this the gibbon is awkward and often uses his arms -to balance himself. Sometimes he touches his hands to the ground. At -other times he raises them above his head or extends them on either -side. The length of them is such that he can touch the fingers to the -ground while the body is nearly or quite erect. In the spinal column -he has two, and sometimes three, sections more than man. His digits -are very much longer, but his legs are nearly the same length, in -proportion to his body, as those of man. He has fourteen pairs of ribs.</p> - -<p>The gibbon is the most active and probably the most intelligent of all -apes. He is more arboreal in habit than any other. Many stories are -told of his agility in climbing, and leaping from limb to limb. One -authentic report credits one of these apes with leaping a distance of -forty-two feet, from the limb of one tree to that of another. Perhaps -a better term is to call it swinging, rather than leaping, as these -flights are performed chiefly by the arms. Another account is that a -gibbon swinging by one hand propelled himself a horizontal distance of -eighteen feet through the air, seized a bird in flight, and alighted -safely upon another limb, with his prey in hand.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</span></p> - -<p>There are several known species of this ape. The largest of these is -about three feet high; but the usual height is not more than thirty -inches. The voice of one species is remarkable for its strength, scope, -and quality, being in these regards superior to that of all other -apes. Most of the members of this genus are endowed with better vocal -qualities than other animals.</p> - -<p>This ends the list of the manlike apes. Next in order after them come -the monkeys, then the baboons, and, last, the lemurs.</p> - -<p>The descent, as we have elsewhere observed, from the highest ape to the -lowest monkey presents one unbroken scale of imbricating planes. We -have seen in what degree man is related to the higher apes. From thence -we may discern in what degree his physical nature is the same as that -of all the order to which he belongs. No matter in what respect man may -differ in his mental and moral nature, his likeness to them should at -least restrain his pride, evoke his sympathy, and cause him to share -the bounty of his benevolence. Let him realize in full extent that he -is one in nature with the rest of animate creatures, and they will -receive the benign influence of his dignity without impairing it, while -he will elevate himself by having given it.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XXIV">CHAPTER XXIV</h2> -</div> - -<p class="center heading p0">The Treatment of Apes in -Captivity—Temperature—Building—Food—Occupation</p> - - -<p>In conclusion I deem it in order to offer a few remarks with regard to -the causes of death among these apes, and to say something regarding -the treatment of animals in captivity. We know so little and assume so -much concerning them that we often violate the very laws which we are -trying to enforce.</p> - -<p>We have already noticed the fact that the gorilla is confined by -nature to a low, humid region, reeking with miasma and the effluvia of -decaying vegetation. The atmosphere in which he thrives is one in which -human life can hardly exist. We know in part why man cannot live in -such an atmosphere and under such conditions, but we cannot say with -certainty why the ape does do so. It would seem that the very element -that is fatal to man gives strength and vitality to the gorilla. We -know that all forms of animal life are not affected in the same way by -the same causes; and while it may be said in round numbers that what is -good for man is good for apes, that is not a fact.</p> - -<p>The human race is the most widely distributed of any genus of mammals, -and, as a race, it can undergo greater extremes of change in climate, -food, or condition than any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</span> other kind of animal. Man’s migratory -habits, both inherent and acquired, have fitted him for a life of -vicissitudes, and such a life inures him, as an individual, to all -extremes. On the other hand, the gorilla, as a genus, is confined to a -small habitat, which is uniform in climate, products, and topography. -Having been so restricted to these conditions he is unfitted for any -radical change, and when such is forced upon him the result must always -be to his injury.</p> - -<p>In certain parts of the American tropics there is found a rich gray -moss growing in great profusion in these localities and on certain -kinds of trees. It is not confined to any special level, but thrives -best on low elevations. Under favorable conditions it grows at -altitudes far above the surrounding swamps. Its character and quantity, -however, are measured by the altitude at which it grows. It is an -aërial plant, and it may be detached from the boughs of one tree and -transplanted upon those of another. It may be taken with safety to a -great distance, so long as an atmosphere is supplied to it that is -suited to its nature, but when removed from its normal conditions and -placed in a purer air it begins to languish and soon dies. If returned -in time, however, to its former place or one of like character, it will -revive and continue to grow.</p> - -<p>What element this plant extracts from the impure air is unknown. It -cannot be carbonic acid gas, which is the chief food of plants, nor can -it be any form of nitrogen. It is well known that the plant cannot long -survive in a pure atmosphere. Whatever the ingredient extracted may -be, it is certain that it is one that is deadly to human life<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</span> and one -that other plants refuse. Moisture and heat alone will not account for -it. We have another striking instance in the eucalyptus, which lives -upon the poison of the air around it. There are many other such cases -in vegetable life; and while the animal is a higher organism than the -plant, there are certain laws of life that obtain in both kingdoms and -involve the same principles.</p> - -<p>Between the case of the gorilla and that of the plant there is some -analogy. It may not be the same element that sustains them both, but it -is possible that the very microbes which germinate disease and prove -fatal to man sustain the life of the ape in the prime of health. The -poison which destroys life in man preserves it in the ape.</p> - -<p>The chimpanzee is distributed over a much greater range than the -gorilla and is capable of undergoing a much greater degree of change -in food and temperature. The history of these apes in captivity shows -that in that state the chimpanzee lives much the longer and requires -much less care. From my own observation I assert that all these apes -can undergo a greater range of temperature than of humidity. The latter -appears to be one of the essential things to the life of a gorilla. -One fatal mistake made in treating him is furnishing him with a dry, -warm atmosphere and depriving him of the poison contained in the -malarious air in which he naturally spends his life. Both of these apes -need humidity. In a dry air the chimpanzee will live longer than the -gorilla, but neither of them can long survive it; and it would appear -that a salt atmosphere is best for the gorilla.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</span></p> - -<p>I believe that one of these apes could be kept in good condition for -any length of time if he were supplied with a normal humidity in an -atmosphere laden with miasma and allowed to vary in its temperature. A -constant degree of heat is not good for any animal. There is no place -in all the earth where nature sustains a uniform degree of heat. We -need not go to either extreme, but a change is requisite to bring into -play all the organs of the body.</p> - -<p>The treatment which I would recommend for the care of apes is to build -them a house entirely apart from that of other animals. It should be -eighteen or twenty feet wide by thirty-five or forty feet long, and at -least fifteen feet high. It should have no floor except earth, and that -should be of sandy loam or vegetable earth. In one end of this building -there should be a pool of water twelve or fifteen feet in diameter; -and, imbedded in mold under the water, there should be a steam coil -to regulate the temperature as may be desired. In this pool should be -grown a dense crop of water plants such as are found in the marshes of -the country in which the gorilla lives. This pool should not be cleaned -out nor the water changed; but the plants should be allowed to grow and -decay in a natural way. Neither the pool nor the house should be kept -at a uniform heat, but the temperature should be allowed to vary from -60° to 90°.</p> - -<p>In addition to the things above mentioned, the place should be provided -with the means of giving it a spray of tepid water, which should be -turned on once or twice a day and allowed to continue for at least -an hour at a time. The water for this purpose should be taken from -the pool,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</span> but should never be warmer than the usual temperature of -tropical rain. The animal should not be required to take a bath in this -way, but should be left to his own choice about it.</p> - -<p>The house should contain a thin partition that could be removed at -will, and the end of the building farthest from the pool should be -occupied by a strong tree, either dead or alive, to afford the inmates -proper exercise. The south side of the house should be of glass, and -at least half of the top should be of the same. These parts should -be provided with heavy canvas curtains, to be drawn over them so as -to adjust or regulate the sunlight. In the summer time the building -should be kept quite open, so as to admit the air and the rain. The -rule that strangers or visitors should not annoy or tease them should -be enforced without respect to person, time, or rank. No visitor should -be allowed on any terms to give them any kind of food. The reasons for -these precautions are obvious to any one familiar with the keeping of -animals; but in the case of the gorilla their observance cannot be -waived with impunity.</p> - -<p>The ape does not need to be pampered. On the contrary, he should be -permitted to rough it. Half of the gorillas that have ever been in -captivity have died from overnursing. By nature they are strong and -robust if the proper conditions exist; but when these are changed they -become frail and tender creatures. They should not be restricted to -a vegetable diet nor limited to a few articles of food, but should -be allowed to select such things as they prefer to eat. I have grave -doubts as to the wisdom of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</span> limiting the quantity. One mistake is -often committed in the treatment of animals, and that is to continue -the same diet at all times and to limit that to one or two items. It -may be observed that the higher the form of organism the more diverse -the taste becomes. Very hardy animals or those of low forms may be -restricted to one kind of staple food. The higher form demands a change.</p> - -<p>One thing above all others that I would inhibit is the use of straw -of any kind in the cage, for beds or for any other purpose. If it -be desired to furnish them with such a comfort, nothing should ever -be used but dead leaves, if they can be supplied. In their absence -a canvas mattress or wire matting should be used. There are certain -kinds of dust given off by the dry straw of all cereal plants. This is -deleterious to the health of man, but vastly more so to these apes. -It is taken into the lungs and through them acts upon other parts of -the body by suppressing the circulation and respiration. No matter -how clean the straw may be, the effect will be the same in the end. -Hay is less harmful than straw, but even the use of hay should not be -permitted.</p> - -<p>Another thing which is necessary is to entertain or amuse the apes in -some way, otherwise they become despondent and gloomy. It is believed -by those who are familiar with these creatures that loneliness or -solitude is a fruitful cause of death. This is especially true of the -gorilla.</p> - -<p>Another important fact, little known, is that tobacco smoke is usually -fatal to a gorilla. Every native hunter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</span> that I met in Africa testifies -that this simple thing will kill any gorilla in the forest if he is -subjected to the fumes for a sufficient time. I have reason to believe -that this is true. It may not invariably prove fatal, but it will be -so in many instances. The chimpanzee is not so much affected by it, -although he dislikes it. The gorilla detests it and shows at all times -his strong aversion to it. I have no doubt that this is one of the -reasons why these apes die on board the ships by which they are brought -from Africa.</p> - -<p>Both of these apes are possessed, in a degree, of savage and resentful -instincts; but these are much stronger in the gorilla than in the -chimpanzee. The gorilla, therefore, requires firm and consistent -treatment. This can be used without severity or cruelty, but the -intellect of the gorilla must not be underrated. He studies with a keen -perception the motives and intentions of man, and is seldom mistaken -in his interpretation of them. He often manifests a violent dislike -for certain persons, and when this is discovered to be the case, the -object of his dislike should not be permitted in his presence, for the -result is to enrage the ape and excite his nervous nature. When he -becomes sullen or obstinate, he should not be coaxed or indulged, nor -yet used with harshness. He should either be left alone for a time or -be diverted by a change of treatment.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> -</div> - - -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><span id="aaron">“Aaron”</span></li> -<li class="isuba">his intelligent expression, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his capture, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> -<li class="isuba">on the journey, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his tricks, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="isubb">” one aversion, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li class="isubb">” sympathy for Moses, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isuba">realization of death, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isuba">loses his mate, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his illness and death, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="aaronw">“Aaron” with “Elisheba”</span></li> -<li class="isuba">acts as a protector, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his reliance on human aid, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> -<li class="isuba">driving the cow, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> -<li class="isuba">we start for Liverpool, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> -<li class="isuba">the bogie on the steamer, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> -<li class="isuba">solicitude of the apes, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-<a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> -<li class="isuba">their ingenuity, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> -<li class="isuba">the ape in the mirror, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Aaron’s jealousy, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isuba">the rivals, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isuba">arrival at Liverpool, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Elisheba’s illness, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Aaron again becomes nurse, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Abstract ideas in simians, Lack of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Affection in animals not mere instinct, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Age of maturity in apes, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Amusement (of captives)</li> -<li class="isuba">captives should have, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> -<li class="isuba">means of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Angola</em>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="anthro">Anthropoid</span> or manlike apes (see also <em><a href="#chimp">Chimpanzee</a></em>, <em><a href="#gorilla">Gorilla</a></em>, <em><a href="#gibbon">Gibbon</a></em>, <em><a href="#orang">Orang</a></em>, and references under <em><a href="#captive">Chimpanzee captives</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">the group, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">superior intelligence, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="ape">Apes</span> (see also <em><a href="#simian">Simians</a></em> and references under <em><a href="#anthro">Anthropoid apes</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">resemblance to man, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -<li class="isuba">described, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">anthropoid or manlike group, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">skeleton a duplicate of man’s, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li class="isuba">superior intelligence of anthropoid, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> -<li class="isuba">travelers’ stories untrue, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">do not act in concert, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Approval, Apes’ love of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Arboreal habit, The, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Baboon, The, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">relative plane, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bailey, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> James A., New York City</li> -<li class="isuba">his valuable apes, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isuba">corroborative testimony, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Banquo,” <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="battel">Battel</span>, Henry (1590), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Batuna</em> (plant), <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bellevue Gardens, Manchester, England (see also <em><a href="#consul">Consul II</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">Consul II, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a pugnacious ape, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isuba">chimpanzee and orang, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Borneo, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Buffalo (<abbr title="New York">N. Y.</abbr>) Museum, Specimens in, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Cage in the jungle, The</li> -<li class="isuba">idea first conceived, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> -<li class="isuba">exceptional opportunities it afforded, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> -<li class="isuba">its construction, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> -<li class="isuba">its furniture, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isuba">date of occupancy, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isuba">length of occupancy, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isuba">my chimpanzee companion, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isubb">(see also <em>Moses</em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">the native boy, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li class="isuba">program for the day, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">my menu, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isuba">wild visitors, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> ff., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> -<li class="isuba">the tornado, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Cameroon</em> (valley), <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="capu">Capuchin monkey</span>, The (see also under <em><a href="#monkey">Monkey</a></em>), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Care of simian captives</li> -<li class="isuba">amusement of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> -<li class="isuba">their short lives, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isuba">effects of confinement, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> -<li class="isuba">cannot live in pure air, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></li> -<li class="isuba">condition compared to a certain</li> -<li class="isuba">tropical moss, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> -<li class="isuba">humidity essential, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_282">282</a></li> -<li class="isuba">diet, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> -<li class="isuba">dust of straw injurious, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> -<li class="isuba">tobacco fatal to the gorilla, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Catarrhini, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Caucasian of monkeys, The,” <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="cebus">Cebus monkey</span>, The (see also under <em><a href="#monkey">Monkey</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">brown species, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> -<li class="isuba">experiments with, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isuba">superior intelligence, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li class="isuba">white-faced species, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Charla</em> (lake), <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Charleston, <abbr title="South Carolina">S. C.</abbr>, Experiments at, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cherry, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> William S., African traveler, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Chicago Gardens, Experiments at, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="chico">“Chico”</span></li> -<li class="isuba">his unusual size, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isubb">” scream, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> -<li class="isubb">” fear of an elephant, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Chi Loango</em> (river), <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="chimp">Chimpanzee</span>, The (see also <em><a href="#kulu">Kulu-kamba</a></em>, <em><a href="#ntyigo">Ntyigo</a></em>, and references under <em><a href="#captive">Chimpanzee captives</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">order of intelligence, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> -<li class="isuba">perception of number, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">resemblance to man (see also <em>Skeleton</em>), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in native haunts, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isuba">habitat, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> -<li class="isuba">derivation and meaning of name, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> -<li class="isuba">two species, <a href="#Page_86">86</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">described in detail, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li> -<li class="isuba">position in sleep, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li class="isuba">longevity, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> -<li class="isuba">age of maturity, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isuba">breeding season, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> -<li class="isuba">social traits and government, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isuba">reasoning power and mental status, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isuba">does not bear captivity well, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li class="isuba">pulmonary trouble common, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li class="isuba">maladies resemble man’s, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> -<li class="isuba">seen from the cage, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> -<li class="isuba">climate of America favorable, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a></li> -<li class="isuba">mode of attack, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> -<li class="isuba">scream and beating sound, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> -<li class="isuba">disposition, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="chimpspeech">Chimpanzees, Speech of</span></li> -<li class="isuba">extent of vocabulary, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> -<li class="isuba">number of words interpreted, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isuba">pitch of voice, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -<li class="isuba">vocal organs, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> -<li class="isuba">phonetic symbols invented by author, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isuba">method of producing sounds, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> -<li class="isuba">character and meaning of sounds, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isuba">quality of voice, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isuba">use of gestures, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> -<li class="isuba">possibility of development, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> -<li class="isuba">resemblance to human speech, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -<li class="isuba">constant meanings of sounds, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="captive">Chimpanzee captives</span>, Some (see <em><a href="#aaron">Aaron</a></em>; <em><a href="#eli">Elisheba</a></em>; <em><a href="#sailor">Sailor’s pet</a></em>; <em><a href="#pet">Village pet</a></em>; <em><a href="#gabcap">Gaboon, captives at</a></em>; <em><a href="#izanga">Izanga</a></em>; <em><a href="#chico">Chico</a></em>; <em><a href="#johanna">Johanna</a></em>; <em><a href="#consul">Consul II</a></em>; <em><a href="#clever">Clever kulu</a></em>; <em><a href="#five">Five young kulus</a></em>; <em><a href="#sally">Sally</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cincinnati Zoölogical Garden, Experiments at, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Classification of simians, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-<a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="clever">Clever kulu, A</span></li> -<li class="isuba">her color, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> -<li class="isuba">facial expression, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isuba">love of approval, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li class="isuba">always in mischief, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li> -<li class="isuba">unties complicated knots, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isuba">evidence of reasoning power, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Color, Simians’ perception of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Concrete ideas, Simians can express only, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Congo</em> (river), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</span></li> -<li class="ifrst">Constant meanings of sounds in simian speech, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="consul">“Consul II”</span></li> -<li class="isuba">his remarkable sagacity, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isuba">rides a “bike,” <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> -<li class="isuba">smokes a pipe, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> -<li class="isuba">draws with chalk or pencil, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> -<li class="isuba">distinguishes three letters, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> -<li class="isuba">love of teasing, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> -<li class="isuba">aversion to being clothed, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> -<li class="isuba">loves approval, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> -<li class="isuba">attempts at burglary, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his keeper’s zeal, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cranio-facial angles</li> -<li class="isuba">of man, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isuba">” apes, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isuba">” monkeys, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isuba">” reptiles, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cross, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, Liverpool, England</li> -<li class="isuba">guardian of Aaron and Elisheba, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cruelty</li> -<li class="isuba">unnecessary in hunting, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li class="isuba">inherent in natives, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Crystal Mountains, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cynocephalus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">“Darwin”</li> -<li class="isuba">learns Puck’s sound for “food,” <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Deaf-mutes, Method of teaching applied to simian speech, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Death, Apes’ realization of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Deemin, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> James, English trader, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Descriptions of simians</li> -<li class="isuba">of monkeys, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> -<li class="isuba">” chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> -<li class="isuba">” gorilla, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Development of “calf” a means of comparison, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="dex">Dexterity and ingenuity</span></li> -<li class="isuba">of apes, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of monkeys, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dialects (see <em><a href="#type">types</a></em> under <em><a href="#monkeyspeech">Monkeys, Speech of</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dimension, Simians’ perception of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Dodo”</li> -<li class="isuba">Nemo’s apologetic speech, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isuba">her appeal to her keeper, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Drake, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> J. H., African traveler, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Drum, The (see <em><a href="#kanjo">Kanjo</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="duc">Du Chaillu</span>, Paul, African traveler, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><span id="early">Early</span> reports of apes (see <em><a href="#ford">Ford</a></em>, <em><a href="#savage">Savage</a></em>, <em><a href="#wilson">Wilson</a></em>, <em><a href="#walker">Walker</a></em>, <em><a href="#hanno">Hanno</a></em>, <em><a href="#battel">Battel</a></em>, <em><a href="#duc">Du Chaillu</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="eli">“Elisheba”</span> (see also <em><a href="#aaronw">Aaron with Elisheba</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">where captured, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> -<li class="isuba">her shrewish temper, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isuba">her selfishness and perversity, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> -<li class="isuba">her champion and slave, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a suitor rebuffed, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> -<li class="isuba">submissive only from policy, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> -<li class="isuba">her illness and death, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Eloquence of monkeys’ speech, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Emotions, Simians display human</li> -<li class="isuba">sympathy, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> -<li class="isuba">aversion, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">sorrow, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> -<li class="isuba">jealousy, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> -<li class="isuba">contempt, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> -<li class="isuba">affection, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Enjocko</em>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Enumeration (see <em><a href="#num">Number, Perception of</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Esyira</em> (tribe and country), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ethics, Monkeys’ code of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Etymology of native names, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Evolution, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Expression (see also <em><a href="#facial">Facial expression</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">defined, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isuba">speech a means of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isuba">animals’ limit of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><span id="facial">Facial expression of simians</span>, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>-<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Falkenstein, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ferocity of apes exaggerated, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Ferran Vaz</em> (lake), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Fiote</em> (tribe and language), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="five">Five young kulus</span>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Food</li> -<li class="isuba">of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of gorilla, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="ford">Ford</span>, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, African traveler, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Form, Simians’ perception of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Fort Gorilla, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><em><span id="gaboon">Gaboon</span></em> (town and river), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="gabcap">Gaboon, Some captives at</span>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">their table manners, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -<li class="isuba">their love of beer, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-<a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -<li class="isuba">their dexterity, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -<li class="isuba">maladies resemble man’s, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="gibbon">Gibbon</span>, The</li> -<li class="isuba">order of intelligence, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isuba">arboreal habit, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> -<li class="isuba">size and activity, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-<a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> -<li class="isuba">skeleton, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> -<li class="isuba">can stand erect, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> -<li class="isuba">wonderful leaping power, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> -<li class="isuba">several known species, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> -<li class="isuba">vocal qualities, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Glave, E. J., African traveler, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Goode, <abbr title="reverend">Rev.</abbr> A. C., late missionary at Batanga, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="gorilla">Gorilla</span>, The</li> -<li class="isuba">order of intelligence, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> -<li class="isuba">resemblance to man, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in native haunts, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isuba">seen from the cage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his scream and beating sound, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> -<li class="isuba">arboreal habit, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> -<li class="isuba">nomadic, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></li> -<li class="isuba">habitat, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> -<li class="isuba">early reports of (see references under <em><a href="#early">Early reports</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba"><span id="gorskel">skeleton</span>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> -<li class="isuba">described in detail, <a href="#Page_223">223</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">cannot walk erect, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></li> -<li class="isuba">the “calf” as means of comparison, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">species, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> -<li class="isuba">compared with other apes and with man, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> -<li class="isuba">social traits and government, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">derivation of name, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in council, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></li> -<li class="isuba">ferocity exaggerated, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> -<li class="isuba">mode of attack, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sounds wrongly attributed to, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> -<li class="isuba">method of carrying young, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> -<li class="isuba">disposition, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> -<li class="isuba">food, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> -<li class="isuba">stealthiness, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></li> -<li class="isuba">calling sound, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> -<li class="isuba">difficult to find, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> -<li class="isuba">only one ever brought to America, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a wild gorilla takes his own photograph, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> -<li class="isuba">care in captivity, <a href="#Page_278">278</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Great forest, The, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Guinea, Gulf of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Habitat</li> -<li class="isuba">of gorilla, <a href="#Page_211">211</a> ff., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of orang, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of gibbon, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Handmann, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Otto, German consul at Gaboon, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="hanno">Hanno</span>, 500 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, earliest mention of the ape, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>-<a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Harris, Captain, African traveler, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Harvard Medical School Collection, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hornaday, W. T., authority on orang, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Human faculties, embryo of all, exists in simians, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><em>Ikomba njina</em>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Inenga</em> (lake), <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ingenuity of simians (see <em><a href="#dex">Dexterity</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="izanga"><em>Izanga</em></span> (lake), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> -<li class="isuba">an unhappy captive at, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -<li class="isuba">an act of mercy, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">“Jack,” <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Jennie,” <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="johanna">“Johanna”</span></li> -<li class="isuba">her value for scientific use, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> -<li class="isuba">probable age, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isuba">size, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> -<li class="isuba">intellectual plane, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Jokes” <a href="#Page_24">24</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">his fright, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isuba">the reconciliation, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Journeys in the jungle</li> -<li class="isuba">to the chimpanzee country, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a five days’ journey on foot, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> -<li class="isuba">to the coast, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jungle, the African</li> -<li class="isuba">described, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> -<li class="isuba">daily life in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">the quiet hour, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">a tornado, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> ff.</li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><em>Kabinda</em> (town), <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Kanga ntyigo</em></li> -<li class="isuba">etymology of the name, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="kanjo"><em>Kanjo</em></span>, The, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> -<li class="isuba">the drum, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Keller, Helen</li> -<li class="isuba">with Nellie, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Kisanga</em> (valley and river), <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Komo</em> (river, also name of gunboat), <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Kongo</em>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="kulu"><em>Kulu-kamba</em></span> (see also under <em><a href="#chimp">Chimpanzee</a></em>, and references under <em><a href="#captive">Chimpanzee captives</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">its habitat, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li class="isuba">described and compared with <em>ntyigo</em>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Moses’ successor, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -<li class="isuba">highest type of all apes, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li> -<li class="isuba">name applied to different types, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><em>Lamberene</em> (town), <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lemur, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> -<li class="isuba">relative plane, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Loango</em> (valley), <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Longevity of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lopez, African explorer, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lopez, Cape, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><em>Mafuka</em>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Maladies of simians</li> -<li class="isuba">pulmonary trouble common, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -<li class="isuba">resemble man’s, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Malay Peninsula, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mandrill, The, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Mayumba</em> (town), <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>M’Bouve</em>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“McGinty”</li> -<li class="isuba">his jealousy, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Meanings of certain sounds in simian speech (see also under <em><a href="#monkeyspeech">Monkeys, Speech of</a></em>, and <em><a href="#chimpspeech">Chimpanzees, Speech of</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “food,” <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “drink,” <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “warning,” <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “alarm,” <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “friendship,” <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “good,” <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isuba">calling sound, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mental power and status of simians (see also under <em><a href="#ape">Ape</a></em>, <em><a href="#chimp">Chimpanzee</a></em>, <em><a href="#monkey">Monkey</a></em>, <em><a href="#gorilla">Gorilla</a></em>, “<em><a href="#aaron">Aaron</a></em>,” “<em><a href="#moses">Moses</a></em>,” etc.)</li> -<li class="isuba">compared to man, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isuba">compared to the dog, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Menu, My daily, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mesial crest (see <em><a href="#gorskel">Gorilla, Skeleton of</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Mickie”</li> -<li class="isuba">the boss of the school, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his tricks, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Middle forest, The, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mirror, Experiments with, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mode of attack</li> -<li class="isuba">of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of gorilla, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_237">237</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Moiro</em>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="monkey">Monkey</span>, The (see also <em><a href="#simian">Simians</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">human appearance, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">relative plane, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> -<li class="isuba">relationship to man, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> -<li class="isuba">all simians not monkeys, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-<a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">described, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></li> -<li class="isuba">old world and new world, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">cranio-facial angles, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Cebus species (see <em><a href="#cebus">Cebus</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">Capuchin species (see <em><a href="#capu">Capuchin</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">perception of sound, color, form, dimension, quality, number, music, etc., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -<li class="isuba">code of ethics, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Rhesus species (see <em><a href="#rhesus">Rhesus</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">difference in traits and tastes, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> -<li class="isuba">express emotion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isuba">affection not mere instinct, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Monkeys, Laughter of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="monkeyspeech">Monkeys, Speech of</span></li> -<li class="isuba">study of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">poor success of first efforts, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “alarm” or “warning,” <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isuba">phonograph first used, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sounds have constant meanings, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isuba">number of sounds interpreted, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sounds described, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isuba">speech monophrastic and monophonetic, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isuba">pitch of voice, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isuba">resemblance to human speech, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isuba">each species has its own speech, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sign of surrender, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “food,” <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sound meaning “drink,” <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isuba">musical quality of voices, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isuba">eloquence, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> -<li class="isuba"><span id="type">types</span> of speech and inflections, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="moses">“Moses”</span></li> -<li class="isuba">my sole companion in the cage, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his breakfast, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his amusements, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his siesta, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> -<li class="isuba">position in sleep, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> -<li class="isuba">learns a word of human speech, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his capture, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his moral training, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his tricks, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> -<li class="isuba">dexterity and ingenuity, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li class="isuba">reading the newspaper, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his jealousy and temper, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> -<li class="isuba">our walks in the jungle, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isuba">understood rights of possession, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> -<li class="isuba">preferences in food, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li class="isuba">meaning of sounds, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his quick vision, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a severe lesson, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -<li class="isuba">reasoning power, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his devotion, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> -<li class="isuba">perception of form, color, music, etc., <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> -<li class="isuba">he signs a legal document, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</span></li><li class="isuba">last illness, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-<a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his chimpanzee nurse, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his death, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his claims to fame, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Mpongwe</em>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Music, Simians’ perception of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Native explanation of relationships, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Native reports unreliable, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Nazavine</em> (bay), <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Nellie”</li> -<li class="isuba">her love of companionship, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="isuba">warns me of danger, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">her perception of sound, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="isuba">with Helen Keller, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> -<li class="isuba">her ingenuity, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Nemo”</li> -<li class="isuba">his diplomacy, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his abject apology, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Nenge Nenge</em> (town), <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">New world monkeys, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">their superior intelligence, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">New York Zoölogical Gardens, Experiments at, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Nguni</em> (river), <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Nigger,” <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Njina</em>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Njole</em> (town), <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Nkami</em> (tribe, lake, and river), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Noogo</em> (river), <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nose a distinguishing feature, The, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Ntcheego</em>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="ntyigo"><em>Ntyigo</em></span> (see also under <em><a href="#chimp">Chimpanzee</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">its habitat, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> -<li class="isuba">described, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> -<li class="isuba">compared with <em>kulu-kamba</em>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> -<li class="isuba">distinguished from <em>ntyii</em>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Ntyii</em>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>-<a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Ntyi-ne-nye-ni</em> (village), <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="num">Number, Perception of</span></li> -<li class="isuba">by simians, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> -<li class="isuba">by birds, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><em>Ogowé</em> (river, delta, and basin), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Old world monkeys, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="orang">Orang, The</span></li> -<li class="isuba">order of intelligence, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isuba">arboreal habit, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a captive at Bellevue, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li> -<li class="isuba">compared, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Orungu</em> (tribe), <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Othello”</li> -<li class="isuba">place of capture, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> -<li class="isuba">absence of humor, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> -<li class="isuba">illness and death, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> -<li class="isuba">with Moses, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his speech sounds, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Owen, Sir Richard, writer on Africa, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Parrot Island, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Paternal instinct in animals, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Pedro”</li> -<li class="isuba">his troubles, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> -<li class="isuba">appreciation of kindness, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> -<li class="isuba">recording his sounds, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="isuba">his tale of woe, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</span></li> -<li class="isuba">speech repeated to Puck, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Philadelphia Museum of Zoölogy, Specimens at, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="phono">Phonograph</span> as a means of recording speech of monkeys, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">first experiments, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> ff.</li> -<li class="isuba">behavior of monkeys on hearing, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isuba">speech and reply recorded, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Pedro’s speech recorded, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> -<li class="isuba">experiment with Puck, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pitch of voice</li> -<li class="isuba">in monkeys, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in apes, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Platarrhini, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Pongo</em>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Program, A day’s, <a href="#Page_73">73</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Puck,” his perplexity on hearing phonograph, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Quality, Simians’ perception of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Quantity, Simians’ perception of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Reasoning power in simians, Evidences of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Records of speech sounds (see <em><a href="#phono">Phonograph</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Rembo</em> (river), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Resemblances between simians and man</li> -<li class="isuba">in body, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in speech, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -<li class="isuba">in affections, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="rhesus">Rhesus monkey</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Romanes, Professor</li> -<li class="isuba">experiments with chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> -<li class="isuba">experiments with “Sally,” <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Sacrum (see <em><a href="#skel">Skeleton</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sagittal ridge (see <em><a href="#gorskel">Gorilla, Skeleton of</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="sailor">Sailor’s pet, A</span></li> -<li class="isuba">his suit rejected, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="sally">“Sally,”</span> <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">“Sally Jones,” <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="savage">Savage,</span> <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, African traveler, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Scream of gorilla and chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_242">242</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Sette Kama</em> (town), <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sheldon, Mrs. M. French, African traveler, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sierra Leone, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="simian">Simians</span> (see <em><a href="#ape">Apes</a></em>, <em><a href="#monkey">Monkeys</a></em>, etc.)</li> -<li class="isuba">wide range of types, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> -<li class="isuba">different forms described, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> -<li class="isuba">two grand divisions, how distinguished, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Simian speech (see <em><a href="#monkeyspeech">Monkeys, Speech of</a></em>, and <em><a href="#chimpspeech">Chimpanzees, Speech of</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Size of apes, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="skel">Skeleton, The</span></li> -<li class="isuba">as basis of comparison, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isuba">chief point of difference, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sacrum, peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isuba">vertebræ, number of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-<a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isuba">causes of difference in sacrum and vertebræ, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> -<li class="isuba">sternum, differences in, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> -<li class="isuba">skull, differences in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isuba">general comparison, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of gorilla, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of gibbon, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Smithsonian Institution, Experiments at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a> ff., <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</span></li> -<li class="ifrst">Snapshot, A unique, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Social traits and government</li> -<li class="isuba">of chimpanzee, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> -<li class="isuba">of gorilla, <a href="#Page_231">231</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Soko</em>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Speech defined, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="speech">Speech of animals</span> (see also <em><a href="#monkeyspeech">Monkeys, Speech of</a></em>, and <em><a href="#chimpspeech">Chimpanzees, Speech of</a></em>)</li> -<li class="isuba">author’s interest in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -<li class="isuba">grounds of belief in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isuba">vocabularies limited, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> -<li class="isuba">can express what they conceive, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isuba">development of interest, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Spider-monkey, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Stanley Pool, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Steckelman, Carl, African explorer, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sternum (see <em><a href="#skel">Skeleton</a></em>)</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Stories of travelers and writers often untrue, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Strohm, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Adolph, trader at Gaboon, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Threadbare story, A, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tornado in the jungle, <a href="#Page_79">79</a> ff.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Translations of native reports, Literal, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Troglodytes, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><em>Tyimba</em> (village), <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Under forest, The, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">University of Toronto Collection, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></li> -</ul> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst"><span id="pet">Village pet</span>, A</li> -<li class="isuba">the children’s playmate, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> -<li class="isuba">understood names and commands, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> -<li class="isuba">brought water and wood, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> -<li class="isuba">brought persons named, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> -<li class="isuba">price double that of a slave, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vocabularies of animals (see <em><a href="#speech">Speech of Animals</a></em>; <em><a href="#monkeyspeech">Monkeys, Speech of</a></em>, and <em><a href="#chimpspeech">Chimpanzees, Speech of</a></em>)</li> - - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="walker">Walker</span>, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, revises Wilson’s lexicon of native language, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wallace, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr> Alfred R., authority on orang, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="webber">Webber</span>, <abbr title="mister">Mr.</abbr>, keeper of ape at Bellevue</li> -<li class="isuba">his success in training, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wild visitors to the cage, <a href="#Page_75">75</a> ff., <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> -<li class="isuba">did not usually evince fear, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></li> -<li class="isuba">retreated in good order, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> -<li class="isuba">Moses frightens one away, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a gorilla beckons, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a narrow escape, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> -<li class="isuba">an exceptional opportunity, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a brave baby, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></li> -<li class="isuba">a gorilla takes his own photograph, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst"><span id="wilson">Wilson</span>, <abbr title="doctor">Dr.</abbr>, first missionary at Gaboon</li> -<li class="isuba">wrote lexicon of native language, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wurmb, Baron, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></li> -</ul> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="Books_on_Out-of-Door_Life">Books on Out-of-Door Life</h2> -</div> - - -<h3>WAYS OF WOOD FOLK</h3> - -<p class="center p0">By William J. Long</p> - -<p>Fascinating descriptions of animals and birds as seen at play in their -homes. Illustrated with 7 full-page engravings on wood from drawings -by Charles Copeland and William Hamilton Gibson, and numerous smaller -pictures and illustrative initials and head-pieces.</p> - -<p>Square 12mo. Cloth. 214 pages. 75 cents.</p> - - -<h3>WILDERNESS WAYS</h3> - -<p class="center p0">By William J. Long</p> - -<p>A second volume of “Ways of Wood Folk.” Written in the same intensely -interesting style that makes its predecessor so popular. With 7 -full-page illustrations and numerous illustrative initials and -head-pieces by Charles Copeland.</p> - -<p>Square 12mo. Cloth. 200 pages. 75 cents.</p> - - -<h3>MOTHER NATURE’S CHILDREN</h3> - -<p class="center p0">By Allen Walton Gould</p> - -<p>The love and care and mutual dependence of living things, from human -beings down to the plants, set in an imaginative framework for -children. With 200 illustrations.</p> - -<p>Square 12mo. Cloth. 265 pages. $1.25.</p> - - -<h3>BIRD WORLD</h3> - -<p class="center p0">By J. H. Stickney and Ralph Hoffman</p> - -<p>A charming bird book for young people. With 10 full-page illustrations -by Ernest Seton-Thompson, and colored plates from nature.</p> - -<p>Square 12mo. Cloth. 214 pages. 75 cents.</p> - - -<h3>FRIENDS AND HELPERS</h3> - -<p class="center p0">Compiled by Sarah J. Eddy</p> - -<p>Man’s helpers in the animal world and how they may be treated with -considerate kindness. With 75 illustrations, many of them from -photographs made especially for this book.</p> - -<p>Square 12mo. Cloth. 241 pages. 75 cents.</p> - - -<h3>MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES</h3> - -<p class="center p0">By Mary C. Dickerson</p> - -<p>A popular book on the life and habits of moths and butterflies. -With more than 200 illustrations from photographs and drawings made -especially for this book.</p> - -<p>Square 12mo. 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