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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a553f5f --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #67358 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67358) diff --git a/old/67358-0.txt b/old/67358-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7f42de9..0000000 --- a/old/67358-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6332 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Thousand Buddhas, by Aurel Stein - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Thousand Buddhas - Ancient Buddhist Paintings from the Cave-Temples of Tun-huang on - the Western Frontier of China - -Author: Aurel Stein - -Contributor: Laurence Binyon - -Release Date: February 7, 2022 [eBook #67358] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Ronald Grenier - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS *** - - - - - - THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS - - - ANCIENT BUDDHIST PAINTINGS FROM - THE CAVE-TEMPLES OF TUN-HUANG - ON THE WESTERN FRONTIER OF CHINA - - - RECOVERED AND DESCRIBED BY - AUREL STEIN, K.C.I.E. - - - WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY BY - LAURENCE BINYON - - - PUBLISHED UNDER THE ORDERS OF - H.M. SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA - AND WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF THE - TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM - - - TEXT - - - LONDON - BERNARD QUARITCH, Ltd. - 1921 - - - PRINTED IN ENGLAND - AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS - BY FREDERICK HALL - - - - - TO THE MEMORY OF - - RAPHAEL PETRUCCI - - TO WHOSE DEVOTION TO FAR-EASTERN ART - THE STUDY OF THESE PAINTINGS OWES MOST - THIS ALBUM WHICH HE HAD HELPED TO PLAN - IS DEDICATED - IN ADMIRATION, AFFECTION, AND SORROW - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS - - PAGE - PREFACE ix - - THE TUN-HUANG PAINTINGS AND THEIR PLACE IN BUDDHIST ART - An Introductory Essay by Laurence Binyon 1–10 - - DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF PICTURES by Sir Aurel Stein 11–63 - I, II. The Paradise of Bhaiṣajyaguru 11 - III. A celestial assemblage 13 - IV, V. Processions of Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra 14 - VI. Details from a painting of a Buddhist Heaven 15 - VII. The Paradise of Śākyamuni 16 - VIII. Amitābha’s Paradise 18 - IX. Legendary scenes from a painting of Maitreya’s - Paradise 19 - X. Amitābha with attendants 20 - XI. A Paradise of Amitābha 21 - XII. Scenes from Gautama Buddha’s Life 23 - XIII. Scenes from the Buddha legend 25 - XIV. Images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas 26 - XV. Two forms of Avalokiteśvara 28 - XVI. Four forms of Avalokiteśvara 29 - XVII. Avalokiteśvara in Glory 30 - XVIII. Avalokiteśvara standing, with willow spray 31 - XIX. Two Avalokiteśvaras with the willow 32 - XX. Avalokiteśvara with flame-wreathed halo 33 - XXI. Avalokiteśvara standing 33 - XXII. Two Avalokiteśvara paintings with donors 34 - XXIII. Six-armed Avalokiteśvara with attendant - Bodhisattvas 35 - XXIV. Two paper paintings of Avalokiteśvara 36 - XXV. Two paintings of Kṣitigarbha 37 - XXVI. Vaiśravaṇa’s Progress 39 - XXVII. Virūpākṣa and Mañjuśrī 40 - XXVIII. Bust of a Lokapāla 42 - XXIX. Two Dharmapālas and a Bodhisattva 43 - XXX. Side-scenes and details from a Buddhist Paradise - painting 44 - XXXI. A Tibetan painting of Tārā 45 - XXXII. Paper pictures of a Bodhisattva, saint, and monk 47 - XXXIII. Paper pictures of hermit and horse-dragon 47 - XXXIV, XXXV. Embroidery picture of Śākyamuni on the Vulture - Peak 48 - XXXVI. Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise 50 - XXXVII. Banners with scenes from the Buddha legend 51 - XXXVIII. Buddha Tejaḥprabha and Avalokiteśvara as guide of - souls 53 - XXXIX. Kṣitigarbha with the Infernal Judges 54 - XL. Kṣitigarbha as Patron of Travellers 55 - XLI. Avalokiteśvara and two other Bodhisattvas 56 - XLII. Avalokiteśvara, thousand-armed, with attendant - divinities 57 - XLIII. Avalokiteśvara with Lokapāla attendants 58 - XLIV. Fragment of standing Avalokiteśvara 59 - XLV. Vaiśravaṇa crossing the ocean 59 - XLVI. Fragment with child on demon’s hand 61 - XLVII. Three Lokapāla banners 61 - XLVIII. Fragment with figure of demonic warrior 63 - - INDEX 64 - - - - -PREFACE - - -The purpose of this publication is to place before students interested -in Eastern art reproductions of select specimens from among the great -collection of ancient Buddhist paintings which in the course of the -explorations of my second Central-Asian journey, carried out in 1906–8 -under the orders of the Government of India, I had the good fortune to -recover from a walled-up chapel at the ‘Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’ -near Tun-huang. The essential facts concerning their discovery will be -found summarized in Mr. Laurence Binyon’s _Introductory Essay_. Those -who may wish for details of the circumstances attending it, and for -some account of the local conditions which explain the preservation of -these relics of ancient Buddhist art in the distant region where the -westernmost Marches of true China adjoin the great deserts of innermost -Asia, will find them in my personal narrative of that expedition.[1] -They have been recorded still more fully in _Serindia_, the final -report on the results of my explorations, recently issued from the -Oxford University Press.[2] - -In Mr. Binyon’s _Introductory Essay_ there will be found a lucid -exposition, by the hand of a competent expert, of the reasons which -invest those paintings with special interest for the study of Buddhist -art as transplanted from India through Central Asia to the Far East, -and with great importance, too, for the history of Chinese art in -general. There light is thrown also on the manifold problems raised by -the variety of art influences from the West, the South, and the East -which are reflected in different groups of these paintings and which -some of them show in striking intermixture. - -But throughout it is Buddhist inspiration and legend, as propagated -by the Mahāyāna system of Buddhism in Central and Eastern Asia, which -furnish the themes of these paintings and determine the presentation -of individual figures and scenes in them. For the proper appreciation -of their art some knowledge of the traditional elements in subjects -and treatment is indispensably needed. It has hence been my aim -in the descriptive text referring to each Plate to supply such -iconographic information as the non-specialist student may need for the -comprehension of the subject and details, and as the present state of -our researches permits to be safely offered. In the same descriptive -notes I have endeavoured to record information also as to the state of -preservation, character of workmanship, colouring, and similar points -in each painting. - -Having thus briefly indicated the object and scope of this publication, -it still remains for me to give some account of the labours which -had to precede it, and to record my grateful acknowledgement of -the manifold help which alone rendered the realization of this -long-cherished plan possible in the end. In Mr. Binyon’s _Introductory -Essay_ reference has been made to the protracted and delicate -operations which were needed at the British Museum before the hundreds -of paintings, most of them on fine silk, which had lain, often crumpled -up into tight little packets, for centuries under the crushing weight -of masses of manuscript bundles, could all be safely opened out, -cleaned, and made accessible for examination. The far-reaching artistic -interest of these pictures had already greatly impressed me when I -first beheld them in their original place of deposit. But only as the -work of preservation progressed did it become possible fully to realize -the wealth and variety of all these materials, the novel problems they -raised, and the extent and difficulties of the labours which their -detailed study and interpretation would need. - -The mixture of influences already referred to revealed itself plainly -in features directly derived from Graeco-Buddhist art and in marks of -the change it had undergone on its passage through Central Asia or -Tibet. But the preponderance of Chinese taste and style was all the -same unmistakable from the first. On the iconographic side, too, it -soon became clear that the varied imagery displayed by the paintings, -though based on Indian conceptions and forms, bore the impress of -important changes undergone on its transition to China and after its -adoption there. The chief hope of guidance for the interpretation -of this Pantheon lay manifestly in comparison with the artistic -creations of the later Mahāyāna Buddhism of the Far East, especially of -Japan, and in the Chinese inscriptions displayed by many of the silk -paintings. It was obvious hence that for this part of my collection -a collaborator was needed who with knowledge of Buddhist iconography -would combine the qualifications of a Sinologue as well as familiarity -with Far-Eastern art in general. - -Through Mr. Binyon’s friendly intercession I was able in the autumn -of 1911 and towards the close of my stay in England to secure this -collaborator, and one exceptionally qualified, in the person of M. -Raphael Petrucci. Already distinguished in more than one field of -research, M. Petrucci combined enthusiastic devotion to Far-Eastern art -as a critic, connoisseur, and collector, with Sinologue studies begun -under such a master as M. Chavannes. A series of important publications -on the art of China and Japan bears eloquent testimony to his eminent -fitness for what was bound to prove a difficult task. During the -following two years M. Petrucci devoted protracted labours to the -study of our paintings and their inscriptions. The results were to be -embodied in an extensive Appendix to _Serindia_, probably requiring a -separate volume. - -In 1913 he supplied me with the draft of his introductory chapter -dealing with the votive inscriptions of our paintings, and after my -start that year for a third Central-Asian expedition he discussed in a -separate essay those elaborate compositions or ‘Maṇḍalas’ which form -the subject of some of the largest and artistically most interesting of -our paintings.[3] In addition to the above M. Petrucci had collected -a great mass of Chinese textual materials for the identification -of Jātaka scenes, individual divinities, &c., represented in the -paintings, when the invasion of Belgium cut him off from his home at -Brussels and all his materials. Under the conditions created by the -world war he was unable to resume his task in earnest. But he found -occasion even then, in the midst of voluntarily undertaken medical -duties under the Belgian Red Cross, to revisit our Collection, to -assist with his expert advice in the cataloguing of the Tun-huang -paintings, and to publish in the _Annales_ of the Musée Guimet a short -but very instructive and stimulating _conférence_ on them.[4] - -When returning in May 1916 from my third Central-Asian expedition, -I found M. Petrucci at Paris, still full of vigour and eagerly bent -upon carrying through his task. When a few weeks afterwards I was able -to inform him of the fortunate chance which, as will be explained -presently, had offered to make select specimens of our Tun-huang -paintings accessible in adequate reproductions to a wider circle of -students of Far-Eastern art, he most willingly undertook to contribute -the main portion of the text which was to accompany them. But some -months later he began to suffer from an internal ailment, and though in -the autumn of 1916 he was still strong enough to take a very helpful -share in the selection of the paintings to be reproduced in _The -Thousand Buddhas_, his condition became serious enough to necessitate -a grave operation in February 1917. This he overcame with apparent -success, only to succumb a week later to diphtheritis contracted in -the hospital. Deprived thus by a cruel blow of Fate of a most valued -collaborator and friend, we must rest content with dedicating to his -memory this publication in which he was to have borne a principal share. - -In accordance with the plan sanctioned in 1911 by the Secretary of -State for India, the Detailed Report on the results of my second -Central-Asian expedition was to include also a systematic survey and -full descriptive list of all the art relics brought away from the Caves -of the Thousand Buddhas. With this object in view I had taken care, at -the same time when enlisting M. Petrucci’s collaboration, to use as -many plates of _Serindia_ as the claims of abundant ‘finds’ from other -sites would allow, for the reproduction of characteristic specimens -among the different classes of paintings, drawings, and wood-cuts -recovered in the walled-up chapel.[5] But it was clear from the first -that the limitations imposed by the number and size of the _Serindia_ -plates, and even more perhaps by the cost of colour reproduction, -would not allow adequate justice being done to the artistic, as -distinguished from the iconographic and archaeological, value of the -paintings. It was equally easy to foresee that, however numerous the -small-scale reproductions in the plates of _Serindia_ might be, and -however thorough the description and analysis of the new materials in -its text, the very character, bulk, and correspondingly high price -of that detailed report would prevent it from making those paintings -sufficiently accessible to students interested mainly in their art. - -For these and cognate reasons I had been anxious from the outset to -arrange for a separate publication like the present. But the attempts -made in this direction before my return to duty in India at the -close of 1911 failed from want of needful means, and subsequently -distance and absorbing exertions in the field, as implied by my third -Central-Asian expedition (1913–16), precluded their effective renewal. -That auspices proved more favourable on my return from that journey was -due mainly to the generous interest which a far-sighted statesman, the -Right Honourable Mr. Austen Chamberlain, then H.M. Secretary of State -for India, was pleased to show in the plan. His appreciation of the -importance of these pictorial treasures and of the need of securing -an adequate record of them before their impending division between -the British Museum and Delhi was largely instrumental in inducing the -authorities of the India Office, with the ready co-operation of the -Trustees of the British Museum, to sanction the present publication -at a cost not exceeding £1,900. Regard for the special difficulties -then prevailing owing to the war is an additional reason for Mr. -Chamberlain’s timely help being remembered by me with profound -gratitude. - -The execution of the plates, both by three-colour and half-tone -process, was entrusted to Messrs. Henry Stone & Son, of Banbury, whose -establishment, under the expert direction of Mr. J. A. Milne, C.B.E., -had already proved its special fitness for such work by producing the -colour plates for my _Desert Cathay_ and _Serindia_.[6] I feel all the -more grateful for the great skill and care bestowed by them upon the -truthful rendering of the paintings, and for the success achieved, -because I learned to know the considerable technical difficulties which -had to be faced, particularly in the case of the colour plates. After -my return to India in the autumn of 1917 Mr. Binyon kindly charged -himself in my place with all the arrangements which were needed in -connexion with the reproduction work. - -It was under the constant and ever-watchful supervision of Mr. Laurence -Binyon that the exacting labours needed for the safe treatment and -future preservation of the Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings, and extending over -a period of close on seven years, had been effected in the Prints and -Drawings Department of the British Museum. To his unfailing knowledge -and care all students of these remains of Buddhist art owe gratitude -for the ease with which they can now be examined. But to those whom -the present publication is intended to reach he has rendered a service -equally great by contributing to it his _Introductory Essay_, The -expert guidance it affords as regards the evolution of Buddhist -pictorial art in the Far East and with regard to a variety of kindred -questions helps appreciably to reduce the loss which _The Thousand -Buddhas_ has suffered through M. Petrucci’s untimely death, and for -that help I feel deeply beholden. - -That lamented event left me with a heavier obligation than I had -anticipated in regard to the text both of this publication and of -the corresponding portion of _Serindia_. In meeting this obligation I -realize fully the limitations of my competence. Though familiar with -the iconography of Graeco-Buddhist art and of such remains of Buddhist -art in Central Asia as I had the good fortune to bring to light myself, -I had never found leisure for a systematic study of the religious art -of the Far East or Tibet. There was enough in the archaeology of the -sites I had explored through the whole length of the Tārīm Basin and -along the westernmost Marches of China and in the geography and history -of those wide regions fully to occupy my attention. In addition, my -want of Sinologue qualifications made itself sadly felt. - -Fortunately I had taken special care to secure a sufficiently -detailed description of all pictorial remains during the years of my -renewed absence in Central Asia and those immediately following. This -Descriptive List, now comprised in _Serindia_,[7] was prepared mainly -by the hand of Miss F. M. G. Lorimer, whose painstaking scholarly work -as assistant at my British Museum collection has proved throughout a -very valuable help. Besides M. Petrucci’s interpretations there was -embodied in it also much useful information received on artistic points -from my friend and chief assistant Mr. F. H. Andrews, and on Chinese -inscriptions from Dr. L. Giles and Mr. A. D. Waley of the British -Museum, as well as many helpful iconographic explanations kindly -furnished by two Japanese experts, Professor Taki and Mr. Yabuki. This -Descriptive List made it possible for me to provide in _Serindia_ a -systematic review of all our pictorial relics from Tun-huang,[8] and -this in turn has greatly facilitated the preparation of the descriptive -text for the present publication. For details which could not find -mention in it reference to the chapters of _Serindia_ already quoted -will prove useful. - -It only remains for me to add my grateful acknowledgements for the -care which my friends Mr. F. H. Andrews, Mr. L. Binyon, and Mr. C. -E. Freeman have been kind enough to bestow, whether on plates or on -print, and to express the wish that the reception accorded to _The -Thousand Buddhas_ both in the West and the East may justify the hope -which prompted the sacrifice incurred for their sake at a time of great -strain and stress. - - AUREL STEIN. - - Camp, Mohand Marg, - Kashmir. - June 2, 1921. - - -[1] See _Ruins of Desert Cathay_ (Macmillan & Co., London, 1912), ii. -pp. 20–31, 163–234. - -[2] See _Serindia_ Detailed Report on explorations in Central Asia -and Westernmost China, carried out and described under the orders of -H.M. Indian Government by Aurel Stein, K.C.I.E., Indian Archaeological -Survey (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1921, vols. i–v, Royal 4to), pp. -791–825. - -[3] These contributions have since been printed in Appendix _E_ of -_Serindia_, pp. 1392–428, after having been carefully prepared for -publication by M. Chavannes, with the assistance of common friends, MM. -Foucher and Sylvain Lévi. - -[4] See Petrucci, _Les peintures bouddhiques de Touen-houang, Mission -Stein_ (Annales du Musée Guimet, Bibliothèque de vulgarisation, xli, -1916, pp. 115–40). - -[5] See Plates LVI-CIV in _Serindia_, vol. iv. - -[6] Seven of those in the latter work have, with the kind permission of -the Delegates of the Clarendon Press, been used also here. - -[7] See _Serindia_, Chapter XXV, section ii, pp. 937–1088. - -[8] See _Serindia_, Chapter XXIII, sections i-ix, pp. 831–94. - - - - -THE TUN-HUANG PAINTINGS AND THEIR PLACE IN BUDDHIST ART - -AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY BY LAURENCE BINYON - - -I - -The paintings and drawings here reproduced are a selection from the -mass of precious material discovered by Sir Aurel Stein, and brought -away by him from ‘The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’ at Tun-huang, on -the extreme western frontier of China. The romantic circumstances of -the discovery have been fully described by Sir Aurel in the second -volume of his _Ruins of Desert Cathay_; and to those pages the reader -is referred. But it may be well to recall briefly the main facts of the -narrative. - -In March 1907 Sir Aurel Stein’s expedition, which had left Kashmir in -April of the preceding year, arrived at Tun-huang. From Kāshgar the -travellers had proceeded to Yārkand; thence to Khotan, where Sir Aurel -on his previous journey in 1900–1 had disinterred such interesting -remains of the ancient civilization once flourishing in that region; -thence eastward along the southern skirts of the great desert, -exploring various sites by the way with rich results, till at Tun-huang -they found themselves at last within the western border of the Chinese -province of Kan-su. - -Tun-huang is a square-walled town in a prosperous oasis of the -desert. Sir Aurel Stein had been attracted thither by the knowledge -that near the oasis were a number of sacred grottos known as ‘The -Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’, filled with ancient Buddhist frescoes -and sculptures.[1] But after arriving at Tun-huang, he also heard, -through a Muhammadan trader, rumours of something still more exciting -to the archaeologist—a hidden deposit of manuscripts which had been -accidentally discovered a few years previously in one of the caves. -In a barren valley to the south-east of the town, above a narrow -strip of irrigated soil, with rows of elms and poplars, there is a -cliff of conglomerate rock, which is honeycombed with hundreds of -cavities. These have been hollowed out to serve as Buddhist shrines, -still frequented by pious worshippers; and the walls of the cellas are -covered with old frescoes. - -It was in one of the larger shrines that the deposit of manuscripts -had been discovered by the Taoist monk in charge of certain grottos. -The monk had collected money from the faithful, and had undertaken to -restore this particular shrine to its former splendour; a laborious -work, since the drifting of the sand and falls of crumbling rock had -here, as in many other cases, blocked the entrance of the cave, and -the sand and debris had to be cleared away before the actual work of -the restorer could begin. While the men engaged on this labour were -at work, they had noticed a crack in the frescoed wall of the passage -between temple and antechapel. An opening was found; and this led to -a recess hollowed out of the rock behind the stuccoed wall. The room -thus disclosed proved to be completely filled with rolls of manuscript. -Specimens had been sent to the Viceroy of the Province, but no steps -had been taken to remove them; and in fact when Sir Aurel Stein first -arrived at the Caves he found that the deposit was carefully locked -away behind a wooden door; and when, after leaving Tun-huang for a -month’s journey of exploration, he returned in May, a brick wall had -been added to protect the hidden treasure. - -The reader must go to _Ruins of Desert Cathay_ for the full account -of the stages by which the Taoist priest who guarded the shrines was -induced first to show some specimens, and finally to let Sir Aurel -carry off a goodly hoard of the manuscripts and most of the pictorial -remains. - -The cave had been said to contain only MSS.; and bundles of MSS. were -there in immense quantities; but on opening one of the bundles Sir -Aurel was delighted to find that it contained paintings on silk. The -paintings were all, or nearly all, crumpled up. It seems as if they had -been hurriedly thrust away in the vault on some sudden alarm, probably -of a barbarian raid. And, in fact, on one of the pictures is a votive -inscription praying to Kuan-yin for protection against the Tartars and -the Tibetans. The position of Tun-huang on the westernmost frontier of -China, at the intersection of the great trade-route across Asia, from -east to west, with the high road between Mongolia in the north and -Tibet in the south, naturally exposed it to incursions and invasions. -Internal evidence of dated documents seems to show that the treasure, -or at any rate the great bulk of it, was hidden away soon after the -close of the tenth century A.D. - -To complete the story, we must add that M. Pelliot, the distinguished -savant and traveller, paid a visit a year later to the Caves and -was allowed to carry off what remained of the paintings and a large -selection from the hoard of manuscripts. These are now in the -Bibliothèque Nationale and in the Louvre. What was left of Chinese -manuscripts was subsequently transmitted by official order to Peking; -much being ‘lost’ on the way. - -Not till the paintings were brought to London could any real -examination of them be made. Each packet had to be carefully opened, -and the brittle, dusty silk, sometimes in a hundred fragments, opened -out, cleaned, and, where necessary, pieced together. This was done -at the British Museum; and it was a labour of years for the staff of -mounters attached to the Print Room. - -The paintings were carefully cleaned, and the colours were found in -most cases to have lost little of their pristine depth and brightness; -though where a certain verdigris green was used, it has tended to eat -away the silk on which it was laid, a whole figure in some cases having -thus disappeared and left only its surrounding outline. Any attempt at -restoration or retouching has been scrupulously avoided; but when a -painting which is in fragments has been laid down on silk of a neutral -tone, and mounted, the eye is easily carried over the gaps, and the -main design reappears. Several of the paintings still retain their -original borders, usually of a dull mulberry-purple silk. The small -banners, of which a great quantity were found, had all originally a -pediment-shaped head-piece, and long silk streamers with a wooden -weight at the bottom to steady the banner as it hung. These banners are -mostly painted on both sides. - -The delicate work of mounting and cleaning was done by Mr. S. W. -Littlejohn, Chief Mounter in the Department of Prints and Drawings, -assisted in later stages by Mr. Y. Urushibara, a Japanese artist and -craftsman. Meanwhile the large embroidery picture (Pl. XXXIV) had -been skilfully stitched on to a new backing of canvas by Miss E. A. -Winter of the Royal School of Art Needlework. A selection of the most -important pictures, drawings, and woodcuts formed part of an exhibition -of treasures of all sorts brought back by Sir Aurel Stein from his -second expedition and set out in the long lower gallery of the new wing -of the British Museum opened by H.M. the King in May 1914. The outbreak -of the War so soon after, and the subsequent closing of the Museum, -unfortunately prevented the exhibition from becoming adequately known -to the public. In 1917 Mr. Littlejohn, who had received a commission in -the R.G.A., was killed in action. During his last months at the Museum -he had been preparing a note on the origin of the system of mounting -pictures as _kakemono_, to use the convenient Japanese term. Those -familiar with Japanese pictures know that _kakemono_ are paintings -mounted on silk, with borders of brocade above and below the design, -and with two narrow strips of silk hanging down from above. These have -been explained as intended to keep away birds, or evil spirits; but -neither theory has ever seemed satisfactory; and in the streamers of -the Tun-huang banners, as Mr. Littlejohn perceived, was a much more -plausible explanation of their origin. They are a survival. And other -details in the Japanese (originally Chinese) system of mounting could -be explained, he suggested, by a reference to this forgotten origin. - - -II - -The pictorial treasures brought away from Tun-huang by Sir Aurel, and -now divided between the Indian Government and the British Museum, -consist of votive paintings (mostly on silk, though a certain number -are on paper) of various sizes, some being as much as six or seven feet -high; of a long series of small banners on silk and larger banners on -linen; of one or two magnificent specimens of embroidery, the finest of -which is reproduced (Pls. XXXIV and XXXV); of outline drawings, and of -woodcuts. - -The present publication is intended to illustrate the specimens which -have most importance for the study of Eastern art. - -The paintings and drawings, with a few unimportant exceptions, are all -of Buddhist inspiration. At first sight the limitation of scope and the -repetition of similar themes may give an impression of monotony. Closer -study reveals a remarkable variety. This variety is due to differences -of style, which are accounted for partly by the different dates, still -more by the different localities at which they were produced, partly by -the very varying degrees of skill in the painters who produced them. -Being all found in one place, the paintings might be supposed to be all -the product of a single local school. But this is certainly not the -case, as a brief examination shows at once. There are specimens (of -little account as art) which are purely Indian in style and probably -Nepalese; there are examples of the well-defined Tibetan type of -Buddhist picture; there are paintings which are entirely Chinese; and -there are, lastly, a number which contain Indian, Chinese, and possibly -Tibetan elements in varying proportions, but are in an intermediate -style and may safely be held to be the product of local schools of -Chinese Turkestān, and of the region which, on the east, joins it to -China proper. - -Until a few years ago, scarcely anything was known in Europe of -Buddhist painting beyond the famous frescoes of Ajaṇṭā in India and -Buddhist paintings by Japanese masters, of which the frescoes in the -Horiuji Temple at Nara are among the oldest and most celebrated. It -was known that the Japanese modelled their work closely on Chinese -tradition; and a few Chinese Buddhist paintings of early periods are -preserved in Japan; but while an extensive series of ancient Japanese -_Butsu-yé_ exists, corresponding specimens from China are very rare -indeed. And if the early Buddhist art of China was little known, still -less was known of the intermediate links in the tradition which passed -on from India to China through Turkestān. But now, through successive -explorations and discoveries, the story of Buddhist art and the phases -of its progress eastwards through Asia are fairly plain and familiar. -And some of the most illuminating and important documents have been -supplied by the discoveries of Sir Aurel Stein. - -In the paintings with which we are dealing, the Indian element is -obviously very strong, just as ‘The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’, -where they were found, were hollowed out of the cliff in obedience to -immemorial Indian tradition: we are reminded at once of the frescoed -caves of Ajaṇṭā. But there are other elements besides the Indian, as we -shall see. - -How did Buddhism penetrate into Central Asia? From India proper it -travelled by way of the extreme north-west frontier, the valley -of Peshawar, then known as the kingdom of Gandhāra; thence to the -countries lying north, and so eastwards by the great trade-route across -the desert to China. Gandhāra is the first stage of this long journey: -and it was in Gandhāra that the Buddhist art of the Further East, as -we know it, was first formulated. The now well-known sculptures of -Gandhāra, a fine series of which may be seen in the British Museum, -date from about the first century of our era to about the sixth. They -represent a late Hellenistic tradition put to the service of the -Indian religion. It was in Gandhāra that the types of Buddhist art -became fixed. It was there that the type of Śākyamuni himself was -first invented, or rather adapted from the ideal forms of Hellenistic -sculpture. For some centuries after the Buddha’s death, Indian artists -had always refrained from representing the image of the Lord. - -The Hellenistic element, apparent in poses, in drapery, in decorative -motifs like the acanthus-ornament, tends to become submerged in -the later phases of the art, though something of it still persists -recognizably in the Buddhist art of remote Japan, even to-day. At a -desert site of Khotan, the little kingdom lying at the southern edge -of the Taklamakān Desert, beyond the mountains on the north-eastern -frontier of Ladākh and Kashmir, Sir Aurel Stein found on his first -expedition (1900–1) the remains of settlements abandoned to the -encroaching sand about the third century A.D. Among these remains were -heaps of letters and documents written in early Indian script and -language on wooden tablets, tied with string and sealed; and in most -cases the seal was a Greek seal, engraved with a figure of Athene, -Heracles, or other deity. Again, at Mīrān, a site near Lop-nōr and much -further east, Sir Aurel, on his second expedition, discovered Buddhist -shrines adorned with frescoes of about the fourth century A.D. painted -in the style of late classical tradition. - -Fascinating as are these traces of Greece and the West in the midst -of the Asian deserts, the influence of Hellenism was not profound or -formative. India was the main influence on the culture of the cities -once flourishing along the chain of oases in the deserts west of China, -Buddhism the great civilizing factor, and Gandhāra the source from -which the local schools of art drew their inspiration. Gandhāra art was -itself not without some admixture from Persian sources; and Iranian -motives of decoration are found in these desert sites, as they are -found in China itself, just as some of the Tun-huang manuscripts are -written in the Iranian dialect called Sogdian. The art of Turkestān is -full of mixed influences, the reflection of its civilization. - -And what of China? For during the second century B.C. and the -two centuries following China pursued a policy of political and -military expansion westward, with a view to opening up trade-routes, -consolidating her frontiers and protecting them from the ravages of -the Huns and other tribes; and Eastern Turkestān became a Chinese -protectorate. Though afterwards China’s hold became weakened and -her power receded, in the seventh century A.D., under an Emperor of -the great T‘ang dynasty, the whole region came again under Chinese -government, and the Empire’s political sphere of influence was extended -as far as the borders of Persia and the shores of the Caspian. But -Chinese influence seems to have been confined mainly to administration, -and to have affected but little the culture of the people, though -traces of it are discernible in their arts and industries, ever more -marked as we go further east. - -This way passed the old great high road between east and west, by -which the Chinese silks were carried overland to Antioch and the -Roman Empire. It was a highway for commerce, but also for ideas and -religions. And the early centuries of our era were marked by an -extraordinary ferment of mystical beliefs both in east and west. While -Christianity and Mithraism were contending for supremacy in the Roman -Empire, Buddhism was making its victorious progress eastwards. But -it was no longer the simple ethical doctrine preached by Gautama. -Mahāyāna Buddhism, as the later development of Buddhism is called—the -Great Vehicle, as opposed to the Hīnayāna, or Small Vehicle, of the -original doctrine—was first formulated about the first century A.D. -It was no longer the salvation of the individual which was the aim of -the devout, but the salvation of the whole world, towards which the -Bodhisattvas strive unceasingly out of their boundless love for every -sentient being. The Bodhisattvas in this new phase of Buddhism became -more and more the object of popular worship. They are either men who, -having won the right to enter Buddhahood, refuse that peace for the -sake of suffering mankind, or else celestial beings who assume a human -form. Of this last order of beings is Avalokiteśvara, whom the Chinese -know as Kuan-yin, and the Japanese as Kwannon; the favourite object -of adoration in Mahāyāna Buddhism. He appears in art both in male and -female form. In later art the female form is almost universal, but in -the Tun-huang paintings the male form is predominant. Avalokiteśvara is -the spiritual son of Amitābha, the impersonal Buddha, the Light of the -Enlightened; and Amitābha is said to have created a Paradise in the -West, where souls who believe in him may be born and rest for a long -age, or in popular belief for ever. Śākyamuni, we note, has no longer -the supreme position, though sometimes he is painted as reigning over a -Paradise, or, as in the large embroidery-picture (Pl. XXXIV), standing -on the Vulture Peak, the scene of his last teaching. - -As Avalokiteśvara is incarnate Pity, so, among other great -Bodhisattvas, Mañjuśrī embodies the Spirit of Wisdom, Samantabhadra -stands for the power of the Church, Kṣitigarbha is the breaker of the -powers of Hell and the illuminator of its darkness. Bhaiṣajyarāja is -the lord of medicine; and Maitreya is the Buddha that is to come. - -Besides the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, the Lokapālas or Demon Kings who -guard each one of the Four Quarters of the World are frequent figures -in art. These are survivals of primitive demon-worship adopted into -Buddhism. - -The subjects of the Tun-huang paintings are, then, single figures -of Bodhisattvas, especially of Avalokiteśvara, or of the Lokapālas; -small pictures of scenes from Gautama’s life, or the Jātakas, stories -of his lives in previous incarnations; and representations of the -Western Paradise. This last subject is sometimes highly elaborated, -with an immense number of figures of the blest grouped in pavilions -and terraces built about a lotus lake. Flowers are rained through the -air, and celestial beings dance and sing for the delight of the souls -dwelling in the Happy Land of Amitābha’s creation. - -All this carries us far indeed from the Four Noble Truths and the -Eightfold Path—the simple doctrine in which Śākyamuni taught the means -of Salvation here on earth. Much of this later Buddhism was doubtless -an accretion from other faiths with which it came in contact on its -progress through Asia. Amitābha may be a borrowing from the worship -of Mithras; and certain of the Bodhisattvas may have been originally -deified heroes of lands into which Buddhism made its way. In Eastern -Turkestān, Manichaeism, the religion founded by the Persian Mani in the -third century A.D., found a home; and at Turfān—one of the oases which -have been explored—Manichaeans, Buddhists, and Christians were living -peaceably side by side. - -For the study of religion, then, the art found in the various sites -on the borders of the Taklamakān and Lop deserts is of extraordinary -interest. But, as art, it is of a local and provincial type, and though -often of considerable merit, it nowhere rises beyond a certain level. - - -III - -But at Tun-huang we are within the frontiers of China proper; and -Chinese art during the T‘ang period, seventh to tenth century A.D., -was at its grandest height of power. The extraordinary interest of -these paintings is that, though a great number of them are, as we might -expect, obviously provincial productions (e.g. Pls. XXIV and XXVI), -others belong to the central tradition of Chinese Buddhist painting; -and as scarcely any such paintings of the T‘ang period are known to -exist, the importance of this group, for the study of Chinese art, can -hardly be overestimated. - -How do we know that these paintings belong to that central tradition? -We know it from the early Buddhist paintings of Japan, of which noble -masterpieces (some perhaps actually Chinese) are preserved in the -Japanese temples. Even if we did not know that the early Japanese -painters founded their style entirely on the T‘ang masters, the -Tun-huang pictures, sometimes so singularly close to the Japanese -Buddhist art of the same period, would prove it. - -Plate III reproduces rather more than the left-hand half of a large -painting, which itself seems to be only the upper portion of a still -larger composition. The original offers extreme difficulties to -photography; and though the reproduction is more successful than -might have been anticipated, it is necessary to study the original to -appreciate the delicacy of the drawing, especially of the faces of -the Bodhisattvas. The serene grandeur of the design is enhanced by a -pervasion of grace in the delineation of every form. Here, surely, is -the hand of a master. Rivalling this in beauty is the large painting -of which a portion is reproduced on Plate I, and another portion on -Plate II. Here there is a similar delicate expressiveness of drawing, -combined with a glowing animation of varied colour. The picture is full -of exquisite detail. Note the life and charm, for instance, in the -figure seated with her back to us in the window of the high pavilion in -the upper right-hand portion, next the border (Pl. I). Here again is a -master of individual temperament. - -In both of these pictures the artist has been able to control his -complex material and multitude of forms into a wonderful harmony, -without any restlessness or confusion; and we are taken into an -atmosphere of strange peace, which yet seems filled with buoyant motion -and with floating strains of music. - -None of the other pictures is, as art, quite on this level, the -tendency being for the quality of the workmanship to be inadequate -to the conception and design. The two grand fragments illustrated -on Plates IV and V; the Avalokiteśvara (Pl. XX); the Vaiśravaṇa -crossing the ocean (Pl. XLV) are perhaps nearest. And next would come -such examples as the Avalokiteśvara in Glory (Pl. XVII) and other -representations of the same Bodhisattva (Pls. XVIII, XIX, XXI), and -some of the Paradise pictures, and banners; but as we gradually descend -the scale, an insensitive execution contrasts more and more with the -dignity and grandeur of the design. These were not great painters, but -they belonged to a great school. In such a picture as the Two Forms -of Avalokiteśvara (Pl. XV) we feel that if only the rather inanimate -workmanship corresponded to the grandeur of the design, we should be in -presence of a masterpiece. We have a hint at least of what majesty the -T’ang masters must have been capable. - -This group of paintings gives to the collection found at Tun-huang an -artistic importance quite beyond that of any of the groups of works of -art discovered by various expeditions in Turkestān; and it is worth -while to examine them a little more closely. - -The flooding wave of Indian religion and Indian art, after traversing -a region of inferior cultures, meets in China for the first time -an established art of original power and native genius. The Indian -religion, in spite of vicissitudes and rebuffs, takes a firm hold on -the Chinese. Buddhist paintings are demanded of the great masters. Of -what character is the resulting art? - -We are unable to say what the earliest treatment of Buddhist themes by -Chinese artists was like. Buddhist images were introduced from India -as early as the first century A.D., and were eagerly sought for and -studied in succeeding times. Plate XIV—the original of which is, so -far as we know, unique—is of singular interest; for it consists of -a group of drawings after Indian Buddhist statues—just such as the -great pilgrim of the seventh century, Hsüan-tsang, might have brought -back from his long journeyings among the sacred sites of India. In -the fourth century the famous painter Ku K‘ai-chih painted, we know, -many Buddhist subjects, but neither the ‘Admonitions’ in the British -Museum, nor the _Ló-shen Fu_ in the Freer Collection, shows any trace -of Buddhist or Indian influence; on the contrary, they show the purely -native style of China in its integrity. - -That purely native style is found in the paintings we are examining, -but not as a rule in the treatment of the main subjects. Many of the -large pictures of Paradise have borders on either side, divided into -compartments, in which are painted scenes from the Jātakas or stories -of the former lives of Buddha. One is reminded of the predella pictures -of an Italian altar-piece. Plate I affords a good example, showing -part of the right-hand border of the picture. And here the figures, -the dresses, the landscape, the style of drawing, the spacing, are all -Chinese. Were it not for the subject-matter, no one would dream of -suggesting any influence from India. In the small banners, these Jātaka -episodes form sometimes the entire subject, three or more scenes being -usually painted one above the other. Examples are reproduced on Plate -XII, Plate XIII, and Plate XXXVII. On these banners we find scenes -from the legend of Śākyamuni in his last life on earth; his conception -by his mother, his birth in the Lumbinī garden, his first steps, his -athletic feats as a boy; his first meeting with death and sickness; his -flight from the palace at midnight. Even here everything is Chinese: -types, costume, architecture, pictorial conventions; it is only -after Gautama has taken up his mission and begun to teach that he is -represented in Indian guise, according to the traditions derived from -Gandhāra. - -How comes it, then, that in portraying the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, -the saints and Lokapālas or Demon Kings, the Chinese painters -follow so closely the Indian formula? We may suppose that just -as fifteenth-century painters in Italy and the Netherlands, in -representing Gospel scenes, portrayed Christ and his disciples dressed -in a conventional, supposedly Oriental garb, but painted secular -persons and spectators in the costume of their own time and place, -so it was with these Chinese artists. And perhaps this is sufficient -explanation. Yet, when we remark what fidelity to Gandhāran models -was observed, once the Chinese artists had come to know them; when -we remember that the Jātaka scenes were frequent subjects of the -school of Gandhāra and were of course treated in the same style as the -Bodhisattvas; and when we consider that Buddha himself, in his youth, -is portrayed in these banner paintings as a Chinese boy in Chinese -dress, we may be tempted by another hypothesis. We may suppose that -when the Buddha-legends were first illustrated by Chinese painters they -were known by written and oral tradition only, and that the painters, -having no models to fall back upon, painted the chosen scenes in -their own way and according to their own lights; and this style, this -treatment, once fixed, remained. It might be that the tradition thus -formed (which, be it noticed, is continued in Japanese art throughout) -represents an earlier phase of Buddhism, when the Buddha-legend was -more prominent in the mouths of missionaries than the worship of the -Bodhisattvas. But all this is conjecture, and the simpler explanation -may be the right one. - -At any rate, what we have to note is the fact that Chinese painting had -already developed a powerful genius of its own, and, however much it -borrowed, was able to fuse its borrowings in its own style. But before -dealing with this question of the fusion of Indian subject-matter in -Chinese style, let us complete what there is to say about the purely -Chinese features in the Tun-huang paintings. - -Besides the illustrations of Jātaka-legends, there are at the foot -of many of the pictures portraits of their donors. These are most -valuable documents for the student of Chinese painting; for they give -us portraits of people actually living at a certain date, they show -us what costume they wore—thereby often helping us to determine the -approximate date of undated pictures—and they afford more than a hint -of the prevalent style of drawing in secular art. - -Every one who has studied the earlier art of China knows how difficult -it is to find a really trustworthy starting-point for dating pictures -and arriving at a sound conception of the style of a given period. -We have usually only an ancient tradition, at the best, of date and -authorship. But here we have dated work, from which we can start. - -Among the paintings reproduced is one, ‘Four Forms of Avalokiteśvara’ -(Pl. XVI), which bears a date corresponding to the year A.D. 864. This -is the earliest date found on any of the paintings. Others bear dates -of the late ninth and early tenth centuries. - -Comparing the picture reproduced on Plate XVI with other pictures -which are not dated, we can have little hesitation in assigning the -great majority of the paintings to the second half of the Tang dynasty -(seventh to tenth centuries) and towards its close, though it would be -rash to attempt any minute determination of dates, for reasons already -given. - -We know nothing certain of Chinese painting before Tang times, except -the painting in the British Museum, ‘Admonitions of the Instructress -in the Palace’, and the ‘Ló-shen Fu’ in the Freer Collection, both -ascribed to Ku K‘ai-chih. Whether either of these be allowed to be -an original of the fourth century or not, there can be no doubt that -they represent the style of that period in its main characteristics: -they show a great mastery of expressive drawing of the human figure, -an extraordinary command of finely modulated, sinuous line, a love of -it both for its own sake and as expressive of movement, and a quite -primitive and rudimentary treatment of landscape. - -The paintings we are now considering afford no adequate material -for comparison; but one thing is at once noticeable, and that is -the altered ideal of the human form; in place of the tall, slender -proportions of Ku K‘ai-chih, T‘ang art substitutes shorter and more -massive proportions. An ideal of power has superseded an ideal of grace. - -Hints of the treatment of landscape, primitive by comparison with the -mature Sung art, but decidedly more advanced than Ku K‘ai-chih’s, are -also of much interest. - -Among the Tun-huang paintings there is at least one (Pl. XXXVIII) which -seems to be in an earlier style than the rest. This painting of Buddha -attended by divinities of the Planets comes nearer to the style we find -in Ku K‘ai-chih, both in its finer, drier line, in its proportions of -the figure, its generally more primitive aspect, and its comparative -freedom from Indian influence. The bannered chariot may be compared -with the chariot in the Ku K‘ai-chih picture in the Freer Collection. -And yet this picture is dated with a year corresponding to A.D. 897, -actually later than the ‘Four Forms of Avalokiteśvara’. Similarly a -woodcut, dated A.D. 947, is much ruder and more primitive-looking -than another dated A.D. 868. These facts and comparisons warn us of -the danger of attempting to assign dates too confidently. It may well -be that the paintings which are actually the earliest have the least -primitive aspect. Another example which has an archaic air is the -small picture of Kṣitigarbha enthroned, on blue silk (Pl. XXXIX); but -here, too, we may doubt whether the primitive features may not be due -to provincial style preserving old tradition rather than to actual -antiquity. At the same time it must be remembered that dates going as -far back as the fifth century A.D. are found among the manuscripts -heaped in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas; there is no reason -therefore why some of the paintings should not be considerably older -than the earliest dated specimen. - -One or two paintings in the collection seem to have been added to the -hidden store at a later date. Such is the painting reproduced on Plate -XXXVIII of Avalokiteśvara conducting a soul. This is exceptionally well -preserved, and both the style and the costume of the woman point to a -date more recent than late T‘ang. It is a painting of great beauty. - -We may now return to the question of the way in which Indian -subject-matter was fused in Chinese style. - -As we have seen, the narrative-pictures, depicting episodes from the -Jātakas, were originally painted in a purely native manner, the whole -theme being bodily translated into Chinese terms; and this tradition -persisted, and even in Japan the Buddha legend is given a Chinese -dress. But with the devotional pictures it was different. As early as -the fifth century, Chinese artists, as we know from the sculptures at -Yün-kang, were copying the Gandhāra types of the Bodhisattvas, though, -as M. Petrucci has observed, the Gandhāra tradition appears at Yün-kang -‘à l’état de débris, comme une chose finissante’. We may suppose that -the copying of Gandhāra models went on for a time side by side with -the complete translation of Indian story into Chinese formula. But by -degrees the Chinese genius asserted itself; and probably the advent of -Wu Tao-tzŭ and a few other men of genius gave a fresh character to the -Buddhist art of T‘ang. - -The Chinese genius is strong just where the Indian genius is weak. The -bent of the Indian artist is to pour out his emotions and imaginings in -a torrent, shaping them to form and colour as they come; he delights -in exuberance and a fine excess; he cannot bear to leave a corner of -his space unfilled. If we compare the Ajaṇṭā frescoes with the best -of the Tun-huang paintings, say with that partly reproduced on Plate -III, we feel a different instinct at work. The Indian painters draw -their figures and animals with an admirably expressive power and sense -of life; they have freshness of vision, and spontaneous vigour, and -directness of emotion. And it is part of their spontaneousness that -in grouping figures together they accept the accidental appearances -of form, with a result that is often restless to the eye. In the -Tun-huang painting we feel that the artist obeys an instinct which -controls the complex lines of many grouped figures into a continuous -reposeful harmony; a subtle relation between form and form and between -group and group is set up; these relations rather than delineation -of objects engross the painter. There is a sense of movement in the -passage of the great Bodhisattva on his pacing elephant, preceded and -attended by blessed beings, but it is as if they moved to music; and -the sinuous streaming of the cloud on which a cluster of happy souls is -borne enhances this effect of serene and rhythmic motion. This subtle -unifying instinct of design inheres in the Chinese genius. - -Look, again, at the small paintings of Jātaka scenes at the side of -Plate I, and note even there the use of spacing. In contrast with -Indian artists, the Chinese understand to the full the power of -suggestion and the value of reticence. They know how to foil forms in -movement with forms in repose, rich detail with empty space, so as -to stir in the spectator the intensest appreciation of each particular -element. Space is not, in Chinese painting, something left over and -unfilled; it is a positive power and an integral factor in design. - -In the typical classics of Chinese art these special powers in the -control of ordered, fluent line, and in mastery of spacing, are -magnificently displayed. But even in these Tun-huang pictures, where -the subject-matter, the imagery, and the canons of ideal form are taken -over from India, we feel how all this is being fused in the fire of a -different genius. And in such a picture as the large Paradise (Pls. I -and II) how potently this genius is at work, controlling all these many -groups of crowded figures, and this built-up composition, with all its -various colours, in the spell of a single mood of immaterial felicity -and peace! - - -IV - -It has been mentioned that a series of Nepalese paintings of -Bodhisattvas were found at Tun-huang. These are precious documents, -because of the extreme rarity of Indian paintings of so early a period; -but as their artistic interest is but slight, they have not been -chosen for illustration. Plate XXXI reproduces a Tibetan painting. The -territory of Tun-huang was conquered by the Tibetans in the middle of -the eighth century A.D., and till the middle of the ninth century the -Tibetan power was dominant. Quantities of Tibetan Buddhist writings -were found in the cave: and among the paintings this one, certainly, -is entirely Tibetan in style. (Two Tibetan drawings are reproduced on -Pl. XXXII.) It is of the same type as the numerous pictures brought -from Tibet itself in recent years, collections of which are in the -British Museum, and in other museums of Europe and America. With regard -to these pictures the question of date has always been a matter of -conjecture. Many are darkened by incense-smoke, which in a few years -can give an appearance of impressive antiquity. The probability is -that the Tun-huang specimen dates from about the tenth century, and, -if so, it is likely to be the oldest of its kind now in existence, or -at the least one of the oldest. It is painted in distemper on linen, a -technique favoured by the Tibetan artists. - -But how did this Tibetan art grow up? What is the indigenous element -in it? Buddhism was only introduced into the country in the seventh -century, and whether Tibet had any art to speak of before its -introduction we do not know. In Tibetan Buddhism the Tantra system -of magic and witchcraft, and the worship of demons (supposed to be -converted by Buddha and to be vassals under his sovereignty), play a -dominant part; and in the paintings the forms are often monstrous and -horrible, the colouring sombrely splendid. But the harmonies of fluid, -sinuous line, for which they are even more remarkable, seem to be an -element borrowed from Chinese art and carried to excess in Tibet. If -we compare for a moment this painting with, for instance, the one -reproduced on Plate XLII, we see how much this element counts for. And -on the whole it seems likeliest to suppose that Tibetan painting is -rather an offshoot of Chinese art, developed in a certain direction, -and so acquiring a special character, than a native growth. But of this -we cannot be certain. - -Plate XLII illustrates, much reduced, an imposing example of the kind -of painting in a mixed style which flourished in Eastern Turkestān. -Note how the flowers dropping through the air suggest none of that -sense of the fragility of flowers, and of their light floating on the -air, which the Chinese artist knows instinctively how to give: they are -heavy and motionless. There is a certain rigidity and solidity in the -whole picture; and the effect of solidity is consciously aimed at by -the system of modelling the central figure in two tones of colour. This -system is carried yet further in Plate X, where high lights on nose and -forehead (blackened through oxidization in some places) have been added -in white. Compare also Plate XI, illustrating a very large painting of -similar character, full of the most interesting detail (note the babies -enclosed within the lotus-buds, souls of the blessed about to be born -into Paradise). These pictures are painted in what Sir Aurel Stein -calls ‘the fresco style’, because they repeat on silk the manner of -the fresco paintings of Tun-huang. In all these pictures the Chinese -element is present but not dominant; and the system of modelling in two -tones of colour comes, we cannot doubt, from the west. It is true that -it was sometimes copied by the Chinese in their Buddhist paintings, as -we know from early Japanese examples following Chinese prototypes: but -the Chinese of T‘ang times were intensely interested in the western -countries; they liked to introduce figures of people from those regions -into their pictures; and, as we know, a painter from Khotan settled in -China in the eighth century and had great success there. But the desire -to suggest mass and roundness by means of modelling in painting was -against the instincts of the Chinese and Japanese; it occurs only in -certain Buddhist pictures, the survival of a borrowing from the west -preserved by hieratic tradition. - -One of the finest of all the Tun-huang pictures is not a painting but -a piece of embroidery. Unfortunately it does not lend itself well to -photography in colour; and its quality and impressive character are -merely suggested in the small Plate (Pl. XXXIV) and in the detail -with a group of donors (Pl. XXXV). Though merely the reproduction -by craftsmen of a master’s work, it shows such skill and taste in -execution, it is so fine in colour, and so well preserved, that it must -be ranked with the very finest of the paintings as an indication of the -grandeur of the Buddhist art of T‘ang. - -[1] For the wall-paintings and sculptures of the cave-temples of -Tun-huang, see now the fine reproductions in M. Paul Pelliot’s _Les -Grottes de Touen-houang, Peintures et Sculptures des époques des Wei, -des T‘ang et des Song_ (Paris, Paul Geuthner, in progress). - - - - -DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF PICTURES FROM THE CAVES OF THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS -AT TUN-HUANG - -BY - -AUREL STEIN - -PLATES I, II - -THE PARADISE OF BHAIṢAJYAGURU - - -The first two plates reproduce portions, on half the scale of the -original, from the right and left of a large painting on silk (Ch. lii. -003), remarkable for its noble design, the delicacy of its drawing, -and its glowing colours. In spite of the damage it has suffered along -its sides and bottom (see _Serindia_, Pl. LVII) it still measures -close on seven feet in height and over five and a half feet across. -It represents a Buddhist Paradise and, according to M. Petrucci’s -interpretation, the one presided over by Bhaiṣajyaguru, the Buddha -of Medicine, whose cult since an early period has been widespread in -Northern Buddhism from Tibet to Japan. His Heaven is placed in the -East by sacred texts preserved in the Chinese Tripiṭaka. In their -descriptions as well as in our painting Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise shares -the essential features of that still more popular abode of Buddhist -bliss, the Western Paradise, or _Sukhāvatī_, presided over by the -Buddha Amitābha. Of this the ‘Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’ have -preserved numerous representations both among the pictures recovered -from the walled-up chapel (see Pls. VI–VIII, X–XI) and among the mural -paintings decorating the temples. But the legendary scenes occupying -the side panels of our painting and connected with Bhaiṣajyaguru are -different, and so are also certain details in the arrangement and -personnel of the main subject. These distinctive features are found -again in another somewhat less elaborate picture of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s -Paradise, reproduced in Plate XXXVI. - -His Heaven presents itself in our picture, as in all the large Paradise -paintings of Tun-huang, as a great assemblage of celestial beings, -elaborately staged on richly decorated terraces and courts which rise -above a lotus lake. On the sides and behind the terraces there are seen -pavilions and elaborate structures of characteristically Chinese style, -representing the heavenly mansions. It is in this sumptuous setting -that Chinese Buddhism has visualized from an early period the idea of -a Paradise where the souls of believers in the Law may be reborn, free -from all taint, in the buds of the lotus lake to enjoy thereafter for -aeons, or in popular belief for ever, blissful rest and pleasures in -the company of Bodhisattvas, Arhats, and other beatified personalities. -The scheme of the whole, as in all representations of Buddhist Heavens -among the Tun-huang paintings, is ordered on the strictly symmetrical -lines of a ‘Maṇḍala’, buildings, trees, groups, and even individual -figures balancing each other on either side of the picture and all -centring round the presiding Buddha in the middle. - -Here we see Bhaiṣajyaguru seated with folded legs and wearing a crimson -mantle over a green under-robe. While his right hand is raised as usual -in the _vitarka-mudrā_, the left holds the begging bowl in his lap. -Behind him a couple of flowering trees support a hexagonal canopy of -red drapery. A halo and nimbus of manifold but harmoniously blended -colours surround the Buddha’s figure, which in pose and dress and -in the features of the mild pensive face bears the impress of the -type first evolved in Graeco-Buddhist art even more clearly than the -figures of the surrounding Bodhisattvas. Of these the two enthroned are -identified by M. Petrucci with Mañjuśrī on the right and Samantabhadra -on the left. Above these two chief Bodhisattvas rise six-tiered -umbrellas wreathed in clouds, about which float gracefully poised -figures of Apsaras. The rich flowing garments, which include shawl-like -stoles, and the abundant jewelled ornaments of the two are shared also -by other haloed figures obviously meant for Bodhisattvas, who appear in -attendance on the central Buddha or in varying supple poses occupy the -fore portion of the terrace. The features of all are drawn with extreme -delicacy and pleasing variety of expression, the eyes being in many -cases almost straight, while the flesh is white, with shading in tints -of pink. - -By the side of either of the enthroned Bodhisattvas there is seen a -composite group of divinities, unhaloed and five on each side, of -types not ordinarily met with among the attendants in these Paradise -pictures. Three figures in each group are warrior kings, recalling the -Lokapālas, or Guardians of the Four Regions (see Pls. XLV, XLVII), -by their gorgeous armour and head-dresses. The features of most of -them are grotesque, and this aspect of their appearance is enhanced -by the animal figures, including a dragon, gryphon, phoenix, and -peacock, which are shown rising above their shoulders or elsewhere -in conjunction with them. Each group includes the figure of a demon -closely resembling those which are usually met with in the _cortège_ of -Lokapālas (see Pls. XXVI, XLV). The demon on the right raises a naked -infant on his hand, just as the demon in the fragmentary painting of -Plate XLVI. Immediately behind the enthroned Buddha on the left is seen -a youthful personage wearing what looks like a magistrate’s head-dress, -while the corresponding position on the right is occupied by a warrior -with three faces. Perhaps he represents Brahman and the former divinity -Indra. - -Before the central Buddha and in the middle of the picture is seen a -large platform projecting from the main terrace and carrying a draped -altar with sacred vessels. On either side of it kneel two unhaloed -figures in graceful poses holding up offerings and suggesting nymphs. -Projecting still further into the foreground is a smaller platform, -and on it a dancer performs in rapid movement to the strains of an -orchestra of eight seated musicians. The dancing figure, unmistakably -that of a girl, is dressed in a billowy orange skirt tied round the -hips and a close-fitting crimson jacket reaching only to the waist and -surmounted by a metal-bound plastron. Her head and arms are richly -adorned with jewellery. From behind the neck issues a long narrow stole -which her hands wave as she dances. The figures of the musicians, four -on each side, resemble those of Bodhisattvas in features and dress, but -the shawl-like stoles over the shoulders are absent. Those to the left -play on a harp, two lutes, and a psaltery, while those to the right -play on clappers, flute, Chinese reed-organ, and pipe. The instruments, -of which several have their ancient Japanese counterparts among the -treasures of the Shōsōin collection (see _Shōsōin Catalogue_, i. Pls. -56, 60), have been fully described in Miss Schlesinger’s expert notes -in Appendix _K_ to _Serindia_. - -At the head of each line of musicians there is seen in the background -a small but very curious figure, that of a fat half-naked infant -violently dancing and playing, the one to the left on a narrow-waisted -drum, the one to the right apparently on castanets. Judging from other -Paradise pictures we may assume that these playing infants represent -newly reborn souls who in the joy of their celestial childhood have -been drawn to join the happy scene of music and dancing. - -A kind of gangway projects in front of the dancer’s platform into -the lotus lake, and at its entrance stands a Garuḍa with widespread -wings, playing on cymbals. From the lake rise trees and purple or -scarlet lotus buds and flowers, the latter supporting souls reborn. -Two of these, at the extreme right and left, are sitting upright as -fully developed Bodhisattvas, but with a languid air of newly awakened -consciousness. Two others, faintly visible in the foreground, are -represented as naked infants just springing to life or still curled up -in sleep. A rock on the left at the bottom edge of the lake is occupied -by a crane; its pendant on the right, a peacock, falls outside the -reproduction in Plate II. - -The bottom corners of the Paradise are filled by the twelve armed -Kings, the generals of Bhaiṣajyaguru, who act as protectors of the Law. -They kneel six a side upon small terraces with gangways sloping down -into the lake. They are treated in appearance and dress like Lokapālas, -but carry no distinctive weapons. Their hands are joined in adoration -or else hold sacred vessels, jewels, &c. - -Turning to the sides of the picture, we see the main terrace flanked -by two-storied pavilions, both of distinctively Chinese architecture, -and close by them trees carrying rich foliage but no flowers. The -upper chambers of the pavilions are open and show small Bodhisattvas -sitting on railings, pulling up reed-blinds or otherwise enjoying their -leisured life. The lower chambers contain only unoccupied lotus seats -and appear to have just been abandoned by two subsidiary Buddhas, who -are represented as advancing, each with two attendant Bodhisattvas, on -to projecting wings of the main terrace. The dress of the subsidiary -Buddhas is exactly that of the presiding Bhaiṣajyaguru, of whom M. -Petrucci takes them to be repetitions, and the expression of their -faces is similarly mild and pensive. - -The marginal scenes, of which Plate I shows the better preserved ones -on the right side, have been identified by M. Petrucci as representing -incidents of the legend of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s last incarnation as a -Bodhisattva. Without reference to the text of the Chinese Tripiṭaka -which records this legend, but of which the translation prepared by -M. Petrucci is not at present accessible, no interpretation of the -different scenes can be attempted here. Judging from the inscribed -cartouches, at least five scenes are represented in the predella -portion actually reproduced in our Plate. That the treatment of the -figures, the dresses, the landscape is in purely Chinese style is -an observation uniformly applying to all side scenes to be found in -‘Maṇḍala’ pictures from the ‘Thousand Buddhas’, as well as to the -banners representing episodes from Gautama Buddha’s life-story (see -Pls. XII, XIII, XXXVII). Mr. Binyon in his Introductory Essay (see -above, p. 7) has discussed different possible explanations of the -striking assertion of Chinese style and feeling in these scenes. Here -it may suffice to draw attention to the skill with which the rapid -movement of the animal figures appearing in our scenes is rendered, -and to the clever use, observed elsewhere also, which is made of hill -ranges and similar landscape features for dividing the several scenes -into clearly marked compartments without sacrificing the effect of the -whole as a connected story. - -A combination of special qualities renders this painting of -Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise one of the most impressive pictures in the -Collection and proves it to be from the hand of a master. As Mr. Binyon -happily puts it, we see in it ‘delicate expressiveness of drawing -combined with a glowing animation of varied colour.... The artist has -been able to control his complex material and multitude of forms into -a wonderful harmony, without any restlessness or confusion; and we are -taken into an atmosphere of strange peace which yet seems filled with -buoyant motion and floating strains of music.’ - - - - -PLATE III - -A CELESTIAL ASSEMBLAGE - -The observations just quoted apply with equal force to the large -painting on silk (Ch. xxxvii. 004), of which Plate III reproduces a -little more than the left-hand half on the scale of about one-half. The -painting itself, which though incomplete on all sides still measures -close on six feet across by five feet in height, represents but the -upper portion of a much larger composition. Judging from what survives -of the central figure in the lower broken part (see _Serindia_, -Pl. LIX), the picture as a whole was meant for a ‘Maṇḍala’ of the -thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, the Kuan-yin of Chinese Buddhism. But -the heavy band of rhomboidal ornament which, as seen near the lower -edge of the Plate, passes behind the halo of this large central figure -clearly marks off the divine assemblage in the upper portion from the -rest as a well-defined theme by itself. - -The Buddha presiding over this assemblage, whose seated figure our -Plate shows in its upper right corner, is taken by M. Petrucci for -Bhaiṣajyaguru, and the similarity in pose and accessories to the -central Buddha of the previously discussed picture seems to support -this identification. Unfortunately the inscription in Chinese and -Tibetan which occupies the large yellow cartouche in the centre and -might have afforded safe guidance has faded into illegibility. On -either side of this central Buddha is seen a Bodhisattva, seated with -one leg pendent and with the hand nearest to the Buddha raised, like -the right of the latter himself, in the _vitarka-mudrā_, the gesture -of argument. In pose, dress, and treatment of features these two -seated Bodhisattvas bear a distinctly Indian air, and this would well -agree with the identification proposed for them by M. Petrucci, who on -the strength of inscriptional indications in a simplified Maṇḍala of -Bhaiṣajyaguru is prepared to recognize Samantabhadra in the Bodhisattva -to the left and his usual counterpart Mañjuśrī in the corresponding -seated Bodhisattva to the right.[1] Between the presiding Buddha and -the Bodhisattva on either side are grouped three lesser Bodhisattvas -in adoring poses and two haloed monkish disciples. The heads of the -latter, one young, the other old and emaciated, are drawn with much -expressive skill. The same is the case with the faces of most of the -Bodhisattvas, though the great difficulties which the painting offers -to photography do not allow the extreme delicacy of the drawing to be -fully appreciated in the reproduction. - -While the grouping and treatment of the divine personalities so far -named follow well-established lines, a striking feature, met with -again only once among our ‘Maṇḍala’ paintings, is introduced by the -two processions which descend, carried on purple clouds, from either -side towards the centre of the picture. On the left our Plate shows -us the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra seated on a lotus which a white -elephant, his recognized _vāhana_, carries, as he advances accompanied -by Bodhisattvas and preceded by heavenly musicians to meet Mañjuśrī. -The latter Bodhisattva appears in the corresponding right-hand portion -of the picture seated on his lion and escorted by an exactly similar -_cortège_. - -Apart from six figures of undetermined lesser Bodhisattvas, some of -whom carry sacred vessels, the _cortège_ of either comprises four -youthful musicians playing on clappers, pipe, flute, and mouth-organ. -In front of them marches a dark-coloured boy, undoubtedly meant for an -Indian, carrying a bronze vessel, while another strides by the side of -the chief Bodhisattva, leading his mount. The exaggerated dark colour -of these Indians is, like the misdrawing of the elephant’s head and -limbs, significant of the painter’s want of familiarity with things -Indian. In the background two of the Lokapālas, or Guardian-kings -of the Four Quarters, attend the train of each divinity. About the -fluttering canopy which rises above the head of each float gracefully -drawn Gandharvīs (Apsaras). From the side there sweeps down a bevy of -tiny Bodhisattva figures clustered within a wreath of purple cloud, -while above it a group of picturesque hills, drawn with true Chinese -feeling for landscape, fills the top corner. - -Throughout the picture the workmanship is that of a master, and the -serene dignity of the composition as a whole is very happily blended -with tenderness of mood and harmonious subtlety of line and colour. - - - - -PLATES IV, V - -PROCESSIONS OF MAÑJUŚRĪ AND SAMANTABHADRA - - -Closely allied in subject and treatment to the last described picture, -though not quite equal to it in quality of execution, are the two grand -fragments (Ch. xxxvii. 003, 005) partially illustrated by Plates IV -and V. These two large pieces of silk with curved tops once belonged -respectively to the right and left sides of one arch-shaped picture. -The centre portion, which is likely to have contained a seated Buddha, -is lost. But some idea of the size of the whole may be formed from -the fact that the surviving right side portion (Ch. xxxvii. 003, Pl. -IV) in its broken state still measures six and a half feet in height -with a width of about three and a half feet, while the dimensions of -the badly broken left side are even larger. The shape of the picture -suggests that it was originally intended to occupy the back of a -vaulted chapel recess or of the aisle of an antechapel. - -The right portion reproduced in Plate IV (scale one-fourth of original) -shows us Mañjuśrī, mounted on his white lion, advancing towards the -centre, surrounded by a host of attendant Bodhisattvas, Lokapālas, -demons, and nymphs. His mount is led by an Indian attendant and -preceded by a pair of musicians. The whole procession is carried on a -purple cloud. - -The figure of Mañjuśrī is seated in the same attitude as that of -Samantabhadra in Plate III, with one leg pendent, but with his right -hand held out palm uppermost. The features of his pale-complexioned -face with its peaceful expression are very delicately rendered. But -the Indian model from which they are derived is reflected still more -clearly in the richly draped garments of the Bodhisattva and the forms -of his abundant jewelled ornaments. They are plainly borrowed in all -details from Graeco-Buddhist art transplanted into Central Asia. -The elaborate halo of Mañjuśrī deserves mention for its harmonious -colouring and flame border. - -By the side of the attendant Bodhisattvas, all showing peaceful -features, we note Lokapālas with their demon followers. Of the former -Virūḍhaka, Guardian-king of the South, is recognizable by his club. -The demons are characterized by grotesque features and colouring of -deep red. The attendant divinity seen walking in the lower right corner -awaits identification. He wears the dress of a Chinese dignitary -(high-waisted flowery under-robe and wide-sleeved jacket), while -coiffure and nimbus are those of a Bodhisattva. He carries a fan and -is attended by two nymphs; of the one on the right only the head -survives in the extant fragment. The leader of the lion has a skin of -chocolate-brown colour and coarse features, suggesting a negro type. - -Of the figures of the musicians walking in front but little is -preserved on the right side of the picture. But the corresponding pair -on the left side, which Plate V reproduces on a scale of approximately -one-half of the original, has suffered less damage and allows us to -enjoy both the spirited design and the great delicacy of drawing in -these figures. They march with uplifted heads, playing on whistle-pipe -and mouth-organ. In the face of the flute-player on the left delighted -absorption in the music is admirably expressed, while the curving lines -of the body and the floating loose garments convey a sense of rhythmic -motion in complete harmony with the subject. Equally expressive is the -drawing in the face of the musician to the right, with its look of -intent concentration. The larger scale of reproduction allows us to -see here the method of shading used by the painter in the treatment -of the flesh. The delicate colouring of the faces is well set off by -the stronger but harmoniously blended tints of the large globe-shaped -tassel which appears between them, hanging from the harness of -Samantabhadra’s elephant. In the same way the strong black of their -hair and the dark brown of the Mahout’s figure, partially seen on the -left edge of Plate V, help to give strength to the colour scheme, in -which light greens and reds prevail. - - - - -PLATE VI - -DETAILS FROM A PAINTING OF A BUDDHIST HEAVEN - -Here we see the left-hand bottom portion of a Paradise picture -reproduced on the scale of two-thirds, but without the gay colours of -the original (Ch. liv. 004). This represents a Buddhist Heaven presided -over by a Buddha whom M. Petrucci takes to be Śākyamuni.[2] In certain -characteristic features of the main theme, as well as in the side -scenes, our painting agrees closely with the Paradise picture (Ch. -xxxviii. 004), of which Plate VII shows a complete reproduction. To -the latter, therefore, reference may be made as regards the general -arrangement of the celestial scene with its central Buddha flanked by -two principal Bodhisattvas, &c., and that of the marginal scenes, which -in both paintings tell the story of Kalyāṇaṃkara and Pāpaṃkara, as -contained in texts of the Chinese Tripiṭaka. - -The portion of the painting actually shown in our Plate represents -at the top the attendant host of Bodhisattvas, seated or kneeling -by the side of the altar which occupies a central position on the -terrace. A projecting part of this terrace serves as platform for the -performance of the celestial dancer and carries at either front corner -the figure of a Garuḍa playing on a musical instrument, apparently -pipe and clappers. The whole of the terrace is clearly shown as of -wooden construction and as raised on sloping piles above the waters -of the lotus lake. An unusual feature is the grouping of the divine -musicians on two separate terraces in the bottom corners. They are six -on each side and play on harp, lute, syrinx and Chinese mouth-organ, -whistle-pipe, and clappers. Behind the musicians are trees with -pear-shaped leaves and groups of conventional pink and white flowers. -From the lake rise reborn souls in the shape of infants carried on -open lotuses. The face and gesture of the one seen on the left below -the railing of the main terrace admirably express the awakening -consciousness of the newly born soul. - -Throughout the picture the workmanship is highly finished, and -the delicacy of the drawing, especially in the features of the -Bodhisattvas, deserves notice. The prevailing colours are, as usual, -shades of crimson and dull green; but these are enlivened by the white -of the flesh of all divine figures and the orange, pale blue, and -purple used on stoles and haloes. - -The legendary scenes on the sides which M. Chavannes first identified -from the cartouches, here fortunately bearing Chinese inscriptions,[3] -display throughout purely Chinese style in the dress and attitudes -of figures, &c. The figure of the kneeling lady in the left bottom -compartment is the portrait of a donatrix and may claim special -interest. Her costume and coiffure agree closely with those of the -donatrices in two paintings bearing exact dates of the second half of -the ninth century A.D.,[4] while they show a marked difference from the -far more elaborate fashion displayed by the ladies who appear in our -numerous dated pictures of the tenth century. I have had occasion to -call attention elsewhere to the very helpful _indicia_ which changing -fashions in the dress and coiffure of donatrices, and to a lesser -extent in those of donor figures also, supply for the chronology of the -Ch‘ien-fo-tung pictures.[5] - - - - -PLATE VII - -THE PARADISE OF ŚĀKYAMUNI - - -This painting (Ch. xxxviii. 004), reproduced here on the scale of -two-sevenths, is practically complete and in a very fair state of -preservation, still retaining its border of yellowish-green silk. -As already mentioned in the description of the preceding Plate, it -represents the Paradise of a Buddha in whom M. Petrucci recognizes -Śākyamuni, the historical Buddha.[6] The ordinance of the celestial -assemblage is simple, though showing some peculiar features. The -presiding Buddha, with legs interlocked and both hands in the -_vitarka-mudrā_, occupies a lotus seat in the centre and faces the -draped altar. By him we see seated two principal Bodhisattvas, alike -in appearance and dress but with hands in different poses. According -to M. Petrucci’s view based on the inscriptions of a much-reduced -presentation of the same Paradise (Ch. xxxiii. 001), we may identify -the Bodhisattva on the left with Ākāśagarbha and the one on the -right with Kṣitigarbha. Between them and the Buddha is shown on each -side a small shaven disciple, of childlike appearance with hands -in adoration. Above the heads of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas are seen -canopies carried by pairs of trees and encircled by big flowers, and -behind them appears the pavilion with boldly upturned eaves which -represents the celestial mansion, the habitation of blessed souls. In -the air above and carried on clouds float the small figures of four -Buddhas amidst a sprinkling of orange flowers. - -On the main terrace in front of the triad we see a dancer performing -in spirited movement. Its rhythmic rapidity is happily conveyed by -the graceful scroll-lines of the scarf she waves freely in her hands. -On either side four Bodhisattvas occupy lotus seats with hands folded -in adoration. Pairs of musicians sit in front of them, playing on a -reed-organ, lute, psaltery, and clappers. Gangways lead down from the -terrace to the lotus lake. Its bottom corners are occupied by Garuḍa -figures, half human half bird, standing on rocks and displaying plumy -semi-floral tails, with hands folded in adoration. - -Most of the foreground is filled by a large isolated terrace carrying -in the centre a subsidiary Buddha, an arrangement which is peculiar. On -his right is seated a small Bodhisattva adoring, while to his left the -corresponding place is taken by a haloed disciple with shaven head and -hands in the same pose. He wears monkish robes with the addition of a -necklace, and thus presents the appearance peculiar in our paintings to -Kṣitigarbha, as seen in Plates XXV, XXXIX, XL. This distinctly supports -the view of M. Petrucci, who takes the group below for a repetition of -the principal triad and accordingly identifies the Bodhisattva to the -left with Ākāśagarbha and the Buddha with Śākyamuni. The appearance -of the Buddha is very unusual; for the crimson robe lined with white, -which covers him closely to the neck, shows the red disc of the Sun -painted on the left shoulder, the white disc of the Moon (with the tree -of immortality) on the right shoulder, and Mount Meru on the front of -the body, flanked by a man’s figure on either side.[7] - -The marginal scenes of the painting, eleven in all, are taken, as -mentioned above, from the legend of Kalyāṇaṃkara and Pāpaṃkara. Their -detailed interpretations were to have been furnished in the volume -which M. Chavannes was preparing on a selection of our paintings for -publication in the _Mémoires concernant l’Asie orientale_ with the help -of materials left behind by M. Petrucci.[8] In the absence of such -guidance it must suffice here to point out the purely Chinese style -of all details in these scenes, including the curving hill ranges and -pine-clad cliffs which serve to separate them. - -A broad band resembling a tessellated pavement divides the main picture -and side scenes from a panel below, which shows the donors kneeling on -either side of what was the space left for a dedicatory inscription -completely effaced or, perhaps, never written. On the right kneels a -row of six men wearing loose belted coats of different colours, while -on the left we see in front a bald-headed aged figure which may be -meant either for a monk or a nun; behind it a lady alone, and in the -third rank three others of more youthful appearance. Behind these again -are three boys with their hair done in round tufts above the temples. - -Here, too, the costumes are of interest as affording indications as -to the approximate date of the painting. Among the men’s we may note -that, whereas three wear black hats with wide side-flaps such as are -found regularly on the heads of donors in our tenth-century pictures, -the other three wear the black lobed and tailed caps which are common -in the side scenes and the banners representing legendary incidents of -Gautama Buddha’s life (see Pls. XII, XIII, XXXVII). Of the costumes in -these representations I have, as I believe, shown that they go back -to a period distinctly earlier than the bulk of our pictures from the -‘Thousand Buddhas’.[9] The chronological observation regarding our -painting (Ch. xxxviii. 004) is borne out still more clearly by the -fashion which the donatrices display. The elaborate head-dress worn -by the ladies in all tenth-century pictures is conspicuously absent, -and the hair is done plain in a flat round topknot or in a large -backward-waving crest just as in the donatrix figures of the picture -dated A.D. 864 and reproduced in Plate XVI. - -Good and refined as the drawing is, especially in the faces and hands -of Bodhisattvas and donatrices, we meet elsewhere with details which -have not been highly finished. As in other paintings of this class, the -prevailing colour is crimson on dull light green, with orange on the -Bodhisattvas’ robes and the tiles of the terrace, turquoise blue on the -altar-cloth, &c. - - - - -PLATE VIII - -AMITĀBHA’S PARADISE - - -The painting (Ch. lviii. 0011), which this Plate reproduces on the -scale of two-fifths, is a good specimen of a fairly numerous group of -pictures which represent Amitābha’s ‘Western Paradise’, or _Sukhāvatī_, -as it is named in Sanskrit. It has lost the side scenes and its extreme -top and bottom, but is otherwise well preserved. Though not as large as -some representations of this, the most popular of Buddhist Heavens, nor -quite as sumptuous in its pageantry, our painting yet well illustrates -all the typical features of the series. The uniformity with which -the general scheme is observed in these Sukhāvatī pictures of our -Collection, more than a dozen in all, points to prolonged evolution -before even the oldest of them was painted. - -On the principal terrace we see the presiding Buddha, Amitābha, seated -with his hand raised in the _vitarha-mudrā_. The Bodhisattvas seated -on both sides, Avalokiteśvara to the right and Mahāsthāma to the left, -make up the triad typical of Amitābha’s Paradise as determined by -inscribed representations and familiar from an early period also to -Buddhism in Japan. Between them and in front, by the side of the altar, -appears seated a host of lesser Bodhisattvas. The altar carries vessels -with offerings and is draped with a valance decorated with triangular -tabs and streamers; it is of interest as exactly corresponding to the -large silk valances I recovered from the walled-up chapel.[10] In the -background above, partly screened by the elaborate canopies of the -triad, are seen the celestial mansions in the shape of pavilions and -towers of purely Chinese style. - -A portion of the terrace projecting in front of the altar is occupied -by a dancer and six musicians, to whose strains she performs. Here, -too, the dancer’s rhythmic movement is emphasized by the sinuous lines -of the stole which she waves in her hands and by bands fluttering -upwards from her head-dress. Mouth-organ, clappers, psaltery, flute, -and two differently shaped lutes are the musical instruments played -on. At the foot of the gangway descending to the water of the lotus -lake is shown a figure suggesting a seated Bodhisattva as seen from the -back. The lotus seat and the curling drapery of a stole are clearly -recognizable. The bent arms seem to support some offering, perhaps like -an Indian ‘Dālī’, as traces of red flowers and of leaves can be made -out in the original. - -Lotus flowers and rocks appear rising above the water. In the centre -of the foreground is a black-tiled platform, on which are assembled a -Garuḍa, peacock, crane, and some smaller bird resembling a duck but -partly effaced. On either side of this platform there rises from the -water a terrace bearing a subsidiary representation of Amitābha’s -triad. The pose of the Buddha is the same as in the main group above, -but both the Bodhisattvas by his side are here shown with hands joined -in adoration. This repetition of the divine triad in the bottom -corners is very frequent in the pictures of Amitābha’s Paradise. The -representation of a newly born soul seated on a lotus and floating -up the gangway which leads to each of these subsidiary groups is a -pleasing addition to this conventional arrangement. - -The workmanship of the painting is throughout careful and well -finished. From a background of dull green crimson, orange-yellow and -white stand out as the prevailing colours. The last is largely used on -the decorated haloes and ‘Padmāsanas’, or lotus seats, as well as for -the flesh of all attendant figures. The absence of black and blue is -marked in the general colour scheme. - - - - -PLATE IX - -LEGENDARY SCENES FROM A PAINTING OF MAITREYA’S PARADISE - - -The scenes reproduced here, on half the scale of the original, are -taken from the top and bottom portions of a large and well-preserved -silk painting (Ch. lviii. 001) of Maitreya’s Paradise. For a -reproduction of the whole picture and for its special points of -iconographic interest, as the only representation in our Collection of -that famous Tuṣita Heaven in which the future Buddha of the present -world period is supposed to reside, a reference to _Serindia_ must -suffice here.[11] The Chinese inscriptions which render the attribution -of this Paradise to Maitreya certain (even though the Bodhisattva -appears in it as a Buddha, a status which he is yet to attain) are -taken from the text of the _Maitreya-vyākaraṇa-sūtra_ and accompany -legendary scenes shown in the top corners and along the bottom of -the painting. These scenes, as seen in our Plate, are not formally -separated from the Paradise proper, but merge into it at the bottom and -are above only divided from it by a range of pine-clad mountains. - -The inscriptions and the legendary scenes to which they refer were to -have been interpreted in MM. Petrucci and Chavannes’ separate volume in -the _Mémoires concernant l’Asie orientale_.[12] The materials prepared -for it by those lamented collaborators are not at present accessible -to me, and in the absence of textual guidance the descriptive notes -on the scenes must here be brief. In the scene above on the right we -see three men in Chinese magisterial costume seated along a table on -a terrace, while before them two men stand right and left of a large -disc, provided with a tripod (?) and suggesting a metal mirror into -which a third smaller figure appears to gaze. To the left, between two -inscribed cartouches, are shown three men seated behind a table, the -centre one being on a lotus seat. Their head-dress is the same black -hat with broad flaps sticking out sideways which is worn by the three -seated figures to the right and which, as stated above, is always found -in the representations of donors on our tenth-century paintings.[13] -Still further to the left is depicted a husbandman in lobed and tailed -cap, driving a plough before which are harnessed a dark bull or cow and -a smaller whitish animal of the bovine species, apparently reluctant to -move on. - -In the left corner scene we see a personage in official dress seated -on a small platform or throne before the gate of what seems to -represent a walled palace. To the left of him a demon-like figure is -shown striding, while on the right he is being approached by a group -comprising a Buddha and two smaller figures of monkish disciples. A -little to the right of this group stands a layman in adoring pose; -above the whole there appears a dragon-like monster descending on a -cloud. In the background to the right within the arched opening of -a reed hut is seen a pair, apparently man and wife, seated on a low -platform before which stands erect a lady wearing the wide-sleeved -dress and the elaborate coiffure familiar from the donatrices of our -tenth-century pictures.[14] - -If the significance and interrelation of the top scenes at present -escapes us we have less difficulty about the general interpretation of -those at the bottom of the picture. On the right and left the scenes -placed below the flanking terraces of the Paradise manifestly show -conversions to the Buddhist Law. On the right is seen a personage -elaborately dressed and obviously of high rank, who is seated upright -on a square platform, with feet on a footstool, undergoing tonsure by -a monk. Four men in secular costume, holding rolls of paper in their -hands, stand behind him. Three others attend in front, one of them -holding a wide dish to receive the cut hair and a second carrying -a vase. In the background stands a groom holding three elaborately -caparisoned horses. Their figures are well drawn with elegant small -heads, broad shapely breasts, and slim legs. Two are white and one red. -Their type closely recalls the present Badakhshī breed of Western -Turkestān, a favourite region for China’s horse imports since early -times; it is exactly represented also among the numerous clay figures -of horses which in 1915 I excavated in plenty from Turfān graves of the -T‘ang period. The saddles, high-pommeled at back and front, and covered -with long saddle-cloths, are met with there also. For the ornamentation -of headstall, breast-band, and crupper, reference to a painted panel -from Dandān-oilik showing a horseman and also of the T‘ang period is -instructive.[15] - -The scene on the left forms an exact pendant to the one just described. -Here a lady similarly placed and attired is having her head shaved by a -monk. Among the attendants behind her two ladies have their hair done -in topknots with two high loops, whereas two others, evidently girls, -wear it in a bunch on either side of the head with a short lock hanging -from each. Behind appear bearers of the hexagonal palanquin with pagoda -roof, of which a small portion is included in the reproduction. - -The central scene shows the adorning of a Stūpa or Buddhist relic -tower and presents points of distinct antiquarian interest. Its -shape is cylindrical, with a low flat dome and a square base below. -A three-tiered umbrella, hung with streamers and metal ornaments, -surmounts it. Below workmen are seen engaged in arranging the -draperies. Two long tables are laden with flasks, bowls, and other -offerings, while bundles of manuscript rolls are placed at either side; -they are all likely to represent votive gifts made at the time of -consecration. - - - - -PLATE X - -AMITĀBHA WITH ATTENDANTS - - -The painting (Ch. liii. 001) which this Plate successfully reproduces -in colours, on the scale of three-eighths of the original, is a good -representative of the small but interesting class of what may be -designated as simplified Paradise pictures. We see in it Amitābha -enthroned on a lotus between Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāma, with two -lesser Bodhisattvas in front and a row of well-individualized disciples -behind. No lake is represented; but a comparison with the painting -represented in the next Plate, XI, with which ours shares a number of -marked peculiarities in composition, style, colour, and treatment, -suffices to show that a representation of Amitābha’s Heaven is intended. - -Amitābha is seated with legs interlocked and his right hand raised in -the usual _vitarka-mudrā_. His flesh is yellow shaded with red which -has changed to a curious iridescent mauve; his hair a bright blue. His -mantle, vivid crimson, is wrapped round both shoulders, its drapery -reproducing all details of the arrangement which Graeco-Buddhist -sculpture had borrowed from Hellenistic art and handed over to be -stereotyped with hieratic convention in the Buddha figures of Central -Asia and the Far East. The lotus, his seat, is raised on a high stepped -pedestal and has its pink petals covered all over with beautiful floral -scrolls in white, blue, and black. Similar rich scroll-work adorns the -base of the pedestal and reappears on the canopy which hangs above -the Buddha’s head, raised on two trees. Their stems are treated like -jewelled poles, and their large star-shaped leaves are arranged in -whorls enclosing conical clusters of red fruit. An Apsaras sweeps -down on either side, scattering flowers; her floating garments and -the gracefully curling clouds which support her express rapidity of -movement. - -Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāma occupy well-designed, if less -ornate, lotus seats, the former raising a flaming jewel in his left -hand and the latter an alms-bowl. Among the multicoloured jewellery -with which they are bedecked, the Dhyāni-buddha set in front of the -tiara may be mentioned. Below them are seated two lesser Bodhisattvas, -in similarly rich dress and adornment, the one, in profile, holding -a red lotus, the other, in three-quarters profile, a flask. Their -foreshortened elliptical haloes in green and the transparent light blue -stoles deserve notice. - -A particularly interesting element is introduced into the celestial -company by the six disciples ranged behind the triad, three a side -in ascending tier. They all have the shaven heads of monks and plump -solid features; but their alert faces are well individualized and the -expression markedly varies, from the jovial smile of the second figure -on the right to the serious and even severe look of the last on the -left. It is specially regrettable here that, as in so many of our -paintings, the cartouches above the different divine figures have not -been filled in. The red lotus bud carried by the last disciple on the -left and the priest’s staff in the hand of the corresponding figure on -the right do not help to identify them, nor do the crossbars on their -mantles. The haloes of all these figures, including those of the triad, -are only outlined in narrow rings of red and white, the interior being -shown as practically transparent—not a usual treatment. - -Below Amitābha’s lotus seat, and partly covering the front of its -pedestal, is the panel for the dedicatory inscription, in the form of -a stone slab with a low arched top, carried on the back of a tortoise. -Unfortunately the dedication was never inscribed, and we are thus -left without means for exactly dating this interesting picture. But -very valuable help in this direction is afforded by what remains of -the figures of the donors in the bottom corners. That of the man on -the right is lost, except for the top of his cap. But that of the -wife kneeling on the left is complete and a figure of great charm. It -is manifestly a portrait, painted with considerable skill, and was -deservedly chosen by M. Petrucci for full-size reproduction in the -Vignette of the present publication. - -The lady kneels on a mat, her hands holding a long-stemmed red flower. -The pose and face admirably express pious devotion. The delicate -treatment of the features distinctly recalls that of female heads in -a silk painting, unfortunately very fragmentary, which I recovered in -1915 from a seventh-century Chinese tomb at Turfān. The lady’s costume, -with its pleated skirt high under the arms, small bodice with long -narrow sleeves, and little crossover shawl, as well as her hair plainly -done in a small knot on the neck, represent a fashion distinctly older -than that to be seen in the donatrices’ figures of our earliest dated -picture (see Pl. XVI) of A.D. 864. We find the same indications of -an early date in the dresses and coiffures worn by the donors and -donatrices in the silk painting Ch. xlvii. 001 (Pl. XI), which shares -many peculiarities of our picture, and also in the undoubtedly ancient -embroidery picture shown in Plates XXXIV, XXXV.[16] - -This chronological observation lends special interest to a notable -point of technique, the use of ‘high lights’ to bring out the modelling -of the flesh, in addition to ordinary colour shading. This is very -conspicuous in the faces of the monkish disciples, and equally striking -also in most of the figures in Plate XI, but it cannot be traced -elsewhere among our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings. The western origin of -this system of modelling has been duly emphasized by Mr. Binyon.[17] - - - - -PLATE XI - -A PARADISE OF AMITĀBHA - - -In this large and on the whole fairly preserved silk painting (Ch. -xlvii. 001), reproduced on the scale of one-fourth, we have a Sukhāvatī -scheme fully developed on lines which, while closely resembling those -of the picture last discussed, differ from those of the usual Buddhist -Paradise type. It shows us Amitābha and his two chief Bodhisattvas -seated on lotus thrones rising from the Sukhāvatī lake, and on the -terrace forming the foreground various celestial beings characteristic -of Paradise scenes. - -Amitābha, closely draped, raises his right hand in the _vitarka-mudrā_, -while his left, mostly destroyed, is held against the breast. His -flesh is yellow, as usual, his hair grey with outlines and close curls -indicated in black as if copied from statuary. On either side of him is -an elaborately decorated pillar with a flaming jewel at the top. Two -trees with leaves as already described in Plate X rise behind him and -support a canopy ornamented with rich floral scrolls. Two Apsaras sweep -down on either side of it, just as seen in Plate X and the embroidery -picture, Plate XXXIV. - -Similar trees carrying many-tiered canopies rise over Avalokiteśvara -seated on the left and Mahāsthāma on the right. Two attendant -Bodhisattvas, in equally rich attire as theirs, stand by their sides -with hands in varying poses. The flower-spotted materials of the -Bodhisattvas’ robes and the graceful figure of the attendant to -Avalokiteśvara’s right may be noted. At the back of the triad a wall -of many-coloured marble blocks bounds the lake. In the air above -descend Buddhas seated on clouds; cleverly drawn figures of naked -infants, representing reborn souls, float with outspread stoles, while -beribboned musical instruments symbolize harmonies pervading space. - -On the lake swim ducks, emblems of happiness, and oval lotus buds rise -enveloping infant souls. Inscriptions beside the lotuses describe -the rank taken by the soul in its new life. There is no altar before -the Buddha, as in other Paradise scenes, no dancer or musicians, no -celestial mansions. But a sacred vessel is borne on a lotus from the -water before Amitābha and small Bodhisattvas kneel on either side. In -front of them again, on a wooden platform, are grouped a two-headed -Garuḍa, a phoenix, duck, crane, and peacock. - -On the terrace which fills the whole foreground are seated Bodhisattvas -four a side and well spaced. By the rail in front are two half-naked -infants, no doubt newly born souls, one advancing slowly, the other -dancing or running. Both hold flowers or berries and have, like the -infants in the sky, their heads shaved except for a two-lobed tuft of -hair over the forehead and one over each ear.[18] Between them and the -Bodhisattvas are shown large flaming jewels on lotuses. - -In the middle by the side of a slab, arched at the top and intended for -a dedicatory inscription but left blank, are shown the small figures of -the donors. On the right kneel two men with long belted coats and small -lobed and tailed caps. Their attire bears close resemblance to the -quasi-archaic dress in the Jātaka scenes as presented by our banners, -and also to that in certain relievos of the early Buddhist cave shrines -of Yün-kang and Lung-mên.[19] The costume and coiffure of the lady -kneeling on the left agree exactly with those of the donatrix seen in -the preceding Plate and the Vignette. As regards the chronological -evidence which these details of attire afford, I may refer to my -remarks on that Plate.[20] - -With the picture reproduced in Plate X our painting shares also a -number of other characteristic peculiarities, such as the use of ‘high -lights’ for the modelling of the flesh; the unobtrusiveness of the -haloes, which are transparent and often shown only in outlines; the -flower patterns spotting the materials of the robes, &c. On the other -hand, striking differences of composition, such as the total absence -of the celestial mansions in the background and the ample spacing of -the figures, make it clear that we have here preserved a specimen of -a Sukhāvatī scheme developed independently of the orthodox type which -prevails among our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings, whether on silk or mural, -and which has become stereotyped in Japan. - -There is a general absence of vivid colours in our picture. Dull green, -with grey and black for the tiled terrace in front, prevails in the -background, and dull green, light pink or red, and greenish grey in -the colouring of figures and accessories. This quiet and coolness of -colouring and a certain emptiness of the background give an effect of -air and space which such crowded compositions as the Paradise seen in -Plates I, II lack. The drawing is free and rapid but rather rough in -detail. - - - - -PLATE XII - -SCENES FROM GAUTAMA BUDDHA’S LIFE - -This and the following Plate, together with Plate XXXVII, illustrate -a group of paintings well represented among the silk banners of the -Collection and of special iconographic and artistic interest. Painted -like the rest of the silk banners on both sides of a fine gauze-like -fabric, they show scenes taken from the legendary life of Gautama -Buddha or closely connected with it. The usual length of the banners -(exclusive of the triangular top and other accessories) does not appear -to have much exceeded twenty-five inches, and their width, as seen from -the specimens which Plate XII reproduces full size, is restricted. As -a necessary result of the narrow shape of the banners, we find the -succession of scenes always arranged one above the other and in the -completely preserved ones limited to four.[21] - -This group of paintings is as well defined in style as it is in -range of subjects and external arrangement. Everything in the scenes -connected with the physical types of the actors, their costumes and -movements, as well as the setting, whether architecture or landscape, -appears here ‘translated bodily into Chinese’, to use Mr. Binyon’s -graphic phrase. The traditional subjects of the historical Buddha’s -life-story have in fact, as M. Foucher has with equal pregnancy put -it, ‘undergone the same disguising transformation which Christian -legend has under the hands of the Italian or Flemish painters’.[22] -It contrasts strikingly with this, that the figures of Buddhas and -Bodhisattvas, in our banners and large paintings alike, show close -conformity in physical appearance and dress to the hieratic types -derived from the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. For possible -explanations of the very interesting problem thus raised reference to -Mr. Binyon’s ‘Introductory Essay’ will suffice here. - -Notwithstanding their frankly Chinese style, the banners with scenes -from Gautama Buddha’s Life show considerable diversity of composition -and treatment. We note these variations all the more easily because the -banners range themselves into small groups, one alone not affording -sufficient room for a representation of even the most important -incidents of the Life. Two banners of such a group, each with only two -scenes preserved out of the four which the original, no doubt, once -comprised, are shown in Plate XII on the left and right. Both banners -have the same decorated borders along the sides and between the several -scenes, and both have cartouches, here fortunately filled with Chinese -inscriptions naming the subjects represented. - -The banner on the left (Ch. lv. 0016) shows us two of the famous ‘Four -Encounters’ which bring before Prince Gautama’s eyes the three evils -of earthly life—old age, illness, and death, and the means to escape -them by renunciation. We find them all represented already in the -fifth-century relievos of Yün-kang, while strangely enough they have -not yet been found among the Gandhāra sculptures.[23] Above we see -the prince riding out of the green-tiled gateway of the battlemented -courtyard wall of his father’s palace. Over it is shown a pavilion with -red timber framework and greenish-blue roof. The red-maned well-drawn -horse represents the Kaṇṭhaka of the legend. A courtier in flowing -robes with a high black cap attends him on foot. Before him under a -tree is shown the bent figure of the old man leaning upon a stick and -wearing on his head a black hood. Another man, who stands by his side -and evidently supports him, has the black lobed and tailed cap to which -reference has been made above as the head-dress worn by the donors of -our oldest Tun-huang paintings. It is that of all common personages in -our Jātaka scenes. The high conical head-dress of the courtier is found -also in the above-quoted relievo panels of Yün-kang.[24] Prince Gautama -himself in the scenes of both our banners here wears a head-ornament -resembling a white lotus. - -In the scene below we see the prince riding with bent head from the -same palace gateway. Here it is shown on the right, and its interior -timber frame clearly displayed. The courtier by his side, attired -as above, approaches with compassionate expression the group on the -left. Here under a tree is seen sitting upon the ground the sick man, -supported by a friend in a red dress, while another in green offers him -drink in a bowl. The emaciation of his body and of his arms spread upon -his knees is shown with realistic skill. - -In the companion banner on the right (Ch. xlix. 006) the lower scene, -composed in exactly the same style, represents Prince Gautama as a -child discoursing on his anterior lives to civil and military officers, -as the accompanying inscription tells us. The future Buddha sits on a -verandah of the palace, holding out his arms evidently in the act of -reciting his Jātaka tales. In front of him kneels a man, in black cap -and orange belted coat, holding a manuscript roll. On the ground below -stands a bearded personage wearing the dress of a civilian dignitary; -he also carries a roll in his hands, which are covered by the wide -sleeves of his robe. Two persons stand behind the prince outside the -verandah. One in the dress of an attendant carries in his arms a round -receptacle filled with small objects no longer recognizable. The other, -wearing a tall round black cap, a brown mantle, and white under-robe, -grasps with his right hand what from the gesture seems to be the hilt -of a sword, and may hence be taken as representing the military element -in the royal entourage. - -The seated figure of Buddha seen in the upper panel illustrates what -has been said above about the close adherence to the models derived -from Gandhāra art in the delineation of divine figures which stand -outside Gautama’s life-story before his attainment of Buddhahood. This -representation of the Buddha in our banner reflects Indian hieratic -tradition in every detail. He is shown seated on a large scarlet -lotus, with the left hand raised in the attitude of ‘protection’ -(_abhaya-mudrā_).[25] A crimson under-robe, with light blue lining, -covers legs and right shoulder, while a brown mantle lined with light -green is thrown over the bare left. The finely drawn face, with arched -black brows and level eyes, shows no trace of Chinese influence. -Throughout the drawing is firm and clear in the smallest details and -the workmanship very delicate. - -The banner reproduced in the middle (Ch. 0071) has survived only in -badly broken fragments, but even thus claims attention for several -qualities. Though of the topmost scene little else remains but the -figure of the seated Prince Gautama, it can, on the strength of other -closely corresponding scenes, be safely recognized as representing -the farewell in the forest from his horse Kaṇṭhaka and its groom -Chandaka,[26] after the prince’s flight from his father’s palace. Lower -down we are shown in an excellently composed scene the pursuit of the -mounted messengers sent by his father Śuddhodana to search after him -in the forest. The group of five horsemen with heads turned towards -each other as if baffled as to the track to follow are plunging behind -a forested hill to the left. The drawing of men and horses is very -spirited and the movement of both vividly expressed. - -In the bottom scene we may recognize with some probability a -representation of the First Sermon in the Deer Park of Benares. -Śākyamuni, in Buddha robes, with halo and vesica and gilded flesh, -is seated on a lotus upon a chased throne. Over him hangs a draped -canopy supported by a pair of red-flowering star-leaved trees just as -Paradise pictures show them. Of three monks standing behind the throne -the shaven heads are visible. In front kneel the audience—three men -with high topknots and gay party-coloured jackets and long under-robes. -With their faces raised towards the Enlightened One they seem to listen -intently to his teaching. Throughout the colouring is ornate and -carefully applied in illuminating style. - - - - -PLATE XIII - -SCENES FROM THE BUDDHA LEGEND - - -The banner reproduced on the right (Ch. xx. 008) on a scale almost -full size belongs to a well-defined series of banners, all of the same -style and workmanship, illustrating scenes from the story of Gautama -Buddha.[27] The scenes are all simple in design and divided from each -other by low hill ranges. Their number in our banner is only three, as -shown also by the three cartouches, all left blank. - -The top scene shows King Śuddhodana seated on the verandah of his -palace and giving instructions to the mounted messenger to be -dispatched in search of Prince Gautama after his flight from the -palace. The figure, short and squat, of the messenger is characteristic -of the whole series; that of the horse, compact and heavy in build, -suggests a type like that of the present Mongol pony. In the next scene -we see the messenger engaged on his quest, carrying a red pennon and -galloping to the left. The rapid movement of the horse, here bay with -red spots and white mane and tail, is effectively rendered. - -The scene below represents the messenger returning and reporting to the -king the futility of his search. Śuddhodana is seen as before seated -on the palace verandah while two musicians outside beguile him with -flute and pipe. Further down in the foreground are shown an enclosure, -containing a lotus tank and a bamboo tree, and outside its entrance a -small hexagonal structure with an oblong yellow object within. Higher -up kneels a white-coated man playing on clappers. The significance of -the objects in the foreground is not clear. The drawing, though rough, -shows vigour, and the general effect is bold and in the more active -scenes full of character. - -On the left of this banner is reproduced, on half-scale, what -remains of the left-hand portion of an interesting but unfortunately -much-damaged large painting on silk (Ch. 0059). The colour of the -original is remarkably strong and the subject unusual. It represented, -when complete, the figure of Śākyamuni standing erect in the grotto -of the Vulture Peak (_Gṛdhrakūṭa_), famous in the story of the Buddha, -and by his side Jātaka scenes of a type not met with elsewhere among -our paintings and so far unidentified. Though only the right shoulder -and arm of the Buddha figure survive, there can be no doubt about its -iconographic character. The rocks, dark blue and brown, which appear -piled behind and above, with the vulture perched on the top, would -render this quite certain. - -The identification is fully confirmed by the pose of the Buddha. The -arm hanging stiffly downwards at full length and slightly away from -the body, with fingers also stretched straight down, is seen again in -the central Buddha of the great embroidery picture of Plate XXXIV and -in the figure undoubtedly representing Śākyamuni on Gṛdhrakūṭa, which -the painting shown in Plate XIV reproduces among other Indian statues -of Buddha. The representation in the embroidery picture is recalled -also by the deep yellow colour of the flesh in our painting as well as -by the shape and certain details in the canopy. The elongated vesica, -cobalt blue in its border, and the light green and vermilion nimbus are -both edged with flames and cloud scrolls in vermilion and dark blue. -More true to nature than the vulture on the top is the flight of wild -geese and ducks shown above. - -A disciple with shaven head, probably Śāriputra, stands by the side of -Śākyamuni and turns towards him. He shows an unconventional type of -features drawn with much vigour. The head is long and high at the back, -with well-defined ‘corners’ there and over the forehead. The large -nose, bushy eyebrows, and long pointed chin give a strongly marked -character to the head. It is set off by a circular halo of brilliant -vermilion. The costume, too, is peculiar; it consists of an under-robe -of vermilion and light green, black shoes upturned at the toes, and a -large mantle of mottled dark green, blue, and red, which covers both -shoulders and arms. - -The legendary scenes which appear on the side of the painting -are preserved in a very fragmentary condition and still await -interpretation. But that they are connected with a statue representing -Śākyamuni on the Vulture Peak seems clear. In the background of the -top scene there appears a statue of a Buddha in the same pose as the -central figure, with the right arm stretched down stiffly. To the left, -in front of a building (temple?), stands a shaven priest, pointing out -the statue with his raised arm to passers-by below. In the foreground -is seen a man in brown coat and top boots riding a mule with its legs -hidden behind hilly ground. Behind him a white elephant, with a load -of yellow objects, but rider or driver no longer visible, proceeds in -the same direction to the left. On that side appear the roughly drawn -figures of two men with black beards and shocks of black hair. - -The next scene below is even more puzzling. In the middle are seen a -pair of colossal hands rising from the ground and enclosing a human -head in red. To the right four conical objects, suggesting tents and -striped horizontally, form a row; a large vermilion pennon is shown -above one of them. Behind them a man on a dark grey horse is seen -riding rapidly. His right arm is raised as if to strike, and two -mounted attendants follow him. The foreground to the left shows on a -green slope a row of unexplained leaf-shaped objects, and above this -two semi-naked figures incomplete. - -Very curious is the bottom scene. The God of Thunder appears above on a -cloud within a ring of drums which he beats in violent movement. In the -centre, before a background of rocks, is shown a large Buddha statue -within a scaffolding of vermilion poles. That the statue represents -Śākyamuni on Gṛdhrakūṭa is made certain by the downstretched right arm -and also by the characteristic pose of the left hand, which gathers up -the drapery in an ‘ear’ at the breast, just as the figure in Plates XIV -and XXXIV shows it. On either side of the scaffolding is perched a man, -busy with his hands at the statue’s head and steadying himself with one -foot at its shoulder. At the back of a building on the left a man seems -to give instructions to the workers, while at the foot of the statue -there squats a small figure with arms and legs outspread like the -Thunder-god’s. The latter’s figure in fury is shown again by a small -detached fragment below. - -For a conjectural explanation of the scaffolding, which might be -connected with some miraculous translation of a sacred statue, -reference to _Serindia_ must suffice here.[28] But whatever the legend -represented in our side scenes may prove to be, we cannot fail to note -the striking contrast between the stiff hieratic image and the life and -vigour in the rest of the picture. - - - - -PLATE XIV - -IMAGES OF BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS - - -The large but unfortunately poorly preserved silk painting (Ch. -xxii. 0023), of which this Plate reproduces remains of the left-side -portion, on the scale of one-third, presents exceptional iconographic -interest. It shows numerous Buddha and Bodhisattva images arranged -in separate compartments and drawn in an Indian style which is -unmistakably derived from the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. As -first recognized by M. Petrucci from the few Chinese inscriptions -still legible in the cartouches,[29] the figures were intended to -reproduce sculptured images worshipped at various sacred sites of -India. Eleven of them appear in the portion of the painting as shown -by the Plate, and seven more are traceable partly above this portion -or in detached fragments.[30] In the case of six the characteristic -poses or attributes enable us at present to identify with certainty -the particular divinity which the original images were intended to -represent. For others definite clues have yet to be searched for. - -The figure in the top corner on the left reproduces an image of Gautama -Bodhisattva, seated in the famous scene of Māra’s attack immediately -preceding the Illumination. This is shown by the characteristic -pose of the hand touching the rocky seat _bhūmisparśa-mudrā_ and by -the triple monster head forming a crown over the Bodhisattva’s head -and symbolizing the demon army of Māra. It was in that pose that -the miraculous image at the sacred site of Bōdh-Gayā, described at -length by the great Chinese pilgrim Hsüan-tsang and still traceable -in numberless replicas, presented Śākyamuni at the moment of -Enlightenment. The identification of our figure with this far-famed -image is confirmed by the Chinese inscription placed against it which -describes it as a statue in the kingdom of Magadha. In the figure now -seen in the top right-hand corner we meet again with a Bodhisattva -seated in the _bhūmisparśa-mudrā_. His robe is like that of a Buddha -and red. Two white crescents are shown within the nimbus, which, like -the vesica, is flame-edged. Here, too, a fortunate chance has preserved -the accompanying inscription from effacement. According to M. Petrucci -it mentions as the original a silver image preserved in the kingdom of -Kapiśa, which corresponds to the region of the present Kābul.[31] - -Iconographic indications define four more of the images represented. -The figure in the middle of the topmost row shows the statue of a -Buddha standing with the right hand raised in the pose of ‘Protection’ -and surrounded by an elliptical vesica which is filled with rows of -small Buddhas standing in the same pose and visible from the breast -upwards. The whole agrees in all details, down to the folds of the -drapery, with two colossal stucco relievo statues excavated by me -in 1901 on the southern corner walls of the great Rawak Vihāra of -Khotan.[32] Of these and similar representations on a much smaller -scale in Gandhāra relievos M. Foucher has proved that they are meant -to exhibit Śākyamuni in the act of performing the Great Miracle of -Śrāvastī.[33] In another standing figure, the one on the right of the -middle row, the introduction of a pair of gazelles or deer into the -ogee top of the vesica proves that an image representing Śākyamuni in -the Deer Park of Benares, the scene of the First Sermon, is intended. -The richly adorned standing figure of a Bodhisattva in the bottom row, -holding the characteristic emblems of the lotus and flask, is certainly -an Avalokiteśvara, and the presence by his side of various small -attendant figures may yet help to the exact identification of the image -intended. - -Special iconographic interest attaches to the standing Buddha figure -in the right-hand bottom corner of the Plate. Its hieratic pose of -peculiar stiffness, the treatment of the drapery and what remains of -the background of speckled rocks, leave no doubt as to the identity -of the figure with the image of Śākyamuni on the Vulture Peak, which -is represented in striking similarity also by the fine painting of -Plate XIII previously discussed and by the embroidery picture of Plate -XXXIV. The vulture shown in the former makes it quite certain that the -background of all three paintings represents the famous rocky hill near -Rājagṛha or Rājgir in Bihār, where ancient tradition localized various -episodes of Śākyamuni’s later life. There is no inscription to tell us -where the Indian image which all three representations were intended to -reproduce was assumed to be. But the absolute identity of the pose, and -the extraordinarily close resemblance of all details in the treatment -of drapery, hair, dress, &c., prove all three to be replicas from the -same model. That this was a sculpture in the Graeco-Buddhist style is -obvious at a glance. - -The rigid adherence in details to a common original model which is -proved in this particular case supports confidence in the general -fidelity with which the other figures, too, in our painting may be -assumed to reproduce the original images represented. A close parallel -is furnished by the miniatures in certain Nepalese manuscripts of -the eleventh century which illustrate various sacred images and -shrines of Buddhist India. M. Foucher has conclusively proved that -their painters, in all that concerns essential points, have always been -at pains to reproduce faithfully the stereotyped models furnished by -long-continued traditional imagery.[34] - -In what form our painter had received the types he thus conventionally -reproduced is uncertain. But the clearly preserved Graeco-Buddhist -style shows that they were indirectly derived from Gandhāra, and -early transmission through Central Asia is obviously most probable. -The question may be hazarded whether the votive object aimed at in -the painting and its assumed prototype was not that of securing the -religious merit which might have attached to an actual pilgrimage to -those distant sacred sites. The drawing in mere outlines with little -or scarcely any colour, similar to the technique of certain Khotanese -mural paintings, and the perished state of whole portions of the silk -seem to point to the painting being of early date. - - - - -PLATE XV - -TWO FORMS OF AVALOKITEŚVARA - - -The predominant share which the Bodhisattvas claim in popular Buddhist -worship as developed under Mahāyāna influences is illustrated by the -fact that about one-half of our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings are devoted -to their representation, whether singly or along with attendant -divinities. However large may be in devout speculation the number -of different Bodhisattvas, popular imagination had already in the -North-Indian home of the Mahāyāna system been concentrated upon a -small select group of Bodhisattvas. Among them Avalokiteśvara, the -Bodhisattva of Mercy, occupies the foremost place, and the frequency -of his representations among our Tun-huang paintings is just as marked -as the popularity of his female manifestation, known to the Chinese as -Kuan-yin, to the Japanese as Kwannon, the Goddess of Pity, is in modern -Buddhist worship throughout the Far East. - -The large and fairly well-preserved painting (Ch. xxxviii. 005), -reproduced on the scale of one-third in Plate XV, presents two almost -life-size figures of Avalokiteśvara standing erect and facing each -other. Their outer hands are raised in the _vitarka-mudrā_, while the -Bodhisattva on the left carries in the other hand a yellow flower, and -the one on the right a flask and a willow sprig. These are well-known -attributes of Avalokiteśvara.[35] Which of his many particular forms -are intended may be determined from the inscribed cartouche above, of -which no translation is as yet available. - -The figures, drawn with much care and painted in a wealth of harmonious -colours, reflect a certain grandeur of design which breaks through the -hieratic conventions of pose and externals. Except for the oblique eyes -these conventions are all unmistakably Indian in type and origin. But -equally clear is the change, here seen in highly perfected technique, -which their treatment has undergone by the eyes and hands of Chinese -painters. We notice their distinctive touch quite as much in the grace -and dignity of the features as in the mastery of sweeping line with -which the rich robes of the Bodhisattvas are treated. The features are -finely drawn and delicately shaded with pink; the ears are elongated -and show hieratic convention in a particularly striking fashion. The -fine drawing of the shapely hands curiously contrasts with the clumsy -foreshortening of the feet. - -Dress, coiffure, and jewellery are of the elaborate style, often -displayed by our Bodhisattva banners;[36] but the ornamentation, though -carefully treated in detail, is not overdone. On the front of the -tiaras is shown Avalokiteśvara’s Dhyāni-buddha, Amitābha. From lotus -buds at their sides descend rainbow-coloured tassels. The garments -comprise shawl-like stoles, lined with light green, under-robes of -Indian red, and long skirts of orange hue. A white girdle is held -round the hips by a jewelled belt; its end hangs down in front of -the skirt and is tied below in a butterfly knot. From a heavy gold -necklet descend jewelled chains, which are gathered together by a -large circular jewel at the waist, and then part again to loop up the -skirt about the knees. A jewelled anklet seems to gather the end of -the under-robe above the feet, and these in either figure are set upon -a pair of open lotuses. On the outer sides of the figures gracefully -drawn flowers and leaves are shown as if floating down gently through -the air. - - - - -PLATE XVI - -FOUR FORMS OF AVALOKITEŚVARA - - -This well-preserved large silk painting (Ch. lv. 0023), reproduced -here on a scale of two-fifths, offers special interest.[37] It is -the oldest exactly dated painting in the Collection, the dedicatory -inscription below indicating the year corresponding to A.D. 864. It -also combines in a curious fashion hieratic conventions of Indian -origin, such as prevail in the row of four Avalokiteśvara figures -ranged stiffly side by side in the upper half, with the more Chinese -and more animate treatment of others in the lower half. There the -Bodhisattvas Samantabhadra and Mañjuśrī are represented in procession -advancing towards each other on lotus seats carried by their respective -‘Vāhanas’, the white elephant with six tusks and the lion, and -accompanied by their attendants, just as we have already seen them in -the more sumptuous compositions of Plates III and IV. Samantabhadra -has his hands raised in the _vitarka-mudrā_ and Mañjuśrī in the pose -of adoration. Their dress, ornaments, circular haloes, &c., as well -as their _cortèges_, here limited to two lesser Bodhisattvas carrying -three-tiered umbrellas and a dark-skinned Indian attendant leading -the divinity’s mount, all show very close agreement with the types -displayed in those large paintings. These conventions are shared also -by the single Bodhisattva figures in many fine silk banners of the -Collection,[38] and our dated picture proves them to have been already -fully established by the middle of the ninth century. - -In contrast to these two Bodhisattvas, always easily identified, -only the short Chinese inscriptions by the side of the four -Avalokiteśvaras above can tell us which particular form of this most -popular Bodhisattva is to be recognized in each figure.[39] All are -practically alike in pose and dress except for some minor differences. -All carry a red or red and white lotus in one hand, and all, except the -Avalokiteśvara on the extreme left, a flask in the other. The dress -comprises a long reddish-pink under-robe girt round the waist and -reaching to the feet; a short tight upper skirt and a deep plastron -passing over breast and shoulders. On the upper arms are close-fitting -sleeves, half covered by armlets. Pink drapery hangs behind the -shoulders and a narrow stole of green and red passes round them; thence -it winds stiffly about the arms and ripples to the ground. The figure -of the Dhyāni-buddha Amitābha appears on the tiara. - -In all the details just mentioned these Avalokiteśvaras attach -themselves to a class of Bodhisattva figures, largely represented -among our banners, which reproduce characteristic Indian conventions -in physical type, dress, pose, and flesh colouring with sufficient -closeness to deserve the general designation of ‘Indian’.[40] Their -juxtaposition with the more ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattvas in the lower half of -our painting is instructive as helping to bring out the distinctions of -the two types. - -In the narrow panel below we see ranged on either side of the -dedicatory inscription the donors and their ladies. The Chinese -inscriptions attached to them acquaint us with their persons.[41] On -the right kneels the father attired as a monk with his three sons -kneeling in secular dress behind him. On the left are shown two nuns, -members of the family, and behind them two ladies, wives of two of the -sons. To the interest presented by the costumes of the secular figures -I have had already occasion to allude.[42] The fashion represented in -the dress and coiffure of the two ladies is particularly instructive -as affording indications for the approximate dating of other paintings -which show donatrix figures. The moderate width of the sleeves and -the absence of ornaments in the head-dress distinguish this fashion -of A.D. 864 very strikingly from that presented by the donatrices in -tenth-century pictures. On the other hand, we see on the men’s heads -the wide-brimmed black hats of the latter side by side with a stiff -black cap of a manifestly earlier type. - - - - -PLATE XVII - -AVALOKITEŚVARA IN GLORY - - -The large silk painting (Ch. lvi. 0019), reproduced in this Plate -on a scale of slightly less than one-fourth of the original, may -rank among the richest of the Collection in respect of decorative -effect and colouring, and fortunately has survived in very fair -preservation. It represents Avalokiteśvara in his thousand-armed -and eleven-headed form, surrounded by numerous groups of divinities -constituting his ‘Maṇḍala’. The scheme is repeated on somewhat simpler -lines in another fine painting, shown by Plate XLII. Elaborate as its -representation is in ours, its interpretation is facilitated by the -Chinese inscriptions attached to all the principal divine figures -which appear in attendance on the great Bodhisattva of Mercy. Helped -by these inscriptions M. Petrucci has been able to discuss at length -the numerous and interesting questions of iconographic detail which are -raised by figures in this and similar sumptuous compositions, and to -his explanations and to the full description contained in _Serindia_ -reference may conveniently be made here.[43] - -In the centre of the painting we see Avalokiteśvara’s large figure -surrounded by a nimbus-like disc. This is formed by his outer hands -making up the theoretical number of a thousand, and each showing an -open eye marked on the palm. Avalokiteśvara’s thousand arms, arranged -in this fashion, are well known, too, to the later Buddhist iconography -of India and meant to symbolize the merciful divinity’s desire to save -all human beings at the same time. The Bodhisattva is shown seated on a -lotus and under a richly tasselled canopy. His inner hands, apart from -the four in front, hold a multiplicity of well-known sacred emblems, -including the discs of the Sun and Moon, flasks of ambrosia, conch, -willow spray, trident, Vajra, the Wheel of the Law, mace, &c. From the -centre pair of inner hands a shaft of rainbow light streams upwards. -His flesh is yellow, as usual, shaded with pink; his hair blue, of the -same shade as the general background. Of the small subsidiary heads, -two of demonic appearance are shown by the side of the ears and the -rest in three tiers above the tiara. - -Among the attendant divinities we see at the top of the canopy the -Bodhisattvas of the Sun and Moon seated behind their five white -geese and five white horses respectively. In the upper corners -appear on finely painted clouds the ‘Buddhas of the ten quarters of -the Universe’, arranged as all the attendant deities in symmetrical -groups. Below them are seated pairs of Bodhisattvas with elaborate -flower-decked haloes and nimbi. Beneath them come on the right Indra -with three attendants, and on the left Brahman with two. All are shown -kneeling and wearing Chinese official dress of a rich type. Beneath -again are shown two monstrous divinities, both unmistakably Śivaitic. -On the right Mahākāla with three heads and six arms reclines on -the back of Śiva’s bull. On the left Maheśvara, of demonic appearance, -stands with legs apart upon a crocodile-headed snake; his middle hands -grasp pike and cords which hold two half-naked humans. - -Below the lotus seat of Avalokiteśvara are seen emaciated _pretas_ or -beings in hell clutching with outstretched hands at showers of white -grains (ambrosia) which Avalokiteśvara pours on them. In front of his -lotus seat lies a tank in which stand two stalwart Nāgas upholding -the stem of the lotus. They are in human shape, but carry above their -heads a crest formed of five snake-heads, their ancient Indian emblem. -Besides smaller Nāga figures of the same type the tank holds an infant -soul (now almost destroyed) rising from a lotus. - -The bottom corners are occupied on each side by a larger group of -attendants. The central figure in each case is a four-armed female -divinity of beneficent aspect, dressed like a Bodhisattva and seated -on a bird. The one on the right rides on a phoenix and is followed -by a Buddha. The female deity behind him is of interest, as from the -children in her arms she may be recognized as the goddess Hāritī, whom -a pious Indian legend represents as a wicked ogress converted into a -patroness of children.[44] The female divinity on the left is riding -on a peacock, with two attendants behind her who in the absence of -attributes or inscriptions remain unidentified. Lower down on either -side are seen standing two Lokapālas, Kings of the Quarters, in armour, -and in each of the bottom corners a demonic Vajrapāṇi, six-armed and -serpent-decked, straddling against a background of flames. At the feet -of each sits a smaller demon with a boar’s head. Before the Lokapālas -and close to the edge of the tank are seated on the right an emaciated -old man in ascetic garb, and on the left a richly-robed nymph offering -flowers. Both these figures, described elsewhere as the ‘Sage of the -Air (?)’ and ‘Nymph of Virtue’, are with particular clearness seen -again in Plate XLII. - -On the iconographic side the interest of this sumptuous presentation -of Avalokiteśvara’s ‘Maṇḍala’ is obvious, were it only for the -appearance in it of such Śivaitic deities as Mahākāla and Maheśvara. -These aptly illustrate the influence which Hindu mythology, even in -its later development, continued to exercise on the Buddhist Pantheon -of Central Asia and the Far East. On the artistic side attention is -claimed by the skill shown in the ordinance of the whole and the -drawing of individual figures. But it is in particular the highly -effective colour treatment which makes this picture rank with the most -impressive in the Collection. - - - - -PLATE XVIII - -AVALOKITEŚVARA STANDING, WITH WILLOW SPRAY - - -It is to qualities very different from those of the preceding picture -that the figure of a standing Avalokiteśvara (Ch. 0091), reproduced -in Plate XVIII in half the size of the original, owes its special -charm. The silk painting has lost portions of its sides and the whole -below the knees of the figure, and the colouring throughout has much -faded. But the disappearance of paint helps to bring out more clearly -the excellence of the design and the very delicate drawing of figure -and features. With workmanship showing mastery of a fully established -technique in details, the painting combines an air of individual -feeling which makes its subject one of the finest single figures -amongst our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings. - -Avalokiteśvara stands facing the spectator, with head erect but eyes -downcast. His pose, with the weight thrown on the right hip and the -body aslant to the left shoulder, is characteristically Indian. The -head is that of a young man and shows marked influence of Gandhāra art -in its features. The nose is long and straight, the brow high, and the -eyes only slightly oblique. The moderately arched eyebrows sweep in a -slightly recurved line to the outer edge of the brow. The thinner -cheeks and more natural proportion of the features give to the face a -distinct individuality which those of the conventional semi-feminine -Bodhisattvas lack. The expression is meditative and remote, the pose -graceful and dignified at the same time. The right hand is raised in -the _vitarka-mudrā_ at the breast with a willow spray between the thumb -and fingers; the left hanging by the side holds the flask and a twining -spray with pink flowers. - -The attire and head-dress are of the conventional style associated with -the Bodhisattva type which has above been designated as ‘Chinese’. The -Dhyāni-buddha Amitābha is shown on the front of the tiara, which is a -simple circlet ornamented with flaming jewels and long tassels at the -ears. The hair done in double-leaf form appears above it. Instead of -the under-robe a light red scarf is thrown over the breast. A stole -of grey and olive green, much faded, clings to shoulders and upper -arms and is festooned across the front of the figure. From the waist -descends the skirt, apparently brown. - -In the right lower corner appear two small figures kneeling and holding -lotus buds. They represent evidently donors, a boy and a girl. The way -in which their hair is dressed, the boy’s parted and tied in a double -bunch on either side of the head and the girl’s parted and tied behind, -is not usual in our paintings. The plain long-sleeved robes covering -the figures from neck to feet afford no clue to the dating. - - - - -PLATE XIX - -TWO AVALOKITEŚVARAS WITH THE WILLOW SPRAY - - -The Bodhisattva of Mercy presents himself again, standing and without -attendants, in the two silk paintings which this Plate reproduces on -the scale of two-fifths of the originals. In both the portion of the -figure below the knees is lost. The painting on the left (Ch. xxii. -0030) shows a good example of the Bodhisattva type which above we have -referred to as ‘Chinese’, executed with much skill and refinement. - -Avalokiteśvara, facing three-fourths to the right, raises the willow -spray in his right hand, while the left at the waist carries the flask. -The movement shown in the tassels of the canopy above the halo suggests -that the figure was intended as walking; it is drawn particularly soft -and full. The low forehead, full cheeks, small mouth and chin, and -oblique eyes under highly arched eyebrows are characteristic of the -type. The hair is black and descends in a love-lock by the ear. In -front of the tasselled tiara stands the Dhyāni-buddha Amitābha with the -right hand raised in the pose of ‘Protection’. Above the skirt, which -forms an overfall at the waist, is shown an under-robe rising only to -the breasts. A stole of fine dull blue forms the chief note of colour -in the picture. The jewellery is elaborate and plentifully studded with -pale pink stones. The cartouche to the right is filled with a Chinese -inscription containing a salutation to Kuan-yin. - -In the other painting (Ch. lvi. 0016) Avalokiteśvara is shown facing -three-fourths to the left with both arms raised from the elbows. His -hands here, too, hold willow spray and flask, but in reversed order. -The upper portion of the head is lost; what remains of the features, -including the eyes fixed in a straight gaze to the front, shows -delicate drawing. The flesh is white shaded with pink. Over a crimson -under-robe and orange-red skirt descends in ample folds a stole of -olive green. To the usual heavy jewellery is added a small string of -beads round the neck. The workmanship is clean and sure. - - - - -PLATE XX - -AVALOKITEŚVARA WITH FLAME-WREATHED HALO - -The fine silk painting (Ch. xviii. 003) reproduced here on a scale of -a little over two-thirds of the original is a work of considerable -artistic merit and is without a pendant in the Collection. It shows -a standing Avalokiteśvara painted in a style which shows affinity to -the ‘Indian’ type of Bodhisattva figures previously mentioned but -has marked peculiarities of its own. The picture is complete, but -the bare upper part of the figure painted with dull red outlines and -comparatively faint pink colouring has unfortunately much faded, while -the more solid and brilliant colours of the dress and jewellery are -well preserved and in consequence now absorb a disproportionate share -of attention. - -Avalokiteśvara stands facing the spectator with his feet planted on -the bright green centres of two open dark-pink lotuses. His face, -turned slightly towards the right shoulder with eyes downcast, bears an -expression of serious mildness, as if of comprehending pity. The hair -about the forehead is shown in pale blue, the eyebrows light green. -Eyelashes, pupils of eyes, and the dividing line of lips, being painted -in black, stand out distinctly among the otherwise faded features. Both -arms are raised at the elbow, the right holding the willow spray over -the shoulder, while the left carries on the open palm a short flask of -blue and pink. The dress consists mainly of brilliant scarlet sprinkled -with small blue trefoils and tied at the waist with a narrow blue -girdle. A green sash is also loosely knotted round the hips. A long -narrow stole of dark pink lined with green winds round the body from -the left shoulder and flutters about the arms. White draperies descend -from behind the head and shoulders. - -The head-dress consists of a gilded circlet with a ball over the -forehead supporting the Dhyāni-buddha’s figure, and behind this of a -tall cylindrical piece in dark pink and green surmounted by what may -be meant for a topknot of hair but is now almost effaced. The rich -jewellery is set with stones of bright scarlet, blue, and copper green, -and hung with strings of pearls. A large greenish disc wreathed with -scarlet flames forms a nimbus. Open lotus flowers are seen floating -down in the air. The Chinese inscription in the left top corner -describes the painting as the gift of a son in memory of his father, -without recording the date of its dedication. - - - - -PLATE XXI - -AVALOKITEŚVARA STANDING - - -The figure of Avalokiteśvara which this Plate shows us on the scale of -one-third of the original silk painting (Ch. liii. 005), well preserved -except for the extreme top and bottom, shares with the Bodhisattvas -of ‘Indian’ style characteristic features of physical type, pose, and -dress. But the air of grace and gentleness which the Chinese painter -has here infused into the formality of their conventions invests the -figure with a peculiar charm and raises it well above their average -level as a work of art. - -We see Avalokiteśvara standing with the slender-waisted body inclined -from the left shoulder and its weight thrown on the right hip in -characteristic Indian pose. But the stiffness of this attitude, just -as that of certain traditionally fixed details in the dress, is -transformed by sweeping Chinese brush lines. The figure stands slightly -to the left, with the eyes gazing down and the hands holding the usual -attributes of the willow spray and the flask. The face is short and -round, the mouth slightly larger than usual, with a tiny moustache and -a tuft of beard indicated below by a small curl. The eyes are wide -apart and almost level, but with a finely recurved line added to -the eyelids. The flesh is white shaded with red. - -Over a long orange skirt, draped in conventional folds, the Bodhisattva -wears a short and tight over-skirt of Indian red, sprinkled with blue -and white rosettes. Over it is festooned a narrow cord-like band -hanging in loops and streamers by the sides. The costume is completed -by an olive-green girdle, a red scarf across the breast, and a narrow -stole of dark chocolate colour descending from about the arms to -the feet. The richly jewelled ornaments agree in general type with -those seen on the four ‘Indian’ Bodhisattvas of Plate XVI, but the -Dhyāni-buddha is absent from the tiara. The slate-blue outer border of -the nimbus is ornamented with a ring of ‘enclosed palmettes’ in blue -and white, as often seen elsewhere in Bodhisattva haloes. - - - - -PLATE XXII - -TWO AVALOKITEŚVARA PAINTINGS WITH DONORS - - -In both the silk paintings which this Plate reproduces on the scale of -three-sevenths, we see Avalokiteśvara represented in ‘Indian’ style and -beside or below him the donors. In the picture on the left (Ch. liv. -006) the figure of the standing Bodhisattva is treated on very formal -lines, typical of the ‘Indian’ style already repeatedly mentioned, -and the colouring in bright crude tints solidly laid on is equally -characteristic. Apart from the hieratic stiffness of the whole figure -and pose it will suffice to call attention to such peculiar features -as the narrow band descending from the head-dress to the knees and -festooned in front of the body, and the loose locks of hair which hang -over the shoulders. The hair is painted ultramarine, the flesh white -and shaded with vermilion. The eyebrows raised disproportionately high -over the almost straight eyes are, as often elsewhere, shown green. -Avalokiteśvara stands on a large scarlet and white lotus which floats -on a lake or stream. Behind him on green land is shown a row of tall -bamboos filling the background. - -To the left of the Bodhisattva appears standing the figure of the nun -whom one of the Chinese inscriptions names as the donatrix, with a -date corresponding to A.D. 910.[45] She wears a wide-sleeved yellow -under-robe with flowered band across her breast and a purplish-brown -mantle. Her close-cropped hair is shown in ultramarine, and her hands -carry a censer. Opposite to her stands a boy offering a scarlet lotus -on a dish; he wears a long-skirted dark brown coat slit at the side -and showing wide white trousers underneath. M. Petrucci recognizes in -him the nun’s defunct younger brother, whom the dedicatory inscription -associates with her votive gift. - -The picture on the right (Ch. xl. 008) is in perfect condition and -represents Avalokiteśvara, six-armed and seated, together with side -scenes and donors. His upper hands hold up discs emblematic of the -Sun and Moon, showing a three-legged bird and a tree respectively; -the middle hands are raised on either side of the breast in the -_vitarka-mudrā_, while the lower hands with rosary and flask rest on -the knees. In front of him is placed a small draped altar with flasks -and a covered dish. The Bodhisattva’s figure, within the limitations -imposed by the conventional treatment, is very carefully drawn and the -colouring well preserved and unusual. It consists mainly of terra-cotta -red on the garments (excepting the stole, which is very dark brownish -olive), and of white shaded with light pink on the flesh. A harsh -yellow is used for the jewellery, while the ground throughout is left -in the dark greenish-brown of the silk. - -Down the sides are shown, in animated and expressive drawing of purely -Chinese style, scenes representing Calamities from which Avalokiteśvara -miraculously saves his worshippers.[46] On the right above we see a -man, naked except for a loin-cloth, threatened with having his head cut -off. Lower down two men are fleeing with their arms over their heads, -while a thunder-cloud in the sky, represented like a monstrous Nāga, -showers black drops on them. Below a man stands calmly in a pyramid of -flame into which another behind appears to have pushed him. On the left -above a man is being pushed by another over a precipice; but half-way -down he is seen again composedly seated on a cloud. The next scene -shows a man kneeling in an arched recess with his head in a _cangue_, -while in front of him are wooden instruments for fettering feet and -hands. At the bottom stands a man looking calm although surrounded by a -snake, scorpion, and an animal apparently meant for a tiger. - -In the bottom portion of the painting are shown the donors, on either -side of a cartouche intended for a dedicatory inscription. Their -figures are drawn with much care and offer good examples of costumes -belonging to the tenth century. Of the men on the right the one in -front holds a censer and the other a lotus bud between his hands joined -in adoration. On the left kneels a lady in a wide big-sleeved robe; her -hair is held by a central framework and big pins, painted in pink and -white, but lacks the usual flowers and leaves. Behind her stands a boy -in long white trousers and a flowered pink and white tunic, with his -hair parted and ornamented on the top by a big bow. - - - - -PLATE XXIII - -SIX-ARMED AVALOKITEŚVARA WITH ATTENDANT BODHISATTVAS - - -The large silk painting (Ch. xxvi. 001) of which this Plate is a -half-size reproduction was in its original condition a very fine -composition, but has suffered much damage. The lower end has been -destroyed by fire, the right edge is lost, and several large holes show -where dark green paint has corroded the silk. Much of the colouring is -gone; yet in spite of all these vicissitudes enough remains to prove -the refined design of the whole and the sureness of the drawing. - -The picture shows a six-armed Avalokiteśvara seated on a large white -lotus in the attitude known as that of ‘royal ease’, with the right -knee raised and the head inclined over the right shoulder. This -characteristically ‘Indian’ pose corresponds to the slim-waisted body -and the dress of ‘Indian’ Bodhisattva type. It is only in figures of -the latter that we find the flower-ornamented caps over the knees here -seen. The upper hands with gracefully curved fingers are raised towards -the head; of the middle ones the right is raised before the breast in -the _vitarka-mudrā_, while the left is held below palm up; the lower -hands hang down below the knees. No emblems are displayed, except the -Dhyāni-buddha in the front of the tiara, which appears as a high solid -cone of chased bronze. - -The ornamentation of the circular halo and nimbus is very elaborate and -effective. Vandyke and flower patterns fill the former, waving rays -the nimbus. One continuous flame border outlines the free edges of -both, while a broad band of white surrounds them and encloses the whole -figure in a circle of light. A string of small flowers seen in profile -defines the outer edge of this circle. - -Above it is seen a canopy set with flaming jewels. On either side of -this appears a small Bodhisattva seated on a lotus which grows on a -twining stem. Two corresponding figures occupying the bottom corners -are all but destroyed. - -In the colouring different shades of red and green prevailed, together -with white; but the last, as well as the yellow on Avalokiteśvara’s -flesh, has been rubbed off in most places. - - - - -PLATE XXIV - -TWO PAPER PAINTINGS OF AVALOKITEŚVARA - - -The two pictures reproduced here both represent Avalokiteśvara and -are painted on paper; but their interest varies greatly in character. -The one on the right (Ch. i. 009, scale two-thirds of original) shows -the Bodhisattva sitting by the water on a bank under willows. This -representation of Avalokiteśvara is found only in one other picture of -our collection and claims special iconographic interest because, as -Mr. Binyon points out, according to Far-Eastern tradition ‘it was an -Emperor of the Sung period who first in a dream saw’ Avalokiteśvara as -he is here depicted ‘and commanded the dream to be painted; but, no -doubt, the subject is of earlier origin’.[47] We shall see below that -in the case of Kṣitigarbha, too, the evidence of the Ch‘ien-fo-tung -paintings proves a certain iconographic type to have developed earlier -than Japanese tradition would lead us to assume. - -Avalokiteśvara, dressed and adorned in the style of an ‘Indian’ -Bodhisattva, is seated with the right foot tucked under and the left -pendent, resting on an open lotus which rises from the water. His -right hand holds a willow branch and his left the usual emblem of -the flask. The whole figure is enclosed in a large circular halo -drawn in red outline. A group of conventional willow trees fills the -right segment of the halo and rises above it. On the opposite side -there appears above on a cloud the small-scale figure of a man in a -Chinese magistrate’s robes and head-dress, kneeling with hands joined -in adoration. Two boys wearing their hair in rolls behind the neck -stand at his back. A draped canopy extends across the upper end of -the picture. At its bottom, on the bank bordering the water, is shown -an altar. Flanking it on the right appears the donor, carrying a -censer and wearing the black coat and wide-brimmed hat characteristic -of tenth-century male costume. Four cartouches distributed over the -picture have remained uninscribed. - -The drawing is careful and the execution superior notwithstanding the -simplicity of the colour scheme, restricted mainly to scarlet, light -blue, and pale green. - -The picture reproduced on the left (Ch. 0054), on the scale of -three-fifths of the original, has some interesting peculiarities. -Above we see seated on a rectangular platform a Bodhisattva who from -the attendant divinities and the emblem, a tall vase, held by the one -to his right, may safely be assumed to represent Avalokiteśvara. His -dress, coiffure, and accessories are those of Bodhisattva figures -of the type above distinguished as ‘Chinese’. The decoration of the -platform, which, as the lions’ heads appearing in pairs below within -arched openings show, is meant for a _siṃhāsana_ or ‘lion’s throne’, -reproduces textile patterns manifestly influenced by ‘Sassanian’ models. - -The presentation of only the left half of the god’s ‘Maṇḍala’ is an -unusual feature but accounted for by the narrow shape of the painting, -no doubt intended for a banner. It comprises below two Bodhisattvas -standing in adoration, next a pair of haloed monks, above them two -Lokapālas, and at the top a trident-carrying demon. One of the -Lokapālas is characterized by his jewelled mace as Virūḍhaka, Regent -of the South. To the right of the central deity and below the canopy -three infants are shown kneeling on a cloud and playing on flute, -mouth-organ, and clappers. Below them again and by the side of the -large halo stands a small Bodhisattva, also carried on a cloud and -clasping the tall vase already referred to. It is stoppered and mottled -blue and white, obviously in imitation of glazed ceramic ware. - -The lower portion of the painting is filled by a procession moving to -the left and comprising a high Chinese dignitary in the centre and -his numerous retinue. In this central figure, who is attended by two -men holding crossed fans over his head and is obviously the donor, we -may in all probability recognize one of those local chiefs who, as -we know from Chinese historical notices and inscriptions, ruled the -region of Tun-huang in the ninth and tenth centuries as hereditary -governors under the suzerainty of the Emperors.[48] This personage, -over a trailing white under-robe, wears a black jacket ornamented with -symbols in yellow, of which the discs emblematic of the Sun and the -Moon, a pair of rampant dragons, and the Svastika can be made out quite -clearly. He alone appears as a worshipper, and an elaborate head-dress -of peculiar shape marks his high rank. - -In his _cortège_ we see officials wearing white under-robes and black -jackets with various formal patterns of a stiff black head-dress. Three -among them carry long swords before them, pointed downwards, while -two hold rolls of paper. One of the latter, walking beside the chief, -is represented as a mere boy and may perhaps be a son. Two others in -somewhat different costume, including shirts of mail under shorter -jackets, walk a little apart. The two fan-bearers are attired in short -jackets and white trousers, and on the feet of the coarsely drawn -figure to the right we notice string sandals of exactly the same type -as attested by plentiful specimens among my finds from the Tun-huang -_Limes_. - -There can be no doubt that the lower portion of the picture, with -its animated if rather rough drawing, represents a scene such as old -Tun-huang must have often witnessed on ceremonial occasions. It is -hence specially to be regretted that the absence of any dedicatory -inscription leaves us in ignorance of the date and the particular local -chief represented. - - - - -PLATE XXV - -TWO PAINTINGS OF KṢITIGARBHA - - -Both the paintings of this Plate represent Kṣitigarbha, -Avalokiteśvara’s only possible rival in popularity among the -Bodhisattvas of the Buddhist Pantheon of the Far East. Though well -known in China as Ti-tsang and in Japan as Jizō, yet his early and -frequent appearance among the Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings was something -of a surprise, considering that neither in Indian nor in Central-Asian -Buddhism does his figure play a prominent part. Among the Bodhisattvas -represented in our banners he is always clearly distinguished by -the shaven head of the monk and the barred or mottled mantle, the -mendicant’s garment.[49] Other paintings help to illustrate the several -aspects of his character which account for his still prevailing -popularity in the Far East. - -‘There he is still worshipped as one of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas. -Through countless incarnations he has been working for the salvation -of living beings, and he is in especial honoured as the breaker of the -powers of hell. With his pilgrim’s staff he strikes upon the doors of -hell and opens them, and with the lustrous pearl which he carries he -illustrates its darkness. He is represented as Lord of the Six Worlds -of Desire, the world of the Devas or heavenly spirits, of men and -women, of Asuras or demons, of beings in hell, of Pretas or devils, -and of animals; and also as the supreme Regent of Hell with the Ten -Infernal Kings or Magistrates under him.’[50] - -It is in this last-named character that we see Kṣitigarbha represented -in the large silk painting (Ch. 0021) which is reproduced on the right -of Plate XXV, on the scale of one-third. The Bodhisattva is seen seated -on a rock covered with a figured cloth. His right foot rests on a -lotus and the left is bent across. The left hand holds the mendicant’s -staff over his shoulder, while the right, resting on the knee, -supports a crystal ball. Over a green under-robe he wears a mantle -of grey, mottled with black, red, and green, and barred with yellow. -The traveller’s shawl, grey ornamented with a spot pattern in yellow, -is bound round his head and falls on his shoulders. Of the usual -Bodhisattvas’ adornment only a jewelled necklace and bracelets appear. -A multicoloured halo, edged with flames, forms the background to the -figure, while above it hangs a canopy represented by flowered sprays -and strings of jewels. - -Down the two sides are ranged the ten Infernal Kings or Magistrates, -seated at draped tables, on which scrolls of judgement are spread. -Attendants wait on them in varying attitudes, taking instructions, -delivering reports, holding fans, &c. With the exception of a -fan-holder in demon shape, the attendants are all in secular Chinese -dress. All the Judges but one wear Chinese magisterial costume: long -under-robes, voluminous wide-sleeved coats of scarlet and white, and -official head-dress in a variety of shapes, black, yellow, or white. -The topmost Judge on the right is clad in full armour, with helmet and -a coat of mail, fringed with tiger-skin, and reaching down to the feet. - -In front of Kṣitigarbha is seated a white lion, faced by a monk raising -his hands in adoration to the Bodhisattva. Further in the foreground we -see a condemned soul, naked except for a loin-cloth, and wearing the -_cangue_, led by an ox-headed mace-carrying demon. In a magic mirror he -is made to see the crime for which he has been condemned—the murder of -an ox. A cloud above the mirror marks the scene as a dream. Beside the -mirror stands an attendant holding brush and scroll. - -The numerous cartouches scattered about have been left uninscribed, -or have become illegible. The same is the case with those by the -donors’ figures at the foot of the picture. Foremost on either side -kneels a monk holding a censer. Behind the one on the right stands a -boy attendant holding the fungus sceptre (_ju-ī_), and behind him again -kneels a man with the wide-brimmed black hat usual in tenth-century -costume. The same chronological indication is furnished by the dress -and coiffure of the ladies who are shown kneeling behind the monk on -the left. - -The picture on the left of the Plate (Ch. lviii. 003, reproduced on -the scale of three-eighths) is complete with its border of purple silk -gauze and suspension loops, and shows Kṣitigarbha in his character of -Lord of the Six Worlds, or _Gatis_, and Patron of Travellers. He sits -facing the spectator on a scarlet lotus in a pose which is the exact -reverse of the one shown by Kṣitigarbha in the previously described -painting. Thus the right hand holds the mendicant’s staff and the -left the ball of crystal. The under-robe, shaded in red and green, -is covered by a mantle of red and black inwoven on white ground and -barred with black. Over his head and shoulders is thrown a grey shawl -ornamented with yellow spots and having a scarlet border on which large -flowers in green and white are figured. - -On a flat-topped rock in front of the Bodhisattva, covered with an -altar-cloth, is a large green bowl, containing an open lotus. On either -side sits or kneels a Bodhisattva in adoring attitude. - -From either side of Kṣitigarbha’s red and green halo rise three waving -rays of scarlet; each of them carry small figures meant to represent -the Six Worlds of Desire. They are on the right: above, a man for the -World of Men; a deity supporting discs of the Sun and Moon, for the -World of the Gods; a Preta amongst flames for the World of Hell. On the -left the Bodhisattva-like figure at the top represents the World of the -Asuras, or demigods; on the middle ray two representatives of the World -of Animals are recognizable in spite of the broken condition of the -silk, while below a devil with pitchfork and cauldron symbolizes the -World of Demons. - -At the bottom of the picture we see represented a stone slab bearing -a dedicatory inscription and on either side of it two finely drawn -figures of men and ladies respectively. Their costume and hair-dress -furnish good examples of the type characteristic or donor figures of -the tenth century. The inscription on the slab is dated in A. D. 963, -and according to M. Petrucci records the dedication of the painting by -a certain votary who prays for deliverance from long illness. He makes -his offering also for the benefit of his departed parents and of two -other relatives named in the cartouches by their sides. - - - - -PLATE XXVI - -VAIŚRAVAṆA’S PROGRESS - -The excellently preserved painting (Ch. xxxvii. 002) which this Plate -reproduces on a scale of slightly over one-half presents to us the -triumphant progress of Vaiśravaṇa, Guardian of the North and the -principal of the Lokapālas, or Protectors of the Four Regions. The -important position which the Lokapālas still enjoy in popular Buddhist -worship of the Far East is clearly marked by the frequency of their -representation among our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings. This again fully -agrees with the early origin of their conception as attested by Indian -art and tradition, and with what numerous frescoes and sculptures -brought to light by recent excavations in Chinese Turkestān show as to -their popularity in Central-Asian Buddhism.[51] - -The foremost place among the Lokapālas of our paintings is occupied -by Vaiśravaṇa, the Protector of the Northern Region. This is fully -accounted for by the early Indian notion which identified this -particular ‘world-protector’ with Kubera, the Hindu god of wealth, -King of the Yakṣas. A further reason may be sought in the special -worship which Vaiśravaṇa as _genius loci_ enjoyed at Khotan, a main -seat of Buddhism in Eastern Turkestān and one in close relations with -Tun-huang.[52] Apart from the frequent appearance of his figure in -our banners, Vaiśravaṇa’s pre-eminent position is attested by the -fact that, alone among the Protectors of the Regions, he is found in -pictures attended by his demon host and in triumphant procession. - -With one of these pictures, the small Kakemono-shaped silk painting -reproduced in Plate XLV and a work of high artistic merit, we shall -concern ourselves below. The other shown by our Plate, if not so -careful in design and execution, is yet remarkable for its spirited -composition and displays points of distinct iconographic interest. -It represents Vaiśravaṇa riding in full gallop across the ocean -accompanied by a numerous host representing his army of Yakṣas, or -demons. He is seen, as always, in the guise of a warrior king, and -wears here a young and strongly human appearance. Mounted on a white -horse with scarlet mane and tail, he turns back in the saddle and -with his mouth open seems to call to his followers. The right hand is -raised, while the left grasps the reins. The straight nose and eyes -give a distinctly Western look to his face, and in agreement with this -are the light blue iris of the eyes and the dark brown colour of the -hair, including a recurved moustache and tufts of beard and whiskers. - -A long close-fitting coat of scale armour,[53] coloured yellow with -scarlet straps and border, reaches down below the knee. A leather -skirt-piece ornamented with flowers is secured round the waist and -hips, and below the coat floats out a long olive-green under-robe. -A high three-leaved crown covers the head; its shape and the long -streamers flying up from behind it distinctly suggest derivation from -Persian models. There are more indications also of Iranian influence in -details of this and other Lokapāla pictures; but this is not the place -to discuss them.[54] Broad streamers of flame rise from Vaiśravaṇa’s -shoulders and take the place of a nimbus. - -There are points of interest also in the accoutrement of Vaiśravaṇa’s -horse. Its head, which is very small in proportion to neck and body, -is protected by a frontlet of scale-armour. Above the head-stall is -fixed a pair of black and white feathers. The numerous pompon-like -knobs or tassels which hang from the breast-band and crupper belong -to a type of ‘horse-millinery’ which is well known from Buddhist -paintings of Central Asia and India and is characteristic also -of the representation of chargers in Sassanian relievos.[55] Passing -reference may be made here also to the appearance of decorative motifs -unmistakably borrowed from textiles of ‘Sassanian’ style on the -Lokapāla’s dress and that of his horse. - -In front of Vaiśravaṇa march two Yakṣas clad in what seems to be meant -for mail armour and carrying red pennons. Behind him are seen moving -other demon followers, all grotesque in appearance, and two with animal -jaws, &c. They carry a large flag decorated with a peculiar check and -vandyke pattern and a miniature Stūpa, both emblems associated with -Vaiśravaṇa also in the picture of Plate XLV, as well as a battle-axe -and bow and arrows. In the foreground are shown in violent movement -three goblins of savage look carrying jars and vases and apparently -quarrelling with the Yakṣas. As one of them attacks the latter with -a branch of coral or ‘Nāga tree’ in his hand, they may represent the -Nāgas from whom according to the legend Vaiśravaṇa won his treasure. -The flaming jewels and square-holed coins scattered in the foreground -seem to have the same symbolic bearing. - -At the rear stand two human figures in Chinese secular costume, the man -with a mitre-like head-dress and a roll in his hands, the fair-faced -lady with hands joined in adoration and her hair done in the elaborate -tenth-century fashion. Whether they are meant for the donors of the -picture seems uncertain. The whole host is swept along on a cloud from -Vaiśravaṇa’s mansion, represented by a Chinese pavilion in the left top -corner, and moves across the sea, which is bounded in the background -by a mountain range (Mount Meru) and in the foreground by cliffs. -Infants, ducks, a shark-jawed monster’s head, and a nymph float here in -the water between scarlet lotuses, while on the cliffs there appears a -stag. Flowers are scattered in the air above. - -The workmanship, while well finished throughout, shows an ease and -boldness which befits the subject. The simplicity of the colour scheme, -which is almost entirely confined to yellow, scarlet, and white on -greenish-brown tints of the background, helps the eye to take in the -rapidity of the movement represented. - - - - -PLATE XXVII - -VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUŚRĪ - - -The silk banner reproduced on the right, on the scale of three-fifths -(Ch. 0040), presents a fine example of the banners showing Virūpākṣa, -the Guardian of the West. Next to Vaiśravaṇa he is the most frequently -portrayed of Lokapālas in our paintings, always clearly recognizable -by his particular emblem, the sword. Like the rest of the ‘Four Great -Kings’ shown in the banners Virūpākṣa stands on the back of a crouching -demon serving as his ‘cognizance’ (_vāhana_) and representing the -Yakṣas over whom he rules. A small curling cloud above his haloed head -marks the whole as a vision. Both ends of the banner are broken and its -accessories lost, but otherwise it is almost intact. - -The figure, displaying force and dignity combined, belongs to a -class of Lokapāla representations among our paintings which, from -certain peculiarities in the style of treatment and in detail, may be -distinguished as ‘Chinese’ from another suggesting closer affinity to -a Central-Asian prototype. Representatives of both classes are seen in -Plate XLVII. But the general character of the figures and their warrior -costume is essentially the same throughout. This suggests, in accord -with other indications, that the type, though no doubt originally -derived from the West, had undergone thorough adaptation to Chinese art -feeling and was fully established long before the probable period when -these banners were painted.[56] - -Our painting well illustrates certain characteristics of the former -group in the three-quarter profile of the Lokapāla’s figure and the -sweeping curve of pose, with the body thrown out to the waist; -in the freedom and movement imparted to the drawing mainly by the -treatment of the flowing drapery; and in some minor peculiarities -of armour and dress. Though Virūpākṣa’s face is quiet, without any -distortion such as usually imparts a grotesque look to the Lokapālas -of the ‘Chinese’ group, we note the oblique cut of the eyes which is -peculiar to it, as well as other Chinese features. - -The rich armour and dress with which the Guardians of the World are -always depicted and the manifold variations in their details are -obviously of considerable antiquarian interest and have been fully -discussed elsewhere.[57] The painting in our Plate illustrates them -with particular clearness. Virūpākṣa’s head is covered by a helmet made -of scale-armour and strengthened with leather bands and a wide leather -brim curling up at ear-level. That the scales represented on the helmet -and elsewhere are meant for scales of lacquered hard leather is made -highly probable by actual scale-armour remains of this kind brought to -light by my excavations at sites in the Taklamakān and Lop deserts.[58] -A lotus-shaped spike is fixed on the top with a recurved gold stem -in front, supporting a plume. Beneath the helmet comes a gorget, -apparently also of scale-armour, descending on to the shoulders. - -From there down to the hips the body is protected by a coat of mail, -made of round-edged scales overlapping downwards as far as the -waist-belt and of oblong scales laced sideways beyond it. A strong -corslet, supported by straps from the shoulders and fitted with -ornamented metal discs over the breasts, is fastened across the chest. -Below is fixed an upper belt, apparently of ornamented leather. The -lower belt, of black leather, carries a centrepiece in the form of an -elaborate beast’s mask. The coat of mail is finished off at the bottom -by a short pleated frill, shown here in green, and above the elbows by -what looks like a ruff made of petal-shaped scales. From within this -protrudes swathed drapery of red and dark grey, as if of sleeves. - -From beneath the mail coat descends in rich folds a red skirt with blue -border and whitish lining, leaving the knees bare; also the ends of a -long girdle, looped up in front, curl about the legs. These from below -the knees are encased in greaves, probably made of stiff leather like -the corslet. A row of metal clasps secures them in front, while a large -disc of dark purple leather set with a central gold boss covers the -calf. The greaves are finished off at the bottom by ankle-guards, in -the form of a stiff ruff, apparently also of leather. Guards of closely -corresponding shape protect the forearms. The feet are shod with -plain sandals held by a single toe- and heel-strap. A greenish stole, -hanging round the shoulders and festooned across the front of the body, -completes the Lokapāla’s rich costume. - -The nude demon underfoot is shaded blue and has a dog-like face; the -hands on which he crouches are misshapen and a flame bundle rising from -his head takes the place of hair. - -The banner reproduced on the left (Ch. 0036, scale seven-ninths) -represents the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī seated on his white lion and, apart -from the lost accessories, is remarkably well preserved. Its style, in -instructive contrast to that of the Lokapāla picture just discussed, -provides a good example of the maintenance of Indian tradition in -Chinese Buddhist art. - -The Bodhisattva, whom we have met already in several of the previously -discussed paintings,[59] is seated on a scarlet lotus which a golden -pedestal carried on the back of his ‘Vāhana’ supports. Mañjuśrī’s -figure is entirely Indian in physical type, pose, and dress. With his -right leg bent across and the left pendent and resting on a small blue -lotus, he keeps his body inclined to the left proper. To the right -hand stretched downwards in the _vara-mudrā_ corresponds the pose -of the head, which is bent over the right shoulder and balances the -slant of the body. The left hand rests on the lotus-seat and holds a -long-stemmed gracefully curving lotus. The body has feminine contours -and is painted a dull pinkish yellow. The hair, light blue in colour, -shows flat above the forehead and straggles down to the shoulder in -small ringlets. The face is round with small features and oblique eyes -cast downwards. - -The dress is just as characteristically Indian. It consists of a short -crimson _laṅgōṭī_ flowered with blue rosettes and a transparent skirt -of purple gauze which drapes the legs to the ankles. A fold of this -crosses the body from the left shoulder. Round the neck is thrown a -narrow stole, green spotted with white, which, where it passes over the -right forearm, takes the form of a ‘triple cord’, distinctively Hindu. -The rich jewellery comprises heavy bracelets and anklets, serpentine -armlets, ear-rings, and a double necklace from which hang green and -blue lotus buds. A tiara of solid gold work, mounted with jewels, -crowns the head. - -Behind the figure appears a circular halo and behind the head a nimbus -of elongated oval shape, both of variegated rings of colour. Above are -seen the remains of a tasselled canopy waving with the lion’s advance. - -The lion strides to the left with his head turned back and the mouth -wide open as if roaring. His mane is represented by conventional curls -in different colours. Red spots are shown on breast, jowl, and back of -legs. From his breast-band and crupper hang heavy tassels and ornaments -similar to those above noted on Vaiśravaṇa’s horse. The attendant who -leads him by a red rope is shown as usually with very dark skin, coarse -features, and bushy black hair, suggesting a negro. His dress consists -of a narrow stole and a red and blue _dhōtī_-like skirt, tucked up at -the knees. He wears also jewellery of a simple kind. - -The design of the whole is harmonious and instinct with life, -notwithstanding the hieratic conventions of the subject borrowed from -distant India, and the workmanship is very careful. - - - - -PLATE XXVIII - -BUST OF A LOKAPĀLA - - -In this Plate we see a fine fragment of a silk painting once over -life-size (Ch. liv. 003), reproduced on the scale of five-eighths and -showing the upper part of the body of a Lokapāla. From the bow between -his arm and body and the arrow held in his hand we can safely recognize -him as Dhṛtarāṣṭra, the Guardian of the East. The figure, preserved only -from the bearded jaws down to the hip-belt, is standing three-fourths -to the left, with the left hand outspread at the breast and holding -that World-Protector’s special emblem, the arrow. - -The King’s flesh is painted a tawny brown, the finely drawn and -slightly parted lips deep crimson. The sweeping beard, which must have -given to the face a particularly strong if not fierce expression, is -black. The equipment is very rich and painted in a series of vivid -colours, scarlet, orange, blue, mauve, green, and black. Profuse jewel -or semi-naturalistic floral ornaments, the latter, no doubt, copied -from textile designs, all painted in the same bright colours, cover -the discs of the corslet, straps, borders, pedestals of the jewelled -shoulder bosses, &c. - -Of special interest is the representation of the armour. On the -shoulders and skirt it consists of oblong scales overlapping upwards, -as very often elsewhere in our paintings and also in relievos.[60] But -on the body it is represented by small interlacing black circles, on a -white ground, manifestly intended for chain-armour. The coat of mail -is finished on the top by a blue jewelled collar, probably of hard -lacquered leather like the rest of the armour, lying back from the -neck. White streamers falling on the breast from behind the ears show -that the Lokapāla’s head bore a tiara, not a helmet. - -Though the surviving part is only a fragment, with edges broken all -round, enough remains to show that with its vigorous drawing, fine -workmanship, and brilliant colouring, the whole must have been a very -effective picture. - - - - -PLATE XXIX - -TWO DHARMAPĀLAS AND A BODHISATTVA - - -Among the silk banners reproduced in this Plate, all on the scale -of three-fifths, the two on the sides (Ch. liv. 002 on the left and -Ch. 004 on the right) show us Dharmapālas, or ‘Protectors of the -Law’. These divinities are conceived as forms of Vajrapāṇi in fury -and are still favourite figures in the Buddhist imagery of the Far -East. Originally derived from the ancient Gandhāra representations -of the thunderbolt bearer (Vajrapāṇi), they meet us already in the -sixth-century relievos of the Lung-mên grottoes in China.[61] They -show there those poses and that exaggerated development of the muscles -which, together with other grotesque features, remain characteristics -of the type exhibited in a more or less conventionalized form by the -Dharmapāla figures in the paintings and sculptures of Tun-huang. These -figures, as M. Foucher has justly observed, ‘already make us think of -the athletic demons of Japan’. - -Like the rest of our Dharmapāla paintings, the two banners reproduced -here are but slightly distinguished from each other in type and may -hence be briefly described together. They are excellently preserved -and complete, with head-piece and streamers at bottom, which, however, -from consideration of space are omitted in the Plate. Both Dharmapālas -have the muscular body in tense attitude, the grotesque head with -its furious downward look, and the large richly ornamented Vajra -representing the thunderbolt. They stand slightly to one side with the -feet planted apart on two lotuses and the head turned back over the -shoulder. There is a difference in the pose of the arms and hands. In -the banner on the left the Dharmapāla raises his right arm with the -hand open threateningly above his head, while the left hand by the side -grasps the Vajra. In the other figure the right hand supports the end -of the Vajra and the left, with fingers stiffly spread, steadies it -half-way up. - -In either figure the head shows a grotesque face with enlarged staring -eyes, misshapen nose, fierce moustaches, and a beard in long straggling -tufts. The flesh is painted light brown. The muscles and joints of body -and limbs are emphasized with conventional exaggeration, but with an -effect full of vigour. The muscles are drawn in strong black lines to -which modelling is added by brushwork in light red or pink. Abundantly -decked with jewellery as the figures are, they carry but scanty dress. -It comprises a short skirt, bright crimson or scarlet with slate -border, which is tied round the hips by a trailing white girdle; also a -narrow stole, olive green with brown or pink reverse, which winds over -both forearms. - -The sinuous lines of the drapery, the fillet ends of the head-dress -flying upwards, the coiling clouds above the haloed heads, all help to -intensify the expression of violent effort. The same end is well served -by the bold lines of the drawing and the strong and clear colours used. - -The banner in the centre (Ch. 001) is, but for the lost accessories, -in an excellent condition, and shows in its figure a fine example of -the Bodhisattva type which has been distinguished above under the -conventional designation of ‘Chinese’. - -The Bodhisattva, as yet unidentified, stands in a peculiar pose not -elsewhere represented among our paintings. He stands on an open lotus, -with the raised right hand holding at shoulder level a round bowl of -mottled green glass with a metal rim. The head is turned three-quarters -towards the bowl, while the left hand hangs down by the side. As the -weight of the body is carried on the right leg and the body slightly -inclines from the right hip towards the left shoulder, attention is -cleverly drawn by the pose to the object which the right hand supports. - -The face shows conventional features of the ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattva type -in the small slanting eyes, heavy cheeks, and small full mouth. The -down-turned corners of the mouth and the wrinkles marked below the -outer ends of the nostrils impart a curious expression to the face. -As in all these banners, the flesh is left the natural colour of the -silk, with delicate shading in faint pink to show the modelling of face -and body. - -The dress is the traditional Bodhisattva attire in a particularly -elaborate form. A trailing skirt of pale pink, with blue border, -drapes the figure from the waist to the feet. Its upper edge is held -by a white girdle and gold-edged belt. The end of this girdle hangs -down with loops in front and the end of another behind it, made of a -rich flowered red material. An under-robe of dull red appears only -above the feet. The upper half of the body is nude except for a band -of purplish-pink drapery, elaborate jewellery, and a filmy blue stole -which shown in delicate transparent colour descends over shoulders and -arms to the ground. - -The abundant jewellery is of a type with which we have already become -familiar in paintings of Avalokiteśvara and elsewhere. The head-dress -consists of a narrow fillet of white drapery, ending with a narrow -white band which hangs in a long loop to the knees. Over the forehead -it carries a light gold ornament ending above in two lotus buds which -spring backwards over the black hair. This falls behind in heavy -locks down to the elbows and forms a dark background to the bust. The -circular nimbus is made up of variegated rings of colour such as are -seen round the heads of the Bodhisattvas in Plate XLI. The elaborate -canopy is of a kind we have already met with. Its straight-hanging -tassels agree with the motionless attitude of the figure. Yet -notwithstanding this attitude the whole picture in its highly finished -style seems instinct with life. - - - - -PLATE XXX - -SIDE-SCENES AND DETAILS FROM A BUDDHIST PARADISE PAINTING - - -This Plate reproduces some side-scenes and small portions from the -fine but very fragmentary remains of a large silk painting (Ch. -00216) representing a Buddhist Heaven, probably that of Amitābha. The -colours of what is preserved are in remarkably fresh condition, and -this, together with the large scale of reproduction (four-sevenths), -facilitates close examination of interesting details. - -Taking the side-scenes as shown in the left portion of the Plate we -may note first the fine floral border which separates the two at the -top from the main picture. Its vermilion ground is covered with rich -trailing bunches of flowers and leaves painted in a variety of vivid -colours. With their naturalistic style they closely recall the designs -which are displayed by plentiful embroidery remains I recovered from -the hoard of the ‘Thousand Buddhas’.[62] The outside border of the -whole is decorated with bold groups of entwined tendrils in orange-red -over dark brown, showing in their style a curious affinity to certain -of the cloud scrolls which appear on the fine textile remains of Han -times brought to light by me from ancient sites in the Lop Desert.[63] - -The two side-scenes above form part of a series extending along the -left side of the picture and illustrating the ancient Buddhist legend -of Ajātaśatru, the wicked son of King Bimbisāra. Chinese inscriptions -accompany most of these scenes; but the upper one of those here -reproduced has lost its inscription and its identification is hence not -quite certain. It, however, appears to represent Ajātaśatru with his -sword drawn menacing Bimbisāra, who is attempting to draw his own. Both -are wearing flowing robes such as form elsewhere in our paintings the -costume of ministers. The scene seems laid below the stairs leading up -to the royal palace. - -The scene below appears, according to the but partially legible -inscription, to represent Ajātaśatru after repentance entering the -Buddhist monkhood. What survives of the scene shows three men in plain -belted coats advancing to the left in front of a decorated and -streamered pavilion. This and the building behind display very clearly -characteristic features of Chinese architecture such as the tiled -roofs, the recurving roof-tree ends, the confronting bird heads on the -roof ridge, &c. On the right of the scene we see a subsidiary Buddha, -standing with a Bodhisattva by his side, as in the corresponding groups -of other Paradise paintings.[64] - -The scenes below belong to a different series which extended along the -bottom of the picture. They show in the left corner the Death of the -Wicked. He lies stretched out on a couch placed in a verandah with his -wife watching him, while two shock-headed demons strangle him with -scarlet ropes. Below is seen on a cloud, as a vision, the boiling -cauldron into which his body is being flung by one of the ox-headed -gaolers of hell, who stands by carrying a trident-shaped pitchfork. - -The adjoining scene depicts the Sickness of the Wicked. He sits up, -supported by a woman, on the bed laid within a porch or verandah. -In the foreground a younger woman with a lute and a man carrying a -leaf-shaped red object and stooping advance towards what seems a mat -with offerings laid on the ground. They are small black dishes with red -contents (burning incense?), clouds of white smoke drifting from some -of them. - -The third scene of this series is incomplete and having lost its -inscription cannot be identified. It shows a man in purple coat and -tailed cap running to the back of the scene between a verandahed -structure and a shrine built of grey tiles, with his hands brandishing -a stick over his head. In front a man, similarly dressed and perhaps -meant to be the same person, is seen with bared arms and body violently -belabouring another, in purple coat and with the blue close-cropped -hair of a monk, who kneels on the ground and holds his hand to his head. - -Of the fragments of the main picture reproduced on the right the upper -one shows us a group of musicians, seated on a small evidently carpeted -platform and facing towards a dancer (now lost) as usually seen in the -large Paradise pictures. Of the instruments played a psaltery, harp, -lute, and two flutes of different kinds are still recognizable. It is -of interest to note that the carpet with a Chinese floral pattern in -the centre combines a medallion border of unmistakably ‘Sassanian’ -design.[65] The Bodhisattva figure on the left belongs to the group of -a standing subsidiary Buddha already mentioned. - -The fragment reproduced below is from the top left corner of the -picture. There, against a deep blue sky sprinkled with gilded stars -and above the steeply curved indigo roof of a celestial mansion, we -see a flaming jewel on a lotus pedestal; white streamers flying from -a central pavilion; small drums floating in air to symbolize heavenly -music, and in the middle Samantabhadra seated on his white elephant and -attended by two Bodhisattvas. The drums, painted dark brown and tied -with red ribbons, are of interest on account of their different shapes. -Whether cylindrical or narrow-waisted, they have strings stretched -outside for the production of different notes by pressure under the -arm. One has also a projecting staff with cross-hammer. - - - - -PLATE XXXI - -A TIBETAN PAINTING OF TĀRĀ - - -This Plate reproduces the only painting (Ch. lii. 001, scale -three-fourths) among those brought away from the walled-up chapel which -is entirely Tibetan in style. The special interest it derives from -this fact is further increased by the probability of its being ‘the -oldest of its kind now in existence, or at least one of the oldest’. -Mr. Binyon in his Introduction[66] has already referred to the Tibetan -supremacy established in the Tun-huang region from the middle -of the eighth to the middle of the ninth century as explaining the -presence of this Tibetan painting. He has also lucidly discussed the -relation which links the art of Buddhist Tibet, in spite of its marked -and strangely persistent peculiarities, closely with Chinese art. My -remarks may hence be confined to the technique and iconography of the -painting. - -The picture, which is preserved complete together with its frame of -dark green silk, is painted in tempera on strong close-woven linen. The -colours have generally darkened and in places have been rubbed off, -leaving whitish patches or the cloth bare.[67] - -The subject is the goddess Tārā, the Śakti or female emanation of -Avalokiteśvara. The goddess, represented in her usual form as a -beautiful young woman, is seated in the centre on a variegated lotus -which floats on the blue water of a lake. She sits with her right knee -raised and the left leg bent across. The right hand with palm turned -outwards in the _vara-mudrā_ rests on the right knee, the left is at -the breast, both holding long curving sprays with a conventional blue -lotus at the end. The pose of the body slightly inclined to the right -is balanced by the head leaning in the opposite direction. The sinuous -line of the whole figure conforms to a characteristic tendency of -Tibetan art. The flesh had been gilded, but this gilding has almost -entirely worn off. - -The goddess wears a dark red skirt and stole spangled with gilded -flowers. Her knees are covered with elaborately ornamented caps. Rich -jewellery decks neck and breast. Above her black hair bound with -scarlet fillets is set a five-leaved tiara with a high-peaked crown. -A nimbus of very dark green, now almost turned to black, sets off the -head, while behind the figure is shown an oval vesica with a rayed -border of rainbow-like colours. - -On a dark cloud above the goddess’s head appears the small figure -of a Buddha seated in meditation with the alms-bowl in his lap. On -either side of him, on praying mats carried by dark green clouds, -sit two black-haloed saints wearing the peaked hoods of Lamas. Along -the sides of the picture are ranged eight subsidiary forms of Tārā, -differentiated by varying colours of flesh and dress. Their pose is the -same as that of the central goddess; the right hand rests on the knee, -holding a flask, and the left raises a long-stemmed blue lotus. - -Interspersed between these subsidiary Tārās are shown six scenes of -deliverance from Calamities similar to those represented on the sides -of certain Paradise paintings, such as the one in Plates I, II. Not all -are intelligible; but we may note in the middle one on the left a man -being pushed over a cliff into the lake. In the scene opposite on the -right he is seen calmly kneeling on a lotus, flame-encircled, while -another man on the cliff above looks on in astonishment. In the left -bottom corner are seen three men pursued by different animals, and to -the right of them a barge-like boat sailing on the lake, with a fourth -man kneeling in prayer. The men throughout these scenes are shown in -Chinese secular costume such as is often seen in our Jātaka banners. - -While these figures clearly point to a Chinese model of the scenes, -the demonic deity in the centre of the foreground shows characteristic -features of truly Tibetan taste. His squat dark blue figure sits -sideways on a yellow horse, brandishing a scarlet club in his right -hand. His hair is a flaming mass streaming upwards; a man’s bleeding -head hangs from his saddle-cloth. It is impossible to mistake here a -conception of that monstrous type which Tibetan Buddhism under the -influence of Tantra doctrines absorbed from India and under that of its -own demon worship has always greatly cherished. - - - - -PLATE XXXII - -PAPER PICTURES OF A BODHISATTVA, SAINT, AND MONK - - -Of the pictures reproduced in this Plate (all on the scale of -three-fifths) the two on the sides bear Tibetan inscriptions and -thereby prove themselves as produced and deposited after the Tibetan -conquest of Tun-huang. But there is nothing essential to distinguish -their style from that of other of our paintings in which hieratic -figures are represented with close adherence to traditional treatment -derived from India. - -The paper painting on the left (Ch. 00377) shows a Bodhisattva of the -type above designated as ‘Indian’ seated on a yellow lotus, with legs -all but crossed and the right hand raised in the _vitarka-mudrā_. The -Tibetan inscription kindly read by Dr. Barnett[68] describes him as the -‘Lord of the upper region’, and as the Indian cosmic system places the -Sun and Moon in this ‘upper region’, the discs above the Bodhisattva, -with the emblem of the Sun god on the right and that of the Moon god -(now effaced) on the left, are fully accounted for. - -The Bodhisattva’s face bears a somewhat ferocious aspect; his flesh -is faintly coloured with pink. His garments are touched with pink, -crimson, and olive green, while the jewellery is left uncoloured. -The black hair is tied into a high topknot and descends in stylized -ringlets on the shoulders. The oval nimbus and vesica are both edged -with flames. - -The paper painting (Ch. 00376) on the right, which belongs to the -same series, is a more pleasing production. According to the Tibetan -inscription below the haloed figure represents Kālika, a disciple of -Śākyamuni and the fourth of the Great Apostles. He is seated on a mat, -cross-legged and wrapped in a red and buff mantle lined with olive -green. The right hand carries the mendicant’s bowl; the head is shaven. -The monk’s features are full of character and drawn with much decision. -On the right is stuck the beggar’s staff, with a bracket from which -hangs his wallet. - -Superior to these paintings in design and workmanship is the drawing on -paper (Ch. 00145) reproduced in the middle. It shows a monk seated on -a mat in meditation. His shaven head, with large, somewhat straight, -features, bears an expression of firmness and concentration admirably -rendered with a few fluent lines. Neither eyes nor nose and mouth bear -a Chinese look. And yet the whole drawing clearly bears the impress of -a Chinese artist’s brush. - -The monk wears an ample mantle, and below it an under-robe with -conventional cross bars marking the mendicant’s patched garb. In front -are deposited his shoes, behind to the left is placed a high stoppered -vase, while on a thorn-tree to the right are hung his rosary and -wallet. The drawing of the tree is unmistakably Chinese in character, -and the whole disposition of the little picture illustrates the mastery -of spacing inherent in Chinese artistic feeling. For once we are taken -away from the sphere of hieratic conventions and brought into touch -with life as the eyes of the artist, or those of an earlier master, saw -it. - - - - -PLATE XXXIII - -PAPER PICTURES OF HERMIT AND HORSE-DRAGON - - -The two pictures on paper reproduced in this Plate on the scale of -three-fourths claim interest by their subjects as well as by their -artistic merit. The one on the right (Ch. 00380) presents an aged -hermit with a tiger walking by his side. The hermit is represented with -a face extremely wrinkled, shaggy eyebrows, deeply sunken eyes and -cheeks. With his right hand he leans upon a rough staff, in his left he -carries a stick ending in a Vajra and fly-whisk. He wears sandals, long -spotted trousers, and two tunics, the shorter of which is spotted, -has long sleeves, and reaches below the waist. His head is covered by a -mushroom hat put above a skull-cap and tied under the chin by scarlet -bands. On his back is seen a bundle of manuscript rolls tied in a cover -and slung by a chain to a thorny branch. The attachment of this branch -to the hermit’s person is not clear; but in another picture of the same -subject a pole supporting the bundle is shown as carried on his right -shoulder. - -On the further side of the old man there advances a tiger of -disproportionately small size. Both figures stand on a cloud of dark -red fire, and above them in the left top corner appears a small seated -Buddha, also on a cloud. The paint used for the cloud scrolls has -destroyed much of the paper, and of the figure too, where it was used -on it. The only other colours are grey and a light pink, distributed -over the clothing and figure, while the flesh is left uncoloured. The -drawing of the hermit’s figure is done with masterly skill, especially -in the features, to which impressive strength is imparted by a few -lines combining firmness with great freedom. - -Very different in character is the picture on the left (Ch. 00150), one -of the very few non-Buddhistic paintings from the ‘Thousand Buddhas’. -Its subject has not been determined with certainty, but may possibly be -related to the story of how the Emperor Fu-hsi, the legendary founder -of the Chinese polity, first received the system of written characters -from a ‘horse-dragon’.[69] - -Before the kneeling monster we see standing a bearded man, with smiling -face, who holds tablet and brush in his hands in the act of writing. -The back of his figure has been cut off when adapting the picture as a -mount for the two woodcuts under which it was discovered. He is clad -in a white-sleeved under-robe, long pink mantle, and a stiff black -head-dress with a square ornament stuck in front. A branching column of -flame rises from the tablet. Others stream from the dragon’s head and -body. - -The dragon is a composite monster. The head is of a conventional -lion-like type, with voluminous upstanding mane, out of which rise -three sharp-pointed objects resembling mountain peaks. The body -suggests that of a scaly snake, with wings of curling feathers attached -and with the forelegs of a bull (?). In the foreground lies a string of -square-holed Chinese coins, an emblem the meaning of which at present -escapes us. The whole is drawn with much vigour and, in spite of the -fearsome appearance of the monster, with a distinct touch of humour. - - - - -PLATES XXXIV, XXXV - -EMBROIDERY PICTURE OF ŚĀKYAMUNI ON THE VULTURE PEAK - - -The large hanging in silk embroidery (Ch. 00260), to which the small -scale, one-tenth, and certain photographic difficulties do not allow -full justice to be done in this reproduction, is by its size—the -perfectly preserved central figure is close upon life-size—by its -remarkably skilful execution, and by its fine colours one of the most -impressive of the pictorial remains recovered. That it represents -Śākyamuni on Gṛdhrakūṭa, the ‘Vulture Peak’, famous in Buddhist legend -and situated near Rājagṛha, the present Rājgir, is conclusively proved -by the rocks behind the Buddha’s figure in the centre. - -This fine, if hieratically stiff, figure, as I have already had -occasion to point out,[70] when discussing the statues shown by the -pictures in Plates XIII and XIV, in every detail of its pose and dress -reproduces a specific type, fixed originally by some Indian sculptural -representation.[71] But if its iconographic characteristics are -determined by long hieratic tradition, it is different with the setting -it has found here. In the whole composition of our picture is -revealed the individual touch of a master, and the skill and taste of -the craftsmen who reproduced his work make it easy for us to recognize -the merits of the lost original. - -The design in our hanging has been worked solid throughout in -satin-stitch. The embroidery has been executed with admirable care -and the silks used have remained clean and glossy.[72] The ground is -a coarse natural-coloured linen faced with light buff silk. This has -mostly worn off in the interspaces of figures. Two of the figures, -too, representing monkish disciples, having fallen along the line -of folding, while the hanging was stored away and crushed for long -centuries, have perished except for remains of the heads. Otherwise -the picture is practically complete, and neither the effect of the -whole nor that of characteristic features of treatment is impaired. - -Śākyamuni stands facing the spectator with his feet on a lotus. -His right arm hangs stiffly by his side with the fingers stretched -downwards and the palm turned to the side. The arm wrapped in the -folds of the glowing red mantle holds an ‘ear’ of it gathered at the -breast. The mantle closely draped about the body falls in a point to -below the knees and allows a light green under-robe to be seen thence -to the ankles. The yellow lining of the mantle shows in a rippling -edge along the outline of the left arm and down the body, a device -which is familiar already to Gandhāra sculpture. The right shoulder and -arm are left bare and are painted a deep golden yellow. The Buddha’s -face is shown in light buff and, curiously enough, the right forearm -as well. This distinction is emphasized in the case of the latter by -the work being executed in thin rows of chain-stitch and is obviously -intentional. But its iconographic significance is for the present -uncertain.[73] Behind the head, with its narrow, slightly slanting -eyes and hair of very dark indigo, appears a nimbus in plain rings of -variegated colours. A narrow halo shaped like a lotus petal, similarly -coloured, surrounds the whole figure, and behind this again appears a -border of rocks emblematic of the Vulture Peak. - -By the side of the Buddha stand pairs of disciples and Bodhisattvas, -both on lotuses. The latter, who may represent Avalokiteśvara and -Mahāsthāma, turn three-fourths towards him; the one on the left with -hands in adoration, the other with both arms slightly advanced from the -elbows and the right hand held as if in the _vara-mudrā_. The dress and -adornments of these figures conform to those of Bodhisattvas of the -‘Indian’ type as already noticed, but are drawn more trimly. A certain -stiffness and simplicity in their design suggest close affinity to -Indian models. But in the Bodhisattvas’ faces we notice the influence -of Chinese style, as also in the ornamental borders of their dress. - -Of the disciples’ figures in the background enough remains to show that -their heads were shaven and haloed and their dress that of monks, with -mantles barred with cross-stripes. The face of the one on the Buddha’s -left was lined and frowning, which suggests identity with Kāśyapa; the -other with face plump and benign may represent Śāriputra. By the side -of the small and somewhat stiff canopy above Śākyamuni’s head are seen -two graceful Apsaras floating down with outspread arms, borne up by -fine cloud scrolls and their billowing stoles. Their resemblance to the -Apsaras of Plates X and XI is striking. - -Below the Buddha’s feet there kneels on either side a small lion of -conventional type with one forepaw lifted. Below them again is a panel -for a dedication, which, however, has never been worked in. Of the -narrow cartouches placed by each line of donors, only the two foremost -on the men’s side bear Chinese characters, now mostly illegible. - -The groups of donors on either side of the panel, disposed in strict -symmetry, present special interest by their life-like treatment and by -their costumes. This is easily seen from Plate XXXV, which reproduces -the group of the ladies on the more adequate scale of two-fifths. -Arrayed in three lines and kneeling on mats, they all wear a very plain -type of dress. It comprises high-waisted skirts of brown, green, or -blue, bodices with long close-fitting sleeves, and small shawl-like -stoles. They have no jewels, and their hair is done in a small topknot -without any ornaments. By the side of the hindmost two ladies kneels -a child, and at the back stands a young female attendant in a long -plain gown. On the men’s side there kneels foremost a shaven monk in a -brown cloak, behind him three men dressed in long belted coats of light -greenish-blue and wearing peaked and tailed caps of dark brown or blue. -A young attendant with bare head holding a staff stands at the back. - -A glance at the lay donors is enough to prove that the dress in each -case is in closest agreement with that worn by the donors in the two -paintings of Amitābha’s Paradise in Plates X and XI.[74] For these a -series of concordant indications postulates a date distinctly older -than that of our earliest dated picture of A.D. 864.[75] A variety of -considerations lead me to believe that the date of those two paintings -and of our hanging as well cannot be later than the eighth century, but -may possibly be even somewhat earlier.[76] - -In accessory details, too, a very close contact reveals itself between -the embroidery picture and the paintings shown in Plates X and XI, -proving that they belong to the same period and were probably produced -under the influence of the same pictorial school. In all three we see -the identical pair of graceful Apsaras figures, in an attitude not -found elsewhere among our paintings. In the dress of the Bodhisattvas -we may note as a common peculiarity the same brocade-like decoration -of the edges of the lower robes. Peculiar, too, to the three pictures -are the plain sage-green lotus seed-beds underfoot or as seats of the -divine figures. Whatever the exact date of production may be, there -seems little reason to doubt that the hanging must rank with the oldest -of our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings. The needlework is of the finest, as -Plate XXXV shows with particular clearness, and to this the picture -owes the striking freshness of its colour effects and the excellent -preservation of all parts that remain. - - - - -PLATE XXXVI - -BHAIṢAJYAGURU’S PARADISE - - -The subject of the silk painting (Ch. liii. 002) reproduced here on -the scale of one-sixth is a Buddhist Heaven, and by evidence of the -side-scenes preserved on the right, which are identical with those of -the larger painting seen in Plates I and II, it can be recognized with -M. Petrucci as another representation of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise. The -reproduction in our Plate is too small to permit of close study of -details. But it suffices to convey an adequate impression of the style -and general arrangement which correspond closely to those of the larger -painting fully discussed above. For these reasons my comments may be -brief here. - -Apart from the top and bottom portions and the side-scenes on the left, -which are lost, our painting is in excellent condition and retains -its colours in particular freshness. The colouring is rendered very -distinctive by the large proportion of black and blue. The drawing is -refined and the work well finished throughout. - -In the centre we see the figure of the presiding Buddha in the same -pose and dress as seen in Plate II; his flesh here, too, is yellow -shaded with pink. The two enthroned Bodhisattvas on either side carry -here purple or scarlet lotus buds in the hands nearest him and hold -the others in the _vitarka-mudrā_. Immediately behind the central -Buddha are seen four haloed monkish disciples with close-cropped black -hair. The rest of the company on the main terrace is made up of twelve -smaller Bodhisattvas seated with their hands in mystic poses or holding -lotus buds, and two blue-haired nymphs kneeling in very graceful -attitudes by the altar and holding offerings. - -In front of the altar is seen a richly dressed dancer performing on -a projecting terrace, attended by six musicians who are here of a -masculine type with long hair like that of Bodhisattvas. Below at the -sides remain in part the figures of two subsidiary Buddhas, probably -seated, with attendant Bodhisattvas and elaborate canopies, like those -shown above the enthroned figures in the centre. On the gangway leading -down from the dancer’s terrace stands a peacock, and below it appear -the heads of six of the Kings, probably twelve altogether, who were -represented in the centre. - -The lake of the Paradise is seen here only on the top of the picture -about the piles supporting celestial mansions. These consist of a -high-roofed central pavilion and two open hexagonal shrines with pagoda -roofs. These are occupied each by a small seated Buddha and are joined -to the central building by curving gangways which slope down steeply to -the lake. - -The marginal scenes on the right are drawn as always in purely Chinese -style and correspond to those in Plate I, the connexion of which with -the legend of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s last incarnation has already been touched -upon.[77] - - - - -PLATE XXXVII - -BANNERS WITH SCENES FROM THE BUDDHA LEGEND - - -In my preliminary comments on Plate XII I have already had occasion to -discuss briefly the general characteristics of that interesting series -of silk banners which illustrate the legendary life of Gautama Buddha -and scenes closely connected with it.[78] This makes it possible to -restrict my remarks on the paintings reproduced in our Plate mainly to -the interpretation of the incidents and objects they are intended to -represent. - -The two banners (Ch. lv. 009–10) shown on the sides of the Plate on the -scale of three-eighths form a pair exhibiting common characteristics -in all externals and undoubtedly painted by the same hand.[79] But -for the loss of all accessories and some damage to the top and bottom -scenes they are both excellently preserved. The drawing is notable for -its fine yet vigorous brush-strokes, the colours strong and clear. The -painter’s skill displays itself particularly in the landscapes of the -background, which convey a sense of great width and distance. Like -the figures, architecture, spacing, &c., of these banners they are -thoroughly Chinese in their treatment. - -In the banner on the left (Ch. lv. 009) the topmost scene shows the -meeting of Gautama Buddha in a former birth with Dīpaṅkara Buddha. In -open country with mountains in the background the Buddha advances to -the right followed by two attendants in dress of the Bodhisattva type. -With his left hand he touches the head of the boy, the future Gautama, -who bows down before him with hands joined in adoration. The boy wears -a short deer-skin tunic and is bare-headed. The Buddha’s right hand is -lifted in the gesture of ‘Protection’. - -The scene next below, chronologically out of order, represents the -first three of Prince Gautama’s famous ‘Four Encounters’ condensed, -as it were, into one. It shows with much realism the sick man on -his bedstead supported by an attendant, the old man being led by a -boy, and the putrified corpse. The first two of these ‘Encounters’ -we have already met with in Plate XII. From the corpse there rises a -cloud carrying a small kneeling figure in Chinese secular dress with -belted coat and tailed cap. The figure is turned towards a palace-like -structure raised on clouds and representing an abode of the blessed. - -That the figure of Gautama is absent from the scene may seem strange. -But the omission of the ascetic’s figure is less surprising. In -the fourth ‘Encounter’ of the legend he symbolizes the way of -salvation, and for Chinese eyes this may seem appropriately replaced -by the vision of a heavenly abode. The large paintings show us how -completely the hope of Sukhāvatī, the Buddhist Paradise, has effaced -the desire of Nirvāṇa in the minds of pious Chinese. - -The succeeding scene represents the Bodhisattva’s miraculous Descent or -Conception as revealed to his mother in her dream. In a court of the -palace of Kapilavastu Queen Māyā is shown lying asleep upon a couch -placed within a projecting apartment. Its green rush-blinds are partly -rolled up. The infant Bodhisattva is seen kneeling with hands clasped -on the back of the traditional white elephant, which gallops towards -Māyā; two attendants kneel beside him. The whole group, enclosed within -a circular space, is carried on a cloud and thus clearly marked as a -vision.[80] - -The bottom scene, which, unlike the rest, is not to be found among the -very numerous representations of Gautama’s Nativity in Graeco-Buddhist -sculpture, seems to show Māyā’s return to her father’s palace after -the dream.[81] Māyā, distinguished by a golden ornament on her head, -is seen walking with a woman attendant from the palace of Kapilavastu. -Both wear wide-sleeved over-jackets in which they muffle their hands. - -In the companion banner (Ch. lv. 0010) on the right we see scenes which -continue the story of the Nativity in chronological sequence. The -top scene shows Māyā asleep in the same pavilion and pose as in the -‘Descent’ scene, but with three figures kneeling outside to the left -on a cloud and in adoring attitude. The interpretation is uncertain. -The succeeding scene, though also absent in the Gandhāra relievos, is -quite clear in its character. It presents to us Māyā on her way to the -Lumbinī garden. She is seated in a gaily coloured palanquin carried by -four bearers, whose rapid movement is excellently expressed. Two more -men carry trestles on which to set the palanquin down. - -Immediately below we see the miraculous birth of Gautama Bodhisattva, a -familiar subject in Buddhist art of all times and regions. The child’s -issue from the mother’s right flank and her pose grasping a bough are -in close conformity with Indian tradition. But the ingenious use made -of Māyā’s wide-hanging sleeve discreetly to screen the act of birth -seems characteristically Chinese. The infant is springing downwards -where a woman attendant kneels to receive him on a cloth. A white lotus -appears where he is about to fall. - -The ‘Nativity’ series is completed in the lowest panel by the famous -incident of the Seven Steps, with lotuses springing up beneath where -the Infant Bodhisattva has set his feet. To the right stands Māyā, with -her hands muffled in her long sleeves and her head turned back towards -the young child. To the left of him stands two women attendants with -bowed heads and hands raised in wonder or adoration. Enough of the -landscape remains to show that the scene was laid in the same grounds -as the preceding two. The Chinese inscription in the cartouche confirms -the interpretation. - -The scene of the Seven Steps appears also at the bottom of the silk -banner (Ch. 00114), which is shown in the middle of the Plate reduced -to one-third of its size. It is painted in a more ornate style than -the other two, but lacks their sense of life and space. Here the child -steps forward with an air of difficulty but determination, the left arm -stretched upwards. Four ladies bend over him in surprise and adoration. -Behind to the left appear a fifth lady and a man wearing a belted -yellow robe and tailed cap. Their identity is doubtful. - -The scene is preceded by the Bath of the Infant. The newly born -Bodhisattva stands in a golden laver, raised on a stand between two -palm-trees. Their tops are lost in a curling mass of black cloud, and -in this there appear, ranged archwise, the heads of the ‘nine Dragons -of the air’, gazing down on the infant with open mouths. A well-known -Buddhist tradition makes Nāgas or divinities of the thunder-clouds, -i.e. ‘Dragons’ in Chinese eyes, perform the laving of the New-born. -The descent of the water, which their mouths are supposed to pour -forth, is not actually represented here. Five women stand round, one -holding a towel. - -The upper portion of the banner shows the Seven Jewels (_sapta -ratnāni_) associated in tradition with Gautama. According to ancient -Indian notions, the Seven Jewels, i.e. the best specimens of each -kind that appear during the reign, appertain to every _Cakravartin_, -or Universal Monarch, from his birth, and there is good reason to -believe that the Predestined One was credited with this character and -its attributes from an early date. We see them represented here in -two groups: in the upper one the wheel, emblem of sovereign rule; the -strong-box, symbolizing the jewel or treasure; the general and the -wife; in the lower one the minister, the elephant, and the horse. They -all stand on the curling white clouds, stylized in a peculiar fashion -and edged in red, blue, and green. Flaming jewels adorn the wheel, the -horse, and the elephant. - -The general, clad in a coat of scale-armour and resembling a Lokapāla, -holds with his right hand a narrow oblong shield and in his left a -pennoned lance. The wife, Yaśodharā, is attired in a trailing skirt -and wide jacket with sleeves reaching to the ground. Her hair, as -usual with royal ladies represented in the Life scenes, is bound with -a gold fillet and done in two high loops rising up from the crown. The -minister’s dress is like hers, with a long terra-cotta band tied in a -bow hanging down the back. In the white horse, with red mane and tail, -we recognize, of course, Kaṇṭhaka, the Bodhisattva’s cherished steed, a -favourite figure in the Life scenes of our banners. - - - - -PLATE XXXVIII - -BUDDHA TEJAḤPRABHA AND AVALOKITEŚVARA AS GUIDE OF SOULS - - -The two silk paintings reproduced in this Plate on the scale of -one-fourth, and originally mounted as Kakemonos, present special -interest on account of their subjects and treatment. The one above (Ch. -liv. 007), according to the Chinese inscription in the left-hand top -corner, dates from A. D. 897, and yet is painted in a style which, as -pointed out by Mr. Binyon,[82] looks distinctly earlier. It represents -the Buddha Tejaḥprabha (‘radiant with light’) on a chariot which two -bullocks draw, and surrounded by the genii of the five planets whom -the inscription mentions. The same subject appears to be treated also -in one of the finest of the wall-paintings of the Thousand Buddhas’ -Caves.[83] - -The Buddha is shown seated on a blue lotus which occupies the top of -an open two-wheeled car. A draped altar placed in front of him across -its shafts is decked with gilded vessels. Two elaborately decorated -flags float behind the car, hung from slanting poles. The Buddha, whose -figure alone in the picture shows distinct Indian convention, raises -his right hand in the _abhaya-mudrā_. His flesh was originally gilded -and his hair is shown blue. Rays of different colours radiate from his -person, replacing a halo. Overhead a rich canopy waving in his advance -symbolizes rapid movement. By the side of the trotting bullock strides -a dark-skinned attendant, recalling the ‘Indian’ leaders of Mañjuśrī’s -and Samantabhadra’s mounts, but carrying a mendicant’s staff instead -of a goad and playing a sistrum with his left hand, as clearly seen -in the original. - -Of the genii represented two stand beyond the car dressed in Chinese -official costume with trailing under-robes and wide-sleeved jackets. -The one on the left carries a dish of flowers, and within the crown -of his black head-dress appears a white boar’s head. The other on -the right holds a brush and a tablet in his hands; between two loops -of his elaborate head-dress there rises the figure of a monkey. A -third, dressed all in white, plays upon a large lute with a very long -plectrum;[84] his head is surmounted by a phoenix. The figure of the -fourth divinity is of demonic type, four-armed, with fiery hair and -grotesque features. The right hands carry sword and arrow, and the left -hands a trident and bow; above his crown is seen a horse’s head. - -With the comparative stiffness of the figures contrasts the freedom of -the whirling mass of cloud upon which the whole group is shown sweeping -past as in a vision. The colouring is strong, yet harmonious, and the -workmanship careful. - -The picture below (Ch. lvii. 002), which is in excellent preservation -and still retained its original Kakemono mounting of brown silk, is a -noble composition strikingly different in style and entirely Chinese -in feeling. It shows the figure of Avalokiteśvara, as Guide of Souls, -drawn with much dignity and grace, and behind him an attendant soul -represented on a smaller scale in the guise of a Chinese woman. - -The figure of Avalokiteśvara, who turns head and gaze backwards over -the left shoulder, is in physical features and dress a fine specimen -of the ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattva type already repeatedly noticed. In his -right hand he carries a smoking censer, in his left a curving lotus -spray and a waving white banner with triangular top and streamers, the -whole exactly alike in shape to the silk banners brought away from -Ch‘ien-fo-tung. In the dress of soft and harmoniously blended colours -the elaborate rosettes of the borders may be noted as manifestly -reproducing contemporary textile patterns. - -The figure of the woman behind, with her head bowed and hands muffled -in wide sleeves at her breast, well expresses devout reliance on the -divine guide. Her attire, by the brilliant colouring of the robes -and the absence of the elaborate metal head-dress, stands out in -marked contrast to the costume familiar from the donor figures of our -tenth-century paintings. The purple cloud which carries both figures -sweeps up behind them to the top of the picture. There a Chinese -mansion resting on conventional cloud scrolls represents the Paradise -to which Avalokiteśvara leads his worshippers. - -By the evidence of the dress and coiffure of the Bodhisattva’s -attendant, which seem to belong to post-T‘ang times, the painting -may be classed amongst the latest of the deposit. But what for our -appreciation of this beautiful picture must matter far more than this -chronological difference is the fact that the style of its design -and its refined execution give full and exclusive expression just to -those qualities which are characteristic of Chinese pictorial art at -its best. As Mr. Binyon, when comparing this picture with another -presentation of Avalokiteśvara, the one reproduced in our Plate XLII, -has pregnantly put it, ‘we have [here] a sense of suavity and flexile -movement. Flowers seem really to be floating down the air, and the -cloud on which the votaress follows the Bodhisattva coils up with a -wavering motion. We feel the presence of the Chinese genius, with its -instinct for living movement, and its love of sinuous line, and its -reticent spacing.’[85] - - - - -PLATE XXXIX - -KṢITIGARBHA WITH THE INFERNAL JUDGES - - -The small picture (Ch. lxi. 009) reproduced here on half-scale -is remarkable for its peculiar colour scheme and for its archaic -appearance in composition and drawing. It represents Kṣitigarbha in his -combined character as Patron of Travellers, Regent of Hell, and Lord -of the Six Worlds of Desire. We have already above, when dealing with -the paintings reproduced in Plate XXV, had occasion to indicate briefly -the several functions which have made this Bodhisattva one of the most -popular figures in the Buddhist Pantheon of the Far East.[86] Our -observations here may, therefore, be restricted to particular features -of his presentation. - -The picture is painted on indigo blue silk which, though much broken, -especially on the edges, yet retains the strong colours of the painting -in great freshness. Kṣitigarbha in stiff hieratic attitude is -seated on a red Padmāsana with his left leg resting on a small lotus -and the right bent across. With his right hand raised he grasps the -mendicant’s staff, while the left, palm uppermost, is held outwards -empty. Over an under-robe of yellow with vermilion border he carries a -maroon-bordered mantle of perished colour, while a traveller’s shawl of -maroon covers head and shoulders. Gilded diamonds sprinkle shawl and -borders. The face and breast are gilded, but the exposed portions of -the limbs are painted light red. - -From the large circular halo in blue, vermilion, and white spread out -on either side three waving rays in the same colours, intended to bear -figures representative of the Six Worlds (_gati_) as seen in Plate XXV; -but these have not been drawn in. On either side of the Bodhisattva -stands an amply robed figure with hands in adoration. From the fashion -in which the hair of the figure on the left is done in two knobs it can -be recognized as a man, while the hair descending in a roll on the neck -of the other figure marks it as a woman. Whether the donor and his wife -are intended is not certain. - -In slanting rows descending from Kṣitigarbha’s lotus seat the Ten -Infernal Judges are shown sitting on their heels, five on each -side. They wear magisterial robes with head-dresses of varying -shapes and carry narrow rolls of paper in their hands. Their faces, -drawn in three-quarter profile, show some endeavour at individual -characterization. Behind them on the right stand two men, with belted -coats and wide-brimmed hats, holding a small and a very large roll of -paper respectively. A third man, in a corresponding position on the -left, carries what appears to be a writing-brush. - -In the foreground we see again, crouching, a white lion, of very -stylized form. A man’s figure, probably representing the soul of a -departed, stands in adoring pose at its head, while on the opposite -side another person with grotesque features raises his hands -imploringly towards Kṣitigarbha. Both as regards its archaic style of -design and its peculiar hard colouring the picture has no pendant in -our collection. But, as Mr. Binyon has justly observed, it remains -at present uncertain ‘whether the primitive features may not be due -to provincial style preserving old tradition rather than to actual -antiquity’.[87] - - - - -PLATE XL - -KṢITIGARBHA AS PATRON OF TRAVELLERS - -The painting (Ch. 0084) reproduced here on half the scale of the -original also represents Kṣitigarbha, like the one in the preceding -Plate, but shows striking differences of style in composition, drawing, -and colouring. Simplicity of design, delicacy of line, and harmonious -quiet of colours all combine to give to this picture a singular charm -of its own, admirably expressive of serene beatitude. It is painted -on pale green silk and, except where it is broken at the bottom, well -preserved along with its border of greenish-blue silk. - -We see the Bodhisattva seated cross-legged on an open lotus with -gracefully pointed red petals. His face, round and youthful, bears an -expression of benignant mildness. The eyes, long and straight, are cast -slightly downwards. The right hand holds the mendicant’s staff and the -left, resting on the knee, a flaming ball of crystal. He is dressed in -a yellowish under-robe, apparently lined with pink, and a light green -mantle which is barred and bordered with black. Head and shoulders are -draped in a shawl of Indian red ornamented with a faint spot pattern in -yellow. - -The nimbus and circular halo are ornamented with elaborate ray and -floral patterns in red and green and edged with flames. A broad band -of white surrounds the whole figure and lifts it out of the green -background. In the corners of this are seen floating sprays with red -flowers. - -Below in the left corner there remains the upper portion of the -kneeling donor, recognizable as a boy by his features and the way in -which his hair is dressed. In his joined hands he holds a lotus flower. -His loose-sleeved red coat is sprinkled with a circular flower pattern -in yellow and black. Red flowers on tall stems rise on either side -of him. The cartouche to the right is left blank, and so, too, the -remainder of the space probably intended for a dedicatory inscription. - - - - -PLATE XLI - -AVALOKITEŚVARA AND TWO OTHER BODHISATTVAS - - -The three pictures which this Plate shows, reduced to one-half of the -original in the case of the two on the sides and to three-eighths -in that of the middle one, are characteristic specimens of those -Bodhisattva banners on silk which are very frequent among our Tun-huang -paintings.[88] - -The banner in the middle (Ch. i. 0013) is completely preserved with its -head-piece, streamers, and other accessories, and its painted portion, -which alone is reproduced here, retains its colours in excellent -condition. Its subject is easily recognized as Avalokiteśvara by the -flask and the red lotus bud which he carries in his right and left hand -respectively. The Bodhisattva’s figure is shown sweeping to the left -with trailing draperies and the head slightly bent, gazing down at the -lotus. - -In features, dress, and general style of work it shares the -characteristics of the ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattva type repeatedly referred -to before; but the hollowed back gives a particularly graceful curve to -the whole figure. Its special slimness and the wide semicircular line -showing the setting of the eyes also deserve notice. The modelling of -the flesh by pink shading is well marked. The parted mouth, showing -white teeth, is unusual. The colours are very bright, and as the paint -is applied very thickly, the opaque white of the girdle and streamers -contrasts rather harshly with the strong blue of the stole. - -The silk banner on the left (Ch. xxiv. 006) is also in excellent -preservation, except for the lost accessories. The Bodhisattva who -stands on a bluish-green lotus with hands in adoration remains in the -absence of any particular indications unidentified. Figure, attire, and -adornment conform to the ‘Chinese’ type of Bodhisattvas; but the skirt -gathered up in front and showing bare legs is not usual. The colour -scheme is rich but harmonious and the workmanship in general faultless, -though confined to the familiar conventions of the type. - -It is different with the fine Bodhisattva of the banner (Ch. i. 002) -seen on the right. His figure is one of the most striking represented -in the banners, remarkable for the skilful pose combining dignity -with rapid movement, for the graceful sinuous lines of body and -garments, and the pronounced and distinctly non-Chinese features of -the Bodhisattva’s face. In view of a figure so distinctive and well -defined, it is a matter of regret that there is no clue at present to -its iconographic identity. - -The Bodhisattva is seen walking away to the left, presenting a -three-fourths back-view, with the head in profile over the left -shoulder. With the left hand he gathers up the folds of the gracefully -coiling stole, while the right, bent back at shoulder level, carries -a pink lotus bud on the palm. The erect carriage of the body and its -movement with the weight thrown forward on the right foot are admirably -expressed. The canopy overhead, with its freely swinging tassels and -bells, emphasizes the rapid movement which is suggested also by the -feet being placed on two separate lotuses. The nimbus shown merely in -outline as an elliptical black ring allows the back of the head and -coiffure to be seen through. - -The falling loops of the stole and the drapery tied in a knot at the -neck hide details of the upper portion of the dress. But below it the -waving folds of the glowing scarlet skirt are very skilfully rendered. -A close-fitting cap of red, set with gold ornaments, covers the -head, and from it projects at the back a large richly decorated gold -ring apparently holding a tress of hair. - -Special interest attaches to the Bodhisattva’s face. Distinctly -non-Chinese features are the long and prominent nose, the marked -depression below the low sloping forehead, the long and straight eye. -The head is equally far removed from the classical type which Gandhāra -art propagated. A curious scornful expression is imparted to the face -by the eyelid drawn in a straight line across the half-closed eye -and by the pouting mouth. Its strangely foreign look remains doubly -puzzling where everything else bears so clearly the impress of Chinese -workmanship. - - - - -PLATE XLII - -AVALOKITEŚVARA, THOUSAND-ARMED, WITH ATTENDANT DIVINITIES - - -The large silk painting (Ch. xxviii. 006) reproduced in this Plate -on the much-reduced scale of one-sixth is a fine illustration of -that intermingling of art influences for which Tun-huang provided -a classical meeting-place. It shows Avalokiteśvara with a thousand -arms seated within a central disc, and outside this some attendant -divinities symmetrically grouped. The scheme is thus closely akin to -that of the Avalokiteśvara ‘Maṇḍala’ seen in Plate XVII and fully -discussed above. But the number of divinities is much smaller and the -composition in general less elaborate, though there is abundance of -ornament in the details. The painting is complete except along its -bottom, and its colours are remarkably fresh. The rich painted border -of flower sprays which encloses the whole suggests the effect of -naturalistic embroidery such as is found among the textile relics from -the Thousand Buddhas.[89] - -Avalokiteśvara’s figure single-headed appears here too, seated within -a large circular halo formed by his ‘thousand arms’, each showing the -symbolic open eye on the palm. Against this background are numerous -inner arms, all except four in the centre line of the figure carrying -a multiplicity of sacred emblems well known to Buddhist iconography, -such as the discs of the Sun and Moon, trident, Vajra, &c. Owing to -the excellent finish, the details of all these, as well as of the rich -ornaments which deck the Bodhisattva’s body and head, can be made out -clearly. In front of the high tiara appears the figure of Amitābha, his -Dhyāni-buddha. The Bodhisattva’s flesh is shown dull yellow shaded with -pink. - -The nimbus is made up of a superimposed series of pointed rays -brilliantly coloured. It is flame-edged like the border of the -circular halo behind. The variegated petals of the lotus seat have -also brilliant colours; gilding is used for their outlines as well as -for all jewellery, the vessels on the altar in front, and the folds of -Avalokiteśvara’s robes. - -The background is divided into an upper and lower half. The upper, -painted a thin light blue (now almost gone) and representing the sky, -is sprinkled with small gilded stars and falling blossoms. In its top -corners, to the right and left respectively, are shown the Bodhisattvas -of the Sun and the Moon seated on their respective ‘Vāhanas’ of horses -and geese, within red and white discs which piled-up clouds carry. - -Against the lower half of the background, painted a deep blue and -representing a tiled floor, are the haloed figures of the ‘Sage’ and -the ‘Nymph of Virtue’, kneeling on lotuses to the right and left -respectively. The former, an emaciated old man of ascetic type, yet -wearing rich apparel, raises his right hand in salutation, and the -‘Nymph’ carries her dish of flowers, as also in Plate XVII. In the tank -below we see again two armour-clad Nāgas holding up Avalokiteśvara’s -disc. In front of the tank is an altar decked with draperies of -exquisitely rendered floral designs and carrying gilt sacrificial -vessels. - -In the bottom corners stride in violent movement many-armed demonic -Vajrapāṇis in red and blue against a vividly painted background of -flames. With their fiery hair and grotesque features, and by the -Tantric emblems they brandish in their hands, they show closest kinship -to the monstrous divinities of Tantric origin in which the imagery of -Tibetan Buddhism delights. Below them there kneel in adoration two -small figures, one with an elephant’s head on the left and another with -that of a rat on the right. In these we may, perhaps, recognize Gaṇeśa, -familiar to Hindu mythology, and the ‘king of the sacred rats famous in -Khotan local worship.[90] - -In these figures and in a variety of other details to which Mr. Binyon -has very justly called attention,[91] we have striking indications -of that mixed style of painting to which Indian prototypes, Iranian -and Central-Asian influences, and Tibetan taste have all contributed -elements, albeit in very disparate proportions. Yet it does not -need the Chinese inscriptions, found in a few of the cartouches and -containing epithets of the respective divinities, to convince us that -we owe this highly finished painting to Chinese workmanship. This -has left its marks clearly in a mass of exquisite detail and in that -perfectly mastered technique which accounts for the strong decorative -effect of the whole. - - - - -PLATE XLIII - -AVALOKITEŚVARA WITH LOKAPĀLA ATTENDANTS - - -The silk painting reproduced here with a reduction to one-third of the -original (Ch. 00121) is a particularly fine example of Indian tradition -preserved in Chinese Buddhist painting. The picture, damaged at the -top and still more at its bottom, shows us Avalokiteśvara seated on -a flat Padmāsana in the pose of ‘royal ease’. The shapely right hand -hangs open over the raised right knee, while the left hand, now lost, -evidently rested on the other knee and held the long spray of purple -lotus which rises beside the head. - -The figure of the Bodhisattva is presented in accordance with Indian -iconographic canons. But the ease and distinction of the drawing, -which the simplicity of the figure and the scarcity of colour make -all the more noticeable, betoken the Chinese artist’s brush. The -slender-waisted body leans towards the left shoulder; the limbs are -long and slim; the head erect. The face is young and clean-shaven -with an expression of serenity in the downcast slightly oblique eyes -and the finely curved lips. The hair rises in a high cone above -the three-leaved tiara, the front of which shows Avalokiteśvara’s -Dhyāni-buddha, Amitābha. The flesh is left uncoloured. - -The dress is confined to a short crimson laṅgōṭī wrapped about the -loins, a thin transparent skirt hanging about the legs, and a narrow -scarf entwined on the breast. The jewellery is of the type usual in -‘Indian’ Bodhisattvas, but plain. The elliptical nimbus and circular -halo behind the figure are painted in pale blue and green. In the -background are shown feathery floral sprays of a type common in printed -silk fabrics from the Ch‘ien-fo-tung hoard. - -In the top corners appear the small figures of two Lokapālas in mail -armour, Vaiśravaṇa on the right and Virūpākṣa on the left, both seated -on rocks. Corresponding figures of the other two Guardians of the -Regions, no doubt, occupied the lost bottom corners. - - - - -PLATE XLIV - -FRAGMENT OF STANDING AVALOKITEŚVARA - -This Plate shows the remaining upper portion of a large silk painting -(Ch. 00451, scale one-third) which represented Avalokiteśvara standing -without attendants. Considerably broken as the painting is and injured -in its surface, we recognize in it a fine pendant to the Avalokiteśvara -picture reproduced in Plate XXI. Here, too, we see a figure of the -conventional ‘Indian’ Bodhisattva type imbued with that grace and -refined quality which Chinese mastery of fluid line and reposeful -design is specially able to impart. - -The physical type and the pose of the body, with its inclination to -the left shoulder, closely correspond to those seen in Plate XXI. But -here this line is counterbalanced by the pose of the head, which leans -gently over the right shoulder. The eyes are turned back to the left -proper and look down with an expression of mildness and compassion. -They are almost straight, and the recurving line added to the eyelids -is here absent. Of the willow spray in the right hand only a few faint -indications remain. - -The dress, jewellery, and colouring agree closely with those displayed -by the figure in Plate XXI. But more remains here of the white shaded -with pink which is used for the colouring of the body. The nimbus -is made up of plain circular rings of dark olive, red, and white. -The Chinese inscription of the cartouche to the right still awaits -interpretation. - - - - -PLATE XLV - -VAIŚRAVAṆA CROSSING THE OCEAN - - -The small Kakemono-shaped picture on silk (Ch. 0018) which this Plate -shows with a reduction to two-thirds of its size is one of the most -finished of our Tun-huang paintings. It presents Vaiśravaṇa, the -Guardian-king of the North, as he advances on a cloud across the -heaving sea, with an imposing suite of attendants, some human, some -demonic, but all of them in striking attires. The painting was found -in excellent preservation, still retaining its border of purple silk -(omitted in the reproduction), and thus it is fortunately possible -to appreciate in all details the high artistic merit of a work which -clearly is from the brush of a master. - -When dealing above with another presentation of Vaiśravaṇa’s Progress, -the painting shown by Plate XXVI, we have already had occasion to -refer to the special importance which the Protector of the Northern -Region claims as chief among Lokapālas, and also to the reasons -accounting for the popularity of his worship in Central Asia and the -Far East. Hence we may turn here at once to the varied points of -iconographic interest presented by our picture. The main figure of -Vaiśravaṇa, disproportionately large in accordance with a convention -familiar already to Graeco-Buddhist as well as to late Hellenistic art, -strides ahead to the right, carrying the halberd, his characteristic -emblem, in the right hand, and on a cloud rising from his left a small -pagoda-shaped shrine, a secondary attribute, also otherwise attested. -His face is heavy but not grotesque, with large oblique eyes and heavy -eyebrows. The middle of the body is thrown out, giving to the pose an -air of ponderous dignity. - -His dress is that of a warrior king, as proper to all Lokapālas, but -of a particularly elaborate type. His coat of mail reaches down almost -to the knees. The arrangement of the scales, shown by a diaper of -three-armed crosses, is the same peculiar one already noted in -Plate XXVI. It appears also on the corslet, which is edged by bands -of lacquered plate, while the forearm guards and what is visible of -the greaves show oblong scales secured by transverse bands. The whole -armour is gilded. Decorated flaps, probably of shaped leather, descend -over the hips and are joined in front by a stomacher in the shape of a -hawk or eagle mask. The shoulder-pieces end in a lion head, through the -jaws of which the arm passes. Gilded shoes cover the feet. - -The high three-leaved crown on Vaiśravaṇa’s head, with the wing-shaped -ornament at the top and the white streamers flying up at the sides, -unmistakably recalls the royal head-dress of Sassanian times.[92] The -flames rising from his shoulders are an emblem also likely to have -an Iranian origin.[93] Their flickering tongues, like the fluttering -streamers and the freely floating stole, emphasize the Guardian-king’s -rapid movement. - -The same curling maroon cloud on which Vaiśravaṇa advances carries -also his retinue of varied aspects. Before him to the right we see the -graceful figure of a nymph bowing and presenting a dish of flowers. -Her identity is uncertain; in form and attire she resembles the ‘Nymph -of Virtue’ we have already met in the paintings of the Thousand-armed -Avalokiteśvara.[94] Of her rich attire may be specially noted the -wide sleeves which almost sweep the ground, the acanthus-like leaves -covering her shoulders, and the wreaths thrown over her arms. - -The _cortège_ behind the Lokapāla consists partly of demons, evidently -representing the Yakṣas over whom he rules, and partly of figures -purely human, which are clearly individualized but still await definite -identification. Of the former, two in the background have the heads -of monsters, with fiery hair and tusked jaws. One of them carries -Vaiśravaṇa’s flag of the same elaborate design we have noted in Plate -XXVI. Another demon in front of the pair, with brown skin, hairy arms, -and animal-like head wrapped in a scarlet hood, carries a large round -jar covered at its mouth. A fourth in the foreground, with ferocious -animal head and long upstanding hair, carries a club and wears a -Lokapāla’s armour over a richly embroidered scarlet coat. - -Among the human attendants the most striking figure is that of a finely -drawn aged man. He is clad only in a white skirt, with a scarf across -the breast. His hair is tied in a topknot and is white, like his -eyebrows and beard, all painted with minute care. His sunken features -and the sidelong glance of his eyes are expressively rendered. In his -right hand he carries a gilded cup (or Vajra?). Behind him we see a -portly male figure with placid clean-shaven face and a high mitre-like -head-dress from which drapery falls behind on the neck. He wears a -green robe over what looks like a coat brocaded in a ‘Sassanian’ -pattern and carries a flaming jewel on a gilded stand. - -In the rear is a bearded muscular archer, preparing to shoot at a -bat-like demon in the sky high up to the right. In the latter we can -safely recognize a Garuḍa, the hunting of whom is a frequent motif -in Turkestān frescoes, and whose winged figure is well known to -Graeco-Buddhist sculpture also.[95] The drawing of the archer’s figure -as he bends down to fit the arrow to the bow, while his gaze follows -the flying Garuḍa, is remarkably firm and vigorous. On his head he -carries a high conical cap of white, with metal boss at the top and -wide upstanding brim. His dress comprises a blue tunic which leaves -the right arm and breast bare, white breeches, and black top-boots. -His purposeful figure in movement is cleverly set off by the serene -appearance of a man standing in front with hands folded in adoration. -He wears a full-sleeved maroon jacket over a flowing white under-robe -and over his smooth black hair a gilded tiara of peculiar shape. - -The special powers of Chinese pictorial art pervading the whole -picture manifest themselves with particular clearness in the masterly -spacing of the background. This shows the greenish-brown sea heaving -in majestically rolling ridges of white-crested waves. Far away -in admirably conveyed distance rises a range of blue and green -mountains, probably meant to represent the fabulous Mount Meru -where Buddhist mythology locates the Guardian-kings of the Regions. - -Wherever the eye falls in this small but exquisite picture we may -appreciate the sure drawing with its cleanness of touch, the harmonious -colouring, and the highly finished workmanship. But it is in this -background that we can realize best to what extent the artist shared -that understanding of the Chinese genius for the control of ordered -fluent line and the power of suggestion in spacing. - - - - -PLATE XLVI - -FRAGMENT WITH CHILD ON DEMON’S HAND - - -The fragment of a large paper painting (Ch. 00373) reproduced here on -the scale of three-fourths is of interest as it represents somewhat -rare details in skilful execution, and also on account of its unusual -technique. The picture, of which another fragment survives, has been -drawn upon a fine ground laid over smooth buff paper. The colours -delicately painted over this are bright and particularly pleasing by -their softness, and I regret that their reproduction had to be forgone. -The execution is more finished than that of any of the other paper -paintings from Ch‘ien-fo-tung. Of the subject of the whole painting -it is impossible to say more than that it probably represented the -‘Maṇḍala’ of a Buddha or Bodhisattva. - -Our fragment shows on the left, against a background of large-leaved -flowering trees, a demon of dark blue body and limbs holding up with -his hands a naked infant who leans towards him smiling and with arms -stretched out. The infant’s form and features are exquisitely drawn -with fluent lines expressive of baby-like plumpness and shaded in pink -and white. He has black hair and a red trefoil mark on his forehead. -The reddish-pink face of the demon bears a cleverly conveyed tender -expression, which contrasts with his fierce features and shock of red -and green hair. We have already met with the figure of a similar demon -holding an infant in the group attending the Bodhisattvas on the right -in Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise as shown by Plate I, and another is found -among Vaiśravaṇa’s attendants in a woodcut from Ch‘ien-fo-tung.[96] - -On the right is seen a many-tiered umbrella hung with streamers and -tasselled chains, as found often over the chief Bodhisattvas in large -Paradise paintings (see Plate I). In the middle of the bottom portion -of the fragment appears the upper part of the halo, topknot, and tiara -of a Bodhisattva. Above the central ornament of the tiara is seen the -head of a white stag with antlers painted in silver. - - - - -PLATE XLVII - -THREE LOKAPĀLA BANNERS - - -The three silk banners which this Plate reproduces on the scale of -one-third all depict Virūpākṣa, the Guardian-king of the West and, -after Vaiśravaṇa, the most popular of the Lokapālas. When describing -above his fine picture as seen in Plate XXVII, I have already had -occasion briefly to indicate the iconographic features which are common -to all our Lokapāla representations, and to touch also upon those minor -characteristics which allow us to distinguish certain groups among our -numerous banners of these divinities.[97] Hence my account of those -shown in our Plate may be restricted to individual points deserving of -notice. - -In the banner on the left (Ch. lv. 0020), which is well preserved -except at the top where the painting has broken and been attached -to the head-piece (not shown) by a patch of purple silk, we see a -good example of the Lokapāla type designated above as ‘Chinese’. -Virūpākṣa stands with his feet planted on the back and head of his -crouching demon cognizance and holding the drawn sword upright in his -left hand.[98] His face is middle-aged and serious, the oblique eyes -slightly enlarged, and the iris painted a dark yellow. His coat of -mail shows oblong scales all through from the shoulders to the skirt -portion. The flesh is shaded light pink over the brownish white of the -silk. The corslet is secured by broad shoulder-straps, probably of -lacquer, here clearly marked. Beneath the hip-belt appear an apron and -hip-flaps of shaped leather, providing additional protection. Round -the lower edge of the belt hang loose rings, probably meant for the -attachment of the scabbard and other equipment. The breeches are tucked -into greaves, and the feet shod with plain sandals. The general colour -effect is subdued owing to the prevalence of light brown and pale red -tints. - -The painting in the middle (Ch. lv. 0046) is broken at the top and has -lost its banner accessories, but retains its colours in remarkable -freshness. Virūpākṣa, turning slightly to the left, stands with his -feet on the shoulder and knee of a squatting demon. He holds before him -with both hands a long sword in a lacquered scabbard, whose point rests -on the demon’s head. His face, large-cheeked and with strong chin, -bears a pleasant expression. The oblique eyes with light iris gaze -upwards. - -The coat of mail painted yellow and red shows round-edged scales -overlapping downwards as far as the hip-belt, while the skirt portion -has oblong scales apparently overlapping upwards. Trefoil-shaped flaps -of green leather give additional protection to the hips and abdomen. -A sausage-shaped collar is fastened round the neck and over a brown -mantle. Solid guards of lacquered leather protect both upper and fore -arms. The legs are clad only in breeches tied below the knees and -hanging loose to the ankles. The shoes of woven string are of some -interest, as their make exactly corresponds to that of shoes brought -to light by me from ruins of Han and later times.[99] The elaborately -jewelled head-dress is fitted with a red ‘cock’s crest’ at the back, -and the halo behind is flame-edged. - -The Chinese inscription describes the Lokapāla correctly as Virūpākṣa, -‘celestial king of the Western Region’. The work is carefully finished -throughout, and the colours harmonious, though more opaque than usual -in these banners. - -The banner (Ch. 0010), of which the painted portion is reproduced -on the right, is complete and excellently preserved. Virūpākṣa’s -figure combines here characteristics of that Lokapāla type which may -conveniently be called ‘Central-Asian’ with a treatment and certain -details not unlike those in the ‘Chinese’ type. - -The Lokapāla stands facing the spectator on the head and knee of a -contorted demon. His right foot is placed on a higher level than the -other, and the weight of the body thrown on the left hip. The right -hand holds the naked sword aslant across the body and the left supports -it at the breast. The face is heavy and with the frowning forehead, -the snarling mouth, and glaring eyes bears a fiercer expression than -usual. The large round eyes are level and the iris green. The hair, -shown light blue, is bunched back behind the ears. The flesh is painted -a pinkish red with but little shading. - -The coat of mail from shoulders to skirt is uniformly made up of -round-edged scales overlapping downwards; but their colouring varies -in different parts. A jerkin of blue leather elaborately ornamented -with metal-work appears above and below the mail corslet. The forearms -are swathed in red draperies, which also show above the knees. The -white leg-coverings are tucked into greaves which display elaborately -scrolled metal-work, manifestly painted in with an eye mainly to -decorative effect. Similar metal-work is shown on the black shoes. -The yellowish-brown colour of this metal-work, suggestive of bronze, -is applied also to the solid metal tiara, with wing ornaments and high -crown, which forms the head-dress. - -Though the drawing is careful and the colours clear and fresh, much -is lost in general effect through excessive concentration on detail -and ornament. In the want of space and free line and in the resulting -lack of spontaneity we are made to feel, as it were, the influence of -non-Chinese models. - - - - -PLATE XLVIII - -FRAGMENT WITH FIGURE OF DEMONIC WARRIOR - - -This fine fragment of a large silk painting (Ch. 0098), reduced here -to three-fourths of the original, shows the head and upper part of -the body of a figure demonic in look and of violent pose. No definite -identification seems at present possible. If the trident-like weapon -lifted up in the left hand might suggest a Lokapāla, there are to be -noted against this the flames streaming back from the head and the -total absence of armour. Again, if the ferocious look and pose would -make us think of a Vajrapāṇi Dharmapāla, other difficulties arise -from the unusual weapon, the fiery hair, and the want of exaggerated -muscles. So it will be best to leave this fine figure unnamed and to -rest content with an appreciation of its artistic merit. - -The head, well preserved on the whole, shows a face demonic in features -and convulsed with rage. It is painted dark grey with red lips and -black hair. The eyes are distended and glaring in fury, the eyebrows -contracted, and the forehead bowed with wrinkles. The widely grinning -mouth shows the tongue and both rows of teeth. Excessively high -cheekbones and nose, bushy eyebrows, a moustache sweeping fiercely -upwards, and stiff spreading beard and whiskers add their quota to the -terrifying appearance of the head. The hair on the forehead passes -black under a jewelled tiara; but what streams up from the whole head -is a cone of red flame. - -From the rest of the fragment all paint is lost. The outline drawing, -however, remains of a body vigorous and muscular. But for jewelled -chains, necklace, &c., it is nude to the hip-belt, over which appears -pulled the edge of a skirt-like garment. A stole is gathered over the -right upper arm, and the right hand is held before the breast, with -fingers stiffly upturned and palm downwards. The left arm is lost, -but the hand appears above grasping the staff of a weapon with barbed -points. - -The whole figure is drawn with admirable verve and freedom. Fragmentary -as it is, it allows us to surmise what we have lost here of a work of -true Chinese genius—and at the same time to realize what we owe to the -safe hiding-place the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas have provided for -so many other relics of art. - - - - -INDEX - - - _ahhaya-mudrā_, 25, 27, 32, 51, 53. - - acanthus leaves, 60. - - Ajaṇṭā, frescoes of, 3, 8. - - Ajātaśatru, legend of, 44. - - Ākāśagarbha, 16, 17. - - altar, valance of, 18. - - Amitābha, Buddha, 4, 5, 11; - Western Paradise of, 5, 6, 11, 17, 18, 20, 21 sq., 44, 52; - triad of, 18. - - Ānanda, legend of, 49. - - Andrews, Mr. F. H., xii, 44. - - Antioch, 4. - - Apsaras, 12, 20, 22, 49; - _see_ Gandharvī. - - Asuras, World of, 38. - - Athene, on seal, 4. - - Avalokiteśvara, Bodhisattva of Mercy (Kuan-yin; Kwan-non), 4, 13, - 18, 20, 22, 27, 28, 49, 56, 58, 59; - guide of souls, 53; - six-armed, 35; - thousand-armed, 30, 57; - emblems of, 30, 57; - four forms of, 29; - male and female forms of, 4; - Maṇḍala of, 13, 30, 31; - paintings of, 6; - under willows, 36; - with willow spray, 31, 32; - worship of, 4. - - Badakhshī breed of horses, 20. - - banners, - on silk, 2, 23, 25, 40, 43, 51, 53, 56, 61; - groups of, 23; - on linen, 3. - - Barnett, Dr. L. D., 47. - - Bath, of Gautama, 52. - - Benares, Deer Park of, 24. - - Bhaiṣajyaguru, Buddha, Paradise of, 11 sqq., 14, 50. - - Bhaiṣajyarāja, 5. - - _bhūmisparśa-mudrā_, 27. - - Bimbisāra, 44. - - Binyon, Mr. L., ix, xi, xii, 13, 36, 37, 45, 53, 54, 55, 58. - - boar, head of, 53. - - boar-headed demon, 31. - - Bōdh-Gayā, image at, 27. - - Bodhisattvas, 4 sq., 11 sqq., and _passim_; - banners of, 56; - ‘Indian’ and ‘Chinese’ types of, 14, 29, 56; - worship of, 28; - _see_ Avalokiteśvara, Kṣitigarbha, Mañjuśrī, Samantabhadra. - - borders, of paintings, 2, 53, 55, 59. - - Brahman, 12, 30. - - British Museum, - paintings at, ix, xi; - Trustees of, xi. - - Buddha, _see_ Gautama, Śākyamuni. - - Buddhas, 4; - subsidiary, 13, 17; - ‘of ten quarters’, 30. - - Buddhism, spread of, into Central Asia and China, 3 sq., 7; - _see_ Mahāyāna. - - Buddhist art, of China, 3, 6; - of India, 3 sq.; - of Japan, 4 sq.; - of Tibet, 9. - - Buddhist Heaven, _see_ Paradise. - - Buddhist images, from India, 6. - - bullocks, 53. - - _Butsu-yé_ 3. - - - _Cakravartin_, 53. - - cangue, 35, 38. - - cartouches, - inscribed, 23, 26, 29, 32, 49, 52, 58, 59; - uninscribed, 36, 38. - - castanets, 12. - - ‘Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’, 1, 13, and _passim_. - - celestial mansions, 11, 17, 18, 51, 54. - - chain-armour, 42. - - Chamberlain, the Right Hon. Mr. A., xi. - - Chandaka, 24. - - Chavannes, M. Éd., x, 16, 19. - - _Ch‘ien-fo-tung_, Chinese for ‘Caves of Thousand Buddhas’, _passim_. - - China, westward expansion of, 4. - - Chinese art, 5, 6, 7, 8. - - Chinese painting, - Buddha legend in, 8; - Central tradition of, 5; - style of, 54. - - ‘Chinese’ type of Bodhisattvas, 29, 32, 36, 43, 54, 56. - - Christians, at Turfān, 5. - - chronology, of paintings, 7, 16, 21, 50. - - clappers, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 25, 36. - - Clarendon Press, Delegates of, xi. - - cleaning, of paintings, 2. - - cloud scrolls, in textiles, 36. - - coiffure, of donatrices, 16, 17, 19, 30, 38; - _see_ head-dress. - - coins, Chinese, 48. - - Conception, of Gautama, 52. - - costume, - of donatrices, 16, 21, 22, 30, 50; - of donors, 17, 22, 36, 37, 38, 50, 56. - - crane, 12, 18, 22. - - crown, of Sassanian type, 39, 60. - - - dancer, 12, 15, 17, 18, 51. - - Deer Park, Śākyamuni in, 27. - - Delhi Museum, xi. - - demons, 12, 15, 40 sq., 61, 62, 63; - Tibetan, 47; - World of, 38; - _see_ Yakṣas. - - Dharmapālas, 43, 63. - - Dhṛtarāṣṭra, 42. - - Dhyāni-buddha (Amitābha), 4, 20, 28, 29, 32, 35, 57, 58. - - Dīpaṅkara, Buddha, 51. - - disciples, figures of, 17, 19, 21. - - discs, of Sun and Moon, 17, 38. - - distemper, painting in, 9, 46. - - donors, in paintings, 7; - _see_ costume, portraits. - - dragons, 12, 19, 48, 52. - - drapery, Hellenistic, 20. - - dress, _see_ costume; - magisterial, 19, 24, 44, 37, 55. - - drums, 12, 45. - - ducks, 22; - wild, 25. - - - embroidery picture, 10, 48; - remains, 44. - - - fan-bearers, 37. - - First Sermon, _see_ Gautama. - - flame streamers, 39, 60. - - flask, of Avalokiteśvara, 36, and _passim_. - - flutes, 12, 14, 18, 36, 45. - - Foucher, M. A., 23, 27, 28, 31, 43. - - ‘Four Encounters’, _see_ Gautama. - - Freer Collection, 7, 8. - - Fu-hsi, Emperor, 48. - - fungus sceptre, 38. - - - Gandhāra, Buddhist art of, 3, 4, 7, 49; - types from, 8. - - Gandharvīs, 14; - _see_ Apsaras. - - Gaṇeśa, 58. - - Garuḍa, 12, 16, 17, 18, 60. - - _Gatis_, _see_ Worlds of Desire. - - Gautama (Buddha, Śākyamuni), - scenes from Life of, 5, 6, 25, 51; - Chinese treatment of, 7, 23; - Conception of, 52; - Birth of, 52; - Bath of, 52; - Seven Steps of, 52; - Four Encounters of, 23 sq., 51; - Search for, 24; - Farewell from Kaṇṭhaka, 24; - Enlightenment of, 27; - First Sermon of, 24, 27; - as teacher, 6; - Miracle of Śrāvastī, 27; - on Gṛdhrakūṭa, 25, 27, 48, 49; - _see_ Buddha, Jātakas, Śākyamuni. - - Giles, Dr. L., xii. - - glass bowl, 43. - - Graeco-Buddhist art, x, 12, 15, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28, 52, 59, 60. - - Gṛdhrakūṭa, _see_ Vulture Peak. - - gryphon, 12. - - Guardians of Regions, _see_ Lokapālas. - - - halo, - flame-bordered, 15; - transparent, 21, 22. - - hands, pair of colossal, 26. - - Hāritī, 31. - - harp, 12, 16, 45. - - hats, shape of, 17. - - head-dress, of donors, 19, 23, 30, 32; - _see_ coiffure. - - Hell, Kṣitigarbha Regent of, 37, 54. - - Hellenistic art, influence of, 4, 20, 59. - - Heracles, on seal, 4. - - hermit, picture of, 47. - - Herzfeld, Prof. E., 40. - - high lights, 9, 21, 22. - - hills, 14, 17, 19. - - Hīnayāna Buddhism, 4. - - Hindu mythology, 31. - - Horiuji Temple, 3. - - horse, - drawing of, 19; - types of, 20, 25, 39. - - horse’s head, 54. - - horse-dragon, 47. - - ‘horse-millinery’, 20, 39. - - Hsüan-tsang, pilgrim, 6, 27. - - human form, Chinese treatment of, 7. - - - iconography, Buddhist, x. - - India, Buddhist painting in, 3. - - Indian art, genius of, 8. - - Indian garb, of divinities, 7. - - Indian type, of Bodhisattvas, 28, 29, 36, 42, 47, 59. - - Indians, dark-skinned, 14, 15, 29, 53. - - Indra, 12, 30. - - infants, 12, 16, 22, 36, 61. - - Infernal Judges, 37, 38, 55. - - Iranian, - art motifs, 4; - influences, 58; - emblems, 39, 60; - _see_ Persia. - - iris of eyes, - blue, 39; - yellow, 62; - green, 62. - - - Japan, - Buddhist art of, 5; - Buddhist paintings of, 3. - - Jātakas, scenes from, 5, 6, 8, 23; - _see_ Gautama. - - Jizō (Kṣitigarbha), 37. - - Kābul, 27. - - Kakemonos, paintings mounted as, 2, 39, 53, 59. - - Kālika, 47. - - Kalyāṇaṃkara, legend of, 16, 17. - - Kaṇṭhaka, Buddha’s horse, 23, 24, 53. - - Kapilavastu, 52. - - Kapiśa (Kabul), 27. - - Kāshgar, 1. - - Kashmir, 1, 4. - - Kāśyapa, 49. - - Khotan, 1, 4; - mural paintings of, 28; - painter from, 10; - Vaiśravaṇa’s worship at, 39. - - Kings, Twelve, protectors of the Law, 13, 51. - - knee-caps, 35. - - Kṣitigarbha, - in paintings, 5, 8, 16, 17, 37; - patron of travellers, 38, 54, 55; - Regent of Hell, 37, 54. - - Ku K‘ai-chih, - painter, 6, 7; - style of, 8. - - Kuan-yin, Chinese name of Avalokiteśvara, _q.v._ - - Kubera, 39. - - Kwan-non, Japanese name of Avalokiteśvara, _q.v._ - - - Lamas, hoods of, 46. - - landscape, - treatment of, 7; - dividing scenes, 13; - _see_ hills. - - _laṅgōṭī_ (loin-cloth), 42, 58. - - Laufer, Dr. B., 41. - - leather, - armour, 42, 62; - scales, 41. - - linen, paintings on, 3, 46. - - lion, 15, 41, 49, 55. - - Littlejohn, Mr. S. W., 2. - - _Ló-shen-fu_, painting, 6. - - Lokapālas, 5, 12, 13, 14, 15, 31, 36, 39, 40, 41, 53, 58, 60, 61, - 62. - - Lop desert, 5. - - Lorimer, Miss F. M. G., xii. - - lotus-lake, 12, 17, 18, 22. - - lotus-seats, 20, 50, 55. - - Lumbinī garden, 6, 52. - - Lung-mên, relievos of, 22, 43. - - lute, 16, 17, 18, 45, 53. - - - Magadha, 27. - - Mahākāla, 30. - - Mahāsthāma, 18, 20, 22, 49. - - Mahāyāna Buddhism, ix, x, 4, 28. - - Maheśvara, 31. - - mail-coat, 41, 59. - - Maitreya, - Buddha, 5; - Paradise of, 19. - - _Maitreya-vyākaraṇa-sūtra_, 18. - - Maṇḍala, compositions, x; - of Avalokiteśvara, 13, 36, 57. - - Manichaeism, 5. - - Mañjuśrī, 5, 12, 14, 15, 29, 40. - - manuscripts, - at Ch‘ien-fo-tung, 1, 8; - rolls, in paintings, 20, 48. - - Māra, attack of, 27. - - marginal scenes, 13, 16, 17, 47, 51. - - Māyā, 52. - - Meru, Mount, 17, 40, 61. - - Milne, Mr. J. C., xi. - - Mīrān, mural paintings at, 4, 21. - - mirror, - metal, 19; - magic, 38. - - Mithras, worship of, 4 sq. - - modelling, in two tones, 10. - - monkey, 53. - - monks, 17, 30, 38, 47, 49. - - Moon, - Bodhisattva of, 30, 57; - disc of, 47. - - mouth-organ, 14, 15, 16, 36. - - musical instruments, 12, 16 sqq. - - musicians, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 45, 51. - - - Nāga-tree (coral), 40. - - Nāgas, 31, 40, 52, 57. - - Nara, frescoes at, 3. - - Nativity, of Gautama, 52. - - Nepalese miniatures, 27; - paintings, 3, 9. - - ‘Nymph of Virtue’, 31, 57. - - Nymphs, 12, 15, 50, 60. - - - officials, dress of, 37; - _see_ dress. - - ox-headed demon, 45. - - - palanquin, 20, 52. - - Pāpaṃkara, legend of, 16, 17. - - paper paintings, 36, 47 sq., 61. - - Paradise, - of Amitābha, _see_ Western Paradise; - of Bhaiṣajyaguru, 50; - of Maitreya, 19; - of Śākyamuni, 15, 16. - - pavilions, 13. - - peacock, 12, 18, 22, 31. - - pearl, of Kṣitigarbha, 37. - - Pelliot, M. Paul, 2. - - Persia, 4; - _see_ Iranian. - - Petrucci, M. R., viii, x, xi, xii, 14, 16, 17, 19, 27, 30, 37, 50. - - phoenix, 12, 22, 31. - - pipe, 12, 14, 16, 25; - _see_ whistle-pipe. - - Planets, divinities of, 8, 53. - - plectrum, 53. - - portraits, of donors, 7, 16, 21. - - _pretas_, 31, 38. - - processions, 14 sq. - - psaltery, 12, 17, 18, 45. - - - Rājagṛha (Rājgir), 27, 48. - - rat-king, 58. - - _ratnām_, _see_ seven. - - Rawak Vihāra, 27. - - reborn souls, 12, 16, 18, 22. - - reed-organ, 12, 17. - - Roman Empire, silk trade to, 4. - - ‘royal ease’, pose of, 35, 58. - - - saddles, 20. - - ‘Sage of the Air’, 31, 57. - - Śakti, of Avalokiteśvara, 45, 46. - - Śākyamuni, 17; - in pictures, 5; - legend of, 6; - Paradise of, 15, 16; - type of, 4; - _see_ Gautama, Buddha. - - Samantabhadra, 5, 12, 14, 15, 29, 45. - - sandals, 41; - of string, 37. - - Śāriputra, 25, 49. - - Sassanian relievos, 40. - - ‘Sassanian’ textile motifs, 40, 45, 60. - - scabbard, lacquered, 62. - - scale armour, 39, 41, 42, 53, 59 sq., 62. - - Schlesinger, Miss K., 12, 53. - - _Serindia_, ix, xi. - - Seven Jewels, 53. - - Seven Steps, of Gautama, 52. - - shading, method of, 15. - - shoes, of string, 62. - - Shōsōin Collection, 12. - - silk, of paintings, 2; - gauze-like, 23; - trade from China, 4. - - _siṃhāsana_, 36. - - Śivaitic divinities, 30. - - slab for inscription, 21, 22, 38. - - spacing, Chinese, 9, 46, 60. - - Śrāvastī, ‘Miracle of,’ 27. - - stag, white, 61. - - statues, of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, 26; - _see_ Vulture Peak. - - Stone & Son, Messrs. Henry, xi. - - Stūpa, consecration of, 20. - - Śuddhodana, 25. - - Sukhāvatī, _see_ Western Paradise; - type of, 22. - - Sun, Bodhisattva of, 30, 57; - disc of, 47. - - Sung period, art of, 7. - - Syrinx, 16. - - - Taki, Prof., xii. - - Taklamakān desert, 5. - - T‘ang period, art of, 5, 6, 7. - - Tantra doctrines, 46; - emblems, 58. - - Taoist monk, at Caves, 1 sq. - - Tārā, goddess, 45, 46. - - Tejaḥprabha, Buddha, 53. - - tempera, painting in, 46. - - textile patterns, 54; - _see_ Sassanian. - - Thunder god, 26. - - Ti-tsang (Kṣitigarbha), 37. - - Tibet, - Buddhism of, 46, 58; - Buddhist art of, 9, 46. - - Tibetan paintings, 3, 9. - - Tibetans, at Tun-huang, 45, 46, 47. - - tiger, 48. - - tonsure, 19. - - trees, in paintings, 11, 16, 20, 22. - - ‘triple cord’, 42. - - Tun-huang, - oasis and town, 1 sq.; - chiefs of, 36; - Tibetan conquest of, 9. - - Turfān, 5; - painting from, 21. - - Turkestān, - Buddhist art of, 3, 4; - pictorial style of, 9; - under Chinese rule, 4. - - Tuṣita Heaven, 18. - - - Urushibara, Mr. Y., 2. - - - Vaiśravaṇa, 58; - paintings of, 6, 39, 59; - emblems of, 40; - flag of, 60. - - Vajra, 43, 47. - - Vajrapāṇis, 31, 43, 58, 63. - - _vara-mudrā_, 41, 46, 49. - - vase, glazed, 36. - - Vignette, portrait in, 21. - - Virūḍhaka, 15, 36. - - Virūpākṣa, 40, 58, 62. - - Visser, Prof. M. W. de, 37. - - _vitarka-mudrā_, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 28, 29, 32, 35, 47, 50. - - votive inscription, 2. - - Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa), 25, 27, 48, 49. - - - Waley, Mr. A. D., xii. - - warrior kings, 12. - - Western Paradise (_Sukhāvatī_), of Amitābha, 5, 6, 11, 17, 18, 20, - 21, 22, 44, 52. - - wheel, of sovereignty, 53. - - whistle-pipe, 15, 16. - - willow spray, - of Avalokiteśvara, 28, 30, 32; - Aval, under willows, 36. - - Winter, Miss E. A., 2, 49. - - ‘Worlds of Desire’, 37, 38, 54. - - Wu Tao-tzŭ, painter, 8. - - - Yabuki, Mr., xii. - - Yakṣas, 39, 60; - _see_ demons. - - Yaśodharā, 53. - - Yün-kang, relievos of, 8, 22, 23. - - - - -Footnotes - - -[1] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 1420. For a distinctively ‘Indian’ -representation of Mañjuśrī, see below, Plate XXVII. - -[2] Cf. _Serindia_, Appendix E, p. 1410. - -[3] See _Serindia_, Appendix _A_, pp. 1434 sqq. - -[4] See particularly the painting, Ch. lv. 0023, of A.D. 864 reproduced -in Plate XVI. - -[5] Cf. _Serindia_, pp. 850, 885, 888. - -[6] See _Serindia_, p. 1410. - -[7] For an interpretation of the symbolic meaning of this -representation, cf. M. Petrucci’s ‘Essai’ (Les Maṇḍalas), _Serindia_, -Appendix _E_, p. 1411. - -[8] See _Serindia_, p. 835. - -[9] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 850 sq. - -[10] See _Serindia_, pp. 899 sq., 984 sq., Pls. CIX, CX. - -[11] See _Serindia_ pp. 890, 1082 sq., Pl. LVIII, and M. Petrucci’s -notes in Appendix _E_ ibid., p. 1408 sq. - -[12] Cf. _Serindia_, pp. 835, 890, note 38. - -[13] See above, p. 17. - -[14] See, e.g., Plate XXII. - -[15] Cf. Stein, _Ancient Khotan_, ii. Pl. LIX. - -[16] For details of the antiquarian evidence concerning the date of -these pictures, cf. _Serindia_, pp. 885, 896. - -[17] See above, p. 9. Of my other pictorial ‘finds’ from Central Asia -only the mural paintings of Mīrān, approximately dating from the third -to fourth century A.D., show this use of ‘high lights’; cf. _Serindia_, -pp. 504, 508, Pls. XL-XLV. - -[18] These two-lobed tufts of hair recall those shown on the heads of -the angels and _putti_ in the wall-paintings of the shrines excavated -by me at Mīrān; see _Serindia_, Figs. 134, 138, 140; Plates XL, XLI. - -[19] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 850 sq.; also below, p. 23. - -[20] See above, p. 21. - -[21] For details on these points and on the question of style, cf. -_Serindia_, p. 847 sq. - -[22] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 848. - -[23] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 850; Chavannes, _Mission archéologique en -Chine_, i. Planches 207–10. - -[24] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 849, note 18. - -[25] This is against the fixed iconographic convention of Indian -tradition which shows the _right_ hand raised and the _right_ shoulder -uncovered by the under-robe. The explanation may be sought for in the -fact that in the case of banners both sides of the silk gauze had to -be painted. Here and in the Buddha of the banner in the middle of the -Plate we have obviously cases of a mistake made by the artist as to -which side was to be treated as the one intended for contemplation and -properly finished. - -[26] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 858, and the reproduction of the banner, Ch. -lv. 0012, Pl. LXXV. - -[27] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 947 (_sub_ Ch. 0039). - -[28] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 880. - -[29] See Petrucci, _Annales du Musée Guimet_, xli, pp. 121 sqq. - -[30] Plate LXX of _Serindia_ shows the left half of the painting as -originally opened out and mounted at the British Museum. As regards -certain slight modifications of the arrangement effected in the -course of the final mounting and now seen in our Plate, the detailed -description of the painting in _Serindia_, pp. 1024 sqq., may be -referred to. - -[31] Cf. Petrucci, _Annales du Musée Guimet_, xli. p. 122. The figure -at the first opening of the picture at the British Museum was found as -a detached fragment. To its left upper edge there adhered the inscribed -cartouche subsequently, on mounting, inserted in the blank space -between the two standing figures at the bottom; cf. _Serindia_, p. 1025 -sq. - -[32] See _Ancient Khotan_, i. 493, Figs. 62–4. - -[33] Cf. Foucher, _Beginnings of Buddhist Art_, p. 172. - -[34] Cf. _Iconographie bouddhique_, i. 40 sqq. - -[35] For the willow-spray symbol cf. below, Plate XXIV. - -[36] See Plates XIX, XXIX, XLI. - -[37] For a reproduction in colours, but on a much smaller scale, see -_Desert Cathay_, ii. Plate VIII. - -[38] For such Bodhisattva banners of the type conveniently designated -as ‘Chinese’ see Plates XIX, XXIX, XLI. - -[39] Cf. M. Petrucci’s readings, _Serindia_, p. 1416 sq. - -[40] For specimens of this ‘Indian’ type of Bodhisattvas see Plates -XXI, XXII; for detailed references concerning banners of this type, -particularly numerous among those on linen, cf. _Serindia_, p. 862. - -[41] Cf. M. Petrucci’s notes, _Serindia_, p. 1398. - -[42] See above, p. 16. - -[43] Cf. M. Petrucci, on ‘Maṇḍalas de Kouan-yin’, _Serindia_, Appendix -_E_, pp. 1411 sqq.; and for a full description of our painting, ibid., -pp. 1077 sqq. - -[44] See M. Foucher’s brilliant essay on ‘La Madone bouddhique’ in _The -Beginnings of Buddhist Art_, pp. 285 sqq. - -[45] See M. Petrucci’s explanations in _Serindia_, p. 1397. The -other two inscriptions seem to contain metrical invocations of the -all-merciful Kuan-yin. - -[46] For scenes somewhat similar, see the side of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s -Paradise in Plate I. - -[47] Cf. Mr. Binyon’s note in _Guide to an Exhibition Paintings, -Manuscripts, and other Archaeological Objects collected by Sir Aurel -Stein in Chinese Turkestān_, British Museum, 1914, p. 12. - -[48] Cf. Chavannes, _Dix inscriptions chinoises de l’Asie centrale_, pp. -80 sqq.; _Serindia_, p. 1338 sq. - -[49] See _Serindia_, p. 864, with note 16. - -[50] Cf. Mr. Binyon’s remarks in _Guide to an Exhibition of Paintings, -MSS., &c., collected by Sir Aurel Stein_ (British Museum, London, -1914), p. 7 sq.; also M. Petrucci’s account of Kṣitigarbha’s -‘Maṇḍalas’, _Serindia_ p. 1422 sq. - -The history of Kṣitigarbha’s cult in China and Japan forms the subject -of a full and very instructive monograph, _The Bodhisattva Ti-tsang -(Jizō) in China and Japan_, by Professor M. W. de Visser, with numerous -illustrations (Oesterheld & Co., Berlin, 1915), to which reference may -be made for all details. - -[51] For a brief summary of the facts bearing on the iconographic -history of the Lokapāla figures in their transition from India and -Central Asia to China, cf. e.g. _Serindia_, pp. 870 sqq., where the -principal authorities are indicated. - -[52] See _Ancient Khotan_, i. pp. 158, 252 sq. - -[53] The treatment of the scales, apparently represented by three-armed -crosses, is peculiar and differs from the several methods of scale -armour which other Lokapāla figures (see e.g. Plate XLVII) usually -display. But it is found again on Vaiśravaṇa’s armour in Plate XLV and -may possibly be meant for a special kind of mail. - -[54] For some of such indications, see _Serindia_, pp. 871 sq., 874. - -[55] Cf. Herzfeld, _Am Tor von Asien_, p. 87. To the examples there -quoted in note 141 may be added the painted panel from Dandān-oilik, D. -vii. 5, shown in _Ancient Khotan_, ii. Pl. LIX. - -[56] For more detailed observations on the two groups among Lokapāla -pictures, cf. _Serindia_, pp. 872 sqq. - -[57] See _Serindia_, pp. 873 sq., 939 sqq., &c. Questions closely -bearing upon armour and costume such as our Lokapālas exhibit have been -discussed with much critical learning by Dr. B. Laufer in his _Chinese -Clay Figures_, Pt. 1: _Prolegomena on the History of Defensive Armour_ -(Chicago, 1914). - -[58] See _Ancient Khotan_, i. pp. xvi, 374, 411; _Serindia_, pp. 246, -463 sqq. - -[59] See above, pp 12, 14 sq., 29. - -[60] For detailed references, cf. _Serindia_, p. 873; see also _Ancient -Khotan_, i. pp. xvi, 252. - -[61] For reference to works of MM. Chavannes, Foucher, -Grünwedel-Burgess, see _Serindia_, p. 875, note 45. - -[62] Cf. _Serindia_, pp. 904 sqq., and the embroidery specimens -reproduced there in Plates CVI-CVIII, CX, CXI. - -[63] Cf. F. H. Andrews, _Ancient Chinese Figured Silks excavated by Sir -Aurel Stein_ (B. Quaritch, London, 1920), pp. 4 sqq., Figs. 1–3. - -[64] See above, Plates I, II. - -[65] We meet with exactly corresponding examples of the combination of -Chinese and ‘Sassanian’ textile motifs in certain printed silks from -the ‘Thousand Buddhas’; see _Serindia_, p. 911, Plates CXIII, CXIV. - -[66] See above, p. 9. - -[67] Owing to these causes the reproduction of the painting has -presented considerable technical difficulties. Hence some of the details -mentioned cannot be made out in it quite as clearly as in the original. - -[68] See his Appendix _K_, _Serindia_ p. 1473. - -[69] Cf. Mayers, _The Chinese Reader’s Manual_, p. 48. - -[70] See above, pp. 25, 27. - -[71] For full details of the iconographic evidence I may refer to -_Serindia_, pp. 878 sqq. - -[72] Some idea of the labour implied by the execution of the embroidery -may be formed from the fact that the careful remounting of the hanging -on a fresh canvas backing, which became necessary at the British Museum -for its preservation, kept the expert employed on this task, Miss E. A. -Winter, of the Royal School of Needlework, occupied for over three -months. - -[73] Some connexion might perhaps be sought with an early legend -relating to Śākyamuni’s stay on Gṛdhrakūṭa. While engaged in meditation -within a grotto, he was believed to have pushed his right arm through -its rock-wall in order to reassure his disciple Ānanda, whom Māra, -in the shape of a vulture, had frightened; cf. Foucher, _L’art -gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra_, i. p. 497. - -[74] See above, pp. 20 sqq. - -[75] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 885. - -[76] See above, p. 21. - -[77] See above, p. 13. - -[78] See above, p. 23. - -[79] For the reasons which account for the banners with scenes from the -Life usually forming small groups or at least pairs, cf. _Serindia_, p. -852. - -[80] This is in complete accord with the original Buddhist tradition -which presents the descent of the white elephant not as a real event, -but as a dream of Māyā; cf. Foucher, _L’art gréco-bouddhique du -Gandhâra_, i. p. 292. - -[81] For a textual reference supporting this interpretation, cf. -_Serindia_. p. xxiii, _add_. to p. 855, note 50^a. - -[82] See above, p. 8. - -[83] See _Serindia_, pp. 933 sq., Figs. 215, 226. - -[84] For a full description of this instrument, cf. Miss K. -Schlesinger’s note in Appendix _H_, _Serindia_, p. 1468. - -[85] Cf. _Serindia_, Appendix _E_, p. 1429. - -[86] See above, p. 37 sq. - -[87] See above, p. 8. - -[88] Cf. _Serindia_, pp. 861 sqq. - -[89] For specimens cf. _Serindia_. pp. 904 sq.; Plates CVI-VIII, &c. - -[90] See _Ancient Khotan_, i. pp. 120 sq., 264 sq.; ii. Pl. LXIII; -_Serindia_, iii. p. 1277. - -[91] See above, p. 9. - -[92] Cf. also above, p. 39. - -[93] Cf. _Serindia_, p. 874. - -[94] See Plates XVII, XLII. - -[95] Cf. Grünwedel, _Altbuddhistische Kultstätten_, pp. 282, 351, Fig. -583; Foucher, _L’art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhāra_, ii. pp. 32 sqq. - -[96] See _Serindia_, Plate C (Ch. 00158). - -[97] See above, p. 40 sq. - -[98] For a likely explanation of this unusual attitude, see above, p. -24, note 25. - -[99] See _Serindia_, ii. p. 874; Pls. XXXVII, LIV. - - - - -Transcriber’s Note: - - - Text Notes: - - 1. Italicized text is indicated with leading and trailing - underscores. (_) - - 2. Superscript text is indicated with a leading caret (^). - - 3. Footnotes have been moved the end of each section (Preface, - Introductory Essay, and main text). Numbering is unchanged. - - 4. Index sub-items have been placed on their own line beneath - the main item. - - 5. The original printed version of this work was composed of a book - containing the text and two books containing numbered image - plates. - - Change List (page numbers from original printed book): - - Page 6 - legend of Sākyamuni in his last life - changed to - legend of Śākyamuni in his last life - - Page 40 - VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUSRĪ - changed to - VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUŚRĪ - - Page 42 - crimson _langōṭī_ flowered with blue rosettes - changed to - crimson _laṅgōṭī_ flowered with blue rosettes - - Page 65 - Petrucci, M. R., viii, x, xi, xii, 14, 16, 17, 19, 27, 30, 37, 50. - changed to - Petrucci, M. R., v, x, xi, xii, 14, 16, 17, 19, 27, 30, 37, 50. - - Printed Image Plate Dimensions (width x height in centimeters) - Plate Dimension Plate Dimension - 1 38.3 x 49.3 25 54.3 x 34.9 - 2 33.7 x 49.3 26 40.7 x 45.1 - 3 32.5 x 49.6 27 38.0 x 49.5 - 4 25.4 x 49.4 28 37.9 x 39.8 - 5 19.7 x 39.6 29 42.1 x 50.3 - 6 32.7 x 49.3 30 45.7 x 39.7 - 7 37.3 x 49.3 31 30.2 x 49.8 - 8 35.9 x 49.1 32 50.3 x 26.2 - 9 49.5 x 41.9 33 52.5 x 32.5 - 10 36.5 x 49.6 34 17.0 x 25.2 - 11 41.7 x 39.5 35 21.5 x 20.0 - 12 54.9 x 35.5 36 20.4 x 21.5 - 13 42.7 x 49.5 37 20.9 x 22.8 - 14 36.1 x 49.4 38 12.8 x 36.0 - 15 35.8 x 49.9 39 20.2 x 22.0 - 16 32.9 x 49.5 40 20.2 x 28.3 - 17 37.6 x 49.5 41 25.8 x 26.3 - 18 29.3 x 49.3 42 18.7 x 24.7 - 19 38.4 x 39.7 43 17.9 x 22.6 - 20 26.3 x 39.6 44 20.5 x 26.2 - 21 18.6 x 49.4 45 17.2 x 24.7 - 22 47.7 x 33.5 46 27.0 x 32.8 - 23 33.3 x 49.2 47 21.7 x 20.8 - 24 40.1 x 49.5 48 23.4 x 32.5 - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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- text-indent: 0; - margin-top: 0.5em; - margin-bottom: 0.5em;} - - div.transnote p.center { - text-align:center;} - - /* === footnotes === */ - .footnote_1 { - margin: 1em 10% .25em 10%; - padding: .25em; - font-size: .8em;} - - - .footnote { - margin: .25em 10% .25em 10%; - padding: .25em; - font-size: .8em;} - - .fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none;} - - .transnote h2 { - margin-top: .5em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - page-break-before: always;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Thousand Buddhas, by Aurel Stein</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Thousand Buddhas</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:0; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:1em;'>Ancient Buddhist Paintings from the Cave-Temples of Tun-huang on the Western Frontier of China</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Aurel Stein</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Contributor: Laurence Binyon</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 7, 2022 [eBook #67358]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Ronald Grenier</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS ***</div> - -<div class="transnote covernote"> -<p class="center larger110">Transcriber’s Note</p> -<p>The cover image is from the title page of the folio size book containing - the image plates. Blemishes have been removed. See other notes at the - <a href="#AddNotes">end of the text</a>.</p> -</div> - -<div class="title-page"> - -<h1>THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS</h1> - -<p class="center larger150">ANCIENT BUDDHIST PAINTINGS FROM<br /> -THE CAVE-TEMPLES OF TUN-HUANG<br /> -ON THE WESTERN FRONTIER OF CHINA</p> - -<p class="center smaller mt2">RECOVERED AND DESCRIBED BY</p> - -<p class="center larger150">AUREL STEIN, K.C.I.E.</p> - -<p class="center mt2">WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY BY</p> - -<p class="center larger150">LAURENCE BINYON</p> - -<p class="center mt2">PUBLISHED UNDER THE ORDERS OF<br /> -H.M. SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA<br /> -AND WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF THE<br /> -TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM</p> - -<p class="mt2 center"> - <img src="./images/logo.png" alt="logo" class="center_8em" /></p> - -<p class="center larger110 mt1">TEXT</p> - -<p class="center mt4">LONDON<br /> -BERNARD QUARITCH, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span></p> - -<p class="center">1921</p> - -<p class="center mt4">PRINTED IN ENGLAND<br /> -AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> -BY FREDERICK HALL</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">{v}</span></p> - -<p class="center mt4 lh20"> -TO THE MEMORY OF<br /> -<span class="larger150">RAPHAEL PETRUCCI</span><br /> - -TO WHOSE DEVOTION TO FAR-EASTERN ART<br /> -THE STUDY OF THESE PAINTINGS OWES MOST<br /> -THIS ALBUM WHICH HE HAD HELPED TO PLAN<br /> -IS DEDICATED<br /> -IN ADMIRATION, AFFECTION, AND SORROW</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">{vii}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="tocList" summary="TOC"> -<tbody> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocPageNum small">PAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2">PREFACE</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#Page_ix">ix</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2">THE TUN-HUANG PAINTINGS AND THEIR PLACE IN BUDDHIST ART<br />An Introductory Essay by <span class="smcap">Laurence Binyon</span></td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#Page_1">1–10</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2">DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF PICTURES by <span class="smcap">Sir Aurel Stein</span></td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#Page_11">11–63</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">I, II.</td> -<td>The Paradise of Bhaiṣajyaguru</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">11</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">III.</td> -<td>A celestial assemblage</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_III">13</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">IV, V.</td> -<td>Processions of Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">14</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">VI.</td> -<td>Details from a painting of a Buddhist Heaven</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_VI">15</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">VII.</td> -<td>The Paradise of Śākyamuni</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_VII">16</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">VIII.</td> -<td>Amitābha’s Paradise</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_VIII">18</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">IX.</td> -<td>Legendary scenes from a painting of Maitreya’s Paradise</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_IX">19</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">X.</td> -<td>Amitābha with attendants</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_X">20</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XI.</td> -<td>A Paradise of Amitābha</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XI">21</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XII.</td> -<td>Scenes from Gautama Buddha’s Life</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XII">23</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XIII.</td> -<td>Scenes from the Buddha legend</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XIII">25</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XIV.</td> -<td>Images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XIV">26</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XV.</td> -<td>Two forms of Avalokiteśvara</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XV">28</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XVI.</td> -<td>Four forms of Avalokiteśvara</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XVI">29</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XVII.</td> -<td>Avalokiteśvara in Glory</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XVII">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XVIII.</td> -<td>Avalokiteśvara standing, with willow spray</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XVIII">31</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XIX.</td> -<td>Two Avalokiteśvaras with the willow</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XIX">32</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XX.</td> -<td>Avalokiteśvara with flame-wreathed halo</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XX">33</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXI.</td> -<td>Avalokiteśvara standing</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXI">33</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXII.</td> -<td>Two Avalokiteśvara paintings with donors</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXII">34</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXIII.</td> -<td>Six-armed Avalokiteśvara with attendant Bodhisattvas</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXIII">35</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXIV.</td> -<td>Two paper paintings of Avalokiteśvara</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXIV">36</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXV.</td> -<td>Two paintings of Kṣitigarbha</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXV">37</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXVI.</td> -<td>Vaiśravaṇa’s Progress</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXVI">39</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXVII.</td> -<td>Virūpākṣa and Mañjuśrī</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXVII">40</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXVIII.</td> -<td>Bust of a Lokapāla</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXVIII">42</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">{viii}</span></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXIX.</td> -<td>Two Dharmapālas and a Bodhisattva</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXIX">43</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - -<td class="tocPlate">XXX.</td> -<td>Side-scenes and details from a Buddhist Paradise painting</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXX">44</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXI.</td> -<td>A Tibetan painting of Tārā</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXI">45</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXII.</td> -<td>Paper pictures of a Bodhisattva, saint, and monk</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXII">47</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXIII.</td> -<td>Paper pictures of hermit and horse-dragon</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIII">47</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXIV, XXXV.</td> -<td>Embroidery picture of Śākyamuni on the Vulture Peak</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">48</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXVI.</td> -<td>Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVI">50</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXVII.</td> -<td>Banners with scenes from the Buddha legend</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVII">51</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXVIII.</td> -<td>Buddha Tejaḥprabha and Avalokiteśvara as guide of souls</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVIII">53</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XXXIX.</td> -<td>Kṣitigarbha with the Infernal Judges</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIX">54</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XL.</td> -<td>Kṣitigarbha as Patron of Travellers</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XL">55</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLI.</td> -<td>Avalokiteśvara and two other Bodhisattvas</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLI">56</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLII.</td> -<td>Avalokiteśvara, thousand-armed, with attendant divinities</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLII">57</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLIII.</td> -<td>Avalokiteśvara with Lokapāla attendants</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLIII">58</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLIV.</td> -<td>Fragment of standing Avalokiteśvara</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLIV">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLV.</td> -<td>Vaiśravaṇa crossing the ocean</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLV">59</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLVI.</td> -<td>Fragment with child on demon’s hand</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLVI">61</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLVII.</td> -<td>Three Lokapāla banners</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLVII">61</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tocPlate">XLVIII.</td> -<td>Fragment with figure of demonic warrior</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#PLATE_XLVIII">63</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td colspan="2">INDEX</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> -</tr> - -</tbody> -</table> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">{ix}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> purpose of this publication is to place before students interested -in Eastern art reproductions of select specimens from among the great -collection of ancient Buddhist paintings which in the course of the -explorations of my second Central-Asian journey, carried out in 1906–8 -under the orders of the Government of India, I had the good fortune to -recover from a walled-up chapel at the ‘Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’ -near Tun-huang. The essential facts concerning their discovery will be -found summarized in Mr. <span class="smcap">Laurence Binyon’s</span> <cite>Introductory Essay</cite>. Those -who may wish for details of the circumstances attending it, and for -some account of the local conditions which explain the preservation of -these relics of ancient Buddhist art in the distant region where the -westernmost Marches of true China adjoin the great deserts of innermost -Asia, will find them in my personal narrative of that expedition.<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_1" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> -They have been recorded still more fully in <cite>Serindia</cite>, the final -report on the results of my explorations, recently issued from the -Oxford University Press.<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_2" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> - -<p>In Mr. Binyon’s <cite>Introductory Essay</cite> there will be found a lucid -exposition, by the hand of a competent expert, of the reasons which -invest those paintings with special interest for the study of Buddhist -art as transplanted from India through Central Asia to the Far East, -and with great importance, too, for the history of Chinese art in -general. There light is thrown also on the manifold problems raised by -the variety of art influences from the West, the South, and the East -which are reflected in different groups of these paintings and which -some of them show in striking intermixture.</p> - -<p>But throughout it is Buddhist inspiration and legend, as propagated -by the Mahāyāna system of Buddhism in Central and Eastern Asia, which -furnish the themes of these paintings and determine the presentation -of individual figures and scenes in them. For the proper appreciation -of their art some knowledge of the traditional elements in subjects -and treatment is indispensably needed. It has hence been my aim -in the descriptive text referring to each Plate to supply such -iconographic information as the non-specialist student may need for the -comprehension of the subject and details, and as the present state of -our researches permits to be safely offered. In the same descriptive -notes I have endeavoured to record information also as to the state of -preservation, character of workmanship, colouring, and similar points -in each painting.</p> - -<p>Having thus briefly indicated the object and scope of this publication, -it still remains for me to give some account of the labours which -had to precede it, and to record my grateful acknowledgement of -the manifold help which alone rendered the realization of this -long-cherished plan possible in the end. In Mr. Binyon’s <i>Introductory -Essay</i> reference has been made to the protracted and delicate -operations which were needed at the British Museum before the hundreds -of paintings, most of them on fine silk, which had lain, often crumpled -up into tight little packets, for centuries under the crushing weight -of masses of manuscript bundles, could all be safely opened out, -cleaned, and made accessible for examination. The far-reaching artistic -interest of these pictures had already greatly impressed me when I -first beheld them in their original place of deposit. But only as the -work of preservation progressed did it become possible fully to realize -the wealth and variety of all these materials, the novel problems they -raised, and the extent and difficulties of the labours which their -detailed study and interpretation would need.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">{x}</span></p> - -<p>The mixture of influences already referred to revealed itself plainly -in features directly derived from Graeco-Buddhist art and in marks of -the change it had undergone on its passage through Central Asia or -Tibet. But the preponderance of Chinese taste and style was all the -same unmistakable from the first. On the iconographic side, too, it -soon became clear that the varied imagery displayed by the paintings, -though based on Indian conceptions and forms, bore the impress of -important changes undergone on its transition to China and after its -adoption there. The chief hope of guidance for the interpretation -of this Pantheon lay manifestly in comparison with the artistic -creations of the later Mahāyāna Buddhism of the Far East, especially of -Japan, and in the Chinese inscriptions displayed by many of the silk -paintings. It was obvious hence that for this part of my collection -a collaborator was needed who with knowledge of Buddhist iconography -would combine the qualifications of a Sinologue as well as familiarity -with Far-Eastern art in general.</p> - -<p>Through Mr. Binyon’s friendly intercession I was able in the autumn -of 1911 and towards the close of my stay in England to secure this -collaborator, and one exceptionally qualified, in the person of M. -<span class="smcap">Raphael Petrucci</span>. Already distinguished in more than one field of -research, M. Petrucci combined enthusiastic devotion to Far-Eastern art -as a critic, connoisseur, and collector, with Sinologue studies begun -under such a master as M. Chavannes. A series of important publications -on the art of China and Japan bears eloquent testimony to his eminent -fitness for what was bound to prove a difficult task. During the -following two years M. Petrucci devoted protracted labours to the -study of our paintings and their inscriptions. The results were to be -embodied in an extensive Appendix to <cite>Serindia</cite>, probably requiring a -separate volume.</p> - -<p>In 1913 he supplied me with the draft of his introductory chapter -dealing with the votive inscriptions of our paintings, and after my -start that year for a third Central-Asian expedition he discussed in a -separate essay those elaborate compositions or ‘Maṇḍalas’ which form -the subject of some of the largest and artistically most interesting of -our paintings.<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_3" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> In addition to the above M. Petrucci had collected -a great mass of Chinese textual materials for the identification -of Jātaka scenes, individual divinities, &c., represented in the -paintings, when the invasion of Belgium cut him off from his home at -Brussels and all his materials. Under the conditions created by the -world war he was unable to resume his task in earnest. But he found -occasion even then, in the midst of voluntarily undertaken medical -duties under the Belgian Red Cross, to revisit our Collection, to -assist with his expert advice in the cataloguing of the Tun-huang -paintings, and to publish in the <i>Annales</i> of the Musée Guimet a short -but very instructive and stimulating <i>conférence</i> on them.<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_4" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> - -<p>When returning in May 1916 from my third Central-Asian expedition, -I found M. Petrucci at Paris, still full of vigour and eagerly bent -upon carrying through his task. When a few weeks afterwards I was able -to inform him of the fortunate chance which, as will be explained -presently, had offered to make select specimens of our Tun-huang -paintings accessible in adequate reproductions to a wider circle of -students of Far-Eastern art, he most willingly undertook to contribute -the main portion of the text which was to accompany them. But some -months later he began to suffer from an internal ailment, and though in -the autumn of 1916 he was still strong enough to take a very helpful -share in the selection of the paintings to be reproduced in <i>The -Thousand Buddhas</i>, his condition became serious enough to necessitate -a grave operation in February 1917. This he overcame with apparent -success, only to succumb a week later to diphtheritis contracted in -the hospital. Deprived thus by a cruel blow of Fate of a most valued -collaborator and friend, we must rest content with dedicating to his -memory this publication in which he was to have borne a principal share.</p> - -<p>In accordance with the plan sanctioned in 1911 by the Secretary of -State for India,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">{xi}</span> the Detailed Report on the results of my second -Central-Asian expedition was to include also a systematic survey and -full descriptive list of all the art relics brought away from the Caves -of the Thousand Buddhas. With this object in view I had taken care, at -the same time when enlisting M. Petrucci’s collaboration, to use as -many plates of <cite>Serindia</cite> as the claims of abundant ‘finds’ from other -sites would allow, for the reproduction of characteristic specimens -among the different classes of paintings, drawings, and wood-cuts -recovered in the walled-up chapel.<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_5" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> But it was clear from the first -that the limitations imposed by the number and size of the <cite>Serindia</cite> -plates, and even more perhaps by the cost of colour reproduction, -would not allow adequate justice being done to the artistic, as -distinguished from the iconographic and archaeological, value of the -paintings. It was equally easy to foresee that, however numerous the -small-scale reproductions in the plates of <cite>Serindia</cite> might be, and -however thorough the description and analysis of the new materials in -its text, the very character, bulk, and correspondingly high price -of that detailed report would prevent it from making those paintings -sufficiently accessible to students interested mainly in their art.</p> - -<p>For these and cognate reasons I had been anxious from the outset to -arrange for a separate publication like the present. But the attempts -made in this direction before my return to duty in India at the -close of 1911 failed from want of needful means, and subsequently -distance and absorbing exertions in the field, as implied by my third -Central-Asian expedition (1913–16), precluded their effective renewal. -That auspices proved more favourable on my return from that journey was -due mainly to the generous interest which a far-sighted statesman, the -Right Honourable Mr. <span class="smcap">Austen Chamberlain</span>, then H.M. Secretary of State -for India, was pleased to show in the plan. His appreciation of the -importance of these pictorial treasures and of the need of securing -an adequate record of them before their impending division between -the British Museum and Delhi was largely instrumental in inducing the -authorities of the India Office, with the ready co-operation of the -Trustees of the British Museum, to sanction the present publication -at a cost not exceeding £1,900. Regard for the special difficulties -then prevailing owing to the war is an additional reason for Mr. -Chamberlain’s timely help being remembered by me with profound -gratitude.</p> - -<p>The execution of the plates, both by three-colour and half-tone -process, was entrusted to Messrs. <span class="smcap">Henry Stone</span> & <span class="smcap">Son</span>, of Banbury, whose -establishment, under the expert direction of Mr. <span class="smcap">J. A. Milne</span>, C.B.E., -had already proved its special fitness for such work by producing the -colour plates for my <cite>Desert Cathay</cite> and <cite>Serindia</cite>.<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_6" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> I feel all the -more grateful for the great skill and care bestowed by them upon the -truthful rendering of the paintings, and for the success achieved, -because I learned to know the considerable technical difficulties which -had to be faced, particularly in the case of the colour plates. After -my return to India in the autumn of 1917 Mr. <span class="smcap">Binyon</span> kindly charged -himself in my place with all the arrangements which were needed in -connexion with the reproduction work.</p> - -<p>It was under the constant and ever-watchful supervision of Mr. <span class="smcap">Laurence -Binyon</span> that the exacting labours needed for the safe treatment and -future preservation of the Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings, and extending over -a period of close on seven years, had been effected in the Prints and -Drawings Department of the British Museum. To his unfailing knowledge -and care all students of these remains of Buddhist art owe gratitude -for the ease with which they can now be examined. But to those whom -the present publication is intended to reach he has rendered a service -equally great by contributing to it his <i>Introductory Essay</i>, The -expert guidance it affords as regards the evolution of Buddhist -pictorial art in the Far East and with regard to a variety of kindred -questions helps appreciably to reduce the loss which <i>The Thousand -Buddhas</i> has suffered through M. Petrucci’s untimely death, and for -that help I feel deeply beholden.</p> - -<p>That lamented event left me with a heavier obligation than I had -anticipated in regard<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">{xii}</span> to the text both of this publication and of -the corresponding portion of <cite>Serindia</cite>. In meeting this obligation I -realize fully the limitations of my competence. Though familiar with -the iconography of Graeco-Buddhist art and of such remains of Buddhist -art in Central Asia as I had the good fortune to bring to light myself, -I had never found leisure for a systematic study of the religious art -of the Far East or Tibet. There was enough in the archaeology of the -sites I had explored through the whole length of the Tārīm Basin and -along the westernmost Marches of China and in the geography and history -of those wide regions fully to occupy my attention. In addition, my -want of Sinologue qualifications made itself sadly felt.</p> - -<p>Fortunately I had taken special care to secure a sufficiently -detailed description of all pictorial remains during the years of my -renewed absence in Central Asia and those immediately following. This -Descriptive List, now comprised in <cite>Serindia</cite>,<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_7" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> was prepared mainly -by the hand of Miss <span class="smcap">F. M. G. Lorimer</span>, whose painstaking scholarly work -as assistant at my British Museum collection has proved throughout a -very valuable help. Besides M. Petrucci’s interpretations there was -embodied in it also much useful information received on artistic points -from my friend and chief assistant Mr. <span class="smcap">F. H. Andrews</span>, and on Chinese -inscriptions from Dr. <span class="smcap">L. Giles</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">A. D. Waley</span> of the British -Museum, as well as many helpful iconographic explanations kindly -furnished by two Japanese experts, Professor <span class="smcap">Taki</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Yabuki</span>. This -Descriptive List made it possible for me to provide in <cite>Serindia</cite> a -systematic review of all our pictorial relics from Tun-huang,<a id="FNanchor_PREFACE_8" href="#Footnote_PREFACE_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> and -this in turn has greatly facilitated the preparation of the descriptive -text for the present publication. For details which could not find -mention in it reference to the chapters of <cite>Serindia</cite> already quoted will -prove useful.</p> - -<p>It only remains for me to add my grateful acknowledgements for the -care which my friends Mr. F. H. Andrews, Mr. L. Binyon, and Mr. C. -E. Freeman have been kind enough to bestow, whether on plates or on -print, and to express the wish that the reception accorded to <i>The -Thousand Buddhas</i> both in the West and the East may justify the hope -which prompted the sacrifice incurred for their sake at a time of great -strain and stress.</p> - -<p class="tlr">AUREL STEIN.</p> - -<p class="smaller noindent"><span class="smcap">Camp, Mohand Marg,<br /> Kashmir.<br /> June</span> 2, 1921.</p> - - -<div class="footnote_1"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_1" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> -See <cite>Ruins of Desert Cathay</cite> (Macmillan & Co., London, 1912), ii. -pp. 20–31, 163–234. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_2" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite> Detailed Report on explorations in Central Asia -and Westernmost China, carried out and described under the orders of -H.M. Indian Government by Aurel Stein, K.C.I.E., Indian Archaeological -Survey (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1921, vols. i–v, Royal 4to), pp. -791–825. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_3" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> -These contributions have since been printed in Appendix <i>E</i> of -<cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 1392–428, after having been carefully prepared for -publication by M. Chavannes, with the assistance of common friends, MM. -Foucher and Sylvain Lévi. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_4" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> -See Petrucci, <i>Les peintures bouddhiques de Touen-houang, Mission -Stein</i> (Annales du Musée Guimet, Bibliothèque de vulgarisation, xli, -1916, pp. 115–40). -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_5" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> -See Plates <span class="smcap">lvi-civ</span> in <cite>Serindia</cite>, vol. iv. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_6" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> -Seven of those in the latter work have, with the kind permission of -the Delegates of the Clarendon Press, been used also here. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_7" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, Chapter <span class="smcap">xxv</span>, section ii, pp. 937–1088. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_PREFACE_8" href="#FNanchor_PREFACE_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, Chapter <span class="smcap">xxiii</span>, sections i-ix, pp. 831–94. -</div> - - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">{1}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRO">THE TUN-HUANG PAINTINGS AND THEIR PLACE IN BUDDHIST ART</h2> -<p class="center">AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY<br /> <span class="small">BY</span><br /> LAURENCE BINYON</p> -</div> - - - - -<p class="center mt2">I</p> - -<p class="drop-cap">THE paintings and drawings here reproduced are a selection from the -mass of precious material discovered by Sir Aurel Stein, and brought -away by him from ‘The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’ at Tun-huang, on -the extreme western frontier of China. The romantic circumstances of -the discovery have been fully described by Sir Aurel in the second -volume of his <cite>Ruins of Desert Cathay</cite>; and to those pages the reader -is referred. But it may be well to recall briefly the main facts of the -narrative.</p> - -<p>In March 1907 Sir Aurel Stein’s expedition, which had left Kashmir in -April of the preceding year, arrived at Tun-huang. From Kāshgar the -travellers had proceeded to Yārkand; thence to Khotan, where Sir Aurel -on his previous journey in 1900–1 had disinterred such interesting -remains of the ancient civilization once flourishing in that region; -thence eastward along the southern skirts of the great desert, -exploring various sites by the way with rich results, till at Tun-huang -they found themselves at last within the western border of the Chinese -province of Kan-su.</p> - -<p>Tun-huang is a square-walled town in a prosperous oasis of the -desert. Sir Aurel Stein had been attracted thither by the knowledge -that near the oasis were a number of sacred grottos known as ‘The -Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’, filled with ancient Buddhist frescoes -and sculptures.<a id="FNanchor_INTRO_1" href="#Footnote_INTRO_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> But after arriving at Tun-huang, he also heard, -through a Muhammadan trader, rumours of something still more exciting -to the archaeologist—a hidden deposit of manuscripts which had been -accidentally discovered a few years previously in one of the caves. -In a barren valley to the south-east of the town, above a narrow -strip of irrigated soil, with rows of elms and poplars, there is a -cliff of conglomerate rock, which is honeycombed with hundreds of -cavities. These have been hollowed out to serve as Buddhist shrines, -still frequented by pious worshippers; and the walls of the cellas are -covered with old frescoes.</p> - -<p>It was in one of the larger shrines that the deposit of manuscripts -had been discovered by the Taoist monk in charge of certain grottos. -The monk had collected money from the faithful, and had undertaken to -restore this particular shrine to its former splendour; a laborious -work, since the drifting of the sand and falls of crumbling rock had -here, as in many other cases, blocked the entrance of the cave, and -the sand and debris had to be cleared away before the actual work of -the restorer could begin. While the men engaged on this labour were -at work, they had noticed a crack in the frescoed wall of the passage -between temple and antechapel. An opening was found; and this led to -a recess hollowed out of the rock behind the stuccoed wall. The room -thus disclosed proved to be completely filled with rolls of manuscript. -Specimens had been sent to the Viceroy of the Province, but no steps -had been taken to remove them; and in fact when Sir Aurel Stein first -arrived at the Caves he found<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">{2}</span> that the deposit was carefully locked -away behind a wooden door; and when, after leaving Tun-huang for a -month’s journey of exploration, he returned in May, a brick wall had -been added to protect the hidden treasure.</p> - -<p>The reader must go to <cite>Ruins of Desert Cathay</cite> for the full account -of the stages by which the Taoist priest who guarded the shrines was -induced first to show some specimens, and finally to let Sir Aurel -carry off a goodly hoard of the manuscripts and most of the pictorial -remains.</p> - -<p>The cave had been said to contain only MSS.; and bundles of MSS. were -there in immense quantities; but on opening one of the bundles Sir -Aurel was delighted to find that it contained paintings on silk. The -paintings were all, or nearly all, crumpled up. It seems as if they had -been hurriedly thrust away in the vault on some sudden alarm, probably -of a barbarian raid. And, in fact, on one of the pictures is a votive -inscription praying to Kuan-yin for protection against the Tartars and -the Tibetans. The position of Tun-huang on the westernmost frontier of -China, at the intersection of the great trade-route across Asia, from -east to west, with the high road between Mongolia in the north and -Tibet in the south, naturally exposed it to incursions and invasions. -Internal evidence of dated documents seems to show that the treasure, -or at any rate the great bulk of it, was hidden away soon after the -close of the tenth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span></p> - -<p>To complete the story, we must add that M. Pelliot, the distinguished -savant and traveller, paid a visit a year later to the Caves and -was allowed to carry off what remained of the paintings and a large -selection from the hoard of manuscripts. These are now in the -Bibliothèque Nationale and in the Louvre. What was left of Chinese -manuscripts was subsequently transmitted by official order to Peking; -much being ‘lost’ on the way.</p> - -<p>Not till the paintings were brought to London could any real -examination of them be made. Each packet had to be carefully opened, -and the brittle, dusty silk, sometimes in a hundred fragments, opened -out, cleaned, and, where necessary, pieced together. This was done -at the British Museum; and it was a labour of years for the staff of -mounters attached to the Print Room.</p> - -<p>The paintings were carefully cleaned, and the colours were found in -most cases to have lost little of their pristine depth and brightness; -though where a certain verdigris green was used, it has tended to eat -away the silk on which it was laid, a whole figure in some cases having -thus disappeared and left only its surrounding outline. Any attempt at -restoration or retouching has been scrupulously avoided; but when a -painting which is in fragments has been laid down on silk of a neutral -tone, and mounted, the eye is easily carried over the gaps, and the -main design reappears. Several of the paintings still retain their -original borders, usually of a dull mulberry-purple silk. The small -banners, of which a great quantity were found, had all originally a -pediment-shaped head-piece, and long silk streamers with a wooden -weight at the bottom to steady the banner as it hung. These banners are -mostly painted on both sides.</p> - -<p>The delicate work of mounting and cleaning was done by Mr. S. W. -Littlejohn, Chief Mounter in the Department of Prints and Drawings, -assisted in later stages by Mr. Y. Urushibara, a Japanese artist and -craftsman. Meanwhile the large embroidery picture (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span>) had -been skilfully stitched on to a new backing of canvas by Miss E. A. -Winter of the Royal School of Art Needlework. A selection of the most -important pictures, drawings, and woodcuts formed part of an exhibition -of treasures of all sorts brought back by Sir Aurel Stein from his -second expedition and set out in the long lower gallery of the new wing -of the British Museum opened by H.M. the King in May 1914. The outbreak -of the War so soon after, and the subsequent closing of the Museum, -unfortunately prevented the exhibition from becoming adequately known -to the public. In 1917 Mr. Littlejohn, who had received a commission in -the R.G.A., was killed in action. During his last months at the Museum -he had been preparing a note on the origin of the system of mounting -pictures as <i>kakemono</i>, to use the convenient Japanese term. Those -familiar with Japanese pictures know that <i>kakemono</i> are paintings -mounted on silk, with borders of brocade above and below the design, -and with two narrow strips of silk hanging down from above. These have -been explained as intended to keep away<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">{3}</span> birds, or evil spirits; but -neither theory has ever seemed satisfactory; and in the streamers of -the Tun-huang banners, as Mr. Littlejohn perceived, was a much more -plausible explanation of their origin. They are a survival. And other -details in the Japanese (originally Chinese) system of mounting could -be explained, he suggested, by a reference to this forgotten origin.</p> - - -<p class="center mt2">II</p> - -<p>The pictorial treasures brought away from Tun-huang by Sir Aurel, and -now divided between the Indian Government and the British Museum, -consist of votive paintings (mostly on silk, though a certain number -are on paper) of various sizes, some being as much as six or seven feet -high; of a long series of small banners on silk and larger banners on -linen; of one or two magnificent specimens of embroidery, the finest of -which is reproduced (Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxv</a></span>); of outline drawings, and of -woodcuts.</p> - -<p>The present publication is intended to illustrate the specimens which -have most importance for the study of Eastern art.</p> - -<p>The paintings and drawings, with a few unimportant exceptions, are all -of Buddhist inspiration. At first sight the limitation of scope and the -repetition of similar themes may give an impression of monotony. Closer -study reveals a remarkable variety. This variety is due to differences -of style, which are accounted for partly by the different dates, still -more by the different localities at which they were produced, partly by -the very varying degrees of skill in the painters who produced them. -Being all found in one place, the paintings might be supposed to be all -the product of a single local school. But this is certainly not the -case, as a brief examination shows at once. There are specimens (of -little account as art) which are purely Indian in style and probably -Nepalese; there are examples of the well-defined Tibetan type of -Buddhist picture; there are paintings which are entirely Chinese; and -there are, lastly, a number which contain Indian, Chinese, and possibly -Tibetan elements in varying proportions, but are in an intermediate -style and may safely be held to be the product of local schools of -Chinese Turkestān, and of the region which, on the east, joins it to -China proper.</p> - -<p>Until a few years ago, scarcely anything was known in Europe of -Buddhist painting beyond the famous frescoes of Ajaṇṭā in India and -Buddhist paintings by Japanese masters, of which the frescoes in the -Horiuji Temple at Nara are among the oldest and most celebrated. It -was known that the Japanese modelled their work closely on Chinese -tradition; and a few Chinese Buddhist paintings of early periods are -preserved in Japan; but while an extensive series of ancient Japanese -<i>Butsu-yé</i> exists, corresponding specimens from China are very rare -indeed. And if the early Buddhist art of China was little known, still -less was known of the intermediate links in the tradition which passed -on from India to China through Turkestān. But now, through successive -explorations and discoveries, the story of Buddhist art and the phases -of its progress eastwards through Asia are fairly plain and familiar. -And some of the most illuminating and important documents have been -supplied by the discoveries of Sir Aurel Stein.</p> - -<p>In the paintings with which we are dealing, the Indian element is -obviously very strong, just as ‘The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’, -where they were found, were hollowed out of the cliff in obedience to -immemorial Indian tradition: we are reminded at once of the frescoed -caves of Ajaṇṭā. But there are other elements besides the Indian, as we -shall see.</p> - -<p>How did Buddhism penetrate into Central Asia? From India proper it -travelled by way of the extreme north-west frontier, the valley -of Peshawar, then known as the kingdom of Gandhāra; thence to the -countries lying north, and so eastwards by the great trade-route across -the desert to China. Gandhāra is the first stage of this long journey: -and it was in Gandhāra that the Buddhist art of the Further East, as -we know it, was first formulated. The now well-known sculptures of -Gandhāra, a fine series of which may be seen in the British Museum, -date from about the first century of our era to about the sixth. They -represent a late Hellenistic tradition put to the service of the -Indian religion. It was in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">{4}</span> Gandhāra that the types of Buddhist art -became fixed. It was there that the type of Śākyamuni himself was -first invented, or rather adapted from the ideal forms of Hellenistic -sculpture. For some centuries after the Buddha’s death, Indian artists -had always refrained from representing the image of the Lord.</p> - -<p>The Hellenistic element, apparent in poses, in drapery, in decorative -motifs like the acanthus-ornament, tends to become submerged in -the later phases of the art, though something of it still persists -recognizably in the Buddhist art of remote Japan, even to-day. At a -desert site of Khotan, the little kingdom lying at the southern edge -of the Taklamakān Desert, beyond the mountains on the north-eastern -frontier of Ladākh and Kashmir, Sir Aurel Stein found on his first -expedition (1900–1) the remains of settlements abandoned to the -encroaching sand about the third century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> Among these remains were -heaps of letters and documents written in early Indian script and -language on wooden tablets, tied with string and sealed; and in most -cases the seal was a Greek seal, engraved with a figure of Athene, -Heracles, or other deity. Again, at Mīrān, a site near Lop-nōr and much -further east, Sir Aurel, on his second expedition, discovered Buddhist -shrines adorned with frescoes of about the fourth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> painted -in the style of late classical tradition.</p> - -<p>Fascinating as are these traces of Greece and the West in the midst -of the Asian deserts, the influence of Hellenism was not profound or -formative. India was the main influence on the culture of the cities -once flourishing along the chain of oases in the deserts west of China, -Buddhism the great civilizing factor, and Gandhāra the source from -which the local schools of art drew their inspiration. Gandhāra art was -itself not without some admixture from Persian sources; and Iranian -motives of decoration are found in these desert sites, as they are -found in China itself, just as some of the Tun-huang manuscripts are -written in the Iranian dialect called Sogdian. The art of Turkestān is -full of mixed influences, the reflection of its civilization.</p> - -<p>And what of China? For during the second century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> and the -two centuries following China pursued a policy of political and -military expansion westward, with a view to opening up trade-routes, -consolidating her frontiers and protecting them from the ravages of -the Huns and other tribes; and Eastern Turkestān became a Chinese -protectorate. Though afterwards China’s hold became weakened and -her power receded, in the seventh century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, under an Emperor of -the great T‘ang dynasty, the whole region came again under Chinese -government, and the Empire’s political sphere of influence was extended -as far as the borders of Persia and the shores of the Caspian. But -Chinese influence seems to have been confined mainly to administration, -and to have affected but little the culture of the people, though -traces of it are discernible in their arts and industries, ever more -marked as we go further east.</p> - -<p>This way passed the old great high road between east and west, by -which the Chinese silks were carried overland to Antioch and the -Roman Empire. It was a highway for commerce, but also for ideas and -religions. And the early centuries of our era were marked by an -extraordinary ferment of mystical beliefs both in east and west. While -Christianity and Mithraism were contending for supremacy in the Roman -Empire, Buddhism was making its victorious progress eastwards. But -it was no longer the simple ethical doctrine preached by Gautama. -Mahāyāna Buddhism, as the later development of Buddhism is called—the -Great Vehicle, as opposed to the Hīnayāna, or Small Vehicle, of the -original doctrine—was first formulated about the first century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> -It was no longer the salvation of the individual which was the aim of -the devout, but the salvation of the whole world, towards which the -Bodhisattvas strive unceasingly out of their boundless love for every -sentient being. The Bodhisattvas in this new phase of Buddhism became -more and more the object of popular worship. They are either men who, -having won the right to enter Buddhahood, refuse that peace for the -sake of suffering mankind, or else celestial beings who assume a human -form. Of this last order of beings is Avalokiteśvara, whom the Chinese -know as Kuan-yin, and the Japanese as Kwannon; the favourite object -of adoration in Mahāyāna Buddhism. He appears in art both in male and -female form. In later art the female form is almost universal, but in -the Tun-huang paintings the male form is predominant. Avalokiteśvara is -the spiritual son of Amitābha, the impersonal Buddha, the Light of the -Enlightened; and Amitābha is said to have created<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">{5}</span> a Paradise in the -West, where souls who believe in him may be born and rest for a long -age, or in popular belief for ever. Śākyamuni, we note, has no longer -the supreme position, though sometimes he is painted as reigning over a -Paradise, or, as in the large embroidery-picture (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span>), standing -on the Vulture Peak, the scene of his last teaching.</p> - -<p>As Avalokiteśvara is incarnate Pity, so, among other great -Bodhisattvas, Mañjuśrī embodies the Spirit of Wisdom, Samantabhadra -stands for the power of the Church, Kṣitigarbha is the breaker of the -powers of Hell and the illuminator of its darkness. Bhaiṣajyarāja is -the lord of medicine; and Maitreya is the Buddha that is to come.</p> - -<p>Besides the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, the Lokapālas or Demon Kings who -guard each one of the Four Quarters of the World are frequent figures -in art. These are survivals of primitive demon-worship adopted into -Buddhism.</p> - -<p>The subjects of the Tun-huang paintings are, then, single figures -of Bodhisattvas, especially of Avalokiteśvara, or of the Lokapālas; -small pictures of scenes from Gautama’s life, or the Jātakas, stories -of his lives in previous incarnations; and representations of the -Western Paradise. This last subject is sometimes highly elaborated, -with an immense number of figures of the blest grouped in pavilions -and terraces built about a lotus lake. Flowers are rained through the -air, and celestial beings dance and sing for the delight of the souls -dwelling in the Happy Land of Amitābha’s creation.</p> - -<p>All this carries us far indeed from the Four Noble Truths and the -Eightfold Path—the simple doctrine in which Śākyamuni taught the means -of Salvation here on earth. Much of this later Buddhism was doubtless -an accretion from other faiths with which it came in contact on its -progress through Asia. Amitābha may be a borrowing from the worship -of Mithras; and certain of the Bodhisattvas may have been originally -deified heroes of lands into which Buddhism made its way. In Eastern -Turkestān, Manichaeism, the religion founded by the Persian Mani in the -third century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, found a home; and at Turfān—one of the oases which -have been explored—Manichaeans, Buddhists, and Christians were living -peaceably side by side.</p> - -<p>For the study of religion, then, the art found in the various sites -on the borders of the Taklamakān and Lop deserts is of extraordinary -interest. But, as art, it is of a local and provincial type, and though -often of considerable merit, it nowhere rises beyond a certain level.</p> - - -<p class="center mt2">III</p> - -<p>But at Tun-huang we are within the frontiers of China proper; and -Chinese art during the T‘ang period, seventh to tenth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, -was at its grandest height of power. The extraordinary interest of -these paintings is that, though a great number of them are, as we might -expect, obviously provincial productions (e.g. Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXIV">xxiv</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXVI">xxvi</a></span>), -others belong to the central tradition of Chinese Buddhist painting; -and as scarcely any such paintings of the T‘ang period are known to -exist, the importance of this group, for the study of Chinese art, can -hardly be overestimated.</p> - -<p>How do we know that these paintings belong to that central tradition? -We know it from the early Buddhist paintings of Japan, of which noble -masterpieces (some perhaps actually Chinese) are preserved in the -Japanese temples. Even if we did not know that the early Japanese -painters founded their style entirely on the T‘ang masters, the -Tun-huang pictures, sometimes so singularly close to the Japanese -Buddhist art of the same period, would prove it.</p> - -<p>Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_III">iii</a></span> reproduces rather more than the left-hand half of a large -painting, which itself seems to be only the upper portion of a still -larger composition. The original offers extreme difficulties to -photography; and though the reproduction is more successful than -might have been anticipated, it is necessary to study the original to -appreciate the delicacy of the drawing, especially of the faces of -the Bodhisattvas. The serene grandeur of the design is enhanced by a -pervasion of grace in the delineation of every form. Here, surely, is -the hand of a master. Rivalling this in beauty is the large painting -of which a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">{6}</span> portion is reproduced on Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>, and another portion on -Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span>. Here there is a similar delicate expressiveness of drawing, -combined with a glowing animation of varied colour. The picture is full -of exquisite detail. Note the life and charm, for instance, in the -figure seated with her back to us in the window of the high pavilion in -the upper right-hand portion, next the border (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>). Here again is a -master of individual temperament.</p> - -<p>In both of these pictures the artist has been able to control his -complex material and multitude of forms into a wonderful harmony, -without any restlessness or confusion; and we are taken into an -atmosphere of strange peace, which yet seems filled with buoyant motion -and with floating strains of music.</p> - -<p>None of the other pictures is, as art, quite on this level, the -tendency being for the quality of the workmanship to be inadequate -to the conception and design. The two grand fragments illustrated -on Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">iv</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">v</a></span>; the Avalokiteśvara (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XX">xx</a></span>); the Vaiśravaṇa -crossing the ocean (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLV">xlv</a></span>) are perhaps nearest. And next would come -such examples as the Avalokiteśvara in Glory (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVII">xvii</a></span>) and other -representations of the same Bodhisattva (Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVIII">xviii</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIX">xix</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXI">xxi</a></span>), and -some of the Paradise pictures, and banners; but as we gradually descend -the scale, an insensitive execution contrasts more and more with the -dignity and grandeur of the design. These were not great painters, but -they belonged to a great school. In such a picture as the Two Forms -of Avalokiteśvara (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XV">xv</a></span>) we feel that if only the rather inanimate -workmanship corresponded to the grandeur of the design, we should be in -presence of a masterpiece. We have a hint at least of what majesty the -T’ang masters must have been capable.</p> - -<p>This group of paintings gives to the collection found at Tun-huang an -artistic importance quite beyond that of any of the groups of works of -art discovered by various expeditions in Turkestān; and it is worth -while to examine them a little more closely.</p> - -<p>The flooding wave of Indian religion and Indian art, after traversing -a region of inferior cultures, meets in China for the first time -an established art of original power and native genius. The Indian -religion, in spite of vicissitudes and rebuffs, takes a firm hold on -the Chinese. Buddhist paintings are demanded of the great masters. Of -what character is the resulting art?</p> - -<p>We are unable to say what the earliest treatment of Buddhist themes by -Chinese artists was like. Buddhist images were introduced from India -as early as the first century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, and were eagerly sought for and -studied in succeeding times. Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIV">xiv</a></span>—the original of which is, so -far as we know, unique—is of singular interest; for it consists of -a group of drawings after Indian Buddhist statues—just such as the -great pilgrim of the seventh century, Hsüan-tsang, might have brought -back from his long journeyings among the sacred sites of India. In -the fourth century the famous painter Ku K‘ai-chih painted, we know, -many Buddhist subjects, but neither the ‘Admonitions’ in the British -Museum, nor the <i>Ló-shen Fu</i> in the Freer Collection, shows any trace -of Buddhist or Indian influence; on the contrary, they show the purely -native style of China in its integrity.</p> - -<p>That purely native style is found in the paintings we are examining, -but not as a rule in the treatment of the main subjects. Many of the -large pictures of Paradise have borders on either side, divided into -compartments, in which are painted scenes from the Jātakas or stories -of the former lives of Buddha. One is reminded of the predella pictures -of an Italian altar-piece. Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span> affords a good example, showing -part of the right-hand border of the picture. And here the figures, -the dresses, the landscape, the style of drawing, the spacing, are all -Chinese. Were it not for the subject-matter, no one would dream of -suggesting any influence from India. In the small banners, these Jātaka -episodes form sometimes the entire subject, three or more scenes being -usually painted one above the other. Examples are reproduced on Plate -<span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XII">xii</a></span>, Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIII">xiii</a></span>, and Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVII">xxxvii</a></span>. On these banners we find scenes -from the legend of Śākyamuni in his last life on earth; his conception -by his mother, his birth in the Lumbinī garden, his first steps, his -athletic feats as a boy; his first meeting with death and sickness; his -flight from the palace at midnight. Even here everything is Chinese: -types, costume, architecture, pictorial conventions; it is only -after Gautama has taken up his mission and begun to teach that he is -represented in Indian guise, according to the traditions derived from -Gandhāra.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">{7}</span></p> - -<p>How comes it, then, that in portraying the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, -the saints and Lokapālas or Demon Kings, the Chinese painters -follow so closely the Indian formula? We may suppose that just -as fifteenth-century painters in Italy and the Netherlands, in -representing Gospel scenes, portrayed Christ and his disciples dressed -in a conventional, supposedly Oriental garb, but painted secular -persons and spectators in the costume of their own time and place, -so it was with these Chinese artists. And perhaps this is sufficient -explanation. Yet, when we remark what fidelity to Gandhāran models -was observed, once the Chinese artists had come to know them; when -we remember that the Jātaka scenes were frequent subjects of the -school of Gandhāra and were of course treated in the same style as the -Bodhisattvas; and when we consider that Buddha himself, in his youth, -is portrayed in these banner paintings as a Chinese boy in Chinese -dress, we may be tempted by another hypothesis. We may suppose that -when the Buddha-legends were first illustrated by Chinese painters they -were known by written and oral tradition only, and that the painters, -having no models to fall back upon, painted the chosen scenes in -their own way and according to their own lights; and this style, this -treatment, once fixed, remained. It might be that the tradition thus -formed (which, be it noticed, is continued in Japanese art throughout) -represents an earlier phase of Buddhism, when the Buddha-legend was -more prominent in the mouths of missionaries than the worship of the -Bodhisattvas. But all this is conjecture, and the simpler explanation -may be the right one.</p> - -<p>At any rate, what we have to note is the fact that Chinese painting had -already developed a powerful genius of its own, and, however much it -borrowed, was able to fuse its borrowings in its own style. But before -dealing with this question of the fusion of Indian subject-matter in -Chinese style, let us complete what there is to say about the purely -Chinese features in the Tun-huang paintings.</p> - -<p>Besides the illustrations of Jātaka-legends, there are at the foot -of many of the pictures portraits of their donors. These are most -valuable documents for the student of Chinese painting; for they give -us portraits of people actually living at a certain date, they show -us what costume they wore—thereby often helping us to determine the -approximate date of undated pictures—and they afford more than a hint -of the prevalent style of drawing in secular art.</p> - -<p>Every one who has studied the earlier art of China knows how difficult -it is to find a really trustworthy starting-point for dating pictures -and arriving at a sound conception of the style of a given period. -We have usually only an ancient tradition, at the best, of date and -authorship. But here we have dated work, from which we can start.</p> - -<p>Among the paintings reproduced is one, ‘Four Forms of Avalokiteśvara’ -(Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVI">xvi</a></span>), which bears a date corresponding to the year <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864. This -is the earliest date found on any of the paintings. Others bear dates -of the late ninth and early tenth centuries.</p> - -<p>Comparing the picture reproduced on Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVI">xvi</a></span> with other pictures -which are not dated, we can have little hesitation in assigning the -great majority of the paintings to the second half of the Tang dynasty -(seventh to tenth centuries) and towards its close, though it would be -rash to attempt any minute determination of dates, for reasons already -given.</p> - -<p>We know nothing certain of Chinese painting before Tang times, except -the painting in the British Museum, ‘Admonitions of the Instructress -in the Palace’, and the ‘Ló-shen Fu’ in the Freer Collection, both -ascribed to Ku K‘ai-chih. Whether either of these be allowed to be -an original of the fourth century or not, there can be no doubt that -they represent the style of that period in its main characteristics: -they show a great mastery of expressive drawing of the human figure, -an extraordinary command of finely modulated, sinuous line, a love of -it both for its own sake and as expressive of movement, and a quite -primitive and rudimentary treatment of landscape.</p> - -<p>The paintings we are now considering afford no adequate material -for comparison; but one thing is at once noticeable, and that is -the altered ideal of the human form; in place of the tall, slender -proportions of Ku K‘ai-chih, T‘ang art substitutes shorter and more -massive proportions. An ideal of power has superseded an ideal of grace.</p> - -<p>Hints of the treatment of landscape, primitive by comparison with the -mature Sung art, but decidedly more advanced than Ku K‘ai-chih’s, are -also of much interest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">{8}</span></p> - -<p>Among the Tun-huang paintings there is at least one (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVIII">xxxviii</a></span>) which -seems to be in an earlier style than the rest. This painting of Buddha -attended by divinities of the Planets comes nearer to the style we find -in Ku K‘ai-chih, both in its finer, drier line, in its proportions of -the figure, its generally more primitive aspect, and its comparative -freedom from Indian influence. The bannered chariot may be compared -with the chariot in the Ku K‘ai-chih picture in the Freer Collection. -And yet this picture is dated with a year corresponding to <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 897, -actually later than the ‘Four Forms of Avalokiteśvara’. Similarly a -woodcut, dated <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 947, is much ruder and more primitive-looking -than another dated <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 868. These facts and comparisons warn us of -the danger of attempting to assign dates too confidently. It may well -be that the paintings which are actually the earliest have the least -primitive aspect. Another example which has an archaic air is the -small picture of Kṣitigarbha enthroned, on blue silk (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIX">xxxix</a></span>); but -here, too, we may doubt whether the primitive features may not be due -to provincial style preserving old tradition rather than to actual -antiquity. At the same time it must be remembered that dates going as -far back as the fifth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> are found among the manuscripts -heaped in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas; there is no reason -therefore why some of the paintings should not be considerably older -than the earliest dated specimen.</p> - -<p>One or two paintings in the collection seem to have been added to the -hidden store at a later date. Such is the painting reproduced on Plate -<span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVIII">xxxviii</a></span> of Avalokiteśvara conducting a soul. This is exceptionally well -preserved, and both the style and the costume of the woman point to a -date more recent than late T‘ang. It is a painting of great beauty.</p> - -<p>We may now return to the question of the way in which Indian -subject-matter was fused in Chinese style.</p> - -<p>As we have seen, the narrative-pictures, depicting episodes from the -Jātakas, were originally painted in a purely native manner, the whole -theme being bodily translated into Chinese terms; and this tradition -persisted, and even in Japan the Buddha legend is given a Chinese -dress. But with the devotional pictures it was different. As early as -the fifth century, Chinese artists, as we know from the sculptures at -Yün-kang, were copying the Gandhāra types of the Bodhisattvas, though, -as M. Petrucci has observed, the Gandhāra tradition appears at Yün-kang -‘à l’état de débris, comme une chose finissante’. We may suppose that -the copying of Gandhāra models went on for a time side by side with -the complete translation of Indian story into Chinese formula. But by -degrees the Chinese genius asserted itself; and probably the advent of -Wu Tao-tzŭ and a few other men of genius gave a fresh character to the -Buddhist art of T‘ang.</p> - -<p>The Chinese genius is strong just where the Indian genius is weak. The -bent of the Indian artist is to pour out his emotions and imaginings in -a torrent, shaping them to form and colour as they come; he delights -in exuberance and a fine excess; he cannot bear to leave a corner of -his space unfilled. If we compare the Ajaṇṭā frescoes with the best -of the Tun-huang paintings, say with that partly reproduced on Plate -<span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_III">iii</a></span>, we feel a different instinct at work. The Indian painters draw -their figures and animals with an admirably expressive power and sense -of life; they have freshness of vision, and spontaneous vigour, and -directness of emotion. And it is part of their spontaneousness that -in grouping figures together they accept the accidental appearances -of form, with a result that is often restless to the eye. In the -Tun-huang painting we feel that the artist obeys an instinct which -controls the complex lines of many grouped figures into a continuous -reposeful harmony; a subtle relation between form and form and between -group and group is set up; these relations rather than delineation -of objects engross the painter. There is a sense of movement in the -passage of the great Bodhisattva on his pacing elephant, preceded and -attended by blessed beings, but it is as if they moved to music; and -the sinuous streaming of the cloud on which a cluster of happy souls is -borne enhances this effect of serene and rhythmic motion. This subtle -unifying instinct of design inheres in the Chinese genius.</p> - -<p>Look, again, at the small paintings of Jātaka scenes at the side of -Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>, and note even there the use of spacing. In contrast with -Indian artists, the Chinese understand to the full the power of -suggestion and the value of reticence. They know how to foil forms in -movement<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">{9}</span> with forms in repose, rich detail with empty space, so as -to stir in the spectator the intensest appreciation of each particular -element. Space is not, in Chinese painting, something left over and -unfilled; it is a positive power and an integral factor in design.</p> - -<p>In the typical classics of Chinese art these special powers in the -control of ordered, fluent line, and in mastery of spacing, are -magnificently displayed. But even in these Tun-huang pictures, where -the subject-matter, the imagery, and the canons of ideal form are taken -over from India, we feel how all this is being fused in the fire of a -different genius. And in such a picture as the large Paradise (Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span> -and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span>) how potently this genius is at work, controlling all these many -groups of crowded figures, and this built-up composition, with all its -various colours, in the spell of a single mood of immaterial felicity -and peace!</p> - -<p class="center mt2">IV</p> - -<p>It has been mentioned that a series of Nepalese paintings of -Bodhisattvas were found at Tun-huang. These are precious documents, -because of the extreme rarity of Indian paintings of so early a period; -but as their artistic interest is but slight, they have not been -chosen for illustration. Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXI">xxxi</a></span> reproduces a Tibetan painting. The -territory of Tun-huang was conquered by the Tibetans in the middle of -the eighth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, and till the middle of the ninth century the -Tibetan power was dominant. Quantities of Tibetan Buddhist writings -were found in the cave: and among the paintings this one, certainly, -is entirely Tibetan in style. (Two Tibetan drawings are reproduced on -Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXII">xxxii</a></span>.) It is of the same type as the numerous pictures brought -from Tibet itself in recent years, collections of which are in the -British Museum, and in other museums of Europe and America. With regard -to these pictures the question of date has always been a matter of -conjecture. Many are darkened by incense-smoke, which in a few years -can give an appearance of impressive antiquity. The probability is -that the Tun-huang specimen dates from about the tenth century, and, -if so, it is likely to be the oldest of its kind now in existence, or -at the least one of the oldest. It is painted in distemper on linen, a -technique favoured by the Tibetan artists.</p> - -<p>But how did this Tibetan art grow up? What is the indigenous element -in it? Buddhism was only introduced into the country in the seventh -century, and whether Tibet had any art to speak of before its -introduction we do not know. In Tibetan Buddhism the Tantra system -of magic and witchcraft, and the worship of demons (supposed to be -converted by Buddha and to be vassals under his sovereignty), play a -dominant part; and in the paintings the forms are often monstrous and -horrible, the colouring sombrely splendid. But the harmonies of fluid, -sinuous line, for which they are even more remarkable, seem to be an -element borrowed from Chinese art and carried to excess in Tibet. If -we compare for a moment this painting with, for instance, the one -reproduced on Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLII">xlii</a></span>, we see how much this element counts for. And -on the whole it seems likeliest to suppose that Tibetan painting is -rather an offshoot of Chinese art, developed in a certain direction, -and so acquiring a special character, than a native growth. But of this -we cannot be certain.</p> - -<p>Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLII">xlii</a></span> illustrates, much reduced, an imposing example of the kind -of painting in a mixed style which flourished in Eastern Turkestān. -Note how the flowers dropping through the air suggest none of that -sense of the fragility of flowers, and of their light floating on the -air, which the Chinese artist knows instinctively how to give: they are -heavy and motionless. There is a certain rigidity and solidity in the -whole picture; and the effect of solidity is consciously aimed at by -the system of modelling the central figure in two tones of colour. This -system is carried yet further in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x</a></span>, where high lights on nose and -forehead (blackened through oxidization in some places) have been added -in white. Compare also Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XI">xi</a></span>, illustrating a very large painting of -similar character, full of the most interesting detail (note the babies -enclosed within the lotus-buds, souls of the blessed about to be born -into Paradise). These pictures are painted in what Sir Aurel Stein -calls ‘the fresco style’,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">{10}</span> because they repeat on silk the manner of -the fresco paintings of Tun-huang. In all these pictures the Chinese -element is present but not dominant; and the system of modelling in two -tones of colour comes, we cannot doubt, from the west. It is true that -it was sometimes copied by the Chinese in their Buddhist paintings, as -we know from early Japanese examples following Chinese prototypes: but -the Chinese of T‘ang times were intensely interested in the western -countries; they liked to introduce figures of people from those regions -into their pictures; and, as we know, a painter from Khotan settled in -China in the eighth century and had great success there. But the desire -to suggest mass and roundness by means of modelling in painting was -against the instincts of the Chinese and Japanese; it occurs only in -certain Buddhist pictures, the survival of a borrowing from the west -preserved by hieratic tradition.</p> - -<p>One of the finest of all the Tun-huang pictures is not a painting but -a piece of embroidery. Unfortunately it does not lend itself well to -photography in colour; and its quality and impressive character are -merely suggested in the small Plate (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span>) and in the detail -with a group of donors (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxv</a></span>). Though merely the reproduction -by craftsmen of a master’s work, it shows such skill and taste in -execution, it is so fine in colour, and so well preserved, that it must -be ranked with the very finest of the paintings as an indication of the -grandeur of the Buddhist art of T‘ang.</p> - -<div class="footnote_1"> -<p><a id="Footnote_INTRO_1" href="#FNanchor_INTRO_1" class="fnanchor">1</a>For the wall-paintings and sculptures of the cave-temples of -Tun-huang, see now the fine reproductions in <span class="smcap">M. Paul Pelliot’s</span> <i>Les -Grottes de Touen-houang, Peintures et Sculptures des époques des Wei, -des T‘ang et des Song</i> (Paris, Paul Geuthner, in progress).</p> -</div> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">{11}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak">DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF PICTURES FROM THE CAVES OF THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS -AT TUN-HUANG</h2> -<p class="center lh20 mt0"><span class="small">BY</span><br /> AUREL STEIN</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_I_II">PLATES I, II<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PARADISE OF BHAIṢAJYAGURU</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_01.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">I</div> -</div> -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_02.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">II</div> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">THE first two plates reproduce portions, on half the scale of the -original, from the right and left of a large painting on silk (Ch. lii. -003), remarkable for its noble design, the delicacy of its drawing, -and its glowing colours. In spite of the damage it has suffered along -its sides and bottom (see <cite>Serindia</cite>, Pl. <span class="smcap">lvii</span>) it still measures -close on seven feet in height and over five and a half feet across. -It represents a Buddhist Paradise and, according to M. Petrucci’s -interpretation, the one presided over by Bhaiṣajyaguru, the Buddha -of Medicine, whose cult since an early period has been widespread in -Northern Buddhism from Tibet to Japan. His Heaven is placed in the -East by sacred texts preserved in the Chinese Tripiṭaka. In their -descriptions as well as in our painting Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise shares -the essential features of that still more popular abode of Buddhist -bliss, the Western Paradise, or <i>Sukhāvatī</i>, presided over by the -Buddha Amitābha. Of this the ‘Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’ have -preserved numerous representations both among the pictures recovered -from the walled-up chapel (see Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_VI">vi–viii</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x–xi</a></span>) and among the mural -paintings decorating the temples. But the legendary scenes occupying -the side panels of our painting and connected with Bhaiṣajyaguru are -different, and so are also certain details in the arrangement and -personnel of the main subject. These distinctive features are found -again in another somewhat less elaborate picture of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s -Paradise, reproduced in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVI">xxxvi</a></span>.</p> - -<p>His Heaven presents itself in our picture, as in all the large Paradise -paintings of Tun-huang, as a great assemblage of celestial beings, -elaborately staged on richly decorated terraces and courts which rise -above a lotus lake. On the sides and behind the terraces there are seen -pavilions and elaborate structures of characteristically Chinese style, -representing the heavenly mansions. It is in this sumptuous setting -that Chinese Buddhism has visualized from an early period the idea of -a Paradise where the souls of believers in the Law may be reborn, free -from all taint, in the buds of the lotus lake to enjoy thereafter for -aeons, or in popular belief for ever, blissful rest and pleasures in -the company of Bodhisattvas, Arhats, and other beatified personalities. -The scheme of the whole, as in all representations of Buddhist Heavens -among the Tun-huang paintings, is ordered on the strictly symmetrical -lines of a ‘Maṇḍala’, buildings, trees, groups, and even individual -figures balancing each other on either side of the picture and all -centring round the presiding Buddha in the middle.</p> - -<p>Here we see Bhaiṣajyaguru seated with folded legs and wearing a crimson -mantle over a green under-robe. While his right hand is raised as usual -in the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, the left holds the begging bowl in his lap. -Behind him a couple of flowering trees support a hexagonal canopy of -red drapery. A halo and nimbus of manifold but harmoniously blended -colours<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">{12}</span> surround the Buddha’s figure, which in pose and dress and -in the features of the mild pensive face bears the impress of the -type first evolved in Graeco-Buddhist art even more clearly than the -figures of the surrounding Bodhisattvas. Of these the two enthroned are -identified by M. Petrucci with Mañjuśrī on the right and Samantabhadra -on the left. Above these two chief Bodhisattvas rise six-tiered -umbrellas wreathed in clouds, about which float gracefully poised -figures of Apsaras. The rich flowing garments, which include shawl-like -stoles, and the abundant jewelled ornaments of the two are shared also -by other haloed figures obviously meant for Bodhisattvas, who appear in -attendance on the central Buddha or in varying supple poses occupy the -fore portion of the terrace. The features of all are drawn with extreme -delicacy and pleasing variety of expression, the eyes being in many -cases almost straight, while the flesh is white, with shading in tints -of pink.</p> - -<p>By the side of either of the enthroned Bodhisattvas there is seen a -composite group of divinities, unhaloed and five on each side, of -types not ordinarily met with among the attendants in these Paradise -pictures. Three figures in each group are warrior kings, recalling the -Lokapālas, or Guardians of the Four Regions (see Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLV">xlv</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLVII">xlvii</a></span>), -by their gorgeous armour and head-dresses. The features of most of -them are grotesque, and this aspect of their appearance is enhanced -by the animal figures, including a dragon, gryphon, phoenix, and -peacock, which are shown rising above their shoulders or elsewhere -in conjunction with them. Each group includes the figure of a demon -closely resembling those which are usually met with in the <i>cortège</i> of -Lokapālas (see Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXVI">xxvi</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLV">xlv</a></span>). The demon on the right raises a naked -infant on his hand, just as the demon in the fragmentary painting of -Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLVI">xlvi</a></span>. Immediately behind the enthroned Buddha on the left is seen -a youthful personage wearing what looks like a magistrate’s head-dress, -while the corresponding position on the right is occupied by a warrior -with three faces. Perhaps he represents Brahman and the former divinity -Indra.</p> - -<p>Before the central Buddha and in the middle of the picture is seen a -large platform projecting from the main terrace and carrying a draped -altar with sacred vessels. On either side of it kneel two unhaloed -figures in graceful poses holding up offerings and suggesting nymphs. -Projecting still further into the foreground is a smaller platform, -and on it a dancer performs in rapid movement to the strains of an -orchestra of eight seated musicians. The dancing figure, unmistakably -that of a girl, is dressed in a billowy orange skirt tied round the -hips and a close-fitting crimson jacket reaching only to the waist and -surmounted by a metal-bound plastron. Her head and arms are richly -adorned with jewellery. From behind the neck issues a long narrow stole -which her hands wave as she dances. The figures of the musicians, four -on each side, resemble those of Bodhisattvas in features and dress, but -the shawl-like stoles over the shoulders are absent. Those to the left -play on a harp, two lutes, and a psaltery, while those to the right -play on clappers, flute, Chinese reed-organ, and pipe. The instruments, -of which several have their ancient Japanese counterparts among the -treasures of the Shōsōin collection (see <cite>Shōsōin Catalogue</cite>, i. Pls. -56, 60), have been fully described in Miss Schlesinger’s expert notes -in Appendix <i>K</i> to <cite>Serindia</cite>.</p> - -<p>At the head of each line of musicians there is seen in the background -a small but very curious figure, that of a fat half-naked infant -violently dancing and playing, the one to the left on a narrow-waisted -drum, the one to the right apparently on castanets. Judging from other -Paradise pictures we may assume that these playing infants represent -newly reborn souls who in the joy of their celestial childhood have -been drawn to join the happy scene of music and dancing.</p> - -<p>A kind of gangway projects in front of the dancer’s platform into -the lotus lake, and at its entrance stands a Garuḍa with widespread -wings, playing on cymbals. From the lake rise trees and purple or -scarlet lotus buds and flowers, the latter supporting souls reborn. -Two of these, at the extreme right and left, are sitting upright as -fully developed Bodhisattvas, but with a languid air of newly awakened -consciousness. Two others, faintly visible in the foreground, are -represented as naked infants just springing to life or still curled up -in sleep. A rock on the left at the bottom edge of the lake is occupied -by a crane; its pendant on the right, a peacock, falls outside the -reproduction in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">{13}</span></p> - -<p>The bottom corners of the Paradise are filled by the twelve armed -Kings, the generals of Bhaiṣajyaguru, who act as protectors of the Law. -They kneel six a side upon small terraces with gangways sloping down -into the lake. They are treated in appearance and dress like Lokapālas, -but carry no distinctive weapons. Their hands are joined in adoration -or else hold sacred vessels, jewels, &c.</p> - -<p>Turning to the sides of the picture, we see the main terrace flanked -by two-storied pavilions, both of distinctively Chinese architecture, -and close by them trees carrying rich foliage but no flowers. The -upper chambers of the pavilions are open and show small Bodhisattvas -sitting on railings, pulling up reed-blinds or otherwise enjoying their -leisured life. The lower chambers contain only unoccupied lotus seats -and appear to have just been abandoned by two subsidiary Buddhas, who -are represented as advancing, each with two attendant Bodhisattvas, on -to projecting wings of the main terrace. The dress of the subsidiary -Buddhas is exactly that of the presiding Bhaiṣajyaguru, of whom M. -Petrucci takes them to be repetitions, and the expression of their -faces is similarly mild and pensive.</p> - -<p>The marginal scenes, of which Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span> shows the better preserved ones -on the right side, have been identified by M. Petrucci as representing -incidents of the legend of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s last incarnation as a -Bodhisattva. Without reference to the text of the Chinese Tripiṭaka -which records this legend, but of which the translation prepared by -M. Petrucci is not at present accessible, no interpretation of the -different scenes can be attempted here. Judging from the inscribed -cartouches, at least five scenes are represented in the predella -portion actually reproduced in our Plate. That the treatment of the -figures, the dresses, the landscape is in purely Chinese style is -an observation uniformly applying to all side scenes to be found in -‘Maṇḍala’ pictures from the ‘Thousand Buddhas’, as well as to the -banners representing episodes from Gautama Buddha’s life-story (see -Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XII">xii</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIII">xiii</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVII">xxxvii</a></span>). Mr. Binyon in his Introductory Essay (see -above, p. <a href="#Page_7">7</a>) has discussed different possible explanations of the -striking assertion of Chinese style and feeling in these scenes. Here -it may suffice to draw attention to the skill with which the rapid -movement of the animal figures appearing in our scenes is rendered, -and to the clever use, observed elsewhere also, which is made of hill -ranges and similar landscape features for dividing the several scenes -into clearly marked compartments without sacrificing the effect of the -whole as a connected story.</p> - -<p>A combination of special qualities renders this painting of -Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise one of the most impressive pictures in the -Collection and proves it to be from the hand of a master. As Mr. Binyon -happily puts it, we see in it ‘delicate expressiveness of drawing -combined with a glowing animation of varied colour.... The artist has -been able to control his complex material and multitude of forms into -a wonderful harmony, without any restlessness or confusion; and we are -taken into an atmosphere of strange peace which yet seems filled with -buoyant motion and floating strains of music.’</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_III">PLATE III<br /> -<span class="smaller">A CELESTIAL ASSEMBLAGE</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_03.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">III</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> observations just quoted apply with equal force to the large -painting on silk (Ch. xxxvii. 004), of which Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_III">iii</a></span> reproduces a -little more than the left-hand half on the scale of about one-half. The -painting itself, which though incomplete on all sides still measures -close on six feet across by five feet in height, represents but the -upper portion of a much larger composition. Judging from what survives -of the central figure in the lower broken part (see <cite>Serindia</cite>, -Pl. <span class="smcap">lix</span>), the picture as a whole was meant for a ‘Maṇḍala’ of the -thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara, the Kuan-yin of Chinese Buddhism. But -the heavy band of rhomboidal ornament which, as seen near the lower -edge of the Plate, passes behind the halo of this large central figure -clearly marks off the divine assemblage in the upper portion from the -rest as a well-defined theme by itself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">{14}</span></p> - -<p>The Buddha presiding over this assemblage, whose seated figure our -Plate shows in its upper right corner, is taken by M. Petrucci for -Bhaiṣajyaguru, and the similarity in pose and accessories to the -central Buddha of the previously discussed picture seems to support -this identification. Unfortunately the inscription in Chinese and -Tibetan which occupies the large yellow cartouche in the centre and -might have afforded safe guidance has faded into illegibility. On -either side of this central Buddha is seen a Bodhisattva, seated with -one leg pendent and with the hand nearest to the Buddha raised, like -the right of the latter himself, in the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, the gesture -of argument. In pose, dress, and treatment of features these two -seated Bodhisattvas bear a distinctly Indian air, and this would well -agree with the identification proposed for them by M. Petrucci, who on -the strength of inscriptional indications in a simplified Maṇḍala of -Bhaiṣajyaguru is prepared to recognize Samantabhadra in the Bodhisattva -to the left and his usual counterpart Mañjuśrī in the corresponding -seated Bodhisattva to the right.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_1" href="#Footnote_MAIN_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> Between the presiding Buddha and -the Bodhisattva on either side are grouped three lesser Bodhisattvas -in adoring poses and two haloed monkish disciples. The heads of the -latter, one young, the other old and emaciated, are drawn with much -expressive skill. The same is the case with the faces of most of the -Bodhisattvas, though the great difficulties which the painting offers -to photography do not allow the extreme delicacy of the drawing to be -fully appreciated in the reproduction.</p> - -<p>While the grouping and treatment of the divine personalities so far -named follow well-established lines, a striking feature, met with -again only once among our ‘Maṇḍala’ paintings, is introduced by the -two processions which descend, carried on purple clouds, from either -side towards the centre of the picture. On the left our Plate shows -us the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra seated on a lotus which a white -elephant, his recognized <i>vāhana</i>, carries, as he advances accompanied -by Bodhisattvas and preceded by heavenly musicians to meet Mañjuśrī. -The latter Bodhisattva appears in the corresponding right-hand portion -of the picture seated on his lion and escorted by an exactly similar -<i>cortège</i>.</p> - -<p>Apart from six figures of undetermined lesser Bodhisattvas, some of -whom carry sacred vessels, the <i>cortège</i> of either comprises four -youthful musicians playing on clappers, pipe, flute, and mouth-organ. -In front of them marches a dark-coloured boy, undoubtedly meant for an -Indian, carrying a bronze vessel, while another strides by the side of -the chief Bodhisattva, leading his mount. The exaggerated dark colour -of these Indians is, like the misdrawing of the elephant’s head and -limbs, significant of the painter’s want of familiarity with things -Indian. In the background two of the Lokapālas, or Guardian-kings -of the Four Quarters, attend the train of each divinity. About the -fluttering canopy which rises above the head of each float gracefully -drawn Gandharvīs (Apsaras). From the side there sweeps down a bevy of -tiny Bodhisattva figures clustered within a wreath of purple cloud, -while above it a group of picturesque hills, drawn with true Chinese -feeling for landscape, fills the top corner.</p> - -<p>Throughout the picture the workmanship is that of a master, and the -serene dignity of the composition as a whole is very happily blended -with tenderness of mood and harmonious subtlety of line and colour.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_IV_V">PLATES IV, V<br /> -<span class="smaller">PROCESSIONS OF MAÑJUŚRĪ AND SAMANTABHADRA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_04.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">IV</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_05.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">V</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Closely</span> allied in subject and treatment to the last described picture, -though not quite equal to it in quality of execution, are the two grand -fragments (Ch. xxxvii. 003, 005) partially illustrated by Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">iv</a></span> -and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">v</a></span>. These two large pieces of silk with curved tops once belonged -respectively to the right and left sides of one arch-shaped picture. -The centre portion, which is likely to have contained a seated Buddha, -is lost. But some idea of the size of the whole<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">{15}</span> may be formed from -the fact that the surviving right side portion (Ch. xxxvii. 003, Pl. -<span class="smcap">iv</span>) in its broken state still measures six and a half feet in height -with a width of about three and a half feet, while the dimensions of -the badly broken left side are even larger. The shape of the picture -suggests that it was originally intended to occupy the back of a -vaulted chapel recess or of the aisle of an antechapel.</p> - -<p>The right portion reproduced in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">iv</a></span> (scale one-fourth of original) -shows us Mañjuśrī, mounted on his white lion, advancing towards the -centre, surrounded by a host of attendant Bodhisattvas, Lokapālas, -demons, and nymphs. His mount is led by an Indian attendant and -preceded by a pair of musicians. The whole procession is carried on a -purple cloud.</p> - -<p>The figure of Mañjuśrī is seated in the same attitude as that of -Samantabhadra in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_III">iii</a></span>, with one leg pendent, but with his right -hand held out palm uppermost. The features of his pale-complexioned -face with its peaceful expression are very delicately rendered. But -the Indian model from which they are derived is reflected still more -clearly in the richly draped garments of the Bodhisattva and the forms -of his abundant jewelled ornaments. They are plainly borrowed in all -details from Graeco-Buddhist art transplanted into Central Asia. -The elaborate halo of Mañjuśrī deserves mention for its harmonious -colouring and flame border.</p> - -<p>By the side of the attendant Bodhisattvas, all showing peaceful -features, we note Lokapālas with their demon followers. Of the former -Virūḍhaka, Guardian-king of the South, is recognizable by his club. -The demons are characterized by grotesque features and colouring of -deep red. The attendant divinity seen walking in the lower right corner -awaits identification. He wears the dress of a Chinese dignitary -(high-waisted flowery under-robe and wide-sleeved jacket), while -coiffure and nimbus are those of a Bodhisattva. He carries a fan and -is attended by two nymphs; of the one on the right only the head -survives in the extant fragment. The leader of the lion has a skin of -chocolate-brown colour and coarse features, suggesting a negro type.</p> - -<p>Of the figures of the musicians walking in front but little is -preserved on the right side of the picture. But the corresponding pair -on the left side, which Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">v</a></span> reproduces on a scale of approximately -one-half of the original, has suffered less damage and allows us to -enjoy both the spirited design and the great delicacy of drawing in -these figures. They march with uplifted heads, playing on whistle-pipe -and mouth-organ. In the face of the flute-player on the left delighted -absorption in the music is admirably expressed, while the curving lines -of the body and the floating loose garments convey a sense of rhythmic -motion in complete harmony with the subject. Equally expressive is the -drawing in the face of the musician to the right, with its look of -intent concentration. The larger scale of reproduction allows us to -see here the method of shading used by the painter in the treatment -of the flesh. The delicate colouring of the faces is well set off by -the stronger but harmoniously blended tints of the large globe-shaped -tassel which appears between them, hanging from the harness of -Samantabhadra’s elephant. In the same way the strong black of their -hair and the dark brown of the Mahout’s figure, partially seen on the -left edge of Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">v</a></span>, help to give strength to the colour scheme, in -which light greens and reds prevail.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_VI">PLATE VI<br /> -<span class="smaller">DETAILS FROM A PAINTING OF A BUDDHIST HEAVEN</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_06.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">VI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Here</span> we see the left-hand bottom portion of a Paradise picture -reproduced on the scale of two-thirds, but without the gay colours of -the original (Ch. liv. 004). This represents a Buddhist Heaven presided -over by a Buddha whom M. Petrucci takes to be Śākyamuni.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_2" href="#Footnote_MAIN_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> In certain -characteristic features of the main theme, as well as in the side -scenes, our painting<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">{16}</span> agrees closely with the Paradise picture (Ch. -xxxviii. 004), of which Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_VII">vii</a></span> shows a complete reproduction. To -the latter, therefore, reference may be made as regards the general -arrangement of the celestial scene with its central Buddha flanked by -two principal Bodhisattvas, &c., and that of the marginal scenes, which -in both paintings tell the story of Kalyāṇaṃkara and Pāpaṃkara, as -contained in texts of the Chinese Tripiṭaka.</p> - -<p>The portion of the painting actually shown in our Plate represents -at the top the attendant host of Bodhisattvas, seated or kneeling -by the side of the altar which occupies a central position on the -terrace. A projecting part of this terrace serves as platform for the -performance of the celestial dancer and carries at either front corner -the figure of a Garuḍa playing on a musical instrument, apparently -pipe and clappers. The whole of the terrace is clearly shown as of -wooden construction and as raised on sloping piles above the waters -of the lotus lake. An unusual feature is the grouping of the divine -musicians on two separate terraces in the bottom corners. They are six -on each side and play on harp, lute, syrinx and Chinese mouth-organ, -whistle-pipe, and clappers. Behind the musicians are trees with -pear-shaped leaves and groups of conventional pink and white flowers. -From the lake rise reborn souls in the shape of infants carried on -open lotuses. The face and gesture of the one seen on the left below -the railing of the main terrace admirably express the awakening -consciousness of the newly born soul.</p> - -<p>Throughout the picture the workmanship is highly finished, and -the delicacy of the drawing, especially in the features of the -Bodhisattvas, deserves notice. The prevailing colours are, as usual, -shades of crimson and dull green; but these are enlivened by the white -of the flesh of all divine figures and the orange, pale blue, and -purple used on stoles and haloes.</p> - -<p>The legendary scenes on the sides which M. Chavannes first identified -from the cartouches, here fortunately bearing Chinese inscriptions,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_3" href="#Footnote_MAIN_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> -display throughout purely Chinese style in the dress and attitudes -of figures, &c. The figure of the kneeling lady in the left bottom -compartment is the portrait of a donatrix and may claim special -interest. Her costume and coiffure agree closely with those of the -donatrices in two paintings bearing exact dates of the second half of -the ninth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_4" href="#Footnote_MAIN_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> while they show a marked difference from the -far more elaborate fashion displayed by the ladies who appear in our -numerous dated pictures of the tenth century. I have had occasion to -call attention elsewhere to the very helpful <i>indicia</i> which changing -fashions in the dress and coiffure of donatrices, and to a lesser -extent in those of donor figures also, supply for the chronology of the -Ch‘ien-fo-tung pictures.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_5" href="#Footnote_MAIN_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_VII">PLATE VII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THE PARADISE OF ŚĀKYAMUNI</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_07.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">VII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> painting (Ch. xxxviii. 004), reproduced here on the scale of -two-sevenths, is practically complete and in a very fair state of -preservation, still retaining its border of yellowish-green silk. -As already mentioned in the description of the preceding Plate, it -represents the Paradise of a Buddha in whom M. Petrucci recognizes -Śākyamuni, the historical Buddha.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_6" href="#Footnote_MAIN_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> The ordinance of the celestial -assemblage is simple, though showing some peculiar features. The -presiding Buddha, with legs interlocked and both hands in the -<i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, occupies a lotus seat in the centre and faces the -draped altar. By him we see seated two principal Bodhisattvas, alike -in appearance and dress but with hands in different poses. According -to M. Petrucci’s view based on the inscriptions of a much-reduced -presentation of the same Paradise (Ch. xxxiii. 001), we may identify -the Bodhisattva on the left with Ākāśagarbha and the one on the -right with Kṣitigarbha. Between them and the Buddha is shown on each -side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">{17}</span> a small shaven disciple, of childlike appearance with hands -in adoration. Above the heads of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas are seen -canopies carried by pairs of trees and encircled by big flowers, and -behind them appears the pavilion with boldly upturned eaves which -represents the celestial mansion, the habitation of blessed souls. In -the air above and carried on clouds float the small figures of four -Buddhas amidst a sprinkling of orange flowers.</p> - -<p>On the main terrace in front of the triad we see a dancer performing -in spirited movement. Its rhythmic rapidity is happily conveyed by -the graceful scroll-lines of the scarf she waves freely in her hands. -On either side four Bodhisattvas occupy lotus seats with hands folded -in adoration. Pairs of musicians sit in front of them, playing on a -reed-organ, lute, psaltery, and clappers. Gangways lead down from the -terrace to the lotus lake. Its bottom corners are occupied by Garuḍa -figures, half human half bird, standing on rocks and displaying plumy -semi-floral tails, with hands folded in adoration.</p> - -<p>Most of the foreground is filled by a large isolated terrace carrying -in the centre a subsidiary Buddha, an arrangement which is peculiar. On -his right is seated a small Bodhisattva adoring, while to his left the -corresponding place is taken by a haloed disciple with shaven head and -hands in the same pose. He wears monkish robes with the addition of a -necklace, and thus presents the appearance peculiar in our paintings to -Kṣitigarbha, as seen in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXV">xxv</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIX">xxxix</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XL">xl</a></span>. This distinctly supports -the view of M. Petrucci, who takes the group below for a repetition of -the principal triad and accordingly identifies the Bodhisattva to the -left with Ākāśagarbha and the Buddha with Śākyamuni. The appearance -of the Buddha is very unusual; for the crimson robe lined with white, -which covers him closely to the neck, shows the red disc of the Sun -painted on the left shoulder, the white disc of the Moon (with the tree -of immortality) on the right shoulder, and Mount Meru on the front of -the body, flanked by a man’s figure on either side.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_7" href="#Footnote_MAIN_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> - -<p>The marginal scenes of the painting, eleven in all, are taken, as -mentioned above, from the legend of Kalyāṇaṃkara and Pāpaṃkara. Their -detailed interpretations were to have been furnished in the volume -which M. Chavannes was preparing on a selection of our paintings for -publication in the <i>Mémoires concernant l’Asie orientale</i> with the help -of materials left behind by M. Petrucci.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_8" href="#Footnote_MAIN_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> In the absence of such -guidance it must suffice here to point out the purely Chinese style -of all details in these scenes, including the curving hill ranges and -pine-clad cliffs which serve to separate them.</p> - -<p>A broad band resembling a tessellated pavement divides the main picture -and side scenes from a panel below, which shows the donors kneeling on -either side of what was the space left for a dedicatory inscription -completely effaced or, perhaps, never written. On the right kneels a -row of six men wearing loose belted coats of different colours, while -on the left we see in front a bald-headed aged figure which may be -meant either for a monk or a nun; behind it a lady alone, and in the -third rank three others of more youthful appearance. Behind these again -are three boys with their hair done in round tufts above the temples.</p> - -<p>Here, too, the costumes are of interest as affording indications as -to the approximate date of the painting. Among the men’s we may note -that, whereas three wear black hats with wide side-flaps such as are -found regularly on the heads of donors in our tenth-century pictures, -the other three wear the black lobed and tailed caps which are common -in the side scenes and the banners representing legendary incidents of -Gautama Buddha’s life (see Pls. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XII">xii</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIII">xiii</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVII">xxxvii</a></span>). Of the costumes in -these representations I have, as I believe, shown that they go back -to a period distinctly earlier than the bulk of our pictures from the -‘Thousand Buddhas’.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_9" href="#Footnote_MAIN_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> The chronological observation regarding our -painting (Ch. xxxviii. 004) is borne out still more clearly by the -fashion which the donatrices display. The elaborate head-dress worn -by the ladies in all tenth-century pictures is conspicuously absent, -and the hair is done plain in a flat round topknot or in a large -backward-waving crest just as in the donatrix figures of the picture -dated <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864 and reproduced in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVI">xvi</a></span>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">{18}</span></p> - -<p>Good and refined as the drawing is, especially in the faces and hands -of Bodhisattvas and donatrices, we meet elsewhere with details which -have not been highly finished. As in other paintings of this class, the -prevailing colour is crimson on dull light green, with orange on the -Bodhisattvas’ robes and the tiles of the terrace, turquoise blue on the -altar-cloth, &c.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_VIII">PLATE VIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">AMITĀBHA’S PARADISE</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_08.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">VIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> painting (Ch. lviii. 0011), which this Plate reproduces on the -scale of two-fifths, is a good specimen of a fairly numerous group of -pictures which represent Amitābha’s ‘Western Paradise’, or <i>Sukhāvatī</i>, -as it is named in Sanskrit. It has lost the side scenes and its extreme -top and bottom, but is otherwise well preserved. Though not as large as -some representations of this, the most popular of Buddhist Heavens, nor -quite as sumptuous in its pageantry, our painting yet well illustrates -all the typical features of the series. The uniformity with which -the general scheme is observed in these Sukhāvatī pictures of our -Collection, more than a dozen in all, points to prolonged evolution -before even the oldest of them was painted.</p> - -<p>On the principal terrace we see the presiding Buddha, Amitābha, seated -with his hand raised in the <i>vitarha-mudrā</i>. The Bodhisattvas seated -on both sides, Avalokiteśvara to the right and Mahāsthāma to the left, -make up the triad typical of Amitābha’s Paradise as determined by -inscribed representations and familiar from an early period also to -Buddhism in Japan. Between them and in front, by the side of the altar, -appears seated a host of lesser Bodhisattvas. The altar carries vessels -with offerings and is draped with a valance decorated with triangular -tabs and streamers; it is of interest as exactly corresponding to the -large silk valances I recovered from the walled-up chapel.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_10" href="#Footnote_MAIN_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> In the -background above, partly screened by the elaborate canopies of the -triad, are seen the celestial mansions in the shape of pavilions and -towers of purely Chinese style.</p> - -<p>A portion of the terrace projecting in front of the altar is occupied -by a dancer and six musicians, to whose strains she performs. Here, -too, the dancer’s rhythmic movement is emphasized by the sinuous lines -of the stole which she waves in her hands and by bands fluttering -upwards from her head-dress. Mouth-organ, clappers, psaltery, flute, -and two differently shaped lutes are the musical instruments played -on. At the foot of the gangway descending to the water of the lotus -lake is shown a figure suggesting a seated Bodhisattva as seen from the -back. The lotus seat and the curling drapery of a stole are clearly -recognizable. The bent arms seem to support some offering, perhaps like -an Indian ‘Dālī’, as traces of red flowers and of leaves can be made -out in the original.</p> - -<p>Lotus flowers and rocks appear rising above the water. In the centre -of the foreground is a black-tiled platform, on which are assembled a -Garuḍa, peacock, crane, and some smaller bird resembling a duck but -partly effaced. On either side of this platform there rises from the -water a terrace bearing a subsidiary representation of Amitābha’s -triad. The pose of the Buddha is the same as in the main group above, -but both the Bodhisattvas by his side are here shown with hands joined -in adoration. This repetition of the divine triad in the bottom -corners is very frequent in the pictures of Amitābha’s Paradise. The -representation of a newly born soul seated on a lotus and floating -up the gangway which leads to each of these subsidiary groups is a -pleasing addition to this conventional arrangement.</p> - -<p>The workmanship of the painting is throughout careful and well -finished. From a background of dull green crimson, orange-yellow and -white stand out as the prevailing colours. The last is largely used on -the decorated haloes and ‘Padmāsanas’, or lotus seats, as well as for -the flesh of all attendant figures. The absence of black and blue is -marked in the general colour scheme.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">{19}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_IX">PLATE IX<br /> -<span class="smaller">LEGENDARY SCENES FROM A PAINTING OF MAITREYA’S PARADISE</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80w"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_09.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">IX</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> scenes reproduced here, on half the scale of the original, are -taken from the top and bottom portions of a large and well-preserved -silk painting (Ch. lviii. 001) of Maitreya’s Paradise. For a -reproduction of the whole picture and for its special points of -iconographic interest, as the only representation in our Collection of -that famous Tuṣita Heaven in which the future Buddha of the present -world period is supposed to reside, a reference to <cite>Serindia</cite> must -suffice here.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_11" href="#Footnote_MAIN_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> The Chinese inscriptions which render the attribution -of this Paradise to Maitreya certain (even though the Bodhisattva -appears in it as a Buddha, a status which he is yet to attain) are -taken from the text of the <i>Maitreya-vyākaraṇa-sūtra</i> and accompany -legendary scenes shown in the top corners and along the bottom of -the painting. These scenes, as seen in our Plate, are not formally -separated from the Paradise proper, but merge into it at the bottom and -are above only divided from it by a range of pine-clad mountains.</p> - -<p>The inscriptions and the legendary scenes to which they refer were to -have been interpreted in MM. Petrucci and Chavannes’ separate volume in -the <i>Mémoires concernant l’Asie orientale</i>.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_12" href="#Footnote_MAIN_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> The materials prepared -for it by those lamented collaborators are not at present accessible -to me, and in the absence of textual guidance the descriptive notes -on the scenes must here be brief. In the scene above on the right we -see three men in Chinese magisterial costume seated along a table on -a terrace, while before them two men stand right and left of a large -disc, provided with a tripod (?) and suggesting a metal mirror into -which a third smaller figure appears to gaze. To the left, between two -inscribed cartouches, are shown three men seated behind a table, the -centre one being on a lotus seat. Their head-dress is the same black -hat with broad flaps sticking out sideways which is worn by the three -seated figures to the right and which, as stated above, is always found -in the representations of donors on our tenth-century paintings.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_13" href="#Footnote_MAIN_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> -Still further to the left is depicted a husbandman in lobed and tailed -cap, driving a plough before which are harnessed a dark bull or cow and -a smaller whitish animal of the bovine species, apparently reluctant to -move on.</p> - -<p>In the left corner scene we see a personage in official dress seated -on a small platform or throne before the gate of what seems to -represent a walled palace. To the left of him a demon-like figure is -shown striding, while on the right he is being approached by a group -comprising a Buddha and two smaller figures of monkish disciples. A -little to the right of this group stands a layman in adoring pose; -above the whole there appears a dragon-like monster descending on a -cloud. In the background to the right within the arched opening of -a reed hut is seen a pair, apparently man and wife, seated on a low -platform before which stands erect a lady wearing the wide-sleeved -dress and the elaborate coiffure familiar from the donatrices of our -tenth-century pictures.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_14" href="#Footnote_MAIN_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p> - -<p>If the significance and interrelation of the top scenes at present -escapes us we have less difficulty about the general interpretation of -those at the bottom of the picture. On the right and left the scenes -placed below the flanking terraces of the Paradise manifestly show -conversions to the Buddhist Law. On the right is seen a personage -elaborately dressed and obviously of high rank, who is seated upright -on a square platform, with feet on a footstool, undergoing tonsure by -a monk. Four men in secular costume, holding rolls of paper in their -hands, stand behind him. Three others attend in front, one of them -holding a wide dish to receive the cut hair and a second carrying -a vase. In the background stands a groom holding three elaborately -caparisoned horses. Their figures are well drawn with elegant small -heads, broad shapely breasts, and slim legs. Two are white and one red. -Their type closely recalls<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">{20}</span> the present Badakhshī breed of Western -Turkestān, a favourite region for China’s horse imports since early -times; it is exactly represented also among the numerous clay figures -of horses which in 1915 I excavated in plenty from Turfān graves of the -T‘ang period. The saddles, high-pommeled at back and front, and covered -with long saddle-cloths, are met with there also. For the ornamentation -of headstall, breast-band, and crupper, reference to a painted panel -from Dandān-oilik showing a horseman and also of the T‘ang period is -instructive.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_15" href="#Footnote_MAIN_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> - -<p>The scene on the left forms an exact pendant to the one just described. -Here a lady similarly placed and attired is having her head shaved by a -monk. Among the attendants behind her two ladies have their hair done -in topknots with two high loops, whereas two others, evidently girls, -wear it in a bunch on either side of the head with a short lock hanging -from each. Behind appear bearers of the hexagonal palanquin with pagoda -roof, of which a small portion is included in the reproduction.</p> - -<p>The central scene shows the adorning of a Stūpa or Buddhist relic -tower and presents points of distinct antiquarian interest. Its -shape is cylindrical, with a low flat dome and a square base below. -A three-tiered umbrella, hung with streamers and metal ornaments, -surmounts it. Below workmen are seen engaged in arranging the -draperies. Two long tables are laden with flasks, bowls, and other -offerings, while bundles of manuscript rolls are placed at either side; -they are all likely to represent votive gifts made at the time of -consecration.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_X">PLATE X<br /> -<span class="smaller">AMITĀBHA WITH ATTENDANTS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_10.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">X</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> painting (Ch. liii. 001) which this Plate successfully reproduces -in colours, on the scale of three-eighths of the original, is a good -representative of the small but interesting class of what may be -designated as simplified Paradise pictures. We see in it Amitābha -enthroned on a lotus between Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāma, with two -lesser Bodhisattvas in front and a row of well-individualized disciples -behind. No lake is represented; but a comparison with the painting -represented in the next Plate, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XI">xi</a></span>, with which ours shares a number of -marked peculiarities in composition, style, colour, and treatment, -suffices to show that a representation of Amitābha’s Heaven is intended.</p> - -<p>Amitābha is seated with legs interlocked and his right hand raised in -the usual <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>. His flesh is yellow shaded with red which -has changed to a curious iridescent mauve; his hair a bright blue. His -mantle, vivid crimson, is wrapped round both shoulders, its drapery -reproducing all details of the arrangement which Graeco-Buddhist -sculpture had borrowed from Hellenistic art and handed over to be -stereotyped with hieratic convention in the Buddha figures of Central -Asia and the Far East. The lotus, his seat, is raised on a high stepped -pedestal and has its pink petals covered all over with beautiful floral -scrolls in white, blue, and black. Similar rich scroll-work adorns the -base of the pedestal and reappears on the canopy which hangs above -the Buddha’s head, raised on two trees. Their stems are treated like -jewelled poles, and their large star-shaped leaves are arranged in -whorls enclosing conical clusters of red fruit. An Apsaras sweeps -down on either side, scattering flowers; her floating garments and -the gracefully curling clouds which support her express rapidity of -movement.</p> - -<p>Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāma occupy well-designed, if less -ornate, lotus seats, the former raising a flaming jewel in his left -hand and the latter an alms-bowl. Among the multicoloured jewellery -with which they are bedecked, the Dhyāni-buddha set in front of the -tiara may be mentioned. Below them are seated two lesser Bodhisattvas, -in similarly rich dress and adornment, the one, in profile, holding -a red lotus, the other, in three-quarters profile, a flask. Their -foreshortened elliptical haloes in green and the transparent light blue -stoles deserve notice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">{21}</span></p> - -<p>A particularly interesting element is introduced into the celestial -company by the six disciples ranged behind the triad, three a side -in ascending tier. They all have the shaven heads of monks and plump -solid features; but their alert faces are well individualized and the -expression markedly varies, from the jovial smile of the second figure -on the right to the serious and even severe look of the last on the -left. It is specially regrettable here that, as in so many of our -paintings, the cartouches above the different divine figures have not -been filled in. The red lotus bud carried by the last disciple on the -left and the priest’s staff in the hand of the corresponding figure on -the right do not help to identify them, nor do the crossbars on their -mantles. The haloes of all these figures, including those of the triad, -are only outlined in narrow rings of red and white, the interior being -shown as practically transparent—not a usual treatment.</p> - -<p>Below Amitābha’s lotus seat, and partly covering the front of its -pedestal, is the panel for the dedicatory inscription, in the form of -a stone slab with a low arched top, carried on the back of a tortoise. -Unfortunately the dedication was never inscribed, and we are thus -left without means for exactly dating this interesting picture. But -very valuable help in this direction is afforded by what remains of -the figures of the donors in the bottom corners. That of the man on -the right is lost, except for the top of his cap. But that of the -wife kneeling on the left is complete and a figure of great charm. It -is manifestly a portrait, painted with considerable skill, and was -deservedly chosen by M. Petrucci for full-size reproduction in the -Vignette of the present publication.</p> - -<p>The lady kneels on a mat, her hands holding a long-stemmed red flower. -The pose and face admirably express pious devotion. The delicate -treatment of the features distinctly recalls that of female heads in -a silk painting, unfortunately very fragmentary, which I recovered in -1915 from a seventh-century Chinese tomb at Turfān. The lady’s costume, -with its pleated skirt high under the arms, small bodice with long -narrow sleeves, and little crossover shawl, as well as her hair plainly -done in a small knot on the neck, represent a fashion distinctly older -than that to be seen in the donatrices’ figures of our earliest dated -picture (see Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVI">xvi</a></span>) of <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864. We find the same indications of -an early date in the dresses and coiffures worn by the donors and -donatrices in the silk painting Ch. xlvii. 001 (Pl. <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XI">xi</a></span>), which shares -many peculiarities of our picture, and also in the undoubtedly ancient -embroidery picture shown in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxv</a></span>.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_16" href="#Footnote_MAIN_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p> - -<p>This chronological observation lends special interest to a notable -point of technique, the use of ‘high lights’ to bring out the modelling -of the flesh, in addition to ordinary colour shading. This is very -conspicuous in the faces of the monkish disciples, and equally striking -also in most of the figures in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XI">xi</a></span>, but it cannot be traced -elsewhere among our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings. The western origin of -this system of modelling has been duly emphasized by Mr. Binyon.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_17" href="#Footnote_MAIN_17" class="fnanchor">17</a></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XI">PLATE XI<br /> -<span class="smaller">A PARADISE OF AMITĀBHA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_11.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> this large and on the whole fairly preserved silk painting (Ch. -xlvii. 001), reproduced on the scale of one-fourth, we have a Sukhāvatī -scheme fully developed on lines which, while closely resembling those -of the picture last discussed, differ from those of the usual Buddhist -Paradise type. It shows us Amitābha and his two chief Bodhisattvas -seated on lotus thrones rising from the Sukhāvatī lake, and on the -terrace forming the foreground various celestial beings characteristic -of Paradise scenes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">{22}</span></p> - -<p>Amitābha, closely draped, raises his right hand in the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, -while his left, mostly destroyed, is held against the breast. His -flesh is yellow, as usual, his hair grey with outlines and close curls -indicated in black as if copied from statuary. On either side of him is -an elaborately decorated pillar with a flaming jewel at the top. Two -trees with leaves as already described in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x</a></span> rise behind him and -support a canopy ornamented with rich floral scrolls. Two Apsaras sweep -down on either side of it, just as seen in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x</a></span> and the embroidery -picture, Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span>.</p> - -<p>Similar trees carrying many-tiered canopies rise over Avalokiteśvara -seated on the left and Mahāsthāma on the right. Two attendant -Bodhisattvas, in equally rich attire as theirs, stand by their sides -with hands in varying poses. The flower-spotted materials of the -Bodhisattvas’ robes and the graceful figure of the attendant to -Avalokiteśvara’s right may be noted. At the back of the triad a wall -of many-coloured marble blocks bounds the lake. In the air above -descend Buddhas seated on clouds; cleverly drawn figures of naked -infants, representing reborn souls, float with outspread stoles, while -beribboned musical instruments symbolize harmonies pervading space.</p> - -<p>On the lake swim ducks, emblems of happiness, and oval lotus buds rise -enveloping infant souls. Inscriptions beside the lotuses describe -the rank taken by the soul in its new life. There is no altar before -the Buddha, as in other Paradise scenes, no dancer or musicians, no -celestial mansions. But a sacred vessel is borne on a lotus from the -water before Amitābha and small Bodhisattvas kneel on either side. In -front of them again, on a wooden platform, are grouped a two-headed -Garuḍa, a phoenix, duck, crane, and peacock.</p> - -<p>On the terrace which fills the whole foreground are seated Bodhisattvas -four a side and well spaced. By the rail in front are two half-naked -infants, no doubt newly born souls, one advancing slowly, the other -dancing or running. Both hold flowers or berries and have, like the -infants in the sky, their heads shaved except for a two-lobed tuft of -hair over the forehead and one over each ear.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_18" href="#Footnote_MAIN_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Between them and the -Bodhisattvas are shown large flaming jewels on lotuses.</p> - -<p>In the middle by the side of a slab, arched at the top and intended for -a dedicatory inscription but left blank, are shown the small figures of -the donors. On the right kneel two men with long belted coats and small -lobed and tailed caps. Their attire bears close resemblance to the -quasi-archaic dress in the Jātaka scenes as presented by our banners, -and also to that in certain relievos of the early Buddhist cave shrines -of Yün-kang and Lung-mên.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_19" href="#Footnote_MAIN_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> The costume and coiffure of the lady -kneeling on the left agree exactly with those of the donatrix seen in -the preceding Plate and the Vignette. As regards the chronological -evidence which these details of attire afford, I may refer to my -remarks on that Plate.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_20" href="#Footnote_MAIN_20" class="fnanchor">20</a></p> - -<p>With the picture reproduced in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x</a></span> our painting shares also a -number of other characteristic peculiarities, such as the use of ‘high -lights’ for the modelling of the flesh; the unobtrusiveness of the -haloes, which are transparent and often shown only in outlines; the -flower patterns spotting the materials of the robes, &c. On the other -hand, striking differences of composition, such as the total absence -of the celestial mansions in the background and the ample spacing of -the figures, make it clear that we have here preserved a specimen of -a Sukhāvatī scheme developed independently of the orthodox type which -prevails among our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings, whether on silk or mural, -and which has become stereotyped in Japan.</p> - -<p>There is a general absence of vivid colours in our picture. Dull green, -with grey and black for the tiled terrace in front, prevails in the -background, and dull green, light pink or red, and greenish grey in -the colouring of figures and accessories. This quiet and coolness of -colouring and a certain emptiness of the background give an effect of -air and space which such crowded compositions as the Paradise seen in -Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span> lack. The drawing is free and rapid but rather rough in -detail.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">{23}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XII">PLATE XII<br /> -<span class="smaller">SCENES FROM GAUTAMA BUDDHA’S LIFE</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80w"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_12.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> and the following Plate, together with Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXVII">xxxvii</a></span>, illustrate -a group of paintings well represented among the silk banners of the -Collection and of special iconographic and artistic interest. Painted -like the rest of the silk banners on both sides of a fine gauze-like -fabric, they show scenes taken from the legendary life of Gautama -Buddha or closely connected with it. The usual length of the banners -(exclusive of the triangular top and other accessories) does not appear -to have much exceeded twenty-five inches, and their width, as seen from -the specimens which Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XII">xii</a></span> reproduces full size, is restricted. As -a necessary result of the narrow shape of the banners, we find the -succession of scenes always arranged one above the other and in the -completely preserved ones limited to four.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_21" href="#Footnote_MAIN_21" class="fnanchor">21</a></p> - -<p>This group of paintings is as well defined in style as it is in -range of subjects and external arrangement. Everything in the scenes -connected with the physical types of the actors, their costumes and -movements, as well as the setting, whether architecture or landscape, -appears here ‘translated bodily into Chinese’, to use Mr. Binyon’s -graphic phrase. The traditional subjects of the historical Buddha’s -life-story have in fact, as M. Foucher has with equal pregnancy put -it, ‘undergone the same disguising transformation which Christian -legend has under the hands of the Italian or Flemish painters’.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_22" href="#Footnote_MAIN_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> -It contrasts strikingly with this, that the figures of Buddhas and -Bodhisattvas, in our banners and large paintings alike, show close -conformity in physical appearance and dress to the hieratic types -derived from the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. For possible -explanations of the very interesting problem thus raised reference to -Mr. Binyon’s ‘Introductory Essay’ will suffice here.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding their frankly Chinese style, the banners with scenes -from Gautama Buddha’s Life show considerable diversity of composition -and treatment. We note these variations all the more easily because the -banners range themselves into small groups, one alone not affording -sufficient room for a representation of even the most important -incidents of the Life. Two banners of such a group, each with only two -scenes preserved out of the four which the original, no doubt, once -comprised, are shown in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XII">xii</a></span> on the left and right. Both banners -have the same decorated borders along the sides and between the several -scenes, and both have cartouches, here fortunately filled with Chinese -inscriptions naming the subjects represented.</p> - -<p>The banner on the left (Ch. lv. 0016) shows us two of the famous ‘Four -Encounters’ which bring before Prince Gautama’s eyes the three evils -of earthly life—old age, illness, and death, and the means to escape -them by renunciation. We find them all represented already in the -fifth-century relievos of Yün-kang, while strangely enough they have -not yet been found among the Gandhāra sculptures.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_23" href="#Footnote_MAIN_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> Above we see -the prince riding out of the green-tiled gateway of the battlemented -courtyard wall of his father’s palace. Over it is shown a pavilion with -red timber framework and greenish-blue roof. The red-maned well-drawn -horse represents the Kaṇṭhaka of the legend. A courtier in flowing -robes with a high black cap attends him on foot. Before him under a -tree is shown the bent figure of the old man leaning upon a stick and -wearing on his head a black hood. Another man, who stands by his side -and evidently supports him, has the black lobed and tailed cap to which -reference has been made above as the head-dress worn by the donors of -our oldest Tun-huang paintings. It is that of all common personages in -our Jātaka scenes. The high conical head-dress of the courtier is found -also in the above-quoted relievo panels of Yün-kang.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_24" href="#Footnote_MAIN_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> Prince Gautama -himself in the scenes of both our banners here wears a head-ornament -resembling a white lotus.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">{24}</span></p> - -<p>In the scene below we see the prince riding with bent head from the -same palace gateway. Here it is shown on the right, and its interior -timber frame clearly displayed. The courtier by his side, attired -as above, approaches with compassionate expression the group on the -left. Here under a tree is seen sitting upon the ground the sick man, -supported by a friend in a red dress, while another in green offers him -drink in a bowl. The emaciation of his body and of his arms spread upon -his knees is shown with realistic skill.</p> - -<p>In the companion banner on the right (Ch. xlix. 006) the lower scene, -composed in exactly the same style, represents Prince Gautama as a -child discoursing on his anterior lives to civil and military officers, -as the accompanying inscription tells us. The future Buddha sits on a -verandah of the palace, holding out his arms evidently in the act of -reciting his Jātaka tales. In front of him kneels a man, in black cap -and orange belted coat, holding a manuscript roll. On the ground below -stands a bearded personage wearing the dress of a civilian dignitary; -he also carries a roll in his hands, which are covered by the wide -sleeves of his robe. Two persons stand behind the prince outside the -verandah. One in the dress of an attendant carries in his arms a round -receptacle filled with small objects no longer recognizable. The other, -wearing a tall round black cap, a brown mantle, and white under-robe, -grasps with his right hand what from the gesture seems to be the hilt -of a sword, and may hence be taken as representing the military element -in the royal entourage.</p> - -<p>The seated figure of Buddha seen in the upper panel illustrates what -has been said above about the close adherence to the models derived -from Gandhāra art in the delineation of divine figures which stand -outside Gautama’s life-story before his attainment of Buddhahood. This -representation of the Buddha in our banner reflects Indian hieratic -tradition in every detail. He is shown seated on a large scarlet -lotus, with the left hand raised in the attitude of ‘protection’ -(<i>abhaya-mudrā</i>).<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_25" href="#Footnote_MAIN_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> A crimson under-robe, with light blue lining, -covers legs and right shoulder, while a brown mantle lined with light -green is thrown over the bare left. The finely drawn face, with arched -black brows and level eyes, shows no trace of Chinese influence. -Throughout the drawing is firm and clear in the smallest details and -the workmanship very delicate.</p> - -<p>The banner reproduced in the middle (Ch. 0071) has survived only in -badly broken fragments, but even thus claims attention for several -qualities. Though of the topmost scene little else remains but the -figure of the seated Prince Gautama, it can, on the strength of other -closely corresponding scenes, be safely recognized as representing -the farewell in the forest from his horse Kaṇṭhaka and its groom -Chandaka,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_26" href="#Footnote_MAIN_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> after the prince’s flight from his father’s palace. Lower -down we are shown in an excellently composed scene the pursuit of the -mounted messengers sent by his father Śuddhodana to search after him -in the forest. The group of five horsemen with heads turned towards -each other as if baffled as to the track to follow are plunging behind -a forested hill to the left. The drawing of men and horses is very -spirited and the movement of both vividly expressed.</p> - -<p>In the bottom scene we may recognize with some probability a -representation of the First Sermon in the Deer Park of Benares. -Śākyamuni, in Buddha robes, with halo and vesica and gilded flesh, -is seated on a lotus upon a chased throne. Over him hangs a draped -canopy supported by a pair of red-flowering star-leaved trees just as -Paradise pictures show them. Of three monks standing behind the throne -the shaven heads are visible. In front kneel the audience—three men -with high topknots and gay party-coloured jackets and long under-robes. -With their faces raised towards the Enlightened One they seem to listen -intently to his teaching. Throughout the colouring is ornate and -carefully applied in illuminating style.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">{25}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XIII">PLATE XIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">SCENES FROM THE BUDDHA LEGEND</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80w"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_13.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> banner reproduced on the right (Ch. xx. 008) on a scale almost -full size belongs to a well-defined series of banners, all of the same -style and workmanship, illustrating scenes from the story of Gautama -Buddha.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_27" href="#Footnote_MAIN_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> The scenes are all simple in design and divided from each -other by low hill ranges. Their number in our banner is only three, as -shown also by the three cartouches, all left blank.</p> - -<p>The top scene shows King Śuddhodana seated on the verandah of his -palace and giving instructions to the mounted messenger to be -dispatched in search of Prince Gautama after his flight from the -palace. The figure, short and squat, of the messenger is characteristic -of the whole series; that of the horse, compact and heavy in build, -suggests a type like that of the present Mongol pony. In the next scene -we see the messenger engaged on his quest, carrying a red pennon and -galloping to the left. The rapid movement of the horse, here bay with -red spots and white mane and tail, is effectively rendered.</p> - -<p>The scene below represents the messenger returning and reporting to the -king the futility of his search. Śuddhodana is seen as before seated -on the palace verandah while two musicians outside beguile him with -flute and pipe. Further down in the foreground are shown an enclosure, -containing a lotus tank and a bamboo tree, and outside its entrance a -small hexagonal structure with an oblong yellow object within. Higher -up kneels a white-coated man playing on clappers. The significance of -the objects in the foreground is not clear. The drawing, though rough, -shows vigour, and the general effect is bold and in the more active -scenes full of character.</p> - -<p>On the left of this banner is reproduced, on half-scale, what -remains of the left-hand portion of an interesting but unfortunately -much-damaged large painting on silk (Ch. 0059). The colour of the -original is remarkably strong and the subject unusual. It represented, -when complete, the figure of Śākyamuni standing erect in the grotto -of the Vulture Peak (<i>Gṛdhrakūṭa</i>), famous in the story of the Buddha, -and by his side Jātaka scenes of a type not met with elsewhere among -our paintings and so far unidentified. Though only the right shoulder -and arm of the Buddha figure survive, there can be no doubt about its -iconographic character. The rocks, dark blue and brown, which appear -piled behind and above, with the vulture perched on the top, would -render this quite certain.</p> - -<p>The identification is fully confirmed by the pose of the Buddha. The -arm hanging stiffly downwards at full length and slightly away from -the body, with fingers also stretched straight down, is seen again in -the central Buddha of the great embroidery picture of Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span> and -in the figure undoubtedly representing Śākyamuni on Gṛdhrakūṭa, which -the painting shown in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIV">xiv</a></span> reproduces among other Indian statues -of Buddha. The representation in the embroidery picture is recalled -also by the deep yellow colour of the flesh in our painting as well as -by the shape and certain details in the canopy. The elongated vesica, -cobalt blue in its border, and the light green and vermilion nimbus are -both edged with flames and cloud scrolls in vermilion and dark blue. -More true to nature than the vulture on the top is the flight of wild -geese and ducks shown above.</p> - -<p>A disciple with shaven head, probably Śāriputra, stands by the side of -Śākyamuni and turns towards him. He shows an unconventional type of -features drawn with much vigour. The head is long and high at the back, -with well-defined ‘corners’ there and over the forehead. The large -nose, bushy eyebrows, and long pointed chin give a strongly marked -character to the head. It is set off by a circular halo of brilliant -vermilion. The costume, too, is peculiar; it consists of an under-robe -of vermilion and light green, black shoes upturned at the toes, and a -large mantle of mottled dark green, blue, and red, which covers both -shoulders and arms.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">{26}</span></p> - -<p>The legendary scenes which appear on the side of the painting -are preserved in a very fragmentary condition and still await -interpretation. But that they are connected with a statue representing -Śākyamuni on the Vulture Peak seems clear. In the background of the -top scene there appears a statue of a Buddha in the same pose as the -central figure, with the right arm stretched down stiffly. To the left, -in front of a building (temple?), stands a shaven priest, pointing out -the statue with his raised arm to passers-by below. In the foreground -is seen a man in brown coat and top boots riding a mule with its legs -hidden behind hilly ground. Behind him a white elephant, with a load -of yellow objects, but rider or driver no longer visible, proceeds in -the same direction to the left. On that side appear the roughly drawn -figures of two men with black beards and shocks of black hair.</p> - -<p>The next scene below is even more puzzling. In the middle are seen a -pair of colossal hands rising from the ground and enclosing a human -head in red. To the right four conical objects, suggesting tents and -striped horizontally, form a row; a large vermilion pennon is shown -above one of them. Behind them a man on a dark grey horse is seen -riding rapidly. His right arm is raised as if to strike, and two -mounted attendants follow him. The foreground to the left shows on a -green slope a row of unexplained leaf-shaped objects, and above this -two semi-naked figures incomplete.</p> - -<p>Very curious is the bottom scene. The God of Thunder appears above on a -cloud within a ring of drums which he beats in violent movement. In the -centre, before a background of rocks, is shown a large Buddha statue -within a scaffolding of vermilion poles. That the statue represents -Śākyamuni on Gṛdhrakūṭa is made certain by the downstretched right arm -and also by the characteristic pose of the left hand, which gathers up -the drapery in an ‘ear’ at the breast, just as the figure in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIV">xiv</a></span> -and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span> shows it. On either side of the scaffolding is perched a man, -busy with his hands at the statue’s head and steadying himself with one -foot at its shoulder. At the back of a building on the left a man seems -to give instructions to the workers, while at the foot of the statue -there squats a small figure with arms and legs outspread like the -Thunder-god’s. The latter’s figure in fury is shown again by a small -detached fragment below.</p> - -<p>For a conjectural explanation of the scaffolding, which might be -connected with some miraculous translation of a sacred statue, -reference to <cite>Serindia</cite> must suffice here.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_28" href="#Footnote_MAIN_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> But whatever the legend -represented in our side scenes may prove to be, we cannot fail to note -the striking contrast between the stiff hieratic image and the life and -vigour in the rest of the picture.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XIV">PLATE XIV<br /> -<span class="smaller">IMAGES OF BUDDHAS AND BODHISATTVAS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_14.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XIV</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> large but unfortunately poorly preserved silk painting (Ch. -xxii. 0023), of which this Plate reproduces remains of the left-side -portion, on the scale of one-third, presents exceptional iconographic -interest. It shows numerous Buddha and Bodhisattva images arranged -in separate compartments and drawn in an Indian style which is -unmistakably derived from the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. As -first recognized by M. Petrucci from the few Chinese inscriptions -still legible in the cartouches,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_29" href="#Footnote_MAIN_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> the figures were intended to -reproduce sculptured images worshipped at various sacred sites of -India. Eleven of them appear in the portion of the painting as shown -by the Plate, and seven more are traceable partly above this portion -or in detached fragments.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_30" href="#Footnote_MAIN_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> In the case of six the characteristic -poses or attributes enable us at present to identify with certainty -the particular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">{27}</span> divinity which the original images were intended to -represent. For others definite clues have yet to be searched for.</p> - -<p>The figure in the top corner on the left reproduces an image of Gautama -Bodhisattva, seated in the famous scene of Māra’s attack immediately -preceding the Illumination. This is shown by the characteristic -pose of the hand touching the rocky seat <i>bhūmisparśa-mudrā</i> and by -the triple monster head forming a crown over the Bodhisattva’s head -and symbolizing the demon army of Māra. It was in that pose that -the miraculous image at the sacred site of Bōdh-Gayā, described at -length by the great Chinese pilgrim Hsüan-tsang and still traceable -in numberless replicas, presented Śākyamuni at the moment of -Enlightenment. The identification of our figure with this far-famed -image is confirmed by the Chinese inscription placed against it which -describes it as a statue in the kingdom of Magadha. In the figure now -seen in the top right-hand corner we meet again with a Bodhisattva -seated in the <i>bhūmisparśa-mudrā</i>. His robe is like that of a Buddha -and red. Two white crescents are shown within the nimbus, which, like -the vesica, is flame-edged. Here, too, a fortunate chance has preserved -the accompanying inscription from effacement. According to M. Petrucci -it mentions as the original a silver image preserved in the kingdom of -Kapiśa, which corresponds to the region of the present Kābul.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_31" href="#Footnote_MAIN_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p> - -<p>Iconographic indications define four more of the images represented. -The figure in the middle of the topmost row shows the statue of a -Buddha standing with the right hand raised in the pose of ‘Protection’ -and surrounded by an elliptical vesica which is filled with rows of -small Buddhas standing in the same pose and visible from the breast -upwards. The whole agrees in all details, down to the folds of the -drapery, with two colossal stucco relievo statues excavated by me -in 1901 on the southern corner walls of the great Rawak Vihāra of -Khotan.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_32" href="#Footnote_MAIN_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> Of these and similar representations on a much smaller -scale in Gandhāra relievos M. Foucher has proved that they are meant -to exhibit Śākyamuni in the act of performing the Great Miracle of -Śrāvastī.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_33" href="#Footnote_MAIN_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> In another standing figure, the one on the right of the -middle row, the introduction of a pair of gazelles or deer into the -ogee top of the vesica proves that an image representing Śākyamuni in -the Deer Park of Benares, the scene of the First Sermon, is intended. -The richly adorned standing figure of a Bodhisattva in the bottom row, -holding the characteristic emblems of the lotus and flask, is certainly -an Avalokiteśvara, and the presence by his side of various small -attendant figures may yet help to the exact identification of the image -intended.</p> - -<p>Special iconographic interest attaches to the standing Buddha figure -in the right-hand bottom corner of the Plate. Its hieratic pose of -peculiar stiffness, the treatment of the drapery and what remains of -the background of speckled rocks, leave no doubt as to the identity -of the figure with the image of Śākyamuni on the Vulture Peak, which -is represented in striking similarity also by the fine painting of -Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIII">xiii</a></span> previously discussed and by the embroidery picture of Plate -<span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxiv</a></span>. The vulture shown in the former makes it quite certain that the -background of all three paintings represents the famous rocky hill near -Rājagṛha or Rājgir in Bihār, where ancient tradition localized various -episodes of Śākyamuni’s later life. There is no inscription to tell us -where the Indian image which all three representations were intended to -reproduce was assumed to be. But the absolute identity of the pose, and -the extraordinarily close resemblance of all details in the treatment -of drapery, hair, dress, &c., prove all three to be replicas from the -same model. That this was a sculpture in the Graeco-Buddhist style is -obvious at a glance.</p> - -<p>The rigid adherence in details to a common original model which is -proved in this particular case supports confidence in the general -fidelity with which the other figures, too, in our painting may be -assumed to reproduce the original images represented. A close parallel -is furnished by the miniatures in certain Nepalese manuscripts of -the eleventh<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">{28}</span> century which illustrate various sacred images and -shrines of Buddhist India. M. Foucher has conclusively proved that -their painters, in all that concerns essential points, have always been -at pains to reproduce faithfully the stereotyped models furnished by -long-continued traditional imagery.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_34" href="#Footnote_MAIN_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p> - -<p>In what form our painter had received the types he thus conventionally -reproduced is uncertain. But the clearly preserved Graeco-Buddhist -style shows that they were indirectly derived from Gandhāra, and -early transmission through Central Asia is obviously most probable. -The question may be hazarded whether the votive object aimed at in -the painting and its assumed prototype was not that of securing the -religious merit which might have attached to an actual pilgrimage to -those distant sacred sites. The drawing in mere outlines with little -or scarcely any colour, similar to the technique of certain Khotanese -mural paintings, and the perished state of whole portions of the silk -seem to point to the painting being of early date.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XV">PLATE XV<br /> -<span class="smaller">TWO FORMS OF AVALOKITEŚVARA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_15.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XV</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> predominant share which the Bodhisattvas claim in popular Buddhist -worship as developed under Mahāyāna influences is illustrated by the -fact that about one-half of our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings are devoted -to their representation, whether singly or along with attendant -divinities. However large may be in devout speculation the number -of different Bodhisattvas, popular imagination had already in the -North-Indian home of the Mahāyāna system been concentrated upon a -small select group of Bodhisattvas. Among them Avalokiteśvara, the -Bodhisattva of Mercy, occupies the foremost place, and the frequency -of his representations among our Tun-huang paintings is just as marked -as the popularity of his female manifestation, known to the Chinese as -Kuan-yin, to the Japanese as Kwannon, the Goddess of Pity, is in modern -Buddhist worship throughout the Far East.</p> - -<p>The large and fairly well-preserved painting (Ch. xxxviii. 005), -reproduced on the scale of one-third in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XV">xv</a></span>, presents two almost -life-size figures of Avalokiteśvara standing erect and facing each -other. Their outer hands are raised in the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, while the -Bodhisattva on the left carries in the other hand a yellow flower, and -the one on the right a flask and a willow sprig. These are well-known -attributes of Avalokiteśvara.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_35" href="#Footnote_MAIN_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> Which of his many particular forms -are intended may be determined from the inscribed cartouche above, of -which no translation is as yet available.</p> - -<p>The figures, drawn with much care and painted in a wealth of harmonious -colours, reflect a certain grandeur of design which breaks through the -hieratic conventions of pose and externals. Except for the oblique eyes -these conventions are all unmistakably Indian in type and origin. But -equally clear is the change, here seen in highly perfected technique, -which their treatment has undergone by the eyes and hands of Chinese -painters. We notice their distinctive touch quite as much in the grace -and dignity of the features as in the mastery of sweeping line with -which the rich robes of the Bodhisattvas are treated. The features are -finely drawn and delicately shaded with pink; the ears are elongated -and show hieratic convention in a particularly striking fashion. The -fine drawing of the shapely hands curiously contrasts with the clumsy -foreshortening of the feet.</p> - -<p>Dress, coiffure, and jewellery are of the elaborate style, often -displayed by our Bodhisattva banners;<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_36" href="#Footnote_MAIN_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> but the ornamentation, though -carefully treated in detail, is not overdone. On the front of the -tiaras is shown Avalokiteśvara’s Dhyāni-buddha, Amitābha. From lotus -buds at their sides descend rainbow-coloured tassels. The garments -comprise shawl-like stoles, lined with light green, under-robes of -Indian red, and long skirts of orange<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">{29}</span> hue. A white girdle is held -round the hips by a jewelled belt; its end hangs down in front of -the skirt and is tied below in a butterfly knot. From a heavy gold -necklet descend jewelled chains, which are gathered together by a -large circular jewel at the waist, and then part again to loop up the -skirt about the knees. A jewelled anklet seems to gather the end of -the under-robe above the feet, and these in either figure are set upon -a pair of open lotuses. On the outer sides of the figures gracefully -drawn flowers and leaves are shown as if floating down gently through -the air.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XVI">PLATE XVI<br /> -<span class="smaller">FOUR FORMS OF AVALOKITEŚVARA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_16.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XVI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> well-preserved large silk painting (Ch. lv. 0023), reproduced -here on a scale of two-fifths, offers special interest.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_37" href="#Footnote_MAIN_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> It is -the oldest exactly dated painting in the Collection, the dedicatory -inscription below indicating the year corresponding to <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864. It -also combines in a curious fashion hieratic conventions of Indian -origin, such as prevail in the row of four Avalokiteśvara figures -ranged stiffly side by side in the upper half, with the more Chinese -and more animate treatment of others in the lower half. There the -Bodhisattvas Samantabhadra and Mañjuśrī are represented in procession -advancing towards each other on lotus seats carried by their respective -‘Vāhanas’, the white elephant with six tusks and the lion, and -accompanied by their attendants, just as we have already seen them in -the more sumptuous compositions of Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_III">iii</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_IV_V">iv</a></span>. Samantabhadra -has his hands raised in the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i> and Mañjuśrī in the pose -of adoration. Their dress, ornaments, circular haloes, &c., as well -as their <i>cortèges</i>, here limited to two lesser Bodhisattvas carrying -three-tiered umbrellas and a dark-skinned Indian attendant leading -the divinity’s mount, all show very close agreement with the types -displayed in those large paintings. These conventions are shared also -by the single Bodhisattva figures in many fine silk banners of the -Collection,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_38" href="#Footnote_MAIN_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> and our dated picture proves them to have been already -fully established by the middle of the ninth century.</p> - -<p>In contrast to these two Bodhisattvas, always easily identified, -only the short Chinese inscriptions by the side of the four -Avalokiteśvaras above can tell us which particular form of this most -popular Bodhisattva is to be recognized in each figure.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_39" href="#Footnote_MAIN_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> All are -practically alike in pose and dress except for some minor differences. -All carry a red or red and white lotus in one hand, and all, except the -Avalokiteśvara on the extreme left, a flask in the other. The dress -comprises a long reddish-pink under-robe girt round the waist and -reaching to the feet; a short tight upper skirt and a deep plastron -passing over breast and shoulders. On the upper arms are close-fitting -sleeves, half covered by armlets. Pink drapery hangs behind the -shoulders and a narrow stole of green and red passes round them; thence -it winds stiffly about the arms and ripples to the ground. The figure -of the Dhyāni-buddha Amitābha appears on the tiara.</p> - -<p>In all the details just mentioned these Avalokiteśvaras attach -themselves to a class of Bodhisattva figures, largely represented -among our banners, which reproduce characteristic Indian conventions -in physical type, dress, pose, and flesh colouring with sufficient -closeness to deserve the general designation of ‘Indian’.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_40" href="#Footnote_MAIN_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> Their -juxtaposition with the more ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattvas in the lower half of -our painting is instructive as helping to bring out the distinctions of -the two types.</p> - -<p>In the narrow panel below we see ranged on either side of the -dedicatory inscription<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">{30}</span> the donors and their ladies. The Chinese -inscriptions attached to them acquaint us with their persons.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_41" href="#Footnote_MAIN_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> On -the right kneels the father attired as a monk with his three sons -kneeling in secular dress behind him. On the left are shown two nuns, -members of the family, and behind them two ladies, wives of two of the -sons. To the interest presented by the costumes of the secular figures -I have had already occasion to allude.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_42" href="#Footnote_MAIN_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> The fashion represented in -the dress and coiffure of the two ladies is particularly instructive -as affording indications for the approximate dating of other paintings -which show donatrix figures. The moderate width of the sleeves and -the absence of ornaments in the head-dress distinguish this fashion -of <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864 very strikingly from that presented by the donatrices in -tenth-century pictures. On the other hand, we see on the men’s heads -the wide-brimmed black hats of the latter side by side with a stiff -black cap of a manifestly earlier type.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XVII">PLATE XVII<br /> -<span class="smaller">AVALOKITEŚVARA IN GLORY</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_17.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XVII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> large silk painting (Ch. lvi. 0019), reproduced in this Plate -on a scale of slightly less than one-fourth of the original, may -rank among the richest of the Collection in respect of decorative -effect and colouring, and fortunately has survived in very fair -preservation. It represents Avalokiteśvara in his thousand-armed -and eleven-headed form, surrounded by numerous groups of divinities -constituting his ‘Maṇḍala’. The scheme is repeated on somewhat simpler -lines in another fine painting, shown by Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLII">xlii</a></span>. Elaborate as its -representation is in ours, its interpretation is facilitated by the -Chinese inscriptions attached to all the principal divine figures -which appear in attendance on the great Bodhisattva of Mercy. Helped -by these inscriptions M. Petrucci has been able to discuss at length -the numerous and interesting questions of iconographic detail which are -raised by figures in this and similar sumptuous compositions, and to -his explanations and to the full description contained in <cite>Serindia</cite> -reference may conveniently be made here.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_43" href="#Footnote_MAIN_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></p> - -<p>In the centre of the painting we see Avalokiteśvara’s large figure -surrounded by a nimbus-like disc. This is formed by his outer hands -making up the theoretical number of a thousand, and each showing an -open eye marked on the palm. Avalokiteśvara’s thousand arms, arranged -in this fashion, are well known, too, to the later Buddhist iconography -of India and meant to symbolize the merciful divinity’s desire to save -all human beings at the same time. The Bodhisattva is shown seated on a -lotus and under a richly tasselled canopy. His inner hands, apart from -the four in front, hold a multiplicity of well-known sacred emblems, -including the discs of the Sun and Moon, flasks of ambrosia, conch, -willow spray, trident, Vajra, the Wheel of the Law, mace, &c. From the -centre pair of inner hands a shaft of rainbow light streams upwards. -His flesh is yellow, as usual, shaded with pink; his hair blue, of the -same shade as the general background. Of the small subsidiary heads, -two of demonic appearance are shown by the side of the ears and the -rest in three tiers above the tiara.</p> - -<p>Among the attendant divinities we see at the top of the canopy the -Bodhisattvas of the Sun and Moon seated behind their five white -geese and five white horses respectively. In the upper corners -appear on finely painted clouds the ‘Buddhas of the ten quarters of -the Universe’, arranged as all the attendant deities in symmetrical -groups. Below them are seated pairs of Bodhisattvas with elaborate -flower-decked haloes and nimbi. Beneath them come on the right Indra -with three attendants, and on the left Brahman with two. All are shown -kneeling and wearing Chinese official dress of a rich type. Beneath -again are shown two monstrous divinities, both unmistakably Śivaitic. -On the right Mahākāla<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">{31}</span> with three heads and six arms reclines on -the back of Śiva’s bull. On the left Maheśvara, of demonic appearance, -stands with legs apart upon a crocodile-headed snake; his middle hands -grasp pike and cords which hold two half-naked humans.</p> - -<p>Below the lotus seat of Avalokiteśvara are seen emaciated <i>pretas</i> or -beings in hell clutching with outstretched hands at showers of white -grains (ambrosia) which Avalokiteśvara pours on them. In front of his -lotus seat lies a tank in which stand two stalwart Nāgas upholding -the stem of the lotus. They are in human shape, but carry above their -heads a crest formed of five snake-heads, their ancient Indian emblem. -Besides smaller Nāga figures of the same type the tank holds an infant -soul (now almost destroyed) rising from a lotus.</p> - -<p>The bottom corners are occupied on each side by a larger group of -attendants. The central figure in each case is a four-armed female -divinity of beneficent aspect, dressed like a Bodhisattva and seated -on a bird. The one on the right rides on a phoenix and is followed -by a Buddha. The female deity behind him is of interest, as from the -children in her arms she may be recognized as the goddess Hāritī, whom -a pious Indian legend represents as a wicked ogress converted into a -patroness of children.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_44" href="#Footnote_MAIN_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> The female divinity on the left is riding -on a peacock, with two attendants behind her who in the absence of -attributes or inscriptions remain unidentified. Lower down on either -side are seen standing two Lokapālas, Kings of the Quarters, in armour, -and in each of the bottom corners a demonic Vajrapāṇi, six-armed and -serpent-decked, straddling against a background of flames. At the feet -of each sits a smaller demon with a boar’s head. Before the Lokapālas -and close to the edge of the tank are seated on the right an emaciated -old man in ascetic garb, and on the left a richly-robed nymph offering -flowers. Both these figures, described elsewhere as the ‘Sage of the -Air (?)’ and ‘Nymph of Virtue’, are with particular clearness seen -again in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLII">xlii</a></span>.</p> - -<p>On the iconographic side the interest of this sumptuous presentation -of Avalokiteśvara’s ‘Maṇḍala’ is obvious, were it only for the -appearance in it of such Śivaitic deities as Mahākāla and Maheśvara. -These aptly illustrate the influence which Hindu mythology, even in -its later development, continued to exercise on the Buddhist Pantheon -of Central Asia and the Far East. On the artistic side attention is -claimed by the skill shown in the ordinance of the whole and the -drawing of individual figures. But it is in particular the highly -effective colour treatment which makes this picture rank with the most -impressive in the Collection.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XVIII">PLATE XVIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">AVALOKITEŚVARA STANDING, WITH WILLOW SPRAY</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_18.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XVIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">It</span> is to qualities very different from those of the preceding picture -that the figure of a standing Avalokiteśvara (Ch. 0091), reproduced -in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVIII">xviii</a></span> in half the size of the original, owes its special -charm. The silk painting has lost portions of its sides and the whole -below the knees of the figure, and the colouring throughout has much -faded. But the disappearance of paint helps to bring out more clearly -the excellence of the design and the very delicate drawing of figure -and features. With workmanship showing mastery of a fully established -technique in details, the painting combines an air of individual -feeling which makes its subject one of the finest single figures -amongst our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings.</p> - -<p>Avalokiteśvara stands facing the spectator, with head erect but eyes -downcast. His pose, with the weight thrown on the right hip and the -body aslant to the left shoulder, is characteristically Indian. The -head is that of a young man and shows marked influence of Gandhāra art -in its features. The nose is long and straight, the brow high, and the -eyes only slightly oblique. The moderately arched eyebrows sweep in a -slightly recurved line<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">{32}</span> to the outer edge of the brow. The thinner -cheeks and more natural proportion of the features give to the face a -distinct individuality which those of the conventional semi-feminine -Bodhisattvas lack. The expression is meditative and remote, the pose -graceful and dignified at the same time. The right hand is raised in -the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i> at the breast with a willow spray between the thumb -and fingers; the left hanging by the side holds the flask and a twining -spray with pink flowers.</p> - -<p>The attire and head-dress are of the conventional style associated with -the Bodhisattva type which has above been designated as ‘Chinese’. The -Dhyāni-buddha Amitābha is shown on the front of the tiara, which is a -simple circlet ornamented with flaming jewels and long tassels at the -ears. The hair done in double-leaf form appears above it. Instead of -the under-robe a light red scarf is thrown over the breast. A stole -of grey and olive green, much faded, clings to shoulders and upper -arms and is festooned across the front of the figure. From the waist -descends the skirt, apparently brown.</p> - -<p>In the right lower corner appear two small figures kneeling and holding -lotus buds. They represent evidently donors, a boy and a girl. The way -in which their hair is dressed, the boy’s parted and tied in a double -bunch on either side of the head and the girl’s parted and tied behind, -is not usual in our paintings. The plain long-sleeved robes covering -the figures from neck to feet afford no clue to the dating.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XIX">PLATE XIX<br /> -<span class="smaller">TWO AVALOKITEŚVARAS WITH THE WILLOW SPRAY</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_19.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XIX</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Bodhisattva of Mercy presents himself again, standing and without -attendants, in the two silk paintings which this Plate reproduces on -the scale of two-fifths of the originals. In both the portion of the -figure below the knees is lost. The painting on the left (Ch. xxii. -0030) shows a good example of the Bodhisattva type which above we have -referred to as ‘Chinese’, executed with much skill and refinement.</p> - -<p>Avalokiteśvara, facing three-fourths to the right, raises the willow -spray in his right hand, while the left at the waist carries the flask. -The movement shown in the tassels of the canopy above the halo suggests -that the figure was intended as walking; it is drawn particularly soft -and full. The low forehead, full cheeks, small mouth and chin, and -oblique eyes under highly arched eyebrows are characteristic of the -type. The hair is black and descends in a love-lock by the ear. In -front of the tasselled tiara stands the Dhyāni-buddha Amitābha with the -right hand raised in the pose of ‘Protection’. Above the skirt, which -forms an overfall at the waist, is shown an under-robe rising only to -the breasts. A stole of fine dull blue forms the chief note of colour -in the picture. The jewellery is elaborate and plentifully studded with -pale pink stones. The cartouche to the right is filled with a Chinese -inscription containing a salutation to Kuan-yin.</p> - -<p>In the other painting (Ch. lvi. 0016) Avalokiteśvara is shown facing -three-fourths to the left with both arms raised from the elbows. His -hands here, too, hold willow spray and flask, but in reversed order. -The upper portion of the head is lost; what remains of the features, -including the eyes fixed in a straight gaze to the front, shows -delicate drawing. The flesh is white shaded with pink. Over a crimson -under-robe and orange-red skirt descends in ample folds a stole of -olive green. To the usual heavy jewellery is added a small string of -beads round the neck. The workmanship is clean and sure.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">{33}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XX">PLATE XX<br /> -<span class="smaller">AVALOKITEŚVARA WITH FLAME-WREATHED HALO</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_20.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XX</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> fine silk painting (Ch. xviii. 003) reproduced here on a scale of -a little over two-thirds of the original is a work of considerable -artistic merit and is without a pendant in the Collection. It shows -a standing Avalokiteśvara painted in a style which shows affinity to -the ‘Indian’ type of Bodhisattva figures previously mentioned but -has marked peculiarities of its own. The picture is complete, but -the bare upper part of the figure painted with dull red outlines and -comparatively faint pink colouring has unfortunately much faded, while -the more solid and brilliant colours of the dress and jewellery are -well preserved and in consequence now absorb a disproportionate share -of attention.</p> - -<p>Avalokiteśvara stands facing the spectator with his feet planted on -the bright green centres of two open dark-pink lotuses. His face, -turned slightly towards the right shoulder with eyes downcast, bears an -expression of serious mildness, as if of comprehending pity. The hair -about the forehead is shown in pale blue, the eyebrows light green. -Eyelashes, pupils of eyes, and the dividing line of lips, being painted -in black, stand out distinctly among the otherwise faded features. Both -arms are raised at the elbow, the right holding the willow spray over -the shoulder, while the left carries on the open palm a short flask of -blue and pink. The dress consists mainly of brilliant scarlet sprinkled -with small blue trefoils and tied at the waist with a narrow blue -girdle. A green sash is also loosely knotted round the hips. A long -narrow stole of dark pink lined with green winds round the body from -the left shoulder and flutters about the arms. White draperies descend -from behind the head and shoulders.</p> - -<p>The head-dress consists of a gilded circlet with a ball over the -forehead supporting the Dhyāni-buddha’s figure, and behind this of a -tall cylindrical piece in dark pink and green surmounted by what may -be meant for a topknot of hair but is now almost effaced. The rich -jewellery is set with stones of bright scarlet, blue, and copper green, -and hung with strings of pearls. A large greenish disc wreathed with -scarlet flames forms a nimbus. Open lotus flowers are seen floating -down in the air. The Chinese inscription in the left top corner -describes the painting as the gift of a son in memory of his father, -without recording the date of its dedication.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXI">PLATE XXI<br /> -<span class="smaller">AVALOKITEŚVARA STANDING</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_21.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> figure of Avalokiteśvara which this Plate shows us on the scale of -one-third of the original silk painting (Ch. liii. 005), well preserved -except for the extreme top and bottom, shares with the Bodhisattvas -of ‘Indian’ style characteristic features of physical type, pose, and -dress. But the air of grace and gentleness which the Chinese painter -has here infused into the formality of their conventions invests the -figure with a peculiar charm and raises it well above their average -level as a work of art.</p> - -<p>We see Avalokiteśvara standing with the slender-waisted body inclined -from the left shoulder and its weight thrown on the right hip in -characteristic Indian pose. But the stiffness of this attitude, just -as that of certain traditionally fixed details in the dress, is -transformed by sweeping Chinese brush lines. The figure stands slightly -to the left, with the eyes gazing down and the hands holding the usual -attributes of the willow spray and the flask. The face is short and -round, the mouth slightly larger than usual, with a tiny moustache and -a tuft of beard indicated below by a small curl. The eyes are wide -apart<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">{34}</span> and almost level, but with a finely recurved line added to -the eyelids. The flesh is white shaded with red.</p> - -<p>Over a long orange skirt, draped in conventional folds, the Bodhisattva -wears a short and tight over-skirt of Indian red, sprinkled with blue -and white rosettes. Over it is festooned a narrow cord-like band -hanging in loops and streamers by the sides. The costume is completed -by an olive-green girdle, a red scarf across the breast, and a narrow -stole of dark chocolate colour descending from about the arms to -the feet. The richly jewelled ornaments agree in general type with -those seen on the four ‘Indian’ Bodhisattvas of Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVI">xvi</a></span>, but the -Dhyāni-buddha is absent from the tiara. The slate-blue outer border of -the nimbus is ornamented with a ring of ‘enclosed palmettes’ in blue -and white, as often seen elsewhere in Bodhisattva haloes.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXII">PLATE XXII<br /> -<span class="smaller">TWO AVALOKITEŚVARA PAINTINGS WITH DONORS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80w"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_22.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> both the silk paintings which this Plate reproduces on the scale of -three-sevenths, we see Avalokiteśvara represented in ‘Indian’ style and -beside or below him the donors. In the picture on the left (Ch. liv. -006) the figure of the standing Bodhisattva is treated on very formal -lines, typical of the ‘Indian’ style already repeatedly mentioned, -and the colouring in bright crude tints solidly laid on is equally -characteristic. Apart from the hieratic stiffness of the whole figure -and pose it will suffice to call attention to such peculiar features -as the narrow band descending from the head-dress to the knees and -festooned in front of the body, and the loose locks of hair which hang -over the shoulders. The hair is painted ultramarine, the flesh white -and shaded with vermilion. The eyebrows raised disproportionately high -over the almost straight eyes are, as often elsewhere, shown green. -Avalokiteśvara stands on a large scarlet and white lotus which floats -on a lake or stream. Behind him on green land is shown a row of tall -bamboos filling the background.</p> - -<p>To the left of the Bodhisattva appears standing the figure of the nun -whom one of the Chinese inscriptions names as the donatrix, with a -date corresponding to <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 910.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_45" href="#Footnote_MAIN_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> She wears a wide-sleeved yellow -under-robe with flowered band across her breast and a purplish-brown -mantle. Her close-cropped hair is shown in ultramarine, and her hands -carry a censer. Opposite to her stands a boy offering a scarlet lotus -on a dish; he wears a long-skirted dark brown coat slit at the side -and showing wide white trousers underneath. M. Petrucci recognizes in -him the nun’s defunct younger brother, whom the dedicatory inscription -associates with her votive gift.</p> - -<p>The picture on the right (Ch. xl. 008) is in perfect condition and -represents Avalokiteśvara, six-armed and seated, together with side -scenes and donors. His upper hands hold up discs emblematic of the -Sun and Moon, showing a three-legged bird and a tree respectively; -the middle hands are raised on either side of the breast in the -<i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, while the lower hands with rosary and flask rest on -the knees. In front of him is placed a small draped altar with flasks -and a covered dish. The Bodhisattva’s figure, within the limitations -imposed by the conventional treatment, is very carefully drawn and the -colouring well preserved and unusual. It consists mainly of terra-cotta -red on the garments (excepting the stole, which is very dark brownish -olive), and of white shaded with light pink on the flesh. A harsh -yellow is used for the jewellery, while the ground throughout is left -in the dark greenish-brown of the silk.</p> - -<p>Down the sides are shown, in animated and expressive drawing of purely -Chinese style, scenes representing Calamities from which Avalokiteśvara -miraculously saves his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">{35}</span> worshippers.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_46" href="#Footnote_MAIN_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> On the right above we see a -man, naked except for a loin-cloth, threatened with having his head cut -off. Lower down two men are fleeing with their arms over their heads, -while a thunder-cloud in the sky, represented like a monstrous Nāga, -showers black drops on them. Below a man stands calmly in a pyramid of -flame into which another behind appears to have pushed him. On the left -above a man is being pushed by another over a precipice; but half-way -down he is seen again composedly seated on a cloud. The next scene -shows a man kneeling in an arched recess with his head in a <i>cangue</i>, -while in front of him are wooden instruments for fettering feet and -hands. At the bottom stands a man looking calm although surrounded by a -snake, scorpion, and an animal apparently meant for a tiger.</p> - -<p>In the bottom portion of the painting are shown the donors, on either -side of a cartouche intended for a dedicatory inscription. Their -figures are drawn with much care and offer good examples of costumes -belonging to the tenth century. Of the men on the right the one in -front holds a censer and the other a lotus bud between his hands joined -in adoration. On the left kneels a lady in a wide big-sleeved robe; her -hair is held by a central framework and big pins, painted in pink and -white, but lacks the usual flowers and leaves. Behind her stands a boy -in long white trousers and a flowered pink and white tunic, with his -hair parted and ornamented on the top by a big bow.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXIII">PLATE XXIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">SIX-ARMED AVALOKITEŚVARA WITH ATTENDANT BODHISATTVAS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_23.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> large silk painting (Ch. xxvi. 001) of which this Plate is a -half-size reproduction was in its original condition a very fine -composition, but has suffered much damage. The lower end has been -destroyed by fire, the right edge is lost, and several large holes show -where dark green paint has corroded the silk. Much of the colouring is -gone; yet in spite of all these vicissitudes enough remains to prove -the refined design of the whole and the sureness of the drawing.</p> - -<p>The picture shows a six-armed Avalokiteśvara seated on a large white -lotus in the attitude known as that of ‘royal ease’, with the right -knee raised and the head inclined over the right shoulder. This -characteristically ‘Indian’ pose corresponds to the slim-waisted body -and the dress of ‘Indian’ Bodhisattva type. It is only in figures of -the latter that we find the flower-ornamented caps over the knees here -seen. The upper hands with gracefully curved fingers are raised towards -the head; of the middle ones the right is raised before the breast in -the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, while the left is held below palm up; the lower -hands hang down below the knees. No emblems are displayed, except the -Dhyāni-buddha in the front of the tiara, which appears as a high solid -cone of chased bronze.</p> - -<p>The ornamentation of the circular halo and nimbus is very elaborate and -effective. Vandyke and flower patterns fill the former, waving rays -the nimbus. One continuous flame border outlines the free edges of -both, while a broad band of white surrounds them and encloses the whole -figure in a circle of light. A string of small flowers seen in profile -defines the outer edge of this circle.</p> - -<p>Above it is seen a canopy set with flaming jewels. On either side of -this appears a small Bodhisattva seated on a lotus which grows on a -twining stem. Two corresponding figures occupying the bottom corners -are all but destroyed.</p> - -<p>In the colouring different shades of red and green prevailed, together -with white; but the last, as well as the yellow on Avalokiteśvara’s -flesh, has been rubbed off in most places.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">{36}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXIV">PLATE XXIV<br /> -<span class="smaller">TWO PAPER PAINTINGS OF AVALOKITEŚVARA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_24.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXIV</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two pictures reproduced here both represent Avalokiteśvara and -are painted on paper; but their interest varies greatly in character. -The one on the right (Ch. i. 009, scale two-thirds of original) shows -the Bodhisattva sitting by the water on a bank under willows. This -representation of Avalokiteśvara is found only in one other picture of -our collection and claims special iconographic interest because, as -Mr. Binyon points out, according to Far-Eastern tradition ‘it was an -Emperor of the Sung period who first in a dream saw’ Avalokiteśvara as -he is here depicted ‘and commanded the dream to be painted; but, no -doubt, the subject is of earlier origin’.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_47" href="#Footnote_MAIN_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> We shall see below that -in the case of Kṣitigarbha, too, the evidence of the Ch‘ien-fo-tung -paintings proves a certain iconographic type to have developed earlier -than Japanese tradition would lead us to assume.</p> - -<p>Avalokiteśvara, dressed and adorned in the style of an ‘Indian’ -Bodhisattva, is seated with the right foot tucked under and the left -pendent, resting on an open lotus which rises from the water. His -right hand holds a willow branch and his left the usual emblem of -the flask. The whole figure is enclosed in a large circular halo -drawn in red outline. A group of conventional willow trees fills the -right segment of the halo and rises above it. On the opposite side -there appears above on a cloud the small-scale figure of a man in a -Chinese magistrate’s robes and head-dress, kneeling with hands joined -in adoration. Two boys wearing their hair in rolls behind the neck -stand at his back. A draped canopy extends across the upper end of -the picture. At its bottom, on the bank bordering the water, is shown -an altar. Flanking it on the right appears the donor, carrying a -censer and wearing the black coat and wide-brimmed hat characteristic -of tenth-century male costume. Four cartouches distributed over the -picture have remained uninscribed.</p> - -<p>The drawing is careful and the execution superior notwithstanding the -simplicity of the colour scheme, restricted mainly to scarlet, light -blue, and pale green.</p> - -<p>The picture reproduced on the left (Ch. 0054), on the scale of -three-fifths of the original, has some interesting peculiarities. -Above we see seated on a rectangular platform a Bodhisattva who from -the attendant divinities and the emblem, a tall vase, held by the one -to his right, may safely be assumed to represent Avalokiteśvara. His -dress, coiffure, and accessories are those of Bodhisattva figures -of the type above distinguished as ‘Chinese’. The decoration of the -platform, which, as the lions’ heads appearing in pairs below within -arched openings show, is meant for a <i>siṃhāsana</i> or ‘lion’s throne’, -reproduces textile patterns manifestly influenced by ‘Sassanian’ models.</p> - -<p>The presentation of only the left half of the god’s ‘Maṇḍala’ is an -unusual feature but accounted for by the narrow shape of the painting, -no doubt intended for a banner. It comprises below two Bodhisattvas -standing in adoration, next a pair of haloed monks, above them two -Lokapālas, and at the top a trident-carrying demon. One of the -Lokapālas is characterized by his jewelled mace as Virūḍhaka, Regent -of the South. To the right of the central deity and below the canopy -three infants are shown kneeling on a cloud and playing on flute, -mouth-organ, and clappers. Below them again and by the side of the -large halo stands a small Bodhisattva, also carried on a cloud and -clasping the tall vase already referred to. It is stoppered and mottled -blue and white, obviously in imitation of glazed ceramic ware.</p> - -<p>The lower portion of the painting is filled by a procession moving to -the left and comprising a high Chinese dignitary in the centre and -his numerous retinue. In this central figure, who is attended by two -men holding crossed fans over his head and is obviously the donor, we -may in all probability recognize one of those local chiefs who, as -we know from Chinese historical notices and inscriptions, ruled the -region of Tun-huang in the ninth and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">{37}</span> tenth centuries as hereditary -governors under the suzerainty of the Emperors.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_48" href="#Footnote_MAIN_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> This personage, -over a trailing white under-robe, wears a black jacket ornamented with -symbols in yellow, of which the discs emblematic of the Sun and the -Moon, a pair of rampant dragons, and the Svastika can be made out quite -clearly. He alone appears as a worshipper, and an elaborate head-dress -of peculiar shape marks his high rank.</p> - -<p>In his <i>cortège</i> we see officials wearing white under-robes and black -jackets with various formal patterns of a stiff black head-dress. Three -among them carry long swords before them, pointed downwards, while -two hold rolls of paper. One of the latter, walking beside the chief, -is represented as a mere boy and may perhaps be a son. Two others in -somewhat different costume, including shirts of mail under shorter -jackets, walk a little apart. The two fan-bearers are attired in short -jackets and white trousers, and on the feet of the coarsely drawn -figure to the right we notice string sandals of exactly the same type -as attested by plentiful specimens among my finds from the Tun-huang -<i>Limes</i>.</p> - -<p>There can be no doubt that the lower portion of the picture, with -its animated if rather rough drawing, represents a scene such as old -Tun-huang must have often witnessed on ceremonial occasions. It is -hence specially to be regretted that the absence of any dedicatory -inscription leaves us in ignorance of the date and the particular local -chief represented.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXV">PLATE XXV<br /> -<span class="smaller">TWO PAINTINGS OF KṢITIGARBHA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80w"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_25.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXV</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Both</span> the paintings of this Plate represent Kṣitigarbha, -Avalokiteśvara’s only possible rival in popularity among the -Bodhisattvas of the Buddhist Pantheon of the Far East. Though well -known in China as Ti-tsang and in Japan as Jizō, yet his early and -frequent appearance among the Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings was something -of a surprise, considering that neither in Indian nor in Central-Asian -Buddhism does his figure play a prominent part. Among the Bodhisattvas -represented in our banners he is always clearly distinguished by -the shaven head of the monk and the barred or mottled mantle, the -mendicant’s garment.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_49" href="#Footnote_MAIN_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> Other paintings help to illustrate the several -aspects of his character which account for his still prevailing -popularity in the Far East.</p> - -<p>‘There he is still worshipped as one of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas. -Through countless incarnations he has been working for the salvation -of living beings, and he is in especial honoured as the breaker of the -powers of hell. With his pilgrim’s staff he strikes upon the doors of -hell and opens them, and with the lustrous pearl which he carries he -illustrates its darkness. He is represented as Lord of the Six Worlds -of Desire, the world of the Devas or heavenly spirits, of men and -women, of Asuras or demons, of beings in hell, of Pretas or devils, -and of animals; and also as the supreme Regent of Hell with the Ten -Infernal Kings or Magistrates under him.’<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_50" href="#Footnote_MAIN_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p> - -<p>It is in this last-named character that we see Kṣitigarbha represented -in the large silk painting (Ch. 0021) which is reproduced on the right -of Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXV">xxv</a></span>, on the scale of one-third. The Bodhisattva is seen seated -on a rock covered with a figured cloth. His right foot rests on a -lotus and the left is bent across. The left hand holds the mendicant’s -staff over his shoulder, while the right, resting on the knee, -supports a crystal ball. Over a green under-robe he wears a mantle -of grey, mottled with black, red, and green, and barred with yellow. -The traveller’s shawl, grey ornamented with a spot pattern in yellow, -is bound round his head<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">{38}</span> and falls on his shoulders. Of the usual -Bodhisattvas’ adornment only a jewelled necklace and bracelets appear. -A multicoloured halo, edged with flames, forms the background to the -figure, while above it hangs a canopy represented by flowered sprays -and strings of jewels.</p> - -<p>Down the two sides are ranged the ten Infernal Kings or Magistrates, -seated at draped tables, on which scrolls of judgement are spread. -Attendants wait on them in varying attitudes, taking instructions, -delivering reports, holding fans, &c. With the exception of a -fan-holder in demon shape, the attendants are all in secular Chinese -dress. All the Judges but one wear Chinese magisterial costume: long -under-robes, voluminous wide-sleeved coats of scarlet and white, and -official head-dress in a variety of shapes, black, yellow, or white. -The topmost Judge on the right is clad in full armour, with helmet and -a coat of mail, fringed with tiger-skin, and reaching down to the feet.</p> - -<p>In front of Kṣitigarbha is seated a white lion, faced by a monk raising -his hands in adoration to the Bodhisattva. Further in the foreground we -see a condemned soul, naked except for a loin-cloth, and wearing the -<i>cangue</i>, led by an ox-headed mace-carrying demon. In a magic mirror he -is made to see the crime for which he has been condemned—the murder of -an ox. A cloud above the mirror marks the scene as a dream. Beside the -mirror stands an attendant holding brush and scroll.</p> - -<p>The numerous cartouches scattered about have been left uninscribed, -or have become illegible. The same is the case with those by the -donors’ figures at the foot of the picture. Foremost on either side -kneels a monk holding a censer. Behind the one on the right stands a -boy attendant holding the fungus sceptre (<i>ju-ī</i>), and behind him again -kneels a man with the wide-brimmed black hat usual in tenth-century -costume. The same chronological indication is furnished by the dress -and coiffure of the ladies who are shown kneeling behind the monk on -the left.</p> - -<p>The picture on the left of the Plate (Ch. lviii. 003, reproduced on -the scale of three-eighths) is complete with its border of purple silk -gauze and suspension loops, and shows Kṣitigarbha in his character of -Lord of the Six Worlds, or <i>Gatis</i>, and Patron of Travellers. He sits -facing the spectator on a scarlet lotus in a pose which is the exact -reverse of the one shown by Kṣitigarbha in the previously described -painting. Thus the right hand holds the mendicant’s staff and the -left the ball of crystal. The under-robe, shaded in red and green, -is covered by a mantle of red and black inwoven on white ground and -barred with black. Over his head and shoulders is thrown a grey shawl -ornamented with yellow spots and having a scarlet border on which large -flowers in green and white are figured.</p> - -<p>On a flat-topped rock in front of the Bodhisattva, covered with an -altar-cloth, is a large green bowl, containing an open lotus. On either -side sits or kneels a Bodhisattva in adoring attitude.</p> - -<p>From either side of Kṣitigarbha’s red and green halo rise three waving -rays of scarlet; each of them carry small figures meant to represent -the Six Worlds of Desire. They are on the right: above, a man for the -World of Men; a deity supporting discs of the Sun and Moon, for the -World of the Gods; a Preta amongst flames for the World of Hell. On the -left the Bodhisattva-like figure at the top represents the World of the -Asuras, or demigods; on the middle ray two representatives of the World -of Animals are recognizable in spite of the broken condition of the -silk, while below a devil with pitchfork and cauldron symbolizes the -World of Demons.</p> - -<p>At the bottom of the picture we see represented a stone slab bearing -a dedicatory inscription and on either side of it two finely drawn -figures of men and ladies respectively. Their costume and hair-dress -furnish good examples of the type characteristic or donor figures of -the tenth century. The inscription on the slab is dated in A. D. 963, -and according to M. Petrucci records the dedication of the painting by -a certain votary who prays for deliverance from long illness. He makes -his offering also for the benefit of his departed parents and of two -other relatives named in the cartouches by their sides.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">{39}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXVI">PLATE XXVI<br /> -<span class="smaller">VAIŚRAVAṆA’S PROGRESS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_26.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXVI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> excellently preserved painting (Ch. xxxvii. 002) which this Plate -reproduces on a scale of slightly over one-half presents to us the -triumphant progress of Vaiśravaṇa, Guardian of the North and the -principal of the Lokapālas, or Protectors of the Four Regions. The -important position which the Lokapālas still enjoy in popular Buddhist -worship of the Far East is clearly marked by the frequency of their -representation among our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings. This again fully -agrees with the early origin of their conception as attested by Indian -art and tradition, and with what numerous frescoes and sculptures -brought to light by recent excavations in Chinese Turkestān show as to -their popularity in Central-Asian Buddhism.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_51" href="#Footnote_MAIN_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p> - -<p>The foremost place among the Lokapālas of our paintings is occupied -by Vaiśravaṇa, the Protector of the Northern Region. This is fully -accounted for by the early Indian notion which identified this -particular ‘world-protector’ with Kubera, the Hindu god of wealth, -King of the Yakṣas. A further reason may be sought in the special -worship which Vaiśravaṇa as <i>genius loci</i> enjoyed at Khotan, a main -seat of Buddhism in Eastern Turkestān and one in close relations with -Tun-huang.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_52" href="#Footnote_MAIN_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> Apart from the frequent appearance of his figure in -our banners, Vaiśravaṇa’s pre-eminent position is attested by the -fact that, alone among the Protectors of the Regions, he is found in -pictures attended by his demon host and in triumphant procession.</p> - -<p>With one of these pictures, the small Kakemono-shaped silk painting -reproduced in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLV">xlv</a></span> and a work of high artistic merit, we shall -concern ourselves below. The other shown by our Plate, if not so -careful in design and execution, is yet remarkable for its spirited -composition and displays points of distinct iconographic interest. -It represents Vaiśravaṇa riding in full gallop across the ocean -accompanied by a numerous host representing his army of Yakṣas, or -demons. He is seen, as always, in the guise of a warrior king, and -wears here a young and strongly human appearance. Mounted on a white -horse with scarlet mane and tail, he turns back in the saddle and -with his mouth open seems to call to his followers. The right hand is -raised, while the left grasps the reins. The straight nose and eyes -give a distinctly Western look to his face, and in agreement with this -are the light blue iris of the eyes and the dark brown colour of the -hair, including a recurved moustache and tufts of beard and whiskers.</p> - -<p>A long close-fitting coat of scale armour,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_53" href="#Footnote_MAIN_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> coloured yellow with -scarlet straps and border, reaches down below the knee. A leather -skirt-piece ornamented with flowers is secured round the waist and -hips, and below the coat floats out a long olive-green under-robe. -A high three-leaved crown covers the head; its shape and the long -streamers flying up from behind it distinctly suggest derivation from -Persian models. There are more indications also of Iranian influence in -details of this and other Lokapāla pictures; but this is not the place -to discuss them.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_54" href="#Footnote_MAIN_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> Broad streamers of flame rise from Vaiśravaṇa’s -shoulders and take the place of a nimbus.</p> - -<p>There are points of interest also in the accoutrement of Vaiśravaṇa’s -horse. Its head, which is very small in proportion to neck and body, -is protected by a frontlet of scale-armour. Above the head-stall is -fixed a pair of black and white feathers. The numerous pompon-like -knobs or tassels which hang from the breast-band and crupper belong -to a type of ‘horse-millinery’ which is well known from Buddhist -paintings of Central Asia and India and is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">{40}</span> characteristic also -of the representation of chargers in Sassanian relievos.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_55" href="#Footnote_MAIN_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> Passing -reference may be made here also to the appearance of decorative motifs -unmistakably borrowed from textiles of ‘Sassanian’ style on the -Lokapāla’s dress and that of his horse.</p> - -<p>In front of Vaiśravaṇa march two Yakṣas clad in what seems to be meant -for mail armour and carrying red pennons. Behind him are seen moving -other demon followers, all grotesque in appearance, and two with animal -jaws, &c. They carry a large flag decorated with a peculiar check and -vandyke pattern and a miniature Stūpa, both emblems associated with -Vaiśravaṇa also in the picture of Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLV">xlv</a></span>, as well as a battle-axe -and bow and arrows. In the foreground are shown in violent movement -three goblins of savage look carrying jars and vases and apparently -quarrelling with the Yakṣas. As one of them attacks the latter with -a branch of coral or ‘Nāga tree’ in his hand, they may represent the -Nāgas from whom according to the legend Vaiśravaṇa won his treasure. -The flaming jewels and square-holed coins scattered in the foreground -seem to have the same symbolic bearing.</p> - -<p>At the rear stand two human figures in Chinese secular costume, the man -with a mitre-like head-dress and a roll in his hands, the fair-faced -lady with hands joined in adoration and her hair done in the elaborate -tenth-century fashion. Whether they are meant for the donors of the -picture seems uncertain. The whole host is swept along on a cloud from -Vaiśravaṇa’s mansion, represented by a Chinese pavilion in the left top -corner, and moves across the sea, which is bounded in the background -by a mountain range (Mount Meru) and in the foreground by cliffs. -Infants, ducks, a shark-jawed monster’s head, and a nymph float here in -the water between scarlet lotuses, while on the cliffs there appears a -stag. Flowers are scattered in the air above.</p> - -<p>The workmanship, while well finished throughout, shows an ease and -boldness which befits the subject. The simplicity of the colour scheme, -which is almost entirely confined to yellow, scarlet, and white on -greenish-brown tints of the background, helps the eye to take in the -rapidity of the movement represented.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXVII">PLATE XXVII<br /> -<span class="smaller">VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUŚRĪ</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_27.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXVII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> silk banner reproduced on the right, on the scale of three-fifths -(Ch. 0040), presents a fine example of the banners showing Virūpākṣa, -the Guardian of the West. Next to Vaiśravaṇa he is the most frequently -portrayed of Lokapālas in our paintings, always clearly recognizable -by his particular emblem, the sword. Like the rest of the ‘Four Great -Kings’ shown in the banners Virūpākṣa stands on the back of a crouching -demon serving as his ‘cognizance’ (<i>vāhana</i>) and representing the -Yakṣas over whom he rules. A small curling cloud above his haloed head -marks the whole as a vision. Both ends of the banner are broken and its -accessories lost, but otherwise it is almost intact.</p> - -<p>The figure, displaying force and dignity combined, belongs to a -class of Lokapāla representations among our paintings which, from -certain peculiarities in the style of treatment and in detail, may be -distinguished as ‘Chinese’ from another suggesting closer affinity to -a Central-Asian prototype. Representatives of both classes are seen in -Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLVII">xlvii</a></span>. But the general character of the figures and their warrior -costume is essentially the same throughout. This suggests, in accord -with other indications, that the type, though no doubt originally -derived from the West, had undergone thorough adaptation to Chinese art -feeling and was fully established long before the probable period when -these banners were painted.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_56" href="#Footnote_MAIN_56" class="fnanchor">56</a></p> - -<p>Our painting well illustrates certain characteristics of the former -group in the three-quarter profile of the Lokapāla’s figure and the -sweeping curve of pose, with the body thrown<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">{41}</span> out to the waist; -in the freedom and movement imparted to the drawing mainly by the -treatment of the flowing drapery; and in some minor peculiarities -of armour and dress. Though Virūpākṣa’s face is quiet, without any -distortion such as usually imparts a grotesque look to the Lokapālas -of the ‘Chinese’ group, we note the oblique cut of the eyes which is -peculiar to it, as well as other Chinese features.</p> - -<p>The rich armour and dress with which the Guardians of the World are -always depicted and the manifold variations in their details are -obviously of considerable antiquarian interest and have been fully -discussed elsewhere.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_57" href="#Footnote_MAIN_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> The painting in our Plate illustrates them -with particular clearness. Virūpākṣa’s head is covered by a helmet made -of scale-armour and strengthened with leather bands and a wide leather -brim curling up at ear-level. That the scales represented on the helmet -and elsewhere are meant for scales of lacquered hard leather is made -highly probable by actual scale-armour remains of this kind brought to -light by my excavations at sites in the Taklamakān and Lop deserts.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_58" href="#Footnote_MAIN_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> -A lotus-shaped spike is fixed on the top with a recurved gold stem -in front, supporting a plume. Beneath the helmet comes a gorget, -apparently also of scale-armour, descending on to the shoulders.</p> - -<p>From there down to the hips the body is protected by a coat of mail, -made of round-edged scales overlapping downwards as far as the -waist-belt and of oblong scales laced sideways beyond it. A strong -corslet, supported by straps from the shoulders and fitted with -ornamented metal discs over the breasts, is fastened across the chest. -Below is fixed an upper belt, apparently of ornamented leather. The -lower belt, of black leather, carries a centrepiece in the form of an -elaborate beast’s mask. The coat of mail is finished off at the bottom -by a short pleated frill, shown here in green, and above the elbows by -what looks like a ruff made of petal-shaped scales. From within this -protrudes swathed drapery of red and dark grey, as if of sleeves.</p> - -<p>From beneath the mail coat descends in rich folds a red skirt with blue -border and whitish lining, leaving the knees bare; also the ends of a -long girdle, looped up in front, curl about the legs. These from below -the knees are encased in greaves, probably made of stiff leather like -the corslet. A row of metal clasps secures them in front, while a large -disc of dark purple leather set with a central gold boss covers the -calf. The greaves are finished off at the bottom by ankle-guards, in -the form of a stiff ruff, apparently also of leather. Guards of closely -corresponding shape protect the forearms. The feet are shod with -plain sandals held by a single toe- and heel-strap. A greenish stole, -hanging round the shoulders and festooned across the front of the body, -completes the Lokapāla’s rich costume.</p> - -<p>The nude demon underfoot is shaded blue and has a dog-like face; the -hands on which he crouches are misshapen and a flame bundle rising from -his head takes the place of hair.</p> - -<p>The banner reproduced on the left (Ch. 0036, scale seven-ninths) -represents the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī seated on his white lion and, apart -from the lost accessories, is remarkably well preserved. Its style, in -instructive contrast to that of the Lokapāla picture just discussed, -provides a good example of the maintenance of Indian tradition in -Chinese Buddhist art.</p> - -<p>The Bodhisattva, whom we have met already in several of the previously -discussed paintings,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_59" href="#Footnote_MAIN_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> is seated on a scarlet lotus which a golden -pedestal carried on the back of his ‘Vāhana’ supports. Mañjuśrī’s -figure is entirely Indian in physical type, pose, and dress. With his -right leg bent across and the left pendent and resting on a small blue -lotus, he keeps his body inclined to the left proper. To the right -hand stretched downwards in the <i>vara-mudrā</i> corresponds the pose -of the head, which is bent over the right shoulder and balances the -slant of the body. The left hand rests on the lotus-seat and holds a -long-stemmed gracefully curving lotus. The body has feminine contours -and is painted a dull pinkish yellow. The hair, light blue in colour, -shows flat above the forehead and straggles down to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">{42}</span> the shoulder in -small ringlets. The face is round with small features and oblique eyes -cast downwards.</p> - -<p>The dress is just as characteristically Indian. It consists of a short -crimson <i>laṅgōṭī</i> flowered with blue rosettes and a transparent skirt -of purple gauze which drapes the legs to the ankles. A fold of this -crosses the body from the left shoulder. Round the neck is thrown a -narrow stole, green spotted with white, which, where it passes over the -right forearm, takes the form of a ‘triple cord’, distinctively Hindu. -The rich jewellery comprises heavy bracelets and anklets, serpentine -armlets, ear-rings, and a double necklace from which hang green and -blue lotus buds. A tiara of solid gold work, mounted with jewels, -crowns the head.</p> - -<p>Behind the figure appears a circular halo and behind the head a nimbus -of elongated oval shape, both of variegated rings of colour. Above are -seen the remains of a tasselled canopy waving with the lion’s advance.</p> - -<p>The lion strides to the left with his head turned back and the mouth -wide open as if roaring. His mane is represented by conventional curls -in different colours. Red spots are shown on breast, jowl, and back of -legs. From his breast-band and crupper hang heavy tassels and ornaments -similar to those above noted on Vaiśravaṇa’s horse. The attendant who -leads him by a red rope is shown as usually with very dark skin, coarse -features, and bushy black hair, suggesting a negro. His dress consists -of a narrow stole and a red and blue <i>dhōtī</i>-like skirt, tucked up at -the knees. He wears also jewellery of a simple kind.</p> - -<p>The design of the whole is harmonious and instinct with life, -notwithstanding the hieratic conventions of the subject borrowed from -distant India, and the workmanship is very careful.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXVIII">PLATE XXVIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">BUST OF A LOKAPĀLA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_28.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXVIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> this Plate we see a fine fragment of a silk painting once over -life-size (Ch. liv. 003), reproduced on the scale of five-eighths and -showing the upper part of the body of a Lokapāla. From the bow between -his arm and body and the arrow held in his hand we can safely recognize -him as Dhṛtarāṣṭra, the Guardian of the East. The figure, preserved only -from the bearded jaws down to the hip-belt, is standing three-fourths -to the left, with the left hand outspread at the breast and holding -that World-Protector’s special emblem, the arrow.</p> - -<p>The King’s flesh is painted a tawny brown, the finely drawn and -slightly parted lips deep crimson. The sweeping beard, which must have -given to the face a particularly strong if not fierce expression, is -black. The equipment is very rich and painted in a series of vivid -colours, scarlet, orange, blue, mauve, green, and black. Profuse jewel -or semi-naturalistic floral ornaments, the latter, no doubt, copied -from textile designs, all painted in the same bright colours, cover -the discs of the corslet, straps, borders, pedestals of the jewelled -shoulder bosses, &c.</p> - -<p>Of special interest is the representation of the armour. On the -shoulders and skirt it consists of oblong scales overlapping upwards, -as very often elsewhere in our paintings and also in relievos.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_60" href="#Footnote_MAIN_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> But -on the body it is represented by small interlacing black circles, on a -white ground, manifestly intended for chain-armour. The coat of mail -is finished on the top by a blue jewelled collar, probably of hard -lacquered leather like the rest of the armour, lying back from the -neck. White streamers falling on the breast from behind the ears show -that the Lokapāla’s head bore a tiara, not a helmet.</p> - -<p>Though the surviving part is only a fragment, with edges broken all -round, enough remains to show that with its vigorous drawing, fine -workmanship, and brilliant colouring, the whole must have been a very -effective picture.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">{43}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXIX">PLATE XXIX<br /> -<span class="smaller">TWO DHARMAPĀLAS AND A BODHISATTVA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_29.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXIX</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Among</span> the silk banners reproduced in this Plate, all on the scale -of three-fifths, the two on the sides (Ch. liv. 002 on the left and -Ch. 004 on the right) show us Dharmapālas, or ‘Protectors of the -Law’. These divinities are conceived as forms of Vajrapāṇi in fury -and are still favourite figures in the Buddhist imagery of the Far -East. Originally derived from the ancient Gandhāra representations -of the thunderbolt bearer (Vajrapāṇi), they meet us already in the -sixth-century relievos of the Lung-mên grottoes in China.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_61" href="#Footnote_MAIN_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> They -show there those poses and that exaggerated development of the muscles -which, together with other grotesque features, remain characteristics -of the type exhibited in a more or less conventionalized form by the -Dharmapāla figures in the paintings and sculptures of Tun-huang. These -figures, as M. Foucher has justly observed, ‘already make us think of -the athletic demons of Japan’.</p> - -<p>Like the rest of our Dharmapāla paintings, the two banners reproduced -here are but slightly distinguished from each other in type and may -hence be briefly described together. They are excellently preserved -and complete, with head-piece and streamers at bottom, which, however, -from consideration of space are omitted in the Plate. Both Dharmapālas -have the muscular body in tense attitude, the grotesque head with -its furious downward look, and the large richly ornamented Vajra -representing the thunderbolt. They stand slightly to one side with the -feet planted apart on two lotuses and the head turned back over the -shoulder. There is a difference in the pose of the arms and hands. In -the banner on the left the Dharmapāla raises his right arm with the -hand open threateningly above his head, while the left hand by the side -grasps the Vajra. In the other figure the right hand supports the end -of the Vajra and the left, with fingers stiffly spread, steadies it -half-way up.</p> - -<p>In either figure the head shows a grotesque face with enlarged staring -eyes, misshapen nose, fierce moustaches, and a beard in long straggling -tufts. The flesh is painted light brown. The muscles and joints of body -and limbs are emphasized with conventional exaggeration, but with an -effect full of vigour. The muscles are drawn in strong black lines to -which modelling is added by brushwork in light red or pink. Abundantly -decked with jewellery as the figures are, they carry but scanty dress. -It comprises a short skirt, bright crimson or scarlet with slate -border, which is tied round the hips by a trailing white girdle; also a -narrow stole, olive green with brown or pink reverse, which winds over -both forearms.</p> - -<p>The sinuous lines of the drapery, the fillet ends of the head-dress -flying upwards, the coiling clouds above the haloed heads, all help to -intensify the expression of violent effort. The same end is well served -by the bold lines of the drawing and the strong and clear colours used.</p> - -<p>The banner in the centre (Ch. 001) is, but for the lost accessories, -in an excellent condition, and shows in its figure a fine example of -the Bodhisattva type which has been distinguished above under the -conventional designation of ‘Chinese’.</p> - -<p>The Bodhisattva, as yet unidentified, stands in a peculiar pose not -elsewhere represented among our paintings. He stands on an open lotus, -with the raised right hand holding at shoulder level a round bowl of -mottled green glass with a metal rim. The head is turned three-quarters -towards the bowl, while the left hand hangs down by the side. As the -weight of the body is carried on the right leg and the body slightly -inclines from the right hip towards the left shoulder, attention is -cleverly drawn by the pose to the object which the right hand supports.</p> - -<p>The face shows conventional features of the ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattva type -in the small slanting eyes, heavy cheeks, and small full mouth. The -down-turned corners of the mouth and the wrinkles marked below the -outer ends of the nostrils impart a curious expression<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">{44}</span> to the face. -As in all these banners, the flesh is left the natural colour of the -silk, with delicate shading in faint pink to show the modelling of face -and body.</p> - -<p>The dress is the traditional Bodhisattva attire in a particularly -elaborate form. A trailing skirt of pale pink, with blue border, -drapes the figure from the waist to the feet. Its upper edge is held -by a white girdle and gold-edged belt. The end of this girdle hangs -down with loops in front and the end of another behind it, made of a -rich flowered red material. An under-robe of dull red appears only -above the feet. The upper half of the body is nude except for a band -of purplish-pink drapery, elaborate jewellery, and a filmy blue stole -which shown in delicate transparent colour descends over shoulders and -arms to the ground.</p> - -<p>The abundant jewellery is of a type with which we have already become -familiar in paintings of Avalokiteśvara and elsewhere. The head-dress -consists of a narrow fillet of white drapery, ending with a narrow -white band which hangs in a long loop to the knees. Over the forehead -it carries a light gold ornament ending above in two lotus buds which -spring backwards over the black hair. This falls behind in heavy -locks down to the elbows and forms a dark background to the bust. The -circular nimbus is made up of variegated rings of colour such as are -seen round the heads of the Bodhisattvas in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLI">xli</a></span>. The elaborate -canopy is of a kind we have already met with. Its straight-hanging -tassels agree with the motionless attitude of the figure. Yet -notwithstanding this attitude the whole picture in its highly finished -style seems instinct with life.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXX">PLATE XXX<br /> -<span class="smaller">SIDE-SCENES AND DETAILS FROM A BUDDHIST PARADISE PAINTING</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_30.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXX</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> Plate reproduces some side-scenes and small portions from the -fine but very fragmentary remains of a large silk painting (Ch. -00216) representing a Buddhist Heaven, probably that of Amitābha. The -colours of what is preserved are in remarkably fresh condition, and -this, together with the large scale of reproduction (four-sevenths), -facilitates close examination of interesting details.</p> - -<p>Taking the side-scenes as shown in the left portion of the Plate we -may note first the fine floral border which separates the two at the -top from the main picture. Its vermilion ground is covered with rich -trailing bunches of flowers and leaves painted in a variety of vivid -colours. With their naturalistic style they closely recall the designs -which are displayed by plentiful embroidery remains I recovered from -the hoard of the ‘Thousand Buddhas’.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_62" href="#Footnote_MAIN_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> The outside border of the -whole is decorated with bold groups of entwined tendrils in orange-red -over dark brown, showing in their style a curious affinity to certain -of the cloud scrolls which appear on the fine textile remains of Han -times brought to light by me from ancient sites in the Lop Desert.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_63" href="#Footnote_MAIN_63" class="fnanchor">63</a></p> - -<p>The two side-scenes above form part of a series extending along the -left side of the picture and illustrating the ancient Buddhist legend -of Ajātaśatru, the wicked son of King Bimbisāra. Chinese inscriptions -accompany most of these scenes; but the upper one of those here -reproduced has lost its inscription and its identification is hence not -quite certain. It, however, appears to represent Ajātaśatru with his -sword drawn menacing Bimbisāra, who is attempting to draw his own. Both -are wearing flowing robes such as form elsewhere in our paintings the -costume of ministers. The scene seems laid below the stairs leading up -to the royal palace.</p> - -<p>The scene below appears, according to the but partially legible -inscription, to represent Ajātaśatru after repentance entering the -Buddhist monkhood. What survives of the scene shows three men in plain -belted coats advancing to the left in front of a decorated and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">{45}</span> -streamered pavilion. This and the building behind display very clearly -characteristic features of Chinese architecture such as the tiled -roofs, the recurving roof-tree ends, the confronting bird heads on the -roof ridge, &c. On the right of the scene we see a subsidiary Buddha, -standing with a Bodhisattva by his side, as in the corresponding groups -of other Paradise paintings.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_64" href="#Footnote_MAIN_64" class="fnanchor">64</a></p> - -<p>The scenes below belong to a different series which extended along the -bottom of the picture. They show in the left corner the Death of the -Wicked. He lies stretched out on a couch placed in a verandah with his -wife watching him, while two shock-headed demons strangle him with -scarlet ropes. Below is seen on a cloud, as a vision, the boiling -cauldron into which his body is being flung by one of the ox-headed -gaolers of hell, who stands by carrying a trident-shaped pitchfork.</p> - -<p>The adjoining scene depicts the Sickness of the Wicked. He sits up, -supported by a woman, on the bed laid within a porch or verandah. -In the foreground a younger woman with a lute and a man carrying a -leaf-shaped red object and stooping advance towards what seems a mat -with offerings laid on the ground. They are small black dishes with red -contents (burning incense?), clouds of white smoke drifting from some -of them.</p> - -<p>The third scene of this series is incomplete and having lost its -inscription cannot be identified. It shows a man in purple coat and -tailed cap running to the back of the scene between a verandahed -structure and a shrine built of grey tiles, with his hands brandishing -a stick over his head. In front a man, similarly dressed and perhaps -meant to be the same person, is seen with bared arms and body violently -belabouring another, in purple coat and with the blue close-cropped -hair of a monk, who kneels on the ground and holds his hand to his head.</p> - -<p>Of the fragments of the main picture reproduced on the right the upper -one shows us a group of musicians, seated on a small evidently carpeted -platform and facing towards a dancer (now lost) as usually seen in the -large Paradise pictures. Of the instruments played a psaltery, harp, -lute, and two flutes of different kinds are still recognizable. It is -of interest to note that the carpet with a Chinese floral pattern in -the centre combines a medallion border of unmistakably ‘Sassanian’ -design.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_65" href="#Footnote_MAIN_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> The Bodhisattva figure on the left belongs to the group of -a standing subsidiary Buddha already mentioned.</p> - -<p>The fragment reproduced below is from the top left corner of the -picture. There, against a deep blue sky sprinkled with gilded stars -and above the steeply curved indigo roof of a celestial mansion, we -see a flaming jewel on a lotus pedestal; white streamers flying from -a central pavilion; small drums floating in air to symbolize heavenly -music, and in the middle Samantabhadra seated on his white elephant and -attended by two Bodhisattvas. The drums, painted dark brown and tied -with red ribbons, are of interest on account of their different shapes. -Whether cylindrical or narrow-waisted, they have strings stretched -outside for the production of different notes by pressure under the -arm. One has also a projecting staff with cross-hammer.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXI">PLATE XXXI<br /> -<span class="smaller">A TIBETAN PAINTING OF TĀRĀ</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_31.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> Plate reproduces the only painting (Ch. lii. 001, scale -three-fourths) among those brought away from the walled-up chapel which -is entirely Tibetan in style. The special interest it derives from -this fact is further increased by the probability of its being ‘the -oldest of its kind now in existence, or at least one of the oldest’. -Mr. Binyon in his Introduction<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_66" href="#Footnote_MAIN_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> has already referred to the Tibetan -supremacy established in the Tun-huang region from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">{46}</span> the middle -of the eighth to the middle of the ninth century as explaining the -presence of this Tibetan painting. He has also lucidly discussed the -relation which links the art of Buddhist Tibet, in spite of its marked -and strangely persistent peculiarities, closely with Chinese art. My -remarks may hence be confined to the technique and iconography of the -painting.</p> - -<p>The picture, which is preserved complete together with its frame of -dark green silk, is painted in tempera on strong close-woven linen. The -colours have generally darkened and in places have been rubbed off, -leaving whitish patches or the cloth bare.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_67" href="#Footnote_MAIN_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p> - -<p>The subject is the goddess Tārā, the Śakti or female emanation of -Avalokiteśvara. The goddess, represented in her usual form as a -beautiful young woman, is seated in the centre on a variegated lotus -which floats on the blue water of a lake. She sits with her right knee -raised and the left leg bent across. The right hand with palm turned -outwards in the <i>vara-mudrā</i> rests on the right knee, the left is at -the breast, both holding long curving sprays with a conventional blue -lotus at the end. The pose of the body slightly inclined to the right -is balanced by the head leaning in the opposite direction. The sinuous -line of the whole figure conforms to a characteristic tendency of -Tibetan art. The flesh had been gilded, but this gilding has almost -entirely worn off.</p> - -<p>The goddess wears a dark red skirt and stole spangled with gilded -flowers. Her knees are covered with elaborately ornamented caps. Rich -jewellery decks neck and breast. Above her black hair bound with -scarlet fillets is set a five-leaved tiara with a high-peaked crown. -A nimbus of very dark green, now almost turned to black, sets off the -head, while behind the figure is shown an oval vesica with a rayed -border of rainbow-like colours.</p> - -<p>On a dark cloud above the goddess’s head appears the small figure -of a Buddha seated in meditation with the alms-bowl in his lap. On -either side of him, on praying mats carried by dark green clouds, -sit two black-haloed saints wearing the peaked hoods of Lamas. Along -the sides of the picture are ranged eight subsidiary forms of Tārā, -differentiated by varying colours of flesh and dress. Their pose is the -same as that of the central goddess; the right hand rests on the knee, -holding a flask, and the left raises a long-stemmed blue lotus.</p> - -<p>Interspersed between these subsidiary Tārās are shown six scenes of -deliverance from Calamities similar to those represented on the sides -of certain Paradise paintings, such as the one in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span>. Not all -are intelligible; but we may note in the middle one on the left a man -being pushed over a cliff into the lake. In the scene opposite on the -right he is seen calmly kneeling on a lotus, flame-encircled, while -another man on the cliff above looks on in astonishment. In the left -bottom corner are seen three men pursued by different animals, and to -the right of them a barge-like boat sailing on the lake, with a fourth -man kneeling in prayer. The men throughout these scenes are shown in -Chinese secular costume such as is often seen in our Jātaka banners.</p> - -<p>While these figures clearly point to a Chinese model of the scenes, -the demonic deity in the centre of the foreground shows characteristic -features of truly Tibetan taste. His squat dark blue figure sits -sideways on a yellow horse, brandishing a scarlet club in his right -hand. His hair is a flaming mass streaming upwards; a man’s bleeding -head hangs from his saddle-cloth. It is impossible to mistake here a -conception of that monstrous type which Tibetan Buddhism under the -influence of Tantra doctrines absorbed from India and under that of its -own demon worship has always greatly cherished.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">{47}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXII">PLATE XXXII<br /> -<span class="smaller">PAPER PICTURES OF A BODHISATTVA, SAINT, AND MONK</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80w"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_32.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">Of</span> the pictures reproduced in this Plate (all on the scale of -three-fifths) the two on the sides bear Tibetan inscriptions and -thereby prove themselves as produced and deposited after the Tibetan -conquest of Tun-huang. But there is nothing essential to distinguish -their style from that of other of our paintings in which hieratic -figures are represented with close adherence to traditional treatment -derived from India.</p> - -<p>The paper painting on the left (Ch. 00377) shows a Bodhisattva of the -type above designated as ‘Indian’ seated on a yellow lotus, with legs -all but crossed and the right hand raised in the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>. The -Tibetan inscription kindly read by Dr. Barnett<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_68" href="#Footnote_MAIN_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> describes him as the -‘Lord of the upper region’, and as the Indian cosmic system places the -Sun and Moon in this ‘upper region’, the discs above the Bodhisattva, -with the emblem of the Sun god on the right and that of the Moon god -(now effaced) on the left, are fully accounted for.</p> - -<p>The Bodhisattva’s face bears a somewhat ferocious aspect; his flesh -is faintly coloured with pink. His garments are touched with pink, -crimson, and olive green, while the jewellery is left uncoloured. -The black hair is tied into a high topknot and descends in stylized -ringlets on the shoulders. The oval nimbus and vesica are both edged -with flames.</p> - -<p>The paper painting (Ch. 00376) on the right, which belongs to the -same series, is a more pleasing production. According to the Tibetan -inscription below the haloed figure represents Kālika, a disciple of -Śākyamuni and the fourth of the Great Apostles. He is seated on a mat, -cross-legged and wrapped in a red and buff mantle lined with olive -green. The right hand carries the mendicant’s bowl; the head is shaven. -The monk’s features are full of character and drawn with much decision. -On the right is stuck the beggar’s staff, with a bracket from which -hangs his wallet.</p> - -<p>Superior to these paintings in design and workmanship is the drawing on -paper (Ch. 00145) reproduced in the middle. It shows a monk seated on -a mat in meditation. His shaven head, with large, somewhat straight, -features, bears an expression of firmness and concentration admirably -rendered with a few fluent lines. Neither eyes nor nose and mouth bear -a Chinese look. And yet the whole drawing clearly bears the impress of -a Chinese artist’s brush.</p> - -<p>The monk wears an ample mantle, and below it an under-robe with -conventional cross bars marking the mendicant’s patched garb. In front -are deposited his shoes, behind to the left is placed a high stoppered -vase, while on a thorn-tree to the right are hung his rosary and -wallet. The drawing of the tree is unmistakably Chinese in character, -and the whole disposition of the little picture illustrates the mastery -of spacing inherent in Chinese artistic feeling. For once we are taken -away from the sphere of hieratic conventions and brought into touch -with life as the eyes of the artist, or those of an earlier master, saw -it.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXIII">PLATE XXXIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">PAPER PICTURES OF HERMIT AND HORSE-DRAGON</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80w"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_33.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two pictures on paper reproduced in this Plate on the scale of -three-fourths claim interest by their subjects as well as by their -artistic merit. The one on the right (Ch. 00380) presents an aged -hermit with a tiger walking by his side. The hermit is represented with -a face extremely wrinkled, shaggy eyebrows, deeply sunken eyes and -cheeks. With his right hand he leans upon a rough staff, in his left he -carries a stick ending in a Vajra and fly-whisk. He wears sandals, long -spotted trousers, and two tunics, the shorter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">{48}</span> of which is spotted, -has long sleeves, and reaches below the waist. His head is covered by a -mushroom hat put above a skull-cap and tied under the chin by scarlet -bands. On his back is seen a bundle of manuscript rolls tied in a cover -and slung by a chain to a thorny branch. The attachment of this branch -to the hermit’s person is not clear; but in another picture of the same -subject a pole supporting the bundle is shown as carried on his right -shoulder.</p> - -<p>On the further side of the old man there advances a tiger of -disproportionately small size. Both figures stand on a cloud of dark -red fire, and above them in the left top corner appears a small seated -Buddha, also on a cloud. The paint used for the cloud scrolls has -destroyed much of the paper, and of the figure too, where it was used -on it. The only other colours are grey and a light pink, distributed -over the clothing and figure, while the flesh is left uncoloured. The -drawing of the hermit’s figure is done with masterly skill, especially -in the features, to which impressive strength is imparted by a few -lines combining firmness with great freedom.</p> - -<p>Very different in character is the picture on the left (Ch. 00150), one -of the very few non-Buddhistic paintings from the ‘Thousand Buddhas’. -Its subject has not been determined with certainty, but may possibly be -related to the story of how the Emperor Fu-hsi, the legendary founder -of the Chinese polity, first received the system of written characters -from a ‘horse-dragon’.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_69" href="#Footnote_MAIN_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p> - -<p>Before the kneeling monster we see standing a bearded man, with smiling -face, who holds tablet and brush in his hands in the act of writing. -The back of his figure has been cut off when adapting the picture as a -mount for the two woodcuts under which it was discovered. He is clad -in a white-sleeved under-robe, long pink mantle, and a stiff black -head-dress with a square ornament stuck in front. A branching column of -flame rises from the tablet. Others stream from the dragon’s head and -body.</p> - -<p>The dragon is a composite monster. The head is of a conventional -lion-like type, with voluminous upstanding mane, out of which rise -three sharp-pointed objects resembling mountain peaks. The body -suggests that of a scaly snake, with wings of curling feathers attached -and with the forelegs of a bull (?). In the foreground lies a string of -square-holed Chinese coins, an emblem the meaning of which at present -escapes us. The whole is drawn with much vigour and, in spite of the -fearsome appearance of the monster, with a distinct touch of humour.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">PLATES XXXIV, XXXV<br /> -<span class="smaller">EMBROIDERY PICTURE OF ŚĀKYAMUNI ON THE VULTURE PEAK</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_34.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXIV</div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_35.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXV</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> large hanging in silk embroidery (Ch. 00260), to which the small -scale, one-tenth, and certain photographic difficulties do not allow -full justice to be done in this reproduction, is by its size—the -perfectly preserved central figure is close upon life-size—by its -remarkably skilful execution, and by its fine colours one of the most -impressive of the pictorial remains recovered. That it represents -Śākyamuni on Gṛdhrakūṭa, the ‘Vulture Peak’, famous in Buddhist legend -and situated near Rājagṛha, the present Rājgir, is conclusively proved -by the rocks behind the Buddha’s figure in the centre.</p> - -<p>This fine, if hieratically stiff, figure, as I have already had -occasion to point out,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_70" href="#Footnote_MAIN_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> when discussing the statues shown by the -pictures in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIII">xiii</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIV">xiv</a></span>, in every detail of its pose and dress -reproduces a specific type, fixed originally by some Indian sculptural -representation.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_71" href="#Footnote_MAIN_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> But if its iconographic characteristics are -determined by long hieratic tradition, it is different with the setting -it has found here. In the whole composition of our picture<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">{49}</span> is -revealed the individual touch of a master, and the skill and taste of -the craftsmen who reproduced his work make it easy for us to recognize -the merits of the lost original.</p> - -<p>The design in our hanging has been worked solid throughout in -satin-stitch. The embroidery has been executed with admirable care -and the silks used have remained clean and glossy.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_72" href="#Footnote_MAIN_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> The ground is -a coarse natural-coloured linen faced with light buff silk. This has -mostly worn off in the interspaces of figures. Two of the figures, -too, representing monkish disciples, having fallen along the line -of folding, while the hanging was stored away and crushed for long -centuries, have perished except for remains of the heads. Otherwise -the picture is practically complete, and neither the effect of the -whole nor that of characteristic features of treatment is impaired.</p> - -<p>Śākyamuni stands facing the spectator with his feet on a lotus. -His right arm hangs stiffly by his side with the fingers stretched -downwards and the palm turned to the side. The arm wrapped in the -folds of the glowing red mantle holds an ‘ear’ of it gathered at the -breast. The mantle closely draped about the body falls in a point to -below the knees and allows a light green under-robe to be seen thence -to the ankles. The yellow lining of the mantle shows in a rippling -edge along the outline of the left arm and down the body, a device -which is familiar already to Gandhāra sculpture. The right shoulder and -arm are left bare and are painted a deep golden yellow. The Buddha’s -face is shown in light buff and, curiously enough, the right forearm -as well. This distinction is emphasized in the case of the latter by -the work being executed in thin rows of chain-stitch and is obviously -intentional. But its iconographic significance is for the present -uncertain.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_73" href="#Footnote_MAIN_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> Behind the head, with its narrow, slightly slanting -eyes and hair of very dark indigo, appears a nimbus in plain rings of -variegated colours. A narrow halo shaped like a lotus petal, similarly -coloured, surrounds the whole figure, and behind this again appears a -border of rocks emblematic of the Vulture Peak.</p> - -<p>By the side of the Buddha stand pairs of disciples and Bodhisattvas, -both on lotuses. The latter, who may represent Avalokiteśvara and -Mahāsthāma, turn three-fourths towards him; the one on the left with -hands in adoration, the other with both arms slightly advanced from the -elbows and the right hand held as if in the <i>vara-mudrā</i>. The dress and -adornments of these figures conform to those of Bodhisattvas of the -‘Indian’ type as already noticed, but are drawn more trimly. A certain -stiffness and simplicity in their design suggest close affinity to -Indian models. But in the Bodhisattvas’ faces we notice the influence -of Chinese style, as also in the ornamental borders of their dress.</p> - -<p>Of the disciples’ figures in the background enough remains to show that -their heads were shaven and haloed and their dress that of monks, with -mantles barred with cross-stripes. The face of the one on the Buddha’s -left was lined and frowning, which suggests identity with Kāśyapa; the -other with face plump and benign may represent Śāriputra. By the side -of the small and somewhat stiff canopy above Śākyamuni’s head are seen -two graceful Apsaras floating down with outspread arms, borne up by -fine cloud scrolls and their billowing stoles. Their resemblance to the -Apsaras of Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XI">xi</a></span> is striking.</p> - -<p>Below the Buddha’s feet there kneels on either side a small lion of -conventional type with one forepaw lifted. Below them again is a panel -for a dedication, which, however, has never been worked in. Of the -narrow cartouches placed by each line of donors, only the two foremost -on the men’s side bear Chinese characters, now mostly illegible.</p> - -<p>The groups of donors on either side of the panel, disposed in strict -symmetry, present special interest by their life-like treatment and by -their costumes. This is easily seen from Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxv</a></span>, which reproduces -the group of the ladies on the more adequate scale of two-fifths.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">{50}</span> -Arrayed in three lines and kneeling on mats, they all wear a very plain -type of dress. It comprises high-waisted skirts of brown, green, or -blue, bodices with long close-fitting sleeves, and small shawl-like -stoles. They have no jewels, and their hair is done in a small topknot -without any ornaments. By the side of the hindmost two ladies kneels -a child, and at the back stands a young female attendant in a long -plain gown. On the men’s side there kneels foremost a shaven monk in a -brown cloak, behind him three men dressed in long belted coats of light -greenish-blue and wearing peaked and tailed caps of dark brown or blue. -A young attendant with bare head holding a staff stands at the back.</p> - -<p>A glance at the lay donors is enough to prove that the dress in each -case is in closest agreement with that worn by the donors in the two -paintings of Amitābha’s Paradise in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XI">xi</a></span>.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_74" href="#Footnote_MAIN_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> For these a -series of concordant indications postulates a date distinctly older -than that of our earliest dated picture of <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_75" href="#Footnote_MAIN_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> A variety of -considerations lead me to believe that the date of those two paintings -and of our hanging as well cannot be later than the eighth century, but -may possibly be even somewhat earlier.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_76" href="#Footnote_MAIN_76" class="fnanchor">76</a></p> - -<p>In accessory details, too, a very close contact reveals itself between -the embroidery picture and the paintings shown in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_X">x</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XI">xi</a></span>, -proving that they belong to the same period and were probably produced -under the influence of the same pictorial school. In all three we see -the identical pair of graceful Apsaras figures, in an attitude not -found elsewhere among our paintings. In the dress of the Bodhisattvas -we may note as a common peculiarity the same brocade-like decoration -of the edges of the lower robes. Peculiar, too, to the three pictures -are the plain sage-green lotus seed-beds underfoot or as seats of the -divine figures. Whatever the exact date of production may be, there -seems little reason to doubt that the hanging must rank with the oldest -of our Ch‘ien-fo-tung paintings. The needlework is of the finest, as -Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXXIV_XXXV">xxxv</a></span> shows with particular clearness, and to this the picture -owes the striking freshness of its colour effects and the excellent -preservation of all parts that remain.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXVI">PLATE XXXVI<br /> -<span class="smaller">BHAIṢAJYAGURU’S PARADISE</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_36.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXVI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> subject of the silk painting (Ch. liii. 002) reproduced here on -the scale of one-sixth is a Buddhist Heaven, and by evidence of the -side-scenes preserved on the right, which are identical with those of -the larger painting seen in Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span> and <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span>, it can be recognized with -M. Petrucci as another representation of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise. The -reproduction in our Plate is too small to permit of close study of -details. But it suffices to convey an adequate impression of the style -and general arrangement which correspond closely to those of the larger -painting fully discussed above. For these reasons my comments may be -brief here.</p> - -<p>Apart from the top and bottom portions and the side-scenes on the left, -which are lost, our painting is in excellent condition and retains -its colours in particular freshness. The colouring is rendered very -distinctive by the large proportion of black and blue. The drawing is -refined and the work well finished throughout.</p> - -<p>In the centre we see the figure of the presiding Buddha in the same -pose and dress as seen in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span>; his flesh here, too, is yellow -shaded with pink. The two enthroned Bodhisattvas on either side carry -here purple or scarlet lotus buds in the hands nearest him and hold -the others in the <i>vitarka-mudrā</i>. Immediately behind the central -Buddha are seen four haloed monkish disciples with close-cropped black -hair. The rest of the company on the main terrace is made up of twelve -smaller Bodhisattvas seated with their hands in mystic poses or holding -lotus buds, and two blue-haired nymphs kneeling in very graceful -attitudes by the altar and holding offerings.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">{51}</span></p> - -<p>In front of the altar is seen a richly dressed dancer performing on -a projecting terrace, attended by six musicians who are here of a -masculine type with long hair like that of Bodhisattvas. Below at the -sides remain in part the figures of two subsidiary Buddhas, probably -seated, with attendant Bodhisattvas and elaborate canopies, like those -shown above the enthroned figures in the centre. On the gangway leading -down from the dancer’s terrace stands a peacock, and below it appear -the heads of six of the Kings, probably twelve altogether, who were -represented in the centre.</p> - -<p>The lake of the Paradise is seen here only on the top of the picture -about the piles supporting celestial mansions. These consist of a -high-roofed central pavilion and two open hexagonal shrines with pagoda -roofs. These are occupied each by a small seated Buddha and are joined -to the central building by curving gangways which slope down steeply to -the lake.</p> - -<p>The marginal scenes on the right are drawn as always in purely Chinese -style and correspond to those in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>, the connexion of which with -the legend of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s last incarnation has already been touched -upon.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_77" href="#Footnote_MAIN_77" class="fnanchor">77</a></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXVII">PLATE XXXVII<br /> -<span class="smaller">BANNERS WITH SCENES FROM THE BUDDHA LEGEND</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_37.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXVII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">In</span> my preliminary comments on Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XII">xii</a></span> I have already had occasion to -discuss briefly the general characteristics of that interesting series -of silk banners which illustrate the legendary life of Gautama Buddha -and scenes closely connected with it.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_78" href="#Footnote_MAIN_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> This makes it possible to -restrict my remarks on the paintings reproduced in our Plate mainly to -the interpretation of the incidents and objects they are intended to -represent.</p> - -<p>The two banners (Ch. lv. 009–10) shown on the sides of the Plate on the -scale of three-eighths form a pair exhibiting common characteristics -in all externals and undoubtedly painted by the same hand.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_79" href="#Footnote_MAIN_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> But -for the loss of all accessories and some damage to the top and bottom -scenes they are both excellently preserved. The drawing is notable for -its fine yet vigorous brush-strokes, the colours strong and clear. The -painter’s skill displays itself particularly in the landscapes of the -background, which convey a sense of great width and distance. Like -the figures, architecture, spacing, &c., of these banners they are -thoroughly Chinese in their treatment.</p> - -<p>In the banner on the left (Ch. lv. 009) the topmost scene shows the -meeting of Gautama Buddha in a former birth with Dīpaṅkara Buddha. In -open country with mountains in the background the Buddha advances to -the right followed by two attendants in dress of the Bodhisattva type. -With his left hand he touches the head of the boy, the future Gautama, -who bows down before him with hands joined in adoration. The boy wears -a short deer-skin tunic and is bare-headed. The Buddha’s right hand is -lifted in the gesture of ‘Protection’.</p> - -<p>The scene next below, chronologically out of order, represents the -first three of Prince Gautama’s famous ‘Four Encounters’ condensed, -as it were, into one. It shows with much realism the sick man on -his bedstead supported by an attendant, the old man being led by a -boy, and the putrified corpse. The first two of these ‘Encounters’ -we have already met with in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XII">xii</a></span>. From the corpse there rises a -cloud carrying a small kneeling figure in Chinese secular dress with -belted coat and tailed cap. The figure is turned towards a palace-like -structure raised on clouds and representing an abode of the blessed.</p> - -<p>That the figure of Gautama is absent from the scene may seem strange. -But the omission of the ascetic’s figure is less surprising. In -the fourth ‘Encounter’ of the legend<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">{52}</span> he symbolizes the way of -salvation, and for Chinese eyes this may seem appropriately replaced -by the vision of a heavenly abode. The large paintings show us how -completely the hope of Sukhāvatī, the Buddhist Paradise, has effaced -the desire of Nirvāṇa in the minds of pious Chinese.</p> - -<p>The succeeding scene represents the Bodhisattva’s miraculous Descent or -Conception as revealed to his mother in her dream. In a court of the -palace of Kapilavastu Queen Māyā is shown lying asleep upon a couch -placed within a projecting apartment. Its green rush-blinds are partly -rolled up. The infant Bodhisattva is seen kneeling with hands clasped -on the back of the traditional white elephant, which gallops towards -Māyā; two attendants kneel beside him. The whole group, enclosed within -a circular space, is carried on a cloud and thus clearly marked as a -vision.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_80" href="#Footnote_MAIN_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p> - -<p>The bottom scene, which, unlike the rest, is not to be found among the -very numerous representations of Gautama’s Nativity in Graeco-Buddhist -sculpture, seems to show Māyā’s return to her father’s palace after -the dream.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_81" href="#Footnote_MAIN_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Māyā, distinguished by a golden ornament on her head, -is seen walking with a woman attendant from the palace of Kapilavastu. -Both wear wide-sleeved over-jackets in which they muffle their hands.</p> - -<p>In the companion banner (Ch. lv. 0010) on the right we see scenes which -continue the story of the Nativity in chronological sequence. The -top scene shows Māyā asleep in the same pavilion and pose as in the -‘Descent’ scene, but with three figures kneeling outside to the left -on a cloud and in adoring attitude. The interpretation is uncertain. -The succeeding scene, though also absent in the Gandhāra relievos, is -quite clear in its character. It presents to us Māyā on her way to the -Lumbinī garden. She is seated in a gaily coloured palanquin carried by -four bearers, whose rapid movement is excellently expressed. Two more -men carry trestles on which to set the palanquin down.</p> - -<p>Immediately below we see the miraculous birth of Gautama Bodhisattva, a -familiar subject in Buddhist art of all times and regions. The child’s -issue from the mother’s right flank and her pose grasping a bough are -in close conformity with Indian tradition. But the ingenious use made -of Māyā’s wide-hanging sleeve discreetly to screen the act of birth -seems characteristically Chinese. The infant is springing downwards -where a woman attendant kneels to receive him on a cloth. A white lotus -appears where he is about to fall.</p> - -<p>The ‘Nativity’ series is completed in the lowest panel by the famous -incident of the Seven Steps, with lotuses springing up beneath where -the Infant Bodhisattva has set his feet. To the right stands Māyā, with -her hands muffled in her long sleeves and her head turned back towards -the young child. To the left of him stands two women attendants with -bowed heads and hands raised in wonder or adoration. Enough of the -landscape remains to show that the scene was laid in the same grounds -as the preceding two. The Chinese inscription in the cartouche confirms -the interpretation.</p> - -<p>The scene of the Seven Steps appears also at the bottom of the silk -banner (Ch. 00114), which is shown in the middle of the Plate reduced -to one-third of its size. It is painted in a more ornate style than -the other two, but lacks their sense of life and space. Here the child -steps forward with an air of difficulty but determination, the left arm -stretched upwards. Four ladies bend over him in surprise and adoration. -Behind to the left appear a fifth lady and a man wearing a belted -yellow robe and tailed cap. Their identity is doubtful.</p> - -<p>The scene is preceded by the Bath of the Infant. The newly born -Bodhisattva stands in a golden laver, raised on a stand between two -palm-trees. Their tops are lost in a curling mass of black cloud, and -in this there appear, ranged archwise, the heads of the ‘nine Dragons -of the air’, gazing down on the infant with open mouths. A well-known -Buddhist tradition makes Nāgas or divinities of the thunder-clouds, -i.e. ‘Dragons’ in Chinese eyes, perform the laving of the New-born. -The descent of the water, which their mouths are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">{53}</span> supposed to pour -forth, is not actually represented here. Five women stand round, one -holding a towel.</p> - -<p>The upper portion of the banner shows the Seven Jewels (<i>sapta -ratnāni</i>) associated in tradition with Gautama. According to ancient -Indian notions, the Seven Jewels, i.e. the best specimens of each -kind that appear during the reign, appertain to every <i>Cakravartin</i>, -or Universal Monarch, from his birth, and there is good reason to -believe that the Predestined One was credited with this character and -its attributes from an early date. We see them represented here in -two groups: in the upper one the wheel, emblem of sovereign rule; the -strong-box, symbolizing the jewel or treasure; the general and the -wife; in the lower one the minister, the elephant, and the horse. They -all stand on the curling white clouds, stylized in a peculiar fashion -and edged in red, blue, and green. Flaming jewels adorn the wheel, the -horse, and the elephant.</p> - -<p>The general, clad in a coat of scale-armour and resembling a Lokapāla, -holds with his right hand a narrow oblong shield and in his left a -pennoned lance. The wife, Yaśodharā, is attired in a trailing skirt -and wide jacket with sleeves reaching to the ground. Her hair, as -usual with royal ladies represented in the Life scenes, is bound with -a gold fillet and done in two high loops rising up from the crown. The -minister’s dress is like hers, with a long terra-cotta band tied in a -bow hanging down the back. In the white horse, with red mane and tail, -we recognize, of course, Kaṇṭhaka, the Bodhisattva’s cherished steed, a -favourite figure in the Life scenes of our banners.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXVIII">PLATE XXXVIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">BUDDHA TEJAḤPRABHA AND AVALOKITEŚVARA AS GUIDE OF SOULS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_38.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXVIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> two silk paintings reproduced in this Plate on the scale of -one-fourth, and originally mounted as Kakemonos, present special -interest on account of their subjects and treatment. The one above (Ch. -liv. 007), according to the Chinese inscription in the left-hand top -corner, dates from A. D. 897, and yet is painted in a style which, as -pointed out by Mr. Binyon,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_82" href="#Footnote_MAIN_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> looks distinctly earlier. It represents -the Buddha Tejaḥprabha (‘radiant with light’) on a chariot which two -bullocks draw, and surrounded by the genii of the five planets whom -the inscription mentions. The same subject appears to be treated also -in one of the finest of the wall-paintings of the Thousand Buddhas’ -Caves.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_83" href="#Footnote_MAIN_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p> - -<p>The Buddha is shown seated on a blue lotus which occupies the top of -an open two-wheeled car. A draped altar placed in front of him across -its shafts is decked with gilded vessels. Two elaborately decorated -flags float behind the car, hung from slanting poles. The Buddha, whose -figure alone in the picture shows distinct Indian convention, raises -his right hand in the <i>abhaya-mudrā</i>. His flesh was originally gilded -and his hair is shown blue. Rays of different colours radiate from his -person, replacing a halo. Overhead a rich canopy waving in his advance -symbolizes rapid movement. By the side of the trotting bullock strides -a dark-skinned attendant, recalling the ‘Indian’ leaders of Mañjuśrī’s -and Samantabhadra’s mounts, but carrying a mendicant’s staff instead -of a goad and playing a sistrum with his left hand, as clearly seen -in the original.</p> - -<p>Of the genii represented two stand beyond the car dressed in Chinese -official costume with trailing under-robes and wide-sleeved jackets. -The one on the left carries a dish of flowers, and within the crown -of his black head-dress appears a white boar’s head. The other on -the right holds a brush and a tablet in his hands; between two loops -of his elaborate head-dress there rises the figure of a monkey. A -third, dressed all in white, plays upon a large lute with a very long -plectrum;<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_84" href="#Footnote_MAIN_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> his head is surmounted by a phoenix. The figure of the -fourth divinity is of demonic type, four-armed, with fiery hair and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">{54}</span> -grotesque features. The right hands carry sword and arrow, and the left -hands a trident and bow; above his crown is seen a horse’s head.</p> - -<p>With the comparative stiffness of the figures contrasts the freedom of -the whirling mass of cloud upon which the whole group is shown sweeping -past as in a vision. The colouring is strong, yet harmonious, and the -workmanship careful.</p> - -<p>The picture below (Ch. lvii. 002), which is in excellent preservation -and still retained its original Kakemono mounting of brown silk, is a -noble composition strikingly different in style and entirely Chinese -in feeling. It shows the figure of Avalokiteśvara, as Guide of Souls, -drawn with much dignity and grace, and behind him an attendant soul -represented on a smaller scale in the guise of a Chinese woman.</p> - -<p>The figure of Avalokiteśvara, who turns head and gaze backwards over -the left shoulder, is in physical features and dress a fine specimen -of the ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattva type already repeatedly noticed. In his -right hand he carries a smoking censer, in his left a curving lotus -spray and a waving white banner with triangular top and streamers, the -whole exactly alike in shape to the silk banners brought away from -Ch‘ien-fo-tung. In the dress of soft and harmoniously blended colours -the elaborate rosettes of the borders may be noted as manifestly -reproducing contemporary textile patterns.</p> - -<p>The figure of the woman behind, with her head bowed and hands muffled -in wide sleeves at her breast, well expresses devout reliance on the -divine guide. Her attire, by the brilliant colouring of the robes -and the absence of the elaborate metal head-dress, stands out in -marked contrast to the costume familiar from the donor figures of our -tenth-century paintings. The purple cloud which carries both figures -sweeps up behind them to the top of the picture. There a Chinese -mansion resting on conventional cloud scrolls represents the Paradise -to which Avalokiteśvara leads his worshippers.</p> - -<p>By the evidence of the dress and coiffure of the Bodhisattva’s -attendant, which seem to belong to post-T‘ang times, the painting -may be classed amongst the latest of the deposit. But what for our -appreciation of this beautiful picture must matter far more than this -chronological difference is the fact that the style of its design -and its refined execution give full and exclusive expression just to -those qualities which are characteristic of Chinese pictorial art at -its best. As Mr. Binyon, when comparing this picture with another -presentation of Avalokiteśvara, the one reproduced in our Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLII">xlii</a></span>, -has pregnantly put it, ‘we have [here] a sense of suavity and flexile -movement. Flowers seem really to be floating down the air, and the -cloud on which the votaress follows the Bodhisattva coils up with a -wavering motion. We feel the presence of the Chinese genius, with its -instinct for living movement, and its love of sinuous line, and its -reticent spacing.’<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_85" href="#Footnote_MAIN_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XXXIX">PLATE XXXIX<br /> -<span class="smaller">KṢITIGARBHA WITH THE INFERNAL JUDGES</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_39.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XXXIX</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> small picture (Ch. lxi. 009) reproduced here on half-scale -is remarkable for its peculiar colour scheme and for its archaic -appearance in composition and drawing. It represents Kṣitigarbha in his -combined character as Patron of Travellers, Regent of Hell, and Lord -of the Six Worlds of Desire. We have already above, when dealing with -the paintings reproduced in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXV">xxv</a></span>, had occasion to indicate briefly -the several functions which have made this Bodhisattva one of the most -popular figures in the Buddhist Pantheon of the Far East.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_86" href="#Footnote_MAIN_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> Our -observations here may, therefore, be restricted to particular features -of his presentation.</p> - -<p>The picture is painted on indigo blue silk which, though much broken, -especially on the edges, yet retains the strong colours of the painting -in great freshness. Kṣitigarbha<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">{55}</span> in stiff hieratic attitude is -seated on a red Padmāsana with his left leg resting on a small lotus -and the right bent across. With his right hand raised he grasps the -mendicant’s staff, while the left, palm uppermost, is held outwards -empty. Over an under-robe of yellow with vermilion border he carries a -maroon-bordered mantle of perished colour, while a traveller’s shawl of -maroon covers head and shoulders. Gilded diamonds sprinkle shawl and -borders. The face and breast are gilded, but the exposed portions of -the limbs are painted light red.</p> - -<p>From the large circular halo in blue, vermilion, and white spread out -on either side three waving rays in the same colours, intended to bear -figures representative of the Six Worlds (<i>gati</i>) as seen in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXV">xxv</a></span>; -but these have not been drawn in. On either side of the Bodhisattva -stands an amply robed figure with hands in adoration. From the fashion -in which the hair of the figure on the left is done in two knobs it can -be recognized as a man, while the hair descending in a roll on the neck -of the other figure marks it as a woman. Whether the donor and his wife -are intended is not certain.</p> - -<p>In slanting rows descending from Kṣitigarbha’s lotus seat the Ten -Infernal Judges are shown sitting on their heels, five on each -side. They wear magisterial robes with head-dresses of varying -shapes and carry narrow rolls of paper in their hands. Their faces, -drawn in three-quarter profile, show some endeavour at individual -characterization. Behind them on the right stand two men, with belted -coats and wide-brimmed hats, holding a small and a very large roll of -paper respectively. A third man, in a corresponding position on the -left, carries what appears to be a writing-brush.</p> - -<p>In the foreground we see again, crouching, a white lion, of very -stylized form. A man’s figure, probably representing the soul of a -departed, stands in adoring pose at its head, while on the opposite -side another person with grotesque features raises his hands -imploringly towards Kṣitigarbha. Both as regards its archaic style of -design and its peculiar hard colouring the picture has no pendant in -our collection. But, as Mr. Binyon has justly observed, it remains -at present uncertain ‘whether the primitive features may not be due -to provincial style preserving old tradition rather than to actual -antiquity’.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_87" href="#Footnote_MAIN_87" class="fnanchor">87</a></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XL">PLATE XL<br /> -<span class="smaller">KṢITIGARBHA AS PATRON OF TRAVELLERS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_40.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XL</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> painting (Ch. 0084) reproduced here on half the scale of the -original also represents Kṣitigarbha, like the one in the preceding -Plate, but shows striking differences of style in composition, drawing, -and colouring. Simplicity of design, delicacy of line, and harmonious -quiet of colours all combine to give to this picture a singular charm -of its own, admirably expressive of serene beatitude. It is painted -on pale green silk and, except where it is broken at the bottom, well -preserved along with its border of greenish-blue silk.</p> - -<p>We see the Bodhisattva seated cross-legged on an open lotus with -gracefully pointed red petals. His face, round and youthful, bears an -expression of benignant mildness. The eyes, long and straight, are cast -slightly downwards. The right hand holds the mendicant’s staff and the -left, resting on the knee, a flaming ball of crystal. He is dressed in -a yellowish under-robe, apparently lined with pink, and a light green -mantle which is barred and bordered with black. Head and shoulders are -draped in a shawl of Indian red ornamented with a faint spot pattern in -yellow.</p> - -<p>The nimbus and circular halo are ornamented with elaborate ray and -floral patterns in red and green and edged with flames. A broad band -of white surrounds the whole figure and lifts it out of the green -background. In the corners of this are seen floating sprays with red -flowers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">{56}</span></p> - -<p>Below in the left corner there remains the upper portion of the -kneeling donor, recognizable as a boy by his features and the way in -which his hair is dressed. In his joined hands he holds a lotus flower. -His loose-sleeved red coat is sprinkled with a circular flower pattern -in yellow and black. Red flowers on tall stems rise on either side -of him. The cartouche to the right is left blank, and so, too, the -remainder of the space probably intended for a dedicatory inscription.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLI">PLATE XLI<br /> -<span class="smaller">AVALOKITEŚVARA AND TWO OTHER BODHISATTVAS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_41.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> three pictures which this Plate shows, reduced to one-half of the -original in the case of the two on the sides and to three-eighths -in that of the middle one, are characteristic specimens of those -Bodhisattva banners on silk which are very frequent among our Tun-huang -paintings.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_88" href="#Footnote_MAIN_88" class="fnanchor">88</a></p> - -<p>The banner in the middle (Ch. i. 0013) is completely preserved with its -head-piece, streamers, and other accessories, and its painted portion, -which alone is reproduced here, retains its colours in excellent -condition. Its subject is easily recognized as Avalokiteśvara by the -flask and the red lotus bud which he carries in his right and left hand -respectively. The Bodhisattva’s figure is shown sweeping to the left -with trailing draperies and the head slightly bent, gazing down at the -lotus.</p> - -<p>In features, dress, and general style of work it shares the -characteristics of the ‘Chinese’ Bodhisattva type repeatedly referred -to before; but the hollowed back gives a particularly graceful curve to -the whole figure. Its special slimness and the wide semicircular line -showing the setting of the eyes also deserve notice. The modelling of -the flesh by pink shading is well marked. The parted mouth, showing -white teeth, is unusual. The colours are very bright, and as the paint -is applied very thickly, the opaque white of the girdle and streamers -contrasts rather harshly with the strong blue of the stole.</p> - -<p>The silk banner on the left (Ch. xxiv. 006) is also in excellent -preservation, except for the lost accessories. The Bodhisattva who -stands on a bluish-green lotus with hands in adoration remains in the -absence of any particular indications unidentified. Figure, attire, and -adornment conform to the ‘Chinese’ type of Bodhisattvas; but the skirt -gathered up in front and showing bare legs is not usual. The colour -scheme is rich but harmonious and the workmanship in general faultless, -though confined to the familiar conventions of the type.</p> - -<p>It is different with the fine Bodhisattva of the banner (Ch. i. 002) -seen on the right. His figure is one of the most striking represented -in the banners, remarkable for the skilful pose combining dignity -with rapid movement, for the graceful sinuous lines of body and -garments, and the pronounced and distinctly non-Chinese features of -the Bodhisattva’s face. In view of a figure so distinctive and well -defined, it is a matter of regret that there is no clue at present to -its iconographic identity.</p> - -<p>The Bodhisattva is seen walking away to the left, presenting a -three-fourths back-view, with the head in profile over the left -shoulder. With the left hand he gathers up the folds of the gracefully -coiling stole, while the right, bent back at shoulder level, carries -a pink lotus bud on the palm. The erect carriage of the body and its -movement with the weight thrown forward on the right foot are admirably -expressed. The canopy overhead, with its freely swinging tassels and -bells, emphasizes the rapid movement which is suggested also by the -feet being placed on two separate lotuses. The nimbus shown merely in -outline as an elliptical black ring allows the back of the head and -coiffure to be seen through.</p> - -<p>The falling loops of the stole and the drapery tied in a knot at the -neck hide details of the upper portion of the dress. But below it the -waving folds of the glowing scarlet skirt are very skilfully rendered. -A close-fitting cap of red, set with gold ornaments,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">{57}</span> covers the -head, and from it projects at the back a large richly decorated gold -ring apparently holding a tress of hair.</p> - -<p>Special interest attaches to the Bodhisattva’s face. Distinctly -non-Chinese features are the long and prominent nose, the marked -depression below the low sloping forehead, the long and straight eye. -The head is equally far removed from the classical type which Gandhāra -art propagated. A curious scornful expression is imparted to the face -by the eyelid drawn in a straight line across the half-closed eye -and by the pouting mouth. Its strangely foreign look remains doubly -puzzling where everything else bears so clearly the impress of Chinese -workmanship.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLII">PLATE XLII<br /> -<span class="smaller">AVALOKITEŚVARA, THOUSAND-ARMED, WITH ATTENDANT DIVINITIES</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_42.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> large silk painting (Ch. xxviii. 006) reproduced in this Plate -on the much-reduced scale of one-sixth is a fine illustration of -that intermingling of art influences for which Tun-huang provided -a classical meeting-place. It shows Avalokiteśvara with a thousand -arms seated within a central disc, and outside this some attendant -divinities symmetrically grouped. The scheme is thus closely akin to -that of the Avalokiteśvara ‘Maṇḍala’ seen in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVII">xvii</a></span> and fully -discussed above. But the number of divinities is much smaller and the -composition in general less elaborate, though there is abundance of -ornament in the details. The painting is complete except along its -bottom, and its colours are remarkably fresh. The rich painted border -of flower sprays which encloses the whole suggests the effect of -naturalistic embroidery such as is found among the textile relics from -the Thousand Buddhas.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_89" href="#Footnote_MAIN_89" class="fnanchor">89</a></p> - -<p>Avalokiteśvara’s figure single-headed appears here too, seated within -a large circular halo formed by his ‘thousand arms’, each showing the -symbolic open eye on the palm. Against this background are numerous -inner arms, all except four in the centre line of the figure carrying -a multiplicity of sacred emblems well known to Buddhist iconography, -such as the discs of the Sun and Moon, trident, Vajra, &c. Owing to -the excellent finish, the details of all these, as well as of the rich -ornaments which deck the Bodhisattva’s body and head, can be made out -clearly. In front of the high tiara appears the figure of Amitābha, his -Dhyāni-buddha. The Bodhisattva’s flesh is shown dull yellow shaded with -pink.</p> - -<p>The nimbus is made up of a superimposed series of pointed rays -brilliantly coloured. It is flame-edged like the border of the -circular halo behind. The variegated petals of the lotus seat have -also brilliant colours; gilding is used for their outlines as well as -for all jewellery, the vessels on the altar in front, and the folds of -Avalokiteśvara’s robes.</p> - -<p>The background is divided into an upper and lower half. The upper, -painted a thin light blue (now almost gone) and representing the sky, -is sprinkled with small gilded stars and falling blossoms. In its top -corners, to the right and left respectively, are shown the Bodhisattvas -of the Sun and the Moon seated on their respective ‘Vāhanas’ of horses -and geese, within red and white discs which piled-up clouds carry.</p> - -<p>Against the lower half of the background, painted a deep blue and -representing a tiled floor, are the haloed figures of the ‘Sage’ and -the ‘Nymph of Virtue’, kneeling on lotuses to the right and left -respectively. The former, an emaciated old man of ascetic type, yet -wearing rich apparel, raises his right hand in salutation, and the -‘Nymph’ carries her dish of flowers, as also in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVII">xvii</a></span>. In the tank -below we see again two armour-clad Nāgas holding up Avalokiteśvara’s -disc. In front of the tank is an altar decked with draperies of -exquisitely rendered floral designs and carrying gilt sacrificial -vessels.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">{58}</span></p> - -<p>In the bottom corners stride in violent movement many-armed demonic -Vajrapāṇis in red and blue against a vividly painted background of -flames. With their fiery hair and grotesque features, and by the -Tantric emblems they brandish in their hands, they show closest kinship -to the monstrous divinities of Tantric origin in which the imagery of -Tibetan Buddhism delights. Below them there kneel in adoration two -small figures, one with an elephant’s head on the left and another with -that of a rat on the right. In these we may, perhaps, recognize Gaṇeśa, -familiar to Hindu mythology, and the ‘king of the sacred rats famous in -Khotan local worship.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_90" href="#Footnote_MAIN_90" class="fnanchor">90</a></p> - -<p>In these figures and in a variety of other details to which Mr. Binyon -has very justly called attention,<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_91" href="#Footnote_MAIN_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> we have striking indications -of that mixed style of painting to which Indian prototypes, Iranian -and Central-Asian influences, and Tibetan taste have all contributed -elements, albeit in very disparate proportions. Yet it does not -need the Chinese inscriptions, found in a few of the cartouches and -containing epithets of the respective divinities, to convince us that -we owe this highly finished painting to Chinese workmanship. This -has left its marks clearly in a mass of exquisite detail and in that -perfectly mastered technique which accounts for the strong decorative -effect of the whole.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLIII">PLATE XLIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">AVALOKITEŚVARA WITH LOKAPĀLA ATTENDANTS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_43.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> silk painting reproduced here with a reduction to one-third of the -original (Ch. 00121) is a particularly fine example of Indian tradition -preserved in Chinese Buddhist painting. The picture, damaged at the -top and still more at its bottom, shows us Avalokiteśvara seated on -a flat Padmāsana in the pose of ‘royal ease’. The shapely right hand -hangs open over the raised right knee, while the left hand, now lost, -evidently rested on the other knee and held the long spray of purple -lotus which rises beside the head.</p> - -<p>The figure of the Bodhisattva is presented in accordance with Indian -iconographic canons. But the ease and distinction of the drawing, -which the simplicity of the figure and the scarcity of colour make -all the more noticeable, betoken the Chinese artist’s brush. The -slender-waisted body leans towards the left shoulder; the limbs are -long and slim; the head erect. The face is young and clean-shaven -with an expression of serenity in the downcast slightly oblique eyes -and the finely curved lips. The hair rises in a high cone above -the three-leaved tiara, the front of which shows Avalokiteśvara’s -Dhyāni-buddha, Amitābha. The flesh is left uncoloured.</p> - -<p>The dress is confined to a short crimson laṅgōṭī wrapped about the -loins, a thin transparent skirt hanging about the legs, and a narrow -scarf entwined on the breast. The jewellery is of the type usual in -‘Indian’ Bodhisattvas, but plain. The elliptical nimbus and circular -halo behind the figure are painted in pale blue and green. In the -background are shown feathery floral sprays of a type common in printed -silk fabrics from the Ch‘ien-fo-tung hoard.</p> - -<p>In the top corners appear the small figures of two Lokapālas in mail -armour, Vaiśravaṇa on the right and Virūpākṣa on the left, both seated -on rocks. Corresponding figures of the other two Guardians of the -Regions, no doubt, occupied the lost bottom corners.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">{59}</span></p> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLIV">PLATE XLIV<br /> -<span class="smaller">FRAGMENT OF STANDING AVALOKITEŚVARA</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_44.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLIV</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> Plate shows the remaining upper portion of a large silk painting -(Ch. 00451, scale one-third) which represented Avalokiteśvara standing -without attendants. Considerably broken as the painting is and injured -in its surface, we recognize in it a fine pendant to the Avalokiteśvara -picture reproduced in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXI">xxi</a></span>. Here, too, we see a figure of the -conventional ‘Indian’ Bodhisattva type imbued with that grace and -refined quality which Chinese mastery of fluid line and reposeful -design is specially able to impart.</p> - -<p>The physical type and the pose of the body, with its inclination to -the left shoulder, closely correspond to those seen in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXI">xxi</a></span>. But -here this line is counterbalanced by the pose of the head, which leans -gently over the right shoulder. The eyes are turned back to the left -proper and look down with an expression of mildness and compassion. -They are almost straight, and the recurving line added to the eyelids -is here absent. Of the willow spray in the right hand only a few faint -indications remain.</p> - -<p>The dress, jewellery, and colouring agree closely with those displayed -by the figure in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXI">xxi</a></span>. But more remains here of the white shaded -with pink which is used for the colouring of the body. The nimbus -is made up of plain circular rings of dark olive, red, and white. -The Chinese inscription of the cartouche to the right still awaits -interpretation.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLV">PLATE XLV<br /> -<span class="smaller">VAIŚRAVAṆA CROSSING THE OCEAN</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_45.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLV</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> small Kakemono-shaped picture on silk (Ch. 0018) which this Plate -shows with a reduction to two-thirds of its size is one of the most -finished of our Tun-huang paintings. It presents Vaiśravaṇa, the -Guardian-king of the North, as he advances on a cloud across the -heaving sea, with an imposing suite of attendants, some human, some -demonic, but all of them in striking attires. The painting was found -in excellent preservation, still retaining its border of purple silk -(omitted in the reproduction), and thus it is fortunately possible -to appreciate in all details the high artistic merit of a work which -clearly is from the brush of a master.</p> - -<p>When dealing above with another presentation of Vaiśravaṇa’s Progress, -the painting shown by Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXVI">xxvi</a></span>, we have already had occasion to -refer to the special importance which the Protector of the Northern -Region claims as chief among Lokapālas, and also to the reasons -accounting for the popularity of his worship in Central Asia and the -Far East. Hence we may turn here at once to the varied points of -iconographic interest presented by our picture. The main figure of -Vaiśravaṇa, disproportionately large in accordance with a convention -familiar already to Graeco-Buddhist as well as to late Hellenistic art, -strides ahead to the right, carrying the halberd, his characteristic -emblem, in the right hand, and on a cloud rising from his left a small -pagoda-shaped shrine, a secondary attribute, also otherwise attested. -His face is heavy but not grotesque, with large oblique eyes and heavy -eyebrows. The middle of the body is thrown out, giving to the pose an -air of ponderous dignity.</p> - -<p>His dress is that of a warrior king, as proper to all Lokapālas, but -of a particularly elaborate type. His coat of mail reaches down almost -to the knees. The arrangement of the scales, shown by a diaper of -three-armed crosses, is the same peculiar one already noted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">{60}</span> in -Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXVI">xxvi</a></span>. It appears also on the corslet, which is edged by bands -of lacquered plate, while the forearm guards and what is visible of -the greaves show oblong scales secured by transverse bands. The whole -armour is gilded. Decorated flaps, probably of shaped leather, descend -over the hips and are joined in front by a stomacher in the shape of a -hawk or eagle mask. The shoulder-pieces end in a lion head, through the -jaws of which the arm passes. Gilded shoes cover the feet.</p> - -<p>The high three-leaved crown on Vaiśravaṇa’s head, with the wing-shaped -ornament at the top and the white streamers flying up at the sides, -unmistakably recalls the royal head-dress of Sassanian times.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_92" href="#Footnote_MAIN_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> The -flames rising from his shoulders are an emblem also likely to have -an Iranian origin.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_93" href="#Footnote_MAIN_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> Their flickering tongues, like the fluttering -streamers and the freely floating stole, emphasize the Guardian-king’s -rapid movement.</p> - -<p>The same curling maroon cloud on which Vaiśravaṇa advances carries -also his retinue of varied aspects. Before him to the right we see the -graceful figure of a nymph bowing and presenting a dish of flowers. -Her identity is uncertain; in form and attire she resembles the ‘Nymph -of Virtue’ we have already met in the paintings of the Thousand-armed -Avalokiteśvara.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_94" href="#Footnote_MAIN_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> Of her rich attire may be specially noted the -wide sleeves which almost sweep the ground, the acanthus-like leaves -covering her shoulders, and the wreaths thrown over her arms.</p> - -<p>The <i>cortège</i> behind the Lokapāla consists partly of demons, evidently -representing the Yakṣas over whom he rules, and partly of figures -purely human, which are clearly individualized but still await definite -identification. Of the former, two in the background have the heads -of monsters, with fiery hair and tusked jaws. One of them carries -Vaiśravaṇa’s flag of the same elaborate design we have noted in Plate -<span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXVI">xxvi</a></span>. Another demon in front of the pair, with brown skin, hairy arms, -and animal-like head wrapped in a scarlet hood, carries a large round -jar covered at its mouth. A fourth in the foreground, with ferocious -animal head and long upstanding hair, carries a club and wears a -Lokapāla’s armour over a richly embroidered scarlet coat.</p> - -<p>Among the human attendants the most striking figure is that of a finely -drawn aged man. He is clad only in a white skirt, with a scarf across -the breast. His hair is tied in a topknot and is white, like his -eyebrows and beard, all painted with minute care. His sunken features -and the sidelong glance of his eyes are expressively rendered. In his -right hand he carries a gilded cup (or Vajra?). Behind him we see a -portly male figure with placid clean-shaven face and a high mitre-like -head-dress from which drapery falls behind on the neck. He wears a -green robe over what looks like a coat brocaded in a ‘Sassanian’ -pattern and carries a flaming jewel on a gilded stand.</p> - -<p>In the rear is a bearded muscular archer, preparing to shoot at a -bat-like demon in the sky high up to the right. In the latter we can -safely recognize a Garuḍa, the hunting of whom is a frequent motif -in Turkestān frescoes, and whose winged figure is well known to -Graeco-Buddhist sculpture also.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_95" href="#Footnote_MAIN_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> The drawing of the archer’s figure -as he bends down to fit the arrow to the bow, while his gaze follows -the flying Garuḍa, is remarkably firm and vigorous. On his head he -carries a high conical cap of white, with metal boss at the top and -wide upstanding brim. His dress comprises a blue tunic which leaves -the right arm and breast bare, white breeches, and black top-boots. -His purposeful figure in movement is cleverly set off by the serene -appearance of a man standing in front with hands folded in adoration. -He wears a full-sleeved maroon jacket over a flowing white under-robe -and over his smooth black hair a gilded tiara of peculiar shape.</p> - -<p>The special powers of Chinese pictorial art pervading the whole -picture manifest themselves with particular clearness in the masterly -spacing of the background. This shows the greenish-brown sea heaving -in majestically rolling ridges of white-crested waves. Far away -in admirably conveyed distance rises a range of blue and green -mountains,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">{61}</span> probably meant to represent the fabulous Mount Meru -where Buddhist mythology locates the Guardian-kings of the Regions.</p> - -<p>Wherever the eye falls in this small but exquisite picture we may -appreciate the sure drawing with its cleanness of touch, the harmonious -colouring, and the highly finished workmanship. But it is in this -background that we can realize best to what extent the artist shared -that understanding of the Chinese genius for the control of ordered -fluent line and the power of suggestion in spacing.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLVI">PLATE XLVI<br /> -<span class="smaller">FRAGMENT WITH CHILD ON DEMON’S HAND</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_46.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLVI</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> fragment of a large paper painting (Ch. 00373) reproduced here on -the scale of three-fourths is of interest as it represents somewhat -rare details in skilful execution, and also on account of its unusual -technique. The picture, of which another fragment survives, has been -drawn upon a fine ground laid over smooth buff paper. The colours -delicately painted over this are bright and particularly pleasing by -their softness, and I regret that their reproduction had to be forgone. -The execution is more finished than that of any of the other paper -paintings from Ch‘ien-fo-tung. Of the subject of the whole painting -it is impossible to say more than that it probably represented the -‘Maṇḍala’ of a Buddha or Bodhisattva.</p> - -<p>Our fragment shows on the left, against a background of large-leaved -flowering trees, a demon of dark blue body and limbs holding up with -his hands a naked infant who leans towards him smiling and with arms -stretched out. The infant’s form and features are exquisitely drawn -with fluent lines expressive of baby-like plumpness and shaded in pink -and white. He has black hair and a red trefoil mark on his forehead. -The reddish-pink face of the demon bears a cleverly conveyed tender -expression, which contrasts with his fierce features and shock of red -and green hair. We have already met with the figure of a similar demon -holding an infant in the group attending the Bodhisattvas on the right -in Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise as shown by Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>, and another is found -among Vaiśravaṇa’s attendants in a woodcut from Ch‘ien-fo-tung.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_96" href="#Footnote_MAIN_96" class="fnanchor">96</a></p> - -<p>On the right is seen a many-tiered umbrella hung with streamers and -tasselled chains, as found often over the chief Bodhisattvas in large -Paradise paintings (see Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>). In the middle of the bottom portion -of the fragment appears the upper part of the halo, topknot, and tiara -of a Bodhisattva. Above the central ornament of the tiara is seen the -head of a white stag with antlers painted in silver.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLVII">PLATE XLVII<br /> -<span class="smaller">THREE LOKAPĀLA BANNERS</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_47.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLVII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The</span> three silk banners which this Plate reproduces on the scale of -one-third all depict Virūpākṣa, the Guardian-king of the West and, -after Vaiśravaṇa, the most popular of the Lokapālas. When describing -above his fine picture as seen in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXVII">xxvii</a></span>, I have already had -occasion briefly to indicate the iconographic features which are common -to all our Lokapāla representations, and to touch also upon those minor -characteristics which allow us to distinguish certain groups among our -numerous banners of these divinities.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_97" href="#Footnote_MAIN_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> Hence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">{62}</span> my account of those -shown in our Plate may be restricted to individual points deserving of -notice.</p> - -<p>In the banner on the left (Ch. lv. 0020), which is well preserved -except at the top where the painting has broken and been attached -to the head-piece (not shown) by a patch of purple silk, we see a -good example of the Lokapāla type designated above as ‘Chinese’. -Virūpākṣa stands with his feet planted on the back and head of his -crouching demon cognizance and holding the drawn sword upright in his -left hand.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_98" href="#Footnote_MAIN_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> His face is middle-aged and serious, the oblique eyes -slightly enlarged, and the iris painted a dark yellow. His coat of -mail shows oblong scales all through from the shoulders to the skirt -portion. The flesh is shaded light pink over the brownish white of the -silk. The corslet is secured by broad shoulder-straps, probably of -lacquer, here clearly marked. Beneath the hip-belt appear an apron and -hip-flaps of shaped leather, providing additional protection. Round -the lower edge of the belt hang loose rings, probably meant for the -attachment of the scabbard and other equipment. The breeches are tucked -into greaves, and the feet shod with plain sandals. The general colour -effect is subdued owing to the prevalence of light brown and pale red -tints.</p> - -<p>The painting in the middle (Ch. lv. 0046) is broken at the top and has -lost its banner accessories, but retains its colours in remarkable -freshness. Virūpākṣa, turning slightly to the left, stands with his -feet on the shoulder and knee of a squatting demon. He holds before him -with both hands a long sword in a lacquered scabbard, whose point rests -on the demon’s head. His face, large-cheeked and with strong chin, -bears a pleasant expression. The oblique eyes with light iris gaze -upwards.</p> - -<p>The coat of mail painted yellow and red shows round-edged scales -overlapping downwards as far as the hip-belt, while the skirt portion -has oblong scales apparently overlapping upwards. Trefoil-shaped flaps -of green leather give additional protection to the hips and abdomen. -A sausage-shaped collar is fastened round the neck and over a brown -mantle. Solid guards of lacquered leather protect both upper and fore -arms. The legs are clad only in breeches tied below the knees and -hanging loose to the ankles. The shoes of woven string are of some -interest, as their make exactly corresponds to that of shoes brought -to light by me from ruins of Han and later times.<a id="FNanchor_MAIN_99" href="#Footnote_MAIN_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> The elaborately -jewelled head-dress is fitted with a red ‘cock’s crest’ at the back, -and the halo behind is flame-edged.</p> - -<p>The Chinese inscription describes the Lokapāla correctly as Virūpākṣa, -‘celestial king of the Western Region’. The work is carefully finished -throughout, and the colours harmonious, though more opaque than usual -in these banners.</p> - -<p>The banner (Ch. 0010), of which the painted portion is reproduced -on the right, is complete and excellently preserved. Virūpākṣa’s -figure combines here characteristics of that Lokapāla type which may -conveniently be called ‘Central-Asian’ with a treatment and certain -details not unlike those in the ‘Chinese’ type.</p> - -<p>The Lokapāla stands facing the spectator on the head and knee of a -contorted demon. His right foot is placed on a higher level than the -other, and the weight of the body thrown on the left hip. The right -hand holds the naked sword aslant across the body and the left supports -it at the breast. The face is heavy and with the frowning forehead, -the snarling mouth, and glaring eyes bears a fiercer expression than -usual. The large round eyes are level and the iris green. The hair, -shown light blue, is bunched back behind the ears. The flesh is painted -a pinkish red with but little shading.</p> - -<p>The coat of mail from shoulders to skirt is uniformly made up of -round-edged scales overlapping downwards; but their colouring varies -in different parts. A jerkin of blue leather elaborately ornamented -with metal-work appears above and below the mail corslet. The forearms -are swathed in red draperies, which also show above the knees. The -white leg-coverings are tucked into greaves which display elaborately -scrolled metal-work, manifestly painted in with an eye mainly to -decorative effect. Similar metal-work is shown<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">{63}</span> on the black shoes. -The yellowish-brown colour of this metal-work, suggestive of bronze, -is applied also to the solid metal tiara, with wing ornaments and high -crown, which forms the head-dress.</p> - -<p>Though the drawing is careful and the colours clear and fresh, much -is lost in general effect through excessive concentration on detail -and ornament. In the want of space and free line and in the resulting -lack of spontaneity we are made to feel, as it were, the influence of -non-Chinese models.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PLATE_XLVIII">PLATE XLVIII<br /> -<span class="smaller">FRAGMENT WITH FIGURE OF DEMONIC WARRIOR</span></h2> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp80"> - <img class="w100" src="images/plt_48.jpg" alt="" title="" /> - <div class="caption">XLVIII</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">This</span> fine fragment of a large silk painting (Ch. 0098), reduced here -to three-fourths of the original, shows the head and upper part of -the body of a figure demonic in look and of violent pose. No definite -identification seems at present possible. If the trident-like weapon -lifted up in the left hand might suggest a Lokapāla, there are to be -noted against this the flames streaming back from the head and the -total absence of armour. Again, if the ferocious look and pose would -make us think of a Vajrapāṇi Dharmapāla, other difficulties arise -from the unusual weapon, the fiery hair, and the want of exaggerated -muscles. So it will be best to leave this fine figure unnamed and to -rest content with an appreciation of its artistic merit.</p> - -<p>The head, well preserved on the whole, shows a face demonic in features -and convulsed with rage. It is painted dark grey with red lips and -black hair. The eyes are distended and glaring in fury, the eyebrows -contracted, and the forehead bowed with wrinkles. The widely grinning -mouth shows the tongue and both rows of teeth. Excessively high -cheekbones and nose, bushy eyebrows, a moustache sweeping fiercely -upwards, and stiff spreading beard and whiskers add their quota to the -terrifying appearance of the head. The hair on the forehead passes -black under a jewelled tiara; but what streams up from the whole head -is a cone of red flame.</p> - -<p>From the rest of the fragment all paint is lost. The outline drawing, -however, remains of a body vigorous and muscular. But for jewelled -chains, necklace, &c., it is nude to the hip-belt, over which appears -pulled the edge of a skirt-like garment. A stole is gathered over the -right upper arm, and the right hand is held before the breast, with -fingers stiffly upturned and palm downwards. The left arm is lost, -but the hand appears above grasping the staff of a weapon with barbed -points.</p> - -<p>The whole figure is drawn with admirable verve and freedom. Fragmentary -as it is, it allows us to surmise what we have lost here of a work of -true Chinese genius—and at the same time to realize what we owe to the -safe hiding-place the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas have provided for -so many other relics of art.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="pagenum" id="Page_64">{64}</p> -<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li class="newletter"><i>ahhaya-mudrā</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>acanthus leaves, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li>Ajaṇṭā, frescoes of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Ajātaśatru, legend of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li>Ākāśagarbha, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li>altar, valance of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li>Amitābha, Buddha, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> -Western Paradise of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, -<a href="#Page_21">21</a> sq., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -triad of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li>Ānanda, legend of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>Andrews, Mr. F. H., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li>Antioch, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>Apsaras, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Gandharvī.</li> - -<li>Asuras, World of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li>Athene, on seal, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>Avalokiteśvara, Bodhisattva of Mercy (Kuan-yin; Kwan-non), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, -<a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> -guide of souls, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> -six-armed, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>; -thousand-armed, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> -emblems of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> -four forms of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> -male and female forms of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -Maṇḍala of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> -paintings of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> -under willows, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br /> -with willow spray, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> -worship of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Badakhshī breed of horses, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li>banners,<br /> -on silk, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, -<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> -groups of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -on linen, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li>Barnett, Dr. L. D., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>Bath, of Gautama, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>Benares, Deer Park of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li>Bhaiṣajyaguru, Buddha, Paradise of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a> sqq., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li>Bhaiṣajyarāja, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li><i>bhūmisparśa-mudrā</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>Bimbisāra, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li>Binyon, Mr. L., <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, -<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li>boar, head of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>boar-headed demon, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li>Bōdh-Gayā, image at, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>Bodhisattvas, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> sq., <a href="#Page_11">11</a> sqq., and <i>passim</i>;<br /> -banners of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br /> -‘Indian’ and ‘Chinese’ types of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br /> -worship of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Avalokiteśvara, Kṣitigarbha, Mañjuśrī, Samantabhadra.</li> - -<li>borders, of paintings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Brahman, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li>British Museum,<br /> -paintings at, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>;<br /> -Trustees of, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> - -<li>Buddha, <i>see</i> Gautama, Śākyamuni.</li> - -<li>Buddhas, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -subsidiary, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -‘of ten quarters’, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li>Buddhism, spread of, into Central Asia and China, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> sq., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> -Mahāyāna.</li> - -<li>Buddhist art,<br /> -of China, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> -of India, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> sq.;<br /> -of Japan, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> sq.;<br /> -of Tibet, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li>Buddhist Heaven, <i>see</i> Paradise.</li> - -<li>Buddhist images, from India, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li>bullocks, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Butsu-yé</i> <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter"><i>Cakravartin</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>cangue, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li>cartouches,<br /> -inscribed, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, -<a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> -uninscribed, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li>castanets, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li>‘Caves of the Thousand Buddhas’, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, and <i>passim</i>.</li> - -<li>celestial mansions, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li>chain-armour, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li>Chamberlain, the Right Hon. Mr. A., <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> - -<li>Chandaka, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li>Chavannes, M. Éd., <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Ch‘ien-fo-tung</i>, Chinese for ‘Caves of Thousand Buddhas’, <i>passim</i>.</li> - -<li>China, westward expansion of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>Chinese art, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Chinese painting,<br /> -Buddha legend in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> -Central tradition of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -style of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li>‘Chinese’ type of Bodhisattvas, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li>Christians, at Turfān, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li>chronology, of paintings, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li>clappers, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Clarendon Press, Delegates of, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> - -<li>cleaning, of paintings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li>cloud scrolls, in textiles, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>coiffure, of donatrices, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> head-dress.</li> - -<li>coins, Chinese, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li>Conception, of Gautama, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>costume,<br /> -of donatrices, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br /> -of donors, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, -<a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li>crane, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li>crown, of Sassanian type, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">dancer, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li>Deer Park, Śākyamuni in, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>Delhi Museum, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> - -<li>demons, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a> sq., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;<br /> -Tibetan, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;<br /> -World of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Yakṣas.</li> - -<li>Dharmapālas, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li>Dhṛtarāṣṭra, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li>Dhyāni-buddha (Amitābha), <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, -<a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li>Dīpaṅkara, Buddha, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li>disciples, figures of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li>discs, of Sun and Moon, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li>distemper, painting in, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>donors, in paintings, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> costume, portraits.</li> - -<li>dragons, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>drapery, Hellenistic, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li>dress, <i>see</i> costume;<br /> -magisterial, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li>drums, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li>ducks, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -wild, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">embroidery picture, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<br /> -remains, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">fan-bearers, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li>First Sermon, <i>see</i> Gautama.</li> - -<li>flame streamers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li>flask, of Avalokiteśvara, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, and <i>passim</i>.</li> - -<li>flutes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li>Foucher, M. A., <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li>‘Four Encounters’, <i>see</i> Gautama.</li> - -<li>Freer Collection, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Fu-hsi, Emperor, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li>fungus sceptre, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Gandhāra, Buddhist art of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> -types from, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Gandharvīs, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Apsaras.</li> - -<li>Gaṇeśa, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li>Garuḍa, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Gatis</i>, <i>see</i> Worlds of Desire.</li> - -<li>Gautama (Buddha, Śākyamuni),<br /> -scenes from Life of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> -Chinese treatment of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -Conception of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -Birth of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -Bath of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>; -Seven Steps of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> -Four Encounters of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a> sq., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> -Search for, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; -Farewell from Kaṇṭhaka, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br /> -Enlightenment of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> -First Sermon of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> -as teacher, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> -Miracle of Śrāvastī, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> -on Gṛdhrakūṭa, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Buddha, Jātakas, Śākyamuni.</li> - -<li>Giles, Dr. L., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> - -<li>glass bowl, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li>Graeco-Buddhist art, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, -<a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li>Gṛdhrakūṭa, <i>see</i> Vulture Peak.</li> - -<li>gryphon, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li>Guardians of Regions, <i>see</i> Lokapālas.</li> - -<li class="newletter">halo,<br /> -flame-bordered, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> -transparent, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li>hands, pair of colossal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li>Hāritī, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li>harp, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li>hats, shape of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li>head-dress, of donors, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> coiffure.</li> - -<li>Hell, Kṣitigarbha Regent of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li>Hellenistic art, influence of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Heracles, on seal, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>hermit, picture of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>Herzfeld, Prof. E., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li>high lights, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li>hills, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li>Hīnayāna Buddhism, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>Hindu mythology, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li>Horiuji Temple, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li>horse,<br /> -drawing of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> -types of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li>horse’s head, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li>horse-dragon, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>‘horse-millinery’, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li>Hsüan-tsang, pilgrim, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>human form, Chinese treatment of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">iconography, Buddhist, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>.</li> - -<li>India, Buddhist painting in, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li>Indian art, genius of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Indian garb, of divinities, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li>Indian type, of Bodhisattvas, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Indians, dark-skinned, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>Indra, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li>infants, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Infernal Judges, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li>Iranian,<br /> -art motifs, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -influences, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br /> -emblems, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Persia.</li> - -<li>iris of eyes,<br /> -blue, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;<br /> -yellow, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br /> -green, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Japan,<br /> -Buddhist art of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -Buddhist paintings of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li>Jātakas, scenes from, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Gautama.</li> - -<li>Jizō (Kṣitigarbha), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Kābul, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>Kakemonos, paintings mounted as, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Kālika, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>Kalyāṇaṃkara, legend of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">{65}</span></li> - -<li>Kaṇṭhaka, Buddha’s horse, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>Kapilavastu, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>Kapiśa (Kabul), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>Kāshgar, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li> - -<li>Kashmir, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>Kāśyapa, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>Khotan, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -mural paintings of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> -painter from, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> -Vaiśravaṇa’s worship at, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li>Kings, Twelve, protectors of the Law, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li>knee-caps, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> - -<li>Kṣitigarbha,<br /> -in paintings, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br /> -patron of travellers, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;<br /> -Regent of Hell, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li>Ku K‘ai-chih,<br /> -painter, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> -style of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li>Kuan-yin, Chinese name of Avalokiteśvara, <i>q.v.</i></li> - -<li>Kubera, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li>Kwan-non, Japanese name of Avalokiteśvara, <i>q.v.</i></li> - -<li class="newletter">Lamas, hoods of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>landscape,<br /> -treatment of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> -dividing scenes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> hills.</li> - -<li><i>laṅgōṭī</i> (loin-cloth), <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li>Laufer, Dr. B., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li>leather,<br /> -armour, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br /> -scales, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li>linen, paintings on, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>lion, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li>Littlejohn, Mr. S. W., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Ló-shen-fu</i>, painting, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li>Lokapālas, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, -<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>Lop desert, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li>Lorimer, Miss F. M. G., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> - -<li>lotus-lake, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li>lotus-seats, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li>Lumbinī garden, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>Lung-mên, relievos of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li>lute, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Magadha, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>Mahākāla, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li>Mahāsthāma, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>Mahāyāna Buddhism, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li>Maheśvara, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li>mail-coat, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li>Maitreya,<br /> -Buddha, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -Paradise of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li><i>Maitreya-vyākaraṇa-sūtra</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li>Maṇḍala, compositions, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>;<br /> -of Avalokiteśvara, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li>Manichaeism, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li>Mañjuśrī, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li>manuscripts,<br /> -at Ch‘ien-fo-tung, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> -rolls, in paintings, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li>Māra, attack of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>marginal scenes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li>Māyā, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>Meru, Mount, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Milne, Mr. J. C., <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> - -<li>Mīrān, mural paintings at, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li>mirror,<br /> -metal, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> -magic, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li>Mithras, worship of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> sq.</li> - -<li>modelling, in two tones, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li>monkey, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>monks, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>Moon,<br /> -Bodhisattva of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> -disc of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>mouth-organ, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>musical instruments, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a> sqq.</li> - -<li>musicians, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Nāga-tree (coral), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li>Nāgas, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li>Nara, frescoes at, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li> - -<li>Nativity, of Gautama, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>Nepalese miniatures, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br /> -paintings, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li>‘Nymph of Virtue’, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li>Nymphs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">officials, dress of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> dress.</li> - -<li>ox-headed demon, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">palanquin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>Pāpaṃkara, legend of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li>paper paintings, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a> sq., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>Paradise,<br /> -of Amitābha, <i>see</i> Western Paradise;<br /> -of Bhaiṣajyaguru, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br /> -of Maitreya, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> -of Śākyamuni, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li>pavilions, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li>peacock, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li>pearl, of Kṣitigarbha, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li>Pelliot, M. Paul, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li>Persia, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Iranian.</li> - -<li>Petrucci, M. R., <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, <a href="#Page_x">x</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, -<a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li>phoenix, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> - -<li>pipe, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> whistle-pipe.</li> - -<li>Planets, divinities of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>plectrum, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>portraits, of donors, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li><i>pretas</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li>processions, <a href="#Page_14">14</a> sq.</li> - -<li>psaltery, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Rājagṛha (Rājgir), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li>rat-king, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li><i>ratnām</i>, <i>see</i> seven.</li> - -<li>Rawak Vihāra, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>reborn souls, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li>reed-organ, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li>Roman Empire, silk trade to, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>‘royal ease’, pose of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">saddles, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li>‘Sage of the Air’, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> - -<li>Śakti, of Avalokiteśvara, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>Śākyamuni, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -in pictures, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -legend of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;<br /> -Paradise of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -type of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Gautama, Buddha.</li> - -<li>Samantabhadra, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> - -<li>sandals, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> -of string, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li>Śāriputra, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>Sassanian relievos, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> - -<li>‘Sassanian’ textile motifs, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li>scabbard, lacquered, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>scale armour, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a> sq., <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>Schlesinger, Miss K., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li><cite>Serindia</cite>, <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> - -<li>Seven Jewels, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>Seven Steps, of Gautama, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>shading, method of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li>shoes, of string, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>Shōsōin Collection, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li>silk, of paintings, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -gauze-like, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -trade from China, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li><i>siṃhāsana</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Śivaitic divinities, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> - -<li>slab for inscription, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> - -<li>spacing, Chinese, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li>Śrāvastī, ‘Miracle of,’ <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li> - -<li>stag, white, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li>statues, of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Vulture Peak.</li> - -<li>Stone &<br /> -Son, Messrs. Henry, <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>.</li> - -<li>Stūpa, consecration of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> - -<li>Śuddhodana, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li>Sukhāvatī, <i>see</i> Western Paradise;<br /> -type of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li>Sun, Bodhisattva of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<br /> -disc of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>Sung period, art of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li>Syrinx, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Taki, Prof., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> - -<li>Taklamakān desert, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li> - -<li>T‘ang period, art of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li>Tantra doctrines, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br /> -emblems, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li>Taoist monk, at Caves, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> sq.</li> - -<li>Tārā, goddess, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>Tejaḥprabha, Buddha, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>tempera, painting in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>textile patterns, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> Sassanian.</li> - -<li>Thunder god, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li>Ti-tsang (Kṣitigarbha), <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li>Tibet,<br /> -Buddhism of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br /> -Buddhist art of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> - -<li>Tibetan paintings, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li>Tibetans, at Tun-huang, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>tiger, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> - -<li>tonsure, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li>trees, in paintings, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> - -<li>‘triple cord’, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li> - -<li>Tun-huang,<br /> -oasis and town, <a href="#Page_1">1</a> sq.;<br /> -chiefs of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br /> -Tibetan conquest of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> - -<li>Turfān, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -painting from, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li>Turkestān,<br /> -Buddhist art of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -pictorial style of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br /> -under Chinese rule, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li>Tuṣita Heaven, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Urushibara, Mr. Y., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Vaiśravaṇa, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;<br /> -paintings of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> -emblems of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<br /> -flag of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> - -<li>Vajra, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li>Vajrapāṇis, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> - -<li><i>vara-mudrā</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>vase, glazed, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Vignette, portrait in, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li>Virūḍhaka, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Virūpākṣa, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li>Visser, Prof. M. W. de, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li><i>vitarka-mudrā</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, -<a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li>votive inscription, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li> - -<li>Vulture Peak (Gṛdhrakūṭa), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Waley, Mr. A. D., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> - -<li>warrior kings, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li>Western Paradise (<i>Sukhāvatī</i>), of Amitābha, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, -<a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li>wheel, of sovereignty, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>whistle-pipe, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li>willow spray,<br /> -of Avalokiteśvara, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> -Aval, under willows, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li> - -<li>Winter, Miss E. A., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li>‘Worlds of Desire’, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li>Wu Tao-tzŭ, painter, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li> - -<li class="newletter">Yabuki, Mr., <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>.</li> - -<li>Yakṣas, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> -<i>see</i> demons.</li> - -<li>Yaśodharā, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> - -<li>Yün-kang, relievos of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> - -</ul> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak">Footnotes</h2> -</div> - -<div class="footnote_1"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_1" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1420. For a distinctively ‘Indian’ -representation of Mañjuśrī, see below, Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXVII">xxvii</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_2" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, Appendix <i>E</i>, p. 1410. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_3" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, Appendix <i>A</i>, pp. 1434 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_4" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> -See particularly the painting, Ch. lv. 0023, of <span class="smcap">a.d.</span> 864 reproduced -in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVI">xvi</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_5" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 850, 885, 888. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_6" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1410. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_7" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> -For an interpretation of the symbolic meaning of this -representation, cf. M. Petrucci’s ‘Essai’ (Les Maṇḍalas), <cite>Serindia</cite>, -Appendix <i>E</i>, p. 1411. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_8" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 835. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_9" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 850 sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_10" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 899 sq., 984 sq., Pls. <span class="smcap">cix</span>, <span class="smcap">cx</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_11" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite> pp. 890, 1082 sq., Pl. <span class="smcap">lviii</span>, and M. Petrucci’s -notes in Appendix <i>E</i> ibid., p. 1408 sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_12" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 835, 890, note 38. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_13" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_17">17</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_14" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> -See, e.g., Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXII">xxii</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_15" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> -Cf. Stein, <cite>Ancient Khotan</cite>, ii. Pl. <span class="smcap">lix</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_16" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> -For details of the antiquarian evidence concerning the date of -these pictures, cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 885, 896. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_17" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. Of my other pictorial ‘finds’ from Central Asia -only the mural paintings of Mīrān, approximately dating from the third -to fourth century <span class="smcap">a.d.</span>, show this use of ‘high lights’; cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, -pp. 504, 508, Pls. <span class="smcap">xl-xlv</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_18" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> -These two-lobed tufts of hair recall those shown on the heads of -the angels and <i>putti</i> in the wall-paintings of the shrines excavated -by me at Mīrān; see <cite>Serindia</cite>, Figs. 134, 138, 140; Plates <span class="smcap">xl</span>, <span class="smcap">xli</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_19" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 850 sq.; also below, p. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_20" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_21" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> -For details on these points and on the question of style, cf. -<cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 847 sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_22" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 848. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_23" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 850; Chavannes, <cite>Mission archéologique en Chine</cite>, -i. Planches 207–10. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_24" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 849, note 18. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_25" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> -This is against the fixed iconographic convention of Indian -tradition which shows the <i>right</i> hand raised and the <i>right</i> shoulder -uncovered by the under-robe. The explanation may be sought for in the -fact that in the case of banners both sides of the silk gauze had to -be painted. Here and in the Buddha of the banner in the middle of the -Plate we have obviously cases of a mistake made by the artist as to -which side was to be treated as the one intended for contemplation and -properly finished. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_26" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 858, and the reproduction of the banner, Ch. -lv. 0012, Pl. <span class="smcap">lxxv</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_27" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 947 (<i>sub</i> Ch. 0039). -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_28" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 880. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_29" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> -See Petrucci, <cite>Annales du Musée Guimet</cite>, xli, pp. 121 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_30" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> -Plate <span class="smcap">lxx</span> of <cite>Serindia</cite> shows the left half of the painting as -originally opened out and mounted at the British Museum. As regards -certain slight modifications of the arrangement effected in the -course of the final mounting and now seen in our Plate, the detailed -description of the painting in <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 1024 sqq., may be -referred to. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_31" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> -Cf. Petrucci, <cite>Annales du Musée Guimet</cite>, xli. p. 122. The figure -at the first opening of the picture at the British Museum was found as -a detached fragment. To its left upper edge there adhered the inscribed -cartouche subsequently, on mounting, inserted in the blank space -between the two standing figures at the bottom; cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1025 -sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_32" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> -See <cite>Ancient Khotan</cite>, i. 493, Figs. 62–4. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_33" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> -Cf. Foucher, <cite>Beginnings of Buddhist Art</cite>, p. 172. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_34" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> -Cf. <cite>Iconographie bouddhique</cite>, i. 40 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_35" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> -For the willow-spray symbol cf. below, Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXIV">xxiv</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_36" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> -See Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIX">xix</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXIX">xxix</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLI">xli</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_37" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> -For a reproduction in colours, but on a much smaller scale, see -<cite>Desert Cathay</cite>, ii. Plate <span class="smcap">viii</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_38" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> -For such Bodhisattva banners of the type conveniently designated -as ‘Chinese’ see Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XIX">xix</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXIX">xxix</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLI">xli</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_39" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> -Cf. M. Petrucci’s readings, <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1416 sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_40" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> -For specimens of this ‘Indian’ type of Bodhisattvas see Plates -<span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXI">xxi</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XXII">xxii</a></span>; for detailed references concerning banners of this type, -particularly numerous among those on linen, cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 862. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_41" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> -Cf. M. Petrucci’s notes, <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1398. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_42" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_16">16</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_43" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> -Cf. M. Petrucci, on ‘Maṇḍalas de Kouan-yin’, <cite>Serindia</cite>, Appendix -<i>E</i>, pp. 1411 sqq.; and for a full description of our painting, ibid., -pp. 1077 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_44" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> -See M. Foucher’s brilliant essay on ‘La Madone bouddhique’ in <i>The -Beginnings of Buddhist Art</i>, pp. 285 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_45" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> -See M. Petrucci’s explanations in <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1397. The -other two inscriptions seem to contain metrical invocations of the -all-merciful Kuan-yin. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_46" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> -For scenes somewhat similar, see the side of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s -Paradise in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_47" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> -Cf. Mr. Binyon’s note in <i>Guide to an Exhibition Paintings, -Manuscripts, and other Archaeological Objects collected by Sir Aurel -Stein in Chinese Turkestān</i>, British Museum, 1914, p. 12. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_48" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> -Cf. Chavannes, <i>Dix inscriptions chinoises de l’Asie centrale</i>, pp. -80 sqq.; <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1338 sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_49" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 864, with note 16. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_50" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> -Cf. Mr. Binyon’s remarks in <i>Guide to an Exhibition of Paintings, -MSS., &c., collected by Sir Aurel Stein</i> (British Museum, London, -1914), p. 7 sq.; also M. Petrucci’s account of Kṣitigarbha’s -‘Maṇḍalas’, <cite>Serindia</cite> p. 1422 sq.<br /><br /> - - -The history of Kṣitigarbha’s cult in China and Japan forms the subject -of a full and very instructive monograph, <i>The Bodhisattva Ti-tsang -(Jizō) in China and Japan</i>, by Professor M. W. de Visser, with numerous -illustrations (Oesterheld & Co., Berlin, 1915), to which reference may -be made for all details. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_51" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> -For a brief summary of the facts bearing on the iconographic -history of the Lokapāla figures in their transition from India and -Central Asia to China, cf. e.g. <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 870 sqq., where the -principal authorities are indicated. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_52" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> -See <cite>Ancient Khotan</cite>, i. pp. 158, 252 sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_53" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> -The treatment of the scales, apparently represented by three-armed -crosses, is peculiar and differs from the several methods of scale -armour which other Lokapāla figures (see e.g. Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLVII">xlvii</a></span>) usually -display. But it is found again on Vaiśravaṇa’s armour in Plate <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLV">xlv</a></span> and -may possibly be meant for a special kind of mail. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_54" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> -For some of such indications, see <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 871 sq., 874. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_55" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> -Cf. Herzfeld, <i>Am Tor von Asien</i>, p. 87. To the examples there -quoted in note 141 may be added the painted panel from Dandān-oilik, D. -vii. 5, shown in <cite>Ancient Khotan</cite>, ii. Pl. <span class="smcap">lix</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_56" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> -For more detailed observations on the two groups among Lokapāla -pictures, cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 872 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_57" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 873 sq., 939 sqq., &c. Questions closely -bearing upon armour and costume such as our Lokapālas exhibit have been -discussed with much critical learning by Dr. B. Laufer in his <i>Chinese -Clay Figures</i>, Pt. 1: <i>Prolegomena on the History of Defensive Armour</i> -(Chicago, 1914). -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_58" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> -See <cite>Ancient Khotan</cite>, i. pp. xvi, 374, 411; <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 246, -463 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_59" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> -See above, pp 12, 14 sq., 29. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_60" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_60" class="fnanchor">59</a> -For detailed references, cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 873; see also <i>Ancient -Khotan</i>, i. pp. xvi, 252. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_61" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> -For reference to works of MM. Chavannes, Foucher, -Grünwedel-Burgess, see <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 875, note 45. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_62" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 904 sqq., and the embroidery specimens -reproduced there in Plates <span class="smcap">cvi-cviii</span>, <span class="smcap">cx</span>, <span class="smcap">cxi</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_63" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> -Cf. F. H. Andrews, <i>Ancient Chinese Figured Silks excavated by Sir -Aurel Stein</i> (B. Quaritch, London, 1920), pp. 4 sqq., Figs. 1–3. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_64" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> -See above, Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">i</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_I_II">ii</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_65" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> -We meet with exactly corresponding examples of the combination of -Chinese and ‘Sassanian’ textile motifs in certain printed silks from -the ‘Thousand Buddhas’; see <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 911, Plates <span class="smcap">cxiii</span>, <span class="smcap">cxiv</span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_66" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_67" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> -Owing to these causes the reproduction of the painting has -presented considerable technical difficulties. Hence some of the details -mentioned cannot be made out in it quite as clearly as in the original. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_68" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> -See his Appendix <i>K</i>, <cite>Serindia</cite> p. 1473. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_69" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> -Cf. Mayers, <i>The Chinese Reader’s Manual</i>, p. 48. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_70" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> -See above, pp. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_71" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> -For full details of the iconographic evidence I may refer to -<cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 878 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_72" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> -Some idea of the labour implied by the execution of the embroidery -may be formed from the fact that the careful remounting of the hanging -on a fresh canvas backing, which became necessary at the British Museum -for its preservation, kept the expert employed on this task, Miss E. A. -Winter, of the Royal School of Needlework, occupied for over three -months. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_73" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> -Some connexion might perhaps be sought with an early legend -relating to Śākyamuni’s stay on Gṛdhrakūṭa. While engaged in meditation -within a grotto, he was believed to have pushed his right arm through -its rock-wall in order to reassure his disciple Ānanda, whom Māra, -in the shape of a vulture, had frightened; cf. Foucher, <i>L’art -gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra</i>, i. p. 497. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_74" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> -See above, pp. <a href="#Page_20">20</a> sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_75" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 885. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_76" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_77" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_13">13</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_78" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_79" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> -For the reasons which account for the banners with scenes from the -Life usually forming small groups or at least pairs, cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. -852. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_80" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> -This is in complete accord with the original Buddhist tradition -which presents the descent of the white elephant not as a real event, -but as a dream of Māyā; cf. Foucher, <i>L’art gréco-bouddhique du -Gandhâra</i>, i. p. 292. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_81" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> -For a textual reference supporting this interpretation, cf. -<cite>Serindia</cite>. p. xxiii, <i>add</i>. to p. 855, note 50<sup>a</sup>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_82" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_83" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 933 sq., Figs. 215, 226. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_84" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> -For a full description of this instrument, cf. Miss K. -Schlesinger’s note in Appendix <i>H</i>, <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 1468. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_85" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, Appendix <i>E</i>, p. 1429. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_86" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_37">37</a> sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_87" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_8">8</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_88" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, pp. 861 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_89" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> -For specimens cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>. pp. 904 sq.; Plates <span class="smcap">cvi-viii</span>, &c. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_90" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> -See <cite>Ancient Khotan</cite>, i. pp. 120 sq., 264 sq.; ii. Pl. <span class="smcap">lxiii</span>; -<cite>Serindia</cite>, iii. p. 1277. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_91" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_92" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> -Cf. also above, p. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_93" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> -Cf. <cite>Serindia</cite>, p. 874. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_94" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> -See Plates <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XVII">xvii</a></span>, <span class="smcap"><a href="#PLATE_XLII">xlii</a></span>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_95" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> -Cf. Grünwedel, <cite>Altbuddhistische Kultstätten</cite>, pp. 282, 351, Fig. -583; Foucher, <cite>L’art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra</cite>, ii. pp. 32 sqq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_96" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, Plate <span class="smcap">c</span> (Ch. 00158). -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_97" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> -See above, p. <a href="#Page_40">40</a> sq. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_98" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> -For a likely explanation of this unusual attitude, see above, p. -<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, note <a href="#Footnote_MAIN_25">25</a>. -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<a id="Footnote_MAIN_99" href="#FNanchor_MAIN_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> -See <cite>Serindia</cite>, ii. p. 874; Pls. <span class="smcap">xxxvii</span>, <span class="smcap">liv</span>. -</div> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p id="AddNotes" class="center larger110">Additional Transcriber’s Notes</p> - -<p>Text notes:</p> - -<ol> - <li>For the HTML version, page numbers of the original printed text - are displayed within braces to the side of the text.</li> - <li>Footnotes have been moved the end of each section (Preface, - Introductory Essay, and main text). Numbering is unchanged.</li> - <li>Index sub-items have been placed on their own line beneath - the main item.</li> - <li>The original printed version of this work was composed of a book - containing the text and two books containing numbered image - plates. These image plates have been moved to their respected - text sections.</li> - <li>Except as mentioned above and in the Change List that follows, - every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as - possible, including non-standard punctuation, inconsistently - hyphenated words, etc.</li> -</ol> - - -<p>Change List (page numbers from original printed book):</p> - -<ul> - <li>Page <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> - legend of Sākyamuni in his last life<br /> - <i>changed to</i><br /> - legend of Śākyamuni in his last life</li> - - <li>Page <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> - VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUSRĪ<br /> - <i>changed to</i><br /> - VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUŚRĪ</li> - - <li>Page <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> - crimson _langōṭī_ flowered with blue rosettes<br /> - <i>changed to</i><br /> - crimson _laṅgōṭī_ flowered with blue rosettes</li> - - <li>Page <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> - Petrucci, M. R., viii, x, xi, xii, 14, 16, 17, 19, 27, 30, 37, 50.<br /> - <i>changed to</i><br /> - Petrucci, M. R., v, x, xi, xii, 14, 16, 17, 19, 27, 30, 37, 50.</li> -</ul> - -<p>Printed Image Plate Dimensions (width x height in centimeters)</p> -<table summary=""> - <tr> - <th>Plate</th> - <th>Dimension</th> - <th></th> - <th>Plate</th> - <th>Dimension</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>1</td> - <td>38.3 x 49.3</td> - <td></td> - <td>25</td> - <td>54.3 x 34.9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>2</td> - <td>33.7 x 49.3</td> - <td></td> - <td>26</td> - <td>40.7 x 45.1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>3</td> - <td>32.5 x 49.6</td> - <td></td> - <td>27</td> - <td>38.0 x 49.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>4</td> - <td>25.4 x 49.4</td> - <td></td> - <td>28</td> - <td>37.9 x 39.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>5</td> - <td>19.7 x 39.6</td> - <td></td> - <td>29</td> - <td>42.1 x 50.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>6</td> - <td>32.7 x 49.3</td> - <td></td> - <td>30</td> - <td>45.7 x 39.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>7</td> - <td>37.3 x 49.3</td> - <td></td> - <td>31</td> - <td>30.2 x 49.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>8</td> - <td>35.9 x 49.1</td> - <td></td> - <td>32</td> - <td>50.3 x 26.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>9</td> - <td>49.5 x 41.9</td> - <td></td> - <td>33</td> - <td>52.5 x 32.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>10</td> - <td>36.5 x 49.6</td> - <td></td> - <td>34</td> - <td>17.0 x 25.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>11</td> - <td>41.7 x 39.5</td> - <td></td> - <td>35</td> - <td>21.5 x 20.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>12</td> - <td>54.9 x 35.5</td> - <td></td> - <td>36</td> - <td>20.4 x 21.5</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>13</td> - <td>42.7 x 49.5</td> - <td></td> - <td>37</td> - <td>20.9 x 22.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>14</td> - <td>36.1 x 49.4</td> - <td></td> - <td>38</td> - <td>12.8 x 36.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>15</td> - <td>35.8 x 49.9</td> - <td></td> - <td>39</td> - <td>20.2 x 22.0</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>16</td> - <td>32.9 x 49.5</td> - <td></td> - <td>40</td> - <td>20.2 x 28.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>17</td> - <td>37.6 x 49.5</td> - <td></td> - <td>41</td> - <td>25.8 x 26.3</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>18</td> - <td>29.3 x 49.3</td> - <td></td> - <td>42</td> - <td>18.7 x 24.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>19</td> - <td>38.4 x 39.7</td> - <td></td> - <td>43</td> - <td>17.9 x 22.6</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>20</td> - <td>26.3 x 39.6</td> - <td></td> - <td>44</td> - <td>20.5 x 26.2</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>21</td> - <td>18.6 x 49.4</td> - <td></td> - <td>45</td> - <td>17.2 x 24.7</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>22</td> - <td>47.7 x 33.5</td> - <td></td> - <td>46</td> - <td>27.0 x 32.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>23</td> - <td>33.3 x 49.2</td> - <td></td> - <td>47</td> - <td>21.7 x 20.8</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>24</td> - <td>40.1 x 49.5</td> - <td></td> - <td>48</td> - <td>23.4 x 32.5</td> - </tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE THOUSAND BUDDHAS ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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