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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #67007 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/67007)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Attempt to Investigate the Seat of
-Animal Life, by Henry Curtis
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: An Attempt to Investigate the Seat of Animal Life
-
-Author: Henry Curtis
-
-Release Date: December 24, 2021 [eBook #67007]
-
-Language: English
-
-Produced by: Sonya Schermann, Donald Cummings and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The
-             Internet Archive)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ATTEMPT TO INVESTIGATE THE
-SEAT OF ANIMAL LIFE ***
-
-
-
-
-
-                                  AN
-                            INAUGURAL ESSAY
-                                ON THE
-                         SEAT OF ANIMAL LIFE.
-
-
-
-
-                                  AN
-                                ATTEMPT
-                          TO INVESTIGATE THE
-                                 SEAT
-                            OF ANIMAL LIFE.
-
-                    SUBMITTED TO THE EXAMINATION OF
-                   CHARLES ALEXANDER WARFIELD, M. D.
-
-                 _The President, and Medical Faculty_
-                OF THE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE OF MARYLAND.
-
-                  FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHYSIC.
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                  _By Henry Curtis ... of Virginia_,
-           VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE BALTIMORE MEDICAL SOCIETY.
-
-                            [Illustration]
-
-                ... The spacious earth,
-              And all the teeming regions of the world,
-              Hold not an object to the curious flight
-              Of knowledge, half so tempting, or so fair,
-              As man to man.
-                                                     AKENSIDE.
-
-
-                              Baltimore:
-                       PRINTED BY BENJAMIN EDES.
-                  Corner of South and Market-Streets.
-                                 1812.
-
-
-
-
-                                  TO
-                     WILLIAM FOUSHEE, SENIOR M. D.
-                                AND TO
-                        JNO. H. FOUSHEE, M. D.
-                       _OF RICHMOND, VIRGINIA_.
-
-
-GENTLEMEN,
-
-_Actuated by the finest feelings of gratitude, I embrace with peculiar
-pleasure this opportunity of acknowledging and making, in some degree,
-public, my many obligations to you, who, with parental care, directed
-the gradual unfoldings of my mind through the morning of youth, and
-kindly afforded those means of improvement, calculated to raise
-industry to eminence, and crown it with success._
-
-_Should this first effort evince an advancement in the knowledge of
-the profession to which I devote my life. Accept its dedication as a
-tribute of grateful respect, from_
-
-                         _Your much obliged_,
-
-                                                           H. CURTIS.
-
-
-
-
-             _To the zealous and able friends of science_,
-                  JNO. B. DAVIDGE, A. M. M. D. _and_
-                          JAMES COCKE, M. D.
-              _Joint Professors of Anatomy, Surgery, &c.
-                In the College of Medicine of Maryland;
-                    These pages are inscribed as a
-                         Sincere testimony of
-                          Respect and esteem,
-                                By the
-                               AUTHOR._
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration] _The necessity of publication, will apologize, to my
-friends, for the form this essay has taken._
-
-
-
-
-                       PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.
-
-
-As a subject for my inaugural dissertation, I am induced rather to
-offer some general opinions on the state of the animal system, than to
-enter into particular disquisitions on given points.
-
-The time allotted, in general, for the production of inaugural essays,
-and the peculiar circumstances under which I have to write, preclude
-the hope of my advancing the science of medicine; I am therefore
-chiefly anxious not to embarrass its progress by hasty conclusions or
-fanciful chimeras. The opinions I have thought proper to bring forward
-are advanced with as much perspicuity and order as my application to
-other engagements would permit; and although they are founded, I trust,
-on manifest facts or inductions from established propositions, still I
-must submit them with diffidence: and should the ground, I have taken,
-prove untenable, I have to regret that my opportunities have not placed
-me on a more advantageous stand.
-
-
-
-
-                                THESIS.
-
-
-The capacity and aptitude for motion, observable in man, naturally lead
-us to an enquiry into the general principle of his corporeal functions.
-To a disquisition of which I devote the following pages.
-
-Aware of the intricacy of my subject, and that the operations of
-the animal body necessarily embrace agents not within the range of
-our senses, I cannot indulge in the hope that I shall be altogether
-successful in an examination of the laws of its economy. Where so
-many enlightened and able intellects have labored in vain, it would
-require an excess of vanity in me to expect to succeed; and, I trust,
-should I leave some of the difficulties unsurmounted and inequalities
-unsmoothed, I shall not be fairly chargeable with temerity or
-indiscretion.
-
-Amidst our contemplation of the various simple and compound actions,
-of which the human body is capable, and in which it is perpetually
-engaged, we are unavoidably led to ask――whence is the peculiar power or
-capacity, so admirably diffused throughout its numerous parts, by which
-those actions are performed? Is it by any peculiarity of organization?
-or by properties different according to the nature of the various
-constituent parts? or a particular principle, not strictly inherent in
-any one part, but diffused to all? It cannot be in the organization,
-although it does not manifest itself without organization, for, if so,
-there would uniformly be a difference between the texture of dead and
-living parts, which frequently is not the fact. Nor have we full and
-satisfactory evidence on which to found the opinion that it is owing to
-properties differing in their essential natures according to the parts
-concerned. That the principle of life or capacity of acting, or being
-acted on, is strictly the property of one part, and is by diffusion
-communicated to the rest, we have much reason to conclude from the
-phenomena of both health and disease.
-
-Until experimental philosophy and inductive reasoning shall be
-separated from fanciful and hypothetical speculations, the science
-of medicine can meet with but slow success. And as we have not all
-the advantages attendant on the other physical sciences, having the
-operations of a living machine, if I may use the expression, to
-calculate, we must be content to move with a slower step. Nor must we
-commit our barque to the full and easy flowing stream of conjecture and
-hypothesis. Conjectures are ever vague and hypothesis seldom leads to
-the discovery of truth.
-
-Some physiologists, and those of no mean note, have considered the
-operations of the human frame as a circle of functions governed by
-mechanical organic laws, as we discover in an hydraulic machine,
-or automaton, so admirably formed, as by the mere force of its
-construction to perform and continue the vital motions.
-
-In confutation of such an opinion we have nothing to do more than to
-introduce the words of the justly celebrated Doct. Whytt. “It seems”
-(says that writer) “to be incumbent on those philosophers who ascribe
-the motion of the heart to mechanical causes alone, to demonstrate the
-possibility of a perpetuum mobile, since as long as life lasts, an
-animal appears to be really such.” And it needs scarcely be added that
-perpetual motion is demonstrably without the laws of mechanics, and
-far above the power of mechanism. These considerations are, I judge,
-sufficient to put to rest all idea of an independent _organic_ life: If
-others are wanted, it may be shewn that life, sense, and self-action,
-are inconsistent with the general properties of matter.
-
-Others, writers of much reputation and celebrity, have contended
-for the existence of an innate independent principle of life in the
-muscles, and the plausible ingenuity with which these opinions were
-supported, could not fail to procure many advocates, and has indeed
-enlisted in its cause such a body of respectable talents, as to
-induce me to hesitate in my intended opposition: Nor do I now venture
-presumptuously to undertake the settlement, but shall only offer
-such reasons in objection to the doctrine, as have been suggested by
-various circumstances. It is not my intention to engage in all the
-minuteness of particular discussion. That would require more time and
-attention than I can at present devote to such an undertaking; but I
-shall content myself by briefly stating all the arguments which have
-fallen within my reading, most insisted on by the strenuous defenders
-of the above doctrine, and on which alone it seems to rest.――Then,
-by considering the arguments separately, endeavour to shew wherein
-they are fallacious, and point out the difficulties calculated, in my
-opinion, to oppose such specious reasoning.
-
-The punctum saliens, or the first visible point in motion being the
-heart;
-
-The birth of full grown Fœtuses without brains;
-
-The performance of vital motions without consciousness;
-
-Eggs freezing with more difficulty from the time they are first laid in
-proportion to their freshness;――and,
-
-The contraction of muscles after removal from the body;――are I believe
-the points most relied on as evidence of an independent living
-principle in the muscular system, and which shall now be considered in
-the order detailed.
-
-In considering the condition of animals in their nascent state, we
-may readily understand, that their rudiments, composed of a pellucid
-congeries of parts, will freely transmit the light, and as there is no
-analysis of the ray, or proper reflection of it, it can make on the
-retina no impression, nor convey to the mind any perception of the
-existence of distinct parts. Soon however the vital energy manifests
-itself in the formation of red blood, and the motion of a point which
-being capable of reflecting light presents to the senses marks of
-distinct organization. Yet from this we derive no evidence that this
-point is the first to possess life, but only, that it shews itself
-first, by means of its reflecting powers. And thus though we admit
-the proposition, it can assist the cause it was adduced to support
-but little; for the moving energy, we presume may be derived from
-co-existent parts. And indeed according to some accurate observers, the
-disproportionate head with other lineaments, appear visible some time
-before the heart is seen in motion.
-
-That Fœtuses have in a few remarkable instances been ushered into a
-short lived existence without a brain, is advanced with some degree
-of elation by the supporters of the principle under consideration.
-Animals, from equally good authority, have been born without hearts:
-but will a few cases of lusus naturæ serve to disprove the importance
-of these organs to the animal economy? I fancy not; in either case
-above alluded to, we may suppose that the appendages performed, though
-imperfectly, the offices of their respective organs. And in those
-particular cases in which the brain is wanted, we may conclude with
-the learned physiologist, that it was destroyed by disease after
-the growth of the child, but left the nerves and ganglia (which
-Doctor Monro considers small or disproportionate brain) endowed with
-sufficient influence to maintain for a short period its life. If there
-be an independent vital principle in the muscles; why does not its
-power support those extremely rare cases, which unfortunately for the
-doctrine, as well as its advocates, do not generally survive birth any
-length of time.
-
-No person, at all conversant with the phenomena of the passions,
-will deny the connexion between the mind and vital functions. It
-will therefore be only necessary to observe in answer to the third
-proposition; that sensation is predicated on a comparison of the past,
-with the present state of impressions, and that all are relative to
-some change in the percipient organ; heat is only sensible, because
-it was preceded by a lower temperature. And therefore objects which
-are equable in their application, and continued for a length of time,
-affect us but slightly; are unattended to when present, and cannot be
-recalled when past, must consequently escape our consciousness. Objects
-of minor importance operate continually on our senses, but may escape
-the observation when preoccupied, particles of matter passing before
-our eyes induce us to close the palpebræ, yet the action is not always
-attended to. Also the common action of the heart and arteries are not
-the subjects of our consciousness; the stimulus of the contained blood
-continuing nearly the same, conveys no impression to the mind; but let
-a fluid, however bland, be injected into them, and the animal will
-testify by its cries, the acute sensibility of the parts; or suspend
-their ordinary operation for a few moments, which may be readily done
-in some of the branches of the arterial system, and the succeeding
-action becomes very perceptible attended with much uneasiness and
-anxiety. The common action of the intestines are not generally objects
-of our attention, yet derange or increase that action and they
-establish their connexion with the sensitive medium. This is rather a
-species of abstract reasoning, but we have positive cases on record:
-in which a British colonel could suspend at pleasure the action of the
-heart: the stomach likewise appears under the influence of the will,
-as is evinced in ruminating animals, and Professor Blumenbach gives
-an instance of a person in whom this organ was under the strictest
-command; also we have from the same authority, cases in which the Iris
-has been subjected to the power of volition; and indeed the parrot
-continually displays something of the kind. For such reasons I would
-not consider any part of the living body independent of the common
-sensory, but I can suppose that the mind by disuse or disease may
-lose its power over some organs, as it sometimes does over even the
-voluntary muscles. And I can see no reason why those motions called
-involuntary, could not be gradually withdrawn by want of attention from
-the direct influence of the mind.
-
-That eggs resist in proportion to their freshness a reduction of
-temperature, is not in my conception necessarily owing to their
-vitality; which may be inferred from the circumstance, that as long
-as they were capable of being hatched, however stale, they must still
-retain their principle of life, and therefore, a stale egg able to
-afford a chick by incubation, should freeze no sooner than one newly
-laid. Another solution of the phenomena can be offered which may have
-escaped the attention of the ingenious experimenter. In the present
-state of chemistry, acquainted with the passage of heat through bodies,
-we know that the change of temperature in a tenacious semifluid must be
-very slow; caloric passing in such bodies, rather by transposition of
-particles than by their contact; the heat of the new laid egg is but
-little below 100° of Fahrenheit and consequently must part with near
-70° of heat before it could congeal. And having undergone that change,
-it would require some time to equalize its temperature with surrounding
-bodies.
-
-If the egg does contain an independent principle of life why is not the
-chick evolved without the aid of other agents?
-
-The last argument I shall notice on this fanciful hypothesis is not
-least in importance with the advocates for the independent principle
-but is one on which they place much reliance, viz., the contraction
-of muscles after removal from the body. There is little doubt that
-the contractibility of the muscular fibres is variously disposed in
-different animals and that particular parts may possess more tenacity
-of action than others; but if it were a constituent principle of the
-part, it should continue undiminished in power until the texture be
-entirely destroyed, and not gradually decrease in energy, as is the
-case, till it cease to act altogether. It may be strongly urged against
-this hypothesis that stimuli applied to the nerves soon after the
-death of an animal, produce more violent action than when applied to
-the muscles themselves; and much sooner destroy their aptitude for
-action, which fact, has been shewn true, by a series of ingenious and
-well conducted experiments, entered on by the learned doctor Whytt, of
-Edinburgh.
-
-Hence these propositions which have been displayed with no little
-triumph by the votaries of an independent life, can afford their
-opinions no support.
-
-But the exertions of physiological speculators did not stop here, while
-they were seeking with such solicitude for the source of vitality, it
-is not to be supposed that such an important constituent of the body,
-as the blood appears to be, should escape unnoticed, nor did it. That
-the life was in the blood, seems an opinion long since suggested, but
-it was treated rather as a figurative expression until revived and
-introduced to notice by the distinguished authority of Harvey. After
-him it obtained many advocates and zealous supporters in Europe and
-America. The opinion is entitled to notice, and I shall consider it
-with that principle of liberality and respect, which I think due to all
-opinions proceeding from such high sources.
-
-Upon the supposition that the blood was the formative principle first
-existing in the nascent embryo, from the action of which the various
-parts of the body are evolved, it was styled the Primum Vivens. But
-could the blood circulate without vessels? propelled chiefly by a
-vis atergo, unless moving in tubes or vessels; I apprehend it could
-never revolve in a circle and perform by secretion, the functions so
-necessary to the growth and nutrition of the body.
-
-Ingenuity, put upon the stretch, has drawn in support of this visionary
-speculation, arguments from the coagulum of the blood assuming
-appearances somewhat resembling muscular contraction, “and” (we are
-told) “as contraction is the life of the solid, if we find any thing
-like it, we should call it the living principle of the blood.”――On
-the same foundation we may assert the vitality of jelly, which can be
-dissolved and coagulated again, and again, present the same appearance
-of contraction.
-
-This quality of blood not peculiar to itself, can be referred to
-physical causes alone, seeing it separates spontaneously when drawn
-from the body, into crassamentum and serum, we are satisfied its parts
-are not united by chemical solution, properly so called; but are rather
-mingled together and kept in intimate mixture by the continual action
-and agitation of the circulation, for when at rest, the different parts
-occupy the situation assigned them by their specific gravity, and
-mutually recede, from the loss of caloric, and by the attraction of
-aggregation.
-
-An enlightened defender of this opinion of our own country, with his
-mind apparently more highly imbued by speculative enquiries, than the
-observation or proper application of facts, endeavored to substantiate
-a living principle in the blood from the manner in which it is
-influenced by chemical agents, and has brought forward experiments
-which, though conducted with some address appear to have been
-introduced rather to quadrate with preconceived opinions, than with a
-spirit of impartial investigation.
-
-Portions of blood drawn from the veins of healthy persons were
-subjected to the influence of electricity, which were observed to
-separate sooner than other portions set by as standard marks, from
-which it was inferred that the stimulus must have acted on a principle
-of life, to increase its action. To this inference I shall only offer
-general objections. In the present state of our knowledge, we know
-that the blood though apparently homogeneous is resolvable by agents
-into several parts; its crassamentum is composed of gelatinous fibres
-and red particles, kept in intimate mixture with the serosity by a
-combination of concurring circumstances, which being destroyed by the
-operation of chemical agents the separation is precipitated.[A]
-
-    [A] See observations on albumen, and some other animal fluids,
-    with remarks on the analysis by electro-chemical decomposition.
-                ――――Philosophical Transactions for 1809:――page 373.
-
-The life of the blood has also been inferred from its resistance to
-a reduction of temperature, similar to that of a fresh egg. In a
-former part of this work I endeavored to shew the fallacy of such
-an inference, as the circumstance might arise from its peculiar
-consistency; but in the case of the blood, its temperature will
-be maintained sometime during its coagulation, by the latent heat
-disengaged in its change from the fluid to the denser state.
-
-As Mr. John Bell has in a striking manner contrasted the arguments in
-question from which a vital power has been inferred, I shall take the
-opportunity of transcribing his own words. “We are informed that a
-fresh egg in consequence of being alive resists the cold, and is frozen
-with greater difficulty; but once frozen and thawed again it loses its
-living principle and power of resisting cold at once. It freezes now at
-the same temperature with other animal matter, shewing no longer any
-power of generating heat, or resisting cold. But we are told (by Mr.
-Hunter) that the blood having a determined period of coagulating, you
-may during that time freeze the blood and it will thaw again and yet
-congeal at its proper time, and he tells us he had very cleverly frozen
-blood during the time of its flowing from the vein, then thawed the
-cake, and still in due time it coagulated. Now since the egg resists
-the cold by its living principle, why did it die or lose that principle
-during its conversion into ice? or rather since the blood coagulated by
-a living effort, how did it preserve its living principle after being
-frozen?” This shews that the coagulation of the blood has no relation
-to a living power, but is rather a characteristic of some dead animal
-matters.
-
-Conclusions have likewise been erroneously drawn from the fact of a
-limb, dying when the supply of blood is cut off from it, but which
-circumstance serves to prove that blood is the most natural stimulus,
-and is essential to the perfect organization of the part; but the blood
-is nothing without its oxygen. Abstract heat, which is an exciting
-agent next in power, and you produce a like effect; mortification and
-death, will ensue; yet no one will pretend to say that the principle of
-caloric which pervades all matter is life.
-
-But let it not be supposed while I thus object to the reputed vitality
-of the blood, I wish either directly or indirectly to detract from the
-importance of its use in the animal system. Conveying the principles,
-which acted on by living organs form the various parts, and presuming
-it the most general and applicable stimulus of the body, I can still
-conceive its importance, and appreciate its value though itself be
-dependent on external agents for its essential qualities.
-
-Thus has the vital influence, passing for ages through all manner of
-speculations, and tortured in all the variety of fanciful inventions,
-been secured for a while in a doubtful repository by the ingenuity
-of its advocates, or the authority of names, but it now comes to be
-ousted from its local habitations, a dependent wanderer throughout the
-body, for after all its changes we find it of later days expressed in
-the excitability of Dr. Brown, acted on by external stimuli. “I say
-the excitability of Dr. Brown,” though it is asserted that many before
-him advanced the opinion of the dependent state of life on external
-substances; because I am willing to allow him the credit, at least, of
-being the first promulgator, and most zealous supporter of this simple
-hypothesis.
-
-Dr. Rush tells us in his publication on “animal life” that Dr. Cullen
-advanced the opinion in 1766, that the Edinburgh professor afterwards
-deserted it; and that _he_ (Rush) never did, but made it the foundation
-for many of his rules of practice, and actually advocated the
-doctrine in his course of lectures in 1771. And thus, we are given to
-understand, slept unheeded and unapplied, in the manuscript sheets of
-that professor, this important germ of a grand system, calculated by
-its simplicity to revolutionize all former theories of medicine, until
-by the arduous exertions of Dr. Brown an imperfect fabric was reared,
-serving at least to point to the right path, after enquirers. This
-digression will be excusable, in an attempt to fix, while adverting
-to the origin of, the opinion, and however the question of priority
-may be decided in the minds of gentlemen, whether they give credit to
-Dr. Cullen for the first suggestion, or to the discriminating mind of
-Dr. Rush as the strenuous supporter, they will not deny to Dr. Brown
-the merit of first publishing――of overcoming the prejudices against,
-and at length drawing the attention of the medical world to this novel
-doctrine.
-
-In reviewing the ideas of Dr. Brown on the mode of existence of
-_his_ excitability or vital principle, they appear not sufficiently
-definite to require much attention. His fundamental principles, though
-correct in the general, seem not to have been properly investigated
-by himself, and therefore erroneously applied, and indeed in his own
-case completely perverted. But I think, on the whole, we may attribute
-his errors rather to the enthusiasm with which he conducted his
-speculations than to the fallacy of their nature. Looking forward with
-eager triumph to the ultimate end of his object, he appeared little
-solicitous to enquire after the cause, or seat, of vitality. But
-assuming the principle, that whether it was a quality or substance,
-it was an indivisible property, a certain quantity of which was
-assigned to every living being at the commencement of its existence,
-which quantity determined the duration of life, led him into many
-inconsistences, and has afforded ground for some of the strongest
-arguments that can be brought against his hypothesis.
-
-I ought probably, in this place, to pay some attention to the theory
-of life advanced with much ingenuity by Dr. Darwin. But not feeling
-disposed unnecessarily to expatiate, I shall avoid a detail on this
-subject, it being sufficient to remark that his sensorial power appears
-too physical to solve alone the phenomena of life; it is attributing a
-power to matter, which I believe, however modified, or refined, it can
-never assume.
-
-Having thus taken a cursory view of the most prominent opinions which
-have fallen within my observation, and endeavoured to shew them,
-rather as the scintillations of imagination, than the effulgent
-light of reason, suited to guide us through this mazy labyrinth, of
-metaphysiological investigation. I shall now proceed with what I
-presume at least the more unexceptionable explanation, and better
-adapted to the wisdom that regulates all nature.
-
-From the most remote periods of antiquity, philosophers have not been
-inattentive to the peculiar differences that discriminate animate from
-inanimate matter, and under some modifications the distinction has
-been attributed to a principle called life, which not sufficiently
-understood in its nature, is only to be known by its phenomena, or
-symptoms.
-
-Writers of high rank in the literary world, have, in their ardour to
-define its operations, called life a forced state, in consequence
-probably of observing, that when all external agents are withdrawn,
-its effects cease to be evinced in a plenitude of action. But were it
-becoming in me to cavil about modes of expression, I would only call
-the manifest symptoms of life forced as dependent on external agencies
-for their continuance. Life being rather the quality that distinguishes
-dead from living matter, and which may consist in an aptitude to
-action, and can remain for some time after its active effects cease to
-be obvious.
-
-This aptitude will continue in some animals longer than others,
-probably owing to the peculiar manner in which they are influenced
-by stimuli; look at the large class of hybernating animals; though
-they are in their retreat to all appearance dead, none of the evident
-symptoms of life shewing existence, yet we may conclude that its
-influence still pervades their systems and preserves their bodies,
-composed of a variety of elements disposed by their properties to run
-into discomposition, from the disorganizing effects of chemical action.
-
-This disposition of animal bodies to action, it may be observed,
-admits of increase or diminution. When the same substances produce
-more action, the aptitude may be supposed accumulated, or its energies
-increased, when less action, we may suppose it diminished; and when no
-action at all, under any circumstances we may conclude it destroyed,
-and here the capability for action ceasing altogether, discovers the
-difference between dead and living matter. Hence remarking its various
-vicissitudes with respect to energy, and its regeneration when not too
-much impaired, I am disposed to refer its origin to some source capable
-of supply, and not to an inherent or insulated quality.
-
-Seeking for the medium through which this vital influence immediately
-operates, I am induced to turn to the brain as the point where all
-the powers of the animal appear more completely concentrated, and its
-continuations the (nervous elongations) as the active agents of life,
-existing more or less through the whole body. This proposition, I shall
-indeavour to support by direct and collateral arguments, adduced with
-as much perspicuity and brevity as possible.
-
-Much may be argued from the importance of the brain in the economy
-of the system and the rank it occupies in intellectual operations.
-And though the mode of connexion between mind and matter, and the
-living principle and it, be not demonstrable to the senses, and will
-probably forever remain among the arcana of nature, yet we continually
-witness their effects and may conceive them a quality impressed under
-particular circumstances on the nervous system: possibly something
-in the way that bodies are endowed with the power of affinity or
-principle of gravity. And although I leave it to the researches of the
-metaphysician to explain how mental phenomena are produced through the
-agency of matter, and how the sentient principle acts again through
-the same mean. Still we may trace their proximate cause to the nervous
-medulla and brain, as the common centre of communication between all
-parts, and as the direct medium through which external substances act,
-and which again produce a re-action.
-
-Injuries or inflammations of the brain are attended immediately with
-derangement of organs, or the most destructive consequences; whereas
-injuries of other parts, essential to the powers of life, and therefore
-called vital, appear rather by indirect means to impair the bodily
-functions; necessary to the proper performance of which, there is a
-very delicate organization of the whole, existing in close dependence
-on the circulation, or (the tout ensemble) of organic life.
-
-We may also argue something from the tenacity of life possessed by the
-nerves. While other parts of the body, even bone, may be destroyed by
-pressure, the nerves resist its destructive influence, as is evinced
-in the ligature of the surgeon passed round them in awkward operation,
-for however tight it may be drawn; it only impairs the communication
-between the extremity and the sensorium commune, producing no slough or
-death, as in other parts. Again,
-
-Our evidence of life is most clearly evinced in an alternate state
-of contraction and relaxation of parts. To which effect a nervous
-influence appears essentially necessary, for destroy the continuity of
-their chords, and though all other circumstances may remain the same,
-the action is prevented from taking place. “When the recurrent nerve
-on one side of the larynx is cut, the voice becomes sensibly weaker,
-when both are cut it is entirely destroyed.” From whence it is plain
-that the moving power is intercepted. But it may be, and I am aware
-it has been objected, to this inference that muscles may be made to
-contract by the application of stimuli after excision from the body.
-Which fact in my estimation only serves to prove the great tenacity
-and subtilty of the nervous influence. Anatomical research has traced
-the ramification of the nerve through all the fibre entirely diffused
-even till lost in pulp, and no one I believe has reason to doubt the
-complete dependence of _sensibility_ on the presence of the nerves,
-yet there is no instrument, however sharp, that can touch a single
-point in a muscle without producing a sensation more or less acute;
-which circumstance shews the entire distribution of the nerves. And
-until every part be entirely removed, I presume they may communicate
-their influence; which upon the application of stimuli will be evinced,
-though in a feeble and irregular manner.
-
-I therefore conclude we can not concede the important vis nervae, the
-direct influence of which is supported by demonstration, in favour of
-an imaginary inherent, or any other property of muscular matter.
-
-An experiment of Billinies, since repeated with success by Doctor
-Monro, goes far to establish a positive effect exercised by the nerves
-in muscular motion. “After opening the thorax of a living dog, catch
-hold of, and press both the phrenic nerves with the fingers, the
-diaphragm ceases immediately to contract. Let go the hold of the nerves
-and the muscle acts again, pinch a second time the nerve or nerves,
-some way above the diaphragm, the muscle again ceases to act, keep firm
-hold of the nerves, with the fingers of the other hand strip or milch
-it down from the griping fingers towards the diaphragm, and the muscle
-is made to contract; and for three or four strippings or milchings,
-the action follows or obeys the motion of the fingers which strip it
-down, then it becomes disobedient and contracts no more, strip as you
-will, unless the finger, griping the nerves let go their hold and
-pinch farther up, when the muscle may again be made to contract, by
-stripping down towards the diaphragm.”――Also, an experiment performed
-by Dr. Whytt, in which he injected a strong solution of opium into the
-stomach and intestines of a living frog, after his heart was taken
-out; “in thirty minutes he appeared quite dead, and neither pricking
-or tearing its muscles produced any motion in them, or the members to
-which they were attached” but the doctor tells us, on irritating the
-spinal marrow with a probe, the limbs contracted feebly. Here there
-could have been no vis insita, or it would have evinced itself on the
-application of the mechanical stimulus to the muscles. And indeed the
-whole experiment rather serves to prove the entire dependence of the
-muscles for irritability on the nerves, for when rendered incapable of
-being excited, they were again brought into action by the remains of
-nervous energy, in the medulla oblongata, (called forth by the probe.)
-
-These considerations will I judge establish the direct influence of the
-nerves in muscular motion. And though its peculiar nature and qualities
-be unknown, an impenetrable veil shrouding it from observation, we may
-remain satisfied with a knowledge of the existence of an effectual
-cause. And as far as we may be allowed to infer from the general plans
-and regulations of nature surrounding us, seeing she delights in
-simplicity and uniformity, producing the greatest number of effects
-by the varied combination of a few elementary principles, we may
-rationally refer all the apparent complexness of the animal economy to
-the diversified influence of this nervous agent, particularly modified
-and applied to the variety of operations in the body, yet all tending
-to a unity of effect. And as simplification in our particular science
-appears the order of the day, I may be justified in supposing the
-irritability, sensibility, &c. of authors, but varieties in the action
-of this principle.
-
-Thus far we move with reason, beyond this point all is conjecture “and
-shadows, clouds and darkness rest upon it.”
-
-When we compare the two conditions of life and death, and see that all
-the corporeal or material parts remain in the latter state, and know
-at the same time that in life there was some thing that produced the
-characteristick thereof, we may rationally conclude that the endowments
-of life was some very subtile or spiritous principle which resided in,
-and influenced those parts which remain even after it has vanished.
-
-In conclusion I will only observe, it is to the brain and its nervous
-system we should attribute the residence of vitality, which completely
-distributed and influenced by proper circumstances produce all the
-powers of the living system. It is there we find a remote cause and
-need seek no farther, but if it were necessary to approximate nearer
-to an efficient cause, I would take a general survey of the extensive
-field of nature, and observing the design and order that pervades all
-her regulations, refer their operations to immutable laws arranged
-in consummate wisdom, and intelligence, pervading all matter, and
-particularly modified in the human frame to fill the scheme of divine
-intention, whatever that may be.――Such general laws diffused through
-all extent, are the immediate attributes of a God――
-
-    All are but parts, &c.――POPE.
-
-Before I close these desultory observations, permit me to express a
-wish for the success and prosperity of the institution from which I
-am receiving the honors of physick, and the general obligations I am
-under for many advantages and improvements derived from the lectures
-of its enlightened professors. Satisfied that comparisons are always
-indelicate, and might in the present instance prove particularly
-offensive, I forbear to particularize advantages, but must, however,
-indulge in an expression of the gratification I feel in seeing the art
-of medicine once more assume to itself the form and character of a
-science; order to take the place of confusion; and system, the first
-effect of genius, triumph over the extravagances of whim, and love of
-innovation.
-
-
-                                FINIS.
-
-
-
-
- Transcriber’s Notes:
-
- ――Text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).
-
- ――Obvious punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently
-   corrected.
-
- ――Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
-
- ――Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.
-
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-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of An Attempt to Investigate the Seat of Animal Life, by Henry Curtis</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: An Attempt to Investigate the Seat of Animal Life</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Henry Curtis</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: December 24, 2021 [eBook #67007]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Sonya Schermann, Donald Cummings and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ATTEMPT TO INVESTIGATE THE SEAT OF ANIMAL LIFE ***</div>
-
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="cover">
-  <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover" title="cover" />
-  <div class="caption">
-    <p class="noic">Transcriber’s Note: The cover image was created from the title page
-by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p>
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="noic">AN</p>
-
-<p class="noi halftitle">INAUGURAL ESSAY</p>
-
-<p class="noic">ON THE</p>
-
-<p class="noi halftitle">SEAT OF ANIMAL LIFE.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="noic">AN</p>
-
-<p class="noi halftitle">ATTEMPT</p>
-
-<p class="noic">TO INVESTIGATE THE</p>
-
-<h1 title="AN ATTEMPT TO INVESTIGATE THE SEAT OF ANIMAL LIFE."><small>SEAT</small><br />
-OF ANIMAL LIFE.</h1>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noic">SUBMITTED TO THE EXAMINATION OF</p>
-
-<p class="noi author">CHARLES ALEXANDER WARFIELD, M. D.</p>
-
-<p class="noi author"><i>The President, and Medical Faculty</i></p>
-
-<p class="noic">OF THE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE OF MARYLAND.</p>
-
-<p class="noi author">FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHYSIC.</p>
-
-<div class="pad2">
-  <div class="figcenter" id="i_tpdecotop">
-    <img class="illowe10" src="images/i_tpdeco.jpg" alt="" />
-  </div>
-</div>
-
-<p class="noi author"><i>By Henry Curtis ... of Virginia</i>,</p>
-
-<p class="noic">VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE BALTIMORE MEDICAL SOCIETY.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter" id="i_tpdecobottom">
-  <img class="illowe10" src="images/i_tpdeco.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-<p>  ... The spacious earth,<br />
-And all the teeming regions of the world,<br />
-Hold not an object to the curious flight<br />
-Of knowledge, half so tempting, or so fair,<br />
-As man to man. <span class="flright">AKENSIDE.</span><br /></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="p2 noic"><span class="oldenglish halftitle">Baltimore:</span><br />
-PRINTED BY BENJAMIN EDES.<br />
-<span class="noi works">Corner of South and Market-Streets.</span><br />
-1812.</p>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="noic">TO<br />
-<span class="author">WILLIAM FOUSHEE, SENIOR M. D.</span><br />
-AND TO<br />
-<span class="author">JNO. H. FOUSHEE, M. D.</span><br />
-<i>OF RICHMOND, VIRGINIA</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="p2 noi">GENTLEMEN,</p>
-
-<p><i>Actuated by the finest feelings of gratitude,
-I embrace with peculiar pleasure this opportunity
-of acknowledging and making, in some
-degree, public, my many obligations to you, who,
-with parental care, directed the gradual unfoldings
-of my mind through the morning of youth,
-and kindly afforded those means of improvement,
-calculated to raise industry to eminence, and
-crown it with success.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>Should this first effort evince an advancement
-in the knowledge of the profession to which
-I devote my life. Accept its dedication as a tribute
-of grateful respect, from</i></p>
-
-<p class="noic"><i>Your much obliged</i>,</p>
-
-<p class="right">H. CURTIS.</p>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="noic"><i>To the zealous and able friends of science</i>,<br />
-JNO. B. DAVIDGE, A. M. M. D. <i>and</i><br />
-JAMES COCKE, M. D.<br />
-<i>Joint Professors of Anatomy, Surgery, &amp;c.<br />
-In the College of Medicine of Maryland;<br />
-These pages are inscribed as a<br />
-Sincere testimony of<br />
-Respect and esteem,<br />
-By the<br />
-AUTHOR.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p>
-
-<p><img class="illowe15" src="images/i_hand.jpg"
-        alt="right pointing hand" title="right pointing hand" />
-<i>The necessity of publication, will apologize,
-to my friends, for the form this essay has
-taken.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="nobreak">PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>As a subject for my inaugural dissertation,
-I am induced rather to offer some general opinions
-on the state of the animal system, than
-to enter into particular disquisitions on given
-points.</p>
-
-<p>The time allotted, in general, for the production
-of inaugural essays, and the peculiar
-circumstances under which I have to write, preclude
-the hope of my advancing the science of
-medicine; I am therefore chiefly anxious not to
-embarrass its progress by hasty conclusions or
-fanciful chimeras. The opinions I have thought
-proper to bring forward are advanced with as
-much perspicuity and order as my application
-to other engagements would permit; and although
-they are founded, I trust, on manifest
-facts or inductions from established propositions,
-still I must submit them with diffidence:
-and should the ground, I have taken, prove
-untenable, I have to regret that my opportunities
-have not placed me on a more advantageous
-stand.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak" id="THESIS">THESIS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The capacity and aptitude for motion, observable
-in man, naturally lead us to an enquiry into the general
-principle of his corporeal functions. To a disquisition of
-which I devote the following pages.</p>
-
-<p>Aware of the intricacy of my subject, and that the operations
-of the animal body necessarily embrace agents
-not within the range of our senses, I cannot indulge in the
-hope that I shall be altogether successful in an examination
-of the laws of its economy. Where so many enlightened
-and able intellects have labored in vain, it would require
-an excess of vanity in me to expect to succeed; and,
-I trust, should I leave some of the difficulties unsurmounted
-and inequalities unsmoothed, I shall not be fairly chargeable
-with temerity or indiscretion.</p>
-
-<p>Amidst our contemplation of the various simple and
-compound actions, of which the human body is capable,
-and in which it is perpetually engaged, we are unavoidably
-led to ask—whence is the peculiar power or capacity,
-so admirably diffused throughout its numerous parts, by
-which those actions are performed? Is it by any peculiarity
-of organization? or by properties different according to
-the nature of the various constituent parts? or a particular
-principle, not strictly inherent in any one part, but diffused
-to all? It cannot be in the organization, although it does
-not manifest itself without organization, for, if so, there
-would uniformly be a difference between the texture of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span>
-dead and living parts, which frequently is not the fact.
-Nor have we full and satisfactory evidence on which to
-found the opinion that it is owing to properties differing
-in their essential natures according to the parts concerned.
-That the principle of life or capacity of acting, or being
-acted on, is strictly the property of one part, and is by diffusion
-communicated to the rest, we have much reason to
-conclude from the phenomena of both health and disease.</p>
-
-<p>Until experimental philosophy and inductive reasoning
-shall be separated from fanciful and hypothetical speculations,
-the science of medicine can meet with but slow success.
-And as we have not all the advantages attendant
-on the other physical sciences, having the operations of a
-living machine, if I may use the expression, to calculate,
-we must be content to move with a slower step. Nor
-must we commit our barque to the full and easy flowing
-stream of conjecture and hypothesis. Conjectures are ever
-vague and hypothesis seldom leads to the discovery of
-truth.</p>
-
-<p>Some physiologists, and those of no mean note, have
-considered the operations of the human frame as a circle
-of functions governed by mechanical organic laws, as we
-discover in an hydraulic machine, or automaton, so admirably
-formed, as by the mere force of its construction to
-perform and continue the vital motions.</p>
-
-<p>In confutation of such an opinion we have nothing to
-do more than to introduce the words of the justly celebrated
-Doct. Whytt. “It seems” (says that writer) “to be
-incumbent on those philosophers who ascribe the motion
-of the heart to mechanical causes alone, to demonstrate
-the possibility of a perpetuum mobile, since as long as life
-lasts, an animal appears to be really such.” And it needs
-scarcely be added that perpetual motion is demonstrably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span>
-without the laws of mechanics, and far above the power of
-mechanism. These considerations are, I judge, sufficient
-to put to rest all idea of an independent <em>organic</em> life: If
-others are wanted, it may be shewn that life, sense, and
-self-action, are inconsistent with the general properties of
-matter.</p>
-
-<p>Others, writers of much reputation and celebrity, have
-contended for the existence of an innate independent principle
-of life in the muscles, and the plausible ingenuity
-with which these opinions were supported, could not fail
-to procure many advocates, and has indeed enlisted in its
-cause such a body of respectable talents, as to induce me
-to hesitate in my intended opposition: Nor do I now venture
-presumptuously to undertake the settlement, but shall
-only offer such reasons in objection to the doctrine, as
-have been suggested by various circumstances. It is not
-my intention to engage in all the minuteness of particular
-discussion. That would require more time and attention
-than I can at present devote to such an undertaking; but
-I shall content myself by briefly stating all the arguments
-which have fallen within my reading, most insisted on by
-the strenuous defenders of the above doctrine, and on
-which alone it seems to rest.—Then, by considering the
-arguments separately, endeavour to shew wherein they
-are fallacious, and point out the difficulties calculated, in
-my opinion, to oppose such specious reasoning.</p>
-
-<p>The punctum saliens, or the first visible point in motion
-being the heart;</p>
-
-<p>The birth of full grown Fœtuses without brains;</p>
-
-<p>The performance of vital motions without consciousness;</p>
-
-<p>Eggs freezing with more difficulty from the time they
-are first laid in proportion to their freshness;—and,</p>
-
-<p>The contraction of muscles after removal from the body;—are
-I believe the points most relied on as evidence<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>
-of an independent living principle in the muscular system,
-and which shall now be considered in the order detailed.</p>
-
-<p>In considering the condition of animals in their nascent
-state, we may readily understand, that their rudiments,
-composed of a pellucid congeries of parts, will freely transmit
-the light, and as there is no analysis of the ray, or proper
-reflection of it, it can make on the retina no impression,
-nor convey to the mind any perception of the existence
-of distinct parts. Soon however the vital energy
-manifests itself in the formation of red blood, and the motion
-of a point which being capable of reflecting light presents
-to the senses marks of distinct organization. Yet
-from this we derive no evidence that this point is the first
-to possess life, but only, that it shews itself first, by means
-of its reflecting powers. And thus though we admit the
-proposition, it can assist the cause it was adduced to support
-but little; for the moving energy, we presume may
-be derived from co-existent parts. And indeed according
-to some accurate observers, the disproportionate head
-with other lineaments, appear visible some time before the
-heart is seen in motion.</p>
-
-<p>That Fœtuses have in a few remarkable instances been
-ushered into a short lived existence without a brain, is advanced
-with some degree of elation by the supporters of
-the principle under consideration. Animals, from equally
-good authority, have been born without hearts: but will
-a few cases of lusus naturæ serve to disprove the importance
-of these organs to the animal economy? I fancy
-not; in either case above alluded to, we may suppose that
-the appendages performed, though imperfectly, the offices
-of their respective organs. And in those particular cases
-in which the brain is wanted, we may conclude with the
-learned physiologist, that it was destroyed by disease after
-the growth of the child, but left the nerves and ganglia<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span>
-(which Doctor Monro considers small or disproportionate
-brain) endowed with sufficient influence to maintain for
-a short period its life. If there be an independent vital
-principle in the muscles; why does not its power support
-those extremely rare cases, which unfortunately for the
-doctrine, as well as its advocates, do not generally survive
-birth any length of time.</p>
-
-<p>No person, at all conversant with the phenomena of the
-passions, will deny the connexion between the mind and
-vital functions. It will therefore be only necessary to observe
-in answer to the third proposition; that sensation is
-predicated on a comparison of the past, with the present
-state of impressions, and that all are relative to some change
-in the percipient organ; heat is only sensible, because it
-was preceded by a lower temperature. And therefore
-objects which are equable in their application, and continued
-for a length of time, affect us but slightly; are unattended
-to when present, and cannot be recalled when
-past, must consequently escape our consciousness. Objects
-of minor importance operate continually on our senses, but
-may escape the observation when preoccupied, particles of
-matter passing before our eyes induce us to close the palpebræ,
-yet the action is not always attended to. Also the
-common action of the heart and arteries are not the subjects
-of our consciousness; the stimulus of the contained
-blood continuing nearly the same, conveys no impression
-to the mind; but let a fluid, however bland, be injected
-into them, and the animal will testify by its cries, the acute
-sensibility of the parts; or suspend their ordinary operation
-for a few moments, which may be readily done in some
-of the branches of the arterial system, and the succeeding
-action becomes very perceptible attended with much uneasiness
-and anxiety. The common action of the intestines
-are not generally objects of our attention, yet derange<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span>
-or increase that action and they establish their connexion
-with the sensitive medium. This is rather a species
-of abstract reasoning, but we have positive cases on record:
-in which a British colonel could suspend at pleasure the
-action of the heart: the stomach likewise appears under
-the influence of the will, as is evinced in ruminating animals,
-and Professor Blumenbach gives an instance of a
-person in whom this organ was under the strictest command;
-also we have from the same authority, cases in
-which the Iris has been subjected to the power of volition;
-and indeed the parrot continually displays something of the
-kind. For such reasons I would not consider any part of
-the living body independent of the common sensory,
-but I can suppose that the mind by disuse or disease may
-lose its power over some organs, as it sometimes does over
-even the voluntary muscles. And I can see no reason why
-those motions called involuntary, could not be gradually
-withdrawn by want of attention from the direct influence
-of the mind.</p>
-
-<p>That eggs resist in proportion to their freshness a reduction
-of temperature, is not in my conception necessarily
-owing to their vitality; which may be inferred from the
-circumstance, that as long as they were capable of being
-hatched, however stale, they must still retain their principle
-of life, and therefore, a stale egg able to afford a chick
-by incubation, should freeze no sooner than one newly laid.
-Another solution of the phenomena can be offered which
-may have escaped the attention of the ingenious experimenter.
-In the present state of chemistry, acquainted with
-the passage of heat through bodies, we know that the
-change of temperature in a tenacious semifluid must be
-very slow; caloric passing in such bodies, rather by transposition
-of particles than by their contact; the heat of the
-new laid egg is but little below 100° of Fahrenheit and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span>
-consequently must part with near 70° of heat before it
-could congeal. And having undergone that change, it would
-require some time to equalize its temperature with surrounding
-bodies.</p>
-
-<p>If the egg does contain an independent principle of life
-why is not the chick evolved without the aid of other agents?</p>
-
-<p>The last argument I shall notice on this fanciful hypothesis
-is not least in importance with the advocates for the
-independent principle but is one on which they place much
-reliance, viz., the contraction of muscles after removal
-from the body. There is little doubt that the contractibility
-of the muscular fibres is variously disposed in different
-animals and that particular parts may possess more
-tenacity of action than others; but if it were a constituent
-principle of the part, it should continue undiminished in
-power until the texture be entirely destroyed, and not
-gradually decrease in energy, as is the case, till it cease to
-act altogether. It may be strongly urged against this hypothesis
-that stimuli applied to the nerves soon after the
-death of an animal, produce more violent action than when
-applied to the muscles themselves; and much sooner destroy
-their aptitude for action, which fact, has been shewn
-true, by a series of ingenious and well conducted experiments,
-entered on by the learned doctor Whytt, of Edinburgh.</p>
-
-<p>Hence these propositions which have been displayed
-with no little triumph by the votaries of an independent
-life, can afford their opinions no support.</p>
-
-<p>But the exertions of physiological speculators did not
-stop here, while they were seeking with such solicitude for
-the source of vitality, it is not to be supposed that such an
-important constituent of the body, as the blood appears to
-be, should escape unnoticed, nor did it. That the life was
-in the blood, seems an opinion long since suggested, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span>
-it was treated rather as a figurative expression until revived
-and introduced to notice by the distinguished authority
-of Harvey. After him it obtained many advocates and
-zealous supporters in Europe and America. The opinion
-is entitled to notice, and I shall consider it with that principle
-of liberality and respect, which I think due to all
-opinions proceeding from such high sources.</p>
-
-<p>Upon the supposition that the blood was the formative
-principle first existing in the nascent embryo, from the action
-of which the various parts of the body are evolved, it
-was styled the Primum Vivens. But could the blood circulate
-without vessels? propelled chiefly by a vis atergo,
-unless moving in tubes or vessels; I apprehend it could
-never revolve in a circle and perform by secretion, the
-functions so necessary to the growth and nutrition of the
-body.</p>
-
-<p>Ingenuity, put upon the stretch, has drawn in support of
-this visionary speculation, arguments from the coagulum
-of the blood assuming appearances somewhat resembling
-muscular contraction, “and” (we are told) “as contraction
-is the life of the solid, if we find any thing like it, we should
-call it the living principle of the blood.”—On the same
-foundation we may assert the vitality of jelly, which can be
-dissolved and coagulated again, and again, present the
-same appearance of contraction.</p>
-
-<p>This quality of blood not peculiar to itself, can be referred
-to physical causes alone, seeing it separates spontaneously
-when drawn from the body, into crassamentum and
-serum, we are satisfied its parts are not united by chemical
-solution, properly so called; but are rather mingled together
-and kept in intimate mixture by the continual action and
-agitation of the circulation, for when at rest, the different
-parts occupy the situation assigned them by their specific
-gravity, and mutually recede, from the loss of caloric,
-and by the attraction of aggregation.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p>
-
-<p>An enlightened defender of this opinion of our own
-country, with his mind apparently more highly imbued by
-speculative enquiries, than the observation or proper application
-of facts, endeavored to substantiate a living principle
-in the blood from the manner in which it is influenced
-by chemical agents, and has brought forward experiments
-which, though conducted with some address appear to have
-been introduced rather to quadrate with preconceived
-opinions, than with a spirit of impartial investigation.</p>
-
-<p>Portions of blood drawn from the veins of healthy persons
-were subjected to the influence of electricity, which
-were observed to separate sooner than other portions set
-by as standard marks, from which it was inferred that the
-stimulus must have acted on a principle of life, to increase
-its action. To this inference I shall only offer general objections.
-In the present state of our knowledge, we know
-that the blood though apparently homogeneous is resolvable
-by agents into several parts; its crassamentum is composed
-of gelatinous fibres and red particles, kept in intimate
-mixture with the serosity by a combination of concurring
-circumstances, which being destroyed by the operation
-of chemical agents the separation is precipitated.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></p>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="noi"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[A]</a> See observations on albumen, and some other animal fluids, with remarks on the
-analysis by electro-chemical decomposition.——Philosophical Transactions for 1809:—page
-373.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<p>The life of the blood has also been inferred from its resistance
-to a reduction of temperature, similar to that of a
-fresh egg. In a former part of this work I endeavored to
-shew the fallacy of such an inference, as the circumstance
-might arise from its peculiar consistency; but in the case
-of the blood, its temperature will be maintained sometime
-during its coagulation, by the latent heat disengaged in
-its change from the fluid to the denser state.</p>
-
-<p>As Mr. John Bell has in a striking manner contrasted
-the arguments in question from which a vital power has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span>
-been inferred, I shall take the opportunity of transcribing
-his own words. “We are informed that a fresh egg in consequence
-of being alive resists the cold, and is frozen with
-greater difficulty; but once frozen and thawed again it loses
-its living principle and power of resisting cold at once. It
-freezes now at the same temperature with other animal
-matter, shewing no longer any power of generating heat, or
-resisting cold. But we are told (by Mr. Hunter) that the
-blood having a determined period of coagulating, you may
-during that time freeze the blood and it will thaw again
-and yet congeal at its proper time, and he tells us he had
-very cleverly frozen blood during the time of its flowing
-from the vein, then thawed the cake, and still in due time
-it coagulated. Now since the egg resists the cold by its
-living principle, why did it die or lose that principle during
-its conversion into ice? or rather since the blood coagulated
-by a living effort, how did it preserve its living principle
-after being frozen?” This shews that the coagulation
-of the blood has no relation to a living power, but is rather
-a characteristic of some dead animal matters.</p>
-
-<p>Conclusions have likewise been erroneously drawn from
-the fact of a limb, dying when the supply of blood is cut
-off from it, but which circumstance serves to prove that
-blood is the most natural stimulus, and is essential to the
-perfect organization of the part; but the blood is nothing
-without its oxygen. Abstract heat, which is an exciting
-agent next in power, and you produce a like effect; mortification
-and death, will ensue; yet no one will pretend to
-say that the principle of caloric which pervades all matter
-is life.</p>
-
-<p>But let it not be supposed while I thus object to the reputed
-vitality of the blood, I wish either directly or indirectly
-to detract from the importance of its use in the
-animal system. Conveying the principles, which acted on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span>
-by living organs form the various parts, and presuming it
-the most general and applicable stimulus of the body, I can
-still conceive its importance, and appreciate its value
-though itself be dependent on external agents for its essential
-qualities.</p>
-
-<p>Thus has the vital influence, passing for ages through all
-manner of speculations, and tortured in all the variety of
-fanciful inventions, been secured for a while in a doubtful
-repository by the ingenuity of its advocates, or the authority
-of names, but it now comes to be ousted from its local
-habitations, a dependent wanderer throughout the
-body, for after all its changes we find it of later days expressed
-in the excitability of Dr. Brown, acted on by external
-stimuli. “I say the excitability of Dr. Brown,”
-though it is asserted that many before him advanced the
-opinion of the dependent state of life on external substances;
-because I am willing to allow him the credit, at least,
-of being the first promulgator, and most zealous supporter
-of this simple hypothesis.</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Rush tells us in his publication on “animal life” that
-Dr. Cullen advanced the opinion in 1766, that the Edinburgh
-professor afterwards deserted it; and that <em>he</em> (Rush)
-never did, but made it the foundation for many of his rules
-of practice, and actually advocated the doctrine in his
-course of lectures in 1771. And thus, we are given to
-understand, slept unheeded and unapplied, in the manuscript
-sheets of that professor, this important germ of a
-grand system, calculated by its simplicity to revolutionize
-all former theories of medicine, until by the arduous exertions
-of Dr. Brown an imperfect fabric was reared, serving
-at least to point to the right path, after enquirers. This
-digression will be excusable, in an attempt to fix, while adverting
-to the origin of, the opinion, and however the question<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span>
-of priority may be decided in the minds of gentlemen,
-whether they give credit to Dr. Cullen for the first
-suggestion, or to the discriminating mind of Dr. Rush as
-the strenuous supporter, they will not deny to Dr. Brown
-the merit of first publishing—of overcoming the prejudices
-against, and at length drawing the attention of the
-medical world to this novel doctrine.</p>
-
-<p>In reviewing the ideas of Dr. Brown on the mode of existence
-of <em>his</em> excitability or vital principle, they appear
-not sufficiently definite to require much attention. His
-fundamental principles, though correct in the general, seem
-not to have been properly investigated by himself, and
-therefore erroneously applied, and indeed in his own case
-completely perverted. But I think, on the whole, we may
-attribute his errors rather to the enthusiasm with which he
-conducted his speculations than to the fallacy of their nature.
-Looking forward with eager triumph to the ultimate
-end of his object, he appeared little solicitous to enquire
-after the cause, or seat, of vitality. But assuming
-the principle, that whether it was a quality or substance,
-it was an indivisible property, a certain quantity of which
-was assigned to every living being at the commencement
-of its existence, which quantity determined the duration of
-life, led him into many inconsistences, and has afforded
-ground for some of the strongest arguments that can be
-brought against his hypothesis.</p>
-
-<p>I ought probably, in this place, to pay some attention
-to the theory of life advanced with much ingenuity by Dr.
-Darwin. But not feeling disposed unnecessarily to expatiate,
-I shall avoid a detail on this subject, it being sufficient
-to remark that his sensorial power appears too physical to
-solve alone the phenomena of life; it is attributing a power
-to matter, which I believe, however modified, or refined,
-it can never assume.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p>
-
-<p>Having thus taken a cursory view of the most prominent
-opinions which have fallen within my observation,
-and endeavoured to shew them, rather as the scintillations
-of imagination, than the effulgent light of reason, suited
-to guide us through this mazy labyrinth, of metaphysiological
-investigation. I shall now proceed with what I presume
-at least the more unexceptionable explanation, and
-better adapted to the wisdom that regulates all nature.</p>
-
-<p>From the most remote periods of antiquity, philosophers
-have not been inattentive to the peculiar differences that
-discriminate animate from inanimate matter, and under
-some modifications the distinction has been attributed to a
-principle called life, which not sufficiently understood in
-its nature, is only to be known by its phenomena, or symptoms.</p>
-
-<p>Writers of high rank in the literary world, have, in their
-ardour to define its operations, called life a forced state,
-in consequence probably of observing, that when all external
-agents are withdrawn, its effects cease to be evinced
-in a plenitude of action. But were it becoming in me to
-cavil about modes of expression, I would only call the
-manifest symptoms of life forced as dependent on external
-agencies for their continuance. Life being rather the
-quality that distinguishes dead from living matter, and
-which may consist in an aptitude to action, and can remain
-for some time after its active effects cease to be obvious.</p>
-
-<p>This aptitude will continue in some animals longer than
-others, probably owing to the peculiar manner in which
-they are influenced by stimuli; look at the large class of
-hybernating animals; though they are in their retreat to all
-appearance dead, none of the evident symptoms of life
-shewing existence, yet we may conclude that its influence
-still pervades their systems and preserves their bodies,
-composed of a variety of elements disposed by their properties<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span>
-to run into discomposition, from the disorganizing
-effects of chemical action.</p>
-
-<p>This disposition of animal bodies to action, it may be
-observed, admits of increase or diminution. When the
-same substances produce more action, the aptitude may be
-supposed accumulated, or its energies increased, when less
-action, we may suppose it diminished; and when no action
-at all, under any circumstances we may conclude it
-destroyed, and here the capability for action ceasing altogether,
-discovers the difference between dead and living
-matter. Hence remarking its various vicissitudes with
-respect to energy, and its regeneration when not too much
-impaired, I am disposed to refer its origin to some source
-capable of supply, and not to an inherent or insulated
-quality.</p>
-
-<p>Seeking for the medium through which this vital influence
-immediately operates, I am induced to turn to the
-brain as the point where all the powers of the animal appear
-more completely concentrated, and its continuations
-the (nervous elongations) as the active agents of life,
-existing more or less through the whole body. This proposition,
-I shall indeavour to support by direct and collateral
-arguments, adduced with as much perspicuity and
-brevity as possible.</p>
-
-<p>Much may be argued from the importance of the brain
-in the economy of the system and the rank it occupies in
-intellectual operations. And though the mode of connexion
-between mind and matter, and the living principle
-and it, be not demonstrable to the senses, and will probably
-forever remain among the arcana of nature, yet we
-continually witness their effects and may conceive them
-a quality impressed under particular circumstances on the
-nervous system: possibly something in the way that bodies<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span>
-are endowed with the power of affinity or principle of
-gravity. And although I leave it to the researches of the
-metaphysician to explain how mental phenomena are produced
-through the agency of matter, and how the sentient
-principle acts again through the same mean. Still we
-may trace their proximate cause to the nervous medulla
-and brain, as the common centre of communication between
-all parts, and as the direct medium through which external
-substances act, and which again produce a re-action.</p>
-
-<p>Injuries or inflammations of the brain are attended immediately
-with derangement of organs, or the most destructive
-consequences; whereas injuries of other parts, essential
-to the powers of life, and therefore called vital, appear
-rather by indirect means to impair the bodily functions;
-necessary to the proper performance of which, there
-is a very delicate organization of the whole, existing in
-close dependence on the circulation, or (the tout ensemble)
-of organic life.</p>
-
-<p>We may also argue something from the tenacity of life
-possessed by the nerves. While other parts of the body,
-even bone, may be destroyed by pressure, the nerves resist
-its destructive influence, as is evinced in the ligature
-of the surgeon passed round them in awkward operation,
-for however tight it may be drawn; it only impairs the
-communication between the extremity and the sensorium
-commune, producing no slough or death, as in other parts.
-Again,</p>
-
-<p>Our evidence of life is most clearly evinced in an alternate
-state of contraction and relaxation of parts. To which
-effect a nervous influence appears essentially necessary, for
-destroy the continuity of their chords, and though all other
-circumstances may remain the same, the action is prevented
-from taking place. “When the recurrent nerve on
-one side of the larynx is cut, the voice becomes sensibly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span>
-weaker, when both are cut it is entirely destroyed.” From
-whence it is plain that the moving power is intercepted.
-But it may be, and I am aware it has been objected, to
-this inference that muscles may be made to contract by
-the application of stimuli after excision from the body.
-Which fact in my estimation only serves to prove the
-great tenacity and subtilty of the nervous influence. Anatomical
-research has traced the ramification of the nerve
-through all the fibre entirely diffused even till lost in pulp,
-and no one I believe has reason to doubt the complete dependence
-of <em>sensibility</em> on the presence of the nerves, yet
-there is no instrument, however sharp, that can touch a
-single point in a muscle without producing a sensation
-more or less acute; which circumstance shews the entire
-distribution of the nerves. And until every part be entirely
-removed, I presume they may communicate their influence;
-which upon the application of stimuli will be evinced,
-though in a feeble and irregular manner.</p>
-
-<p>I therefore conclude we can not concede the important
-vis nervae, the direct influence of which is supported by
-demonstration, in favour of an imaginary inherent, or any
-other property of muscular matter.</p>
-
-<p>An experiment of Billinies, since repeated with success
-by Doctor Monro, goes far to establish a positive effect
-exercised by the nerves in muscular motion. “After opening
-the thorax of a living dog, catch hold of, and press
-both the phrenic nerves with the fingers, the diaphragm
-ceases immediately to contract. Let go the hold of the
-nerves and the muscle acts again, pinch a second time the
-nerve or nerves, some way above the diaphragm, the muscle
-again ceases to act, keep firm hold of the nerves, with
-the fingers of the other hand strip or milch it down from
-the griping fingers towards the diaphragm, and the muscle
-is made to contract; and for three or four strippings or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span>
-milchings, the action follows or obeys the motion of the
-fingers which strip it down, then it becomes disobedient
-and contracts no more, strip as you will, unless the finger,
-griping the nerves let go their hold and pinch farther up,
-when the muscle may again be made to contract, by stripping
-down towards the diaphragm.”—Also, an experiment
-performed by Dr. Whytt, in which he injected a strong
-solution of opium into the stomach and intestines of a living
-frog, after his heart was taken out; “in thirty minutes he
-appeared quite dead, and neither pricking or tearing its
-muscles produced any motion in them, or the members to
-which they were attached” but the doctor tells us, on irritating
-the spinal marrow with a probe, the limbs contracted
-feebly. Here there could have been no vis insita, or it
-would have evinced itself on the application of the mechanical
-stimulus to the muscles. And indeed the whole experiment
-rather serves to prove the entire dependence of
-the muscles for irritability on the nerves, for when rendered
-incapable of being excited, they were again brought
-into action by the remains of nervous energy, in the medulla
-oblongata, (called forth by the probe.)</p>
-
-<p>These considerations will I judge establish the direct
-influence of the nerves in muscular motion. And though
-its peculiar nature and qualities be unknown, an impenetrable
-veil shrouding it from observation, we may remain satisfied
-with a knowledge of the existence of an effectual
-cause. And as far as we may be allowed to infer from the
-general plans and regulations of nature surrounding us,
-seeing she delights in simplicity and uniformity, producing
-the greatest number of effects by the varied combination
-of a few elementary principles, we may rationally refer all
-the apparent complexness of the animal economy to the
-diversified influence of this nervous agent, particularly
-modified and applied to the variety of operations in the body,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span>
-yet all tending to a unity of effect. And as simplification
-in our particular science appears the order of the day, I may
-be justified in supposing the irritability, sensibility, &amp;c. of
-authors, but varieties in the action of this principle.</p>
-
-<p>Thus far we move with reason, beyond this point all is
-conjecture “and shadows, clouds and darkness rest upon
-it.”</p>
-
-<p>When we compare the two conditions of life and death,
-and see that all the corporeal or material parts remain in
-the latter state, and know at the same time that in life
-there was some thing that produced the characteristick
-thereof, we may rationally conclude that the endowments
-of life was some very subtile or spiritous principle which
-resided in, and influenced those parts which remain even
-after it has vanished.</p>
-
-<p>In conclusion I will only observe, it is to the brain and
-its nervous system we should attribute the residence of
-vitality, which completely distributed and influenced by
-proper circumstances produce all the powers of the living
-system. It is there we find a remote cause and need seek
-no farther, but if it were necessary to approximate nearer
-to an efficient cause, I would take a general survey of the
-extensive field of nature, and observing the design and order
-that pervades all her regulations, refer their operations
-to immutable laws arranged in consummate wisdom, and intelligence,
-pervading all matter, and particularly modified
-in the human frame to fill the scheme of divine intention,
-whatever that may be.—Such general laws diffused
-through all extent, are the immediate attributes of a God—</p>
-
-<p class="noic">All are but parts, &amp;c.—<span class="smcap">Pope.</span></p>
-
-<p>Before I close these desultory observations, permit me to
-express a wish for the success and prosperity of the institution<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span>
-from which I am receiving the honors of physick,
-and the general obligations I am under for many advantages
-and improvements derived from the lectures of its
-enlightened professors. Satisfied that comparisons are
-always indelicate, and might in the present instance prove
-particularly offensive, I forbear to particularize advantages,
-but must, however, indulge in an expression of the
-gratification I feel in seeing the art of medicine once more
-assume to itself the form and character of a science; order
-to take the place of confusion; and system, the first effect
-of genius, triumph over the extravagances of whim, and
-love of innovation.</p>
-
-
-<p class="p4 noic">FINIS.</p>
-
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="tnote">
-<p class="noi tntitle">Transcriber’s Notes:</p>
-
-<p class="smfont">Obvious punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected.</p>
-
-<p class="smfont">Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.</p>
-
-<p class="smfont">Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ATTEMPT TO INVESTIGATE THE SEAT OF ANIMAL LIFE ***</div>
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