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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The Strange Adventures of a Pebble - -Author: Hallam Hawksworth - -Release Date: November 24, 2021 [eBook #66818] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at - https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive/American - Libraries.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGE ADVENTURES OF A -PEBBLE *** - - - - - - THE STRANGE ADVENTURES - OF A PEBBLE - - - - - STRANGE ADVENTURES IN NATURE'S WONDERLANDS - - THE - STRANGE ADVENTURES - OF A PEBBLE - - BY - - HALLAM HAWKSWORTH - - AUTHOR OF "THE ADVENTURES OF A GRAIN OF DUST" - - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - - NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON - - - - - Copyright, 1921, by - CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS - A - - - THE SCRIBNER PRESS - - - - -PREFACE - - -The purpose of this little book is to present the chief features in the -strange story of the pebbles; and so of the larger pebble we call the -earth. It is hoped that readers of various ages will be entertained, -without suspecting that they are being taught. - -Several things led the author to believe that such a book might be -wanted. - -(_a_) The circumstances under which it was written. - -(_b_) The fact that there seemed to be an opportunity for improvement -not only in the popular presentation of scientific topics but in the -character and method of review questions and suggestions following such -topics in school texts. - -(_c_) Experience has shown that pictures may be made to perform a much -more vital function in teaching than is usually assigned to them in the -text-books.[1] - -[Footnote 1: On this subject I cannot do better, perhaps, than quote -from an article on "The Picture Book in Education," contributed to the -New York _Evening Post_: - -"We learn more easily by looking at things than by memorizing words -about them. The principle, of course, holds whether the image which the -eye receives comes from the object itself or only from the picture of -the object. Therefore we should learn to read pictures as well as books. - -"New York has long recognized the added efficiency in the teaching -process to be obtained from the use of pictures. The Division of -Visual Instruction, established thirty years ago, has an international -reputation for the extent of its equipment, the simplicity of its -methods, and the excellence of its results."] - -(_d_) In the particular field to which this story relates comparatively -little has been written either for reading in the family circle or for -use in the school; although the relation of physiography, not only to -human history and political and commercial geography but to the whole -immense realm of natural science, is so basic and its great principles -and processes so striking in their appeal to curiosity and our sense of -the grand and the dramatic.[2] - -[Footnote 2: Commenting on the need of popular literature dealing with -earth science, Doctor Shaler says: - -"In no other fields are large and important truths so distinctly -related to human interests so readily traced; yet the treatises dealing -with these truths are few in number and generally recondite."] - -What here appear as chapters were originally little talks for the -evening entertainment of the juvenile members of a certain family and -the neighboring children, who were attracted by what came to be known -as the "pebble parties," during the season at Mount Desert Island. They -are here given in substantially the form in which they first saw the -light. While they proved entirely intelligible to boys and girls of -eight and ten they seemed equally interesting to the older members of -the audience, including a youth of eighteen in his last year of high -school, whose comments, in the language of his caste, deserve to share -the credit for whatever of whimsical humor and colloquial style the -author may have succeeded in incorporating into the narrative. - -The familiar tone, the number and variety of the chapters, the -sub-heads and marginal captions and the character and treatment of -the illustrations have a similar origin. They represent the variety -of aspects under which it was found necessary to present the facts in -order to hold a capricious audience whose attendance and attention -were wholly voluntary. - -The use of unfamiliar words and scientific terms has been avoided as -much as possible, consistent with the educational purpose of the book. -It is to be remembered that educators do not consider it good practice -to omit all words which children cannot understand at sight; the theory -being that it is by the judicious introduction of words not current -on the playground that the intellectual interests and capacities of -children are enlarged. With regard to scientific topics (it is further -argued) a large proportion of the classics of science written for the -general reader and which boys and girls of fourteen and upward should -be able to read easily and with pleasure--Shaler, Darwin, and Wallace, -for example--contain quite a few scientific terms; and these it would -be well that young people learn from context or definition in their -previous reading in works of a more elementary nature. - -Moreover, while younger children will read a book the general character -of which interests them, even though they do not understand every word -or get all the thoughts in it, sophisticated youths of the high-school -age will have none of it, if they suspect that they are being talked -down to. In the story of the pebble the aim, accordingly, has been not -only to make a book that young people will not outgrow but one that -will be of some interest to adults, particularly to travellers. - -Not only in the text is special emphasis laid on the interpretation -of landscape, but the character, treatment, and arrangement of the -illustrations is intended to train the eye to read the story of the -earth drama as recorded in the forms of valley, mountain, field, -and shore. And--since the earth is not, after all, a mere geological -specimen--these illustrations include reproductions of paintings, -scenery as interpreted by the poet and the artist. - -To create an appropriate atmosphere and so add to the vividness of -conception, the twelve chapters each deal with a seasonable subject. - - -Relation to the Text-Book - -The relation of this book to the formal study of physiography or -geology in the schools will be apparent. The classified and exhaustive -treatment of the text-book, while so admirably adapted to organize -knowledge already acquired, or reward an appetite already aroused, is -not at all adapted for creating this appetite in the first place; a -thing so essential to true progress in education. For example, in a -text-book, the many aspects of glaciers and their work, which are here -distributed in a number of sections (as the discovery of these aspects -was distributed in time), are usually dealt with in a single chapter or -series of chapters, whose nature the reader at once gathers from the -title, "The Work of the Glaciers." - -The young reader or school pupil is thus deprived of the element of -surprise, of the pleasure of following an unfolding mystery, which was -at once the inspiration and reward of men of science to whom we owe -these discoveries. - -If left to the text-book alone, the student acquires his facts too -rapidly and too easily. The result is a loss of both pleasure and -profit. The movements of the glaciers and the nature of the movement, -which gave Agassiz seven years of keen delight to ascertain, the pupil -acquires through his text-book in something like seven minutes, and -without either the pleasure or the profit of Agassiz' gradual and -inductive acquirement of this knowledge. - -In other words, to begin the study of a given science by means of a -text-book, without previously arousing interest in the subject, is to -assume a greater zeal on the part of school pupils and college students -than, it is reasonable to assume, was possessed by the scientists -themselves. It was the attraction of the unknown rather than the rapid -acquirement of the known that drew them on to their grand discoveries, -their illuminating generalizations. - -In recording the pebble's story the endeavor has been to cause the -reader to come upon the data on which these generalizations were based, -piece by piece, here a little and there a little--as did the scientists -themselves. - -Interesting as the mere facts of physiographic science finally become -to the trained scientist they make little appeal either to the average -boy or the average adult, if he must first come in contact with them as -they are presented in the text-book; classified, catalogued, labelled -in scientific terms and laid away (as it seems to him) in chapter, -section, and paragraph, like specimens in a museum. - -Since this book is concerned mainly with landscapes and the story of -the forces that helped to shape them it does not undertake to deal -with mineralogy. Within the fields thus defined it is believed that -the larger facts, the great moving causes of things, have been covered -as thoroughly as they are in the average elementary text-book. In -addition, subjects in great variety are touched upon which do not come -within the province of the text-book, but are such as naturally suggest -themselves in the broader and richer discussion of such topics in the -conversation of cultivated people. - - -Hide and Seek in the Library - -Since the whole purpose of the school is to prepare for the larger -world of life and books outside the school, special attention is -invited to the department of questions and suggestions following each -chapter. As indicated in the introduction to the first of the series, -an effort has been made to capitalize the fact that young people enjoy -conundrums and curious quests in the field of books quite as well as -mere passive reading. - -The treatment is somewhat discursive, and in this and other respects -is intended to be more like the conversation of cultivated parents -with their children than like the review questions of a text-book; the -review element being incidental, in recalling the topics out of which -these questions and suggestions grow. The correlations in the most -modern texts lead into equally wide and varied fields. - -If he has succeeded in the aim thus indicated, the author believes this -department may easily prove one of the most interesting as well as -educatively useful features of the work. - - H. H. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. _In the Beginning_ 1 - - II. _The Winter that Lasted All Summer_ 20 - - III. _The Soul of the Spring and the Lands of Eternal Snow_ 41 - - IV. _The April Rains and the Work of the Rivers_ 66 - - V. _The Fairyland of Change_ 93 - - VI. _The Secrets of the Hills_ 113 - - VII. _The Stones of the Field_ 145 - - VIII. _The Desert_ 161 - - IX. _In the Lands of the Lakes_ 191 - - X. _The Autumn Winds and the Rock Mills of the Sea_ 212 - - XI. _The Handwriting on the Walls_ 234 - - XII. _The End of the World_ 260 - - _Index_ 279 - - - - -THE ILLUSTRATIONS - - -In furtherance of the idea referred to in the preface, that a far more -effective use may be made of pictures in teaching than is usual, a -very extended use has been made of them in "The Strange Adventures of -a Pebble," and, moreover, these pictures have been made to talk, as it -were, by means of extended analysis and comment upon their significant -features; this for the double purpose of teaching important facts, as -only pictures can teach, and of stimulating the invaluable habit of -observation and of logical reasoning about things observed. - -One of the main purposes of the book, as stated in the preface, is to -stimulate interest in further reading and study on the many subjects to -which it relates. - -The author wishes to make special acknowledgment of the co-operation of -the editor of _St. Nicholas_ and the following publishers in supplying -the illustrations on the pages indicated: - -The Macmillan Co.: 11, 29, 36, 41, 52, 83, 108, 121, 132, 145, 152, -168, 173, 195, 221, 225, 226, 235, 240, 249, 254, 257. The Century Co.: -For the following from the _St. Nicholas_ magazine: 38, 47, 70, 184, -199. - -D. Appleton and Co.: 12, 22, 60, 97, 102, 136, 141, 224, 236, 241, 243, -245, 247, 252, 257. G. P. Putnam's Sons: 59, 105, 147. E. P. Dutton & -Co.: 157. Henry Holt & Co.: 37, 84, 149, 193, 207, 250. Silver Burdett -Co.: 28. _World's Work_: 79. _Geological Survey_: 13, 23, 114, 130, -194, 238. _Wisconsin Survey_: 33. _Encyclopædia Britannica_: 256. - - - - - THE STRANGE ADVENTURES - OF A PEBBLE - - - - - CHAPTER I - - (JANUARY) - - In the beginning the earth was without form and void. - - --_Genesis_ 1:1-2. - - -IN THE BEGINNING - - -I. How the Worlds and Myself Were Born - -I've been through fire and water, _I_ tell you! From my earliest -pebblehood the wildest things you could imagine have been happening to -this world of ours, and I have been right in the midst of them. - - -HOW MR. APOLLO TURNED ON THE LIGHT - -The first scenes of all in my strange, eventful history remind me of -the old Greek story about Apollo and that boy of his--Phaeton. Apollo's -business, you remember, was to take the sun through the skies every day -in his golden chariot, so that people could see to get about. It was a -ticklish job, as the horses were fiery. As a rule, however, things went -fairly well. To be sure, there were overdone days occasionally, just -as there are now. Then the crops would wither and the birds and brooks -stop singing. This, as the little Greek boys and girls believed, was -because Apollo's horses ran too near the earth. - -[Illustration: HOW MR. APOLLO TURNED ON THE LIGHT - - Behold the sun-god starting on his daily round! Aurora, Goddess of - the Dawn, precedes him scattering flowers, the lovely colors of the - morning sky. The other figures are the early hours. - - The Greek poets used to play with these myth stories a good deal, - changing them to suit their poetic fancy. Theocritus, for example, - in a beautiful fragment that has come down to us, paints this - picture of the breaking day: - - "Dawn, up from the sea to the sky, - By her fleet-footed steeds was drawn." - - You see, according to this poet's conception, Miss Dawn had a - chariot of her own. -] - -But nothing serious happened until one time Phaeton persuaded father to -let him drive the sun chariot for a day. The horses, feeling at once a -new and weak hand on the reins, tore out of the regular road and went -dashing right and left. They even got so near the North Pole that the -ice began to melt. They fairly flew down toward the earth, set the -mountains smoking, and dried up all the springs and most of the rivers. - - -THEN THINGS BEGAN TO HAPPEN - -They dried up a certain great lake, so that there is to this day the -Libyan Desert in Africa, where this lake used to be. They made the very -sea shrink so that there were "wide naked plains where once its billows -rose." - -Finally Mother Earth called on Jupiter Pluvius, as god of thunder, -rain, and storms, to stop Phaeton and the runaways and put out the fire. - -Struck by a bolt of lightning poor Phaeton fell headlong from the -skies, and a world-wide rain put out the world-wide fire. - -[Illustration: _From a cameo by Da Vinci_ - - THE FALL OF PHAETON - - (Museum, Florence) -] - -Now, would you believe it, this queer old Old World story may really be -true in its way. Of course there never was a sun god and no spoiled boy -who did just that thing; although many spoiled boys have _tried_ to set -the world on fire and failed because they thought it would be so easy. - -But the earth really has been on fire in a sense; that is, has melted -from the heat. And in parts where you would least suspect--the rocks. -There's where I got into it. And some of these rocks, not more than -ten miles[3] from where you live, are either still molten, or continue -to melt from time to time; as you can see when lava comes pouring from -volcanoes, such as those of Hawaii. - -[Footnote 3: Straight down, of course.] - -In the days of the Apollo story most men still thought the earth was -the centre of the universe; that the sun, moon, and stars moved around -it. But Pythagoras, one of the Greek philosophers, had formed a general -notion of the truth that the earth is only one planet in a great -system. Then, along in the Sixteenth Century, came Copernicus, and by -mathematical calculation--he was a fine hand at figures--began to find -out things that showed the wise old Greek had made a happy guess. Then -Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and others, each working on different parts of -the problem, finally settled the question. They found that there are -just worlds of worlds, and that ours is only one of them. - - * * * * * - -About the time of the American Revolution a great French mathematician, -Laplace, worked out a story of the origin of the earth which is, -briefly, this: - -What we know now as the solar system--the sun with its attendant -worlds--was once a single big ball of fiery gas, a nebula. As this -nebula cooled it shrank, and as it shrank it whirled faster because -it had a smaller track in which to turn, and with an equal amount of -force would, of course, get around oftener. The faster it whirled -the more the outside of it tended to fly off, as water flies off a -whirling grindstone or as a stone flies from a sling. This centrifugal -or "fly-away" force was greatest at the sun's equator, and it threw -off big rings. Afterward, around some centre of greater density in -these rings, the gaseous particles in the rest of the ring gathered, so -forming spheres. Then some of the spheres themselves threw off rings in -the same way which became what are called satellites. The moon, which -is our satellite, Laplace supposed to have originated in this way. -The ring which Saturn still wears he thought would some day become a -satellite. - -[Illustration: - - _By permission of the Mount Wilson Observatory_ - - WATCHING THE MAKING OF WORLDS - - At first you won't see anything very striking about this picture, - perhaps; but doesn't it give you something of a thrill to be told - that you are here looking not only at the making of a _world_, - but of worlds of worlds? A whole solar system! In the course of - unthinkable time that big, round ball in the center will be the - sun, and what appear to be little knots wrapped close around - it--they are really far from each other and from the sun--will - become rounded worlds like ours. They will be forced into roundness - by their own gravity, pulling toward their centers. They don't look - any farther apart than the strands in a little sister's braided - hair, do they? But remember how small this picture is compared with - what it represents. What here show as little dark lines, separating - the embryo worlds, are in reality vast spaces, like those you see - between the stars at night--millions and millions and millions of - miles! -] - -So, you see, the myth story of Phaeton foreshadowed, in a way, the -science story of Laplace. For, according to the Laplace theory, the -world _was_ on fire; and a big rain storm, lasting for ages, with -plenty of thunder and lightning, did help put it out. - -This theory of Laplace was long accepted as the true one. Indeed, it -was only yesterday, comparatively, that other explanations were offered -as to how we came to have a world to stand on. The broadest of these -new theories--the one that undertakes to explain the most--is that of -Professor Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago. - -[Illustration: THE SUN AND HIS PEBBLE WORLDS - - However the worlds of our solar system may have been made, when - they were done there was the sun in the centre and his worlds - travelling around him in their ordered orbits. Nearest the sun is - Mercury. Then Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus; then, - finally, Neptune nearly 3,000,000,000 miles away and with an orbit - so big that Christmas comes only once in 60,000 years! -] - - -YOU CAN SEE THESE WORLDS IN THE MAKING - -Owing to the more powerful telescopes of to-day, and the amount of -exploring among the worlds that has been going on since the time of -Laplace, several things have been discovered that have brought his -theory into question. For one thing, many more nebulæ have been found -in space than were known when Laplace worked out his great conception, -and among them all not one has been found with a central mass -surrounded by a ring. Moreover, our sharp-eyed telescopes show that -Saturn's ring, which Laplace thought was a solid mass, is really made -up of a great number of small satellites: baby worlds. The greater -number of these nebulæ are like the ones you see in the illustration -on page 5. They consist of very bright centres with spirals streaming -out from opposite sides. Just take a look at the picture. Doesn't the -shape of those spirals suggest that the central mass is whirling? And -notice the little white lumps here and there. The thinner, veil-like -portions of the mass, as well as the "lumps," are supposed to be made -of particles of matter, but the lumps to be more condensed. All the -particles, big and little, are known to be revolving about the central -mass, much as the earth revolves about the sun. The little white lumps, -or knots, in the filmy skein are supposed to be worlds in the making. -Being larger than the other particles, they draw the smaller to them, -according to the same law of gravitation which makes every unsupported -thing on earth fall to the ground, because the earth is so much bigger -than anything there is on it. Since these bright little lumps behave -so much like the worlds we know as planets, and yet are relatively -so small, they are called planetessimals, or "little planets." So -Professor Chamberlin's idea of the origin of worlds is known as the -"planetessimal theory." - -[Illustration: HOW YOU CAN WATCH THE WORLD TURN ROUND - - Timepieces, you know, are really machines for keeping track of the - apparent movement of the sun. Here is a device, as simple as a - sun-dial and much simpler than a clock, by which you can record the - actual motion of the earth. Sprinkle the surface of the water in a - bowl with chalk dust. On this, sift from a piece of paper powdered - charcoal or pencil dust, so as to make a clean-cut band extending - across the centre and over the edge of the bowl. In the course of - several hours you will find that the black band has swept round - from east to west, because the water has stood still while the bowl - has been carried from west to east by the whirling world. -] - -According to this theory the earth was once a mere baby world like -those white lumps, and grew by gathering in its smaller neighbors from -time to time by the power of gravitation. The larger it grew the more -particles of solid matter it could draw to itself. Then it drew larger -masses, for with increased mass came an increased pull of gravity. In -the same way the earth is still growing, for it is thought that the -shooting stars or meteors we see at night are little planets being -gathered in. - - -II. How the Continents Came Up Out of the Sea - -And before I got to be myself at all, while I was still only a part of -the big pebble called the Earth, your geography and I lay at the bottom -of the sea. - -For ages and ages! - -This is one of the stories you will find in the literature of science, -of how, along with North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, -and Australia--have I left out any?--I came to land and brought your -geography with me. - -I remember hearing a pretty young lady say, once upon a time: - -"There," said she, "I'm through with geography forever!" - -You see, although she had passed with marks around 90, she still had -the idea that geography is a book. You and I know, of course, that the -real geography isn't a book at all. It's the world itself. - - -PUTTING THE CONTINENTS ON THE GLOBE - -But there was a time when there was no land. It was all water, and -the continents were lifted into their places, much as you model a -continent in making a relief map; they were sketched out and then -filled in. North America, for example. First of all up came that mass -in the northeast in what is now Canada; the Laurentian Highlands, as -they are called in your geography. They rose very, very slowly, you -understand, only a few feet in a thousand years; for Nature has all -the time there is and never hurries. These highlands (they are really -granite mountains worn down), along with the other rock formations of -our continent, are supposed to be the oldest land on the earth. The -continents of Europe and the rest were born later. So you see Columbus -didn't discover the New World at all; he really came from the New World -and discovered the Old! - -Next after the highlands north of the St. Lawrence up came the tops of -the mountains you see running along the eastern coast, what we now -call the Appalachians. Then the Rocky Mountains began to raise their -heads and looked eastward toward their brother mountains across a great -mediterranean sea, the bottom of which is now the Mississippi Valley. -Mediterranean means "middle of the land." - -[Illustration: HOW YOUR GEOGRAPHY ROSE OUT OF THE SEA] - - -ADMITTING NEW STATES TO THE MAP - -Wisconsin, into which I moved from the Laurentian Highlands in later -years, was on the lower end of a long, thin tongue of rock reaching out -from these highlands to the southwest. While Wisconsin went on growing, -the Alleghanies came up and brought some Middle Atlantic geography with -them. Up with all these early settler mountains came, in the course of -time, the beginnings of neighbor States. All these big, barren rocks -(as they were then), rising and ever rising, age after age, spread -more surface to the sun. And the sun, and the wind, and the frost, -followed by the lowest forms of plant life--the Adams of the vegetable -world--gradually worked the surface of the rock into soil; and so, as -we may say, got ready for the spring plowing. - -[Illustration: LANDS THE SEA HAS SWALLOWED - - Parts of the continents as they used to be but which are now - beneath the waters are here shown. Compare this with the globe map - in your geography. It is estimated that there are 10,000,000 square - miles of this land. You'll hear more about this swallowing habit of - the sea in Chapter X; but, as you will learn, there's nothing to be - frightened about. -] - -By this constant rising and building on of the soil the foundations -of our States grew out toward one another in order, according to the -constitution of things, "to form a more perfect union." The United -States, at a time which, we may say, corresponds to "The Expansion -Period" in your school history, grew southward from Wisconsin and -westward from the Appalachians until they made continuous land; and -there was your Ohio and Indiana and the rest of the North Central -group. Below, toward the south, were more big stone islands here -and there, the first sketches or blockings out of the Southern -States. Florida seems to have been added later, as a final touch; an -afterthought, as one of my Wisconsin neighbors puts it. And it was -much enlarged by those remarkable little world builders, the corals. -Mexico and Central America, of course, are a part of the Rocky Mountain -system. - -[Illustration: - - _From Gilbert and Brigham's "An Introduction to Physical - Geography." By permission of D. Appleton and Company_ - - -BUT WON'T WE GO UNDER AGAIN? - - These little people of the sea-floor furnish one of the most - assuring evidences we have that although the continents rose out of - the sea, they will never go under the sea again. These are shell - creatures found in the slime dredged from the bottom of the deepest - parts of the sea. The shells of creatures that live near shore are - found in abundance in our rocks, but these types are found only - in the deepest seas. So, since the deep down-wrinklings of the - earth that make the sea-basins have never risen, it is probable - they never will; and consequently that the up-wrinkles--the - continents--will continue to stay above the waters. -] - -It's a wonderful old story, isn't it? But more wonderful still, it -always seemed to me, is the story of how they found all this out. - -Who do you suppose first told about it? The last people you would ever -think of, I'm sure--the oysters! - - -WHAT THE OYSTERS TOLD XENOPHANES - -It sounds like a passage from "Alice in Wonderland," or "Through the -Looking-Glass," doesn't it? But it's a fact. Away back, more than -2,000 years ago, a wise Greek called Xenophanes, who lived in a place -called Colophon, and so was called Xenophanes of Colophon, said that he -thought the rocks of the mountain sides must once have been under the -sea because of the oyster shells that were found embedded in many of -them. - -[Illustration: HOW THE OYSTERS TOLD THE GREAT SECRET - - Here is a good example of the thing that led wise old Xenophanes of - Colophon to make the startling assertion that the mountains were - once at the bottom of the sea. These are the shells of oysters - embedded in limestone--which, by the way, the shells of the oysters - themselves helped make--and this piece of stone is from the top of - a high mountain. -] - -"For," said Xenophanes of Colophon, "how else could the oyster shells -have got there? Who ever heard of oysters climbing a mountain?" - -Another evidence that lands come up out of the sea is this: Even before -the days of Scott and Maryatt and Fenimore Cooper, men--and, of course, -boys--were interested in caves that face upon the sea. They are such -jolly places for pirates, and for boys playing pirate, and for mermaids -drying their hair. It was plain that down where the waves in storms -could reach them the sea itself bored out these caves. But how about -those caves in the cliffs high above the waves? The sea must have made -them, too, once upon a time when the land was lower in the water. Then -the land was raised. - -Still more striking was the fact that not only caves but old sea -beaches were found on hill and mountain slopes far from the sea, -sometimes hundreds of miles inland. You can tell the old beaches by -their shape and the way in which the pebbles are sorted by size, just -as you find them on beaches to-day. - - -THE BAKED APPLE AND THE BULGING WORLD - -The causes of the rise and fall of the sea coasts are many, and -there are things about these movements not yet understood. By what -wonderful machinery, then (we might naturally ask), were the continents -themselves lifted out of the sea? To this, which would seem much the -harder question of the two, the answer is simple; as simple as a baked -apple. You know an apple that goes into the oven with a smooth, neat -skin comes out covered with wrinkles. Now suppose, instead of a little, -hot apple, covered with a thin skin, you have a big, hot earth covered -with a thick crust of stone, and the inside of the earth shrinking all -the time as the inside of the apple shrank away from its skin. The rock -skin would wrinkle, and the wrinkles, rising out of the seas that then -covered it everywhere, would make continents. - -[Illustration: THE RISE AND FALL OF JUPITER SERAPIS - - In this account of the ups and downs of land and sea I must tell - you the story of Jupiter Serapis. In the days of the Romans this - temple, for his honor, stood on the seashore near Naples. Of that - temple only three pillars remain, but they answer a very important - question. On these pillars, over twenty feet above sea-level, is a - belt of holes bored in the stone by a certain shelled sea-creature, - one of the barnacle family; so evidently these pillars must, at - some time, have sunk, as shown in the second picture, and then - risen again, as shown in the third, which represents them as they - stand to-day. - - Another interesting thing is that the third picture--observe--shows - a volcano that isn't in the other two. Following a series of - earthquake shocks in 1538 the earth opened and out popped hot - stones and ashes and built themselves into a small volcano right - before everybody; for it was all done in a short time, and you may - be sure the frightened people kept their eyes on it, and they named - it Monte Nuovo, which is Italian for "New Mountain." -] - -"And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together -into one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so." - -According to the planetessimal theory the way in which the seas were -made was this: - -Owing to the collision--the "bang"--of the planetessimals against the -earth, and against each other as they met at the "terminal station," -heat was generated. The compression, the squeezing together, of the -earth from its own weight--the gravity pull of the whole mass toward -the centre--generated still more heat, and the heat and pressure drove -the gases out of the rock. These gases included hydrogen and oxygen. -These two gases cooling and combining themselves, in a way they have, -became water, and there were other gases, such as nitrogen and carbon -gas, that helped to make the air. - - -WHEN THE SEAS WERE ALL IN THE SKY - -At first the water was in the form of dense clouds of overhanging vapor -which, growing bigger and bigger, finally fell in rain. The heat, made -by the pressure of the outside of the earth toward the centre as the -earth kept growing, caused volcanic explosions. But there were far -more volcanoes in those early days when the earth was settling down, -and being "settled up," as it were, by these energetic pioneers in the -fields of space--the planetessimals--and the surface became pitted -with craters. In these great catch basins the rain was stored, and, -as for ages the rain kept falling faster than the vapor rose from the -earth, many of these bodies of water united, and so formed the lakes, -the river systems, the oceans, and the seas. - - -THE FOUR GREAT FEATURES OF THE BIBLE STORY - -All of which, while it differs so much from the theory of Laplace, does -not affect the Bible outline of the origin of the earth. For these four -great things must still have been: (1) an earth without form, and void; -(2) a great deep; (3) upon its face darkness from the continuing masses -of black rain-laden clouds which overhung it and shut out the sun; (4) -the final dividing up of supply between the vapor of the clouds ("the -waters above the earth") and "the waters upon the earth," so that at -last the dark cloud curtain disappeared, and the sun began to rule the -day. "Let there be light." - - * * * * * - -But good-by to Phaeton and the story of an original glowing ball which -cooled off on the outside. If the earth grew bit by bit instead of -being whirled off in one fiery mass by the sun it was never any hotter -than it is now, if as hot. It grew hot by being pressed together by its -own weight, and by the blows of additional little worlds as they fell -upon it. - -But on one thing everybody agrees, that the rocks, as you go toward the -earth's centre, have been and still are in a molten state; that this -rock, when it cools, becomes granite, all full of little crystals like -a lump of sugar, and that the Granites are one of the F. F. E.'s.[4] - -[Footnote 4: First Families on Earth.] - -I, as you see, am a Granite. So, besides going through fire and -water--yes, and ice, as you will learn--and having many strange and -wearing adventures both by land and sea--I'm "awfully" old. Older than -you think. I looked it up in the family record called the "Geological -Column"--just the other day. That column gives my age as "80+." This -means I'm 80,000,000 years old, going on 81! (The _plus_ sign, in -geology language, means "going on"; or, "and then some," as a certain -slangful high school freshman puts it.) - -But I don't think I _show_ my age. Do you? - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - Who wants to sit and be talked to all the time? When boys and girls - are playing games, the greatest pleasure is in taking part, and - it's the same way in the Wonderland of Books. Books mean most to - those who "get into the game"; who help chase after the answers to - things. This hunting for answers up and down among the books is one - of the interesting games we're going to play; and those of you who - don't come in will miss a lot of fun. That's all _I've_ got to say! - Let's begin like this: - - * * * * * - - In the Greek myth stories what else was Mr. Apollo supposed to do - for the world and its people besides turning on the light?[5] - -[Footnote 5: Answers to all these questions at the ends of chapters -will be found in books you can easily get hold of--encyclopædias, -dictionaries, and school-books; or books usually found in home, school, -or public libraries. Words in parenthesis or italics indicate the -headings where the information referred to will be found.] - - Why doesn't the force of the earth, whirling along as it does at 19 - miles a second, cause the wind to blow us all away? (_Earth._) - - What is the difference between a planet and a sun? - - How does the earth compare in size with its brother planets of the - sun family? - - How often would Christmas come around if we lived on the moon? - - What causes different phases of the moon? - - Why may we be said to have eclipses of the moon every month? - - "Moon" and "month" sound a good deal alike when you come to think - of it. Don't you wonder why? "Moon" comes from a word meaning "to - measure." You'll find the rest of the word-story of the moon in any - dictionary that is big enough to tell about the origin of words. - - By the way--speaking of the timekeepers in the sky--don't forget - to look up the lives of the great astronomers mentioned in this - chapter. You will find, among other things, how Galileo, when only - eighteen years of age, helped to give us our clocks and watches by - counting his pulse-beats while watching a hanging lamp swing back - and forth in the Cathedral of Pisa; how he found out who "The Man - in the Moon" really is and what the "Milky Way" is made of; how he - invented the wonderful glass for playing hide and seek among the - worlds, and with it found four moons in one night! - - Yes, and how do you suppose he found that the sun is going round - and round like a top, just as the earth does? It was the _simplest_ - thing! You'll see! - - Old Father Science may be said to be a Santa Claus who keeps a - curiosity-shop. His pack is not only full of curious things but he - is always "springing surprises on us," as our High School Boy puts - it. For example, one of the most curious as well as picturesque - evidences that great stretches of land sink under the sea from - time to time is furnished by the English swallows. Like many other - wealthy people, they spend their winters in Algiers, and they find - their way over the Mediterranean, not by any lands they can see - between coast and coast--for there _are_ none--but by lands that - _used_ to be there, thousands upon thousands of years ago. - - But how do the swallows know? They don't. Is it instinct? No. - (Whatever instinct is!) Then why do they do it? Look it up and - you'll see.[6] Yes, and you'll see that we have habits that _we_ - get in the same way; our habits of bowing, for example, because - it's the custom, although few people know how it originated. - -[Footnote 6: "Colin Clout's Calendar," by Grant Allen.] - - - - - CHAPTER II - - (FEBRUARY) - - Up rose the wild old Winter King - And shook his beard of snow; - "I hear the first young harebell ring, - 'Tis time for me to go! - Northward o'er the icy rocks, - Northward o'er the Sea." - - --_Leland._ - - -THE WINTER THAT LASTED ALL SUMMER - -It's been just one thing after another with the world and me ever since -we were born. First it was the fire, then it was the flood, and then it -was the winter that lasted all summer. - -Just what started it nobody knows to this day. Some of the theories -have been that this particular winter stayed so long because the earth -wavered on its axis, or that it flew the track for a while and got too -far away from the sun. From our present knowledge of the machinery of -the heavens it is certain that the earth's motions could not vary to -this extent. One theory that appeals to many scientists to-day is that -when so much of the carbon in the air went into the making of our coal -beds the earth became unusually cold, and so snows of each successive -winter kept piling up instead of melting away during the spring and -summer. When there is plenty of this gas in the air the earth's heat -does not escape so fast. But with the great amount of carbon taken up -in the growth of the vast forests that were made into coal, Mother -Earth's air blanket grew thinner, so to speak, hence the long, cold -spell. - -[Illustration: - - _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of Ginn and - Company_ - -WHEN THE ICE SHEETS COVERED THE LAND] - -But whatever caused it one thing is certain; it was a winter that beat -anything the oldest inhabitant ever saw; for the cave men are known to -have been on earth during this great winter, which is known as the Ice -Age or the Glacial Period. A great big ice cap reached from the North -Pole far down into the Temperate Zone in North America, Europe, and -Asia. - -[Illustration: FROM THE CAVEMAN'S DIARY - - This is a little note on the Ice Age from the caveman's diary--the - picture of a mammoth scratched with a flint on a mammoth's tusk. - You can see how the artist kept trying for the true form with - different lines, as all real artists do. Artists don't just have a - kind of sign that stands for the thing--like a little boy's picture - of a man that he always makes in just one way. Notice the action, - the natural motion of the animal. The artist means to say: "This is - the way he came at me." -] - - -I. The Mild Spell and the Menageries - -Just before this dreadful winter set in we had a long, open spell; -about a million years or so. It was just like summer most of the year -in the temperate zone, and much warmer than it is to-day in what is now -the land of the little frosty Eskimo. - -There weren't any little Eskimos in those days. In fact, there wasn't -much of anything that was little. Everything was on a big scale. Think -of a mud-turtle twelve feet long! He was all of that. His skull alone -was a yard long and he must have weighed a couple of tons. He had for -neighbors in the bordering swamps a number of huge creatures that one -wouldn't care to meet. - -[Illustration: THE KING OF THE DINOSAURS AT LUNCHEON - - Contrast the little, almost dainty, fore limbs with the enormous - legs. You can't help thinking of the arms of a human being, can - you? In fact, this mixed-up creature looks as if nature were even - then dreaming of man, the quadruped who, as some Frenchman said, - "took to walking on his hind legs that he might conquer the world." -] - - -DREADFULNESS OF MR. DINOSAUR - -The Dinosaur, for instance. His name means "terrible reptile." Some -members of the family were, indeed, terrible creatures. Just see -this one at lunch, Mr. Ceratosaurus. He has the head of a queer -horse--"probably a night mare," says the High School Boy--teeth -and tail and belly scales like a crocodile, a comb that suggests a -rooster's, legs like an ostrich, the talons of an eagle, and the dainty -little arms of a child. What a combination! Those small fore limbs were -used only for grasping. On his hind legs he stalked about, seeking -whom he might eat for dinner. He was about fifty feet long when he was -all there. At this late day scientists usually find only parts of him -scattered around. - -These Dinosaurs came in sizes and differed considerably as to looks and -eating and getting about. Some were as small as cats, some walked on -four legs, some--like the gentleman at lunch--walked on two. Some were -strict vegetarians, while others would have nothing but meat. The Big -Boys of the whole tribe were called the Sauropoda or reptile-footed -Dinosaurs. One of these, whose bones were found in Colorado, was -sixty-five feet long when complete, and he must have weighed around -twenty tons. His family nickname was Diplodocus or "Double Beam," -because of his long, beam-like neck and his long, beam-like tail. - - -GENTLE MR. DIPLODOCUS AND HIS WAYS - -Considering the reputation some of the other Dinosaurs had as bad -citizens, it is only fair to the Diplodocus to say that he was really a -gentle creature, and never disturbed anybody--unless somebody disturbed -him first. Then he would give them a switch with that tail of his, -and it was a switching they were not likely to forget. But his great -delight--indeed, his main occupation in life--was to sit deep in the -water, prop himself up with his great long tail, like a kangaroo, with -just his head out, like a turtle in a pond. Then he would strain little -water bugs and similar things through his teeth. He got his meals in -this way, very much as the whales do now. - -And elephants! You ought to have seen some of the members of the -elephant family that arrived after the reptile age, the mammoths, for -instance. These huge creatures and many other strange animals were all -over the place. It was just like a circus day everywhere all the time. -Such elephants don't travel with circuses now, of course, because they -were all killed during that dreadful winter, but you can see them in -museums, all dressed in their skeletons and neatly held together with -wires. - -[Illustration: - - _From the mural painting by Charles R. Knight in the American - Museum of Natural History_ - -WHEN ELEPHANTS WORE UNDERCLOTHES - - This painting on the walls of the American Museum of Natural - History in New York City shows herds of reindeer and mammoths in - the Ice Age. They didn't mind the cold as elephants do to-day, - because of their woolly underclothes. They fed on the shoots and - cones of those firs and pines. The reindeer, then as now, ate the - lichens we call "reindeer moss," first scraping away the snow with - their feet. -] - - -HOW THE MAMMOTHS PASSED AWAY - -Picture herds of these mammoths huddled together like sheep in dark -ravines, and the blinding snow, swept down by the winds, burying them -deeper and deeper. That was how they died. You'll notice that they -wore their hair long, while the elephants we see in the circuses or at -the zoo have hardly any hair at all. This long hair was part of their -winter clothing. Under it they wore a close fleece. But this winter was -so severe and it lasted so long that even their heavy woollen underwear -couldn't save them. Sometimes there would be a thaw, but this was only -on the surface and helped turn the snow into ice. And winter piled on -winter and on the bodies of the mammoths until they were buried under -tons and tons of snow and ice. - - -HOW THE SNOW CHANGED ITSELF INTO ICE - -You know snow will get solid, like ice, where it is under pressure, and -it will make hard cakes and ice balls under your shoes. Well, this snow -of the long winter just "packed its own self" (as a small boy might -say) into ice. It did this by piling on and piling on. The weight of -the snow above and behind, in the spaces between the mountains and in -the mountain valleys, pressed with enormous force on the snow below and -in front. - -Then what do you think this ice did? It began to move. And of all the -things it did from then on! - - -II. Marvellous Changes in the Old Home Place - -Did you notice those scratches on my face? The ice did that. But, -of course, that's nothing in itself. And, besides, I'm not one to -complain, as you know. I only speak of it to show what big things may -be back of little ones, how much you can learn from the study of so -common a thing as a little pebble. For the very same ice fields that -scratched the faces of little pebbles like me deepened the gorges and -canyons among the mountains and shaved the crowns of the old ones--Bald -Mountain, in the Adirondacks, for example. They carried off good -farming soil by the thousands of acres from one place and piled it in -another; they shoved the Mississippi River back and forth; in fact, -turned many streams out of their courses--some of them the other end -to, so that they now flow south where they used to flow north. They -took old river systems apart, and with the pieces made new ones--the -big Missouri for one. They set Niagara Falls up in business; got all -the waterfalls ready that are now turning the wheels of New England -factories, and even put in great water storage systems that remind one -of the Salt River irrigation works, with their big Roosevelt dam in -Arizona, or of the reservoirs which England built in the Nile. Lakes -in river systems act as reservoirs, you know, and make them flow more -evenly, thus keeping the power of falls more uniform, as in the case -of Niagara, and making a uniform depth of water for vessels, as in the -case of the St. Lawrence River. The Great Lakes do both of these useful -things. - -[Illustration: _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of -Ginn and Company_ - -THE LITTLE MOUNTAIN IN THE BIG CITY - -In one of the parks in New York City you can see this illustration of -how the glaciers rounded off the mountain-tops.] - -[Illustration: THE BEEHIVE MOUNTAIN - -This huge mass in the Canadian Rockies is known as the Beehive -Mountain. Originally a cliff, it was reshaped by the glaciers. Can't -you tell from the picture which was the face of the cliff, and from the -information in the text which side the glacier climbed up and on which -side it tobogganed down?] - -There were three great centres--union stations, we might call -them--from which the ice trains moved out. These were the points at -which the ice gathered to the greatest depth, the tops of the great -snow banks. One, as you see by our Ice Age map, was away over on the -Pacific Coast of Canada. It is called the Cordilleran Centre, from -the vast mountain system of which it is a part. Over what is now the -province of Keewatin, Canada, was the Keewatin Centre, while the -Labrador Centre stood guard over the highlands of Labrador. The ice -from the Keewatin and Labrador fields, you notice, flowed farthest to -the south. The Keewatin ice giant travelled away down the Mississippi -Valley as far as the mouth of what is now the Missouri, while the -giant from Labrador got nearly to the mouth of the Ohio. - -[Illustration: THE OLD MEN OF THE MOUNTAIN AT THEIR WORK - -Don't you always think of a glacier as a big white thing? So it is -when it starts to work, but after it has ploughed down the mountain -valleys and gathered up a lot of soil--such as the heaps you see in the -foreground of the picture--it begins to look as black as a coal-heaver! -It gets cracked up into all sorts of odd shapes, too. Doesn't that -figure near the centre look like some queer kind of old elephant, with -a fierce white eye (it's a big stone) and a snarl on his face?] - -The reason Old Mr. Labrador didn't reach the mouth of the Ohio--as -you can easily guess--was that he didn't go far enough, but could you -answer a conundrum like this: - -"Why was Mr. Keewatin bound to reach the mouth of the Missouri and stay -there for awhile no matter how far he went?" - -The answer is easy, when you know it. Because he made the Missouri -himself. What we now know as the Missouri River was made of other -rivers that the big ice sheet turned around as it advanced and of the -water from the ice as the glacier melted its way back home. It was -something like Mary and the little lamb, all the time, so long as Mr. -Keewatin travelled south; for everywhere he went the Missouri was -_sure_ to go, because he kept pushing it ahead of him. - - -HOW THE OLD MEN PUSHED THE MISSISSIPPI ABOUT - -As the ice sheets pushed into its valleys, now from the northeast and -now from the northwest, the Mississippi River was pushed back and forth -as if it were a--well, as if it weren't anything! It is known that the -Mississippi was pushed out of bed by this burly guest from the north -because its former channels have been traced along the old ice fronts. - -In one part of its course the Mississippi actually got misplaced, and -hasn't found its way back to its old bed to this day. This you can -see at Fort Snelling, Minnesota. At that point the Minnesota River -flows in the Mississippi's old valley--which is plainly too big for -it--while above Fort Snelling the Mississippi is forced to squeeze its -way through a stingy little gorge that used to belong to the Minnesota, -and I'm sure would be plenty big enough for it now. It's like the story -of a changeling baby in a fairy tale, isn't it? Only in the fairy tale -the changeling always gets back to his old home, while the misplaced -Mississippi in Minnesota doesn't. - -But the glaciers made it up to the Mississippi, in a way, for this rude -jostling. They not only left it an enormous extra supply of water as -they melted back home--what would a river be without water?--but they -actually took some smaller rivers away from the St. Lawrence and made -them do their pouring into the Mississippi system. Although they didn't -owe the Ohio any apology for anything, so far as I know, they did the -same thing for it, just to be good fellows, I suppose. All the rivers -that now empty into the Ohio above Cincinnati used to flow into Lake -Erie, but the glaciers turned them south and they've gone on obediently -flowing that way ever since. - - -A PLOWMAN WHO PLOWED THE FARMS AWAY - -That these giants of the north, although they must have looked as cold -as ice, really had good hearts is shown by the way Old Mr. Labrador -treated New England when he went Down East. New England was at that -time covered with good, deep, rich soil, the decay of the granite rocks -that had been basking in the sun for ages and growing early grass and -vegetables for the live stock of those days. Then along came Old Mr. -Labrador with his plow, and set to work. But he plowed so deep that he -plowed all the farms away! Of the gigantic furrows that he turned a -lot of the slices fell over into New York State; but some, I'm sorry -to say, dropped off into the sea. This left New England in a bad way, -so far as prizes for farm produce at the country fairs a few thousand -years later were concerned. - -But then what do you suppose Mr. Labrador did, the good old soul? He -took a lot of streams that had been flowing north, blocked them up -with pebbles and dirt, making them turn right around and flow south, -so that in climbing down from the rocks in these new unworn beds they -made waterfalls. And it was from the power made by its waterfalls, you -know, as your geography tells you, that New England grew to be a great -"manu-factur-ing" section. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of "The Scientific American."_ - -HOW THE OLD MEN OF THE MOUNTAIN COME TO SCHOOL - -You can have glaciers like this right in the schoolroom, and icebergs, -too, by means of which the Old Men of the Mountain went to sea. Both -the iceberg and its parent, the glacier, are made by the crumpling of -white paper around books or any other support. Cliffs of dark-brown -grocery-paper bound the deep gully through which the glacier has -crept down to the sea. The sea-waves are made with crumpled paper of -appropriate colors. (Think what lovely green waves you could make -with a piece of old window-shade!) Pieces of white string make good -breakers, and powdered chalk can easily be made to turn to snow.] - -Of course I'm only joking when I speak of these glaciers as if they -had minds like the rest of us, but really it almost seems true, when -you come to think of all the things they did. Take these New England -waterfalls, for instance. The glacier not only made them by turning -the rivers around, but, as the ice melted away toward the north the -land rose again, being relieved of the enormous weight. And in rising -the sloping land not only gave more force to the new southward flowing -streams but made it more sure that they should _go on_ flowing south. -As if the glaciers said: - -[Illustration: THE GRAY TEMPLE OF THE WINDS - - This gray mass of sandstone on the Wisconsin prairies is a piece of - architecture with which man has had nothing whatever to do. It is - all the work of the winds and the rains; of the sea and of rivers; - of water and rivers of ice; and the vertical division of the rock - into joints by the shrinking of the earth. The detail, the rounding - of the pillars, and so on, is largely the work of the winds and - their helpers, the frosts, the rains, and the wind-blown sand. - - The original mass was carved out of a big rock-bed by flowing - rivers that had their course around it on either side. Then one - of these rivers was dammed by ice in the days of the glaciers and - a lake was formed in which this rock mass stood as an island. - The level prairie you now see around it was made by the sand and - gravel deposited in the bottom of this lake. The vertical divisions - are cracks in the earth crust called "joints." The horizontal - divisions are due in part to this cracking process and in part to - "stratification," the layer-like arrangement of the rocks when laid - in the bottom of the sea, as explained in Chapter X. The "cornice" - is a layer of harder rock which has yielded less to nature's tools. -] - -"I've turned you around and I want you to stay turned around. And I -want you to go on running south and dropping over the falls until the -people of New England come down to Lowell and Manchester and those -places and get ready to put you to work." - -Anyhow, that's just what happened. You can look at it any way you want -to. - -It was in much the same way that Mr. Labrador and his friend Keewatin -did that great piece of engineering at the Great Lakes. Where the -Great Lakes are now there used to be rivers that were a part of the -St. Lawrence system. Then along came the ice sheets, dammed up these -rivers, just as small boys dam up roadside rivulets after a rain, and -so made big lakes, as the boys make little lakes in these streamlets. -But this wasn't all. The glaciers evidently wanted these to be nice -big lakes that would stay there for people to ride on in the beautiful -summer weather, and to help haul coal and iron ore and other kinds of -freight--Michigan peaches and everything. For look what else they did. -With pebbles and big stones and dirt they built the lake walls higher, -and dug deep basins for them out of the solid rock. Then they poured in -a lot of extra water--beautiful blue water, tons and tons of it--and -went back home. - -The digging into the rock was done with big chisels--what a carpenter -would call "round-nosed" chisels. These chisels, of course, were made -of ice. They were what are called the "tongues" or "lobes" of glaciers. -As a glacier flows along--always on some down grade--there are portions -of it--those long lobes or tongues--that move on ahead of the main -mass. This is because those parts of the ice sheet strike a steeper -bit of land than the rest of it, so how could they help moving faster? - -[Illustration: THE THOUSAND-YEAR CLOCK AT NIAGARA - - You've heard of eight-day clocks and clocks that have to be wound - only once a year, but here is a clock that was wound up several - thousand years ago and is still going beautifully! In placing the - wondrous waterfall in Niagara River the glaciers also started a - kind of water-clock by which to record--for those who would take - the trouble to study it out--how long ago it was the glaciers - visited us. Owing to the constant wearing away of the base of the - falls, by the water grinding the pebbles against it, great blocks - like the one here shown (known as "The Rock of Ages") come tumbling - down. So the falls are constantly retreating up-stream, and the - distance from where they once stood to where they are now gives a - rough idea of the time that has passed since the Old Men of the - Mountain set them up in business--about 25,000 years. -] - -The fronts of these lobes are rounded like the waves flowing up a -beach, or syrup travelling over pancakes on a cold winter morning. The -reason of this roundness is that the centres of these lobes of ice or -water travel fastest because the mass on either side furnishes a kind -of ball-bearing for the central part. - -But this wasn't all. At the very same time, by the very same act, -Labrador, Keewatin & Co. set Niagara Falls up in business. In those -days there was a Niagara river but no Niagara Falls; at least not the -one we know to-day. The ice filled the Ontario Valley so that the -streams flowing into it had to turn around and flow south. The Niagara -River was one of these streams. Then, as the ice melted, it poured -loads of extra water into Lake Erie, so that it was some 30 feet higher -than it is at present and began draining out through the new Niagara -River, over the rocks that make the falls. - -[Illustration: A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF NIAGARA - - This is a bird's-eye view of the Niagara region. Where the river - crosses a bed of limestone below Buffalo, and again where it - crosses another just above the crest of the falls, some of the rock - has been dissolved away, thus making it rougher, so that slight - rapids have formed. Then comes the mighty plunge, after which - the water flows through a gorge for about seven miles. Where the - gorge bends abruptly at right angles is the great eddy called "The - Whirlpool." -] - - -NATURE IS THE ART OF GOD - -"Nature," as Sir Thomas Browne so finely said, "is the art of God." -And nowhere is this art more striking in its beauty than in the work -done by the glaciers. Those wonderful falls and the blue inland seas -we call the Great Lakes, and thousands of smaller lakes scattered all -over where the glaciers came, are only a part of this art work. The -main ice sheets, you notice, didn't reach down among the mountains -of California, but these mountains had small glaciers of their own -in those days, just as they have now. Only they were much larger -then because, as we have seen, it was such a snowy time all over the -northern world. Listen to what these home-made glaciers of California -did, and listen to how John Muir tells it: - -[Illustration: AND TO THINK WE DID IT ALL!] - -"It is hard," he says, "without long and loving study, to realize how -great was the work done. Before the glaciers came, the range"--he is -speaking of the Sierras--"was comparatively simple; one vast wave of -stone in which a thousand mountains, domes, canyons, ridges, and so -forth lay concealed." To carve them out of the stone "nature chose -for a tool, not the earthquake or the lightning, but the tender -snow flowers, noiselessly falling through unnumbered centuries. -The snowflakes said, 'Come, we are feeble; let us help one another. -Marching in close, deep ranks let us roll away the stones from these -mountain sepulchres, and set the landscape free.'" - -It is evident that this was all in the Great Plan of things. For the -rocks had to be of a certain kind and laid in a certain way for the -little members of this art society of the sky to work these landscapes -out. And the rocks were so made and laid when they were at least a mile -below the surface on which the glaciers set to work. - -"It was while these features were taking form in the depths of the -range, the particles of the rocks marching to their appointed places -in the dark, that the particles of icy vapor in the sky, marching to -the same music, assembled to bring them to the light. Then, after their -grand task was done, these bands of snow flowers, the mighty glaciers, -were melted and removed, as if of no more importance than dew destined -to last but an hour."[7] - -[Footnote 7: "The Mountains of California." John Muir.] - -[Illustration] - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - How do you suppose warm water--of all things!--could have caused - the Ice Age? This theory is one that was offered by a very eminent - geologist, Doctor Shaler, of Harvard.[8] - -[Footnote 8: "Nature and Man in America."] - - In the same book he also explains how the old men of the mountain - may have helped to make New York City, although they were never - there in their lives, of course. - - When you take up geology as a special study--I hope you will--you - will find that there were five particularly heavy snowfalls during - the long winter. But why not look it up now? If you can't do it - just get somebody else in the family to do it for you. Where is - father's college geology? In the last two of these storms Mr. - Labrador rode all over New England and clear to the sea, where he - amused himself for a long time by setting icebergs drifting out - over the Atlantic. - - How do they know about the icebergs? That's one of the interesting - things the books tell. - - These books also show how Niagara Falls acts as a great time-clock - that tells how long ago it was since the glaciers visited us. - According to the record on the "dial" it was somewhere between - 20,000 and 30,000 years ago. (Of course this isn't what _we_ would - call very close timekeeping; but remember, in the long story of the - earth even a hundred thousand years is a mere tick of the clock.) - - And the way this clock is running down shows we're going to lose - Niagara Falls in the course of time. All falls finally run down in - the same way. This is the rather flippant way my high school friend - put it: - - "First, the water falls over the waterfall; then the waterfall - falls, piece by piece, and the water falls no more. It's a sad - case." - - (You'll see what he meant, quickly enough, when you read up on - waterfalls. Your geography tells, doesn't it? Well, then, of course - _you_ know.) - - But here's a question you can answer right out of this chapter. - Which one of the illustrations shows that the mammoths and the cave - men lived on earth at the same time? - - That the mammoth was seen in the flesh by those remarkable artists - of the caves is plain, but what do you say to seeing a mammoth in - the flesh in these days? Remember the mammoths have all been dead - for thousands of years. (_Elephant_, _Mammoth_, _Siberia_.) - - What is there about the climate of Siberia that made this strange - thing possible? - - How did the mammoth get his name? Was it because he was so - big--such a "mammoth" creature?[9] - -[Footnote 9: Mammoth, you will find, comes from a word meaning "earth." -It didn't mean "big" at all at first. One of the most lovable traits -of a good dictionary, I think, is that it tells so many interesting -little stories like that about the early life of words; of their days -of adventure, so to speak, when there was no telling _how_ they would -come out.] - - How did the mammoths compare in size with the elephants of to-day? - - Which was the bigger, the mastodon or the mammoth? - - Did we ever have mastodons in North America? And were there - mammoths, too? - - If you want to see more about what the travelling menageries - of the days before the Ice Age looked like hunt up these - words: _Archelon_, _dinosaur_, _ceratosaurus_, _diplodocus_, - _stegosaurus_, _triceratops_. - - See what the geography says about the manufacturing towns of New - England and how many of them have water power. - - In that remarkable little book by Grant Allen[10] already referred - to in the H. & S. at the end of Chapter I, on page 139, you will - find what the Ice Age had to do with the fact that the rabbits of - Canada and our northern border States wear white clothes in winter, - while Br'er Rabbit of our Middle and Southern States keeps his - yellow-brown suit on all the year. - -[Footnote 10: "Colin Clout's Calendar."] - - And on page 204 how a little plant, whose old home was in the - Arctics, got stranded on an English hilltop among the mossy clefts - of weathered granite, and how the beautiful lady who has a little - flower named after her slipper (we all know that slipper) is - leaving England because the climate is too mild! - -[Illustration: THE SUMMER PASTURES ON THE JUNGFRAU - - Here are some of those Swiss cattle in their summer pastures. - Doesn't look much like summer, does it? But there's one thing - besides the cattle that tells. See that stretch of snow all by - itself? That's a snow-bank which has escaped the summer sun because - it is protected by the ravine in which it lies. All around it the - ground is bare of snow. -] - - - - - CHAPTER III - - (MARCH) - - With rushing winds and gloomy skies - The dark and stubborn Winter dies; - Far off, unseen, Spring faintly cries, - Bidding her earliest child arise. - - --_Bayard Taylor._ - - -THE SOUL OF THE SPRING AND THE LANDS OF ETERNAL SNOW - -And that's how the Old Men of the Mountain visited us in the Ice Age -and what they did and how they did it. But now that they have all -been back home so long don't you think it would be nice and polite -to return the call--especially when you remember all they did for us, -making beautiful lakes and rivers and waterfalls and mountain scenery? - - -I. Springtime in the Alps - -The best time to do this would be in the spring, because then the -kingdom of the glaciers is most beautiful, and the spirit of a -glorious new world, just waking up, is abroad everywhere. The glaciers -themselves seem to feel so good about it that they start to sing. And -like the birds, their joyous springtime mood responds to the quick -changes of sun and shade. In our own land when the sky grows cloudy, -even for a short time as you may have noticed, birds stop singing. -Then when the sky clears they start up again. But, up here in the Alps -in the spring when the birds are singing among the mountain meadows, -the glaciers, at whose feet these meadows lie, do the very same thing. -The songs of the birds are various, and the song of the same bird will -differ at different times of day, but the song of the glacier is always -the same--a pleasant dreamy tune between the murmur of little voices -and the tinkle of distant bells. - -The very rocks that the glacier carries on its back seem to catch the -spirit of the springtime; for, when the weather is bright, they go -strolling. And when they do they remind us a little of that painting -by Franz Hals, "The Laughing Cavalier," for they apparently wear a big -broad-brimmed hat cocked jauntily on one side. - -[Illustration: UP WHERE THE GLACIERS GROW - - Here we are, looking down on the roof of the Alps--from a - flying-machine, let us say. The sky-line used to be more like the - ridge of a house, straight across. In the course of the ages the - glaciers and the weather have cut down the softer rock, leaving - those peaks. At the top are the snow-fields. Farther down the - glaciers begin to form. Still farther down, where the glaciers have - begun to melt, you can see a stream--its waters have taken white in - the picture because of the foam and the ground-up rock in it called - "rock flour"--falling into the woods below, the "timber line" - of your geography. Ruskin has a wonderful word-picture of these - mountain streams in his "Modern Painters." The index of any edition - will tell you where. -] - - -THE MAN WHO DISCOVERED THE ICE AGE - -The Alps are the most famous of all the homes of the glaciers, not -only because of the great number of the glaciers and the beauty of -the scenery, but because it was in the Alps that Agassiz, living in a -little stone hut among the mountains, studied the glaciers and their -ways and proved that it was these strange creatures of snow and ice -that had come down during the Ice Age and worked such marvellous -changes on the face of the earth. In the Alps, just as Muir found them -doing among the glaciers of Alaska, the flowers bloom at the very edge -of the snow line. And they come on much more rapidly than they do in -temperate climates. As fast as the snow melts back blossoms just cover -the meadows thick with the deepest, richest colors--blue, red, white, -yellow, purple, and every shade of these. Some of these flowers are -as pure white as the snows. The queen of beauty among them all, many -think, is the Alpine rose. In that pure, clear air its color seems -actually to glow like the famous peak, the Jungfrau, at sunrise. - -[Illustration: LOUIS AGASSIZ - -The great teacher who discovered the Ice Age.] - -One little flower is in such a hurry, so afraid it will miss the first -May party, that it blooms under the ice and melts its own way right up -through. Then it calls to the bees and the butterflies, in the way that -flowers have: - -"Good morning! It's spring, and here I am again and how do you do? Come -and kiss me!" - -The soldanella grows among the thick pebble beds and the big boulders -right on the edges of the glaciers. It is a member of the primrose -family. It may be pink, white, or blue. The blue flowers are most -common. But blue, pink, or white, these baby bells are always born -twins; two sisters side by side on the same stalk, showing their dear -fairy faces just above those layers of ice. They are such delicate -little things you wonder how they can ever stand it. But ice, pshaw, -they don't mind it at all. - - -BLUSHING A WAY THROUGH THE ICE - -If you are a bashful boy or girl you can understand how the Misses -Soldanella have been able, in spite of their icy covering, to get here -to greet us on this lovely May morning. You know how warm your face -feels when you blush. It seems to be somewhat the same way with all -flowers when they blush into bloom. The blossom becomes quite a little -warmer than any other part of the plant. It is the heat of the growing -buds and, still more, the heat of the blossoms that melts a passage for -the Soldanellas through the ice, for they often blossom before they get -above the ice at all. - -The higher we climb the brighter the flowers, and they grow in thicker -masses, and each kind spreads out into larger fields than they did -where we came from down below--great belts of blue gentians, whole -fields of golden yellow globe flowers. You'd hardly expect this, would -you? And you'll be still more surprised at the reason. Did you notice, -as shown in their pictures, that the Soldanellas have only the bees for -their callers? Just look if you can see any bees where we are now. Not -a bee. But butterflies everywhere. And that's the answer. The flowers -of the upper meadows are brighter, grow thicker and spread wider--all -on account of the butterflies; to get the butterfly "trade." - - -WHY THE BEES GET OUT OF BREATH - -Bees can't climb to such heights because the air is very thin, and, -therefore, harder to fly in. Remember their little bodies are heavy -and their wings are small. They get out of breath, like a fat man with -short legs working his way up Pike's Peak. The butterflies, on the -other hand, have small bodies and large wings, and so have the meadows -of the higher Alps all to themselves. That the flowers here look so -brilliant is partly due to the thinness and clearness of the air and -partly to the disposition of the butterflies. A bee is all business, -because she has so many mouths to feed at home, and is laying up honey -for the days of the long winter. Mr. and Mrs. Butterfly, on the other -hand, are gay and carefree society people. - -"We have no family waiting to be fed, so why worry?" This is the -butterfly philosophy. Only a sip of nectar now and then for their -personal wants; for the rest of the day the merry air dance, here, -there, everywhere! They flit long distances without lighting. To -attract the bee's attention a blossom need be neither large nor bright, -as the bee goes straight from flower to flower, wasting no time in -aimless flights. But to catch the eye of the butterfly the flowers -must be brilliantly colored and grow in large masses. So up in the -butterfly zone only brilliant flowers, and those having the habit of -growing in groups produce seed and have descendants. Those that dress -plainly and are not fond of company die out. - -[Illustration: HOW THE SOLDANELLA SISTERS GOT TO THE MAY-PARTY THROUGH -THE SNOW] - -Now didn't it turn out just as I said; that the butterflies themselves -help brighten the flowers that grow among these ice fields? I have -something else quite as curious to tell you: _Both the Alpine -butterflies and the flowers were left over from the Ice Age._ Not in -the same sense that we pebbles were, for we are the identical little -passengers who rode in on the ice trains, and the life of a butterfly, -as every one knows, is very short. So is that of a flower. Yet suppose -you found that the only other butterflies and flowers like these are -found, not among the flowers and butterflies in the lands lower down -in the Alps but up toward the Arctic Zone, in Finland and Lapland; in -the snow regions of mountains in the temperate zone all over the world? -It would look very much as if these flowers and butterflies, or their -ancestors, had been left behind there some time or other, wouldn't it? -This is what the men of science think, and they reason about it in this -way: - - -HOW THE BUTTERFLIES MISSED THE TRAIN - -As the glaciers spread downward from the Far North in the Ice Age they -brought all their home things with them--climate, plants, insects, -animals. Plant and animal life was driven step by step before the -advancing ice. Then, as the ice melted, flowers, butterflies, and all -followed their natural climate back. But those that lingered too long -in the meadows around the mountain tops could not cross the hot summer -plains that now lay between them and the retiring ice sheet; for plants -and animals that are used to cold can't stand the heat any more than -those from the tropics can stand the cold. So only the flowers and -butterflies remained in the temperate zone that found their natural -climate among the mountain peaks and stayed there. - -Near the top of Mount Washington, the highest peak in New Hampshire, is -a colony of the descendants of these butterfly pilgrims from the north -who never leave their high and wind swept meadows. There are no such -butterflies in the hills and plains below, but go into Labrador and you -will see plenty of them. - - -LEFT-OVER PIECES OF THE ICE AGE - -Of course you understood all along that these aren't the very same -butterflies that came with the glaciers, yet in shady glens in high -mountains, where the snow never melts, people do sometimes find masses -of ice, which, there is every reason to believe, have been there since -the Ice Age. And sometimes thick veins of ice, buried hundreds of feet -under pebbles, boulders and soil, are struck in sinking wells. These -are known as ice wells; huge ice water tanks that never need filling! - - -II. A Little Visit with the Glaciers - -But if the ice masses in the shady glens and under the old moraines -may be said to be pieces of the Ice Age left over, the glaciers of -to-day are, in a sense, the Ice Age itself. For these glaciers do, on a -smaller scale, what Mr. Labrador and his partners in northern America, -Europe, and Asia did on a large scale so many centuries ago. Suppose -now, like Agassiz, we trace a glacier to its source. It will be a long -journey, all steep, some of it almost straight up, and along chasms of -slippery ice with sudden storms that hide the chasms and blind your -eyes and take away your breath. The first part of our journey is over -a field of ice, gray with the dirt of weathered rock from the mountain -sides. Along its borders are those sharp-edged stones neatly packed in -rows, that our geography tells us are called "lateral moraines." It -has another row of these stones sticking up right in the middle of its -back, like the sharp-pointed vertebræ of the ceratosaurus. - -By noon, as often happens in the Alps as elsewhere at this time of -year, a rain comes up and we lunch under the shelter of a tumbled heap -of rocks. Watching the downpour drift across the desolate wastes we -think what jolly times like this Agassiz and his companions had in -their little hall of science under the big stone. After lunch we start -again, and although it's stiff going, and it takes a lot of this thin -air to make one good breath, we spare a little, now and then, for -shouting, to hear the wonderful play of the echoes among the mountains. -We go through all kinds of weather--rain, mist, snow. Then suddenly we -burst into blinding light. The sun is so dazzling on the snow, now no -longer covered with dirt and mountain débris, that we must all put on -our colored glasses. In some places, among bare rocks that absorb the -sun's heat, it is positively sultry. - -The fields around us look like an ocean turned to stone. Waves are -formed in the surface ice of the glacier because surface ice moves -faster than the main mass beneath. On the bordering mountain walls the -ice rises into still greater waves "foaming about the feet of the dark -central crests like the surf of enormous breakers." And this great, -still image of the parent sea, from which the air currents carried the -moisture that made it, has eddies and whirlpools, and like the troubled -sea, "whose waters cast up mire and dirt," the glacier, where it swirls -along its shores, works pebbles and dirt to the surface. Often this -material is carried into the centre of a whirl, as sea weeds and the -rubbish of the seashore are driven into eddies among the rocks. - -Somebody must have been here just ahead of us. Isn't that a dark glove -over there? We come closer. What at a distance seems to be a glove -proves to be a hole in the ice so deep it looks dark. Lying flat and -carefully peering over the edge we look into something strangely -beautiful--an ice palace, with icicles in fantastic groups hanging -from the roof. Through this roof the sun comes in delicate floods of -pale green light, the combination of the yellow rays with the blue of -the ice. We drop pebbles into the hole. They rattle down and down with -long, dull echoes, dying away. We can hear the murmur of running water. -Gusts of cold air come up that bite like the wind on a sharp winter day. - -These underground palaces of art start as great cracks in the ice, -called "crevasses," from a French word meaning a crevice. They can -usually be seen plainly as yawning chasms, but sometimes are so bridged -over by the snows that a small, dark hole is all you see. And we might -not see that in time. This would be very bad, for these snow bridges -are often quite thin. One might like to go down in a crevasse and -explore about in this beautiful dream world--but not when one wasn't -looking! - -Even when one _is_ looking and is as careful as can be it's dangerous. -But still you may be sure that the famous men who have studied glaciers -have done it, for every true man of science likes to get at the bottom -of things. It was Agassiz who first went down in this way into the -heart of a glacier. It was while he was making his studies in the Alps, -and he came very near being drowned in one of the streams that always -flow at the bottom of a crevasse, for these crevasses, breaking up the -ice, increase the rate of melting. (You know broken ice will not keep -so well as a big block.) - -[Illustration: WHAT TWO BOYS SAW IN THE FAIRYLAND OF ICE - - When you have read John Muir's story of how he climbed down into - a crevasse in California in his shirt-sleeves (see H. & S.) you - will know that he was the other of the "two boys" I refer to, one - of them being Louis Agassiz, whose adventure in this fairy iceland - down in the glaciers is told in this chapter. Don't look dangerous - at a distance, do they, those crevasses? Remind one of the crimps - in a Christmas pie. But notice the difference when you get up close - to one of them in the next picture. -] - - -BUT THESE SCIENTISTS WILL BE BOYS - -Agassiz had been lowered by a rope. When his feet suddenly plunged into -the icy stream his shout for help was misunderstood by his friends and -he was lowered still further. His second cry, which you may be sure -promptly followed the first, showed that something had gone wrong -and he was drawn out. The worst of it was that coming up he had to -steer his course among those huge icicles, any one of which, being -worn away or broken loose by the friction of the rope and striking his -head, would probably have killed him. But they are always doing things -like that--these men of science. They keep on being as curious and -enthusiastic about the things they are interested in as any boy. - -[Illustration: THOSE LITTLE CURVED LINES WHEN YOU GET UP CLOSE - - This is what those little curved lines are--really; great yawning - chasms in the ice. The sun is shining from the left; a morning - sun, probably, as those tourists are out for a walk. This scene - must be pretty well down the glacier's course, far from the upper - fields, for you see these people are just in ordinary dress--not in - the dress of mountain-climbers, with ropes and Alpine stocks and - everything. -] - -It is perfectly safe to climb glaciers as we are doing--in a book--but -they are really ticklish things to go about on, as well as down into. -To find out all the interesting things you can so easily get through -pictures and the printed page took years of skillful study, ingenuity, -and endless patience and much courage. What a little further on in -this chapter you will learn about the movements of glaciers in seven -minutes, it took Agassiz seven long years to find out and make sure of. -To Agassiz more than to any other one man the world owes the tremendous -idea of the Ice Age and its story. His home among the glaciers of these -Alps--named playfully by the devoted scholars who worked with him the -"Hôtel des Neuchatelois"--was a rude shelter under a projecting rock. -The results of this long study he published in a work in two volumes, -and so made known the great facts he had found and the theory about an -Ice Age which he based upon them and which is now everywhere accepted. -He became professor of geology at Harvard University and as famous a -teacher as he was a student of nature. After his great and useful life -was ended he was buried in his adopted land with a boulder from the -site of the little stone hut on the glacier for his monument. - - -III. The Soul of the Glacier - -Many of the fellow-countrymen of Agassiz, the peasants of the Swiss -Alps, believe the glacier is a living thing and has a soul. In the -spring the peasants take their sheep and cattle into the high meadows -called "alps," from which the mountains get their name, and remain -there until fall with the glaciers all around them. There are nearly -2,000 glaciers in the Alps, varying from less than a mile to over ten -miles in length, and from a few hundred feet to a mile in breadth. So -the peasants have every opportunity to get acquainted with their big -white neighbors. - -"The glacier has a soul," they say, "and a voice, many voices. -Sometimes he groans. This is when he is in pain. Listen!" - - -SOUNDS THAT GIVE ONE THE "CREEPS" - -We do hear a sound very like a groan. Even experienced mountain -climbers can hardly keep down a "creepy" feeling when they hear it. -This sound is made when the ice is cracking into a crevasse and while -it is enlarging. These crevasses are formed by various strains in -the ice as it moves along. So long as the strain which caused them -continues the crevasses keep widening. The "groans" may be said to be -"growing pains." - -In some places you hear a constant roaring sound. The peasants are not -superstitious about this sound however. They know it is made by what -they call the "moulins" or mills of the glacier. Water, melting on the -surface, makes streams. These, running together, make a larger stream. -This stream, coming to a crack in the ice where a crevasse is just -beginning, pours down, hollows out a little shaft and joins streams in -the interior of the glacier, like that in which Agassiz took a bath -when he didn't want to. The noise of the water, striking far below, -comes up through the shaft, as a voice comes up through a speaking -tube. But the crack into which the water falls must be very narrow, so -that the water can melt both walls and thus form a shaft; otherwise it -merely glides down the nearer wall and makes no sound. - - -NOISES WE PEBBLES HELP MAKE - -Where two ice rivers emptying into a main stream come together you -hear a constant dull rattle and rumble. This is made by the blocks of -stone and trains of pebbles that have ridden in on the backs of the two -glaciers thus going into partnership, falling between the glaciers at -the point where they come together. The stones that do not fall over -are brought together in the centre of the glacier and so make that -spiny backbone of his, the "medial moraine." The rows of stones on the -two sides of the glacier, called the "lateral moraines," have fallen -piece by piece from the mountain walls as the glacier moved along -between them. - -But the strangest thing about the voices of the glaciers I have yet to -tell. Whenever the sun is shining brightly, as I have said, and the -gentians and the globe flowers open their petals and the birds start -the chorus of the day, the glacier begins singing, too, humming to -itself a pleasant tune. When the sky grows cloudy, even for a short -time, the birds stop singing, the flowers cover their faces, the bees -and butterflies hurry to shelter, and the glacier's song gradually dies -away. Any cloud may bring rain, as far as the flowers and the bees and -the butterflies know, and, for the same reason, the winged people hurry -to cover because they don't want to get their wings wet. The flowers -hide their faces to keep the rain from washing their pollen away, and -the birds stop singing because, like the rest of us, they don't feel so -cheerful under gloomy skies. But the glacier, why does he stop singing -too? Because that murmuring tinkle you heard was made by the water -melting on the glacier and running into rivulets a little way under its -surface. When the sun stops shining the surface ice stops melting, the -water gradually quits running and the murmur of the song dies away. - -[Illustration: ON THE ROOF OF THE ANDES, WHERE IT'S TOO COLD TO GROW -GLACIERS] - -It is because of these queer human habits of the glacier and, above -all, his sensitive response to the moods of days and seasons, that -many of the mountain people insist he is not only a living creature, -but that he has a soul. We think of all this now as the western sun -drops behind the snowy summits, the glacier's song grows silent, and -we hear, mingling with the vespers of the birds, voices echoing from -crag to crag the words of the psalm, "Praise ye the Lord." These are -the voices, of the herdsmen speaking to each other from alp to alp--the -evening call to prayer. - - -IV. How the Snow Men, the Glaciers, and the Rocks Go Walking - -Now that we have learned how glaciers, wild flowers, and butterflies -get up into this high world, by climbing up here ourselves in the -beautiful springtime, the next thing, I suppose, is to climb down -again. But first just look over the edge here and you can get some -notion of how high we are, not merely in feet and figures, as we have -it in the table of mountain heights in our geography, but in _actual -feeling_. - -"What are those little blocks, all ruled off like a chessboard, away -down there?" - -"Those are the little Swiss farms with the gray roads between." - -"And those small white things among the farms that look like pieces of -grit?" - -"Those are the Swiss villages." - -"And the black specks on the slopes of the mountain?" - -"Those are tourists with their guides, coming up. People, no doubt, -whom we should like to know, but we shall have an interesting new -acquaintance travelling down with us. You've met some of his family, no -doubt, for he's an ice man. There are several of these ice men always -travelling down on the glaciers." - -[Illustration: THE OLD MAN OF BALISTAN - - Where would you say, judging from the head-dress of the man in the - middle, this scene is located? Somewhere in Asia, wouldn't you? For - in Asia the natives, particularly the Mahometans, wear turbans, as - you would learn by simply looking up "turban" in a dictionary. And - wouldn't those summer helmets lead you to suppose that this is a - hot climate, in spite of the great ice-pillar and the snow-field? - And don't those helmets suggest Englishmen? Now, where in Asia - would you find vast mountains, a hot climate, Mahometans, and - Englishmen together? Yes, to be sure, in the Himalayas of India. - And that's just where an expedition of English scientists came - across this grotesque creature of stone and ice one summer day, - on a glacier in Balistan. So I just called him "The Old Man of - Balistan." -] - -You'll know one of them the moment you see him, for they are -queer-looking fellows with only one leg--or rather one leg at a -time--and they wear big stone hats. They never go walking without them. -They can't. - -[Illustration: LOOKS LIKE A BROTHER, BUT HE'S NO RELATION - - This "old man" is a creature, not of the snows but of the winds. - The capstone--apparently conglomerate, it looks so rough and - pebbly--tumbled down from the mountains once upon a time and found - a resting place on a bed of softer rock, a section of which became - separated from the mass on either side by those earth cracks called - "joints." Then the winds and other instruments of weathering got - their fingers in these cracks, wore the neighboring sections away, - and left this pillar standing. It is broader at the bottom because - the winds, checked by the obstacles on the ground, didn't strike - with such force as they did higher up. -] - -To the group of boys and girls to whom I first told these stories of -my life and adventures nothing was more interesting than this account -of the ice men who walk. On that occasion I called them snow men -because the boys had just been making a snow man, and these ice men up -here, like the glaciers on which they always travel, are made of snow -turned to ice. You have heard the expression "clothes make the man," -but in the case of these men of the snows it is literally true, so far -as their hats are concerned, for it is their hats that make them grow. - -"I bite," said the High School Boy, "what's the answer?" - -[Illustration: CAN YOU SOLVE THIS PICTURE PUZZLE?] - -For reply I roughly sketched the picture at the top of the page. From -this hint my audience thought out the answer for themselves. See if you -can do so before you learn, in the next few paragraphs, what the answer -is. - -It comes about like this. One day we see a big stone lying on the -glacier, and when we come that way again several days later this same -stone is standing on a tall pillar of ice. We notice the stone hat is -tilted forward a little, apparently to shade this queer man's face, -which is always turned directly toward the sun. It sits jauntily on one -side--this hat of his--as if he were feeling particularly contented -with himself and the world on this sunny day and had started for a -stroll. - -And it really is because the sun is so bright that the hat is tipped. -Moreover it is because of the sunshine that the man takes a stroll. If, -after more days of sunshine, we return we see the same stone further -down the slope of the glacier and apparently standing on the same leg. - -"But does he or it actually walk on that leg?" - -(The audience, who at first thought I was joking, had begun to believe -I was in earnest.) - -Yes, that leg and others. Before this Alpine tourist ends his travels -down to the valleys below he may have, all told, as many legs as a -centipede, but only one at a time. Like the legs of the amœba and the -claws of the crab they are renewed as wanted. A big stone falling from -the mountain side upon a glacier protects the ice beneath from the -sun's rays, so, as the ice melts down around it, the stone is left -standing on a pillar. These "glacier tables" (to use the scientific -term) are formed on the south sides of glaciers where there is the most -sun. Owing to the slant of the rays the rock is heated most on the -south end and so tips in that direction more and more. Finally it falls -off and, in so doing, pitches farther down the slope. Then a new pillar -is formed and the whole process is gone through again. - -(If we should get lost up here any one of these snow men will tell us -the way out. The snow man's hat, for the reason stated, always tips -toward the south.) - -The stones of the winter lands are not only like human beings in the -fact that they walk, but like _little_ human beings in the fact that -when they are small they can't. In one of the pictures I drew for the -boys and girls--that representing the ice pillar from which the stone -has slipped--you may be able to make out a little pebble. It got a -ride because it was hiding under the big stone. Left to itself "it -wouldn't have a leg to stand on," as the saying goes, for small stones -are heated through by the sun and so sink down into the ice and form no -"legs." - -[Illustration: - - _From a photograph copyrighted by Merl La Voy_ - - THE RUSH OF THE AVALANCHE - - It's seldom you can get a snap-shot at an avalanche--it's so - sudden! Then, when you do get one you must be an expert or your - picture will be a blur. This picture was taken by Merl La Voy. An - interesting thing about it is that the scene is on Mount McKinley, - which, as your geography will tell you, is the highest mountain - in North America. The avalanche started near the top, where the - greatest fields of loose snow lie. We see it in the act of plunging - into a vast crevasse several miles below, and sending up clouds of - snow. They look like steam. -] - - -MR. GLACIER'S CATERPILLAR TRACTOR - -"The glaciers," says Reclus, "seem as motionless as the peaks that -tower above them." Nevertheless, as we know, they do move. While the -motion is in so many respects like that of a river that glaciers are -often called "ice rivers," they have motions and, so to say, "methods" -that curiously suggest the inventions of men. Take, for example, the -way they climb down a steep hill; for all the world like the "tanks" in -the Great War. The tanks, you remember, made nothing of shell holes, -rough country, ravines, or trenches, but lumbered and crushed their -way along, resistless as the Fates. And, you may also recall, the -tanks moved by laying sections of themselves--the great cleats on the -outside belt--which they picked up again, as they advanced. This was -called the "caterpillar tractor" system of travelling. - -Now watch the glacier when it comes to an incline much steeper than its -ordinary slope. It breaks across in sections at right angles to its -bed, and section after section drops down. Then the forward sections -crowded upon by those in the rear are pushed up close, freeze together -again, and on goes the glacier as good as new. - -As a traveller, however, it is a little slow. It made faster time in -the old days--in the Ice Age--when glaciers were so much larger, but -to-day, at the rate at which ordinary glaciers travel, it may take a -boulder as big as Plymouth Rock something like a hundred years to be -carried from the upper fields to the heap of stones and soil which your -geography calls a "terminal moraine," and where Mr. Glacier says: - -"All out! Far as we go." - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - How would you like to go to school to the pretty Misses Soldanella? - They can teach you a lot about botany. If you learn what an unusual - thing they do with their leaves, for instance, that will lead - you to follow up leaves in general. Leaves are wonderful things. - Indeed, it isn't often you find the leaf of a book that will tell - you half as much as the leaf of a plant, if you only know how to - read it. - - In Grant Allen's "Flash Lights on Nature," you will find that the - Soldanella sisters store food in their leaves all winter just as we - put things away in the cellar, and how this helps them get up so - early in the spring; why the fact that the little sisters are not - very tall makes them hurry so; and why if they _didn't_ hurry they - wouldn't get to the party at all! - - What other members of the primrose family do you know? - - See what you can find about our earliest flowers--hepatica, - bloodroot, dog-toothed violet, jack-in-the-pulpit, Dutchman's - breeches, anemones. - - If you will examine closely many early spring buds and - flowers--especially those like the willow and hazel catkins--you - will find that they too keep warm and grow in the early spring, not - from the warmth of the sun alone but from the fuel they have laid - up in their buds. - - Did you know that to see the very first flowers of all in the - spring you must look up--away above your head? (_Maple._) - - Any good book on Alaska will tell a number of striking things about - how rapidly spring comes on in the lands where glaciers grow. - - Get Muir's "Mountains of California" and hear him tell about how he - went down into a crevasse in his shirt-sleeves, and of the fairy - underworld he found there, and how he hated to come away. - - Reclus[11] tells how the glaciers not only come down to call on the - farmers, sometimes, but even help them pick cherries! - -[Footnote 11: "The Earth."] - - I suppose the children who go to the excellent Swiss schools take - delight in telling grandmother that Mr. Glacier isn't really a - person--as he is in the tales of the winter fireside--but wouldn't - both grandmother and the children open their eyes if they knew that - in Greenland there is a glacier so big it feeds itself and makes - its own snow and its own storms and everything? Hobb's "The Face of - the Earth" tells all about it. - - And the Encyclopædia Britannica and Hobbs together will tell you - how to make a good glacier. There are a half-dozen things you must - remember or your glacier won't turn out right. (1) You must take - plenty of snow; (2) and keep it in a cool place; (3) but you must - warm it a little too, once in a while; (4) your mountain gorges - must not be too steep; (5) you must have your mountains set just - so; (6) and distribute your storms with care. By doing all these - things you get fine, durable glaciers, 100 to 200 feet thick, - sometimes 500 and even 1,000 feet thick. But you must be careful, - and, of course, it takes time. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - (APRIL) - - Now the noisy winds are still; - April's coming up the hill! - All the spring is in her train, - Led by shining ranks of rain. - - --_Mary Mapes Dodge._ - - -THE APRIL RAINS AND THE WORK OF THE RIVERS - -I always liked the little boy's definition of a river system. "Rivers -that empty into other rivers that empty into other rivers that empty -into the sea." - -What is still more interesting, the sea at the same time is emptying -into the rivers; for the waters of all the lands and the waters of all -the seas, are one, and what the rivers give to the sea the sea returns -in the rain clouds that are blown landward by the winds. The Earth's -waters are thus always in circulation like the blood in our bodies. In -making this endless circuit they do an immense amount of useful and -beautiful work, and have many strange and curious ways of doing it. -It's a great family affair of the Waters people. Everybody has a hand -in it, from the baby rill that toddles across the country road, the -brook it meets in the meadow, the creek that runs through the wood, -and the river into which it flows, to the greater river which carries -forward these mingled waters to the sea. - -[Illustration: THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM] - - -I. What I Brought Back from the Creek - -I met a rain-drop once that had followed the thing through, starting -where a little creek began, and got such a load of information I could -hardly carry it, about the wonderful part the rivers take and have -taken in the making and remaking of the world. - -We see the April rains carve fairy canyons in the soft clay of the -roadside or the creek, but it is hard to realize, as we stand on some -pinnacle of the Alps and look out over the deep and wide valleys, the -gorges, the cliffs, and mountains cut in two, that all are but the -handiwork of the rain-drops banded together as flowing waters. For -a long time this was questioned by scientific men, because the idea -so upset the old theory that great changes in this world of ours came -about all of a sudden and from causes not at work in these days. Now, -however, nobody doubts that the big things are done by the little -people, working together over long periods of time; little snowflakes, -little rain-drops, little cells in plants. As a result, the Alps, so -far as the expression of their faces is concerned, are as little like -the Alps of the past as the face of the old farm of to-day is like the -farm of those ancient yesterdays, when the brontosaurus browsed where -old Dobbin is nipping the meadow grass and the mammoth ate the leaves -of trees that stood where White Face is thoughtfully chewing her cud in -the shade. - -[Illustration: HOW THEY STUDY GEOGRAPHY IN BOSTON - - This is what, in the Boston schools, they call an "umbrella party." - "Umbrella party" sounds much more attractive than "geography - lesson," but as a matter of fact it is a geography lesson and a - fine one. As soon as they get off that brick pavement the boys and - girls will see those rain-drops cutting out little Mississippi - River systems, filling little Great Lakes, plunging over Niagaras - two inches high! -] - -Right where you sit reading, perhaps, the land used to be buried two -miles deep beneath rocks which have been worn away by wind and rain and -by rivers which vanished long ago. Everything has been so changed that -if the old scenery should be put back you would be lost right on the -home farm. - - -WHERE YOU CAN JUMP ACROSS THE MISSISSIPPI - -Wrinkles in the earth and in the mountainsides make the first troughs -for the streamlets and the rivers, and then the running water itself -digs these natural channels deeper. Many rivers begin as streamlets -flowing out of springs. The great Mississippi began as a baby, just -like the rest of us. You can jump across it still if you go up to -its source. Springs not only start rivers in life but go on feeding -them. Most large river systems get secret gifts in this way, as they -flow along, from thousands of springs that empty into them or their -tributaries. - -So springs start and feed the rivers. Now what do you suppose starts -the springs? Rain-drops stored away in big stone "safes," much as a -small boy stores away pennies in his tin bank! The water of rains and -melting snows, passing down through the soil, soaks into the little -chambers or pores in such rocks as sandstone and limestone, and keeps -going on down until it comes to a bed of hard stone, such as slate or -granite, into which it cannot soak. - -[Illustration: THE SPRING WHEN EMPTY] - -[Illustration: THE SPRING WHEN FULL] - - THIS SPRING PLAYS IT'S A TOWN PUMP - - These two pictures show an intermittent spring about five miles - from Singer Glenn, Virginia, and there called the "Tide Spring." - You can see where the idea of the tide comes in, but can you think - why the spring seems to have a tide system all its own? You know - what a siphon is. Well, think how a kind of siphon might be formed - in rock, dissolved out by water flowing underground. Then look at - the picture on the next page. - -Now rock-beds, as you know, have a slope--some more, some less--owing -to the wrinkling of the earth's crust. So the water, slowly trickling -through the porous rock, forms a steady stream which runs down along -the hard rock, as rain runs down a roof, and finally gushes out at some -lower level. - -[Illustration: HOW THE LITTLE SPRING WORKS ITS PUMP - - This is how the pump of an intermittent spring is worked. Some - portions of rock are dissolved by underground waters more readily - than others and so cavities are sometimes formed, as shown. As - long as the water in the reservoir is below the arch of the - siphon-shaped outlet no water escapes, but as soon as it rises to - the level of the arch the whole of the water is drawn off. Then - the spring ceases to flow until the reservoir fills up again. You - can empty water in the same way by using a bent tube of any kind. - Can you tell why the water flows up-hill in this way? Remember - what you know about air-pressure and then look up "siphon" in your - encyclopædia. -] - -You can be sure these companies of rain-drops, hurrying back to the -light, don't fail to notice any cracks in the rocks along the way, and -at such places they come gushing up with sparkle and dance; and the -greater the dip of the rock beds the higher they dance, of course. - -But it takes any one rain-drop so long to get back into the sunshine -after it starts on its underground journey that you'd think it would -forget how to dance at all! It isn't just the same rain-drop, to be -sure, that goes into the ground and comes out again, because the -rain-drops get all mixed up with each other as they move along, but -just imagine some one rain-drop that fell, say, on a hilltop on the day -a baby was born in a valley five miles away, where there was a spring -in a shady hollow near the baby's home. By the time that rain-drop got -down to the spring the baby would be old enough to vote! - -Yet this is a very good thing for the rivers and the rest of us--this -slow travel of the underground water, whether it comes out in springs -or simply seeps through the soil as most of that which supplies the -rivers does. Otherwise, if all the water of the rains went directly -into the rivers we would have floods after every wet spell and empty -river beds between times. - -Here's another river rebus. How do rivers grow longer at the top? All -rivers grow at their source because their headwaters eat back into the -rocks and the soil, just as the rain wears away the head of any gully. -Where the rock is soft they eat back faster. The Mohawk River in New -York State probably wouldn't have amounted to anything if it hadn't -done this very thing. From Albany westward past Utica runs a belt of -shale, a weak stone, but here so soft that the surface of it crumbles -back to clay in every winter's frost. Into this the Mohawk, which in -past ages was only a little stream, has eaten back its way until now it -is over a hundred miles long. - -But sometimes rivers are so big the very first day they come into the -world that you may say they are born half grown. You find them, among -other places, in the mountains of California. Nearly all the water -from the melting snows on Mount Shasta sinks at once into the porous -lava fields of the mountain slopes, and after wandering about in the -hidden veins comes out, filtered and cool, in the form of large springs -which make rivers that set out on their life journeys without ever -having been babies at all so far as you can see. The Shasta River is -one of these. The McCloud is another. It gushes forth suddenly from a -lava bluff in a roaring spring seventy-five yards across, two-thirds of -the width of the river in its widest part. The River Jordan in the Holy -Land begins in one of these great springs at the foot of Mount Hermon. - -[Illustration: - - _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of Ginn and - Company_ - - HOW MOST OF EUROPE'S RIVERS GET THEIR START - - Most of the important rivers of Europe start as streams of - ice-water, flowing out of glaciers. Notice the boulders along the - side of the stream. They also came out of the body of the glacier, - where, as we shall see when we take up "The Stones of the Field" - in Chapter VII, the boulders that rode south with the glaciers got - most of their roundness. -] - -We know already what a hand the glaciers had in the Ice Age in shaping -the course and conduct of rivers, and you may be sure they have -something to do with the making of rivers to-day. The under side of a -glacier gets warmed from three sources: (1) its own pressure; (2) the -friction as it moves; and (3) the heat from the inside of the earth -which, on account of this thick ice blanket, can't get away into the -air as it does elsewhere. This heat melts the ice and, as we know, -there is water melting also on the surface of glaciers and in the -crevasses. Beside all this the water of rains falls upon the glacier -so that there is plenty of water to make rivers, and we always find -streams of water running from a glacier's front. Most of the rivers of -Central Europe start in this way. - - -THE BEAUTY OF THE BRIDAL VEIL - -And, although they didn't make the rivers themselves, the Ice Age -Glaciers are held responsible for the fact that many little rivers -always have to jump to catch the train. That is to say, they come -tumbling over falls to join the larger streams into which they empty. -The reason of this is that when, in the Ice Age, the glaciers filled -the river valleys the larger glaciers in a main valley dug below the -tributary valleys and so left the mouths of the tributary rivers high -up on the main valley's walls. The famous "Bridal Veil" in the Yosemite -is one of these side valley falls. The fall--900 feet--is so great -that the water widens to a fleecy foam and waves back and forth in the -wind like a gauzy veil and, instead of a roar like Niagara, it makes a -rustling sound like silk. - -While some rivers come hurrying down like that--as if they really were -afraid the larger river would go off and leave them--others, like the -Amazon, roll on as stately as a Lord Mayor's procession. But the -waters of all are on their way to the sea. The rock layers, owing to -the wrinkling of the earth as it shrinks, are nowhere level, so flowing -water is always on a down grade, sloping toward the sea or toward other -land that does slope toward the sea. Then remember too as the sea -bottom keeps sinking the continents keep rising, which increases the -pitch of the land. - -[Illustration: JUMPING TO CATCH THE TRAIN - - See the famous Bridal Veil Falls in the Yosemite Valley hurrying - down to reach the river below. As the stream descends, it broadens - into a beautiful, filmy veil. -] - -All very simple, but none the less grand and impressive. Ruskin, in one -of the noblest of his passages, says: - -"[All water courses], from the inch-deep streamlet that crosses the -village land in trembling clearness to the massy and silent march of -the Amazon and the Ganges, owe their play and power to the ordained -elevations of the earth; [to] paths prepared for them by which at -some appointed rate of journey they must evermore descend, sometimes -slow and sometimes swift, but never pausing, the gateways of guarding -mountains opened for them in cleft and chasm, and from afar off the -great heart of the sea calling them to itself." - -That's a poetic way of putting it, but it's a fact nevertheless. - - -II. The Human Nature in Rivers - -There's a lot of human nature in rivers. To begin with, as we might -suppose, they do the most playing and the least work when they are -young. Brooks will be brooks, you know! - -What pretty ways they have in babyhood! Kissing the pebbles, crooning, -bubbling, chattering, playing, they are big Mississippis or great -oceans that, like Homer's ocean river, flow around the world. Their -bubbles are ships, sometimes wrecked on dreadful headlands along the -shores. - - -THE CHANT OF THE WATERFALLS - -Waterfalls are found only in young streams and more often as you near -the source. Older streams have worn down their beds more nearly to -a level and, as we all know, more rivers begin among the mountains -and highlands than in the lower lands. In the mountain regions there -are plenty of rocks and cliffs to jump from, and the rivers, you may -be sure, make the most of their opportunities. At such falls as the -Bridal Veil they jump so far they are turned into white cascades, and -as you climb the cliff beside them and feel the wind wafting spray in -your face you hear the music of their songs. The more or less regular -dash of the water as it swings back and forth in the wind gives that -chanting sound described in waterfall poetry. - -[Illustration: "BROOKS WILL BE BROOKS, YOU KNOW!" - - Our baby river of the meadow seems to be playing it has a Niagara - Falls of its own, "Rock of Ages" and all! See the "huge mass" of - rock at the foot of the falls; and the rapids? -] - -Like children these dancing, singing rivers love pictures and color. -You see that in the rainbow tints of the spray as the sunlight strikes -the air bubbles the waterfall "blows"; in the green of its waters -turned to gray in the foam; in the reflections of mountain, sky, and -cloud in the smooth stretches below the falls. - -And, like pebbles and other little people, rivers love to play in the -rain. My! What a time! In a storm, with a gray flood pouring from the -sky, you hear, mingled with the voice of wind and rain, the swash and -gurgle of the eddies as the river goes along in its dance, wild with -the joy of it all. In a mountain stream during a heavy rain, with wind, -you can also hear the waves dashing against the rocks along the shore -or in the stream, and the smothered, bumping, rumbling made by the -boulders on the bottom knocking against each other. - - -STORM CHORUS OF THE MOUNTAIN TORRENTS - -From any high place during a mountain storm you can see twenty, yes, -often a hundred torrents, and the noise of the water and the moving -stones makes a wonderful storm chorus. Reclus compares the sound made -by the stones to dull thunder. - - -WHERE TO LOOK FOR HIDING RIVERS - -Rivers, both young and old, play hide and seek. Possibly the older -rivers get to dreaming of their infancy when they were springs, and -want to play they are springs again; anyhow, they disappear in the -ground in one place and then come out laughing in another as if they -really _were_ springs! And how they must chuckle to themselves when -they fool people into thinking they are brand new rivers! This happens -sometimes, and so the river gets a different name at the place where it -comes out from the name it bears up to the point where it disappears. -Such hide-and-seek rivers are found in regions where it doesn't often -rain. The Tujunga, which you cross in going from Los Angeles to San -Francisco, is such a river. At one place in its course it comes out of -a canyon, looks around a minute, and then disappears in the pebbles, -sand and gravel of the plain. Down it goes until it reaches a bed of -hard rock. Along this underground bed it runs until it gets to a place -north of Cahuenga Peak, where it comes up in springs and flows into the -Los Angeles River. - -[Illustration: THE LOST RIVERS AND THE THOUSAND SPRINGS - - These are the waters of some hidden tributaries of the Snake - River gushing out as springs from its beautiful banks. The group - is called "The Thousand Springs," and is supposed to be the - reappearance of two "Lost Rivers" that disappeared back in the sand - wastes. -] - -Mountain lakes are where the lively little torrents stop to sleep. "The -sea," says Ruskin, "seems only to pause; the mountain lake to sleep and -to dream." - -But after this sleep how they laugh and play--those baby rivers--as -they go dancing over the pebbles and down the falls; for in these lakes -they gather themselves together into a larger volume of water, and so, -of course, flow on with increased energy. - -"As soon as a stream is fairly over the lake lip it breaks into -cascades, never for a moment halting, and scarce abating one jot of its -glad energy until it reaches the next basin. Then swirling and curving -drowsily (dropping off to sleep again!) through meadow and grove it -breaks forth anew into gray rapids and falls, leaping and gliding in -glorious exuberance of wild bound and dance down into another and yet -another lake basin."[12] - -[Footnote 12: Muir, "The Sierra Nevada Mountains."] - -Just as it is with human beings, a river seems to grow more thoughtful -and thrifty as it grows older; and, best of all, this thought and -thrift is for others--for the people of the plant world along its banks -and for its old parent, the sea. With the help of pebbles it puts money -in its savings bank and pays it out from time to time. - -In seasons of flood it carries loads and loads of pebbles along. As the -flood goes down these pebbles are dropped and covered with the sediment -that settles along its banks. Then these pebbles begin to decay and so -enrich the soil. Later along comes another flood, takes the pebbles -out of the bank, carries them farther along, and, as the waters go -down, puts them back in the bank again. In course of time this kind of -fresh food from the decaying pebbles gets carried into the sea, where -it helps to furnish food and shell material for the shell-fish and raw -material to be worked up by the sea's rock mills. - -[Illustration: WAYS OF A WANDERING RIVER] - - -III. The Machinery of the Rivers - -To do all their great part in the world's work the rivers need only -time, enthusiasm, patience, machinery, and tools. All these the rivers -have, and the machinery they use and the engineering methods they -follow are much more modern than we would suppose. Take, for example, -the way in which rivers widen their banks. The current cuts with the -greatest force on the outside of bends, and the motion and effect is -practically that of a circular saw. This sawing is done on the largest -scale where the current meanders. Swinging from side to side it cuts -away both banks. - -And what it cuts away it spreads over the valley by its back-and-forth -motion, much as men spread dirt with scrapers when they are grading a -road. - -That's how crooked rivers make broad valleys. But they have to have the -help of us pebbles, too. We're hard to get along without! Notice, the -next time the river or the creek is up, the rolling, hopping motion of -the pebbles as they are carried along by the rushing water. It is these -pebbles grinding on the bottom and sides of the river's bed that help -most in this kind of valley deepening and widening. In the same way we -pebbles helped dig those grand affairs, the gorges and the canyons in -the mountains. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado is a part of our work. - -In the widening of valleys the circular saws of crooked streams are -very useful, but there are other things at work. The rains dissolve -the soil and wash the banks away and slope them down; Jack Frost, with -his wedges, pries out both soil and rock; the little farmers with many -feet--the burrowing animals and insects--and the famous farmer with no -feet at all--the angleworm--loosen soil, and so help the river to carry -it away; and the ice, when the river breaks up in the spring, chisels -off the banks as it passes. - -[Illustration: HOW RIVERS BUILD STONE BRIDGES - - Natural bridges are made by the same agency that forms the - intermittent springs--the dissolving power of water--and, like the - springs, are characteristic of limestone regions because limestone - is readily dissolved in water. In the little model of a limestone - region "a" and "a" are "sink-holes"--saucer-shaped hollows - dissolved and washed into funnels through which the surface water - joins underground streams such as you see flowing beneath the two - "bs," which are natural bridges in the making. - - The lower picture shows just how one of the bridge-builders looks - while at work, dissolving and wearing down the rock. The next two - pictures will help tell you two other ways in which rivers make - their own bridges. -] - -If you have ever been in a machine-shop you must have noticed how a -planing-mill works away on a job it has been set to do, without anybody -watching it at all; and when it gets done with its job it stops, all -by itself. Such machinery is called "automatic," because, to a certain -extent, it runs its own affairs. A river, in planing down and reshaping -valley scenery, has an automatic stop. When it has cut its valley down -to sea level it stops, because, being then no higher than the sea, it -can no longer flow toward it. - -[Illustration: AFTER A FEW CUPS OF TEA - - When winding rivers get a few cups of tea--that is, are in - flood--they rush straight ahead and, while much of the water may - for a time still go on around the bend, some of it is forced - through openings in the rock and in time carves out a bridge. How - they do this is shown in the upper diagram on page 83. -] - -But before this automatic stop shuts off their machinery the work that -rivers do is immense. The Mississippi River carries enough solid matter -to the Gulf every year to make a mountain a mile square and 268 feet -high. - -[Illustration: YOU KNOW THIS BRIDGE, OF COURSE - - The Natural Bridge of Virginia is an example of still another style - of river bridge-building. This bridge used to be part of the roof - of a cave and remained after the rest of the roof fell in. -] - -When ordinary people want to cross a mountain they have to climb over -it. But do you know what a river does? It cuts its way right through -and makes what is called a water-gap--a great gate of stone that is -always open and through which the stream forever flows. All the river -used was tools and time. The tools were the sand and pebbles it swept -along. So in the course of ages, running like a band saw, the Potomac -made the water-gap at Harper's Ferry, the Delaware River the Delaware -Water-Gap. - - -HOW MOUNTAINS HELP MAKE THE WATER GATES - -But how could a river do this? It couldn't flow up one side of the -mountain and down the other, could it? No, certainly not. What then? -Wherever you find a river cutting through a mountain range you may -be sure the river was there before the mountains rose, and that the -mountains rose so slowly the river kept right on in its old channel and -wore down the rock under that channel as fast as the mountains rose; -while, on either side, they could rise as high as they wanted to for -all the river cared! - - -GROWING MOUNTAINS AND THE EARTHQUAKES - -But suppose, before I had explained how water-gaps are made I had told -you I could show you a mountain growing. You wouldn't have believed -it. Regions in which mountains are still rising, as on our Pacific -Coast, are liable to earthquakes. The reason is that as mountains rise -the rock layers of which they are made are strained dreadfully. Every -once in a while they crack and the rocks on either side of this crack -grind against each other. This makes the earth shake, much as the house -shakes when a heavy table is pushed across a bare floor. - -If you want to see a job of river engineering that will make you catch -your breath, look over into some of the river canyons and gorges of the -West. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT CUMBERLAND WATER-GAP - - Here is the famous Cumberland Gap that the river cut through the - mountains; so cutting a great figure in United States history, - also, you remember. The picture shows the region as it looked in - early days. -] - -A mile isn't much straight ahead, but a mile straight down and you on -your stomach, with your eyes just over the edge--it's an _awful_ long -way! Imagine yourself looking down a wall of rock like that, and the -bottom of the abyss so far off that it looks blue--that's a canyon! - - -AND YET THAT LITTLE RIVER DID IT ALL! - -And now we are going down into the vastest canyon in the world, a -canyon so vast that it has already swallowed practically all the -words in the dictionary suitable to such scenery and still remains -undescribed--so all the skilled writers say who have tried their hands -at it. This is the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. Do you remember how -in "Alice in Wonderland" the cat disappeared and left nothing but its -smile? Well, the first time you see the Grand Canyon you feel as if it -had swallowed you and left nothing but your eyes! And when they tell -you that it was all done by that little river that you can just make -out threading its way along the bottom, you can't believe it! The total -length of the river's gorge--a canyon is just a long gorge--is some 400 -miles. The part of it known as the Grand Canyon is a yawning abyss of -stone into which the river walls widen for a distance of 42 miles. The -Lower Colorado River, that dug this chasm in the rock, flows through a -vast table-land where rain seldom falls. But the river, which rises in -the Rocky Mountains, has a constant supply of water from the mountain -rains and the melting snow. The canyons you see branching from the main -gorge in our picture were cut by the Colorado's tributaries. Working -together on different sides, they carved out those rock masses that -look like oriental temples and have been named accordingly--the temples -of Brahma, Osiris, Zoroaster, and so on. - -And here in this canyon is a splendid example of how the rivers, in -addition to all their other labors, write history. They helped to lay -down on the borders of the ancient sea the material out of which the -rocks were made. It is in the leaves in such books of stone that the -geologist reads the great events of world-making history. Moreover, the -rivers may be said to cut the leaves of the book when they dig down -through them, as in this immense library of the Grand Canyon. - -[Illustration: - - _From a photograph copyrighted by Fred Harvey_ - - AND WE PEBBLES HELPED DIG THE GRAND CANYON, TOO! - - River water alone couldn't cut those canyons--the Grand Canyon and - the rest. The Colorado and its tributaries had to have grinding - tools and the tools were the pebbles they dragged over their - rock-beds; and thus, in the course of ages, wore them down and down - and down. -] - -Busy, busy all the time--these rivers. But although they are always at -work they not only never forget to look beautiful but they beautify -everything they touch. At the outset the lines of a river valley are -rather straight and angular, as if the scenery were just being blocked -out by an artist, but as the valley grows older its slopes become more -gentle, the angles disappear into rounded forms, and the river itself -winds along in graceful lines, exactly reproducing what the great -English artist Hogarth called "the line of beauty." - -[Illustration: THAT MIGHTY RIVER IN THE MEADOWS - - Yon stream, whose sources run, - Turned by a pebble's edge, - Is Athabasca, rolling towards the sun, - Through the cleft mountain ledge. - - The slender rill had strayed, - But for the slanting stone, - To evening's ocean, with the tangled braid - Of foam-flecked Oregon. - - --Holmes. -] - -Back of all the work of the rivers from year to year and age to age, -there seems always the thought of beauty as well as the thought of use. -They are evidently under an eternal law of service, of beauty, and of -change. - - "The hills are shadows, and they flow - From form to form and nothing stands. - They melt like mists the solid lands; - Like clouds they shape themselves and go." - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - Isn't Tennyson's "Brook" a beautiful title picture of a baby river - and its ways? - - Speaking of human nature in rivers and apparent differences in - disposition, why is it that some of the rivers of California run - right through the mountain ranges from east to west--have evidently - cut their way--while others run along, meekly enough, between the - ranges? I'm sure from what we have learned about rivers that you - can tell how this happened as well as if you had been there when - the rivers were made; but if you can't think--after trying real - hard--you will find the answer in the Hide and Seek at the end of - the next chapter. - - Beside being so prominent in the literature of the Bible and - so famous in history, the River Jordan is a most curious and - interesting stream, and every child should know about it. Here are - some of the things you will find: Why it is born partly grown, and - doesn't begin as a little stream, like the Mississippi; why it may - be said to be in both the tropical and temperate zones[13]; about - its two valleys, both of which it uses at the same time.[14] - -[Footnote 13: Britannica.] - -[Footnote 14: International.] - - Another famous river over in that part of the world--it's the - biggest river in Western Asia, in fact--was born twins. See if you - can find such a river on the map. (The name of it is at the end of - the next chapter.) In the days of Alexander the Great these twin - rivers, which now unite in one after travelling along independently - for a while, were a good day's journey apart clear to the end. In - the article on this river in the Britannica, and in books of travel - you will find how, by a quaint and ingenious device, the river is - made to pump itself up hill and irrigate the fields; how history, - clear back to the beginning of civilization, is written in the - ruins of cities along its banks; how it used to put in part of its - time bounding the Roman empire, and how nowadays it is forced to - help support Arab river pirates and wild pigs. - - Now let's go over into Africa with Doctor Livingstone and see how - a river can grind out a big, deep stone jar in solid rock.[15] - Rivers grind out these _pot-holes_ much as Indian women and the - American pioneers used to grind wheat and corn. (The river, you'll - find, uses pebbles for millstones.) - -[Footnote 15: "The Expedition to the Zambesi," page 63. One of these -natural water-jars that Doctor Livingstone found was as wide as a well -and so deep it kept the water cool even under the broiling African sun.] - - And what do you think of a waterfall big enough to swallow two - Niagaras? (It's the greatest waterfall in the world; so you must - have learned its name in your geography.) It's described on page - 268 of Doctor Livingstone's book referred to in the foot-note. The - natives call it "The Fall of the Thundering Smoke." They wonder how - water can smoke, and so that you can see the "smoke" twenty miles - away. You'll wonder, too, until you learn the reason. - - - - - CHAPTER V - - (MAY) - - When April steps aside for May, - Like diamonds all the rain-drops glisten; - Fresh violets open every day; - To some new bird each hour we listen. - - --_Lucy Larcom._ - - -THE FAIRYLAND OF CHANGE - -What a wonderful world it is, this world of green fields and perfume -and blossoms of pink and gold! Where did it come from? How did it get -here out of the white winter? That bleak and barren winter that lay all -around us everywhere only a few short weeks ago? - -Just suppose we had never seen apple trees in bloom, as we are now -seeing them everywhere, and somebody should show us a little brown -seed, and a piece of bark, and a piece of root, and a green leaf, and -a blossom, and an apple, and tell us they grew out of each other--were -all made of the very same stuff. - -Well, just as sure as anything, you wouldn't believe it. I wouldn't -believe it. We simply couldn't! But we've had this sort of thing all -around us ever since we can remember, and we've got so used to it we -don't see anything wonderful about it. It _is_ wonderful just the same. -The Colossus of Rhodes, and Jupiter of Olympia, and the lighthouse of -Alexandria, and all the other Seven Wonders of the World that people -used to go so far to see, weren't anything to it. - -And to this day, how it all comes about is as much of a mystery as -ever. Yet Nature does it right before our eyes, and over and over and -over again! Even I, old as I am, and as much as I know, _I_ don't know -how she does it, but I do know how it all started; how Nature first -began to change one thing into another. It was when she began making -marbles, granites, and other kinds of rock out of other kinds. That -was ages before she changed little brown seeds into big trees with -pink blossoms and red apples on them, or little brown cocoons into big -golden butterflies, or anything like that. - - -I. In the Fairyland of Change - -Ahem! Ahem! (Pebble coughing.) - -I caught cold some several million years ago and I haven't got over it -yet. That's why I'm a granite pebble instead of a slate pebble, or a -sandstone pebble, or anything common. It's a part of the story of the -fairyland of change, this cold of mine. - -Ahem! - -Would you mind getting me a lump of sugar? I don't want it for my -cold--it never does that any good--but because a lump of sugar goes so -well with this part of my story. - -You notice the sugar lump is made up of little crystals, little -building blocks just as I am, just as all granites are. And the -crystals in the sugar and in the stone were made in the same way--by -first heating and then cooling the material out of which they are made. - -[Illustration: THE CRYSTAL FAIRIES IN THE SUGAR-BOWL] - -When the earth's surface first cooled, the melted rock is supposed -to have changed to granite. Melted rock, under the same conditions, -does that to-day. So, for a while, granite must have been all the kind -of rock there was. There was as yet no sandstone, no shells or bones -to make limestone, no pebbles to help make conglomerate or "pudding -stone," no ground-up rock and soil to make slate. - -The rocks of the earth have been made over so many times that it is not -probable that any of the granites now "living" (so to speak) are the -same rocks that were made when the earth first cooled, but you can see -that we have a right to say what I was careful to say when I introduced -myself to you in the first chapter, that we belong to one of the _very -oldest families_--we Granites. - -Ahem! - -There is a variety of rock--a crystallized rock--with bands all through -it, called gneiss (say "nice"). Gneiss is made from all kinds of rock -including, of course, conglomerate; that is to say "pudding stone"[16] -warmed over. - -[Footnote 16: "Pudding stone" is a rock with pebbles all through it, -like the plums in a Christmas pudding. Its book name is "conglomerate."] - -"And what they did not eat that night, the queen next morning fried!" - - -DOWN IN THE GREAT MELTING-POT - -But how is old rock warmed over and made into new? You might easily -guess that as the heart of the earth is melted rock the rock layers -lying next to it would be melted, too, and so started on their way to -becoming crystallized rock. Crystallization in rock takes place from -the surface down, in the same way that maple syrup turns to sugar, as -it does if allowed to stand undisturbed. So, as the central mass of -rock is cooling from above toward the centre, we may suppose granite is -still being formed away down there, miles under our feet. - -But there are other ways in which rocks make their own heat--rocks far -above this central molten heart of the world. One of these ways might -remind you of how the mother hen gets her chickens to come out of the -eggs, for rocks hatch out new rocks by sitting on one another! - -[Illustration: THREE CHAPTERS IN THE STORY OF MARBLE - - If you're ever in New York City up around 192d Street, you can read - the three chapters in the life of a piece of marble right in the - rocks themselves, for there you'll see this mass of rock with that - granite dike pushing its way through. The rock on either side of - the dike is limestone, and this limestone, owing to the heat of - the lava which afterward hardened and became a "dike," is full of - crystals; that is, began to turn to marble because of the heat. See - how the lava crumpled the limestone as it pushed its way up into - the original crack? -] - -The pressure of the upper rocks generates heat in those beneath. - -Then when these deeply buried rocks come up into the upper world as -parts of mountain chains, and the covering of the softer rocks is, -by the rivers and by weathering, worn away, we find the granite. The -wrinkling of the rocks which makes mountains also creates immense -pressure, and this is another great source of made-over rock. Such rock -is found almost entirely in mountain regions. Some rocks, as shown -in pebbles stretched out like a piece of gum, are heated by pressure -without being crystallized. Often one of these stretched pebbles is -the only thing in a crystallized rock that shows what kind of rock it -was originally, all the finer material in it has been so changed. The -deeper down in the earth the rocks are the more apt they are to be -crystallized, because the rocks piled above them help to hold in the -heat, just as thick blankets keep you warmest on a cold winter night. - - -KINDS OF "METAMORPHIC" ROCK - -Rock of any kind may be changed to crystallized rock. Where the -conditions are not favorable for crystallization the rock is made more -solid, and material soaked out of the rocks above filters down into it. -The lower layers of sandstone may become almost as solid as glass, and -are then called "quartzite." Clay rocks are hardened into slate. Rocks -changed in any of these ways are called "metamorphic" rock, from two -Greek words meaning "to form over." But by "metamorphic" is usually -meant rock that has been crystallized. - - -NICE HATCHING TEMPERATURE FOR ROCKS - -I compared the hatching of new rocks to the hatching of new chickens, -because it is done by the rocks sitting on one another. But chicken -hatching and rock "hatching" are alike in still another way. The rocks -need heat, but not too much heat. Too much heat melts them. It is only -when they have cooled down a good deal that they begin to crystallize; -and that, you see, wastes time. - -A nice hatching temperature for rocks is between 500 and 1000 degrees -Fahrenheit. - -But we might also compare Mother Nature's way of changing rocks to the -cooking that goes on in our kitchens. She uses not only heat, but water -and other things, including salt and soda. Both the salt and some of -the water in the rocks comes from--you'd hardly guess it--the seas! Not -the seas of to-day, but the seas of yesterday, when these rocks were -made. Then the pores were filled with water and the water has been kept -shut in down there by the rocks above ever since. - -From this sea water comes the salt. The salt in the water, when heated, -helps to dissolve the rocks so that the different materials in them can -separate and come together again in new ways, and so form new rocks. -You know when you go to the lavatory to change your hands from dark to -light what a lot of difference it makes whether the water is hot or -cold and whether you use soap. The soap helps dissolve the dirt on your -hands just as the salt helps dissolve the rocks. - -The soda which Nature also uses is particularly good for dissolving -rock that will hardly dissolve without it; silica, for instance, out of -which are made the hardest of the sand grains, the sand in sandstone, -the sharp, glassy edges of grass blades, and the blades of wheat, and -the stalks of corn. Whenever there is a great deal of silica in rock -you find soda mixed right with it. This, having the rocks already -salted and mixed with soda before putting them in the oven, Mother -Nature has always found _so_ convenient! - - -ONE PEBBLE MAY PLAY MANY PARTS - -I, in my time, may have been many kinds of rock. First, heaved up out -of the sea by the earliest wrinkling of the cooling earth as granite; -then weathered away into soil and carried by rivers to the sea, where I -was remade the first time, maybe, as part of the "dough" in a pudding -stone; then up again in an earth wrinkle and again back to sea, this -time to be made into some one of the clay stones, and then back to -granite again. - -Anyhow here I am, a little freckled granite pebble talking myself red -in the face because I've got so much to say, such wonderful things to -tell, and only a few hundred pages to tell it in! - - -II. How Do They Know? - -But, after all, how do they know that one rock changes into another? No -one ever caught a rock doing this, did they? - -Not quite, but almost. To explain, I must first tell you about the -fossils that are found in stone. Haven't you often noticed in marble -curious figures that reminded you of sea-shells? They were sea-shells -but have been turned to stone, and things similarly changed while still -keeping their original form are called "fossils." - -When the plants and the shell creatures of the sea die they fall to the -bottom, and mud and sand settles over them and closes them in, much as -you shut leaves and flowers between the pages of a book. But while the -book presses the leaves of flowers out of shape these bodies of the -water-plants and shell creatures are slowly enclosed in a soft mass of -mud that doesn't change their shapes at all. Then the particles that go -to make up the soft bodies of these buried things are slowly dissolved -away, and the minerals in the water and mud above them soak in and -take their places. It's like passenger after passenger in a car getting -up and other passengers taking the vacant places. Finally this mass of -limey shells becomes buried deep under the sea, is turned to limestone, -and when in course of time this part of the seashore rises--as we know -shores have a way of doing--or is wrinkled up into a mountain, this -limestone becomes a part of the face of the land. - -[Illustration: - - _From a photograph by the American Museum of Natural History_ - -STORY OF THE LITTLE JEWEL-BOX - - A kind of jewel-box? Yes, the kind geologists call a "geode." It - began as a piece of limestone in which the underground waters had - dissolved a cavity. But these waters had already, in solution, - quartz which they had dissolved from quartz rock, and this quartz, - deposited little by little in the cavity, formed into crystals. The - quartz also made the surrounding walls more solid, so that when the - mass of limestone containing this pocket was cut away by erosion - this jewel-box remained, and, being rolled about in streams or by - the lap and plunge of waves, it was rounded. -] - - -WOULDN'T WE SAY THE SAME THING? - -Now suppose where some great granite rock stood up through layers of -other kinds of rock--looking as if it had pushed itself through like -the great granite boss on which Edinburgh Castle stands--you found -that wherever this intruder touched the other rock that rock was -crystallized. If we had just found all this out for ourselves, as the -geology people found it, we would say, just as they said: - -[Illustration: FATHER, GRANDFATHER, AND THE CHILDREN IN THE PORPHYRY -FAMILY - - In this piece of porphyry you see three generations, all living - under one roof, as it were. Notice that six-sided crystal near the - centre? Compare it with other good-sized crystals that haven't - any distinctive shape. The reason for the difference is that the - shapeless ones have had some of their substance taken away to form - the smaller crystals. The dark mass is lava. In it the big crystals - formed. Then, from most of the big crystals the lava reabsorbed - material, and this material later turned into little crystals--the - "grandchildren" of the three generations. -] - -"I wonder what the granite did to the limestone and the other rocks -around it to make them 'sugar,' or, as we say when speaking of rocks, -'crystallize'? Syrup sugars when it is heated and then cooled without -stirring. I wonder if this intruding mass that is now granite didn't -spout up, in melted form, from down in the earth, and heat the rocks -on either side as it burst its way through. Then both this hot rock and -its neighbors cooled and crystallized. That's it!" - -[Illustration: SPLITTING MARBLE ROCKS IN THE QUARRY - - This is a scene in a marble-quarry. The men are splitting up a - 120-ton block. A writer in _Scribner's Magazine_, in which this - illustration originally appeared, also describes the process. The - wedges, carefully greased, are inserted in the drill-holes which, - for a horizontal split, are neither close together nor very deep, - as that is the natural plane of cleavage between the strata. Two - men with sledges go down the line giving each wedge a blow--not - too hard. Then two more men follow, and in go the wedges a little - farther. You see it wouldn't do to rush matters, or you'd fracture - the marble. The operation is so delicate, indeed, that the foreman - himself gives the final blows. Then the marble cracks from hole to - hole. For the vertical splits the holes, you notice, are closer - together. They are also deeper. -] - -In some places you find these granite masses in great bosses, or -domelike rocks; elsewhere in long strips, like an iron bar thrust -through other rocks; in still other places in great slabs between other -rocks, like a warming pan pushed between the bed-sheets on a cold -winter night; but everywhere it touches other rocks these neighbors are -crystallized. - -Now, coming back to our friends the fossils, we sometimes find -limestone bordering one of these intrusive marble rocks with fossils in -it, shading off into limestone containing the same kind of fossils. As -you get closer to the granite mass the fossils in the marble gradually -fade away until you come to marble in which there are no fossils at all. - -So there we get the whole story of the life, not only of marble but of -granite, and what happened to them in "The Fairyland of Change" and how -it happened: - -_Chapter I._--The limestone was made in the sea and the shell creatures -helped to make it. - -_Chapter II._--Hot melted rock from the inside of the earth broke its -way up through these limestone beds. - -_Chapter III._--Then, as the melted rock cooled, it changed to granite, -and the limestone on either side, being first heated and then cooled, -crystallized and changed to marble. - -Men of science have still other ways of working out this problem as to -whether and how and why one kind of rock changes into another. - -"But," we might say, "aren't they satisfied? We are. It's all plain -enough to us now that one kind of rock does change into another. Then -why do these geologist people go on getting more evidence when they've -already got enough? It's like a boy learning two lessons when he only -has to recite in one; and whoever _heard_ of such a thing!" - - -THESE BOYS JUST LOVE TO STUDY - -The answer is that this "going on" is one of the many delights of -study, particularly in Nature's books, when once you get the habit. - -[Illustration: - - _From a photograph by Frith & Co., Ltd., Reigate_ - - THE MARBLE ROCKS AT JABALPUR - - The gorge of the "Marble Rocks," near Jabalpur, India, is a mile - long and of an unearthly beauty of which even this little picture - will give you some idea. The walls gleam white and golden in the - sun. They are not really marble but limestone, which, as you will - learn in this chapter, is the stone that becomes marble in "the - fairyland of change." It looks as if nature had begun the making - of marble columns in those cliffs, doesn't it? This is because the - cliff is cut up by joints. You can also make out in one of the - "pillars" the strata, or horizontal divisions of the rock, as it - was laid down in the sea. -] - -Among other things, the scientists search the pockets of the rocks, -so to speak, for further evidence as to whether one kind changes into -another. Chemistry is a great help in doing this, and, of course, -the microscope. They find in this way that rocks that are full of -crystals, such as granite and marble, and that look so different -from the rocks that are not crystallized--such as limestone and -sandstone--have in them the very same substances--silica, lime, potash, -iron, and so on. - -And again they put the oysters on the witness stand. (You remember -how, long ago, oysters helped tell that mountains were once a part of -the sea bottom.) They put a piece of limestone in a certain acid, and -it bubbles and gives off a certain kind of gas. Then they do the same -thing to an oyster-shell, and it gives out the same kind of gas. Then -they try it on a piece of marble and out comes that very gas again! So -all three--the limestone, the oyster-shell, and the marble--must be -pretty close relations. Marble is just oyster and other shells warmed -up and then allowed to cool. - -But they don't stop here--these students of the rocks. It isn't enough -that all these facts point to one conclusion. They want to actually -_try it out_. So what do they do but change chalk--which is a kind of -very soft limestone--into marble in the laboratory? This they do by -heating the chalk and then cooling it under immense pressure. - - -III. The Fairies of the Fairyland of Change - -If there really are fairies in this deep-down fairyland of change--and -surely there must be--I should say they were the very same fairies we -find in a lump of sugar--the crystals. For it is when these crystals -take different shapes--the very thing fairies are always doing, you -know--that things change into something else, so different you can -hardly believe it. One could easily believe that charcoal and coal are -related, they look so much alike in the face; but who would say that a -piece of charcoal and a diamond were made of the very same stuff? They -are. But diamonds are made of crystals and charcoal is not; and that -must be it. The carbon of the charcoal was never touched by the wand of -the Crystal Fairy. - -[Illustration: SIX MEMBERS OF THE CRYSTAL FAMILY - -Introducing six interesting members of the crystal family. The crystals -of common salt and of gold, among others, take the form shown at _A_. -Alum and diamonds crystallize as shown at _C_; while _B_ and _F_ belong -to a system of crystals which we find built up into ice and arsenic. -_D_ and _E_ are building-blocks for green vitriol, borax, and sulphate -of soda.] - -A strange thing is that big crystals are always made up of little -crystals. So what looks like one crystal is really a United States -of crystals, all like each other and each like all of them put -together, much as our federal government repeats the form of the State -governments, and the State governments duplicate the government at -Washington on a smaller scale. - -[Illustration: THE SAND GRAINS AND THE CRYSTAL FAIRIES - -The crystal fairies often give battered sand grains a new lease of -life and these pictures show how they do it. Fig. "_a_" is a single -sand grain which has grown into crystal form; "_b_" shows parallel -growths about a grain; "_c_" is a group of neighboring grains that have -crowded each other so in their growth that the crystal facets have been -destroyed. Sounds odd to speak of sand grains "growing," doesn't it? -But they do!] - -But why do the little crystals always come together in just such a way -as to make big crystals shaped exactly like themselves? - -Goodness knows! - -But whatever the how and the why of it may be, not only do the crystal -people stick as closely to the family pattern in dress as the Scotch -Highlanders do to the plaids of their clans, but the crystals are -clannish in another way. When a clay rock, for example, is dissolved -by the heat, moisture, and chemicals down in the land of change, -the particles of the same kind that are scattered through it hunt -each other out, and ever after cling together, like Emmy Lou and her -"nintimate friends." You've noticed how "spotty" granite is, haven't -you? This is because it is made up of different kinds of minerals; but, -although the crystals in all follow the granite pattern, the particles -of each kind of mineral "flock together." The feldspars and the micas -never mix. - - -JUST TRY IT WITH A PIECE OF PAPER - -Now take a piece of writing paper and roll it into a tube and I'll show -you something else. Stand the roll up between your two hands and press -down on the top. It takes a good deal of pressure to bend or break it, -doesn't it? Now lay it on its side and squeeze. It breaks right away. - -But how should the crystals in a piece of granite know that a column -of anything will stand so much more weight when the pressure comes on -the ends than when it comes on the sides? They seem to know; for I'll -tell you what they do, away down there in the dark of the earth. The -crystals stand at right angles to the pressure on the rock in which -they are forming. Sometimes, because of the movements of the earth -as it shrinks and cracks, the crystals already formed in granite are -crushed over on their sides. Then, in course of time, they form again, -but _this_ time they stand upright, with their "heads and shoulders" -against the burden--little Atlases supporting the world! And they -not only manage to get up and stand up straight when re-formed under -pressure, but they stand closer together than they did before; they -close up ranks, like soldiers with serious business before them. - -A crystal is made up of molecules, that is to say, little parts -of itself. You can't see a molecule; you just have to think it. -Each different thing in the world--as salt and sugar, boys and -bumble-bees, little girls and butterflies--is made up of its own kind -of molecules or little parts of itself. In order to grasp the idea of -certain scientific facts, the men of science thought of the molecules -themselves as being made of little bits of _themselves_, which the -scientists called "atoms." Now they find that it is necessary--in -order to work out still further their ideas of how things are made -and done and changed, in this wonderful mystery we call the world--to -imagine these atoms as made up of what they call "electrons." You -mustn't think, however, that this is all mere fancy. We can, of course, -think of anything as made up of small particles or parts of itself -which we can call "molecules," and that these molecules are made of -still smaller parts which we can call "atoms." But there is reason to -believe that while each different kind of thing is made of its own -kind of molecules and their atoms, all the atoms are made of the same -thing--electrons or little bits of electricity. For reasons which need -not be gone into here, it is known that electrons actually exist. These -electrons are so much smaller than an atom that there is as much room -for them to move around in an atom as there is for the planets to move -around the sun. - -And they _do_ move--travelling round and round. There are, even in so -small a thing as a grain of sand, untold numbers of these circling -worlds; systems like the sun with its planets and other vast star -systems of the sky. - -And that, it is thought, may be one of the secrets of the continual -change of things; clay rock changing to granite, granite to soil, soil -to fruit, fruit to children, and so on--everything on the move and the -electrons doing the moving--carrying the changes, so to speak--these -wonderful little myriad messenger boys of the universe! - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - Don't imagine, for all I've talked so long about them, that I've - told you everything there is to know about the crystal fairies. For - example, did you know that if it wasn't for the crystal people we - wouldn't have any ice? (_Ice._) - - You will also find that if it wasn't for ice--ice and the - Greeks--we wouldn't have the word "crystal" at all. (_Crystal._) - - One of the most striking things in the whole conduct of these - clever crystal folks you will find in reading about ice. If it - wasn't for a peculiar--a very peculiar--habit the ice crystals - have, all the waters of the world that ever freeze at all, would - freeze solid to the bottom and never _would_ thaw out! - - I'll tell you this much about it: - - While everything else in the world--including boys and - girls--contracts when it gets cold, ice expands, and so becomes - lighter than water, and so floats. - - And yet the ice crystals know how to contract as well as expand, - and that's why ice sometimes builds stone walls, as we will see - when we come to study "The Stones of the Field" in July. - - Shaking still water that is cold enough to freeze but hasn't frozen - makes the crystal fairies get very busy in their ice factories. - And it looks very much as if the fairies themselves warmed up with - their work; for, after this shaking, the temperature of the water - rises ten degrees at the very same time it is freezing! - - You will also find that when the weather is cold enough ice itself - freezes, gets harder and harder with the cold; that ice will melt - ice; that two blocks of ice will grow into one if you give them a - chance; that ice crystals are apt to be born twins; that these twin - crystals are fond of gardening--at least, they raise "ice flowers"; - that the ice crystals are so punctual in their coming and going in - water that they are used to help place the markings on thermometers - just right, so that we can tell exactly how cold or hot we are. - - All this just about the crystals of the ice, but the work of the - crystal people in making snowflakes is even more wonderful. In - the bound volumes of St. Nicholas for March, 1882, in your Public - Library you will find a most interesting account of a man in - Vermont who began studying snowflakes and taking their pictures - when he was a boy. He's known all over the world as the great - authority on snowflakes. In the Encyclopedia Americana you will - find a long article by him in which he tells the many interesting - things he has learned about the ways of the fairies of the snow And - how many pictures do you suppose he has in his snowflake gallery - now? Over a thousand, and no two alike! - - Just to think! Some of these wonderful little people of the - fairyland of change sit at the table with us at every meal--the - sugar crystals. And they are among the most interesting members of - the family. Under the word _Sugar_ you will find that the sugar - crystals themselves eat and grow. But what do you suppose they eat? - Not sugar. (You may easily guess, however, they have a sweet tooth.) - - Yes, and at their home table, before they come to _your_ home - table, they have their regular meals, and they are not allowed a - second helping until they have eaten the first! - - -Answers to Conundrums in H. & S. No. 4 - - The east and west rivers in California were there before the - mountains rose and so cut their way through; while the north and - south rivers between the ranges owe their origin to the mountains - themselves. - - The big twin river referred to is the Euphrates. - - The greatest falls in the world are the Victoria Falls on the - Zambesi. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - (JUNE) - - The rivers laugh in the valley, - Hills dreaming of their past, - And all things silently opening-- - Opening into the Vast. - - * * * * * - - That pebble is older than Adam, - Secrets it hath to tell. - These rocks--they cry out history, - Could I but listen well. - - --_William C. Gannet_: "_Sunday on the Hill-Top_." - - -THE SECRETS OF THE HILLS - -I. In the Bad Land Library - -It has been said[17] that crystals are dreaming of life, they act -so like living things. We may imagine the crystals in the granite -rocks which first came into being with the cooling of the fire globe, -dreaming out the long procession of life and change that followed them. - -[Footnote 17: John Burroughs: "The Breath of Life."] - -But what nightmares they must have had when they foresaw such creatures -as the one on page 23, that grotesque, that unbelievable combination of -bird and beast, the cerotosaurus! The bones of such monsters are one of -the most astonishing secrets of the hills. - - -DIFFERENT KINDS OF MOUNTAINS - -[Illustration: HOW THE BAD LANDS GOT THEIR NAME - - "The Bad Lands are so called because they are bad for - travelling--that is, if you're in anything of a hurry!" -] - -The Bad Lands of South Dakota, in which, as in other parts of our great -West, so many bones of the ancients have been found, got their name -because they are so bad for travelling; that is to say, if you are in -anything of a hurry. But if you are just looking around--during your -vacation, in June, say--they are anything but bad lands. They are full -of interesting secrets. This secret of the ancient bones is only one -of them. Another thing they lead us into is the secret history of the -hills themselves; and as this particular book is mainly about the face -of the earth, the story back of the landscape, as it appears to the -traveller, we shall give the rest of this chapter to the origin of the -Hill family, using the word "hill" in its broadest sense. If you have -looked it up in the dictionary you have found that what people call a -"hill" depends a good deal on where they are. The Bad Lands are really -hills; but in South Dakota, where these particular bad lands are, they -also have what they call the Black Hills, which are really mountains, -because they "mounted" to get where they are.[18] They wrinkled up, -just as the continents themselves did, when they came out of the sea. -Most of the great mountain systems of the world were made in this way, -but table-lands may be so cut up by streams in course of time that they -look like mountains. - -[Footnote 18: Mr. Pebble did not mean to say, I am sure, that the -word "mountain" comes from "mount," used in the sense of rising. The -original of the word mountain comes from the language of the People of -the Seven Hills, the Romans, and means a great mass of rock or earth -that sticks up.--_Translator._] - -[Illustration: _Painted by Dewitt Parshall. In the possession of the -Metropolitan Museum of Art_ - - THE CATSKILLS IN A MIST -] - -The Catskill Mountains are of this type, while real mountains may be -so worn down that you would take them for plains. You see, with the -Hills and the Mountains, as with other royal families, it isn't the -importance of the individual that counts, but the ancestry. - -Another kind of real mountain, beside the folded-up kind, is the -mountain that is made where a rocky plain is split up into great stone -blocks by the movements of the earth crust, as it settles around the -shrinking centre. In the settling and crushing together of the rock -cover around the shrinking ball within, some of the blocks drop down, -and the blocks that are left sticking up make cliffs. Mountain ranges -so made have long, gentle slopes on the side opposite the cliffs. Then -there are volcanic mountains. Fujiyama, the sacred mountain of Japan, -is one of these. - -Mountains are also formed where the molten rock on the inside of the -earth is forced up under layers of rock nearer the surface. This lifts -these rock layers into domes. In the course of time the rivers and the -weather wear away the overlying rocks, leaving the hard central core -standing out. Harder layers of the overlying rock, wearing down less -rapidly than the other layers, often stand out as circular ridges with -valleys in between, so that the central core looks like some old ring -master at a circus. The Bear Paw Mountains and the Little Snowies of -Montana are mountains of this type. - - -WHERE MOUNTAINS GET THEIR PEAKS - -Most mountain peaks, except those of the volcanoes, are remnants of -hard rock which have been left standing while the rivers and the -weather cut away the softer rock around them. - -[Illustration: IN THE HIMALAYAS THEY MIGHT CALL THESE "HILLS" - -High as these mountains are--we are right on the roof of the -Rockies--if they were in the Himalayas they might be called "hills," -because there the scenery grows so much taller. What does the sharpness -of the peaks say as to the age of these mountains? Compared with the -Appalachians, for example?] - -In regions of gently rolling country even small hummocks are sometimes -called "mountains," while out West, where scenery grows so tall, -the Black Hills seem to the people only stepping-stones to the big -Rockies. So they call them "hills." In the region of the Himalaya -Mountains--mountains that don't think anything, you remember, of -climbing up 16,000 to 30,000 feet in the air--a peak of 10,000 feet is -often called a "hill." - - -II. Hills That Were Moved In - -Nearly every region has hills, because every region has or has had -running streams and the streams have carved out the hills. But there -are kinds of hills that aren't home-made; they were made elsewhere and -moved in. I believe this is the biggest hill secret of all, speaking of -hills proper and not of mountains. - -[Illustration: _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of -Ginn and Company_ - -KAME SCENERY IN NEW YORK STATE] - -Almost all over the northern part of North America, as well as much of -Europe and Asia, there are mounds, heaps, and hills of various shapes -and sizes made up of a mixture of pebbles, sand, and clay. In the -United States these heaps make a big line of hills, like a procession -of ancient Indian chiefs, with bowed heads and stooped shoulders, -plodding back to the land of their fathers. And, sure enough, there -they go from down East clear across country to the far West and then -up North, where, as we know, these hill-moving giants, the glaciers, -came from.[19] For, beginning with Perth Amboy, N. J., say, you will -find them marching on through Elmira, N. Y., skirting the suburbs of -Cincinnati, winding their way through Indiana and Iowa up through -Wisconsin to the Dakotas and Montana, and so back into Canada. - -[Footnote 19: Did you suspect the giants of this chapter were our old -friends the glaciers of the Ice Age, when I first began talking about -them?] - -When the geologists first began digging into these hills they not only -found them as full of pebbles as a Christmas pudding is full of plums, -but the pebbles were of all kinds--sandstone, limestone, slate, granite. - - -JACK FROST DIDN'T DO IT! - -"These different pieces of stone didn't come from the breaking up by -frost of the rock beds on which we now find them," said Some Wise Man, -"for then they would all have been of the same kind of rock." - -"And besides," said Some Wise Man No. 2, "they would not have been -shaped into pebbles with the edges rounded off, as all pebbles are by -the waves of lakes or the sea or the water of flowing streams. So these -pebbles must have come from somewhere else." - -"Yes, and a long way off," remarked Some Wise Man No. 3; "for look, -there aren't any rock beds anywhere around here from which some of -these pebbles could have been made." - -"True enough," said Wise Man No. 4, "and I know what brought these -little foreigners. It was a great flood; for water moves not only -pebbles and clay, but, in times of flood, good-sized cobblestones." - - -WHAT IS MEANT BY THE "DRIFT" THEORY - -So, for a long time, it was believed that the material in these hills -was drifted in by the waters. This was called the "drift" theory, and, -although it is now known that this theory was not the true one, such -heaps of clay and stones are still called "drift." - -But the learned men kept on digging into the question and into the -hills, and finally more things were observed. - -"Did you notice this?" said one. "The material is not separated into -layers and divided up into coarse, finer, finest as the sediment of -pebbles, sand, and mud is separated and divided when it settles along -shores. These pebbles, this sand and clay, are all mixed up." - -"Look at this, will you?" (Here imagine a Learned Somebody picking -up a pebble with a scratched face like mine.) "Water never scratched -anything like that. Here are a lot more of these pebbles, all with -their faces scratched." - -"And just see how all these scratched pebbles have flat faces," cried -another of these famous grown-up boys in these great field excursions. -"It looks to me as if they had been ground against something -hard--another rock, say; and for a long time." - - -HOW THE QUESTION WAS FINALLY SETTLED - -Well, to make a long story short, they found that the glaciers of -the Ice Age, those great bodies of flowing ice, were the only things -that could have brought all this material together from such widely -separated regions (as shown by the different kinds of pebbles), and -left them all mixed up as they were; and the faces of many pebbles -scratched and flattened where they had been ground along. - -And then, to put the question entirely beyond dispute, they find that -the glaciers are carrying down pebbles and stuff in just this way -to-day, and piling it up in hills in the valleys at the foot of the -mountains. Only the hills of to-day are much smaller, because the -glaciers themselves are so small compared with the giants of the past. - -[Illustration: HOW THE OLD MEN MOVED THE HILL FURNITURE ABOUT - -This picture of a glacier in Alaska shows you just how the Old Men -of the Mountain moved the hills about, that time. As indicated by -the white lines--which, of course, were added to the picture for the -purpose--the Alaska glacier melted back, leaving just such heaps of -pebbles, boulders, and soil as made certain types of hills. Then from -1910 to 1913 it advanced again, thus picking up the very hills it had -laid down and setting them farther along, just as the glaciers did in -the Ice Age.] - - -HOW THE HILL FURNITURE WAS MOVED ABOUT - -During the Ice Age, when glaciers were all the fashion, they flowed -down, and then, as we have seen, melted back a certain distance; then -they flowed down again. Sometimes in later visits they flowed further -than before, and in so doing, you see, picked up some of the very -hills they had previously laid down and set them along somewhere else. -Sometimes we find different rows of hills, one right alongside the -other. This shows where the glacier melted away toward the mountains, -paused, then melted again and so on, each time leaving a group of hills -and not coming back there and disturbing them any more. - -Such hills as we have been speaking of may be steep or gentle, and from -a few feet to more than 1,000 feet high, although they are seldom as -high as 1,000 feet. - -And there are other kinds of hills made by the glaciers. One of the -most curious of these remind you of the serpent mounds left by the -mound builders in Ohio. These hills are the deposits left by the -streams, the veins inside the glacier's great body. The soil in them -is also apt to be in layers like the deposits of other rivers. These -hills wind along like serpents, because they reproduce the bends in the -streams inside the glacier. Such hills are called "eskers." They are -seldom more than a few rods wide and 10 feet or so in height. They run -for 10, 20, 40, 50, and sometimes 100 miles. - -Around Boston, and all along Cape Cod and in parts of New York and -Wisconsin, you will see other hills called "drumlins"; and you will see -plenty of them, too. It is estimated that there are 6,000 in western -New York and 5,000 in southern Wisconsin, and they are all around -Boston. Bunker Hill is a drumlin. You wouldn't have to tell an Irish -boy what "drumlin" means, as they have these hills in Ireland, too, and -from Ireland came the name. The word means "little hill." - -But while Mr. Glacier made the drumlins of the stuff he brought with -him, he enjoyed himself (at least let us hope so) tobogganing on hills -he found ready made. These hills are real mountains; usually the -granite heart of the mountain, because only a very strong rock could -stand having one of these playful giants riding over him and live to -tell the tale. Such glacier "slides" are referred to as "domes" or -"round tops" or "bald mountains." - -Mr. Agassiz, the great scientist who spent so many years studying the -motion of glaciers, could tell from the height of one of these bald and -rounded hills how high the glacier was that rode over it. For instance, -the glaciers rode over what is known as Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania, -which is 1,500 feet high. "Then," Mr. Agassiz would have said, "the -glaciers that did that must have been at least 2,000 feet thick; for a -glacier can only flow over a rocky mass when it is half as tall again -as the rock." - -You see it is the mass of it, the pressure of its own weight, that -boosts the glacier up the slide. It seems almost like lifting oneself -by one's boot-straps, doesn't it? - - -III. The Ants and the Volcanoes - -Beside all the hills we have mentioned there are several others, well -worth looking into; ant-hills, for example, not only because ants are -so interesting in themselves but because the ants helped to answer what -for a long time was one of the puzzles of science, "How are volcanoes -made?" - -When your mother's mother went to school--or it may have been back in -your mother's mother's mother's time--a little girl, on being asked in -the geography class, "What is a volcano?" was expected to say something -like this: - -"Please, teacher, it's a mountain with a hole in it." - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - _From a photograph. Copyright by W. P. Romans_ - - SACRED FUJIYAMA AND ITS COUNTERPART FOUR THOUSAND MILES AWAY - - On the top is the famous Fujiyama, the sacred mountain of Japan, - and on the bottom Mount Rainier in the State of Washington. Although - they are more than four thousand miles apart, the two volcanoes - look as if they had been cast in the same mould, owing to the - uniform system by which volcanoes are built up. - - -THE WISE MEN AND THE ANT CRATERS - -It does look it, doesn't it? But, what is still more striking, it -_isn't_ a mountain with a hole in it at all, if you mean, as the -little girl in the geography class meant, that it was once an ordinary -mountain and then had a hole put through it. For a long time it was -thought that volcanoes were simply mountains through which fire and -lava from the interior had forced its way. Finally, however, some -scientist thought perhaps of his Proverbs 6:6. In any event wise as he -must have been--how else could he have been a scientist?--he went to -the ant, learned her ways and became wiser. It was by noticing how the -ants build their little craters with the sand and clay they carry from -their underground homes that men got the idea that volcanoes may be -built up in much the same way. So they set to observing Mr. Volcano's -habits more closely, and sure enough, the ant had told the answer! The -stones, lava, cinders, and the stone dust called "volcanic ash" are -shot out by the explosion, and coming down in showers pile around the -opening, as the ant piles the pellets around the entrance to her nest. -As the explosions keep on the crater is piled higher and higher, and -the stones, cinders, and things, rolling down the sides, spread the -pile out at the bottom, much as the ant drops pellets over the edge -of her growing pile, and so both the cone-like ant-hill and the big -volcanic cone are built up. - - -WHY THE VOLCANO DOES NOT SMOKE - -But here is something about volcanoes that will surprise most people. -They throw mud, they throw stones, but they don't smoke. What we call -smoke is the steam that makes--or at least helps make--the explosion. -It often has the color of brown smoke because of the rock which has -been blown into dust. Neither do volcanoes make "ashes." What is called -"ash" is this rock powder, made when the rocks are blown into pieces by -the sudden expansion of the water in them into steam. - - -WHY VOLCANOES SEEM TO FLAME - -Neither do volcanoes flame, although they are supposed to. Only rarely -does flame issue from a volcano, and then only to a moderate extent, -due to the burning of the hydrogen gas. What seem to be huge flames -are the lights from the molten lava in the crater shining back on the -steam clouds above; and these apparent flames rise and fall and vary in -brightness because of the rise and fall of the lava. - -But the greatest of volcanic eruptions--that is, the welling up -of melted rock from within the earth--have not built cones. The -lava spread out into vast plains in India and Abyssinia and in our -northwestern coast States. Great cracks in the earth cross one -another. It is at the crossroads that the volcanoes are apt to form, -while out of the cracks leading up to these crossroads the lava spreads -in sheets. Mount Shasta began at one of these traffic centres. It is a -big brother of the landscape which it overlooks. - -[Illustration: "BUT VOLCANOES DO NOT SMOKE!" - - This is an eruption of Vesuvius. You would think it was throwing - out smoke like a gigantic locomotive, wouldn't you, if you hadn't - read the text? The darker masses, which look so much like mingled - smoke and steam, are shadows. It is probably eight to ten miles - high--that cloud. -] - -Lava, before it cools and for some centuries afterward, is the last -thing you would think of farming on, perhaps, but leave it to the -little chemists of the water and the air and it will decay into the -richest land you ever saw. That is why they raise the finest wheat and -the best fruit in the world right in the parts of Washington and Oregon -that were once covered by the lava flood. - -Not only do volcanoes help to supply us with food by making rich soil -of the eruptions of the past, but all life might disappear from the -earth if they didn't go on exploding. - -[Illustration: HOW VOLCANOES BLOW BUBBLES - - The surface of lava is apt to bubble like hot mush; and for a - similar reason, the expansion of the gases within it. (In the case - of the mush it is the mixture of gases we call "air.") When such - lava cools you have sponge-like masses such as this. -] - -Plants must have carbon and they get it from the air, but the amount -of it in proportion to their needs is never large. Moreover, every bit -of coal that is formed--and coal is being made to-day just as it was -in the coal ages, although not in such quantities--takes carbon from -the air and locks it up. Every bit of limestone deposited on the floor -of the sea locks up more carbon. But, fortunately, immense quantities -of carbon are given back to the air through the gases thrown out by -volcanoes, thus offsetting these losses. - -[Illustration: - - _From a photograph by the American Museum of Natural History_ - -ROCKS AND BOMBS THROWN BY MOUNT PELÉE - - Look at these giant rocks thrown out by Mount Pelée in 1902. - Compare them with the man and you will realize how big they are. - The rounded rocks in the foreground are volcanic "bombs"--masses of - lava discharged by successive outbursts of volcanic gases and given - their shape by being whirled through the air. -] - -[Illustration: WHEN IS A VOLCANO DEAD? - - This is Mount Rainier with its shroud of snow, reflected in Mirror - Lake. To all appearances it is as dead as dead can be; but until - after a volcano goes off you never can be entirely sure whether it - is dead or not; and then, of course, you know it isn't! -] - - -WHEN IS A VOLCANO REALLY DEAD? - -When is a volcano dead? You never can tell. A volcano goes off when it -wants to, quite regardless of the fact that it has had the reputation -for a thousand years of being dead. And the worst of it is volcanoes -are like guns--only more so. A gun doesn't shoot any harder because -it wasn't supposed to be loaded; but the volcano, if it breaks out -unexpectedly, is violent in proportion to the length of time it has -been apparently dead. This is the reason. The original vent becomes -plugged up with the cooled lava. This plug being harder than the rest -of the mountain, the next outbreak is forced to take a new course, -and the longer the forces of explosion are held back the greater the -accumulation of energy and the more violent the discharge. - -But why do volcanoes go off at all? Why can't they be quiet and -well-behaved like other mountains? Nobody knows for sure. On one thing -all scientific men seem to be now agreed; namely, that while the rocks -inside the earth are hot enough to melt they are hard as steel, owing -to the tremendous pressure of the rocks above them, and one theory -about volcanic eruptions is that they are caused by the release of the -pressure on this rock in one place and a pressing down in another, as -the earth's crust settles and crumples around the centre. Some of this -rock--that on which the pressure is released--melts and rises under the -folds of rising rock, and so makes the granite hearts of the greater -mountains. Some of it wells up through the cracks in the rock and -spreads in lava fields, while some of it gushes up and explodes at the -points where cracks cross and so make volcanoes. - -This is one theory, but there are others. The latest is so big that we -will have to take it into the mind in sections. - - -THE LATEST THEORY OF ERUPTIONS - -1. Imagine the interior of the earth divided into three zones. The -central zone, of course, is the hottest. Between this central zone and -the zone reaching down forty miles or so from the surface is a middle -zone. (Think of a doughnut ball inside a doughnut ring, with space -between the ball and ring. That will give you the idea.) - -2. From what is known of the laws of heat it is assumed that the flow -of heat from the central to the middle zone is greater than the loss of -heat from the central to the outer zone. Thus the heat income of the -middle zone would constantly exceed its outlay, and so it would get -hotter and hotter. - -[Illustration: THE MYSTERIOUS SHAFT OF MOUNT PELÉE - - In 1902, after the first explosion, Mount Pelée continued its - eruptions for several months, and in the late stages there slowly - rose, through the crater, this strange shaft of red-hot lava, - like a great iron beam forged by giant hammers in Vulcan's famous - blacksmith-shop. As it rose it crumbled and finally fell to pieces. - It was forced up by the gases beneath and shaped by the crater - through which it came; but can you conceive of anything more weird - and awesome? -] - -3. This middle zone is made up of different kinds of rock that require -different degrees of heat to melt them. So some parts of this zone -would melt and form pockets of liquid rock, while other parts were -still unmelted. - -4. These masses of liquid rock would also tend to melt their own way -upward, especially when given a lift by gases; for gases would be given -off, also, in this heating and melting process, and tend to work their -way toward the surface, carrying with them the liquid rock. - -5. Now the greater the pressure under which a thing is kept the more -difficult it becomes for it to flow; the less the pressure the more -easily it flows and the longer it remains in the fluid state. So as it -rose fluid rock would require less heat to keep it fluid and would have -more heat left over for melting its way up. Then, being joined by other -fluid travelers, the entire mass would finally come to a crack in the -earth. Finally, you see, it would be only a matter of five miles or so -of comparatively clear track up to the land of the fresh air and the -blue sky where the rest of us live and where the volcanologists (the -men who make a special study of volcanoes) would be waiting to give it -welcome! - - -THE VOLCANOES AND THE SEA - -If you will locate with red ink the volcanoes on the world map you will -notice that volcanoes, like mountains, seem fond of the sea. Moreover, -while a large proportion of mountain chains are near sea water, and -some even dip their feet into it, volcanoes bob up right in the seas -themselves. Not only do the land volcanoes make a great circle of -fire 22,000 miles long around the rim of the Pacific, but within this -immense amphitheater are the islands of our story books "scattered in -pleiads" over the ocean. These islands are simply the tops of sea -volcanoes. Of all the active volcanoes, the great majority are on -islands or along the borders of continents. - -[Illustration: ON THE FIRING-LINES OF THE VOLCANOES] - - -THE MOUNTAINS AND THE SEA - -Last of all in this story of the secrets of the hills, let us speak of -the big brothers of the family--the mountains. - -You remember in the story of how the continents came up out of the -sea about wise old Xenophanes of Colophon, who figured out that the -mountains must at one time have been under the sea and why he thought -so, don't you? (page 13). Now get your geography and come here a -moment; I want to show you something else. Turn to the map of North -America. Where are the great mountain chains? Nearly all along the -borders of the sea. Now look at the map of South America, and where -are the mountains? Along the borders of the sea. Then take Europe, -Asia, Africa, Australia, and you see the same thing. Usually the main -mountain chains are along the sea border or they stand near the borders -of what was once a sea; as in case of the Rocky Mountains. - -[Illustration: - - _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." - By permission of Ginn and Company_ - - A BABY MOUNTAIN THAT STOPPED TO REST - - A mountain, as you can readily imagine, isn't made in a day. Here - is a little mountain near Hancock, Virginia, that started up ages - ago and then stopped to rest; one of the ripples in which the great - Appalachian waves died away. This baby mountain has no granite mass - in its centre, as big mountains have, because the wrinkling didn't - reach down far enough into the earth to release the pressure on the - molten rock. -] - -Why should mountains show such a fancy for salt water? It seems -strange, doesn't it? I know why it is because I helped make a mountain -myself once--up on the Canada Coast it was--and I learned a good deal -of the mountains and their ways. I will tell you about the mountains -and the sea a little later; after I have told you some other things. -First of all, this is how the Granite family helped make mountains. As -the great stone sides of the mountain rise the enormous pressure on -the melted rock farther down in the earth is released, and is forced -up under the mountain as it rises. Then, cooling, it crystallizes into -granite, as explained on page 131. - -[Illustration: MOUNTAINS MADE TO ORDER - - Of course nobody ever watched a mountain crumpling up in the way - mountains are believed to crumple up, the process is so slow. Yet, - to try out the theory, geologists in the universities make layers - of different material, corresponding to the strata of different - kinds of stone, and then subject this composition to pressure at - both ends, as the earth crust is supposed to be pressed in the - crumpling process. The result is that these artificial strata take - similar forms to those we see in mountain rock. And that's the - answer! - - Notice the similarity of the rock wrinkles in the baby mountain in - Virginia and these imitation mountains of the laboratory. -] - - -WHY MOUNTAINS RUN NORTH AND SOUTH - -Look at your relief map once more. Which way do the mountains run in -North America? In South America? In Africa? They all run in a general -north and south direction, don't they? Do you see why? The fact that -they were made along the coasts of the oceans would make them run north -and south, too, wouldn't it? The same thing explains why the Alps do -not run north and south. They were made by the sinking of a sea that -runs east and west, and so they started out to run east and west, too; -then they got a wrench, the particulars of which we need not go into -here, and were much mixed up, as we find them to-day. - - -WHAT HAPPENED WHEN THE EARTH SLOWED UP - -But there is another thing that may have helped to make many great -mountains run north and south. Bedtime and sunrise used to come a -good deal oftener than they do now, for then the earth turned faster -on its axis. It turned fastest of all at the equator, just as it does -to-day. So the lands in the equatorial belt were pulled up and the belt -enlarged. Then, as the speed of the globe slackened, the enlarged belt -began to wrinkle because there was not the same amount of centrifugal -or "fly-away-from-the-centre" force to make it stand out. So wrinkles -came at right angles to the belt, just as do the waist gathers in a -dress. - -And now about the mystery of the mountains and the sea. When we visit -the rock mills of the sea along in October[20] we shall notice, among -other things, that the rock is made along the sea border, and that the -coarsest sediment settles nearest the land. As a result this part of -the deposit is built up faster than that farther off shore, and as it -gets heavier and heavier it sinks. The deposits farther away from the -shore sink, also, but more slowly because these deposits are not piled -up so fast. Now, if you come down on one end of a seesaw what happens -to the other end? It goes up, doesn't it? The effect of this sinking of -the rocks of the sea upon the rocks of the adjoining land is something -like that. The rocks that make the continents extend out under the sea, -and the weight of the newly laid stone on the sea margin end not only -tips the rock beds up, but, sinking in toward the continental mass, -wrinkles it up, as the pages of this book will wrinkle if you push them -from the front edge. So you get your mountains along the sea border. -And they are in parallel ranges, because the land is crumpled up into -several folds, like a table-cloth pushed from one side. - -[Footnote 20: Chapter X, "The Autumn Winds and the Rock Mills of the -Sea."] - -"But," you say, "how about the Rocky Mountains? And the Carpathian -Mountains in Europe, not to mention several others? _They_ are not on -the borders of the sea." - - -WHY SOME MOUNTAINS ARE FAR FROM THE SEA - -That's no sign they weren't near a sea border at some time. Let me -just ask you. Suppose you found that most of the great mountain -chains are on the borders of seas, and suppose you had figured out -the reasons I have just been giving, then what would you do if you -found a few mountains far back from the sea? You would probably try to -find how they got moved back, wouldn't you? That's just what _other_ -men of science did. A study of the rocks of the mountains themselves -and other things bearing on the question goes to show that since the -mountains were made the sea might have retired from regions where it -had previously advanced, as it did in the case of the Mississippi -Valley, or the land may have risen between these mountains and the -sea. Moreover, the down wash from the mountains themselves sometimes -builds wide lands, which, as they extend and shut back the sea, leave -the mountains farther and farther away. Much of the land extending -east from the base of the Rocky Mountains was made in this way. The -Mississippi Valley was for ages, you know (page 10) the Mediterranean -Sea of North America, lying in the downward fold of our continent -between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians. - -[Illustration: - - _From the painting by David James_ - -THE WAVE] - - -WHY SEA WAVES RISE TO GREET THE MOUNTAINS - -One of the strangest, most poetic phases of the relation between the -great blue mountains and the great blue sea is that waves, as they -approach the shores of continents bordered by mountain ranges, rise -higher and higher; and the higher the mountains, the higher rise the -waves. These waves are not driven by wind or tide but seem drawn -forward by some strange power. This power, however, is no stranger -than the one that makes us fall and bump our noses when we stub our -toes--the power of gravitation, according to which all masses attract -each other. It is the mass in the mountains that exerts a pull on the -waves; and the greater the mountains the greater the pull, of course. -In the Indian Ocean, for example, around the head of the Arabian Sea, -the waves rise far above sea level, largely because there is beyond -them, on the land, one of the greatest mountain masses in the world. - -Wouldn't it give you a queer feeling if you were, say, a sailor, and -for the first time saw waves act like that? Uncanny, almost, isn't it? - -But do the mountains remember their old parent of the white flowing -rocks and beard, Father Neptune? They act as if they did; particularly -in the way in which they come to imitate, in time, the shape of the -waves of the sea. - -Ruskin,[21] speaking to artists about drawing mountains, says: - -"Good and intelligent mountain drawing recognizes a great harmony among -the summits and their tendency to throw themselves into waves, closely -resembling those of the sea itself; sometimes in free tossing toward -the sky, but more frequently in the form of breakers, concave and steep -on one side, convex and less steep on the other." - -[Footnote 21: "Modern Painters," Chapter IV.] - -When you stand some day on one of the high peaks of the Rocky -Mountains, and look out over the great fields of upheaved stone, -you will notice how closely the parallel ridges resemble ranks of -waves making toward a shore. Like sea waves also, the vast backs of -these waves of stone are long and sloping, while their fronts are -comparatively short and much steeper. Another thing that makes you feel -as if you were looking out upon a sea whose waves had been changed to -stone is the fact that these stone waves are not only green but have -white caps; for in the valleys, and far up the sides of the mountains, -are the forests with the perennial green of their pines, and on the -peaks the eternal snows. - -[Illustration: "AND EVERY TOSSING OF THEIR BOUNDLESS CRESTS"] - -Not only is the mounting and forward drive of waves repeated in -mountain forms, but also the whirlpools among the rocks when sea waves -reach the shore. Says the famous French geographer, Reclus[22]: - -"The centre of the Pyrenees resembles a great whirlpool around which -the mountains rise like enormous waves." - -[Footnote 22: "The Earth."] - -Finally we might imagine that the mountains, like the mountain streams, -hear the call of the sea and are stirred by it. For, again to quote -from Ruskin's wonderful chapter on the nature of the thing we call a -mountain: - -"Behold as we look farther into it, it is all touched and troubled. -The rock trembles through its every fibre, like the chords of an -Æolian harp--like the stillest air of spring with the echoes of a -child's voice. Into the heart of all those great mountains and through -every tossing of their boundless crests and deep beneath all their -unfathomable defiles, flows that strange quivering of their substance. - -"'I beheld the mountains and lo they trembled; and all the hills moved -lightly.'" - -[Illustration: - - _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." - By permission of Ginn and Company_ - - "THAT STRANGE QUIVERING OF THEIR SUBSTANCE" - - This picture shows mountain-peaks carved in folded strata in the - Rocky Mountains in Montana. How well it illustrates Ruskin's grand - lines. -] - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - Of course you saw that the Greeks meant the story of Phaeton to - account, among other things, for the origin of deserts, but what is - there in it that would lead one to believe the Greeks knew there - were such things as volcanoes? Read what the encyclopedia says - about volcanoes and Vulcan and the physical geography of Greece and - the Greek islands. - - Where is Mount Stromboli and why is it called "The Lighthouse of - the Mediterranean"? - - On which of our coasts do we have young and growing mountains, and - on which old mountains that are much worn down? - - Did you ever notice, on your map of Europe, how the curve of - the Carpathian Mountains follows the curve of the shore of the - beautiful Adriatic Sea so far away?[23] What does that remind you - of in the story of the relation between the mountains and the sea? - -[Footnote 23: How far away is it? The scale of miles on your map will -tell.] - - "Yes," you say, "but if mountains are formed on the borders of the - sea why are the Carpathians so far from the Adriatic; and the Alps - so far from the Mediterranean and the Rocky Mountains of America - and the Altai mountains of Asia so far away from any sea at all?" - - Professor Heilprin[24] knew you would say that; at least I suppose - he did, for he has explained all this in his little book, written - especially for young people, "The Earth and Its Story." After you - have read this part of the story write it out in your own words and - then copy it into your notebook. You might call your own story, - "How Mountains are Moved Back from the Sea." - -[Footnote 24: Professor of Geology in the Academy of Natural Sciences, -Philadelphia.] - - What mountains do the waves of the Indian Ocean rise to salute? How - do they compare in size with other mountains that you know of? - - How does the carbon in the gases of volcanoes get into the plants? - - What does it say in Proverbs 6:6 that might remind one of the fact - that the ants helped solve the puzzle as to how volcanoes are made? - - As to the hills that were moved in, a Wisconsin writer, who has, - among other things, written delightfully of his companionship with - the rocks and hills of his State[25] tells about sinking a well 132 - feet deep on his farm, and going through this imported scenery all - the way. - -[Footnote 25: Charles D Stewart, "Essays on the Spot."] - - "Somewhere down there," he says, "if I had kept on going I should - have struck the original Wisconsin." - - And why not be an author yourself? Start a little book of science - of your own and learn to make notes on interesting things you - have been reading about. For instance, put in it now some of the - different things we have learned about the wonder-workers of the - Ice Age, up to and including this chapter. Call what you write "The - Story of the Old Men of the Mountain." At the end of the part you - write now you can put "To be continued," just as they do in a story - paper; for we are not through with the work of the old men, as you - will see. - - How did Rome get its seven hills? (You know it was called The City - of the Seven Hills.) - - The Bible quotation in Ruskin about the trembling of the mountains - is from Jeremiah 4:24. How grand it sounds, doesn't it? Like the - music of a pipe organ. The Bible has many references to "hills" and - mountains. Here are some of the most striking: Psalms 114:4; Exodus - 20:18; Deut. 5:23; Rev. 8:8; Micah 1:4; Isaiah 54:10. - - Where are the most famous of the Bad Lands of our Western States? - Those of South Dakota are perhaps the strangest. Among other - strange things is the fact that some of the hills were set on fire - by rain--goodness knows how long ago--and these hills are like - gigantic stoves for the cattle, who never fail to collect around - them on bleak days. - - In the article on South Dakota in the Britannica you'll learn all - about how the rain started the fire. Then perhaps you will want to - look up "spontaneous combustion" and "iron pyrites." - - Aren't those ancient monsters whose bones they find in the hills - comical looking creatures--now that we are several million years - safely away from them? The comic artists (of pen and pencil) are - always having fun with them. Arthur Guiterman, for instance, in - picturing what spring must have been like in those old days: - - "Go-dum, bally hoosh!" is the note of the Icthyosaurus. - "Notorum-dorando!" the blithe Hippocampus replies. - "Chin-chin-orizaba-pelote!" rings the jubilant chorus - Of sweet Pterodactyls that wing the cerulean skies.[26] - - -[Footnote 26: "The Laughing Muse."] - - - - -[Illustration: ON A NEW ENGLAND HILL - - "Great lumps of pudding the giants threw, - They tumbled about like rain." -] - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - (JULY) - - They flung them over to Roxbury Hills; - They flung them over the plain; - And all over Milton and Dorchester too - Great lumps from the pudding the giants threw. - They tumbled about like rain. - - --_The Ballad of the Boulders._ - - -THE STONES OF THE FIELD - -In our rambles during the summer vacation season we are constantly -coming across boulders; in the mountains, in the fields and by the sea. -In the mountains and near rocky headlands or at the foot of the cliffs -we take them for granted; they have evidently fallen from the rock -walls above them. But haven't you often wondered how they got out on -the prairies far from any rock masses? This chapter tells about that -and other curious things in the lives of the great Boulder family. - - -I. Big Chief Boulder - -Even the Indians who, in those early days, had never gone to school or -studied geography, used to wonder how these big stones had travelled to -the places where they found them. - -Once upon a time the Indians in the wilds of Minnesota found an -unusually big granite boulder lying among the hills. So what did they -do but paint a head with eagle feathers on one end of the stone. Then -they put stripes around its body. You see they thought of Mr. Boulder -as a big chief in feathered head-dress and painted for war. - - -WONDER THE BEGINNING OF KNOWLEDGE - -It may seem foolish to make all this fuss about finding a big stone -in a field. But these ignorant red men were much wiser than we are if -we don't wonder about it too. Wonder is the beginning of knowledge; -and the Indians thus took the first step toward one of the great -discoveries of geology. - -It was just such wondering on the part of scientific men that led to -their finding out not only how these big stones got into strange lands -but how certain kinds of hills that we have just been reading about -were made. For, as you must have already guessed, the moving of these -boulders was one of the many jobs Mr. Glacier did for us during the -Ice Age. But pretend you don't know the answer. It took the wise men a -long time to find it and that's where the fun comes in--in the hide and -seek. - -[Illustration: - - _From a photograph by Bourne & Shepherd, Calcutta_ - - THE STRANGE OLD INDIAN OF MOUNT ABU - - If those Minnesota Indians thought a boulder of the usual shape - was some big chief from another land, what would they have thought - if they had set eyes on this solemn old creature? He sits by the - hour--like Socrates in the market-place--and has sat for ages - gazing down at his image in a lake at the foot of Mount Abu in - India. He was carved into that shape by sands blown from the North - Indian desert acting on the softer parts of the rock. Most Indians, - as you know, are silent people, but this old chap, so I hear, never - speaks at all! - - Yet some day he may, all of a sudden, take a jump! Boulders do that - sometimes, as you will see before you have finished this chapter. -] - - -ON THE NORTH END OF THE WORLD - -Some of the boulders seem to have belonged to Alpine Clubs, for you -find them away up on mountain sides; some of them as high as 6,000 -feet--that's over a mile you know--above the level of the sea. And -often these boulders are not of the same material as the huge pieces -of broken rock that fall from the neighboring mountain walls. Moreover -the blocks of stone from the mountain are angular; they are not nicely -rounded off as are boulders and pebbles. It's that way all over the -north end of the world as far south as the Ohio in this country and the -Alps in Europe. - -[Illustration: WOULDN'T IT MAKE YOU NERVOUS, TOO? - - This picture is from a story about a little boy who had to cross - a field full of big, dark boulders like this at night, and how - nervous it made him. -] - -But there's one place in which you never will find boulders, and that's -in a country where there are caves of any considerable size. Neither -will you find such caves where there are boulders. - -Why shouldn't the caves and the boulders live happily together just -like other people? The answer is simple. The glaciers of the Ice Age, -with their enormous weight, crushed in the roofs of caves in every -region over which they flowed; and it was these same glaciers that left -the boulders. Since the glaciers went away the underground rivers that -hollow out the caves have not had time to make new ones. It takes ages -and ages to make a nice big cave. - - -II. The Train of Thought - -These widely scattered boulders furnished the students of the subject -with the very best evidence that there was once an Ice Age. First, the -geologists noticed, just as the Indians did, that the boulders were of -a different kind of rock from that of the regions in which they were -found. Up in Wisconsin, running southwest from Waterloo is a train (as -it is called) of boulders sixty miles long. The boulders are of a very -hard rock called quartzite, while all the rock deposits in that region -are of limestone or sandstone. - -[Illustration: MR. BOULDER ON HIS PERCH - - This is what is called a "perched boulder." Being a harder kind of - rock than that on which it was left by the glaciers, it has held - out against the winds and weather, while the stone under it has - been worn away. -] - -In eastern Wisconsin, along with these stones, have been found pieces -of copper, although there are no copper deposits near by. To the -northeast of where the fragments of copper were found are the great -copper deposits of what is now Michigan, and from this region the -glaciers brought the copper and scattered it about as they moved -south and southwest. So these mysterious stones and other things kept -pointing toward the north, in a kind of dumb show. - -In mountain rain storms you can see the torrents driving great stones -before them, so one of the first theories about the stranded boulders -was that, at some time in the earth's history, there had been great -floods covering whole continents, sweeping away rocks from the -mountains and carrying them here, there, and everywhere. That theory -also accounted for the rounded shape of the boulders, for if you have -a volume of water big enough and swift enough you can roll boulders -wherever you like. - - -WHAT A QUEER HOBBY-HORSE! - -But why should the boulder trains all lead to the north? And how could -water carry boulders right across a deep mountain valley and pile them -high up on the mountains on the other side? How could water perch one -boulder on another or on a flat ledge of rock or on the summits of the -cliffs? Boulders so perched are very common, and often they are so -nicely balanced that a man can set them rocking; and sometimes a small -boy can do it. Every young man who goes to Dartmouth College knows -about the rocking stone some half mile east of the college. In the town -of Barre is a big boulder with a small boulder on its back, and the -small boulder can be set rocking like a child's hobby-horse. - -[Illustration: HOW THE MOUNTAIN TORRENTS HELP SHAPE THE BOULDERS] - -The only thing that could handle boulders in this way, so it turned -out, were the glaciers. By following up the boulders to their homes -in the mountains they found on the backs of the glaciers of to-day -stones just like those in our fields, and they found them thickly -scattered over the ground where the glaciers melted back during the -summer months. The glaciers not only pick up boulders from the mountain -torrent beds, as they move along, but themselves pluck rocks from -mountain sides. Huge blocks of rock, dislodged when water freezes in -the cracks of the mountain walls, also fall upon the glacier. It was -the boulders held underneath the ice that left their autographs, deep -grooves on the native bed-rock in the regions into which the glaciers -of the Ice Age came. - -These great ice rivers filled the mountain valleys, and reaching far -up on the mountain sides carried boulders to those heights. Sometimes -the glacier left the stones standing on a narrow point on top of other -rocks--so making the rocking stones. - -[Illustration: HOW THEY KNOW THE OLD MEN DID IT - - Here is one of those heaps of boulders, pebbles, and soil that the - glaciers of the Ice Age brought and left behind them. They know - those ancient glaciers did this, because just such heaps are found - under the edges of glaciers to-day. -] - - -III. Leaves from the Family Records of the Boulders - -What I have said so far of the Boulders is mainly about their travels -into foreign lands and how they were received by intellectual people. -But there are many other interesting things to be found in their -family records that you will want to know about, I am sure. - - -HOW THE BOULDERS RODE ON THE WATER - -One of these is how they came to ride on the water, when I said just -a little while back that only _ice_ could carry them across mountain -valleys, and pile them up on the mountain sides. That was all true; -yet, under certain circumstances, boulders _have_ ridden on the water. -As the glaciers melted away finally in those early days the water, as -you know, helped make rivers and lakes. Then, from the front of the -glaciers icebergs broke off and floated away down the rivers or across -the lakes. In these icebergs boulders were often imbedded, and so were -dropped wherever the iceberg carried them before it dissolved. - -[Illustration: HOW THE BOULDERS RODE ON THE WATER - - This is a scene in August in Glacier National Park. It illustrates - how boulders of the Ice Age travelled by water, when icebergs - containing them broke from the glaciers and floated away on rivers - and lakes. -] - -Ice helps handle boulders in still another way; but before I tell you -what it is I want you to imagine you are an Indian, away back in the -days before Indian schools, and see if you wouldn't be as superstitious -as they were. Just suppose then that you are a red child of the forest, -and that along a certain lake you saw near the shore a lot of boulders -scattered about in a disorderly way. This, say, was in the fall. But -when you came back the following spring you found them all piled up -into a wall along the lake, and you positively knew no member of your -tribe or of any other had done the piling. Wouldn't it make you feel a -little superstitious? - - -HOW MR. WINTER BUILDS BOULDER WALLS - -It was Mr. Winter that built these walls. With the spring break-up on -lake shores big cakes of ice, blown by stiff gales, pry up the boulders -along shore, and force them further up the bank. Then another gale -and another push, and more stones are crowded up on top of the first -course, and so there is built a rude wall. Some of the stones may be -crowded together side by side. This makes what is called a "boulder -pavement." But even this isn't all of nature's engineering in the -handling of boulders. Here is another example. Ice is formed on lakes -early in the winter when the air is but little below the freezing point -of water. Under these circumstances ice expands. Then, with the first -severe cold spell it contracts and so cracks. Water, rising from below, -fills these cracks, and is itself, in turn, frozen to ice. Then comes -a warm wave, these ice wedges swell, and so the ice sheet expands, -pushes up along the shore and, if there are any boulders there moves -them about; or sometimes drives them deep into the bank so that the -following spring it looks as if somebody had been shooting at the bank, -using boulders for bullets. - -The sun shapes boulders somewhat as the blacksmith shapes iron, but -instead of striking with a hammer it strikes with its rays. Rock is -a poor conductor of heat, so the heat from the sun only goes into -the rock a little way. The result is that the surface expands and so -loosens itself from the rock beneath and in course of time falls off. -With the cooling of the atmosphere at night just the opposite thing -takes place; the surface cools off first and so, contracting, loosens -itself from the body of the stone. It seems to be a regular tug of war -between the heat of the day and the cool of the night. First of all the -corners and sharp edges break away because, being thinner, they are -heated and cooled more quickly. The boulders owe their rounded shapes -most of all, however, to the fact that they were ground together in the -body of the glaciers as those great ice sheets flowed along. - - -GOOD TALKS BY LEARNED BOULDERS - -Of course, the boulders, like other people, differ in their tastes--as -you can tell by their talk. The granite boulders have the most to -say about travel because they are so hard that they can take longer -journeys than weaker rocks, and so have more to tell. But there is -another branch of the family that is still more "bookish" as you may -say. These are the "pudding stone" boulders--conglomerates. In that -most interesting biography, "The Story of a Boulder," Professor Geikie -describes a stone that was not only made up of a variety of pebbles, -but in which there was a section of sandstone. The sandstone and the -conglomerate had been neighbors in some rock ledge just as the pebble -section and the smooth sand section are always neighbors where the -shores descend into the sea. So when the rock mass, which was finally -rounded into a boulder, broke away it included portions of both -sandstone and conglomerate. - -[Illustration: WHERE THE SEA HELPS SHAPE THE BOULDERS] - -The upper part of this boulder--the sandstone--had in it stems and -leaflets of plants of the Coal Age, changed to coal. The pebbles below -were fragments of more ancient rocks made at a time when frogs as big -as the oxen of to-day lived in the marshes. - -"They must have had a croak like a fog-horn," said the High School Boy. - -In this story of the boulder, Professor Geikie says: - -"I had here a quaint old black letter volume of the Middle Ages giving -an account of the events taking place at the time it was written and -containing in its earlier pages numerous quotations from the authors of -antiquity." - -[Illustration: WHICH DO YOU SAY?] - -The "quotations from the authors of antiquity," were the pebbles, of -course, once parts of older rocks. - -I have spoken of the boulders as authors. You will also be interested -in their relations with artists. Boulders add much to the picturesque -effect of the shores of lakes and seas and mountain ravines, as they -appear to the traveller, and as artists reproduce them in pictures. -They also add to the beauty of streams, by forming rapids. These -boulders that are piled in so thick as to make rapids are brought -in by smaller but swifter tributaries that flow into larger but more -sluggish streams. Rapids are favorite topics for landscape artists. -They are characteristic of the work of Ruysdael, for example, with whom -you have become well acquainted in your picture studies in school. - -Of the drawing of stones in general Ruskin says: - -"There are no natural objects out of which an artist, or any one who -appreciates the form of things, can learn more than out of stones. A -stone is a mountain in miniature. The fineness of Nature's work is -so great that into a single block a foot or two in diameter she can -compass as many changes of form and structure on a small scale as she -needs for her mountains on a large one, using moss for forests and -grains of crystal for crags."[27] - -[Footnote 27: "Modern Painters."] - -[Illustration: WHY BOULDERS SOMETIMES TAKE A JUMP - - Boulders sometimes jump up, all of a sudden, as if they had sat - on a pin. They do this when an earthquake wave passes straight - through the globe; from Ecuador, say, to Borneo. Such waves, called - "waves of transmission," travel "incog" as it were, not causing - any disturbance until they reach the surface again. Then if there - happens to be a big rock on the spot, up it jumps--the funniest - thing you ever saw! - - Harry Furniss, the famous English cartoonist, made this picture - just for a joke. -] - -On page 157 you will find two pictures of stones by two famous -landscape artists, Claude and Turner. Of the stones in one picture Mr. -Ruskin says, "they are massy and ponderous as stones should be"; while -the stones in the other picture are "wholly without weight." - -In which of the pictures would you say the stones are "massy and -ponderous," and in which are they "wholly without weight?" - -Now look at the "Hide and Seek" notes below and see if you and Mr. -Ruskin think alike. - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - A boy scout, as you know, is expected, among other things, to be an - Indian (a good Indian, of course); to keep his eyes wide open as he - goes about in the woods and fields. In that way he is always coming - across things to wonder over, such as the big stone the Indians - found. - - It's just such boys that great men are made of. All the great - scientists began in that way. - - Take the case of Hugh Miller, for example. In the encyclopedias you - will meet him as a famous geologist, along with great artists and - inventors and statesmen and other fine company; but at first he was - only a boy, like the rest of us. And he had very little chance to - go to school, but he went anyhow; went to school, like Lincoln, to - all the good books he could get hold of and also to the stones of - the field. After a while he got so he could write books himself, - and they are among the most readable books you ever saw. You just - read his story of "The Old Red Sandstone," and if you don't open - your eyes! - - The encyclopedia will tell you a great deal about the boy himself - and about "Uncle Sandy" and "Uncle James," and how they helped him. - But the start of it was this: - - One day a mason in Scotland[28] broke off a piece of stone--he was - building a wall at the time--and inside of the stone he found--what - do you think? A fish! Inside of the stone, mind you! - -[Footnote 28: Hugh was a Scotch boy.] - - Of course you won't be surprised to hear that it was a queer, - outlandish sort of fish, and that it was dead. In fact, it had been - dead so long that it also had turned to stone. In short, it was a - fossil. But no Pharaoh in his huge pyramid ever became more famous - than did that little fish in his tomb of stone. - - Yet, would you believe it?--neither the mason nor his fellow - workmen thought much about it. They frequently came upon these - fossils and, beyond being idly curious at first, paid little - attention to them. - - This day, however, among these workmen was Hugh Miller, who was - also a stone-mason by trade. Hugh got as excited over this fish as - a boy. (He was only seventeen at the time, I believe.) - - "The story of this queer fish," he said to himself, "must be as - good as Sinbad the Sailor, and the Yellow Dwarf, and Jack the Giant - Killer, that I used to like so well when I was a little lad;"[29] - and he determined to find out all he could about it. He found from - the geology books that there was much yet to be learned about such - fish, and so he proceeded to study the stones. He opened the stones - with his hammer as you open a book. He put in all his leisure time - at this work, with the result that he not only became one of the - world's famous geologists, but he wrote books in which he made it - a point to tell these curious stories of ancient life in the sea, - so that people without any previous scientific knowledge could read - and enjoy them. - -[Footnote 29: He had read all these stories and a lot more, so my old -Chambers' Encyclopedia says.] - - Besides "The Old Red Sandstone" he wrote "Footprints of the - Creator," "The Testimony of the Rocks," "My Schools and School - Masters," "Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland," and a - book of poems. Not all the conclusions he came to are accepted - to-day--for geology, like all the sciences, is always growing--but - the history of its growth and how men reasoned things out is quite - as interesting and profitable as the facts themselves, and Hugh - Miller has a particularly attractive way of telling things. - - So you see those Indians who painted up old Big Chief Boulder were - on the right track; they were deeply interested in it and its being - there as a great and mysterious work of nature. They named it - "Waukon," an Indian word meaning "mystery." - - Oh, yes, and about boulders in art, it's the stone in the upper of - the two pictures that Ruskin considers "massy and ponderous" and - hence true to nature. Turner painted it. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - (AUGUST) - - In the parching August wind - Cornfields bow the head. - - --_Christina G. Rossetti._ - - Over the sea-like, pathless, - Limitless waste of the desert. - - --_Longfellow._ - - -THE DESERT - -August is usually such a hot, dry month that it ought to be a good time -for talking of deserts. We can realize better what a desert is and -what an interesting region it must be to those who spend their lives -there--the Arabs and the camels, for instance. In fact, there are so -many strange and striking things to be seen and learned in deserts that -whole books--including many stories--have been written about them, and -I'm sorry we can give the subject only one chapter. - - -I. The Face of the Desert - -I sometimes think it was no wonder the old Sphinx got to asking -conundrums. Always looking toward the desert and its mysteries, how -could he help it? The desert is just full of conundrums. For instance: - -Where is it that rains fall without reaching the earth? - -[Illustration: - - _From the painting by Elihu Vedder_ - - THE QUESTIONER OF THE SPHINX -] - -Where is it that there are lake beds without lakes, river beds without -rivers, and rivers without mouths? - -Where do you see stretches of water that aren't there, and men and -animals walking and trees growing--most of them upside down? - -Where are the roses of the land and the waves of great inland seas made -of sand and where does the wind always blow the mountains away? - -Of course you would probably give the right answer at once--"the -desert"--because you know I am talking about deserts. And the "water -that isn't there," and the trees and people and things that are upside -down--you probably know that's the mirage; and that the inland seas -with their waves of sand are the dunes; that the rivers without mouths -are those that, like the Tajunga in California, lose their waters in -the sand. - -Most people who have gone to school know all these things. Most people -also think of the desert as just a sea of sand and all tawny, like a -lion's skin; but this is wrong. The Romans used to call the African -desert "the panther's skin," because of the tawny stretches spotted -with the dark palms of the oases, but the sands are not all tawny, and -the desert isn't all covered with sand. - -If we could arrange to get on the back of any one of the great birds of -the Sahara--say an eagle or his big cousin the vulture--and sail with -him on his way to dinner, the scenery would unroll beneath us something -like this: - -On the northern border the Atlas Mountains, with precipices of wild -beauty and ranges of bare, pink rock outlined against the blue of -the morning sky; then dune waves stretching for miles and miles with -valleys between them, so wide that it takes the camels from breakfast -time until noon to lumber their way across. The crests of some of these -dune waves go spinning off in spray with every freshening breeze. -Little dunes often dissolve away in the wind as the caravan moves -toward them. - - -GAUNT OUTLINES OF THE HUNGRY HILLS - -Then we come to more mountain ranges running right across the desert's -face, their bare rocks shivered and shelving down into broken fragments -at their feet; then sharp-edged, jagged hills--not rounded, plump, -and well-fed hills, such as we have at home. They are the bones of the -hungry landscape showing through. Then we come to bare table-lands and -the empty beds of rivers and lakes that long ago went dry; valleys -scattered with boulders of all sizes and in every imaginable position; -and so on over into the Arabian desert, with its flats of white sand -closed in by high cliffs, and vast stretches of black and red gravel. -More of the sand and gravel of the desert is red than yellow; but some -of it is white and some of it is black. - -[Illustration: AN OASIS] - -[Illustration: THE DARK HILLS AND THE FIGURES IN WHITE - - "The Baths of the Damned," the superstitious Arabs call the region - of the Northern Sahara in which you come upon these strange white - figures. The fearsome name was suggested by the fact that the - figures slowly rise from some hot region inside the earth. In - reality they are mounds of carbonate of lime deposited by the water - of hot springs heavily charged with dissolved limestone. Similar - springs in our Yellowstone Park spout up in the form of geysers - and form "geyser basins"--huge stone tubs. Here in the desert the - water doesn't spout; it bubbles up slowly and so builds the mounds. - In the background you see black masses of volcanic rock, for this, - like Yellowstone Park, is a volcanic region where the underground - rocks haven't cooled off. -] - - -A CHAOS OF COLOR IN THE ROCKS - -The desert wears rocks and stones of as many colors as the jewels of -Oriental kings. It also runs much to solemn black in its heaps of -volcanic rock with cold limestones on the heights; but you can see -blue-grays, browns, ochres of every shade gleaming in the sun, the reds -of the rusting iron in them staining the precipices and the walls; and -there are purples and pinks and dark greens and violets. These colored -rocks are often fantastically mixed together, like the colors on an -Easter egg. - - -THE SKELETONS OF THE DEAD RIVERS - -And here we come upon one of those skeletons of dead rivers that I -spoke about. There they are, the river valleys and the river beds, -full of sand and gravel, and with boulders along the banks, and branch -valleys running into them; a river system all complete but for one -thing--water. It's just as if the main valley and the branches had been -made all ready but the river never came; or as if there had been rivers -there once but they couldn't stand the climate! Of course, when a -cloudburst comes along it helps itself to these ready-made river-beds; -but for the most part they stand as empty as the ruins on the desert's -edge in which - - ... the lion and the lizard keep - The courts where Jamshyd gloried and drank deep.[30] - -[Footnote 30: "The Rubaiyat" of Omar Khayyam.] - -Not only do the size of the river-beds show that there used to be more -frequent rains in these regions of desolation, but right at the edge of -the northern Sahara are the remains of immense aqueducts; great troughs -built of stone and carried on bridges from the source of a water supply -to a city. When the Romans owned the earth--including the Sahara -desert--they were famous builders of these aqueducts. - -[Illustration: WHY DYING RIVERS MULTIPLY BY TWO - - Director Hornaday, of the New York Zoo, took this picture while - in the arid regions of the great Southwest. It shows a little - stream dying away in the desert sands. Now just notice how a little - knowledge of nature's methods as a landscape artist makes the most - commonplace scenery interesting. All streams as they go dry have - a tendency to spread out arms like that; sometimes two, sometimes - four or more, but always in twos or multiples of two. The reason - is that as the water evaporates the stream becomes weaker and so - is obliged to drop a part of its load. The heaviest part of the - load--the most pebbles, sand, and soil--is carried in the middle of - the stream, owing to the current being stronger, relieved as it is - from the friction of the banks. So bars of sand, gravel, and such - stuff are built up that finally divide the water into two branches. - Then if the water keeps on flowing, each of these branches divides - by two, and so on. You see the same thing in the mouths of deltas. -] - -"But what about the roses made of sand? That's a conundrum you didn't -answer." - -Oh, yes, we must get down closer to the desert to see these. We can't -see them in the bird's-eye view we have been taking. The desert sand -has a great deal of gypsum in it, and when the sand gets a wetting from -a cloudburst this gypsum crystallizes and forms what are called "sand -roses." These "roses" are of various sizes and forms; some look like -camelias and some like a cluster of pearls. They are not common and you -have to hunt for them. - -[Illustration: ALL THE COMFORTS OF HOME - - Children in the primary grades have here told us, with their clever - little fingers, about life in Africa immediately south of the big - desert, the part of Africa where they have rain and to spare. -] - - -II. How the Desert Makes Its Sand - -Most of the sand of the desert, as you may imagine, is home-made; and -it is very curious to notice the different which it is manufactured. -The desert sun and the cloudless nights have a great deal to do with -it. - -[Illustration: HOW THE ARAB FARMER GATHERS HIS DATES] - -Think of the hottest day in August you ever saw, and then multiply -by two. That will give you an idea of how hot a desert gets in the -day-time--something like 200 degrees; and 212 degrees boils eggs, you -know! But how cold do you suppose it gets at night? Fifteen minutes -after sunset the temperature drops to freezing. The reason of this is -that there are no clouds over the desert to keep the heat of the sand -wastes and the burning rocks from passing off rapidly into space. The -days are so hot and the nights are so cold that the rocks get a kind of -fever and ague, which makes them pull themselves to pieces. - - -THE "GOOSE-FLESH" ON THE ROCKS - -It is the same process we have just read about in the story of the -stones of our fields, only it goes on much faster in the desert on -account of the more rapid changes of temperature. You know how your -skin will pucker up into goose-flesh when you are cold. The desert -rocks do something similar. Because rock is a poor conductor, the heat -of the day and the cold of the night penetrate only a little way--only -through the skin of the rock, as it were; so this skin, stretching in -the day-time and puckering up at night, becomes loosened and shells off -bit by bit. Then it is blown about and in time ground into sand by the -desert winds. - -Some rocks have an additional way of getting picked to pieces. Granite -is one of these. It has several different kinds of mineral in it, and -some of these minerals contract and expand faster than others; some -more than others. As a consequence, the particles of the rock keep -pulling and hauling at each other. This helps to break it up into -little pieces, which soon become sand. The darker the rock, other -things being equal, the greater the changes, because anything dark--a -suit of clothes, for instance--absorbs heat faster than a light object. - -[Illustration: - - _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." - By permission of Ginn and Company_ - - HOW RAIN-DROPS HELP SPLIT BOULDERS - - A big boulder in western Texas split, just as you see it here, by - rain-drops, with the help of the sun, and under the conditions - described in the text, sat for this photograph. A friend of mine - who has been all over that country says that on blistering-hot - days you can see little pieces pop out of the granite boulders, - like chips from an invisible chisel struck by an invisible hammer. - This is why: We Granites are made up of particles--little bits--of - several different minerals, and some of these minerals expanding - much faster than others pop themselves out. -] - -The great mountain rocks of the desert, bare of all protecting soil and -verdure, are always crumbling as a result of all these causes, and so -the winds are constantly blowing them away, piece by piece. - - -HOW LITTLE RAIN-DROPS SPLIT BIG BOULDERS - -As if everything in the desert were in the sand-making business the -very rain-drops help make sand. The rain-drops do this in much the same -way that the farmer breaks big boulders in his fields, so that he can -more easily haul them away, piece by piece. He builds a fire against -the boulder, gets it as hot as he can, then rakes the fire away, dashes -water on the stone, and--bang! It cracks as if old Thor had struck it -with his hammer. - -You see why this is, don't you, after what we have been saying about -why the rock's skin chips off? The water suddenly cools the highly -heated rock, and the parts shrinking pull away from each other with a -bang! bang! bang! The hot desert rocks, dashed by the torrents of a -cloudburst, break apart just like that, and you can hear them. Stones -twenty-five feet across are often broken into many pieces after a -downpour. Then the finer pieces of rock that are made in this continual -splitting, and by the chipping that goes on day and night, the fierce -winds grind against each other; so manufacturing sand. And the fiercer -winds also drive coarse sand against crumbling rock surfaces, thus -grinding them away and making more sand. So the winds, using sand to -make sand, put the sand out at interest, you may say. - -And on all its sand, made in these various ways--by wind and rain and -heat and cold, and the crystal fairies of the land of change--the -desert puts its special trade-mark, just as a manufacturer puts his -trade-mark on his goods. If you should take some desert sand and some -sand from the shores of the sea and show them to a man who knows about -such things, he would say (after he had put them under a microscope, of -course): - - -THE DESERT'S TRADE-MARK ON ITS SANDS - -"_This_ sand came from a desert, or from some place where it was much -blown about by the winds; while _this_ sand is from the shores of the -sea, or of a lake." The sand grains of the seashore, although they are -always being tumbled about by the waves, as the desert sands are by the -winds, are protected from each other by the water between them. These -little water cushions prevent the sand grains from rubbing together; -so they keep a good many of their sharp edges. They are not rounded -like the sands of the desert. The winds keep the desert sands grinding -against each other, at the same time turning them over and over, so -wearing them away pretty evenly on all sides. It also grinds them -against the desert rocks. - -[Illustration: A DESERT SIMOOM ON ITS TRAVELS - - A traveller in the Sahara took this snap-shot of a simoom from - the outside and at a safe distance. You can see that it must be - quite a distance from where we are standing, for the trees in the - foreground are still. The vast cloud of sand looks quite dark - because of the shadows cast by the sun, which it hides from view. -] - -It is as if there were cut upon the sea sands, "Father Neptune: His -Make"; while the genii of the desert, jealous for the desert's -reputation, had engraved on their own product: - -"Genuine Desert Sand. Look for the Trade-Mark and Accept No -Substitutes!" - - -III. The Plant People of the Desert - -Although it doesn't look a bit homey to us there are quite a few people -living in the desert, when you come to count them all--four-legged -people, and six-legged people, and two-legged people, and big and -little people with wings, and the people of the plant world. - - -THE WATER BOTTLE OF THE DESERT - -One of the most curious of the plant people is the cactus, particularly -the one known as the "desert water bottle." Like many two-legged people -it has a rough, unsociable exterior, but a kind heart. Let a traveller -come upon one of these bristly cactuses, after long, thirsty hours, -and he will realize what this means. Inside this cactus he will find -what will seem to him the most delightful drink he ever tasted. While -it isn't as cool as it might be, neither is it as warm as you would -expect, and it has a pleasant, sweet taste. - -[Illustration: DRAWING WATER FROM THE BARREL CACTUS - - This cactus, so far as shape is concerned, really belongs to the - barrel family, as you can see, besides performing one of the most - useful functions of a barrel in holding good drinking water for - thirsty travellers in the desert. My, how thirsty you get! You - drink, drink, drink from sunrise to sunset--about two gallons a - day. But sometimes the supply you are carrying gives out because - you miscalculated or you've lost your way, or the barrel leaks. - Then, oh, how you welcome the sight of a barrel cactus among the - rocky foot-hills! Director Hornaday, in the delightful book from - which I have already quoted says: "You get a gallon of water - surprisingly cool, and in flavor like the finest raw turnip. The - object on the ground is not a circular saw, but the inverted top - of the cactus, and the whiteness is that of the white meat that - contains the water. With a stick the meat is pounded to a pulpy - mass, and the water oozes out, forming a little pool. Then the - man with the cleanest hands washes them cleaner with some of the - pulp--throwing _this_ pulp away, of course--then squeezes the water - out of the rest of it into the barrel." - - Another interesting thing about this cactus is that it enables you - to get candy right in the desert; for here and there, through its - thick skin, it oozes out a secretion called "cactus candy," which - is very delicious. You are always sorry there is so little of it. -] - -The fact that you can get a drink in this way, just when you want it -most, all comes of foresight on the part of the cactus. After they get -down from two to four inches in the ground the roots of this cactus -spread out in every direction and for a long way. They collect every -bit of moisture in the soil, and they make the most of every drop of -rain that falls within their reach. Then they hide all this moisture -away and cling to every precious drop. Most plants, you know, evaporate -a great deal of water through their leaves. But the cactus, living in -a world where rains are few and far between, just can't afford to do -any evaporating to speak of; so it has practically no leaves, you see, -only little bits of things that you almost have to take a microscope to -find. But what it lacks in leaves it makes up in spines, which defend -it against the attacks of most thirsty animals, although it is believed -the desert mice know the secret of getting at this water, in spite of -the spines. - -One kind of desert plant you have no doubt met face to face, for it is -used to make printing paper. It grows in the deserts of Libya and other -parts of North Africa, and is called esparto grass. Like hemp, it has -stems which are full of strong fibres. These stems are gathered in huge -bundles, which are carried by camels to the sea, where they are sent by -ship to the English paper mills. - - -HOW THE "ROSE OF JERICHO" GOES TO SEA - -But there is a member of the desert plant family called the "Rose of -Jericho," that doesn't wait for anybody to come after it and carry it -to sea; it just picks up and sets sail for itself. It is a bush about -six inches high, a native of the wastes of Northern Africa, Palestine, -and Arabia. It bears a little four-petaled flower. When blossom time is -over the leaves fall off and its branches, loaded with seeds, dry up, -and, curling inward as they dry, form a ball. Its roots also let go of -the soil, so that the strong desert winds easily pull it up and it goes -bowling away toward the sea. When it gets there it tumbles in. - -[Illustration: THE CACTUS-WREN AND HER LITTLE FRONT DOOR - - Speaking of cactus spines, do you know how many of those wicked - little spines the cactus-wren had to work with and tug and twist - about in building that nest? About two thousand! These spines not - only make the nest but defend it. You can't be too careful about - your front door in Desertland. Such neighbors! -] - -Then this bold little traveller, who is very sensitive to moisture -although he has had so little of it in his bringing up, promptly -unfolds his arms and scatters his handful of seeds on the water; which -is precisely the thing he took all that journey to do! For the seeds -are carried far by the currents of the sea. Thus the family to which -this plant belongs keeps sending out colonies into new lands. This -seems to be one of the chief missions in life of plants as of other -peoples. - -The plant of which we have just been speaking is called the "Rose of -Jericho," although it looks so little like a rose that quaint old John -Gerard, an English doctor who loved and studied plants over three -hundred years ago, says: - -"The coiner of the name spoiled it in the mint; for of all plants that -have been written of not any are more unlike unto the rose." - - -THE WIND WITCHES OF THE STEPPES - -Our own tumbleweeds and the Canada thistle have the same trick of -bowling before the wind. There is a relative of these tumblers living -on the Russian steppes that the Cossacks call the "wind witch." At -the end of the season the branches dry up into a ball and then by the -hundreds these witches go skimming over the plains, driven by the loud -autumn winds. They are as light as a feather, and they go so fast that -sometimes even the Cossack horsemen cannot catch them, as they often -try to do in sport. Part of the time they move along with a short, -quick, hopping motion, and then, caught by an eddy, rise a hundred feet -in the air. - -Often dozens of them get locked together, join hands like the real -witches of our fairy tales, and the whole company goes dancing away -before the howling blast. - -Eery creatures! - - -IV. The Autographs in the Sand - -There are certain very interesting people of the desert that you -don't often find at home, not because they aren't there, but because -they don't _want_ to be found. Snakes, lizards, rabbits, and ground -squirrels slip quietly out of your way in the early morning, and by -the time the hot sun is high, beast and bird seek the shadows of the -canyons, or of big rocks, shelving banks, or caves. - -[Illustration: THE COYOTE'S NOCTURNE - - In addition to what he tells so cleverly in the picture about the - night song of the Coyote, Dan Beard--_your_ Dan Beard of the Boy - Scouts--says the animal is a ventriloquist; can throw his voice so - that it sounds as if he were a mile off, then startle you with the - noise of a full pack at your heels--and all the time be sitting - watching you from behind a stone not fifty yards away! -] - -But they all leave word. In the lava beds of the Arizona desert, where -not even the cactus will grow, you can make out the tracks of the quail -and the linnet, and of a peculiar desert bird called the road-runner. -There, also, are the tracks of the coyote and the wildcat, the gray -wolf, and sometimes the mountain lion. If about daybreak you saw what -seemed to be a long, lean, hungry dog, trotting away slantwise with a -cautious eye to the rear, it was probably a gray wolf a little late in -getting home. Like the coyote, the wildcat, the owl, and many other -desert people, that old gray wolf belongs to the world's great night -shift and is usually back in his mountain home by sunrise. Even when -you see him at all--which is seldom--he is hard to make out; for, like -the coyote, he wears a rusty, sunburned coat, which blends with the -sand and the yellow rocks. - -The coyote is a smaller member of the wolf family, to which both the -dog and the fox belong. He has much of the same cunning, and like Br'er -Fox is fond of chicken. But his home is usually so far from modern -conveniences he has few chances to visit poultry yards, and lives from -paw to mouth, as it were, catching a jack-rabbit when he can--the -desert rabbits seem to sleep with both eyes open--and lizards when he -can't get rabbits. At the worst he will make out on "prickly pears," -the pods of the mesquite bush, which are full of seeds. - - -THE WINGED PEOPLE OF THE DESERT - -Although you will not realize it at first there are a good many birds -in the desert. Some are transients, just passing through, and stopping -for a rest and a bite or two on the way. Others, such as the linnet -and the wrens, have nests tucked away among the spines of the cactus, -and there's a finch singing from the top of that bush! In flower -time in the Arizona desert (of which we are now speaking) there are -humming-birds, but their colors are not so bright as those of our -humming-birds. Feathers, like hair, have the natural color burned out -of them in the desert sun. Only the insects keep their bright clothes. -Turn over a stone and away will scamper golden beetles, silver beetles, -turquoise blue beetles, beetles in bronze; a whole boxful of jewels on -six legs. - -[Illustration: - - _From McCook's "Nature's Craftsmen." - Copyright Harper and Brothers_ - - THE LIFE STRUGGLE IN THE DESERT - - The late Harry Fenn, who did everything so well, drew this picture - of one of the incidents of the life struggle in the desert. It - represents the desert wasp, known as the "tarantula killer," - pursuing its prey. The tarantula of the Southwest is the giant - among our native spiders, but it cowers before the wasp, and - hurries off as fast as it can; but usually it _can't_, and is soon - laid away in Lady Wasp's nest as food for her solitary baby when - it comes out of the egg which the mother wasp lays in the spider's - body. -] - - -INSECTS, LIZARDS, SPIDERS, AND OTHERS - -And there are gray lizards, yellow lizards, and lizards called -"skinks," with tails as blue as indigo; and the gila monster, a lizard -in dull orange and black, with an ugly disposition and poison in his -lower jaw. Another big lizard of the Arizona desert is called the -chuckwalla. The Arizona Indians are very fond of him. They say he -tastes like chicken. - -Most of the spider family are represented in Arizona, including the -trap-door spider, who hides and waits for his dinner in a hole with -a wonderful trap-door that he made himself. This door he slams tight -when he gets you inside, if you're a fly or anything like that. He -also shuts this door in the face of his enemy, the centipede, a flat -worm a foot long, with loads of legs and feet. His name means "hundred -footed." He has poison daggers in his feet and his two-branched tail. - -[Illustration: A DESERT BEETLE AND HIS GYMNASTICS - - This desert beetle is called by the Indians - "The-Bug-that-Stands-on-His-Head." At first I thought he was taking - stomach exercises, for beetles have wonderful digestions, as you - may learn from Fabre's book on "The Sacred Beetle." But Mr. Howard, - Chief of the Bureau of Entomology at Washington--Uncle Sam's great - authority on bugs--tells me this is an attitude many beetles take - on the approach of an enemy, the object being to discharge a kind - of poison-gas which is intended to drive him away; and usually does. -] - - -WHAT A WONDERFUL FLYING MACHINE HE IS! - -But what's that away up in the sky? A flying machine? Yes, one of the -most wonderful flying-machines in the world--a vulture. There he goes, -sweeping in wide circles, as he hunts along the mountain range, mile -after mile, closely scanning the base of the cliffs for the bodies of -unfortunate creatures that have fallen over. Vultures will keep in the -air in that way whole days at a time, following the cliffs and canyons -for hundreds of miles. But for all that it is sometimes a week or two -between meals with a desert vulture. - -How does the vulture soar so wonderfully? Nobody is quite sure about -it. Often for hours there is no motion of the wings, as far as anybody -has been able to make out, and a soaring vulture seems to be able to -move as easily against the wind as with it. You'll not be surprised -to hear that it takes time to learn to fly like that--a whole year. -And even after the first year the young vultures stay for a good while -under the instruction of their parents, going out hunting with them -every day and sleeping with them in the nest on the cliffs at night. - - -V. A Day in the Sahara - -How would you like to spend a day in the famous Sahara desert with the -camels and the people and the dogs; and, I was going to say, the flies? -But the flies can't stand it. They stay in the villages on the borders. -Only a few are ever bold enough to start with a caravan and these soon -turn back. - -When a desert Arab and his family start on a journey the tents, the -sleeping-rugs, the scanty provisions, and the women and children are -piled on the camels, the dogs take their places at the end of the -procession and the men at the head, and the caravan starts. - -As the chieftain throws the end of the burnoose (his hooded cloak) -across his shoulder and, with his carbine in the hollow of his arm, -stalks in advance of all, you feel that if you were an Arab boy you -would be as proud as he is to have a father like that. What a splendid -figure; what a strong, grave, handsome face, and utterly without fear! -All his poor possessions would hardly pay a month's rent in a fine city -apartment, but he has the proud bearing of a king. He looks as if he -had just stepped out of a picture in a Bible story-book. - -[Illustration: ALL IN THE DAY'S WORK! - - This looks to me like the beginning of a simoom; if so, we'd better - wrap _our_ shawls about our faces as the Arabs are doing. Notice - how the rising wind picks up and twirls the sand about the camels' - legs and sends it stinging into the faces of the men. Maybe it - will die down as quickly as it came; maybe it will increase into a - choking sand-storm that will last a week. -] - -And how keen those dark eyes must be; and what a memory for the look -of things! At the beginning of the day's journey he is guided, as -sailors are at sea, by the stars. But soon the winds begin to rise, as -the desert farther away is warming under the sun, and the fine sand -drifts and shifts like snow, filling up our own tracks as fast as they -are made; so, you may be sure, it is leaving no guiding tracks made by -previous travellers. But this man has known every hill, every dune, and -every rocky gully along the way since he himself was a little boy, and -went over this same route sitting on the camel with his mother while -his father stalked on before. - -[Illustration: A CARAVAN ON THE MARCH - - Here is a caravan lumbering along over what appears to be a - pretty well-beaten roadway in Algeria where many improvements to - facilitate travel have been made by the French. It must be about - 8.00 A. M. or 4.00 P. M. Shouldn't you say so, from the shadows? -] - -Presently we come across another little group of travellers going in -another direction. They are on their way north to the summer pastures; -for you see they have a little flock of sheep and goats and two -donkeys. And there are two men. These people are probably two families -travelling together. But they are not so well-to-do as our Arab. They -have no camel to carry the women and children. So dogs, donkeys, men, -women, children, and the sheep and goats all tramp along together. - -[Illustration: THE FORLORN LITTLE RAT OF THE DESERT SANDS - - If you've read Roosevelt's books on Africa you've met this little - creature before. But isn't he the rattiest-looking rat you ever - saw? He has only a hair here and there on his yellow skin; and no - eyes to speak of. He can hardly see at all, spending most of his - time, as he does--like the sightless creatures of caves--in the - pitch-dark of his underground burrow. Yet, I suppose, like that - desert boy it tells about at the end of this chapter, he thinks - there's no place like home! -] - -They are not worried because they are poor; for listen, they are -singing! It's a melancholy kind of song, as we think. It reminds us -of the queer sound the sand grains make when the desert winds are -beginning to blow. But to the Arab it is music. What a lot of verses it -has--all just alike--and sung over and over again. - -But what's the matter now? All of a sudden they stop singing and -begin to shout and fire off their guns. You'll laugh when I tell you -why. They heard something talking back to them; repeating all their -words. It was only an echo made by the rocks of the mountains that -we have just reached. But these superstitious people of the desert -don't know what an echo is. They think echoes are the voices of evil -spirits mocking them, and the shouting and the firing of the guns is to -frighten these mockers away. - -[Illustration: THE PACK-RAT'S FORTRESS - - This is a diagram of the fortress of another little citizen of - mountain rocks and desert places, known out West as the "pack" rat - because he is always packing off other people's things and hiding - them in his burrow. The "fortress" consists of several burrows, - the roads leading to which are carefully protected by the prickly - bayonets of the cactus joints which the rat drags there for that - purpose. -] - -Life for everybody in the Sahara and the Arabian desert is very much -what it is for the animals in the Arizona wastes--a constant struggle -for food. In the Arizona desert every living creature puts in all its -time trying to get something to eat without being eaten. The wildcat is -fortunate if he gets a meal once in two or three days; and while the -coyote is trying to slip up on a rabbit, ten to one there's a panther -slipping up on him. A traveller in northern Africa tells how, when his -caravan halted for dinner at an inn for the French soldiers quartered -in that region, he saw a lean and hungry cat eying him from around the -corner of a nearby hut. To borrow from Victor Hugo's description of -the hungry cat at the Spanish inn,[31] this cat of the desert looked -at the traveller "as if it would have asked nothing better than to be -a tiger." When the guest of the inn had finished the piece of chicken -he was eating he tossed the bone toward the cat which pounced on it -fiercely. Instantly a dog, which had been watching proceedings, rushed -forward and took the bone from the cat. Just then an Arab, who happened -to be passing, fell upon the dog and wrenching the bone from his mouth -began eagerly gnawing it himself. - -[Footnote 31: "Hugo's Letters to His Wife."] - -It's a hard life! - -And yet if you should bring an Arab boy to London or New York to live -and give him three good meals a day--he's not always sure of _one_ at -home--and nice clothes to wear and a real bed to sleep in, and shady -parks to play in, do you suppose he would be happy? No indeed. The -thing has been tried. He says this kind of life is all right for those -who like it, but it _isn't_ the desert. - -And you have to admit it! - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - Not at all dry, are they--these deserts--when you get down into - them? And I haven't told you half there is to tell about them.[32] - -[Footnote 32: John C. Van Dyke, for one, has written a wonderfully -interesting little book just about the American desert. It's called -simply "The Desert."] - - To begin with, what does your geography say about deserts--about - how they are made? - - How do mountains help make deserts? - - In and near what zone does your geography locate the great deserts - of the world? - - How does the Sahara desert compare in size with the United States? - (You see, the Sahara is practically a whole United States gone dry!) - - Yet, the soil of much of the Sahara is very fertile and with water - would yield wonderful crops. But where is the water to come from? - Where do we get the water that has made our deserts bloom? Has the - Sahara any such sources of supply? - - Is it true that the Libyan desert was once covered by the sea, as - it was in that story of Phaeton, the boy who set the world afire? - - And speaking of that story, was there a Jupiter and a Jupiter - Pluvius, too?[33] - -[Footnote 33: "That was a good deal like asking if there was a George -Washington and a President Washington too," said the High School Boy, -after he had looked it up.] - - Wouldn't you say the addition of "Pluvius" to the name of their - chief god meant the ancients recognized rain-making as a very - important and difficult business to manage? - - But what is it, really, that brings our rains? What has the sea - to do with it? And the winds? And the mountains? Your geography - answers all these questions briefly. You will find a full treatment - of the whole subject of the weather and of how the weather man, - "the man with a hundred eyes," manages to be so clever, in - "Pictured Knowledge."[34] - -[Footnote 34: In the article in the Nature Department, "What is the It -that Rains?"] - - From what general direction do the winds come that bring the rains - in North America? In South America? Why the difference? - - How many inches of rainfall are enough for raising good crops? - - Nevertheless, they raise fine crops in many parts of the United - States where they have hardly any rain at all. How do they manage - it? I mean how do they store up the water and distribute it, and - everything? (Irrigation.) - - In reading up on deserts in the encyclopedias alone you will - find many such interesting things as the following, and in other - books--particularly books of travel--much more: - - How long the commercial caravans are (such great freight trains as - those that cross the Sahara between Morocco and Timbuctoo); how - many camels one driver takes care of; how fast the camels travel; - how many days they can go without a drink. - - If you're going to cross with one of these caravans (or just - pretend to cross) I must tell you one thing: - - _You've got to look out for lions!_ - - From what you have learned in your geography about African lions, - where would you say you were likely to come across them?[35] - -[Footnote 35: Have you read Roosevelt's "African Game Trails"? or his -"Life Histories of African Game Animals"?] - - What do these caravans bring back from Central Africa? (What is - produced in Central Africa that the civilized world wants?) - - The ostrich is a most interesting citizen of the desert that I - didn't have room to talk about. There's enough for a whole chapter - in your notebook just about ostriches and their ways. - - Among other things, I wish you'd find out for me if the ostrich - really does bury its head in the sand and imagine that it is - thereby hiding itself. (I'll warrant you it's only book ostriches - that do this; not real ostriches.) - - One of the most curious things about Mrs. Ostrich is how she and - her neighbors work together. It's like an old-fashioned quilting - bee, for all the world; although, to be sure, the ostriches don't - make quilts--they make nests.[36] - -[Footnote 36: "Romance of Animal Arts and Crafts."] - - Speaking of ostrich nests naturally suggests eggs--and very big - eggs, of course, including the roc's egg in the "Arabian Nights." - They do have real rock's eggs in the desert, only this kind of a - roc's egg is spelled with a "k." You just turn to the chapter on - deserts in Hobb's "Face of the Earth," and you'll find not only - that there are such eggs, but how the desert sun uses salt in - cooking them and what the crystal people have to do with it; and - how, like a cat in a hen-house, the desert winds suck these eggs, - leaving only the hollow shell. - - - - - CHAPTER IX - - (SEPTEMBER) - - Morning - - The summer dawn's reflected hue - To purple changed Loch Katrine blue. - - --_Scott_: "_Lady of the Lake_." - -Evening - - Now folds the lily all her sweetness up - And slips into the bosom of the lake. - - --_Tennyson_: "_The Princess_." - - -IN THE LANDS OF THE LAKES - -If we really had spent the month of August in a desert what a relief it -would be to find ourselves, as we do now at the very beginning of the -golden autumn time, in the lands of the lakes with their cool, fresh -breezes, the whisper of leaves and the glint of waters dancing in the -sun. The best of it is that the deserts are just as delightful as the -lands of pleasant waters, if you only visit them in imagination as we -have been doing; and they make the lakes all the more attractive by way -of contrast. - - -I. How the Lakes are Born - -But where are the lands of the lakes? I may say to start with, it's -no use looking for many lakes in the lands of the big caves. Caves -and lakes don't seem to get on together any more than do caves and -boulders. - -When this story of the lakes was first told to a certain group of young -people some of the youngest of whom had not forgotten the giants or the -language of their fairy tales, I put it in this way: - -"The rains and the rivers, with the help of some other things, have -made all the lakes in the world. One of these helpers is a bright-eyed -creature with two legs; another a little creature with four legs and -a third a great big thing with no legs at all!" (I said it like this: -"G-R-E-A-T B-I-G T-H-I-N-G," and opened my eyes wide for the benefit of -the younger members of our "pebble parties," as these little gatherings -came to be called.) - -The great big things, as you have already guessed, were the glaciers of -the Ice Age. We have had specimens of their work in the story of how -the Great Lakes were made. - -The four-legged lake makers are the beavers. They live on the margins -of quiet, shallow ponds--really little lakes--which they make for -themselves by gnawing down trees and building dams. - -And the bright-eyed creature with two legs--can't you guess who he is? -If you never helped make little lakes of your own by damming up a brook -or a roadside rivulet, you have missed a lot of fun. - - -WIDE RANGE OF SIZE IN LAKE FAMILY - -But you _must_ have made them; what boy hasn't? And those little ponds -or puddles were lakes, while they lasted, just as much as the great -Lake Superior is a lake. Even lakes that are called lakes and get their -names (and often their pictures) in summer resort folders, differ in -size, ranging from little affairs that are not much larger than the -pond in the meadow, to Lake Superior, with its 31,000 square miles; and -in depth, from a few feet to 5,618 feet in the deepest part of Lake -Baikal. You see if you touched bottom there you would have to keep -going for over a mile. - -"And there's all the way back!" said the High School Boy. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT LAKES OF TO-DAY AND - THE GREATER LAKE OF YESTERDAY - - The farmers of Canada and the Dakotas now sow their harvests and - reap their golden grain on the bottom of the great inland sea of - the Ice Age, Lake Agassiz. It was larger than all the Great Lakes - of to-day put together. It is known how big this lake was from its - old beaches, which can easily be made out all around the margin - shown on the map. -] - -[Illustration: THE BLUE LAKE IN THE VOLCANO'S MOUTH - - In the mouth of a dead volcano lies one of the most beautiful lakes - in all the world, the chief attraction of Crater Lake National - Park. This model of its basin tells how nature did the work. The - steep sides and the glacial valleys show that the top fell in - when the lava that helped build the volcano sank back and so left - it without support. If the top had blown off, as volcano tops - sometimes do, the valleys would have been filled with débris. Later - there was another outbreak, but so small that it only built that - little volcano in the big volcano's mouth. Notice the tiny crater? - This baby volcano rises above the waters of its mimic ocean and - makes an island, just as so many volcanoes of the great Pacific - make the far-flung islands of the Southern Seas. -] - -Even the water ouzel, that wonderful diver of the mountain lakes and -waterfalls, might hesitate at a dive like that. - -Those remarkable old men of the mountains, the glaciers of the Ice -Age, were the greatest of all lake-makers. Although for size the Great -Lakes were their masterpieces, they made lakes of all sizes and no end -of them. They fairly sowed the landscape with lakes. Look at the map of -the lake regions of America and Europe and then turn back to the map -picture of the great ice invasion (page 21). Don't you see the lake -regions and what was once the ice regions cover practically the same -territory? - -[Illustration: LOOKING ACROSS THE LAKE TO WIZARD ISLAND - - There you see is the top of that little volcano--right across the - lake. It is known as "Wizard Island." The lake is 4,000 feet deep. - Its walls are 1,500 feet high; in some places over 2,000 feet high. - In spite of the fact that they, as you see, slope a good deal, - owing to the crumbling down of the weathered rock, the banks are - still so steep it has taken us several hours of careful climbing to - get down where this picture was taken, and we shall be all the rest - of the forenoon climbing back again. -] - -In addition to making lakes in their Great Lakes manner the glaciers -had other methods. A glacier coming into a dry mountain valley would -supply it with a river by melting, and at the same time dam up the -river with stones and soil brought down from the mountain and so make -a lake. Then the water would run over the brim of the dam, and the -thing was complete; a beautiful little lake with one river running into -it and another running out. - - -LOOKS AS IF IT HAD RAINED LAKES! - -You just go through Wisconsin or Minnesota or Maine, and right and left -you'll see lakes and lakes and lakes: and then more lakes! Of course -most of these lakes are small; otherwise it wouldn't have been possible -to work so many of them into the same landscape. In Wisconsin you find -these small lakes in what are called the "Kettle Ranges." The low hills -and their valleys form what the early settlers called "kettles," and in -these kettles are the little blue-eyed lakes. - -It was the glaciers that not only made the kettles but often filled -them with the lakes. In many of the mounds of pebbles and clay that -we read about in "The Secrets of the Hills," the glaciers left big -blocks of ice. Then, when this ice melted, two things happened: (1) -The covering of the ice sank down, much as the sawdust sinks in an -ice-house when a block of ice is taken out, thus making the kettle; (2) -the big ice cake in the hill of pebbles melted, so filling the kettle -with a lake. - -But what broke off these big blocks, these land icebergs that made the -basins for the kettle lakes? They were left by the glacier when it -began to retreat; that is to say when the supply of snow back at the -gathering ground became insufficient to keep pushing it forward as fast -as the front melted away. Melting most rapidly in those huge cracks -called crevasses, big blocks were finally separated entirely from the -main body and left behind as the rest of the glacier slowly melted back -toward the mountains. - -If the glaciers were thus responsible for most of the lakes of the -lowlands you may be sure they had a hand in making the lakes of the -mountains, right where they themselves live. John Muir, who spent his -life in loving study of the mountains of the West and of everything -connected with them, found mountain lakes in every stage of existence -up the mountainsides; empty stone bowls that showed by the work of the -waves on the rocks that they had once held lakes; above these, in the -same chain, lakes growing shallow; and, still higher, brand new lakes -in stone bowls with the edge of the glacier that had carved out the -bowl and filled it with blue water, still bordering it on the upper -side. - -[Illustration: ONE OF THE KETTLE LAKES OF WISCONSIN] - -And this is why, like fruit on a tree, the youngest lakes are found at -the top. Since the glacier melted from the foot of the range upward the -lower lakes were the first to be born and the first to pass away; while -the lakes higher up on the mountain were the last to be born and the -last to pass away. - - -II. The Moods of the Lakes - -Lakes are like the rivers and the sea; they have their moods. In -sunshine and storm, in wind and calm, and from season to season they -show many changes. As we already know they are great sleepy heads. To -Ruskin mountain lakes seemed both to sleep and to dream. But their -longest sleep, like that of Br'er Bear, is taken in the winter. Of this -long sleep Mr. Muir says:[37] - -"The highest (mountain lakes) are set in bleak, rough bowls, scantily -fringed with brown and yellow sedges. Winter storms blow snow through -the canyon in blinding drifts, and avalanches shoot from the heights. -Then are these sparkling tarns filled and buried, leaving not a hint of -their existence. In June and July they begin to blink and thaw out like -sleepy eyes, the daisies bloom in turn and the most profoundly buried -of them all is at length warmed and summered as if winter were only a -dream." - -[Footnote 37: "The Mountains of California."] - - -EVEN THE DUCKS OVERLOOK THESE LITTLE LAKES - -But possibly these lakes are not asleep after all! They may be only -playing possum; or hide and seek. There _are_ mountain lakes that play -hide and seek. That is to say, they hide and _you_ seek; and often you -don't find! They are so small that, surrounded as they are by trees, -tall and thickly set, even the ducks pass them by. The glaciers that -made them seem to have hidden them, as the robins did the babes in the -wood. The glaciers did this, not by heaping leaves over them, but by -piling up stones and soil around them. They are encircled by moraines, -and on the moraines grow the trees that hide the lakelets even from the -sharp eyes of the ducks. - -[Illustration: A LITTLE GIRL'S PICTURE OF A FAMOUS SWISS LAKE - - This picture of the lake of the Great St. Bernard was taken by - Phyllis M. Pulliam, who sent it to _St. Nicholas_ with a long, - enthusiastic letter, such as only school-girls know how to write. - Among other things she met a great St. Bernard dog that had saved - more than fifty lives. -] - -Mountain lakes are usually as clear as crystal, and, like perfect -mirrors, reflect the outlines and coloring of the clouds and the -neighboring peaks. They are apt to contain mica and feldspar ground out -of the granite rock by the glacier that made their basins. Then the -sunlight falling on these rock particles gives them the color of jade -or Nile green, or dark green like a peacock's tail. They are constantly -changing color with the changing angles of the light from morning until -sunset; and under the passing clouds and the rippling of the winds. The -deeper lakes are dark blue in the deepest parts, turning to green in -the shallow waters near shore where the yellow of the sun rays and the -sand mixes most with the blue of the waters.[38] - -[Footnote 38: Van Dyke: "The Mountain."] - - -THE MYSTERY IS IN THE SECRET PASSAGE - -In Florida there are sister lakes so sympathetic that their waters rise -and fall together. One responds to the mood of the other as promptly as -your right eye waters in sympathy when you get a grain of dust in the -left. The reason for this goes back to the days when the corals helped -build Florida. They did this by leaving their "bones" on the coral -reefs when that part of North America was in the making. These remains -formed limestone. Then, in this limestone, "sink holes" were formed on -the surface leading to underground passages, just as they do over the -land surface in the cave regions of Kentucky. These sink holes often -fill with water and form little lakes. These lakes, being connected -by the underground passages, rise and fall together. It looks very -strange, even when you know the secret of it; and still stranger when -you don't. - -Yet I shouldn't be surprised if a bright boy or girl seeing two lakes -rising or falling together would suspect the underground connection; -for, of course, we all know about springs and their underground -channels. But what would you say to this: - -A lake that, a moment before, was as smooth as glass suddenly begins -to shiver all over as one shivers in a sudden draught. But there is no -breeze stirring! A moment later the water rises and falls along the -banks; an inch, two inches, a foot, two feet. Then, in the course of a -couple of hours, the sky, which before was without a cloud, begins to -grow black and there follows a terrific storm. - - -A KIND OF NATURAL BAROMETER - -The cause of the rising of the water is the heavier pressure of the air -at the farther end of the lake, the region of the coming storm. The -water, being forced down at one end of the basin, you see, rises at the -other. Then as the storm advances toward you the pressure is released -and the water falls again; but for a while it rocks to and fro as water -will do in a basin if you tip it up at one end and then let it down -again. - - -THE TIDES IN A TEACUP - -But, besides these imitation tides made by the unequal pressure of -the wind, lakes have real tides just as the ocean does; and from the -same cause, the attraction of the moon. In fact, there are tides in a -teacup, and the tea rises toward the passing moon as does everything -liquid on the face of the earth. In the teacup the rise is so small you -can't see it as you do when the great mass of the ocean waters is moved -in the same way. Even in the Great Lakes the tide only amounts to three -inches or so. - -And, in addition to their tides, there are many other things about -lakes that have led the largest of them to be referred to as "inland -seas." Says Reclus:[39] - -"Lakes are indeed seas. They have their tempests, their swells, their -breakers. It is true the waves are neither so high nor move so rapidly -as those of the sea because they do not move over such great depths. -They are short, compact and choppy, but for this very reason they are -more formidable. And the water being fresh and therefore lighter than -that of the ocean is more readily agitated. The wind has scarcely begun -to stir when the surface is covered with foaming billows." - -[Footnote 39: "The Earth."] - -Not only are lake storms especially dangerous for the reasons just -given by the great French geographer but lakes in mountain regions are -subject to an additional danger; for their storms are most apt to come -at night, just as described in the story of the storm on Galilee in the -New Testament. You remember it says the storm came "down."[40] - -[Footnote 40: Luke 8: 23.] - -"Now it came to pass on a certain day that Jesus went into a ship with -his disciples; and he said unto them, Let us go over unto the other -side of the lake. And they launched forth. - -"But as they sailed he fell asleep: and there came down a storm of wind -on the lake; and they were filled with water and were in jeopardy." - -Macgregor, in his "Rob Roy on the Jordan," draws the following vivid -picture of his own struggles with one of these tempests: - - -HOW THE STORM CAME DOWN ON GALILEE - -"Just as the Rob Roy passed below Wady Fik a strange, distant hissing -sounded ahead where we could see a violent storm was raging. The waves -had not time to rise. The gusts had come down on calm water and they -whisked long wreaths of it up into the sky. This torrent of heavy, cold -air was pouring over the mountain crests into the deep caldron of the -lake below. Just as it says in Luke 8:23. 'There came _down_ a storm -upon the lake.'" - -[Illustration: ON THE BORDERS OF THE SEA OF GALILEE - - You can see this is in a desert, mountainous country, and, from the - dress of the man, that it is in the Orient. The beach is wide--for - so small a lake--because of those frequent and severe storms that - drive the waves, loaded with sand and pebbles, far back from the - shore. -] - -This peculiarity of squalls among mountains is known to all who have -boated much on lakes, but on the Sea of Galilee the wind has a singular -force and suddenness. This is no doubt because the sea is so deep in -the world that the sun rarefies the air in it enormously and the wind, -speeding swiftly over a long and level plateau, suddenly comes upon -this huge gap in the way and tumbles down into it. - - -III. How Lakes Grow Old and Pass Away - -But, however formed, lakes, of all the features of our landscape, are -the soonest to pass away. Because of the sediment brought into them by -the rivers they keep getting more and more shallow and at last, in the -course of time, are quite filled up. The waves of the lakes themselves -help to bring this about by cutting material from their shores and -washing it into the water. - -So the time will come when all lakes now in existence will have passed -away. But the people of those times will not be without their lakes. -New lakes will probably be made by the same causes which produced the -lakes of to-day; for Nature's great processes do not change. - - -WHY LILIES COME TO THE DYING LAKES - -Meanwhile how beautifully they pass, these lakes; particularly the -little lakes like that in Rousseau's painting. First, on the margin of -a dying lake the lilies gather. Lilies grow only in quiet waters and -these they find in the shallow margins of lakes that are filling up. - - -LAST OF ALL COME THE TREES - -Next after the lilies come the sedges, grasslike herbs that grow in -marshy places. And after they are well established they get things -ready for the next arrivals; for these plants come in a regular -procession. The dense tufts of the sedges make mats on which soil -gathers. In this soil shrubs begin to grow. From the decay of all -this vegetation more soil is formed in which the seeds of spruce and -tamarack spring up. Then come willows, then poplars and maples, and -last of all the oaks and nut-bearing trees, which march into new lands -slowly because they must depend on their heavy seeds to move them -forward, while the little seeds of maple, willow, poplar, and pine are -easily carried by the wind. - -[Illustration: - - _"The Lake." From the painting by Rousseau_ - - HOW LAKES GROW OLD AND PASS AWAY - - This picture, called "The Lake," is from a painting by Rousseau, a - great French landscape artist, and illustrates the beautiful way - in which lakes grow old, as described in the text. Already, as you - see, Father Oak and his family have arrived. -] - -But while fresh-water lakes and their surroundings are so beautiful -and poetic, and never more so than when the lakes are passing away, -there are dying lakes, whose surroundings are the very pictures of -desolation. These are the lakes which have become bitter with salt -because their waters are evaporated by the sun faster than fresh water -comes in. The most famous of these salt lakes is the Dead Sea of the -Holy Land, into which the Jordan flows. Lying in a rock-bound pit, in -the deepest part of a vast trench, it is like a caldron into which for -eight months of every year is poured the heat from a burning sun in a -cloudless sky. Although Palestine, as you can see by the map, is in -the temperate zone, the thermometer here often registers 130 degrees, -because cooling breezes never come down into this pit except in those -occasional storms due to the sudden rush of cooler and therefore -heavier air from the surrounding heights. - - -THIS IS HOW THE DEAD SEA DIED - -As shown by the wave-cut terraces on the surrounding rocks this lake -was once a part of a great body of water that extended clear from Mount -Hermon to the Red Sea. Then, by a series of heaving movements, widely -separated in time (as shown by the depth of the beach terraces) the -bottom of this greater sea was uplifted into the two parallel chains of -limestone mountains which flank the Jordan Valley. At the same time a -great block of earth crust between them settled down, step by step, and -made the long trench running clear to Africa, one end of which is the -Jordan Valley, in which the Dead Sea lies. - -Later, during the different Ice Ages, as it is supposed, there was -plenty of moisture, for the rock records show that the Sea of Galilee -and what is now the Dead Sea were once parts of the same body of water. -Then the climate gradually changed, the land went dry, and the Dead -Sea water became far saltier than that of the ocean--so salty that all -life died out of it. To-day the water tastes like a mixture of epsom -salts and quinine, and any unfortunate fish swept into it by the fresh -waters of the Jordan, in which fish are abundant, gives a few desperate -gasps and dies. - -[Illustration: THE DEAD SEA] - -[Illustration: HOW THE DEAD SEA DIED] - -While it is not true, as the ancients believed, that birds drop dead -in flying over it, neither birds nor beasts make their homes in the -choking pit; and on its shores, always gray with a mixture of mud and -salt, of course no green thing can grow. Indeed, there is little plant -life anywhere round about, but as if in mockery there grow nearby what -are known as apples of Sodom or Dead Sea fruit. This fruit looks like -an orange, but it is bitter to the taste and filled only with fibre and -dust. - -The official report of Lieutenant Lynch, of the United States Navy, who -headed an expedition sent out by the government to explore the Dead Sea -and the surrounding regions, is full of word pictures which might well -have supplied material for the imagination of Dante. - - -LIKE A VAT OF MOLTEN METAL - -The sea, yellow from the large amount of phosphorus in the water, is -overhung in the early morning by a dense mist. This mist is made by the -water steaming in the intense heat. It looks, however, like smoke above -a great vat of molten metal "fused but motionless." After dark, when -the night winds come down from the heights and go moaning through the -gorges, the scene changes. - -"The surface becomes one wide sheet of phosphorescent foam, and the -waves, as they break on the shore, throw a sepulchral light on the -white skeletons of dead trees which have been washed from the woody -banks of the Jordan and, lying half buried in the sand, are coated with -gray salt from the muddy spray." - -On a portion of the land now covered by the lake, according to -tradition, were the wicked cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, and after -their destruction these bitter waters flowed in and forever buried the -scene of their wickedness from the sight of men. - -It seems probable that the region did once support a larger population. -We know this to be true of other parts of the Orient which have since -become desolate owing to the ravages of war, the change of climate, and -the decay of Oriental civilization. And when we recall how the sinking -of the great earth block that carried this land so far below the level -of the sea forced lava up through the earth cracks, we can account for -"the fire from heaven" that poured down upon the cities of the plain. - -Professor Huntington, who headed the Yale Expedition into Palestine -in 1909, speaks of visiting the ruins of Suweim south of the Dead Sea -and picking up bits of lava (the whole region abounds in evidences of -volcanic action) while the sheik who acted as guide told the story of -Sodom as the story of Suweim. The name Suweim, Professor Huntington -thinks, may be a corruption of Sodom. Continuing, he says:[41] - -"The place is much greener than the other side of the valley, and in -the days of Lot may have been 'like the garden of Jehovah'[42]; for in -those times, as our studies of old levels of the Dead Sea quite clearly -indicate, the climate of Palestine was probably decidedly moister than -it is now. - -"And not two miles from Suweim we found a little volcano of very recent -date geologically, and an eruption may have wrought havoc in a town -located near Suweim." - -[Footnote 41: "Palestine and Its Transformation."] - -[Footnote 42: Genesis 13:10.] - -In one part of the valley he also found a cave among the mountains, -hewn out of the limestone above a spring. - -Now turn to your Bible, Genesis 9:30: - -"And Lot went up out of Zoar and dwelt in the mountain, in a cave, he -and his two daughters." - -In short, the geography of the region--such is the conclusion of -Professor Huntington's careful study--"supplies all the elements of the -story of Sodom and Gomorrah in exactly the location where the Biblical -account would lead one to expect them." - -But the native Arab goes further. Not far from the borders of the Dead -Sea is a mountain of salt called Jebel Usdem, which "the early and -later rains" in the course of ages have dissolved into many fantastic -shapes. Among these strange figures is a pillar tapering toward the -top, on which is a wide cap of stone, such as that shown on page 60 and -such as are often seen on detached and pillared rocks. - -But this gaunt remnant of grisly gray, although it is still obviously a -part of the mountain and cannot be less than forty feet high, your Arab -friend insists was once the wife of Lot! - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - If you were hunting for mountain lakes where would you expect to - find the most, in high mountains or in low? - - Rivers sometimes make lakes by using the same stuff the small - boys do, just plain mud. Look at Lake Pontchartrain in the map of - Louisiana and you can see one of the ways in which this is done. - Remember that all the land around this lake is part of the delta of - the Mississippi. The river deposits have simply enclosed a portion - of the shallow sea. - - Or--this is another way in which rivers make lakes by building mud - walls--a river emptying at right angles into a narrow gulf may - build a dam clear across it. The rich Imperial Valley of southern - California was cut off from the Gulf of California in this way. - Look at the map and you can see just how this was done. - - One of the puzzles about mountain lakes is how frogs got into them. - The frogs never climbed up there, you may be sure. Muir thinks - maybe the ducks did it. How do you suppose? See if you can imagine - and then see what Muir says about it.[43] - -[Footnote 43: "The Mountains of California."] - - In connection with what was said about lakes playing they are - oceans--not these little mountain lakes, of course, but great - big lakes--you will be interested in what Lord Bryce says in his - "Travels in South America" about why lakes may even look larger - than the ocean. - - In the Britannica and other books that you may not yet be old - enough to read you will find many more curious things about lakes. - I can't tell which one of my readers you are, you see, but if you - belong to the "younger set," father, mother, or some other member - of the family can do the looking up and then tell you about it.[44] - In the Britannica will be found such interesting things as this: - -[Footnote 44: I don't know of anything that is more fun, of an evening, -than looking up things in an encyclopædia--except looking them up in -_two_ encyclopædias.] - - How certain kinds of mountains and lakes are made at one and the - same time--by the same movement. - - How even the wind may make lakes. - - Why lakes are to the land what lands are to the sea. - - Then if you will turn to page 75 of that fascinating little book we - have already dipped into several times[45] you will find what the - fact that lakes are to the land what islands are to the sea has to - do with a peculiar beetle in the Shetland Islands (where the ponies - come from) and the famous tailless cat of the Isle of Man. - -[Footnote 45: "Colin Clout's Calendar."] - - One of the quaintest little bits of real life in Lakeland is how - the baby gulls of the Great Lakes worry their papas and mamas by - going swimming before they are old enough; how their parents give - them a spanking and send them back home; and how kind all the lady - gulls are to the little gulls of neighbors that come to their - houses to play with their children.[46] - -[Footnote 46: "The Bird, Our Brother," by Olive Thorne Miller.] - - - - -[Illustration: DROWNED VALLEYS ON THE MAINE COAST - - Wherever you see very irregular shores, as along the coast of - Maine, you may infer that the shores have sunk so that the waters - of the sea came up into the river valleys, and the hills and long - tongues of high land became islands and peninsulas. -] - - - - - CHAPTER X - - (OCTOBER) - - To-night the winds begin to rise - And roar from yonder dropping day; - The last red leaf is whirled away, - The rooks are blown about the skies. - - --_Tennyson._ - - -THE AUTUMN WINDS AND THE ROCK MILLS OF THE SEA - -Nothing looks more aimless, more unorganized, perhaps, than the long -turmoil of the waves of the sea which begins in late autumn and -continues through the winter months. If, with your nose well over the -edge of a cliff, you look straight down, you will see something like -this: With every forward leap of the surges the waters are divided and -entangled among the rocks, and division after division is beaten back -by the upright wall in front and the broken blocks of stone on this -side and on that. On-coming waves, met by those recoiling, rise into -mountainous, struggling masses of wild fury. The whole affair seems to -be as clear a case of wasted energy as a Mexican revolution. - -But if you watch the waves carefully and study them a little you will -see underlying and controlling this apparent anarchy the wonderful -engineering by which the machinery of the sea works out its appointed -tasks. It is when the earth has gathered its harvests and laid down -to its winter rest that the sea begins gathering harvests of its own, -grinding up the rocks for food for the plants in its gardens, for -new clothes for its shell-fish, and new soil for earth harvests in -millenniums yet to be. - - -I. The Destroyer - -On the face of it the case looks bad. The sea's chief business seems -to be that of eating us up, or at least the lands on which we live. -And this idea of it we find running through all literature and art. A -very large number of the pictures of the sea, probably the majority, -show it in wind and storm. And this is still more true of the famous -sea pictures of literature. Shakespere, for example, makes some three -hundred references to the sea, and nearly always, where he gives it a -character, it is that of a monster, always hungry and never satisfied, -a "wild, rude sea," a sea "raging like an angry boar"--and so back to -Homer and forward to Kipling. - -That the sea is constantly eating away the land cannot be denied, and -to an extent that is delightfully alarming if, as did the little boy -listening to the tale of the giants, we "like to be made nervous." It -is said that England still rules the waves, but where she fronts the -sea on the east the coast is being cut back at the rate of two to four -yards a year, in spite of all that modern engineering skill can do. In -the course of a thousand years the losses on all fronts have amounted -to over 500 square miles. Each year carries off 1,500 acres more from -the king's domains, to add them to the Empire of the Sea, "and he calls -to us still unfed." On the east coast the blows dealt by the waves in -severe storms are such that the land trembles for a mile back from -the shore. "The earth," said Emerson,[47] speaking of the industrial -greatness of England, "shakes under the thunder of its mills." So for -ages it has shaken under the thunder of the mills of the sea. - -[Footnote 47: "English Traits."] - -[Illustration: - - _Courtesy of "The Scientific American"_ - - SEA-CLIFFS IN THE SCHOOLROOM - - These dizzy cliffs and the wide sea beyond were made in the - schoolroom in the same way that the glacier and the iceberg were - made in Chapter II. -] - -[Illustration: - - _Courtesy of "The Scientific American"_ - - BEHIND THE SCENES -] - -This apparent war of the sea upon the land is a war of machinery whose -workings are curiously like the ancient war machinery of men. Without -tools the sea is almost as helpless as man himself; and, as in man's -history, its use of tools begins with the Stone Age. Where there is no -stone-strewn beach or underwater shelf extending out from a cliff, the -waves do little damage. They give only a muffled and (to the poetic -ear) a baffled roar. But a sloping shelf along a rocky shore not only -makes a kind of scaling ladder on which the waves can climb to great -heights, but these waves are pitched forward with terrific force -as they reach it from the open sea. As they come on they seize huge -stones which they hurl against the cliffs. Even amid the wild voices of -tempests one hears the boulders crashing against the walls. In storms -of sufficient energy rocks of three tons weight are driven forward like -pebbles. The action against the upper part of a cliff may be compared -to that of one of those great stone-throwing engines of the Romans, -while on the lower portion the drive suggests the battering-ram. - - -WHAT NEPTUNE KNOWS ABOUT WEDGES AND PNEUMATIC TOOLS - -Where the waves strike into narrowing crevices in the rocks they act as -wedges, prying the walls apart. In this form of the sea's destructive -work we find also an application of a motive power which has come to -play so important a part in modern engineering; namely, compressed air. -Waves strong enough to handle big rocks not only dash them against the -cliff, while the waves themselves drive into the crevices like wedges, -but in so doing they force air into the crevices and compress it. This -air, expanding as the waves fall back, forces out great blocks of stone -which, in turn, are also used as weapons of assault. - -And, as we look back in the history of the sea, we find that he long -ago--the deep-laid schemer!--planted enemies within our very walls. -Waves, even when armed with the heaviest missiles, can do comparatively -little damage to walls in which there are no crevices. But there are -few such walls. Usually even the hardest rocks have running through -them those cracks which the geologists (with a fine sense of humor) -call "joints"; or they have "bedding planes," the divisions between -the rock beds. Both of these weaknesses in our defensive walls are, -in a large degree, the handiwork of the sea; the bedding planes -because rocks are so laid in the sea mills, and the joints because the -wrinkling up and consequent cracking of the land rocks is the other -end, as we learned in Chapter I, of the down-wrinkling of the rocks -under the weight of the sea. - -In the very body of the rocks also is hidden a secret enemy; the salt -left when they were made. And more salt is constantly being forced into -the surface pores as the waves strike. This salt helps to dissolve and -weaken the rock under the chemical action of the air, and the rains and -the mechanical expansion and contraction of the surface with changes of -temperature. - - -PLANING MILLS OF THE WINTER SEA - -All the Great Powers of nature, "on land, on sea, and in the air," -seem to be in open conspiracy against our peace. The evidence seems -especially plain in late fall and winter, when the sea, contrary to the -usual practice in war, carries on its most vigorous campaigns. Then -come the winds for the great drives; then come the frosts that change -the water wedges into expanding blocks of ice that, almost with the -force of exploding shells, tear the walls apart. In winter are formed -the great ice-fields that help in two ingenious ways to further the -destructive action of the storm waves. In bays and smaller recesses in -rocky shores, the ice has embedded in it fragments of stone which the -sea has battered down. The constant plunge of the waves breaks up these -ice-fields into sections which, with the embedded stones, become rude -planing mills. Where a headland is sloping, these planers, driven back -and forth by the waves, chisel the rock away as a planer chisels down a -piece of steel upon which it has been set to work. - - -HOW STONES ARE CARRIED OUT TO SEA - -A no less curious feature of sea engineering is the use of ice-fields -as "conveyors." During the spring, summer, and autumn the masses of -stone which the sea brings down from the cliffs on its occasional busy -days--that is to say on days when the winds are high--pile up and so -form a kind of bulwark against further attacks. But when in winter -these stones become embedded as above described, strong offshore winds -carry the ice-fields, stones and all, out to sea. Then, on shore, wind -and wave take up their work again unchecked. All along the rocky shores -of the Atlantic, as far south as New York State, beyond which no rock -walls come down to the shore, all these interesting things may be seen -by the traveller. - -Another phase of this team-work of natural forces in feeding the land -to the sea is that steady advance of the waters upon certain shores. As -if science herself had joined literature and art in giving the old sea -dog a bad name, these advances are called in the language of geology, -"transgressions of the sea." These transgressions are caused in part -by the gradual sinking of the land and in part by the rising of the -waters. It is not possible always to tell which agency is at work. -Often both may be. One thing about the rising of the waters themselves -might be looked at as particularly alarming. The rivers, which, of -course, are parts of one great water system, whose centre and prime -mover is the sea, are not only constantly wearing the land down toward -sea level but raising the sea level by the inpour of vast quantities -of ground-up land. Even as matters stand, the amount of water in the -sea bowls is so great that if all lands were at the present sea level -they would be covered everywhere to a depth of two miles. Wind-borne -dust from the surface of the land and from volcanic explosions also, in -time, amounts to a pretty sum; and, of course, helps makes the waters -of the sea rise upon the land. - - -WEARING DOWN THE LAND AND FILLING UP THE SEA - -Already the sea has advanced a thousand feet or more upon the coasts of -Maine, to take one instance; and the whole ragged outline of Europe is -due to the same cause. Let this sort of thing go on and it is easy to -see that it will only be a question of a few millions of years when New -York, London, and other centres of busy life will be buried like the -wicked cities of the plain. - -And if, to help complete this picture of desolation, we for a moment -forget what we learned about the life insurance carried by the -continents, we can imagine how they too will disappear. And the Last -Man thus: - - For now I stand as one upon a rock - Environed with a wilderness of sea, - Who marks the waxing tide grow wave by wave - Expecting ever when some envious surge, - Will, in his brinish bowels, swallow him.[48] - -[Footnote 48: Shakespere: "Titus Andronicus."] - -To make the thing seem doubly sure, let us reflect with Mr. Burroughs -that the world is now probably in a time of spring, following the -latest of the Ice Ages. If so, the water now locked up in snow-fields -and glaciers among the mountain peaks will, before this summer of the -centuries is over, all melt back into the sea. This alone will be good -for a rise of some thirty feet in sea level. - -Then, still later, we shall no doubt have another Ice Age, and the only -thing that may save us from being frozen to death is the fact that we -have previously been drowned! - - -II. The Builder - -But it's all a bad dream; a delusion of the mind, and of the eye. We -see these things--the destruction of the land, the invasions of the -sea--but we do not see them as they are because we do not see far -enough. Looked at broadly, and reading the story of it to the end, we -learn that the whole relation of the sea to the land and its life and -beauty is that of a builder and fatherly provider. Far from being the -savage creature he has been pictured, Father Neptune seems to have the -kindly disposition of old King Cole combined with the wisdom of King -Solomon. Everywhere is evidence not only of the highest intelligence -but of good will toward man and his brother tenants of the waters, -fields, and woods. - - -THE TRUTH ABOUT THE SEA IS THIS - -To begin with you remember it was the sea that helped put the world -on the map. Of course, if we had not already learned in the story of -how the continents came up out of the sea, that there is no cause for -alarm, we might imagine that having been lifted up they might, by a -reversal of the process, be lifted down again. Indeed, I find a writer -in a popular periodical dealing in science stating that "every part of -the sea floor becomes, in its turn, the shore line and is subjected -to the wear of the waves." But, as a matter of fact, we know that -the continents have finally got their land legs; that for ages the -transgressions of the sea have been mainly confined to the continental -margins; and that unless the earth's shrunken centre should, from some -unimaginable cause, swell back to its old size, it is mechanically -impossible for the entire bottoms of the vast reservoirs of the sea to -be raised. - -[Illustration: HARBOR ENGINEERING OF THE RIVERS AND THE SEA - - In the mouths of certain rivers emptying into the sea the tides - come rushing up in a roaring wave like this. When the tide goes out - the water flows back again. This back-and-forth motion helps to - broaden the harbor made by the river's mouth, as in the case of New - York Harbor, which is the mouth of the Hudson. Owing to this tidal - action the water of the Hudson backs up clear to Albany. -] - -[Illustration: A GOLDEN GATE FOR FRISCO - - The famous Golden Gate of San Francisco (so called because of the - golden sunsets shining through), and its splendid harbor, made by - the sinking of the land. The gate was originally cut by the waters - of those two rivers that join and flow into the bay. What rivers - are they? -] - - -HOW THE SEA HELPS MAKE GOOD FARMS AND BIG CITIES - -Moreover the rivers, in the very act of wearing down the land and with -it filling up the sea, help keep the land from being flooded, as it -would be if something were not done. For, as we learned in the story -of why the mountains border the sea the sediment poured in by the -rivers helps raise the mountains and the land along the sea border. It -is during the downward movement of the continental margins that most -sediment is spread from the inpouring rivers because the dip of the -land is greater and the swifter current not only cuts down the land -faster, but carries the sediment farther out from shore. Here the new -rock is made from old worn-out soil, and, since these new rocks when -brought to the surface will in time decay, fresh soil is thus prepared -for future generations. More immediate benefits of this sinking of -shores and advance of waters are the harbors which have made great -cities like New York and London, on or near the seacoast. These harbors -are all the results of "transgressions," combined with the digging -action of wave and tide. - -[Illustration: - - _Copyright by Underwood & Underwood_ - - STONE TERRACES FOR THE GANNETS - - This picture shows what the rising of the land and the - architectural engineering of the sea did for the gannets on the - coast of Canada. -] - - -TAKING A HINT FROM THE SEA'S SHORE ENGINEERING - -But the sea builds shores as well as eats them. Its chief work in this -line is the widening of the continental shelf by building it up with -rock made of the sea's own grist from its shores, and the sediment -poured in by the rivers. This work is not "delivered," so to speak, -for millions of years, when the sinking shores begin to rise again, -but the sea, in its wave work, does shore building of another kind -that shows above the waters in the generation in which it is done. On -wide, shallow beaches, storm waves break some distance from the shore, -and, so losing their force, drop the sediment which they have stirred -up, after carrying it forward only a little way. As a result of this -repeated dumping, an embankment forms, broadening seaward in the middle -and bending shoreward at the ends. A portion of the sea itself is -finally cut out and enclosed by this embankment, thus forming a lagoon. -Finally this lagoon is filled with material, washed from the land and -by sediment brought in from the sea at high tide. Human engineers, -taking the hint, now put the sea to work on similar undertakings of -their own. An embankment is built enclosing an area of the sea; then -the tides and the land wash do the rest. - -[Illustration: THE DROWNED RIVERS THAT HELPED MAKE ENGLAND GREAT - - Her fine harbors have helped to make England the great commercial - nation that she is. Notice here the relation of her largest cities - to the bay-like mouths of the drowned rivers and to the drowned - valley north of the Isle of Wight. -] - -[Illustration: HOW THE SEA TAUGHT SHORE ENGINEERING TO MEN - - This is a salt marsh at mid-tide. How the sea itself adds such - regions to the dominion of the land, and how human engineers, - taking the hint, have put the sea to work, you will learn in this - chapter. -] - -The sea also works with the busy little corals in building reefs -and islands. Corals can only live and build where the water is kept -in constant and vigorous motion by current and wave. From the air -imprisoned in the bubbles by the stirring and turmoil of the waves and -particularly from the air in the white foam of the crests these little -people get their oxygen. At the same time they absorb out of the water -the food on which they grow. The sea not only feeds these little wards -of its bounty during their busy lives, but extends their usefulness -after death, either by cementing to the reef the coral, ground up by -the waves, or in storms scattering it over wide areas, to be made -later into the finest of limestone; and still later into the best of -soils. - -[Illustration: FATHER NEPTUNE FEEDING THE CORAL PEOPLE - - See that line of breakers just below the horizon? That shows where - Father Neptune is serving the little coral people with food and - fresh air, as explained in the text. -] - -We know also that the sea makes coal as well as stone in its rock -mills; that the pressure of the overlying rock was in large part the -source of the heat that changed the vegetation of the swamps, first -into charcoal and then into coal. - -The subject of what the sea has done and is doing for us is almost -as endless as the seas themselves; and no doubt the reason the sea -is never still is because it has so much to do. Nothing in earth's -animate or inanimate nature exercises an influence to be compared in -importance to that of the sea, not only upon the land, but upon the -whole life which land and sea support; and even in what seem to be the -most aimless of its movements it in reality acts with the precision of -a machine. - - -III. The Artist - -And in the making of the rock in its presses under the water, as -well as in the grinding which takes place along the shores, the sea -evidently has an eye to beauty as well as use. As originally formed, -the conglomerates or "pudding-stones" are always laid nearest the shore -because there the retiring waves and the rivers emptying into the sea -drop the heaviest part of their load, including the pebbles. Next is -dropped the sand which is pressed into sandstone and beyond this the -finest particles of all, the ground-up soil, which becomes slate rock. -Still beyond the zone of slate is deposited the lime from the shells -of sea creatures who can live only in this clearer water, away from -the muddy waters nearer the shore. These deposits make limestone. The -result of this natural sorting process is that all the four kinds of -sedimentary rock are always laid down in just this 1, 2, 3, 4 order and -no other: (1) pudding-stone; (2) sandstone; (3) slate; (4) limestone. - -Then, as a result of the transgressions of the sea, what was once -a region of conglomerate may be later found far out under the sea -and there is thus laid down over the conglomerate beds, strata of -sandstone, slate, or limestone, depending on how far the sea advances. -So we find rocks with all sorts of neighbors above and below; limestone -above conglomerate, conglomerate above slate. These changes take place -over vast regions and from the original uniformity in the arrangement -of the rocks there necessarily results a similar uniformity in the -results of this "shuffling," and no matter what changes may be made -afterward by raising them up into shore cliff and mountain and by -other earth movements, and by the endless reshaping by weather and -wave, there still remains that underlying harmony which, with variety, -gives to rocky shores their picturesque beauty. - -Harmony and variety are necessary in all forms of art--pictures, -literature, music--and the conditions governing harmony and variety are -always found hand-in-hand in the art work of the sea and its helpers. -The difference in texture in different kinds of rock, for example, and -in different parts of the same rock, cause them to yield in different -ways and degrees to the action of wave, wind and weather; so there is -sure to be great variety in the shapes they take as they are worn away. - - -HARMONY, VARIETY, AND THE ART WORK OF THE SEA FAMILY LIKENESS IN ROCK -FORMS - -Yet, with all their differences, the shapes rocks take--sandstone -compared with granite, for example--are so characteristic that one soon -learns to tell a long way off what kind of rock a distant landscape -is made of. There is inevitably a certain type resemblance, since all -sandstone is of the same general texture and weathers in the same way. - - -NATURE'S BUILDING BLOCKS AND THE SEA - -Then take the natural division into blocks made by joints in the rocks -to which cliffs like the famous Castle Head at Bar Harbor owes its -striking form. These blocks are so nearly true that you feel sure they -must have been cut by stone-masons, and yet they have the variety which -art demands; they have not the monotonous sameness of shape of the -bricks in a wall. This is mainly due to the differences in the strains -which cracked the original rock mass. So, from the beginning a sea-wall -built by nature is more picturesque than a sea-wall built by man. And -it goes on taking more and more picturesque shapes under the hammers of -the waves. For the force of the waves, the angles at which they strike, -the size and shape of the rock fragments with which they strike, these -vary infinitely. - - -ETCHING, SCULPTURE, AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING - -Equally true is this of other natural forces that shape the rocks; -such as the daily and seasonal changes of temperature that chip away -the mountain peaks and the faces of the cliffs, and the character and -number of plants that grow on rocks where they can get a foothold and -dying and decaying generate acids which help to etch the rocks away. -Trees growing on rocks search out the cracks with their roots and, -pushing in and prying them apart, help to change their form. And there -is sure to be variety in the arrangement of the wild trees growing on -rocks in the mountains and by the sea, since the seeds, being carried -by the winds or by running water or by birds or four-footed creatures, -fall in an endless variety of groupings. So of the shadows cast by the -trees. These shadow masses, so different in shape, owing in part to -the irregular arrangement of the trees and in part to the differences -in shape of the trees themselves, protect portions of the rock, to a -certain extent, against changes in temperature, while the bare rocks -are fully exposed to it, so there results a corresponding variety in -the result of the sun's work upon the rock. At the same time they help -on the acid etching process, because in these shadowed spots there is -more moisture and therefore more rapid decay. - -The form of whole continents follows the same law. Take, for example, -Europe. "The geological history of Europe," says Geikie,[49] "is -largely the history of its mountain chains"; and the mountain chains, -for all their picturesque variety, have also, and necessarily, a -certain uniformity, because in the wrinkling of the rocks which made -them the vast areas over which they now extend were all subjected to -the same force--a big push from one side which crumpled up the earth's -outer crust as a table-cloth is crumpled up when pushed forward against -a book lying on it. - -[Footnote 49: Encyclopædia Britannica: article on Geology.] - - -HOW THE VERY SCENERY PLAYS MANY PARTS - -The ancient history written in the rocks, in the present relative -positions of the strata, shows that four times a great mountain system -has thus been raised across the face of what is now Europe; that three -times large portions of these mountain ranges have been sunk under -the sea and new rocks deposited over them; and that the mountains of -to-day--the Alps, the Carpathians, and the rest--are the survivors of -the fourth time up. Here we have another striking example of the fact -that on the great stage of life the very scenery has its exits and its -entrances! - -But remember that in all these changes of scenery--in the crumplings -and the foldings, and new rock deposits and the carving by the rivers -and the frosts and the winds and the waves of the sea--we have certain -similar materials, similarly arranged, stretching over vast areas, and -the consequence is a certain uniformity and rhythm in the ups and downs -of the landscape and in the changes worked in the walls of stone "where -time and storm have set their wild signatures upon them." - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - What would you think of seeing the leaves all out and the trees in - bloom on Christmas Day? That happens right along, and the people - who live in the lands where this occurs don't think anything of - it, because this is in the Southern Hemisphere during the vacation - season of the sea. - - One peculiar thing about this spring and summer in the winter time - in Africa is that when the leaves first come out they are not - green at all. They are brown, red, and pink. Later on they turn - green--just as any well-behaved leaf is supposed to do.[50] It's as - if they got mixed in their dates and thought at first it was autumn - and then woke up and said: - - "Oh, yes, to be sure, this is spring! What are we thinking about?" - -[Footnote 50: Livingstone's "Expedition to the Zambesi."] - - Anyhow they turn from the autumn browns and reds to the appropriate - green of spring, and the flowers come out and the birds begin to - sing in the very season when our winter winds are loudest and the - rock mills of the sea are roaring at their work. - - In which Hemisphere, the Northern or the Southern, do the sea mills - have most land to work on? - - In Shakespere's "Tempest" you will find a description of a storm at - sea that will take your breath away. Almost the whole of Scene 2, - Act I, is in that terrible storm. In fact, the whole play, as the - title of it indicates, is full of storm. - - While you are looking for storms in Shakespere see what you can - find in "Two Gentlemen of Verona," "Twelfth Night," "Midsummer - Night's Dream," and "The Merchant of Venice." - - Speaking of the sea still being in the Stone Age what do you know - about the kind of tools man used in the Stone Age and how he got - along?[51] - - (You'll find that the story of the development of man, as dealt - with in connection with the Stone Age, is part of the strangest - story of all the strange stories of science. You will get a brief - outline of it in this story of mine, in the last chapter.) - -[Footnote 51: Interesting books on this subject are: Starr's "First -Steps in Human Progress" (Chautauqua Reading Course) and Clodd's -"Childhood of the World." Osborn's "The Men of the Old Stone Age" is -the latest and most comprehensive work on the subject.] - - How much more do you know about pneumatic tools than Father Neptune - does? No doubt you've used a "pneumatic" tool of a sort yourself - more than once--a tool for making a noise. Guess what. A pop-gun! - Look up _pneumatic tools_, and you will find that the same thing - that makes the pop-gun pop helps to build skyscrapers, locomotives, - and steamships, and do a lot of other wonderful things. - - In connection with the water wedges made by the sea you must - remember that curious trick ice has when it freezes (page 154); - otherwise you can't understand how it could act like a wedge. - - Yes, and wedges, simple as they look, are almost as wonderful as - levers; and you know what Archimedes said he could do with a lever. - - The whole subject of machinery and particularly of "automatic" or - so-called self-acting machinery[52] is fascinating. Find out about - planing mills and how they work, particularly why they stop planing - just when they are told to. - -[Footnote 52: As a matter of fact, the only machinery that is really -automatic is the machinery of nature, of which what we have called "the -machinery of the sea" is an example.] - - In connection with how the sea sometimes helps make harbors - think of as many great harbors as you can, and then look on your - geography map and see how many you have missed. - - What character in "Titus Andronicus" says that about the man - standing on a rock and watching the sea come to eat him up? - - Your geography has a good deal to say about continental shelves; - and with pictures. Do you remember? - - Speaking of lands sinking under the sea you'll run into a world - of interesting things if you look up the story of the Lost Island - of Atlantis; about the Egyptian priest who first described it to - Solon, the Greek lawgiver, as an earthly paradise where all the - laws and everything else were just right. - - And if you're of High School age you'll enjoy reading what - Plato[53] and Homer[54] say about this ideal land. - -[Footnote 53: Timæus.] - -[Footnote 54: The Odyssey.] - - Isn't it a striking thing how the big sea that can look so fierce - takes such tender care of the little coral people? And what - extraordinary folks these coral people are! Any good article about - them will tell you worlds of interesting things. For instance, you - will find the people of whole villages living together with only - one backbone. I mean not one backbone _apiece_ but one backbone - among them _all_! - - And they have the queerest way with their stomachs, a kind of - co-operative digestion, of co-operative housekeeping. (Your - mother will be particularly interested in this because it shows - the "community kitchen" idea has been thoroughly tried out and it - works! If you don't know about "community kitchens" among human - housekeepers ask mother to tell you, and then you tell _her_ what - you found out about these strange little housekeepers of the sea.) - - - - - CHAPTER XI - - (NOVEMBER) - - It is a noble thing for men ... to make the face of a wall look - infinite, and its edge against the sky like an horizon; or even - if less than this be reached, it is still delightful to mark the - play of passing light on its broad surface, and to see by how many - artifices and gradations of tinting and shadow, time and storm will - set their wild signatures upon it. - - --_Ruskin_: _The Seven Lamps of Architecture_. - - -THE HANDWRITING ON THE WALLS - -One of the most interesting things in this whole wonderful story of the -life history of the world is how men were first able to read it at all. -For we know they didn't find it written out in plain print as we have -it now. Neither was it told in any one language so that getting hold of -the thread of the story they could unravel it all, as other learned men -did the picture writing of the Egyptians and the wedge-shaped marks on -Assyrian bricks. - -We know already how they learned that rivers open their own gateways -through the mountains; how they know rocks are made over in the -fairyland of change; how they know the ancient glaciers scattered -the boulders over mountainside, valley, and field; how they know the -mountains are children of the sea. - -All this and more we have been reading in the written language of the -rocks, but there are other things in this rock script that I have kept -for this last but one of our pleasant talks, so that they might serve -as a kind of summary and remembrance of all that has gone before. - -[Illustration: A WALL THAT VULCAN BUILT - - I've said it several times before, but I can't help saying it here - again, how much more wonderful the ways of Nature are than was ever - dreamed of even in the wonder tales of the Greeks! Take this great - iron wall, for example--a wall of the iron rock called "lava"--and - who would suppose that it was made by natural forces? It was driven - in a molten state into a crack in overlying rock. After it cooled, - the rock above and on either side of it, being of softer material, - was worn away. This wall is near Spanish Peaks, Colorado. It is 100 - feet high and some 30 feet wide. Colorado boys, on their vacations - in that region, run along the top of it for miles. -] - - -I. The Mysteries in Marble Walls - -Take a piece of marble for example, such as you see along the walls of -our great modern buildings. There's a story for you! Why, if half the -things it tells had just happened, or even just been discovered by some -enterprising reporter, we should see pages and pages about it all in -every newspaper in the land. - - -HOW MARBLE RETELLS THE WORLD HISTORY - -In that piece of marble alone you have a pretty full review of the -earth's history; of many of the most important things we have seen and -heard about since we all started out together in Chapter I. It tells of -strange life in ancient seas; of being buried deep in the earth under -immense pressure, and where it could feel the intense heat of the rock -at the centre, and of coming up again completely changed; transformed -from the substance of a dead sea creature's shell to a crystallized -stone beautifully colored and of many patterns; of the chemistry of the -world underground and the laboratories in which its lovely coloring -were made and blended; and solid rock threaded through rock with a -skill that no worker in mosaic has ever equalled; drawn out and fixed -in mere films of white, fading into the rich dark of the marble around -them like white clouds shredded by the winds. - -[Illustration: THE STRANGE STORIES THAT MARBLE TELLS] - -Those broader lines bending and turning, rising and falling, tell of -the work of the giant forces that lift the mountains into place and -of the great earthquakes that accompany mountain building. When those -little quavering lines were being made, away down in the earth where -the limestone changed to marble, mountains were slowly rising into the -sky on the earth's surface far above. The quaverings in the marble are -pictures, "line drawings" of the mountain story. And beside these lines -that you can read so plainly there are others so small that you need a -magnifying glass to see them; echoes, away down in the fairyland of the -microscope, of the doings of the giants of Mountainland far above. - -In following the lines of the earth's great walls of rock over a wide -extent they are found waving sharply up and down in one section, rising -and falling like ocean swells in another, in forward sloping folds in -another, and sometimes even with folds doubling over, as if the great -mountains which these folds made were trying to stand on their heads. - - -WHY LINES IN MARBLE REPEAT MOUNTAIN FORMS - -All these rock folds which, with the help of the sculpturing of the -elements, produce the infinite variety of beauty in mountain scenery -are, speaking generally, repeated in the lines of the marble. But they -are repeated only in miniature, because the rocks deep in the earth are -under such pressure that while the rocks on the surface are free to -rise in big and comparatively simple waves those beneath are doubled up -into smaller and much more crumpled folds. Take several sheets of paper -lying free on the table and press them from the ends. They will rise -in simple arches as most mountains do. Now lay a book on these sheets -and press from the ends again. You see they crumple up a great deal -more; the larger wrinkles themselves doubling into smaller ones. - -[Illustration: HOW MOTHER NATURE MAKES HER Z'S - - These Z-shaped rock folds were made by the crumpling up of the - crust as the centre, cooling, shrank away. They are to be seen near - the east end of Ogden Canyon, Utah. The black lines were added to - the photograph in the offices of Uncle Sam's big department of - geology at Washington, to show clearly just where the rock runs. -] - -You may often have noticed a banded effect in marble. My, what power -it took to do that! Pressure we can't realize. Pressure from above so -great that it made this marble spread; moulded it like clay in the -hands of the potter; the same kind of force that flattened out the -pebbles referred to in Chapter V. This is called "rock flow," and how -plainly the marble shows the flowing movement. I always think what the -weather people call "stratus" clouds, look as if they were made by long -strokes of a painter's brush; and this marble has the very same flowing -lines. Such cloud pictures in marble are made where deposits of other -kinds of rock have been interlaid with the deposits of limestone which -afterward changed to marble, and it is where these bands are folded or -bent that we have set down for us the story of the mountain folds. - -Those gossamer effects and the little white clouds spinning out and -fading into the general mass of the marble, how delicate they are! -Yet it took a force that made the earth quake to put them there. The -more we know of the strange and fearful things that happen in times of -earthquake the more we can read between these filmy lines. They tell of -the sides of mountains tumbling down and spreading their valleys with a -chaos of broken stone; making cliffs where there were peaks and peaks -where there were cliffs; changing the course of rivers; shifting whole -forests on the mountainside and replacing them with grim walls and -bastions of barren stone--all in the twinkling of an eye! - - -THE EARTHQUAKES AND THE DELICATE FILMS - -It is by the crushing movements that made the earthquake that rocks are -broken into confusions of cracks such as you often see in a thick glass -window that has been broken. Then into these cracks come dissolved -minerals from other rocks and harden into stone. In the marble one set -of veins often runs right through another as if they had been inlaid. -Then there may be other veins that cross both of these--no end of -criss-crossings. The different sets of veins usually differ also in -color and in grain, and even have different kinds of mineral in them. -With a good hand-glass you can see this difference in texture. - -[Illustration: WHEN THE EARTHQUAKE TAKES ITS PEN IN HAND - - These are, so to speak, the autographs of earthquakes--the - records earthquakes themselves make on an instrument called the - "seismograph," using a stylus, as the ancients did, as you will - see by looking up "seismograph" in the dictionary or encyclopædia. - After an earthquake starts it seems to stop for breath or for want - of the right word--just like people; for you notice portions of the - lines are almost straight. These were made when the earthquake was - comparatively quiet. Then, when it got excited again--as in the - second record from the top--the stylus fairly jumped up and down; - and there where the waves are long and close together the shocks - were particularly severe and followed each other rapidly. -] - - -II. How Vulcan Drove his Autograph into the Rocks - -But there is another kind of handwriting on the walls that was made -with such a vigorous stroke that it also made the earth shake. Of -course we might expect Vulcan to write a rather vigorous hand--Vulcan, -forger of thunderbolts for Jove. The ancients thought volcanoes -belonged to the kingdom of Vulcan, so in scientific language everything -connected with volcanic action comes under the head of "Vulcanism." -These queer letters we are talking about are called "dikes." They are -made of lava that was driven into cracks in the rocks and afterward -cooled into rock that is as hard as iron. Lava is often largely made of -iron. - -[Illustration: MR. VULCAN'S FAMOUS CASTLE ON THE HUDSON - - This is a part of Mr. Vulcan's famous castle on the Hudson known - as the Palisades. Here the lava rock has formed into columns which - make the mass look all the more like some old castle of the Middle - Ages. The "windows" are where the softer spots in the rock have - decayed away. This castle--come to think of it--really belongs - to mediæval architecture, for it was built in the Middle Ages of - earth's long history. -] - -[Illustration: THIS IS THE HAND OF VULCAN, TOO] - -Were you ever down by the seashore in a storm? If so you remember -how the ground under your feet shook when a great wave rushed into -some narrow passage or crevice in the rocks, and was tossed high in -the air in spray. Then just imagine molten lava, which is many times -heavier than water, driven into a crack in a rock with the force of a -cannon-ball. That's how it happened. That's how those dark strokes in -the rock with their heavy shading were made. - -This was done in the depths of the earth; not on the surface where you -see these rocks now. They used to have piles of other rocks above -them, but these in course of time have been weathered away. This is -known, not only from the marks of the wearing but from the fact that -these dikes, as well as the rock into which they have been driven, are -crystallized, wholly or in part. Such crystallizing, as we know, takes -place away down in the earth. - -Dikes are very common. In some places you find the rocks fairly laced -with them. The picture of the dikes in the granite shores at Marblehead -also shows (in the horizontal plan) many "faults" or slips of the -rock since the dike was made, and each slip probably gave rise to an -earthquake. So you see there's the story of a terrible time written on -those quiet old residents by the sea. - -[Illustration: THE GIANT'S CAUSEWAY - - Here is a still more striking example of the formation of columns - in lava--the Giant's Causeway. Here are 40,000 columns, packed - like the cells of a honeycomb, and they slope to the pavement in - the foreground that gives the mass its name. That bees should make - their little honey-jars in such regular form is wonderful enough, - but think of lava shaping its own self into columns like that! -] - - -DID MR. VULCAN USE A STEAM PILE-DRIVER? - -Just what power Mr. Vulcan used to drive the dikes is not known for -sure, but I'll tell you how it is supposed to have been done. Remember -that all rocks that are deep down in the earth contain water, shut up -in their pores. Then remember how hot it is down there and how this -heat would make steam right in the rocks. Then let the rock above be -cracked by the movements of the earth crust, and this crack extend down -to where these hot rocks are, the pressure, being released along that -crack, the melted rock (lava) would rush up, as it does in connection -with the eruptions of volcanoes, and the exploding steam would help -drive it. - - -III. Ancient Weather Records Turned to Stone - -So much for the literary remains of Mr. Vulcan. Now let's see how much -we can make out of the handwriting of the waters and the winds on these -walls of time. - -What does the picture at the top of page 245 look like? Rain-drops in -the dust. And so you see they are; but the rain fell so long that the -pits made in the dust have turned to stone. Think of the autograph of -a rain-drop older than the Pharaohs; older than the pyramids these -Pharaohs built to perpetuate their names. - -And this is how such rain-drops immortalize themselves; this is the -interpretation of their handwriting on the walls. Along the dry shore -of an ancient sea when the tide was out, rain-drops fell on the sand -and dust. Tides often come in with a rush, in wild waves driven by -the wind, but when there is no wind and no waves rolling in from far -distant storms the tide may overspread such delicate things as the -imprint of rain-drops with a thin protecting film of mud. This was what -happened to our little rain pits. Later tides overlaid them deeper -from day to day, and in course of time both the layer containing the -rain-drop prints and the overlying layers of sediment turned to stone. -Often the heat of a summer sun will bake these rain-drop designs and -this you see helps; it holds the impression until the tide can come in -and spread its protecting film. Many imprints of rain-drops and of the -feet of reptiles are found in the sandstone underlying the coal seams -in eastern Pennsylvania, and they are always, I am told, covered with -a fine powdery material, which was once the slime and mud of the tide. -Such rain marks are often found also in slate. Wouldn't you like to -have a slate with one of these rain-drop autographs on it? - -[Illustration: RAIN-DROP AUTOGRAPHS OLDER THAN THE PHARAOHS] - -Here, by the way, is a very important thing these rain-drops tell. Says -Professor Shaler: - -"They tell us that the ordinary machinery of the atmosphere was -operating in those days very much as it is to-day, and that the climate -was much the same."[55] - -[Footnote 55: This quotation is from Doctor Shaler's "Nature and Man in -America," a book you should read, as you should all of Doctor Shaler's -books. No one has observed so many interesting things in the field of -geology and few have written about them so simply or reasoned about -them so well.] - -So, he argues, the great Ice Age couldn't have been due to change of -climate, but to the other things that we read about in Chapter II. For -they even know in what ages different records of rain-drops were made -because they are found in rocks laid down in different periods; and one -of the periods in which they are found was that in which the North Pole -ice and its neighbors came down and made us those long visits. - - -STORY OF A STROLL IN THE RAIN - -Another story found in museums is written in slate--not by a rain-drop -but by a living creature. The slate shows the track of a reptile with -feet like a bird. Evidently he was strolling along in the rain; for -there you see the marks of the rain-drops right among the marks of his -feet, and in the footprints themselves. Being a reptile who spent much -of his time in or near the water he no doubt enjoyed these little pats -of the rain-drops as he went along. - - -BUT THIS STROLL WAS TAKEN IN THE SUN - -In another of these museum specimens we see written out just as plainly -the story of a stroll in the sun. There are the imprints of Mr. -Reptile's feet, and there are the sun-cracks in the mud showing that -the sun was shining--or at least that it had been shining for several -days or weeks, for it takes a little time to make sun-cracks in mud. -This story, we might suppose, was written so that it could be read -by the blind; the cracks, as well as the footprints, are brought out -in raised lettering. Sun-cracked mud, after a long dry "spell," will -bake so that the cracks will not be washed out by the returning tide -but instead be filled by other material, and this material will go on -building up to a certain extent; so making those ridges. - -[Illustration: "THEN THERE CAME A LONG DRY SPELL" - - This shows how the cracks in dried-up mud are preserved in stone. - The process is the same as in the case of the stone imprints of - rain-drops, the imprints being protected by successive deposits of - mud by quiet tides, and afterward turning to stone. -] - - -THE STONE AUTOGRAPHS OF GENTLE BREEZES - -On still other stones you will find written the story of gentle breezes -that stirred the water and made ripples on long-buried shores. First -the breezes rippled the shallow waters near the shore. Then the waters -rippled the sand, and the sediments of the tide preserved these ripple -marks as they did the rain-drops and the footprints. - -But the wind alone, without the help of water ripples, can write its -name in the sands of time. And when you get to know the handwriting -of wind and wave you will not mistake the one for the other. You are -likely to find wind ripples on any big heap of sand. Have a good look -at them and then go down to shallow water on a sandy shore and compare -the two kinds. That's the way the great men of science do; they notice -every little thing. - -[Illustration: - - _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." - By permission of Ginn and Company_ - - THE STORY OF BIG ROUND TOP AND LITTLE ROUND TOP - - One story of Big Round Top and Little Round Top your history tells, - but long before the battle of Gettysburg these two mountains had - age-long battles of their own with the winds, the rains, and the - frosts, and in these battles lost their peaks and their sharp - outlines of jagged rock, and became rounded down to the forms we - see before us. Those rocks in the field were probably broken off - in these battles, as the rocks of high mountains are to-day, and - carried down by roaring torrents. -] - - -WEATHER RECORDS ON THE MOUNTAIN WALLS - -From a scientific standpoint little things may be just as big as big -things. For example, in this matter of old weather records these -rain-drops and ripple stones are just as interesting as other weather -records written large on mountain walls; such as those which tell that -what is now the Dead Sea was once part of a much larger sea that wasn't -dead at all. You may never get to read these records on the mountain -walls of Palestine, for they are a long way off, but here in our own -country we have a similar story told on mountain walls in the region -of another dead sea--the Great Salt Lake of Utah. From Salt Lake City -you can see on the mountain surrounding the desert of the Great Basin -the marks of old shore lines; where the waves cut into the rock. These -marks show that this Basin once held two great lakes, and the one in -the eastern portion dried up into what is now Great Salt Lake. - -[Illustration: WEATHER RECORDS ON THE WALLS OF TIME - - What is now the Great Salt Lake used to be a much greater lake that - wasn't salt at all. That vast flight of steps up the mountainside - shows how wide it spread. As the big lake dried up, and grew - smaller and smaller and saltier and saltier, its shores were - bounded successively by those wave-cut cliffs. -] - - -IV. Stories Written on the Pebbles - -Sometimes when a geologist picks up a pebble and looks at it a moment -he can hear the roar of mountain torrents and of lowland streams in -flood. If the pebble is round it shows that it has been carried far and -rolled about by streams. If it has pits in it this shows that its water -journeys were rough, because such pits are made by knocking against -other pebbles and sharp stones in the struggle and confusion of the -rushing waters. You see these little dots are a kind of shorthand, for -we pebbles are stenographers too! - -[Illustration: THE PERCHED BOULDER IN BRONX PARK - - This is one of the interesting things to be seen when you visit - Bronx Park in New York City. Of course, _you_ know how that old - boulder got there, and how he drew those straight lines in the - rock-bed beneath, but many visitors to the park do not. -] - - -HOW PEBBLES TELL OF THEIR TRAVELS - -Other great stories in small space are told on glacial pebbles. -Scientific men can often tell from the look of a pebble whether it was -shaped by rivers, by the sea, by the sand blasts of desert winds, or -by the glaciers. Not only that, but, if it is a glaciated pebble, on -what part of the glacier it was carried; whether in the middle of its -back, or on the sides, like the passengers in an Irish jaunting-car; -or whether it rode underneath, like a tramp stealing a ride on the -bumpers. The stones in the middle of the glacier's back naturally keep -their sharp edges longer than stones on the side, ground as the side -stones are by the moving ice mass against the mountain walls. And the -stones on both top and sides would lose less of their edges than the -stones underneath the ice. - -[Illustration: - - _From Norton's "Elements of Geology." - By permission of Ginn and Company_ - - ONE PEBBLE IN ITS TIME PLAYS MANY PARTS - - Here are pebbles faceted in different ways by glaciers. No. 1 has - six facets. No. 4, originally a rounded river pebble, has been - rubbed down to one flat face. Nos. 3 and 5 are battered little - travellers faceted on one side only. Notice how No. 5 got his face - scratched just as I did. -] - -[Illustration: PEBBLE FACETED BY WIND-BLOWN SAND - - You remember how the glaciers ground flat faces or facets on the - pebbles, don't you? Here is another example of Nature's lapidary - work, but here she has used wind and sand instead of ice. -] - - -V. A Greater Cæsar and His Commentaries - -Well, there he is again, you see, Mr. Glacier of the Ice Age. He's -always turning up, everywhere you go in earth history. As Shakespere's -Mr. Cassius said of Mr. Julius Cæsar, "he bestrode the world." And, -like the Roman Cæsar, this Cæsar wrote the story of his own exploits; -but although a vastly greater conqueror than the famous Roman, he was -even more modest. Cæsar and his Commentaries, our High School friend -will tell you, nearly always refers to himself in the third person; -but in his commentaries on his travels and exploits the Old Man of the -Mountain didn't even use his own name. He left the editors of his -manuscript to find out who he was. - - -HOW THE GREAT LAKES WERE TIPPED UP - -One of the most striking things he did, of which he wrote the record on -the walls, was to tip up the Great Lakes. You remember just how he made -them. Well, it seems that as he started back home he tipped them up. -Suppose you could pick up the vast stone bowls that hold these lakes -and tip them toward the north as easily as you can tip a bowl of water, -what would the water do? It would fall lower along the south shores of -the lakes and rise along the northern shores, wouldn't it? Then suppose -the lakes were kept tipped up in this way for ages, and summer wind -storms and winter tempests dashed waves against their shores, what -would happen? Stone walls rising above the shore would have terraces -cut into them, and the line of these terraces would tilt toward the -north. There are terraces just like that on rocks bordering the Great -Lakes, and the explanation of their tilt is that the lakes themselves -were tipped up, and that the Old Man of the Mountain did the tipping. -The rock crust of the round earth bends under great weight like an -arch. So when the enormous weight of the glaciers of the Ice Age was on -a portion of the arch it bent down. Then, as the glaciers retreated, -the weight of them was shifted northward all the time. Finally when -the glaciers in the region of the lakes had melted quite away the arch -slowly rose into place again and lifted the terraces above the water -line as we see them to-day. - -Throughout regions the glaciers visited you find rocks polished like -mirrors; in other cases they are scratched, and in others deeply -grooved. - -[Illustration: SCENE ON THE COAST OF NORWAY BY A GLACIER - - You know the fiords. You've met them in your geography. This is - a fiord on the Norway coast. Notice how smooth the walls of the - mountains are. They were trimmed down by the ice, which also plowed - off their soil. We are here looking up what was once a river - valley, but the glacier cut it down below sea level, and this is - sea water. Notice in the openings of the mountains all the way up - the valley where the tributaries of the ancient river flowed in - then as now. -] - - -HOW THIS MR. CÆSAR IS TRANSLATED - -No one scratch can be followed far. The composition is, like Cæsar's, -in short sentences, whole episodes in a word: "Veni, vidi, vici." But a -series of scratches all run in one general direction--north and south. -To get at the meaning--just as in construing Cæsar--you must take the -context; what goes before and after. - -The sides of the valleys of the Alps from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above -the surface of the glaciers of our own time are scratched and furrowed -in the same way. Here we catch Mr. Glacier almost in the very act of -writing. - - -THE HANDWRITING OF THE TWO CÆSARS - -To do this writing, our Cæsar, like the Cæsar of the High School, -used a stylus. Mr. Glacier's stylus, as we know, was made of stone -held fast in his icy grip (page 121). And here is another curious -resemblance between the manuscripts of Mr. G. Cæsar and Mr. J. Cæsar. -They both wrote in straight lines. The reason Julius Cæsar and other -Roman gentlemen wrote in letters made of straight lines was that they -scratched these letters on tablets covered with wax, using a sharpened -piece of iron or ivory. You can see it would be much easier with such -writing tools and material to form letters in straight lines than to -write in flowing, rounded and connected lines as we do so easily with a -nice flexible pen on a smooth surface. - - -HOW THE OLD MEN CHANGED A "V" TO A "U" - -Here is something else about the story of the Old Men of the Mountain -that is a curious reminder of the Romans and their letters. The Romans -had no letter U in their alphabet and so V had to do a double duty; -it had to be a V and then when asked, had to take its place in line -and pretend to be a U. For instance, a Roman who wanted to write the -word "number" would do it in this way: "NVMERO." After a while, in the -history of the growth of our alphabet, the V that was intended for U -was rounded at the bottom. - -Now, curiously enough, the writing of the Old Men of the Mountain has -gone through the same process. River valleys in mountain regions, as -elsewhere, are originally V-shaped, but where glaciers flowed down -these valleys they not only made them wider but rounded out the bottoms -so that they became U-shaped. Look at the valley in the Wind River -range in Wyoming shown in the geologies. You notice the farther your -eye goes up into the mountains the more V-shaped the valley becomes. -Back toward antiquity, you see, when they had nothing but V! - -[Illustration: THE HANDWRITING OF THE GLACIERS AND THE ROMANS - - Here is an interesting relic of ancient days that will enable you - to compare the chirography of the Old Men of the Mountain with that - of the Romans. These are marks left by the masons on Roman walls. - They show just what part each mason laid, so that if the wall - proved defective the authorities would know who was responsible. -] - -All quite striking, isn't it, this strange kind of writing on the walls -of time? As if, among the ruins that are all there is left of the -fallen Roman Empire, we should in some heap of dust and crumbled stone -find one of the very tablets on which Cæsar wrote his commentaries and -there engraved in Cæsar's own hand: - -[Illustration: THIS STYLE IS CALLED FLUTING - - Looks like moulding, doesn't it? This is a piece of rock, and it - was carved in that way by the glaciers with their tools of embedded - stone. The deeper grooves were made where the rock was softer or - where the glacier's chisels were of a particularly hard quality, - such as flint or granite. -] - -"Cæsar, maximis bellis confectis, in hiberna exercitum deduxit." - -Can you translate that for us? (This to the High School Boy.) - -"As easy as anything," says he. "Cæsar, on completion of these great -wars, led his army into winter quarters." - -And that same phrase might serve in Mr. Glacier's Commentaries too. -For the glaciers of the Ice Age, after their great work was done, also -went into winter quarters; melting back to the present snow-line in our -mountains and the regions of eternal ice around the pole. - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - One of the most interesting stories of men's handwriting on the - walls and how scholars, many centuries afterward, learned to read - it, you will find in encyclopædias, histories, and other books - under such headings as _Egypt_, _Assyria_, _Rosetta Stone_, and - most of all under _Hieroglyphics_; a big word, but full of meat - when once you've cracked the shell. - - Among other things, you will find that if it hadn't been for the - Egyptians and other clever people of the long ago we would not have - had our written language to read at all; on walls or anywhere else! - - If you had been an Egyptian, say 4,000 years ago, how many letters - do you suppose you would have had to learn before you could have - read well? About a thousand! But it wouldn't have been so hard - as you think, for the Egyptian letters talked, so to speak. They - told their own story much as did the picture words that told so - much to the little Greeks. These Egyptian words, however--for they - were words, or several words in one, rather than letters--were - real pictures, and very good pictures, too. (See Chambers under - "Hieroglyphics" for the little pictures.) - - Some of them were very simple. It wasn't hard to learn. - - But now suppose you were an Egyptian and you wanted to write a - letter telling somebody how pleased you were about something--a - nice new book an uncle had sent you, for instance--the proper - picture-word to use would be a lady beating a tambourine. She is - pleased--that's why she is beating the tambourine, just as a small - boy claps his hands when he says, "Oh, goody, goody!" So this - picture-word came to be used to express "joy" or "pleasure" over - anything. - - These are just some samples to show you what interesting things - even such formidable words as "hieroglyphics" are when you make - friends with them. But now, to get back to Nature's handwriting and - the nature myths connected with it, what do you know about this - Vulcan, who left so much of his manuscript in the rocks? - - The ancients thought of him as a worker in metals. Don't you think - they would have, been quite sure of it if they had known about the - dikes and the palisades of the Hudson, and Fingal's cave, with - their remarkable iron-like columns of cooled lava? But he was an - artist in metals, too, and a mechanical engineer, it seems. Do you - remember about those two statues of beautiful women that he made - of pure gold, and how they walked about with him wherever he went? - And the brazen-footed bulls of Ætes, that filled the air with their - bellowings and from their nostrils blew flame and smoke?[56] - -[Footnote 56: I wonder if Vulcan could have been thinking of -locomotives--what we sometimes call "iron horses"--when he made those -bulls. Do you suppose?] - - The Greeks probably didn't know about such "art metal" work as - the palisades--certainly they didn't know about the Hudson River - or Fingal's Cave--but they had Vulcan (Hephæstus they called him) - doing all sorts of other art-metal things. There was the famous - shield he made for Achilles, for instance. Homer takes several - pages just to tell about the different figures on it and what they - meant.[57] - -[Footnote 57: The Iliad.] - - Why do you suppose a temple was erected on Mount Etna? (What kind - of a mountain is it?) - - Wouldn't it be strange if we could make hard coal out of soft? - Vulcan does that sometimes with these dike strokes of his.[58] - -[Footnote 58: The International Encyclopedia.] - - The International will also tell you why dike rock is usually so - solid and tough, and what the crystal people have to do with making - it so. - - The Britannica (28: 188) tells how, in the walls of volcanoes - Vulcan wrote out the hint for making re-enforced concrete which is - so important a feature of modern architectural engineering. - - Look about on the rock-beds in the stone quarry and see if you - can't find some of the writing of that Older Cæsar with his queer - stone stylus. Probably the men in the quarry will have wondered how - these scratches came there and you can tell them. - - There is one style of Mr. Glacier's hand-work that even the dogs - and the horses notice, and that is the "mirror rocks." Muir tells - about them in his "Mountains of California." - - - - - CHAPTER XII - - (DECEMBER) - - "A fire-mist and a planet, - A crystal and a cell, - A jelly fish and a saurian - And caves where the cavemen dwell; - Then a sense of law and beauty - And a face turned from the clod-- - Some call it Evolution, - And others call it God." - - --_William Herbert Carruth._ - - -THE END OF THE WORLD - -So the Ice Ages and their glaciers and the Romans and their Cæsars -melted away. We know them only by the marks they left on the walls -of time. But why this constant doing and undoing of things? We have -seen it going on from the very beginning; rock crumbling to dust, dust -changing back to rock; rocks raised up into mountains, mountains worn -down to plains; then more mountains, and on through the same cycle of -endless change; as if always starting the whole thing over again. - -What is it all about? Are we getting anywhere? If so, where? - -Ever since men looked out upon the world around them and began to -think, they have puzzled not only about the causes but the purpose of -this endless drama of creation and decay. Some said one thing; some -said another. The Persian poet who wrote those fine lines about the -lion and the lizard in the ruins of the palaces meant to say that's -all that everything comes to; all things, men included, return to the -elements of which they were made and that's the end of them. So, said -he, what's the use of bothering one's head about it? There's nothing to -be learned. One verse of his famous song reads like this: - - "Myself when young did eagerly frequent - Doctor and saint, and heard great argument - About it and about; but evermore - Came out by the same door wherein I went." - -But Science, as we shall now see, has a better answer. - - -I. Nothing Happens - -In the first place you must have noticed as we came along through this -little book that nothing happens in this world of ours; everything -is under a government of laws. Not only did it turn out that there -was method in the apparent madness of the sea but we found method -everywhere. It was not chance that made our worlds, whether they were -born full-grown or grew up piece by piece. And we see the same forces -at work in small things as in the great. The force that keeps the earth -in its orbit is just as careful to catch and plant the tiny seeds of -the grasses and the pine-trees drifting forward in the wind, so keeping -the world clothed with life and verdure. - - -ALL NATURE UNDER A GOVERNMENT OF LAW - -So with the seasons with all that they mean in the life of the world; -spring never fails to follow winter. Little things happen that make -spring "late," as we say; but spring itself never fails to come and -always in its right place in the procession of the year. All this -because the earth stays in its orbit and spins on its axis. Watches -break their mainsprings, clocks run down. These things "happen"; but -we never think of saying that the mainspring or the wheels "happened," -or that they "happened" into their places in the watch. The worlds not -only make their appointed round as regularly as the wheels of a watch -but they never run down, and the power that keeps them going and in -their places never breaks. If it ever occurred in any other way--if we -should hear of a world flying out of its orbit and going banging around -among the other worlds, we could talk of "happening." - - -NATURE'S ACCIDENT INSURANCE SYSTEM - -We might call these laws that make it so certain that nature's business -will go on as usual, rain or shine, the Accident Insurance of the -Universe. We have nothing quite like it in human insurance systems; for -these only make it up to you--the best they can--after some accident -has happened. Nature's insurance system, on the other hand, makes it -certain that nothing _will_ happen to change the main course of things. -The protective insurance of the universe is woven right through Nature -itself. The continents, for example, were bound, in due course, to rise -in their places, because it is the nature of cooling masses to shrink -and for the outside to cool the faster and to harden and to wrinkle up. -It doesn't matter whether the cooling mass is a little baked apple or a -big hot earth. - -[Illustration: THE CLOCK OF THE AGES - - By representing the great geologic periods of time in the form of - a clock-face a writer in the _Scientific American_ enables us to - form a rough conception of their duration, their distinguishing - features, and their relations to one another, according to - ideas associated with the theory of La Place, but which have - been considerably modified in the light of later reasoning and - investigation. The view now generally accepted, for example, is - that the Azoic era was longer than all subsequent time. But, taking - the picture as it stands, each "hour" represents 3,000,000 years. - For a quarter of the total period up to the very recent appearance - of man "there was darkness upon the face of the deep." Next after - the Azoic was the Laurentian Period, when "the dry land appeared." - Later came the dawn of life, and this life, like the inanimate - matter which preceded it, kept rising and continues to rise, as the - ages pass, to higher, more beautiful, and nobler forms. -] - -Nor was it an accident that the continents in their original form grew -larger with the fat of the land that was added to them under the action -of the chemistry of the air. You see Nature must understand chemistry -or things wouldn't come out right in the laboratory, as they always do -if you have made no mistakes. Ever think of that, Mr. High School Boy? - - -II. The Strangest Thing of All That Didn't Happen - -But the strangest thing of all that didn't happen in this history of -the world and its making I'm going to tell you about now. - - -KINSHIP OF KITTENS AND APPLE-TREES - -You remember what I said of the apple-tree in Chapter V (page 93), how -nobody who didn't know it to be true would believe that little Miss -Greenleaf and old Mr. Root and rough Mr. Bark and lovely Miss Blossom -were not only born under the same roof but were as closely related as -a pussy-cat and her nest full of kittens. I didn't mention the kittens -then, but just suppose I had done so; and then had gone on to say -that kittens are relations of the apple family and that all birds are -related to all kittens, and that both are kindred of that terrible Mr. -Cetiosaurus that we met in the Bad Lands of Dakota. - -Would you have believed it? - -No? Well, I don't wonder. It was quite a while before the wise men of -science believed it. Now not only is this idea of the origin of all -living things--animal and vegetable--universally accepted by men of -science, but every educated person is supposed to know about it. It is -always, and as a matter of course, put into the school-books dealing -with the history of nature; just as in all histories we are sure to see -Columbus landing in 1492 and George Washington being inaugurated April -30, 1789. - -Most people, including the scientists, used to think that each kind of -plant and animal was given its present form in the first place and that -this form had never changed. This was known as the "special creation" -theory; while the idea that the various kinds of plants and animals -we now know gradually developed from quite different forms is called -the theory of "evolution." Among the curious facts that finally led -educated people everywhere to believe this strangest of all the strange -fairy tales of the land of science were these: - - -AS WE READ THE ROCKS FROM THE BOTTOM UP - -The remains and imprints of plant and animal life of long ago which we -find in the rocks show successions of related but different forms in -the rocks of different ages. At the beginning in the lowest rocks the -forms are much alike, but grow more and more unlike as we climb these -stairs of time. At first there are no animals with backbones; then -there come animals with backbones that resemble each other in general -build; and finally such wide varieties of backboned creatures as fish, -birds, horses, and men. And so with endless varieties of birds and -beasts and creeping things and the trees and the grasses of the field. - -Sometimes the differences between these apparently related forms, as -we find them in the rocks, are very great; but everything goes to show -that this is because there are missing pages, so to speak, in the great -stone book. When you remember how long it takes to make one of these -layers of stone, and what they go through in cracking and twisting and -wearing down on their way back to dust and the sea, and how quickly -the remains of big animals--to say nothing of plants and insects--are -destroyed, you must agree that the wonder is that we have any records -at all. Yet so enormous has been the number of plants and animals that -have died in the course of the world's history that there have been -found hundreds and thousands of these remains and imprints between the -layers of stone. In all cases the fashions in form change from age to -age; and the longer the time, as shown by the thickness of the rock, -the greater the change. - - -THE RABBIT THAT TURNED INTO A HORSE - -The horse, which has been such a faithful carrier for man since man and -horse arrived from the lower ranges of life, also brought with him on -the way up one of the most complete of these strange autobiographies -that our brother animals have recorded with their bones. The most of -this story of the horse was found in the rocks of our Western States, -but the first chapter of it saw the light about forty years ago in -England. When the bones were found in the rock deposits of that -country known as London Clay they looked so unhorselike that a famous -paleontologist (as the students of these ancient anatomies are called) -gave it a name which means "rabbit-like beast." But in rock of the -same age in Wyoming they afterward found the bones of an animal that -looked a little more like a horse, but plainly a close relation of -the rabbit-like beast. They went on finding different forms, through -thirteen successive stages of rock history, and with each new period -the form kept getting larger and more horselike until they came to a -horse with three toes; and finally to one with the single big toe which -we call a hoof. Instead of the other two toes there were those two -little lumps that you can feel in any horse's foot just above the hoof. -These are the ends of two small splintlike bones that are all there is -left of the other two toes. - -So there have been found in the rock records more or less complete -serial stories of thousands of plants and animals. In the case of man, -not only do we find that there were once human beings on earth like -the caveman with low forehead and huge jaw, but nothing has ever been -found to indicate that there were any higher types of human beings in -existence in his day. And both the caveman and the handsomest human -beings of to-day--the captain of our football team, for example--have -essentially the same bodily framework as the monkey tribe. This does -not mean that man--even so low a creature as the caveman--descended -from monkeys, any more than the fact that he has a backbone means he -descended from humming-birds. But the backbones in humming-birds, -monkeys, and men show that all are descended from older types of -backboned creatures. As monkeys and men are much more alike than men -and birds they are evidently more closely related. - -We might suppose, to be sure, that men and all other forms of life -which they resemble in any way were so made from the beginning; that -is, if we hadn't learned from the records of the rocks that they -_weren't_ so made from the beginning. Yet, even after that, we might go -on supposing that each species was created separately, but that the -form was changed from age to age. But in that case what are you going -to say to this: - -In man's body are several organs that are useless and often harmful. -Other animals, also, contain among useful organs some that are -"out-of-date," as we would say if we were speaking of some old machines -in a machine-shop. Why, in making a brand-new species, shouldn't Nature -have all the latest improvements from the start, just as man does in -building a brand-new home? If each species was separately created it is -hard to understand why these useless or harmful organs should be kept; -but if one species grew out of another, by gradual improvement, just as -cities grow out of villages, this is exactly what we might expect. - -One of these useless organs in man is called the "vermiform appendix." -It is always getting its name in the papers by giving trouble to some -prominent man. Now this appendix, while a perfect nuisance to human -beings, is just the thing for cows and other grass-eating animals. In -them it is very large and of great use in digestion, while in the case -of man and the monkey family it has shrunk into a little affair that -puts in all its time either doing nothing or getting out of fix. - - -III. Upward; Always Upward - -These are some of the reasons why the various varieties of animals are -supposed to have descended from common ancestors and to have undergone -endless changes of form; changes as strange as anything that was ever -written into a fairy story or acted out in a Christmas pantomime. There -are other things quite as convincing and even more thrilling to read -about, such as the little theatre in the chicken's egg where strange, -changing shadows re-enact the drama of ancient life; but these I am -here passing by because my pages are running out and I want the rest -of them to speak of what seems to me to be the greatest lesson of this -whole book; the greatest and most useful and happiest lesson Science -or any kind of book can teach; namely, that not only is the universe -governed by Laws and Mind, but that all these laws act together as one -Great Law and are working out one general result, the constant advance -of all things toward a higher life. - - -HOW MAN HAS RISEN AS HE DESCENDED - -As there was a period in human history when there were no human beings -on earth higher than the cave-dweller, so there was a time when the -highest forms of animal and vegetable life were minute creatures and -plants consisting only of a single cell. It is such low forms of -vegetable life that make the scum on the still waters of a pond. Step -by step, in both the animal and vegetable world, rose the higher forms. -The descent of man from lower forms of life used to be considered -by many people as a thought that degraded humanity, but it is the -most promising fact in all nature. The striking thing is, not that -we are related in some way to the apes and the cavemen but that such -a creature as an ape or a caveman should have helped develop such a -beautiful thing as a little child. - -This progress has not been steadily upward. The world of life, like -the surface of the globe itself, has had its ups and downs. Wonderful -nations like Greece and Rome have risen and flourished and passed -away, but they left the best of themselves, the part that time cannot -destroy. The Greeks taught us literature and art and the grace of life. -The Romans gave us a science of government and a solid way of doing -practical things, such as the building of good roads and bridges. The -great lesson of history is that civilization and human liberty and all -the things that make life worth living have not only survived the fall -of empires but stand to-day on higher and firmer ground than they ever -did before. - - -THE WORLD THAT MOTHER MADE - -But do you know who was at the bottom of it all? Mother! All the things -that men have done in the development of national life, with its arts -and industries, everything we call civilization, grew out of the life -and industry of the home, and it was mother who finally made the home. -The mother idea came into the world with the first seed that ever -started out to make its own way; for the mother plant had provided it -with food enough to keep it going until it could get well-established -in business. But the kind of mothers we know, mothers who stay with -their babies and feed them, came very late in the long story of life. -In the early days the world was not only without flowers and birds -and the beautiful trees and varied landscapes we know, but it was -motherless, in the sense that we understand mothers. In the lowest -forms of life, such as the insects, the mothers and children never -saw each other at all; for among the insects just as it is to-day the -mother simply laid the eggs and then, before the little insects were -born, passed away. Even among the fish, who are much closer relations -of ours than the insects--since fish belong to the great brotherhood -of the backbone--the sense of motherhood doesn't get beyond looking -after the eggs. So with the next higher group to which the frogs -belong; and the next, the reptiles. Only with the birds, the next group -above the reptiles, do we begin to see what motherhood means. Then at -the very top of the list come the class of animals whose very name has -"mamma" in it; the "mammalia." Among these, even outside the human -race, we find very striking examples of family love and devotion. The -gorillas, for instance, although they haven't what one would call an -attractive face, are good to their folks. Not only does Mamma Gorilla -nurse her babies and carry them in her arms much as a human mother -does, and fight and die for them, but a famous African traveller tells -of a Mamma Gorilla who stayed safe with the babies in their humble home -of sticks in the fork of a tree while Papa Gorilla sat all night at the -foot of it, with his back against the trunk, to protect them from a -leopard that had been seen prowling around. - -Among most animals below man the babies are soon able to leave mother -and shift for themselves, but in the case of human beings the baby is -helpless for a much longer time. So, even among the lowest savages, it -was necessary for father and mother to keep together and look after -their children. Thus grew up family life; and out of the family the -tribe; and out of many tribes living together and closely related, grew -first small and then larger nations. Yet, always at the beginning, it -was the mother, more than the father, who looked after the children and -taught them, so bringing before the world the idea of doing things, not -for one's self alone but for others. From this came the mutual giving -and helping which made national life possible, and that is making this -a better and better world to live in. - - -IV. The Great Unseen - -So it is very plain not only that the end, the purpose of all this -machinery and march of things that we have been going through since the -beginning of Chapter I, is to make life better, more beautiful both -in form and character, but to show that "all nature is on the side of -those who try to rise."[59] It is plain also that this end must have -been foreseen and intended from the beginning; for, from the very start -each change in the world and in life was a preparation for another -and a greater change. The change from rock to soil made plant life -possible; the growth of plants made animal life possible, and so on up -through the long succession of changes in this tree of life by which -all things are related and which gave us the infinite variety of good -things we already have--fruit, homes, churches, schools, art galleries, -books, railroads and steamships that make the whole world neighbors; -the telegraph, the newspapers, and the magazines that carry thought and -knowledge and plans for the common good so fast and far that already -it is as if a whole nation with its millions had a heart and brain in -common. - -[Footnote 59: Drummond: "The Ascent of Man."] - -Man himself, you see, has become one of the great forces of nature in -the evolution of nature, in the blossoming out and fruit-bearing of -things. But now notice this: Back of all that man does and all that the -rest of nature does is the great controlling force called Mind; and -this Mind is invisible. If I should say of some great man that he had a -powerful mind you would know just what I meant; but if anybody should -ask "What did his mind _look_ like?" you would think that was an odd -question, wouldn't you? - -[Illustration: - - _From the painting by Burne-Jones_ - - THE FIRST DAY OF CREATION -] - - -THE MYSTERIOUS PRINCESS HIDDEN IN THE BUD - -So it is and has been from the beginning. We can see the _results_ of -changes of one thing into another but never just how the changing is -done. While it is no longer believed that species were given a certain -form in the beginning and that they have always kept that form, it -is still true that each species comes into being from some unseen -cause--"all of a sudden," as it were. Because species thus seem to vary -of themselves, and not for any reason that we can see these changes are -called "spontaneous variations." Always back of the material nature we -can see is a nature that is not material; a part of nature that, like -the mind of man, we can neither see nor hear nor feel nor know by any -of our five senses. Some Unseen Power forms the baby plant out of the -seed; some power changes the leaves hidden away in the bud into the -petals of the flower. When the leaves gather to form the bud, like -little hands playing "button, button, who's got the button," where do -you suppose the flower is? It _isn't_. It has not yet begun to be. But -soon, as if some magician had waved his wand and said "Presto! Change!" -the pink petals begin to form there in the dark of the cup and, first -thing we know, out steps Miss Blossom, all in her pink and gold like a -princess dressed for a ball! - -But always hidden in a mystery these changes take place. We can peep -into the growing bud as often as we like and we will never catch the -fairies making the dress, nor the princess putting it on. We always see -the thing after it is done! - - -WONDERFUL ART BUT WHERE IS THE ARTIST? - -Another thing: How do the fairies of Roseland remember every spring -just how a rose looked, when the roses of last year have been dead -and gone so long? You see they work without a model, something great -artists seldom do; and in some kinds of work, as busts and portraits -and landscapes, never do at all. Even the most powerful microscope -doesn't show any pattern in the seed for the seed to go by in growing -into the finished plant; or in an egg to tell it what kind of a bird it -is expected to be. No, not the trace of a pattern. What then, guides -the growth of the seed; of an oak, say, so that it finally and always -takes the family form? Some Power, evidently, as intelligent as the -power that moves the hand of the human artist when he paints that oak -into his landscape. How many of us have stopped to think that not only -in the world of mind but in the material world itself, all forms of -_power_ are as invisible as the fairies that work unseen in the rosebud -and the little birds' egg and the big rock? All power--what we call -steam power, wind power, electric power and the rest--are not only -unseen but unseeable, unfeelable, untastable. We know steam power only -when heat gets into the water and makes steam; electric power only when -it gets into a wire or a dynamo; or, passing by unseen ways through the -air, moves the wireless telegraph receiver; gravity power only when it -moves something as the water of a waterfall; or when it is helping to -hold things--the earth and the other worlds--in their appointed paths. - - -HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY - - You can easily see why evolution is the most talked about of - all phases of science--of the study of this wonderful world we - live in. One reason is it's such an astonishing thing in itself, - this relationship of all forms of life, trees, kittens, birds, - and everything; another reason is that in reading the books on - evolution you're taken into every field of knowledge and into the - most curious and striking aspect of things in those fields. Could - anything be stranger, for example, than a little theatre in a - chicken's egg, over which pass strange shadowy forms that seem to - retell, in a kind of moving picture show, the story of how one form - of life developed out of another? - - Drummond's "Ascent of Man" tells about that and covers the whole - subject of evolution. It is one of the books which no one who has - heard of this wonderful story of life should fail to read. Doctor - Drummond's way of telling the story is very attractive. Readers - from the Eighth Grade up to the Eightieth will delight in it, - and they won't stop until they read it from cover to cover. I'll - guarantee that! - - Then take such a book as "The World of Life," by Wallace. "Alice in - Wonderland" is nothing to it. Here are some of the things you will - find in it: - - How there got to be different kinds of rabbits and what islands - have to do with it. - - (Islands are almost as prominent in the story of evolution as they - are in the story of adventure. There are Robinson Crusoes until you - can't rest!) - - How the pig in the struggle of life won out as usual. - - Why the peacock has such a fine tail and how he overdid it. - - How the elephant saved his life by lengthening his nose. - - How the birds traded their teeth for feathers. - - How shelled creatures coiled and uncoiled their shells. - - Why we miss the "missing links." (As you go into this subject of - evolution you will hear a good deal about missing links.) - - How they know butterfly wings are made first and the coloring and - patterns laid on afterward. - - How much of a butterfly's beauty is probably known to the - butterflies themselves. - - How Nature seems to make things just to be pretty. - - And these are just a few of the things in _one_ of Doctor Wallace's - books.[60] - -[Footnote 60: In addition to all this curious and absolutely reliable -information that ought to be interesting to every one is the fact that -Wallace shows in "The World of Life" how there must have been Mind and -Purpose back of it all. Doctor Wallace was a great traveller as well -as a great student of nature--one of the most famous in the history of -science. His works include: "Travels on the Amazon and the Rio Negro," -"The Malay Archipelago," "Natural Selection," "Darwinism," "Island Life -and the Geographic Distribution of Animals." - -There are so many books on this biggest of all nature -topics--Evolution--that they make quite a library in themselves. The -most famous of these books is Darwin's "Origin of Species," and it -is not at all hard to understand. Other books bearing directly or -indirectly on evolution are "Animals of the Past," by Lucas, "Creatures -of Other Days," by Hutchinson, Fiske's "Destiny of Man," and "Evolution -and Religion." A book for older readers--one of the latest and most -comprehensive treatments of the subject--is Osborn's "Origin and -Evolution of Life."] - - Then he was such a fine man personally. Why, what do you think - he did? Although he thought out the principle of evolution - independently of Darwin, and wrote an essay on it before Darwin - had ever given his views to the world, yet after Darwin's "Origin - of Species"[61] came out Wallace gave Darwin all the credit, - and in his own autobiography always referred to the theory of - evolution as the "Darwinian Theory." Yet Wallace had a very good - reason for taking this generous attitude, as you will see from his - autobiography and other writings, and you are quite likely to find - the reason in articles on Darwin or Wallace or Evolution. - -[Footnote 61: Of "The Origin of Species" it has been said that no work -ever produced so profound a change in the opinions of mankind.] - - The relations of Darwin and Wallace furnish one of the finest - examples in history of the best thing in the world--human - friendship. - - Of course, like so many other great men, Wallace was one of those - boys whose minds never grow old. Read in his autobiography how on - the day he first discovered a new species of butterfly it gave him - a violent headache, and he had to go to bed to get rid of it and - quiet his nerves--he was that worked up! - - Darwin was much the same sort of a man. Everything in the world was - interesting to him. He wrote a whole book about "Fish Worms," for - example. And although probably the most famous man in the history - of natural science he was as humble as could be, always looking for - the truth and ready to accept criticisms no matter how much they - might upset his own previous conclusions, provided these opposing - views were supported by evidence. Of course you will want to know - more about his life, and you will find more in the "Life and - Letters of Charles Darwin," edited by his son. - - How do you suppose this boy began being a great man--by collecting - beetles! Beetles and outdoor sport were his chief delight. - - - - -USE OF THE INDEX - -SOME THINGS YOU CAN DO WITH THIS INDEX - - -I shouldn't be surprised if you thought that an index was the dullest -part of a book. - -But it all depends! As a matter of fact, with your help, I am sure I -can make this index of ours one of the most interesting things in the -whole story; for, like the H. & S., it gives you a chance to "come into -the game." The mind enjoys books and grows upon them much as the body -grows on food, but, as in the case of both food and books--and books -are food--the good you get depends not only on the food but _how you -season it and eat it_. You can't expect _everything_ of the cook! - -Everybody knows, of course, how to use an index to look things up once -in a while and it saves time if the index not only tells the page on -which a given subject is referred to, but conveys some idea of what -that reference is about, as this index tries to do. If, for example, -you are studying the Alpine regions in school you may already have -covered the question of how flowing water carves mountain valleys, but -you may not have had anything about why the Alps don't run north and -south, as so many of earth's great ranges do; and so what could be a -more interesting thing for you to take into those delightful class -discussions? - -Your teacher knows, although you may not have realized it, that these -class talks and debates by the pupils themselves are _the big thing_ -in modern teaching. The best education, we know nowadays, isn't the -mere cramming down of facts, as people used to think. _It's training in -thinking, and in standing on one's own feet!_ - -But memory training is important too; and an index is the best -thing in the world for that. Take some subject you're studying in -school--mountains, for example--they're always studying such big -things as mountains, the work of rivers, and so on; or if they aren't -to-day they will be tomorrow. Look at the references _as questions to -yourself_ and see how well you can answer them: "How do mountains help -make water-gates for the rivers?" and "Why do they have earthquakes in -regions where mountains haven't got done with their growing?" - -Then you can have a lot of fun with these questions at home and with -boy friends, after you have read the book together. For instance: Just -how _did_ the pebbles help dig the Grand Canyon? And that's a poser -for many grown people too--people who've travelled and met the Grand -Canyon face to face! Try it on Father. Yes, and Teacher too. There are -none of her boys that a teacher is so proud of as the boys that have -initiative--_go-aheaditiveness_--and can _ask_ good questions as well -as answer them. - -But, best of all, you can find no end of things to write about for -your language work in school and for the little books of your own that -I've already suggested in the H. & S. Take the subject of pebbles, -for example. Although this whole book has to do with the life and -adventures of pebbles, I haven't put the facts together in just the -way _you_ will if you follow out the references under the heading -"Pebbles" in this index. If you don't happen to remember how pebbles -act as bankers for the farmers, how they helped make the Great Lakes, -built the Grand Canyon, and so on, look these things up and then, as -they thus become digested in your mind, write about them in your own -way--the way you'd talk if you were telling somebody about it. Do that -and you'll _have_ something! one of those things that mothers show to -the neighbors, and that teachers show to visitors. - -Of course you'll have to have a name for your story and you'll think of -plenty: "What One of My Pebbles Told Me," "The Pebbles in the World's -Work," "What a Wonderful Thing a Pebble Is!" "Why Common Pebbles are -Worth More than Diamonds"; for of course a diamond is a kind of pebble. - - -GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH YOURSELF - -In all this you will not only find you'll have a good time, but, -let me tell you, you'll be getting the best part of your education; -you'll be getting acquainted with yourself, your undeveloped powers of -memory--reasoning--expression. You'll find before you get so very old -that one of the most important elements of success, of doing _your_ -part in the world's great work of making itself better all the time, is -in _having something worth while to say and being able to say it_. - -This was the making of the Greeks; and the Greeks, you know, were the -most wonderful people that ever were. It all started with old "Know -Thyself" Thales of Miletus. - -That's what did it! - - - - -INDEX - - - Africa, children's hand-work, illustrating home life of the natives, - including the elephants and the lions, 168 - - Agassiz, Louis, and his stone hut, 43; - adventure in the crevasse, 51; - on the height of ancient glaciers, 123 - - Air, origin of, 16; - how corals get their breath, 225 - - Alaska, the flowers and the snow line, 44 - - Albany, Atlantic tides at, 221 - - Alleghany Mountains, birth of, 10 - - Alps, mountain pastures, 41; - how rain drops helped carve the Alps, 67; - why the Alps don't run north and south, 136; - glacial "autographs" on their walls, 255 - - Amazon River, its stately flow, 74 - - Ants, how they help teach men how volcanoes are built, 123 - - Apollo, how he lighted the world, 2 - - Appalachian Mountains, birth of, 10 - - Arabian desert, physiognomy and complexion, 165 - - Arabian Sea, why its waves salute the Himalayas, 140 - - Arabs, life in the desert, 183; - and the Simoom, 184 - - Atlas Mountains, morning beauty of, 163 - - Atoms, defined, relation to molecules, 110 - - Aurora, the dawn goddess and her chariot, 2 - - Avalanches, impulsiveness of; - snap-shot at one in motion, 63 - - - Bad Lands, why so called, 114 - - Bar Harbor, Nature's remarkable masonry in Castle Rock, 228 - - Bald Mountains, how they got their crowns shaved off, 26, 28, 123 - - Beavers, as lake makers, 192 - - Bedding planes, defined, 217 - - Bees, and Alpine flowers, 45; - why they hide from the cloud shadows, 56; - shape of honey cells and basaltic columns, 243 - - Beetles, varieties in desert places, 180; - use of poison gas, 182 - - Big Round Top Mountain, how it lost its peak, 248 - - Birds, life in the desert, 178 - - Bombs (volcanic), what they are and how they are made, 129 - - Boulders, Agassiz' monument, 54; - travels of Plymouth Rock, 64; - boulders on a New England hill, 145; - why the Indians worshipped a boulder, 146; - the strange stranger on Mount Abu, 147; - as mountain climbers, 147, 152; - why there are no big caves in boulder regions, 148; - how boulders help tell the secret of the Ice Age, 149; - how torrents help shape, 151; - how glaciers carry, 151; - how boulders ride on the water, 153; - how Jack Frost builds boulder walls, 154; - how the sun helps shape boulders, 155; - - Geikie on the story told by a conglomerate boulder, 155; - Ruskin on boulders in art, 157; - why boulders sometimes jump up from the ground, 158; - how rain drops split boulders, 171; - how boulders shiver their skins off, 170; - boulders in the rock mills of the sea, 216; - how perched boulders are perched, 149; - the perched boulder in Bronx Park, in New York City, and its - autograph, 250 - - Bridal Veil Falls, how it got its name and why it hurries to "catch the - train," 74 - - Butterflies, how they help in Alpine flower gardening, 46; - why they hide from the cloud shadows, 56 - - - Cactus, the desert water bottle, 174 - - Cactus wren, how she bars her front door against her bad neighbors, 177 - - Cæsar, Julius, his literary style compared to that of Mr. Glacier, 254; - how he and Mr. Glacier went into winter quarters, 256 - - Canada, her sea terraces for the gannets, 223 - - Canada thistles, and the Siberian "wind witches," 178 - - Canyons, deepened by glaciers, 26, 37; - how pebbles helped make the Grand Canyon, 82; - how long a mile is--straight down! 87; - how the Grand Canyon swallows you up, 88; - how rivers wrote the history of the Grand Canyon and how they cut the - leaves, 88 - - Caravan, the marching camels and their shadows, 185 - - Carbonic acid gas, and air making, 16; - how it helped make coal with one hand and the Ice Age with the - other, 20; - how it helps the volcanoes feed the world, 128 - - Carpathian Mountains, why they do not border the sea, 138; - their ups and downs under the sea, 230 - - Castle Head, a remarkable example of Nature's masonry, 228 - - Catskill Mountains, how they were made, 116 - - Cavemen, a caveman's art note on mammoths, 22; - why they were the handsomest men of their day, 267; - the joyous lesson they helped teach, 269 - - Caves, relation to natural bridges, 85; - why large ones are never found in boulder regions, 148; - their sightless inhabitants, 186 - - Centipede, his numerous feet and objectionable character 62; - how the trap door spider slams the door in his face, 182 - - Centrifugal force, and the birth of worlds, 4; - and the direction of mountain ranges, 137 - - Ceratosaurus, his dreadfulness and his name, 23; - and Nature's dream of the coming of man, 23; - one of our queer cousins, 264 - - Civilization, its constant advance, but with ups and downs, 269; - the civilization that Mother made, 270 - - Coal, did it help bring on the Ice Age? 20; - bad effect of coal making on plant and animal life--volcanoes to the - rescue! 226; - coal seams and the records of ancient life, 245 - - Colorado River, how it dug the Grand Canyon, 88 - - Conglomerate rock, why it is called "pudding stone," 96; - conglomerate boulders as historians, 155; - how made in the sea mills, 227 - - Continents, how they rose out of the sea, 8; - how the fact that they are still rising helps the rivers get back to - sea, 75; - the continents and Nature's accident insurance, 262 - - Copernicus, and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds, 4 - - Coral islands and reefs, how the sea helps the corals build them, 225 - - Coyotes, as ventriloquists, 179; - their night songs, 179; - how they get a living, 180 - - Crater Lake, the blue lake in the volcano's mouth, 194, 195 - - Crevasse, origin of the word, 51; - what a crevasse looks like, 51, 53; - Agassiz' adventure in, 51; - voices of, 54; their water-mills, 55; - picture of a crevasse swallowing an avalanche, 63 - - Crystallization and the fairy land of change, 93; - how the pebble caught cold and what came of it, 94; - crystals in sugar and granite, 94; - the great melting pot and the remaking of the rocks, 96; - how old rocks hatch new ones by sitting on one another, 96; - how mountain making helps, 97; - how Mother Nature uses salt and soda in cooking rocks over and how she - keeps these materials handy, 99; - an illustration of how men of science study things out for the fun of - it, 104; - the crystal fairies and their curious ways, 106; - how crystals help tell about dikes, 243 - - - Dead Sea, its deadness and how it died, 207; - and the story of Sodom and Gomorrah, 209; - what "Lot's Wife" looks like to-day, 210; - ancient history on the Dead Sea's walls, 249 - - Deltas, why delta river mouths always multiply by two, 167 - - Descent of Man, how man has risen as he descended, 269 - - Desert, origin of Lybian (myth), 2; - enigmas of, 161; - the desert and the Sphinx, 162; - physiography and coloring, 163; - "Baths of the Damned," 165; - river "skeletons," 166; - indications of former heavier rainfall, 166; - Roman aqueducts, 166; - "sand roses," 168; - how the desert makes its sands, 168; - its trade-mark on its sand grains, 172; - why deserts are so cold at night, 170; - how a simoom looks from the outside, 173; - how it begins business, 184; - the plant people of the desert, 174-175; - how the Rose of Jericho goes to sea, 176; - the cactus wren and how she bars her front door against her bad - neighbors, 177; - the "wind witches" of the steppes, 178; - animal life in the desert, 178; - the coyote as a ventriloquist, his night song, 179; - bird life, 180; - why the desert humming-birds have rusty coats, 180; - how the trap-door spider slams the door in the centipede's face, 182; - a beetle that uses poison gas, 182; - wonderful flight of the vulture, 183; - a day with the Arabs in the Sahara desert, 183; - the cat, the dog, the Arab, and the struggle for life, 187, 188 - - Diamonds, form of their crystals, 107 - - Dikes, what one in New York City tells about marble making, 97; - the iron walls near Spanish Peak, 235, 241; - dikes in the rocks at Marblehead, 242; - how dikes get their driving power, 244 - - Dinosaurs, their dreadfulness, their habits and their family name, 23 - - Diplodocus, his name, his gentle nature, his defensive tail and how it - helped him at his meals, 24 - - Domes (Mt.), 123 - - Drift theory, 120 - - Drowned valleys, 212 - - Drumlin, why an Irish boy would know what "drumlin" means, 122 - - Dunes, 163 - - - Earth, story of the spoiled boy who set it afire, 2; - how much truth science finds in the Phaeton myth, 3; - theories as to the earth's origin and how they compare with the Bible - story, 17; - watching worlds in the making, 5, 6; - the sun and his pebble worlds, 6; - how you can watch the world turn round, 7; - how the continents came up out of the sea, 8, 14; - lands the seas have swallowed, 11; - reasons for thinking the continents won't go under again, 12; - how earth's slowing up helped make mountains, 137 - - Earthquakes, how growing mountains make them, 86; - earthquakes that travel incog., 158; - how earthquakes are recorded in the veins of marble, 239; - earthquakes and the earth's "faults," 243 - - Echoes, Arab superstitions about, 187 - - Electrons, how they act as messenger boys of the universe, 110 - - Emerson, on the industries of England, 214 - - England, her heavy losses of land to the sea, 214; - how her drowned rivers helped make her great, 224 - - Eskers, defined, 122 - - Esparto grass, 176 - - Europe, how most of her rivers get their start, 73; - her ragged outline and the "transgressions" of the sea, 219; - Europe's geological biography and her mountain chains, 230 - - Evolution, was Nature dreaming of man's legs and arms when she designed - the dinosaurs? 23; - "some call it Evolution and others call it God," 260; - answer of Science to the question "whither," 261; - why nothing "happens," in the great course of things--The Accident - Insurance System of the Universe, 262; - kinship of kittens and apple trees, 264; - universal acceptance of the evolution theory, 264; - the old "special creation" theory, 265; - and the mysterious special creation theory that Science has - substituted, 274; - facts that support the evolution theory; - the story of changing forms recorded in the rocks, 265; - the "rabbit" that turned into a horse, 266; - as to men being descended from monkeys, 267; - how evolution proves the world is getting better, 268; - how man has risen as he descended, 269; - the world that Mother made, 270 - - - Family, the, and civilization, 271 - - "Faults," geological, defined, 243 - - Finland, its butterflies, and the left-over butterflies of the Ice - Ages, 48 - - Fiords, how they were made by the Old Men of the Mountain, 254 - - Florida, her sympathetic sister lakes, 200 - - Folds, how the story of the crumpling of mountains is told in the veins - of marble, 237 - - Fossils, how they help tell the story of marble, 100 - - Frost, how it helped build the stone "Temple of the Winds," 33; - how it builds boulder walls, 154 - - Fujiyama, Mt., why it resembles Mount Rainier, 124 - - - Galileo, and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds, 4 - - Geikie, on the conglomerate boulder as an historian, 230 - - Geodes, Nature's pebble jewel boxes and how they are made, 101 - - Geography, when all our geography was at the bottom of the sea, 8; - how they study geography in Boston on rainy days, 68 - - Geysers, and the geyser basins, 165 - - Giant's Causeway, its architecture, 243 - - Gila monster, 181 - - Glacial Period. (See Ice Ages.) - - Glacial tables, how stones go walking in glacier land, 62 - - Glacier Mills, 55 - - Glaciers, how snow changes itself to ice, 26; - glaciers in their "working clothes," 29; - how to make glaciers and icebergs in the schoolroom, 32; - how glaciers helped make the gray stone "Temple of the Winds," 33; - how the glaciers of the Ice Ages made the Great Lakes, 34; - songs of the glacier and how it sings, 42, 56; - a day's visit with the Alpine glaciers, 49; - the crevasses and the adventure of Agassiz, 51; - how long it took Agassiz to determine the nature of glacial - movements, 52; - why the peasants think the glacier has a soul, 54; - Mr. Glacier's caterpillar tractor, 62; - how the glaciers start Europe's rivers in business, 73; - how pebbles tell on what part of a glacier they travelled, 251 - - Golden Gate, entrance to San Francisco harbor, how it was made, 224 - - Gorges, 26, 82 - - Grand Canyon, 88 - - Granite, ancient lineage and social standing among earth's rocks, 17; - the Granites and the Fairyland of Change, 94; - how they crystallize their neighbors, 103; - how they help make sand, 170 - - Gravitation, how it pulls the worlds into roundness, 5; - and helps them to grow up, 8; - how it helps sea waves to salute the mountains, 139; - equally careful in handling big worlds and little seeds, 261; - like all power it is invisible and intangible, 276 - - Great Basin, records of the two great lakes it used to hold, 249 - - Great Lakes, how they were made in the Ice Ages, 34; - an Ice Age lake that was greatest of all, 193; - tides in the Great Lakes and tides in a teacup, 201; - how the glaciers of the Ice Age tipped the Great Lakes up, 253 - - Great Salt Lake, ancient weather records on its walls, 249 - - Greek civilization, one of the things that do not die, 270 - - - Harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea, 221, 222 - - Hieroglyphics, picture language of the Egyptians and how it was read, 258 - - Himalaya Mountains, glacial table on, a lesson in picture-reading, 59; - why some of the Himalayas are called "hills," 117 - - Horse, evolution of, 266 - - Hot Springs (cause of), 165 - - Hudson River, action of the tides, 221; - the Palisades, 241 - - Hydrogen, and the making of earth's air, 16 - - - Ice Ages, theories as to their origin, 20; - the three union stations of the ice trains, 27; - how the glaciers put the Missouri River together, 29; - how they pushed the Mississippi about, 30; - how they turned rivers around and made waterfalls for New England, 31; - how they chiselled out stone bowls for the Great Lakes, 34; - how they made other lakes, 194; - the thousand-year clock at Niagara Falls and what it tells about the - Ice Age, 35; - how the glaciers set Niagara Falls up in business, 36; - Muir's eloquent tribute to the marvellous "busy work" of the - snowflakes, 37; - how the Ice Age glaciers went off and left the butterflies and the - flowers in the Alps, 47; - how the butterflies missed the train, 48; - how Agassiz discovered the Ice Age, 52; - how the glaciers moved the hills about, 117; - travels of the boulders and how the glaciers rounded them, 146, 155; - why there are no big caves in glaciated regions, 148; - relation of the Ice Ages to the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee, 206; - Burroughs's theory as to future Ice Ages, 219; - what rain-drop autographs tell of the Ice Age, 246; - a perched boulder and its autograph in a New York City park, 250; - records of the Ice Age glaciers compared with Cæsar's Commentaries-- - curious similarities, 252 - - Icebergs, how to make them in the schoolroom, 32; - how the icebergs of the Ice Age gave the boulders a ride, 153 - - Ice wells, huge ice water tanks that the Ice Age glaciers left, 49 - - Indian Ocean, why its waves rise to salute the Himalayas, 140 - - Islands, oceanic, the tops of volcanoes, 133; - islands on the Maine coast and how they were made, 212; - how the sea helps the corals build their islands, 225 - - - "Joints," places where rocks don't join, how made, 33; - how they help make "perched rocks," 60; - joints in the "Marble Rocks" at Jabalpur, 105; - joints and the work of the sea's rock mills, 216; - use of joints in Nature's stone architecture, 228 - - Jordan River, why it was born partly grown, 73: - why the making of the Jordan Valley was the death of the Dead Sea, 206 - - Jungfrau, summer pastures on, 41; - its beauty, 44 - - Jupiter, how as rain god he put out the world, 3; - place of the planet in the Solar system, 6 - - - Keewatin, one of the central stations of the Ice Age, 28 - - Kentucky, the sink holes in the cave regions, 200 - - Kepler and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds, 4 - - Kettle lakes, how the glaciers of the Ice Age made them, 196 - - - Labrador, one of the central stations of the Ice Age, 28; - how the butterflies of Labrador tell that their ancestors missed the - train, 49 - - Lakes, the Ice Age lake and the "Temple of the Winds," 33; - how the Ice Age glaciers made the Great Lakes, 34; - how they helped Lake Erie in making Niagara Falls, 36; - the sleep of lakes and how it brightens them up, 80; - how Mirror Lake shows Mount Rainier how beautiful he is, 130; - how, with Jack Frost's help, lakes build boulder walls, 134; - the empty lake beds of the desert, 162; - "trade-marks" on lake-shore sand, 173; - how lakes are born, 192; - moods of lakes, 198; - why the ducks overlook some lakes, 198; - where mountain lakes get their coloring, 199; - sympathetic action of sister lakes, 200; - how some lakes act as barometers, 201; - tides in lakes, 201; - why lake storms are particularly dangerous, 202; - peculiarity of storms on the Sea of Galilee, 202; - and of storms on mountain lakes, 203; - how lakes grow old and pass away, 204; - why lilies come to dying lakes, 204; - the procession of the trees to the margins of dying lakes, 204; - why they have a regular marching order, 204; - the Dead Sea and how it died, 205; - what science says of the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah, 209; - "Lot's Wife" as she looks to-day, 210; - records of ancient weather on the walls of Great Salt Lake, 249; - how the Great Lakes were tipped up and how they tell about it, 253 - - Lake Agassiz, a great lake of yesterday which could swallow all the Great - Lakes of to-day, 193 - - Lake Baikal, its great depth, 193 - - Lake Erie, how the glaciers helped it make Niagara Falls, 36 - - Lake Superior (size), 193 - - Laplace, his great theory of the origin of worlds, 4 - - Lapland, strange stories its butterflies tell, 48 - - Laurentian Highlands, how they rose out of the sea, 9 - - Lava, how it makes dikes and what a New York City dike has to say about - the origin of marble, 97, 241; - how lava plays "grandfather" in the Porphyry family, 102; - lava and the flame effects on volcanic clouds, 126; - lava plains, 126; - how lava helps raise the fine fruit and wheat of Washington and - Oregon, 128; - how it increases the violence of delayed volcanic explosions, 130; - the lava and the "fire from heaven" in the story of Lot, 209; - the iron wall near Spanish Peaks, 235; - remarkable architecture of the Giant's Causeway, 243; - theory as to what makes the lava climb, 244 - - Libyan desert, Greek myth as to its origin, 2 - - Limestone, how it turns to marble, 97, 104; - how the shelled creatures of the sea help make it, 101; - the "Marble Rocks" at Jabalpur, 105; - the place of limestone in the rock-making system of the sea, 227; - limestone and the story marble tells of mountain making, 237, 239 - - Little Round Top (Mt.), the battles that rounded it, 248 - - Lizards, varieties in the Arizona desert, 181 - - London, how it owes its greatness to the transgressions of the sea, 224 - - Los Angeles River, how one of its tributaries plays hide-and-seek, 80 - - Lowell, Mass., how the Old Men of the Mountain helped build it, 34 - - - McCloud River, why it is born half grown, 73 - - Maine, advance of the sea upon its coasts, 219 - - Mammoth, art note on, from the "Cavemen's Diary," 22; - ancient members of the elephant family that wore underclothes, 24 - - Manchester, Mass., how the Old Men of the Mountain built its falls, 34 - - Marble, how a New York City dike helps tell how marble is made, 97; - what the fossils have to say, 100; - how it is quarried, 103; - the mysteries in marble walls, 235; - when marble flows, 238; - the cloud effects in marble, 239; - how marble tells of earthquakes and other exciting things, 239 - - Mars (planet), 6 - - Meanders, engineering work of wandering rivers, 81; - meanders and the making of natural bridges, 83 - - Mediterranean Sea, its connection with the making of the Alps, 136 - - Mercury (planet), 6 - - Metamorphism (defined), 98 - - Miller, Hugh, how he found a fish inside of a stone and so found Hugh - Miller, 159 - - Mississippi River, how the Old Men of the Mountain pushed it about, 30; - how you can jump across it, 69; - the mountains of soil it carries into the sea, 84 - - Mississippi River System (map), 67 - - Mississippi Valley, when it was at the bottom of a mediterranean sea, 10; - why the sea went away, 138 - - Missouri River, how it was pieced together and pushed about in the Ice - Age, 29 - - Mohawk River, why it grew taller as it grew older, 72 - - Molecules, their relations to atoms and electrons, 109 - - Moraines, how the glaciers take them on their backs, 56 - - Moulins, the "mills" of the glaciers and how they are made, 55 - - Mountains, earliest arrivals in the mountain world, 9; - origin of bald mountains, 26; - Muir on the marvellous mountain sculpture of the snowflakes, 37; - how mountain peaks are kept sharp, 43; - rain-drops as mountain sculptors, 67; - mountains and the origin of river valleys, 69; - and the birth of partly grown rivers, 72; - mountain streams and their waterfalls, 77; - storm chorus of the mountain torrents, 78; - how mountain lakes and baby rivers go to sleep together and the - liveliness of the rivers afterward, 80; - how mountains help make the water gates, 86; - why growing mountains make earthquakes, 86; - why almost all granite is found in mountain regions, 97; - the different kinds of mountains, 115; - why mountains border the sea, 134; - why they run north and south, 137; - why sea waves rise to greet the mountains, 139; - Ruskin on mountain drawing, 140; - resemblance of mountains to sea waves, 140; - how mountains helped solve the mystery of the stones of the field, 151; - sunrise in the Atlas Mountains, 163; - why desert mountains look so gaunt and hungry, 164; - why the desert winds are constantly blowing them away, 171; - mountain shapes and the law of the picturesque in Nature's art - work, 229; - how the mountain chains are the making of Europe, 230; - their ups and downs, 230; - why the markings in marble tell the story of mountain building, 237; - and of mountain shaking, 239; - ancient weather records on mountain walls, 248 - - Mountain lakes, the blue lake in the volcano's mouth, 195; - why mountain lake storms are particularly dangerous, 202; - and why they are apt to come at night, 202 - - Mountain meadows, how rapidly their flowers follow the snow, 44 - - Mount Fujiyama, its striking resemblance to a mountain 3,000 miles - away, 124 - - Mount Hermon, its spring that gives birth to the Jordan, 73 - - Mount McKinley, remarkable snap-shot of one of its avalanches, 63 - - Mount Pelée, its discharge of huge rocks and whirling bombs, 129; - the mysterious shaft that rose and fell, 132 - - Mount Ritter, its resemblance to the sacred mountain of Japan, 124 - - Mount Shasta, how it gives birth to a river that has no babyhood, 73; - how the mountain itself was born at the crossroads and why this is apt - to happen in the case of volcanic mountains, 127 - - Mount Vesuvius, why, like other active volcanoes, it seems to smoke but - doesn't, 126, 127 - - Mount Washington, its interesting colony of descendants of butterfly - pilgrims of the Ice Age who missed the train, 48 - - Muir, John, on the wonderful team work of the snowflakes, in the Ice - Age, 37; - on the liveliness of mountain streams after a little nap in mountain - lakes, 80; - on the winter sleep of the mountain lakes and their glad awakening in - the spring, 198 - - - Natural bridges, various ways in which they are made by the very streams - they bridge, 83, 85 - - Nebular Hypothesis, one of the theories as to how the world was made, 4; - how it differs from the latest theory, 6; - the Bible story compared with both theories, 17 - - Neptune (planet), 6 - - New England, how the Old Men of the Mountain plowed its farms away, 31; - and then made up for it by putting in New England's waterfalls, 32 - - Newton, his connection with the theory of the origin of worlds, 4 - - New York City, what one of its big rocks tells about marble making, 97; - what its harbor owes to the engineering of the sea, 221, 222; - the perched boulder in Bronx Park and its autograph, 250 - - Niagara Falls, its thousand-year clock and what it tells about the Ice - Age, 35; - how the Old Men of the Mountain set the falls up in business, 36 - - Nitrogen, how it helped to make fresh air for the new-born world, 16 - - Norway, interpretation of the handwriting on the walls of its fiords, 254 - - - Ogden Canyon, curious example of a rock fold, 238 - - Ohio River, how the Old Men of the Mountain helped it by turning some - rivers around, 31 - - Omar Khayyam, answer of Science to the universal riddle that puzzled - him, 261 - - Origin of Species. (See Evolution.) - - Oxygen, its use in making the world's air, 16; - how the sea feeds oxygen to the corals, 225 - - - Pack Rat, his remarkable fortress in the desert, 187 - - Paleontologists, the wizards of queer anatomies and the strange forms - they conjure up from the fragments of old bones, 266 - - Palestine. (See Dead Sea.) - - Palisades, how they were made in the "Middle Ages," 241 - - Pebbles, how they tell of old sea beaches on inland mountain and - hill, 14; - their enormous age, 18; - dramatic stories the pebble scratches tell, 26; - how the Old Men of the Mountain used pebbles in turning New England - rivers around, 31; - how pebbles helped deepen the basins of the Great Lakes, 34; - how they still help run the thousand-year clock at Niagara Falls, 35; - how they help the glaciers talk, 56; - why the pebbles of Glacier Land can't walk as the big stones do, 62; - how the river pebbles act as bankers for the farmers and the sea, 80; - how the pebbles helped dig the Grand Canyon, 82; - how they tell about doings in the Fairyland of Change, 97; - how a pebble may, in its time, play many parts, 99; - how they help unravel the secrets of the hills, 119; - how they help dying rivers multiply by two, 167; - how they report the fact that the storms on the Sea of Galilee are - particularly severe, 203; - their fixed place in the rock-making system of the sea, 227; - how they tell of rough experiences in river travel, 250; - and of high winds at sea, desert sandstorms, rides on glaciers, and in - what compartments they travel, 251 - - Peninsulas, how the drowning of rivers helps to make them, 212 - - Pennsylvania, autographs left by ancient reptiles in the sandstone under - the coal seams, 245 - - Perched boulder, in Bronx Park and its autograph on its rock-bed, 250 - - - Quartz, how it helps to make the pebble jewel-boxes--the geodes, 101 - - Quartzite, (defined), 98 - - - Rain, what fossil rain-drops tell of ancient weather, 224 - - Rat, desert, 186 - - Reclus, on the motion of glaciers, 62; - on the mountain whirlpools of stones, 141; - on the severity of lake storms, 202 - - Reefs, coral, how the sea helps the little people build them, 225 - - Reptiles, with bird feet, 246 - - Rivers, how the Mississippi River and others were pushed about in the - Ice Age, 26; - how the Old Men of the Mountain helped the Ohio by turning some rivers - around, 31; - how they helped make New England a great manufacturing section by - turning some other rivers around, 32; - how they helped build the "Temple of the Winds," 33; - the little boy's definition of a river system, 66; - how the sea and the rivers take turn about in emptying into each - other, 66; - their wonderful work in the mountains, 67; - the Mississippi River system, 67; - how they study the work of rivers on rainy days in Boston, 68; - how you can jump across the Mississippi, 69; - what springs do for rivers, 69; - how the springs act as regulators of river flow, 72; - how rivers grow at the top, 72; - why some rivers are born partly grown, 72; - how most of Europe's rivers get their start, 73; - why many little rivers have to jump to catch the train, 74; - why all rivers flow toward the sea, 75; - beautiful way in which Ruskin tells of the response of rivers to the - call of the sea, 76; - the human nature in rivers, 76; - baby ways of baby rivers, 76; - why waterfalls are found only in young streams and more often as you - near the source, 76; - how rivers play in the rain, 78; - storm chorus of the mountain torrents, 78; - where to look for hiding rivers, 78; - how rivers sleep in mountain lakes and how lively they are when they - wake up, 80; - why rivers grow more thrifty as they grow older; how, with the help of - the pebbles, they act as bankers for the farmers and the sea, 80; - the machinery of rivers includes circular saws and dirt-spreaders, 82; - how a river dug the Grand Canyon, 82, 88; - the automatic stop in the river machinery, 83; - enormous amount of soil carried by the Mississippi into the sea, 84; - how rivers cut mountains in two, 85; - how rivers help in mining granite, 97; - how they help make hills, 117; - how they combine with the boulders to help out the artists, 157; - the land in which there are river beds without rivers and rivers - without mouths, 162; - the skeletons of dead rivers and what they tell of the past history of - the desert, 166; - why dying rivers multiply by two, 167; - harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea, 221; - how rivers made the Golden Gate of San Francisco and so made San - Francisco, 223; - the rivers and the rock mills of the sea, 227; - the river's trade-mark on its pebbles, 250 - - Rocky Mountains, how they were born, 10; - their relation to the Mediterranean Sea that is no more, 135; - why they are now so far from the sea, 138; - how the mountain waves of stone resemble the waves of the sea, 140; - folded strata that illustrate Ruskin's line about the strange quivering - recorded in mountain rocks, 142 - - Romans, some of the big things we owe to them, 270 - - Rose of Jericho, what it is like and how it puts to sea, 176 - - Round Tops (Mt.), how they are formed, 123 - - Ruskin, on the response of rivers to the call of the sea, 76; - on the sleep of lakes, 80; - on mountain drawing, 140; - on the strange "quivering of substance" of mountains, 141; - on the art lessons to be learned from stones, 158; - on the correct drawing of boulders, 160 - - - Sahara Desert. (See Desert.) - - St. Lawrence River, how the Old Men of the Mountain took some of its - rivers away, 30; - how the Old Men used it in making the Great Lakes, 34 - - Salt, how Mother Nature uses it in warming over rocks, 99; - how Father Neptune uses it in his rock mills, 217 - - Sand, how it helped build the stone "Temple of the Winds," 33; - how Mother Nature dissolves it out of sandstone in her rock - cookery, 99; - how the crystal fairies give sand grains a new lease of life, 108; - how the sand helped shape the old Indian of Mt. Abu, 147; - color of desert sand, 165; - how the desert makes its sand, 168; - "sand roses," 168 - - Sandstone, its place in the rock-milling system of the sea, 227 - - San Francisco Bay, how it was made, the two rivers that opened its Golden - Gate, 222 - - Saturn (planet), 5, 6 - - Sea, when the seas were all in the sky, 16; - how its stratification of rock helped build the "Temple of the - Winds," 33; - the Alps, like sea waves turned to stone, 50; - how the sea flows into the rivers, the endless circuit of the - waters, 66; - why the rivers always get back to sea, 75; - how the pebbles help feed the sea fish and furnish material for the - sea's rock mills, 81; - the Grand Canyon and the ancient sea, 88; - how the sea helps Mother Nature do the work in her rock cookery, 99; - why volcanoes and mountains border the sea, 133, 134; - why sea waves rise to greet the mountains, 139; - how sea sand grains differ from those of the desert, 173; - the rock mills of the sea, method in the madness of the on-shore - waves, 212; - why the sea's chief business at first seems to be that of eating us - up, 213; - the sea in literature and art, 213; - England's heavy losses to the sea, 214; - how helpless the Old Man of the Sea is without his tools, 215; - how he uses the stone-throwing engines and the battering-ram of the - Romans, 216; - what he knows about wedges and pneumatic tools, 216; - the hidden enemies in the rocks of the sea, 216; - planing-mills of the winter seas, 217; - how stones are carried out to sea, 218; - how the sea has shaped Europe, 219; - the sea as a builder, why Father Neptune is like Old King Cole, 220; - harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea, 221, 222; - how the sea helped teach shore engineering to man, 223; - how it has helped make London, New York, and other great cities, 223, - 224; - how Father Neptune feeds the coral people, 225; - the art work of the sea, 227, 228; - Nature's building blocks and the sea, 228; - the ups and downs of Europe's mountains under the sea, 230; - how sea tides help in recording rain-drop marks in stone, 244 - - Sea caves, what they told about how the continents came up out of the - sea, 14 - - Sea of Galilee, why its storms come so suddenly and usually at night, - 202, 203; - how the pebbles on its shores tell that these storms are severe, 203; - why it parted company with the Dead Sea, 206 - - Sea-shells, how some of them tell how marble is made, 100 - - Seismograph, the device for getting the autograph of earthquakes, 240 - - Shakespere, how he emphasizes the rough side of Father Neptune's - nature, 213; - on the man and the swallowing waves, 219; - his reference to the greatness of Mr. Cæsar, 252 - - Shaler, Dr., on the stone autographs of rain-drops, how they throw light - on the climate of ancient days, 246 - - Shasta River, why it is born partly grown, 73 - - Sierra Nevada Mountains, Muir on how the snowflakes helped carve them, 37 - - Silica, its use by Mother Nature in making sandstone, grass, wheat, and - corn, 99 - - Slate, and the Fairyland of Change, 98; - its place in the rock mills of the sea, 227; - ancient autographs found in slate, 245 - - Sodom and Gomorrah, the Bible story of their destruction and what Science - has to say about it, 208 - - Soil, how it was made in the beginning of things, 11; - how the Old Men of the Mountain carried New England's best farms - away, 31; - how river pebbles act as bankers for the farmers, 80; - how the sea helps make good farming land, 222; - Nature's art work and the making of soil, 229 - - Solar system, how it was discovered that there are worlds of worlds, 4; - Laplace's theory as to the origin of the Solar system, 4; - the planetessimal theory, 6 - - Soldanella, the flower of the Alps that blooms its way up through the - ice, 45 - - Special Creation theory, 265 - - Spiders, the tarantula and the tarantula killer, 181; - the spiders of the Arizona desert, 182; - how the trap-door spider slams the door in the centipede's face, 182 - - Spontaneous variation, the scientific modification of the old "Special - Creation" theory, 274 - - Springs, not only start rivers in life but go on feeding them, 69; - how rain-drops stored in big stone safes keep the springs going, 69; - springs that work like a town pump, 70; - hot springs and the geysers, 165 - - Stratification, defined; how it helped make the "Temple of the - Winds," 33; - how it helps in marble quarrying, 103; - as shown in the "Marble Rocks" at Jabalpur, 105; - how it helps in the making over of rock in the sea's mills, 217 - - Stratus clouds, their counterparts in marble and what these marble cloud - pictures mean, 239 - - Striæ, scratches made in rocks by glaciers, and how they helped to - disclose the great secret that there was an Ice Age, 121; - the big boulder's autograph in Bronx Park, New York City, 250 - - - Tarantula, and the life struggle in the desert, 181 - - Terraces, what they tell about the tipping up of the Great Lakes once - upon a time, 253 - - Tides, in lakes and in teacups, 201; - and the harbor and shore engineering of the sea, 221, 225; - how they help preserve the autographs of ancient rain-drops, ancient - reptiles, and other things, 244 - - "Transgressions" of the sea, defined, 218; - how they help to make great cities, 223; - how they help in the art work of the sea, 227 - - - "Umbrella Parties," an interesting form of geography study in Boston, 68 - - Uranus (planet), 6 - - - Valleys, how crooked rivers broaden them, 82 - - Venus (planet), 6 - - Vesuvius, why it seems to smoke but doesn't, 126, 127 - - Volcanoes, what they tell about the inside of the earth, 3; - why volcanoes were more numerous in early days, 16; - difference between ordinary mountains and volcanic mountains, 114, 123; - the volcanic mountains in the Sahara and the "Baths of the - Damned," 165; - the blue lake in the volcano's mouth, 194; - volcanoes and "the fire from heaven" in the Bible story of Lot, 209; - how volcanic explosions help to cause transgressions of the sea, 219; - Mr. Vulcan's famous castle on the Hudson, 241 - - Vulture, his wonderful abilities as a flying machine, 182 - - - Wasp, desert, how it disposes of the tarantula, 181 - - Waterfalls, how the Old Men of the Mountain put them in for New England, - to make up for carrying her farms away, 31; - how they set Niagara Falls up in business and started the thousand-year - time clock, 35, 36; - why the Bridal Veil Falls in the Yosemite has to jump to catch the - train, 74; - why waterfalls are found only in young streams and oftenest near the - source, 76 - - Water Gaps, how the rivers cut them with the help of pebbles, 85 - - Weathering, examples of, 33, 60, 97, 147, 228, 229, 231, 241, 243, 248 - - Wind, how it helped carve the "Temple of the Winds," 33; - how it helps make pillars for perched rocks, 60; - how it helped carve the strange old Indian of Mt. Abu, 147; - how it helps the desert in trade-marking its sand, 173; - the wind witches of the Steppes, 178; - why lake wind storms are particularly dangerous, 202; - the winds and the night storms on the Sea of Galilee, 202; - how winds help fill up the sea, 219; - stone autographs of ancient breezes, 247; - pebble faceted by wind-blown sand, 252; - wind ripples, 248 - - Wren, desert, how she locks her front door against her bad neighbors, 177 - - Wyoming, the ancient bones found in its soil and the wonderful story they - told about horses, 266 - - - Xenophanes, the wise old Greek who first suggested that the mountains had - risen out of the sea, 13 - - - Yosemite Valley, why the rivers of the little valleys have to jump to - catch the train, 74 - - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber Note - -Minor typos corrected. Paragraph break inserted at the top of page -116 to accommodate placement of image related to the text therein. In -the original book, Mt. Fujiyama and Mount Rainier were on page 124 and -125 respectively with the caption spanning the two pages. The words "top" -and "bottom" were substituted for "left" and "right" respectively for their -orientation here. Also, the caption has been updated to say "FOUR THOUSAND". - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGE ADVENTURES OF A -PEBBLE *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. 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- height: auto; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Poetry */ -.poetry-container {text-align: center;} -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry in browsers */ -.poetry {display: inline-block;} /* */ -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} -.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} -/* large inline blocks don't split well on paged devices */ -@media print { .poetry {display: block;} } -.x-ebookmaker .poetry {display: block;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - - -/* Poetry indents */ -.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -3em;} -.poetry .indent1 {text-indent: -2.5em;} -.poetry .indent16 {text-indent: 5em;} -.poetry .indent2 {text-indent: -2em;} -.poetry .indent3 {text-indent: -1.5em;} - - - - </style> - </head> -<body> - -<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Strange Adventures of a Pebble, by Hallam Hawksworth</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Strange Adventures of a Pebble</p> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Hallam Hawksworth</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 24, 2021 [eBook #66818]</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Tim Lindell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</div> - -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STRANGE ADVENTURES OF A PEBBLE ***</div> - - - - -<div class="figcenter" id="cover" style="width: 304px;"> - <img src="images/cover.png" width="304" height="446" alt="The Strange Adventures of a Pebble, by Hallam Hawksworth" /> -</div> - -<p> <span class="pagenum" id="Page_i"></span></p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii"></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv"></span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v"></span></p> - -<p class="caption3">THE STRANGE ADVENTURES<br /> -OF A PEBBLE</p> - - - - -<p class="pmt4 tdc"><span class="u">STRANGE ADVENTURES IN NATURE'S WONDERLANDS</span></p> - -<h1>THE<br /> -STRANGE ADVENTURES<br /> -OF A PEBBLE</h1> - -<p class="tdc">BY</p> - -<h2>HALLAM HAWKSWORTH</h2> - -<p class="pmb4 tdc">AUTHOR OF "THE ADVENTURES OF A GRAIN OF DUST"</p> - -<p class="pmt4 tdc caption4">CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS</p> - -<p class="pmb4 tdc">NEW YORK<span style="letter-spacing: 3em;"> </span>CHICAGO<span style="letter-spacing: 3em;"> </span>BOSTON</p> - - - - - -<p class="pmt4 pmb4 tdc"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1921, by</span><br /> -CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS<br /> -A</p> - -<p class="pmt4 pmb4 tdc"> -THE SCRIBNER PRESS<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>The purpose of this little book is to present the chief -features in the strange story of the pebbles; and so of the -larger pebble we call the earth. It is hoped that readers -of various ages will be entertained, without suspecting -that they are being taught.</p> - -<p>Several things led the author to believe that such a book -might be wanted.</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) The circumstances under which it was written.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) The fact that there seemed to be an opportunity -for improvement not only in the popular presentation of -scientific topics but in the character and method of review -questions and suggestions following such topics in school -texts.</p> - -<p>(<i>c</i>) Experience has shown that pictures may be made -to perform a much more vital function in teaching than -is usually assigned to them in the text-books.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> On this subject I cannot do better, perhaps, than quote from an -article on "The Picture Book in Education," contributed to the New -York <i>Evening Post</i>:</p> - -<p>"We learn more easily by looking at things than by memorizing -words about them. The principle, of course, holds whether the image -which the eye receives comes from the object itself or only from the -picture of the object. Therefore we should learn to read pictures as -well as books.</p> - -<p>"New York has long recognized the added efficiency in the teaching -process to be obtained from the use of pictures. The Division of Visual -Instruction, established thirty years ago, has an international reputation -for the extent of its equipment, the simplicity of its methods, -and the excellence of its results."</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">- vi -</span></p> - -<p>(<i>d</i>) In the particular field to which this story relates -comparatively little has been written either for reading in -the family circle or for use in the school; although the -relation of physiography, not only to human history and -political and commercial geography but to the whole immense -realm of natural science, is so basic and its great -principles and processes so striking in their appeal to curiosity -and our sense of the grand and the dramatic.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Commenting on the need of popular literature dealing with earth -science, Doctor Shaler says:</p> - -<p>"In no other fields are large and important truths so distinctly -related to human interests so readily traced; yet the treatises dealing -with these truths are few in number and generally recondite."</p> - -</div> - -<p>What here appear as chapters were originally little talks -for the evening entertainment of the juvenile members of -a certain family and the neighboring children, who were -attracted by what came to be known as the "pebble parties," -during the season at Mount Desert Island. They -are here given in substantially the form in which they -first saw the light. While they proved entirely intelligible -to boys and girls of eight and ten they seemed equally -interesting to the older members of the audience, including -a youth of eighteen in his last year of high school, whose -comments, in the language of his caste, deserve to share -the credit for whatever of whimsical humor and colloquial -style the author may have succeeded in incorporating into -the narrative.</p> - -<p>The familiar tone, the number and variety of the chapters, -the sub-heads and marginal captions and the character -and treatment of the illustrations have a similar -origin. They represent the variety of aspects under which -it was found necessary to present the facts in order to hold -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">- vii -</span> -a capricious audience whose attendance and attention were -wholly voluntary.</p> - -<p>The use of unfamiliar words and scientific terms has -been avoided as much as possible, consistent with the educational -purpose of the book. It is to be remembered that -educators do not consider it good practice to omit all words -which children cannot understand at sight; the theory being -that it is by the judicious introduction of words not current -on the playground that the intellectual interests and -capacities of children are enlarged. With regard to scientific -topics (it is further argued) a large proportion of the -classics of science written for the general reader and which -boys and girls of fourteen and upward should be able to -read easily and with pleasure—Shaler, Darwin, and Wallace, -for example—contain quite a few scientific terms; and -these it would be well that young people learn from context -or definition in their previous reading in works of a -more elementary nature.</p> - -<p>Moreover, while younger children will read a book the -general character of which interests them, even though -they do not understand every word or get all the thoughts -in it, sophisticated youths of the high-school age will have -none of it, if they suspect that they are being talked down -to. In the story of the pebble the aim, accordingly, has -been not only to make a book that young people will not -outgrow but one that will be of some interest to adults, -particularly to travellers.</p> - -<p>Not only in the text is special emphasis laid on the interpretation -of landscape, but the character, treatment, and -arrangement of the illustrations is intended to train the -eye to read the story of the earth drama as recorded in the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">- viii -</span> -forms of valley, mountain, field, and shore. And—since -the earth is not, after all, a mere geological specimen—these -illustrations include reproductions of paintings, -scenery as interpreted by the poet and the artist.</p> - -<p>To create an appropriate atmosphere and so add to the -vividness of conception, the twelve chapters each deal -with a seasonable subject.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">Relation to the Text-Book</span></p> - -<p>The relation of this book to the formal study of physiography -or geology in the schools will be apparent. The -classified and exhaustive treatment of the text-book, while -so admirably adapted to organize knowledge already -acquired, or reward an appetite already aroused, is not at -all adapted for creating this appetite in the first place; a -thing so essential to true progress in education. For example, -in a text-book, the many aspects of glaciers and their -work, which are here distributed in a number of sections -(as the discovery of these aspects was distributed in time), -are usually dealt with in a single chapter or series of chapters, -whose nature the reader at once gathers from the -title, "The Work of the Glaciers."</p> - -<p>The young reader or school pupil is thus deprived of the -element of surprise, of the pleasure of following an unfolding -mystery, which was at once the inspiration and reward -of men of science to whom we owe these discoveries.</p> - -<p>If left to the text-book alone, the student acquires his -facts too rapidly and too easily. The result is a loss of -both pleasure and profit. The movements of the glaciers -and the nature of the movement, which gave Agassiz seven -years of keen delight to ascertain, the pupil acquires -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">- ix -</span> -through his text-book in something like seven minutes, -and without either the pleasure or the profit of Agassiz' -gradual and inductive acquirement of this knowledge.</p> - -<p>In other words, to begin the study of a given science by -means of a text-book, without previously arousing interest -in the subject, is to assume a greater zeal on the part of -school pupils and college students than, it is reasonable -to assume, was possessed by the scientists themselves. It -was the attraction of the unknown rather than the rapid -acquirement of the known that drew them on to their -grand discoveries, their illuminating generalizations.</p> - -<p>In recording the pebble's story the endeavor has been -to cause the reader to come upon the data on which these -generalizations were based, piece by piece, here a little and -there a little—as did the scientists themselves.</p> - -<p>Interesting as the mere facts of physiographic science -finally become to the trained scientist they make little -appeal either to the average boy or the average adult, if he -must first come in contact with them as they are presented -in the text-book; classified, catalogued, labelled in scientific -terms and laid away (as it seems to him) in chapter, section, -and paragraph, like specimens in a museum.</p> - -<p>Since this book is concerned mainly with landscapes and -the story of the forces that helped to shape them it does -not undertake to deal with mineralogy. Within the fields -thus defined it is believed that the larger facts, the great -moving causes of things, have been covered as thoroughly -as they are in the average elementary text-book. In addition, -subjects in great variety are touched upon which do -not come within the province of the text-book, but are -such as naturally suggest themselves in the broader and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">- x -</span> -richer discussion of such topics in the conversation of -cultivated people.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">Hide and Seek in the Library</span></p> - -<p>Since the whole purpose of the school is to prepare for -the larger world of life and books outside the school, special -attention is invited to the department of questions and -suggestions following each chapter. As indicated in the -introduction to the first of the series, an effort has been -made to capitalize the fact that young people enjoy conundrums -and curious quests in the field of books quite as -well as mere passive reading.</p> - -<p>The treatment is somewhat discursive, and in this and -other respects is intended to be more like the conversation -of cultivated parents with their children than like the -review questions of a text-book; the review element being -incidental, in recalling the topics out of which these questions -and suggestions grow. The correlations in the most -modern texts lead into equally wide and varied fields.</p> - -<p>If he has succeeded in the aim thus indicated, the author -believes this department may easily prove one of the most -interesting as well as educatively useful features of the -work.</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -H. H.<br /> -</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">- xi -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class="tblcont" summary="TOC"> -<tr> - <td class="tdc smaller">CHAPTER</td> - <td></td> - <td class="tdr smaller">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">I.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>In the Beginning</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">1</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">II.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Winter that Lasted All Summer</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">20</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">III.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Soul of the Spring and the Lands of Eternal Snow</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">41</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">IV.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The April Rains and the Work of the Rivers</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">66</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">V.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Fairyland of Change</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">93</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VI.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Secrets of the Hills</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">113</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VII.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Stones of the Field</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">145</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Desert</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">161</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">IX.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>In the Lands of the Lakes</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">191</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">X.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Autumn Winds and the Rock Mills of the Sea</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">212</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XI.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The Handwriting on the Walls</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">234</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdr">XII.</td> - <td class="tdl"><i>The End of the World</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">260</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdl"><i>Index</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#INDEX">279</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">- xii -</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">- xiii -</span></p> - -<h2>THE ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In furtherance of the idea referred to in the preface, -that a far more effective use may be made of pictures -in teaching than is usual, a very extended use has been -made of them in "The Strange Adventures of a Pebble," -and, moreover, these pictures have been made to talk, -as it were, by means of extended analysis and comment -upon their significant features; this for the double purpose -of teaching important facts, as only pictures can teach, -and of stimulating the invaluable habit of observation -and of logical reasoning about things observed.</p> - -<p>One of the main purposes of the book, as stated in the -preface, is to stimulate interest in further reading and -study on the many subjects to which it relates.</p> - -<p>The author wishes to make special acknowledgment of -the co-operation of the editor of <i>St. Nicholas</i> and the following -publishers in supplying the illustrations on the -pages indicated:</p> - -<p>The Macmillan Co.: <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, -<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, -<a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. The Century Co.: For the following from the -<i>St. Nicholas</i> magazine: <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p> - -<p>D. Appleton and Co.: <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, -<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>. G. P. Putnam's Sons: -<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. E. P. Dutton & Co.: <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. Henry Holt & -Co.: <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>. Silver Burdett Co.: <a href="#Page_28">28</a>. -<i>World's Work</i>: <a href="#Page_79">79</a>. <i>Geological Survey</i>: <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, -<a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>. <i>Wisconsin Survey</i>: <a href="#Page_33">33</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>: -<a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">- 1 -</span></p> - -<h1 class="nobreak" id="title">THE STRANGE ADVENTURES<br /> -OF A PEBBLE</h1> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(JANUARY)</p> - -<p class="tdc"> -In the beginning the earth was without form and void.<br /> -</p> - -<p class="tdr"> -—<i>Genesis</i> 1:1-2.<br /> -</p> - - -<p class="caption2">IN THE BEGINNING</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. How the Worlds and Myself Were Born</span></p> - -<p>I've been through fire and water, <i>I</i> tell you! From my -earliest pebblehood the wildest things you could imagine -have been happening to this world of ours, and I have -been right in the midst of them.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW MR. APOLLO TURNED ON THE LIGHT</p> - -<p>The first scenes of all in my strange, eventful history -remind me of the old Greek story about Apollo and that -boy of his—Phaeton. Apollo's business, you remember, -was to take the sun through the skies every day in his -golden chariot, so that people could see to get about. It -was a ticklish job, as the horses were fiery. As a rule, -however, things went fairly well. To be sure, there were -overdone days occasionally, just as there are now. Then -the crops would wither and the birds and brooks stop -singing. This, as the little Greek boys and girls believed, -was because Apollo's horses ran too near the earth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">- 2 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg2" style="width: 471px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg2.png" width="471" height="189" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">HOW MR. APOLLO TURNED ON THE LIGHT</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Behold the sun-god starting on his daily round! Aurora, Goddess of the Dawn, -precedes him scattering flowers, the lovely colors of the morning sky. The other -figures are the early hours.</p> - -<p>The Greek poets used to play with these myth stories a good deal, changing -them to suit their poetic fancy. Theocritus, for example, in a beautiful fragment -that has come down to us, paints this picture of the breaking day:</p> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Dawn, up from the sea to the sky,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">By her fleet-footed steeds was drawn."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>You see, according to this poet's conception, Miss Dawn had a chariot of her own.</p> -</div> - - -<p>But nothing serious happened until one time Phaeton -persuaded father to let him drive the sun chariot for a -day. The horses, feeling at once a new and weak hand -on the reins, tore out of the regular road and went dashing -right and left. They even got so near the North Pole -that the ice began to melt. They fairly flew down toward -the earth, set the mountains smoking, and dried up all the -springs and most of the rivers.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THEN THINGS BEGAN TO HAPPEN</p> - -<p>They dried up a certain great lake, so that there is to -this day the Libyan Desert in Africa, where this lake used -to be. They made the very sea shrink so that there were -"wide naked plains where once its billows rose."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">- 3 -</span></p> - -<p>Finally Mother Earth called on Jupiter Pluvius, as god -of thunder, rain, and storms, to stop Phaeton and the runaways -and put out the fire.</p> - -<p>Struck by a bolt of lightning poor Phaeton fell headlong -from the skies, and a world-wide rain put out the world-wide -fire.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg3" style="width: 409px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg3.png" width="409" height="321" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl smaller"><i>From a cameo by Da Vinci</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">THE FALL OF PHAETON</p> - -<p class="tdc">(Museum, Florence)</p> -</div> - - -<p>Now, would you believe it, this queer old Old World -story may really be true in its way. Of course there never -was a sun god and no spoiled boy who did just that thing; -although many spoiled boys have <i>tried</i> to set the world -on fire and failed because they thought it would be so easy.</p> - -<p>But the earth really has been on fire in a sense; that is, -has melted from the heat. And in parts where you would -least suspect—the rocks. There's where I got into it. -And some of these rocks, not more than ten miles<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> from -where you live, are either still molten, or continue to melt -from time to time; as you can see when lava comes pouring -from volcanoes, such as those of Hawaii.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Straight down, of course.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">- 4 -</span></p> - -<p>In the days of the Apollo story most men still thought -the earth was the centre of the universe; that the sun, -moon, and stars moved around it. But Pythagoras, one -of the Greek philosophers, had formed a general notion of -the truth that the earth is only one planet in a great system. -Then, along in the Sixteenth Century, came Copernicus, -and by mathematical calculation—he was a fine -hand at figures—began to find out things that showed -the wise old Greek had made a happy guess. Then -Galileo, Kepler, Newton, and others, each working on -different parts of the problem, finally settled the question. -They found that there are just worlds of worlds, and that -ours is only one of them.</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>About the time of the American Revolution a great -French mathematician, Laplace, worked out a story of the -origin of the earth which is, briefly, this:</p> - -<p>What we know now as the solar system—the sun with -its attendant worlds—was once a single big ball of fiery -gas, a nebula. As this nebula cooled it shrank, and as it -shrank it whirled faster because it had a smaller track in -which to turn, and with an equal amount of force would, -of course, get around oftener. The faster it whirled the -more the outside of it tended to fly off, as water flies off -a whirling grindstone or as a stone flies from a sling. -This centrifugal or "fly-away" force was greatest at the -sun's equator, and it threw off big rings. Afterward, -around some centre of greater density in these rings, the -gaseous particles in the rest of the ring gathered, so forming -spheres. Then some of the spheres themselves threw -off rings in the same way which became what are called -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">- 5 -</span> -satellites. The moon, which is our satellite, Laplace supposed -to have originated in this way. The ring which -Saturn still wears he thought would some day become a -satellite.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg5" style="width: 489px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg5.png" width="489" height="398" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl smaller"><i>By permission of the Mount Wilson Observatory</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">WATCHING THE MAKING OF WORLDS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>At first you won't see anything very striking about this picture, perhaps; but -doesn't it give you something of a thrill to be told that you are here looking not -only at the making of a <i>world</i>, but of worlds of worlds? A whole solar system! In -the course of unthinkable time that big, round ball in the center will be the sun, and -what appear to be little knots wrapped close around it—they are really far from -each other and from the sun—will become rounded worlds like ours. They will be -forced into roundness by their own gravity, pulling toward their centers. They -don't look any farther apart than the strands in a little sister's braided hair, do -they? But remember how small this picture is compared with what it represents. -What here show as little dark lines, separating the embryo worlds, are in reality -vast spaces, like those you see between the stars at night—millions and millions and -millions of miles!</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>So, you see, the myth story of Phaeton foreshadowed, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">- 6 -</span> -in a way, the science story of Laplace. For, according to -the Laplace theory, the world <i>was</i> on fire; and a big rain -storm, lasting for ages, with plenty of thunder and lightning, -did help put it out.</p> - -<p>This theory of Laplace was long accepted as the true -one. Indeed, it was only yesterday, comparatively, that -other explanations were offered as to how we came to -have a world to stand on. The broadest of these new -theories—the one that undertakes to explain the most—is -that of Professor Chamberlin, of the University of -Chicago.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg6" style="width: 490px; padding:2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg6.png" width="490" height="163" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE SUN AND HIS PEBBLE WORLDS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>However the worlds of our solar system may have been made, when they were -done there was the sun in the centre and his worlds travelling around him in their -ordered orbits. Nearest the sun is Mercury. Then Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, -Saturn, Uranus; then, finally, Neptune nearly 3,000,000,000 miles away and with -an orbit so big that Christmas comes only once in 60,000 years!</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">YOU CAN SEE THESE WORLDS IN THE MAKING</p> - -<p>Owing to the more powerful telescopes of to-day, and -the amount of exploring among the worlds that has been -going on since the time of Laplace, several things have -been discovered that have brought his theory into question. -For one thing, many more nebulæ have been found -in space than were known when Laplace worked out his -great conception, and among them all not one has been -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">- 7 -</span> -found with a central mass surrounded by a ring. Moreover, -our sharp-eyed telescopes show that Saturn's ring, -which Laplace thought was a solid mass, is really made up -of a great number of small satellites: baby worlds. The -greater number of these nebulæ are like the ones you see -in the illustration on <a href="#Page_5">page 5</a>. They consist of very bright -centres with spirals streaming out from opposite sides. -Just take a look at the picture. Doesn't the shape of those -spirals suggest that the central mass is whirling? And notice -the little white lumps here and there. The thinner, -veil-like portions of the mass, as well as the "lumps," are -supposed to be made of particles of matter, but the lumps -to be more condensed. All the particles, big and little, are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">- 8 -</span> -known to be revolving about the central mass, much as -the earth revolves about the sun. The little white lumps, -or knots, in the filmy skein are supposed to be worlds in -the making. Being larger than the other particles, they -draw the smaller to them, according to the same law of -gravitation which makes every unsupported thing on earth -fall to the ground, because the earth is so much bigger -than anything there is on it. Since these bright little -lumps behave so much like the worlds we know as planets, -and yet are relatively so small, they are called planetessimals, -or "little planets." So Professor Chamberlin's idea -of the origin of worlds is known as the "planetessimal -theory."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg7" style="width: 385px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg7.png" width="385" height="236" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW YOU CAN WATCH THE WORLD TURN ROUND</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Timepieces, you know, are really machines for keeping track of the apparent -movement of the sun. Here is a device, as simple as a sun-dial and much simpler -than a clock, by which you can record the actual motion of the earth. Sprinkle the -surface of the water in a bowl with chalk dust. On this, sift from a piece of paper -powdered charcoal or pencil dust, so as to make a clean-cut band extending across -the centre and over the edge of the bowl. In the course of several hours you will -find that the black band has swept round from east to west, because the water has -stood still while the bowl has been carried from west to east by the whirling world.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>According to this theory the earth was once a mere -baby world like those white lumps, and grew by gathering -in its smaller neighbors from time to time by the power -of gravitation. The larger it grew the more particles of -solid matter it could draw to itself. Then it drew larger -masses, for with increased mass came an increased pull -of gravity. In the same way the earth is still growing, -for it is thought that the shooting stars or meteors we see -at night are little planets being gathered in.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. How the Continents Came Up Out of the Sea</span></p> - -<p>And before I got to be myself at all, while I was still -only a part of the big pebble called the Earth, your geography -and I lay at the bottom of the sea.</p> - -<p>For ages and ages!</p> - -<p>This is one of the stories you will find in the literature -of science, of how, along with North America, South -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">- 9 -</span> -America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia—have I left -out any?—I came to land and brought your geography -with me.</p> - -<p>I remember hearing a pretty young lady say, once upon -a time:</p> - -<p>"There," said she, "I'm through with geography forever!"</p> - -<p>You see, although she had passed with marks around -90, she still had the idea that geography is a book. -You and I know, of course, that the real geography isn't -a book at all. It's the world itself.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">PUTTING THE CONTINENTS ON THE GLOBE</p> - -<p>But there was a time when there was no land. It was -all water, and the continents were lifted into their places, -much as you model a continent in making a relief map; -they were sketched out and then filled in. North America, -for example. First of all up came that mass in the northeast -in what is now Canada; the Laurentian Highlands, -as they are called in your geography. They rose very, -very slowly, you understand, only a few feet in a thousand -years; for Nature has all the time there is and never -hurries. These highlands (they are really granite mountains -worn down), along with the other rock formations -of our continent, are supposed to be the oldest land on -the earth. The continents of Europe and the rest were -born later. So you see Columbus didn't discover the -New World at all; he really came from the New World -and discovered the Old!</p> - -<p>Next after the highlands north of the St. Lawrence up -came the tops of the mountains you see running along -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">- 10 -</span> -the eastern coast, what we now call the Appalachians. -Then the Rocky Mountains began to raise their heads and -looked eastward toward their brother mountains across a -great mediterranean sea, the bottom of which is now the -Mississippi Valley. Mediterranean means "middle of the -land."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg10" style="width: 499px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg10.png" width="499" height="279" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW YOUR GEOGRAPHY ROSE OUT OF THE SEA</p> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">ADMITTING NEW STATES TO THE MAP</p> - -<p>Wisconsin, into which I moved from the Laurentian -Highlands in later years, was on the lower end of a long, -thin tongue of rock reaching out from these highlands to -the southwest. While Wisconsin went on growing, the -Alleghanies came up and brought some Middle Atlantic -geography with them. Up with all these early settler -mountains came, in the course of time, the beginnings of -neighbor States. All these big, barren rocks (as they were -then), rising and ever rising, age after age, spread more -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">- 11 -</span> -surface to the sun. And the sun, and the wind, and the -frost, followed by the lowest forms of plant life—the Adams -of the vegetable world—gradually worked the surface of -the rock into soil; and so, as we may say, got ready for -the spring plowing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg11" style="width: 379px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg11.png" width="379" height="220" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">LANDS THE SEA HAS SWALLOWED</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Parts of the continents as they used to be but which are now beneath the waters -are here shown. Compare this with the globe map in your geography. It is -estimated that there are 10,000,000 square miles of this land. You'll hear more -about this swallowing habit of the sea in <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chagter X</a>; but, as you will learn, there's -nothing to be frightened about.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>By this constant rising and building on of the soil the -foundations of our States grew out toward one another in -order, according to the constitution of things, "to form a -more perfect union." The United States, at a time which, -we may say, corresponds to "The Expansion Period" in -your school history, grew southward from Wisconsin and -westward from the Appalachians until they made continuous -land; and there was your Ohio and Indiana and -the rest of the North Central group. Below, toward the -south, were more big stone islands here and there, the -first sketches or blockings out of the Southern States. -Florida seems to have been added later, as a final touch; -an afterthought, as one of my Wisconsin neighbors puts -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">- 12 -</span> -it. And it was much enlarged by those remarkable little -world builders, the corals. Mexico and Central America, -of course, are a part of the Rocky Mountain system.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg12" style="width: 284px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg12.png" width="284" height="425" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl smaller"><i>From Gilbert and Brigham's "An Introduction to -Physical Geography." By permission of D. Appleton -and Company</i></p> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">BUT WON'T WE GO UNDER AGAIN?</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>These little people of the sea-floor furnish one of the most assuring evidences we -have that although the continents rose out of the sea, they will never go under the -sea again. These are shell creatures found in the slime dredged from the bottom -of the deepest parts of the sea. The shells of creatures that live near shore are -found in abundance in our rocks, but these types are found only in the deepest seas. -So, since the deep down-wrinklings of the earth that make the sea-basins have -never risen, it is probable they never will; and consequently that the up-wrinkles—the -continents—will continue to stay above the waters.</p> -</div> - - -<p>It's a wonderful old story, isn't it? But more wonderful -still, it always seemed to me, is the story of how they found -all this out.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">- 13 -</span></p> - -<p>Who do you suppose first told about it? The last -people you would ever think of, I'm sure—the oysters!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHAT THE OYSTERS TOLD XENOPHANES</p> - -<p>It sounds like a passage from "Alice in Wonderland," or -"Through the Looking-Glass," doesn't it? But it's a fact. -Away back, more than 2,000 years ago, a wise Greek called -Xenophanes, who lived in a place called Colophon, and so -was called Xenophanes of Colophon, said that he thought -the rocks of the mountain sides must once have been -under the sea because of the oyster shells that were found -embedded in many of them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg13" style="width: 468px; padding:2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg13.png" width="468" height="357" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE OYSTERS TOLD THE GREAT SECRET</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here is a good example of the thing that led wise old Xenophanes of Colophon -to make the startling assertion that the mountains were once at the bottom of the -sea. These are the shells of oysters embedded in limestone—which, by the way, -the shells of the oysters themselves helped make—and this piece of stone is from -the top of a high mountain.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>"For," said Xenophanes of Colophon, "how else could -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">- 14 -</span> -the oyster shells have got there? Who ever heard of -oysters climbing a mountain?"</p> - -<p>Another evidence that lands come up out of the sea is -this: Even before the days of Scott and Maryatt and -Fenimore Cooper, men—and, of course, boys—were interested -in caves that face upon the sea. They are such -jolly places for pirates, and for boys playing pirate, and -for mermaids drying their hair. It was plain that down -where the waves in storms could reach them the sea itself -bored out these caves. But how about those caves in the -cliffs high above the waves? The sea must have made -them, too, once upon a time when the land was lower in -the water. Then the land was raised.</p> - -<p>Still more striking was the fact that not only caves but -old sea beaches were found on hill and mountain slopes -far from the sea, sometimes hundreds of miles inland. -You can tell the old beaches by their shape and the way -in which the pebbles are sorted by size, just as you find -them on beaches to-day.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE BAKED APPLE AND THE BULGING WORLD</p> - -<p>The causes of the rise and fall of the sea coasts are many, -and there are things about these movements not yet understood. -By what wonderful machinery, then (we might -naturally ask), were the continents themselves lifted out -of the sea? To this, which would seem much the harder -question of the two, the answer is simple; as simple as a -baked apple. You know an apple that goes into the oven -with a smooth, neat skin comes out covered with wrinkles. -Now suppose, instead of a little, hot apple, covered with a -thin skin, you have a big, hot earth covered with a thick -crust of stone, and the inside of the earth shrinking all the -time as the inside of the apple shrank away from its skin. -The rock skin would wrinkle, and the wrinkles, rising out -of the seas that then covered it everywhere, would make -continents.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">- 15 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg15" style="width: 547px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg15.png" width="547" height="527" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE RISE AND FALL OF JUPITER SERAPIS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>In this account of the ups and downs of land and sea I must tell you the story -of Jupiter Serapis. In the days of the Romans this temple, for his honor, stood -on the seashore near Naples. Of that temple only three pillars remain, but they -answer a very important question. On these pillars, over twenty feet above sea-level, -is a belt of holes bored in the stone by a certain shelled sea-creature, one of -the barnacle family; so evidently these pillars must, at some time, have sunk, as -shown in the second picture, and then risen again, as shown in the third, which represents -them as they stand to-day.</p> - -<p>Another interesting thing is that the third picture—observe—shows a volcano -that isn't in the other two. Following a series of earthquake shocks in 1538 the -earth opened and out popped hot stones and ashes and built themselves into a -small volcano right before everybody; for it was all done in a short time, and you -may be sure the frightened people kept their eyes on it, and they named it Monte -Nuovo, which is Italian for "New Mountain."</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">- 16 -</span></p> - -<p>"And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered -together into one place, and let the dry land appear: -and it was so."</p> - -<p>According to the planetessimal theory the way in which -the seas were made was this:</p> - -<p>Owing to the collision—the "bang"—of the planetessimals -against the earth, and against each other as they met -at the "terminal station," heat was generated. The compression, -the squeezing together, of the earth from its own -weight—the gravity pull of the whole mass toward the -centre—generated still more heat, and the heat and pressure -drove the gases out of the rock. These gases included -hydrogen and oxygen. These two gases cooling and combining -themselves, in a way they have, became water, and -there were other gases, such as nitrogen and carbon gas, -that helped to make the air.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHEN THE SEAS WERE ALL IN THE SKY</p> - -<p>At first the water was in the form of dense clouds of -overhanging vapor which, growing bigger and bigger, -finally fell in rain. The heat, made by the pressure of the -outside of the earth toward the centre as the earth kept -growing, caused volcanic explosions. But there were far -more volcanoes in those early days when the earth was -settling down, and being "settled up," as it were, by these -energetic pioneers in the fields of space—the planetessimals—and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">- 17 -</span> -the surface became pitted with craters. In these -great catch basins the rain was stored, and, as for ages -the rain kept falling faster than the vapor rose from the -earth, many of these bodies of water united, and so formed -the lakes, the river systems, the oceans, and the seas.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE FOUR GREAT FEATURES OF THE BIBLE STORY</p> - -<p>All of which, while it differs so much from the theory of -Laplace, does not affect the Bible outline of the origin of -the earth. For these four great things must still have -been: (1) an earth without form, and void; (2) a great -deep; (3) upon its face darkness from the continuing masses -of black rain-laden clouds which overhung it and shut -out the sun; (4) the final dividing up of supply between the -vapor of the clouds ("the waters above the earth") and -"the waters upon the earth," so that at last the dark -cloud curtain disappeared, and the sun began to rule the -day. "Let there be light."</p> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<p>But good-by to Phaeton and the story of an original -glowing ball which cooled off on the outside. If the earth -grew bit by bit instead of being whirled off in one fiery -mass by the sun it was never any hotter than it is now, if -as hot. It grew hot by being pressed together by its own -weight, and by the blows of additional little worlds as -they fell upon it.</p> - -<p>But on one thing everybody agrees, that the rocks, as -you go toward the earth's centre, have been and still are -in a molten state; that this rock, when it cools, becomes -granite, all full of little crystals like a lump of sugar, and -that the Granites are one of the F. F. E.'s.<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> First Families on Earth.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">- 18 -</span></p> - -<p>I, as you see, am a Granite. So, besides going through -fire and water—yes, and ice, as you will learn—and having -many strange and wearing adventures both by land and -sea—I'm "awfully" old. Older than you think. I looked -it up in the family record called the "Geological Column"—just -the other day. That column gives my age as -"80+." This means I'm 80,000,000 years old, going on -81! (The <i>plus</i> sign, in geology language, means "going -on"; or, "and then some," as a certain slangful high -school freshman puts it.)</p> - -<p>But I don't think I <i>show</i> my age. Do you?</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Who wants to sit and be talked to all the time? When boys and -girls are playing games, the greatest pleasure is in taking part, and -it's the same way in the Wonderland of Books. Books mean most -to those who "get into the game"; who help chase after the answers -to things. This hunting for answers up and down among -the books is one of the interesting games we're going to play; and -those of you who don't come in will miss a lot of fun. That's all -<i>I've</i> got to say! Let's begin like this:</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>In the Greek myth stories what else was Mr. Apollo supposed -to do for the world and its people besides turning on the light?<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Answers to all these questions at the ends of chapters will be found -in books you can easily get hold of—encyclopædias, dictionaries, and -school-books; or books usually found in home, school, or public libraries. -Words in parenthesis or italics indicate the headings where the information -referred to will be found.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Why doesn't the force of the earth, whirling along as it does at -19 miles a second, cause the wind to blow us all away? (<i>Earth.</i>)</p> - -<p>What is the difference between a planet and a sun?</p> - -<p>How does the earth compare in size with its brother planets of -the sun family?</p> - -<p>How often would Christmas come around if we lived on the -moon?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">- 19 -</span></p> - -<p>What causes different phases of the moon?</p> - -<p>Why may we be said to have eclipses of the moon every month?</p> - -<p>"Moon" and "month" sound a good deal alike when you come -to think of it. Don't you wonder why? "Moon" comes from a -word meaning "to measure." You'll find the rest of the word-story -of the moon in any dictionary that is big enough to tell about -the origin of words.</p> - -<p>By the way—speaking of the timekeepers in the sky—don't forget -to look up the lives of the great astronomers mentioned in this -chapter. You will find, among other things, how Galileo, when -only eighteen years of age, helped to give us our clocks and watches -by counting his pulse-beats while watching a hanging lamp swing -back and forth in the Cathedral of Pisa; how he found out who -"The Man in the Moon" really is and what the "Milky Way" is -made of; how he invented the wonderful glass for playing hide and -seek among the worlds, and with it found four moons in one night!</p> - -<p>Yes, and how do you suppose he found that the sun is going -round and round like a top, just as the earth does? It was the -<i>simplest</i> thing! You'll see!</p> - -<p>Old Father Science may be said to be a Santa Claus who keeps -a curiosity-shop. His pack is not only full of curious things but -he is always "springing surprises on us," as our High School Boy -puts it. For example, one of the most curious as well as picturesque -evidences that great stretches of land sink under the sea from time -to time is furnished by the English swallows. Like many other -wealthy people, they spend their winters in Algiers, and they find -their way over the Mediterranean, not by any lands they can see -between coast and coast—for there <i>are</i> none—but by lands that -<i>used</i> to be there, thousands upon thousands of years ago.</p> - -<p>But how do the swallows know? They don't. Is it instinct? -No. (Whatever instinct is!) Then why do they do it? Look it -up and you'll see.<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Yes, and you'll see that we have habits that -<i>we</i> get in the same way; our habits of bowing, for example, because -it's the custom, although few people know how it originated.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> "Colin Clout's Calendar," by Grant Allen.</p> - -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">- 20 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(FEBRUARY)</p> - - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Up rose the wild old Winter King</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And shook his beard of snow;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">"I hear the first young harebell ring,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">'Tis time for me to go!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Northward o'er the icy rocks,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Northward o'er the Sea."</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Leland.</i></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE WINTER THAT LASTED ALL SUMMER</p> - -<p>It's been just one thing after another with the world -and me ever since we were born. First it was the fire, -then it was the flood, and then it was the winter that -lasted all summer.</p> - -<p>Just what started it nobody knows to this day. Some -of the theories have been that this particular winter stayed -so long because the earth wavered on its axis, or that it -flew the track for a while and got too far away from the -sun. From our present knowledge of the machinery of -the heavens it is certain that the earth's motions could -not vary to this extent. One theory that appeals to many -scientists to-day is that when so much of the carbon in -the air went into the making of our coal beds the earth -became unusually cold, and so snows of each successive -winter kept piling up instead of melting away during the -spring and summer. When there is plenty of this gas in -the air the earth's heat does not escape so fast. But with -the great amount of carbon taken up in the growth of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">- 21 -</span> -vast forests that were made into coal, Mother Earth's air -blanket grew thinner, so to speak, hence the long, cold -spell.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg21" style="width: 487px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg21.png" width="487" height="485" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl smaller"><i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of Ginn and Company</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">WHEN THE ICE SHEETS COVERED THE LAND</p> -</div> - - -<p>But whatever caused it one thing is certain; it was a -winter that beat anything the oldest inhabitant ever saw; -for the cave men are known to have been on earth during -this great winter, which is known as the Ice Age or the -Glacial Period. A great big ice cap reached from the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">- 22 -</span> -North Pole far down into the Temperate Zone in North -America, Europe, and Asia.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg22" style="width: 510px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg22.png" width="510" height="215" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">FROM THE CAVEMAN'S DIARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is a little note on the Ice Age from the caveman's diary—the picture of a -mammoth scratched with a flint on a mammoth's tusk. You can see how the -artist kept trying for the true form with different lines, as all real artists do. Artists -don't just have a kind of sign that stands for the thing—like a little boy's picture -of a man that he always makes in just one way. Notice the action, the natural -motion of the animal. The artist means to say: "This is the way he came -at me."</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. The Mild Spell and the Menageries</span></p> - -<p>Just before this dreadful winter set in we had a long, -open spell; about a million years or so. It was just like -summer most of the year in the temperate zone, and much -warmer than it is to-day in what is now the land of the -little frosty Eskimo.</p> - -<p>There weren't any little Eskimos in those days. In fact, -there wasn't much of anything that was little. Everything -was on a big scale. Think of a mud-turtle twelve -feet long! He was all of that. His skull alone was a yard -long and he must have weighed a couple of tons. He had -for neighbors in the bordering swamps a number of huge -creatures that one wouldn't care to meet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">- 23 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg23" style="width: 520px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg23.png" width="520" height="360" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE KING OF THE DINOSAURS AT LUNCHEON</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Contrast the little, almost dainty, fore limbs with the enormous legs. You -can't help thinking of the arms of a human being, can you? In fact, this mixed-up -creature looks as if nature were even then dreaming of man, the quadruped who, as -some Frenchman said, "took to walking on his hind legs that he might conquer -the world."</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">DREADFULNESS OF MR. DINOSAUR</p> - -<p>The Dinosaur, for instance. His name means "terrible -reptile." Some members of the family were, indeed, terrible -creatures. Just see this one at lunch, Mr. Ceratosaurus. -He has the head of a queer horse—"probably a night -mare," says the High School Boy—teeth and tail and belly -scales like a crocodile, a comb that suggests a rooster's, -legs like an ostrich, the talons of an eagle, and the dainty -little arms of a child. What a combination! Those small -fore limbs were used only for grasping. On his hind legs -he stalked about, seeking whom he might eat for dinner. -He was about fifty feet long when he was all there. At -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">- 24 -</span> -this late day scientists usually find only parts of him scattered -around.</p> - -<p>These Dinosaurs came in sizes and differed considerably -as to looks and eating and getting about. Some were as -small as cats, some walked on four legs, some—like the -gentleman at lunch—walked on two. Some were strict -vegetarians, while others would have nothing but meat. -The Big Boys of the whole tribe were called the Sauropoda -or reptile-footed Dinosaurs. One of these, whose bones -were found in Colorado, was sixty-five feet long when -complete, and he must have weighed around twenty tons. -His family nickname was Diplodocus or "Double Beam," -because of his long, beam-like neck and his long, beam-like -tail.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">GENTLE MR. DIPLODOCUS AND HIS WAYS</p> - -<p>Considering the reputation some of the other Dinosaurs -had as bad citizens, it is only fair to the Diplodocus to say -that he was really a gentle creature, and never disturbed -anybody—unless somebody disturbed him first. Then he -would give them a switch with that tail of his, and it was -a switching they were not likely to forget. But his great -delight—indeed, his main occupation in life—was to sit -deep in the water, prop himself up with his great long tail, -like a kangaroo, with just his head out, like a turtle in a -pond. Then he would strain little water bugs and similar -things through his teeth. He got his meals in this way, -very much as the whales do now.</p> - -<p>And elephants! You ought to have seen some of the -members of the elephant family that arrived after the reptile -age, the mammoths, for instance. These huge creatures -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">- 25 -</span> -and many other strange animals were all over the place. It -was just like a circus day everywhere all the time. Such -elephants don't travel with circuses now, of course, because -they were all killed during that dreadful winter, but you -can see them in museums, all dressed in their skeletons -and neatly held together with wires.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg25" style="width: 492px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg25.png" width="492" height="94" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl smaller"><i>From the mural painting by Charles R. Knight in the American Museum of Natural History</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">WHEN ELEPHANTS WORE UNDERCLOTHES</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This painting on the walls of the American Museum of Natural History in New -York City shows herds of reindeer and mammoths in the Ice Age. They didn't -mind the cold as elephants do to-day, because of their woolly underclothes. They -fed on the shoots and cones of those firs and pines. The reindeer, then as now, -ate the lichens we call "reindeer moss," first scraping away the snow with their -feet.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE MAMMOTHS PASSED AWAY</p> - -<p>Picture herds of these mammoths huddled together like -sheep in dark ravines, and the blinding snow, swept down -by the winds, burying them deeper and deeper. That -was how they died. You'll notice that they wore their -hair long, while the elephants we see in the circuses or at -the zoo have hardly any hair at all. This long hair was -part of their winter clothing. Under it they wore a close -fleece. But this winter was so severe and it lasted so long -that even their heavy woollen underwear couldn't save -them. Sometimes there would be a thaw, but this was -only on the surface and helped turn the snow into ice. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">- 26 -</span> -And winter piled on winter and on the bodies of the mammoths -until they were buried under tons and tons of snow -and ice.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE SNOW CHANGED ITSELF INTO ICE</p> - -<p>You know snow will get solid, like ice, where it is under -pressure, and it will make hard cakes and ice balls under -your shoes. Well, this snow of the long winter just -"packed its own self" (as a small boy might say) into ice. -It did this by piling on and piling on. The weight of the -snow above and behind, in the spaces between the mountains -and in the mountain valleys, pressed with enormous -force on the snow below and in front.</p> - -<p>Then what do you think this ice did? It began to -move. And of all the things it did from then on!</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. Marvellous Changes in the Old Home Place</span></p> - -<p>Did you notice those scratches on my face? The ice -did that. But, of course, that's nothing in itself. And, -besides, I'm not one to complain, as you know. I only -speak of it to show what big things may be back of little -ones, how much you can learn from the study of so common -a thing as a little pebble. For the very same ice fields -that scratched the faces of little pebbles like me deepened -the gorges and canyons among the mountains and shaved -the crowns of the old ones—Bald Mountain, in the Adirondacks, -for example. They carried off good farming -soil by the thousands of acres from one place and piled it -in another; they shoved the Mississippi River back and -forth; in fact, turned many streams out of their courses—some -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">- 27 -</span> -of them the other end to, so that they now flow south -where they used to flow north. They took old river systems -apart, and with the pieces made new ones—the big -Missouri for one. They set Niagara Falls up in business; -got all the waterfalls ready that are now turning the wheels -of New England factories, and even put in great water -storage systems that remind one of the Salt River irrigation -works, with their big Roosevelt dam in Arizona, or -of the reservoirs which England built in the Nile. Lakes -in river systems act as reservoirs, you know, and make -them flow more evenly, thus keeping the power of falls -more uniform, as in the case of Niagara, and making a -uniform depth of water for vessels, as in the case of the -St. Lawrence River. The Great Lakes do both of these -useful things.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg27" style="width: 435px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg27.png" width="435" height="327" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl smaller"><i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of -Ginn and Company</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">THE LITTLE MOUNTAIN IN THE BIG CITY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>In one of the parks in New York City you can see this illustration of how the -glaciers rounded off the mountain-tops.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">- 28 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg28" style="width: 477px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg28.png" width="477" height="351" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE BEEHIVE MOUNTAIN</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This huge mass in the Canadian Rockies is known as the Beehive Mountain. -Originally a cliff, it was reshaped by the glaciers. Can't you tell from the picture -which was the face of the cliff, and from the information in the text which side the -glacier climbed up and on which side it tobogganed down?</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>There were three great centres—union stations, we might -call them—from which the ice trains moved out. These -were the points at which the ice gathered to the greatest -depth, the tops of the great snow banks. One, as you see -by our Ice Age map, was away over on the Pacific Coast -of Canada. It is called the Cordilleran Centre, from the -vast mountain system of which it is a part. Over what is -now the province of Keewatin, Canada, was the Keewatin -Centre, while the Labrador Centre stood guard over the -highlands of Labrador. The ice from the Keewatin and -Labrador fields, you notice, flowed farthest to the south. -The Keewatin ice giant travelled away down the Mississippi -Valley as far as the mouth of what is now the Missouri, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">- 29 -</span> -while the giant from Labrador got nearly to the -mouth of the Ohio.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg29" style="width: 496px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg29.png" width="496" height="292" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE OLD MEN OF THE MOUNTAIN AT THEIR WORK</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Don't you always think of a glacier as a big white thing? So it is when it starts -to work, but after it has ploughed down the mountain valleys and gathered up a -lot of soil—such as the heaps you see in the foreground of the picture—it begins -to look as black as a coal-heaver! It gets cracked up into all sorts of odd shapes, -too. Doesn't that figure near the centre look like some queer kind of old elephant, -with a fierce white eye (it's a big stone) and a snarl on his face?</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>The reason Old Mr. Labrador didn't reach the mouth -of the Ohio—as you can easily guess—was that he didn't -go far enough, but could you answer a conundrum like -this:</p> - -<p>"Why was Mr. Keewatin bound to reach the mouth of -the Missouri and stay there for awhile no matter how far -he went?"</p> - -<p>The answer is easy, when you know it. Because he -made the Missouri himself. What we now know as the -Missouri River was made of other rivers that the big ice -sheet turned around as it advanced and of the water from -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">- 30 -</span> -the ice as the glacier melted its way back home. It was -something like Mary and the little lamb, all the time, so -long as Mr. Keewatin travelled south; for everywhere he -went the Missouri was <i>sure</i> to go, because he kept pushing -it ahead of him.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE OLD MEN PUSHED THE MISSISSIPPI ABOUT</p> - -<p>As the ice sheets pushed into its valleys, now from the -northeast and now from the northwest, the Mississippi -River was pushed back and forth as if it were a—well, as -if it weren't anything! It is known that the Mississippi -was pushed out of bed by this burly guest from the north -because its former channels have been traced along the -old ice fronts.</p> - -<p>In one part of its course the Mississippi actually got misplaced, -and hasn't found its way back to its old bed to -this day. This you can see at Fort Snelling, Minnesota. -At that point the Minnesota River flows in the Mississippi's -old valley—which is plainly too big for it—while -above Fort Snelling the Mississippi is forced to squeeze -its way through a stingy little gorge that used to belong to -the Minnesota, and I'm sure would be plenty big enough -for it now. It's like the story of a changeling baby in a -fairy tale, isn't it? Only in the fairy tale the changeling -always gets back to his old home, while the misplaced -Mississippi in Minnesota doesn't.</p> - -<p>But the glaciers made it up to the Mississippi, in a way, -for this rude jostling. They not only left it an enormous -extra supply of water as they melted back home—what -would a river be without water?—but they actually took -some smaller rivers away from the St. Lawrence and made -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">- 31 -</span> -them do their pouring into the Mississippi system. Although -they didn't owe the Ohio any apology for anything, -so far as I know, they did the same thing for it, -just to be good fellows, I suppose. All the rivers that -now empty into the Ohio above Cincinnati used to flow -into Lake Erie, but the glaciers turned them south and -they've gone on obediently flowing that way ever since.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">A PLOWMAN WHO PLOWED THE FARMS AWAY</p> - -<p>That these giants of the north, although they must -have looked as cold as ice, really had good hearts is shown -by the way Old Mr. Labrador treated New England when -he went Down East. New England was at that time -covered with good, deep, rich soil, the decay of the granite -rocks that had been basking in the sun for ages and growing -early grass and vegetables for the live stock of those -days. Then along came Old Mr. Labrador with his plow, -and set to work. But he plowed so deep that he plowed -all the farms away! Of the gigantic furrows that he -turned a lot of the slices fell over into New York State; -but some, I'm sorry to say, dropped off into the sea. This -left New England in a bad way, so far as prizes for farm -produce at the country fairs a few thousand years later -were concerned.</p> - -<p>But then what do you suppose Mr. Labrador did, the -good old soul? He took a lot of streams that had been -flowing north, blocked them up with pebbles and dirt, -making them turn right around and flow south, so that in -climbing down from the rocks in these new unworn beds -they made waterfalls. And it was from the power made -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">- 32 -</span> -by its waterfalls, you know, as your geography tells you, -that New England grew to be a great "manu-factur-ing" -section.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg32" style="width: 470px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg32.png" width="470" height="345" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl smaller"><i>Courtesy of "The Scientific American."</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE OLD MEN OF THE MOUNTAIN COME TO SCHOOL</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>You can have glaciers like this right in the schoolroom, and icebergs, too, by -means of which the Old Men of the Mountain went to sea. Both the iceberg -and its parent, the glacier, are made by the crumpling of white paper around books -or any other support. Cliffs of dark-brown grocery-paper bound the deep gully -through which the glacier has crept down to the sea. The sea-waves are made with -crumpled paper of appropriate colors. (Think what lovely green waves you could -make with a piece of old window-shade!) Pieces of white string make good -breakers, and powdered chalk can easily be made to turn to snow.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>Of course I'm only joking when I speak of these glaciers -as if they had minds like the rest of us, but really it almost -seems true, when you come to think of all the things they -did. Take these New England waterfalls, for instance. -The glacier not only made them by turning the rivers -around, but, as the ice melted away toward the north the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">- 33 -</span> -land rose again, being relieved of the enormous weight. -And in rising the sloping land not only gave more force -to the new southward flowing streams but made it more -sure that they should <i>go on</i> flowing south. As if the -glaciers said:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg33" style="width: 522px; padding:2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg33.png" width="522" height="406" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE GRAY TEMPLE OF THE WINDS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This gray mass of sandstone on the Wisconsin prairies is a piece of architecture -with which man has had nothing whatever to do. It is all the work of the winds -and the rains; of the sea and of rivers; of water and rivers of ice; and the vertical -division of the rock into joints by the shrinking of the earth. The detail, the -rounding of the pillars, and so on, is largely the work of the winds and their helpers, -the frosts, the rains, and the wind-blown sand.</p> - -<p>The original mass was carved out of a big rock-bed by flowing rivers that had -their course around it on either side. Then one of these rivers was dammed by -ice in the days of the glaciers and a lake was formed in which this rock mass stood -as an island. The level prairie you now see around it was made by the sand and -gravel deposited in the bottom of this lake. The vertical divisions are cracks in -the earth crust called "joints." The horizontal divisions are due in part to this -cracking process and in part to "stratification," the layer-like arrangement of the -rocks when laid in the bottom of the sea, as explained in <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chagter X</a>. The "cornice" -is a layer of harder rock which has yielded less to nature's tools.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">- 34 -</span></p> - -<p>"I've turned you around and I want you to stay turned -around. And I want you to go on running south and -dropping over the falls until the people of New England -come down to Lowell and Manchester and those places -and get ready to put you to work."</p> - -<p>Anyhow, that's just what happened. You can look at -it any way you want to.</p> - -<p>It was in much the same way that Mr. Labrador and his -friend Keewatin did that great piece of engineering at the -Great Lakes. Where the Great Lakes are now there used -to be rivers that were a part of the St. Lawrence system. -Then along came the ice sheets, dammed up these rivers, -just as small boys dam up roadside rivulets after a rain, -and so made big lakes, as the boys make little lakes in -these streamlets. But this wasn't all. The glaciers evidently -wanted these to be nice big lakes that would stay -there for people to ride on in the beautiful summer weather, -and to help haul coal and iron ore and other kinds of -freight—Michigan peaches and everything. For look -what else they did. With pebbles and big stones and dirt -they built the lake walls higher, and dug deep basins for -them out of the solid rock. Then they poured in a lot of -extra water—beautiful blue water, tons and tons of it—and -went back home.</p> - -<p>The digging into the rock was done with big chisels—what -a carpenter would call "round-nosed" chisels. These -chisels, of course, were made of ice. They were what are -called the "tongues" or "lobes" of glaciers. As a glacier -flows along—always on some down grade—there are portions -of it—those long lobes or tongues—that move on -ahead of the main mass. This is because those parts of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">- 35 -</span> -the ice sheet strike a steeper bit of land than the rest of -it, so how could they help moving faster?</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg35" style="width: 545px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg35.png" width="545" height="362" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE THOUSAND-YEAR CLOCK AT NIAGARA</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>You've heard of eight-day clocks and clocks that have to be wound only once a -year, but here is a clock that was wound up several thousand years ago and is still -going beautifully! In placing the wondrous waterfall in Niagara River the -glaciers also started a kind of water-clock by which to record—for those who would -take the trouble to study it out—how long ago it was the glaciers visited us. Owing -to the constant wearing away of the base of the falls, by the water grinding the -pebbles against it, great blocks like the one here shown (known as "The Rock of -Ages") come tumbling down. So the falls are constantly retreating up-stream, -and the distance from where they once stood to where they are now gives a rough -idea of the time that has passed since the Old Men of the Mountain set them up -in business—about 25,000 years.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>The fronts of these lobes are rounded like the waves -flowing up a beach, or syrup travelling over pancakes on -a cold winter morning. The reason of this roundness is -that the centres of these lobes of ice or water travel fastest -because the mass on either side furnishes a kind of ball-bearing -for the central part.</p> - -<p>But this wasn't all. At the very same time, by the very -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">- 36 -</span> -same act, Labrador, Keewatin & Co. set Niagara Falls up -in business. In those days there was a Niagara river but -no Niagara Falls; at least not the one we know to-day. -The ice filled the Ontario Valley so that the streams flowing -into it had to turn around and flow south. The -Niagara River was one of these streams. Then, as the ice -melted, it poured loads of extra water into Lake Erie, so -that it was some 30 feet higher than it is at present and -began draining out through the new Niagara River, over -the rocks that make the falls.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg36" style="width: 535px; padding:2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg36.png" width="535" height="277" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF NIAGARA</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is a bird's-eye view of the Niagara region. Where the river crosses a bed -of limestone below Buffalo, and again where it crosses another just above the crest -of the falls, some of the rock has been dissolved away, thus making it rougher, so -that slight rapids have formed. Then comes the mighty plunge, after which the -water flows through a gorge for about seven miles. Where the gorge bends abruptly -at right angles is the great eddy called "The Whirlpool."</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">NATURE IS THE ART OF GOD</p> - -<p>"Nature," as Sir Thomas Browne so finely said, "is the -art of God." And nowhere is this art more striking in its -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">- 37 -</span> -beauty than in the work done by the glaciers. Those -wonderful falls and the blue inland seas we call the Great -Lakes, and thousands of smaller lakes scattered all over -where the glaciers came, are only a part of this art work. -The main ice sheets, you notice, didn't reach down among -the mountains of California, but these mountains had -small glaciers of their own in those days, just as they have -now. Only they were much larger then because, as we -have seen, it was such a snowy time all over the northern -world. Listen to what these home-made glaciers of California -did, and listen to how John Muir tells it:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg37" style="width: 560px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg37.png" width="560" height="213" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">AND TO THINK WE DID IT ALL!</p> -</div> - - -<p>"It is hard," he says, "without long and loving study, -to realize how great was the work done. Before the glaciers -came, the range"—he is speaking of the Sierras—"was -comparatively simple; one vast wave of stone in -which a thousand mountains, domes, canyons, ridges, and -so forth lay concealed." To carve them out of the stone -"nature chose for a tool, not the earthquake or the lightning, -but the tender snow flowers, noiselessly falling -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">- 38 -</span> -through unnumbered centuries. The snowflakes said, -'Come, we are feeble; let us help one another. Marching -in close, deep ranks let us roll away the stones from these -mountain sepulchres, and set the landscape free.'"</p> - -<p>It is evident that this was all in the Great Plan of things. -For the rocks had to be of a certain kind and laid in a -certain way for the little members of this art society of -the sky to work these landscapes out. And the rocks were -so made and laid when they were at least a mile below the -surface on which the glaciers set to work.</p> - -<p>"It was while these features were taking form in the -depths of the range, the particles of the rocks marching -to their appointed places in the dark, that the particles of -icy vapor in the sky, marching to the same music, assembled -to bring them to the light. Then, after their grand -task was done, these bands of snow flowers, the mighty -glaciers, were melted and removed, as if of no more importance -than dew destined to last but an hour."<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> "The Mountains of California." John Muir.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg38" style="width: 267px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg38.png" width="267" height="246" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">- 39 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>How do you suppose warm water—of all things!—could have -caused the Ice Age? This theory is one that was offered by a -very eminent geologist, Doctor Shaler, of Harvard.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> "Nature and Man in America."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>In the same book he also explains how the old men of the mountain -may have helped to make New York City, although they were -never there in their lives, of course.</p> - -<p>When you take up geology as a special study—I hope you will—you -will find that there were five particularly heavy snowfalls -during the long winter. But why not look it up now? If you -can't do it just get somebody else in the family to do it for you. -Where is father's college geology? In the last two of these storms -Mr. Labrador rode all over New England and clear to the sea, -where he amused himself for a long time by setting icebergs drifting -out over the Atlantic.</p> - -<p>How do they know about the icebergs? That's one of the interesting -things the books tell.</p> - -<p>These books also show how Niagara Falls acts as a great time-clock -that tells how long ago it was since the glaciers visited us. -According to the record on the "dial" it was somewhere between -20,000 and 30,000 years ago. (Of course this isn't what <i>we</i> would -call very close timekeeping; but remember, in the long story of -the earth even a hundred thousand years is a mere tick of the -clock.)</p> - -<p>And the way this clock is running down shows we're going to -lose Niagara Falls in the course of time. All falls finally run down -in the same way. This is the rather flippant way my high school -friend put it:</p> - -<p>"First, the water falls over the waterfall; then the waterfall -falls, piece by piece, and the water falls no more. It's a sad case."</p> - -<p>(You'll see what he meant, quickly enough, when you read up -on waterfalls. Your geography tells, doesn't it? Well, then, of -course <i>you</i> know.)</p> - -<p>But here's a question you can answer right out of this chapter. -Which one of the illustrations shows that the mammoths and the -cave men lived on earth at the same time?</p> - -<p>That the mammoth was seen in the flesh by those remarkable -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">- 40 -</span> -artists of the caves is plain, but what do you say to seeing a mammoth -in the flesh in these days? Remember the mammoths have -all been dead for thousands of years. (<i>Elephant</i>, <i>Mammoth</i>, -<i>Siberia</i>.)</p> - -<p>What is there about the climate of Siberia that made this strange -thing possible?</p> - -<p>How did the mammoth get his name? Was it because he was -so big—such a "mammoth" creature?<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Mammoth, you will find, comes from a word meaning "earth." -It didn't mean "big" at all at first. One of the most lovable traits -of a good dictionary, I think, is that it tells so many interesting little -stories like that about the early life of words; of their days of adventure, -so to speak, when there was no telling <i>how</i> they would come out.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>How did the mammoths compare in size with the elephants of -to-day?</p> - -<p>Which was the bigger, the mastodon or the mammoth?</p> - -<p>Did we ever have mastodons in North America? And were -there mammoths, too?</p> - -<p>If you want to see more about what the travelling menageries -of the days before the Ice Age looked like hunt up these words: -<i>Archelon</i>, <i>dinosaur</i>, <i>ceratosaurus</i>, <i>diplodocus</i>, <i>stegosaurus</i>, <i>triceratops</i>.</p> - -<p>See what the geography says about the manufacturing towns -of New England and how many of them have water power.</p> - -<p>In that remarkable little book by Grant Allen<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> already referred -to in the H. & S. at the end of <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chapter I</a>, on <a href="#Page_139">page 139</a>, you will -find what the Ice Age had to do with the fact that the rabbits of -Canada and our northern border States wear white clothes in -winter, while Br'er Rabbit of our Middle and Southern States keeps -his yellow-brown suit on all the year.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> "Colin Clout's Calendar."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>And on <a href="#Page_204">page 204</a> how a little plant, whose old home was in the -Arctics, got stranded on an English hilltop among the mossy -clefts of weathered granite, and how the beautiful lady who has a -little flower named after her slipper (we all know that slipper) is -leaving England because the climate is too mild!</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">- 41 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg41" style="width: 486px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg41.png" width="486" height="343" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE SUMMER PASTURES ON THE JUNGFRAU</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here are some of those Swiss cattle in their summer pastures. Doesn't look -much like summer, does it? But there's one thing besides the cattle that tells. See -that stretch of snow all by itself? That's a snow-bank which has escaped the -summer sun because it is protected by the ravine in which it lies. All around it -the ground is bare of snow.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(MARCH)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">With rushing winds and gloomy skies</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The dark and stubborn Winter dies;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Far off, unseen, Spring faintly cries,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Bidding her earliest child arise.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Bayard Taylor.</i></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE SOUL OF THE SPRING AND THE LANDS OF ETERNAL SNOW</p> - -<p>And that's how the Old Men of the Mountain visited -us in the Ice Age and what they did and how they did it. -But now that they have all been back home so long don't -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">- 42 -</span> -you think it would be nice and polite to return the call—especially -when you remember all they did for us, making -beautiful lakes and rivers and waterfalls and mountain -scenery?</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. Springtime in the Alps</span></p> - -<p>The best time to do this would be in the spring, because -then the kingdom of the glaciers is most beautiful, and the -spirit of a glorious new world, just waking up, is abroad -everywhere. The glaciers themselves seem to feel so good -about it that they start to sing. And like the birds, their -joyous springtime mood responds to the quick changes of -sun and shade. In our own land when the sky grows -cloudy, even for a short time as you may have noticed, -birds stop singing. Then when the sky clears they start -up again. But, up here in the Alps in the spring when -the birds are singing among the mountain meadows, the -glaciers, at whose feet these meadows lie, do the very same -thing. The songs of the birds are various, and the song of -the same bird will differ at different times of day, but the -song of the glacier is always the same—a pleasant dreamy -tune between the murmur of little voices and the tinkle of -distant bells.</p> - -<p>The very rocks that the glacier carries on its back seem -to catch the spirit of the springtime; for, when the weather -is bright, they go strolling. And when they do they remind -us a little of that painting by Franz Hals, "The Laughing -Cavalier," for they apparently wear a big broad-brimmed -hat cocked jauntily on one side.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">- 43 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg43" style="width: 492px; padding: 2em;"> - <img src="images/img_pg43.png" width="492" height="308" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">UP WHERE THE GLACIERS GROW</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here we are, looking down on the roof of the Alps—from a flying-machine, let -us say. The sky-line used to be more like the ridge of a house, straight across. -In the course of the ages the glaciers and the weather have cut down the softer -rock, leaving those peaks. At the top are the snow-fields. Farther down the -glaciers begin to form. Still farther down, where the glaciers have begun to melt, -you can see a stream—its waters have taken white in the picture because of the -foam and the ground-up rock in it called "rock flour"—falling into the woods below, -the "timber line" of your geography. Ruskin has a wonderful word-picture -of these mountain streams in his "Modern Painters." The index of any edition -will tell you where.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">THE MAN WHO DISCOVERED THE ICE AGE</p> - -<p>The Alps are the most famous of all the homes of the -glaciers, not only because of the great number of the glaciers -and the beauty of the scenery, but because it was in -the Alps that Agassiz, living in a little stone hut among -the mountains, studied the glaciers and their ways and -proved that it was these strange creatures of snow and -ice that had come down during the Ice Age and worked -such marvellous changes on the face of the earth. In the -Alps, just as Muir found them doing among the glaciers of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">- 44 -</span> -Alaska, the flowers bloom at the very edge of the snow -line. And they come on much more rapidly than they do -in temperate climates. As fast as the snow melts back -blossoms just cover the meadows thick with the deepest, -richest colors—blue, red, white, yellow, purple, and every -shade of these. Some of these flowers are as pure white as -the snows. The queen of beauty among them all, many -think, is the Alpine rose. In that pure, clear air its color -seems actually to glow like the famous peak, the Jungfrau, -at sunrise.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg44" style="width: 351px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg44.png" width="351" height="468" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">LOUIS AGASSIZ</p> - -<p>The great teacher who discovered the Ice Age.</p> -</div> - - -<p>One little flower is in such a hurry, so afraid it will miss -the first May party, that it blooms under the ice and melts -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">- 45 -</span> -its own way right up through. Then it calls to the bees -and the butterflies, in the way that flowers have:</p> - -<p>"Good morning! It's spring, and here I am again and -how do you do? Come and kiss me!"</p> - -<p>The soldanella grows among the thick pebble beds and -the big boulders right on the edges of the glaciers. It is a -member of the primrose family. It may be pink, white, -or blue. The blue flowers are most common. But blue, -pink, or white, these baby bells are always born twins; -two sisters side by side on the same stalk, showing their -dear fairy faces just above those layers of ice. They are -such delicate little things you wonder how they can ever -stand it. But ice, pshaw, they don't mind it at all.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">BLUSHING A WAY THROUGH THE ICE</p> - -<p>If you are a bashful boy or girl you can understand how -the Misses Soldanella have been able, in spite of their icy -covering, to get here to greet us on this lovely May morning. -You know how warm your face feels when you blush. -It seems to be somewhat the same way with all flowers -when they blush into bloom. The blossom becomes quite -a little warmer than any other part of the plant. It is the -heat of the growing buds and, still more, the heat of the -blossoms that melts a passage for the Soldanellas through -the ice, for they often blossom before they get above the -ice at all.</p> - -<p>The higher we climb the brighter the flowers, and they -grow in thicker masses, and each kind spreads out into -larger fields than they did where we came from down -below—great belts of blue gentians, whole fields of golden -yellow globe flowers. You'd hardly expect this, would -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">- 46 -</span> -you? And you'll be still more surprised at the reason. -Did you notice, as shown in their pictures, that the Soldanellas -have only the bees for their callers? Just look -if you can see any bees where we are now. Not a bee. -But butterflies everywhere. And that's the answer. The -flowers of the upper meadows are brighter, grow thicker -and spread wider—all on account of the butterflies; to -get the butterfly "trade."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHY THE BEES GET OUT OF BREATH</p> - -<p>Bees can't climb to such heights because the air is very -thin, and, therefore, harder to fly in. Remember their -little bodies are heavy and their wings are small. They -get out of breath, like a fat man with short legs working -his way up Pike's Peak. The butterflies, on the other -hand, have small bodies and large wings, and so have the -meadows of the higher Alps all to themselves. That the -flowers here look so brilliant is partly due to the thinness -and clearness of the air and partly to the disposition of the -butterflies. A bee is all business, because she has so many -mouths to feed at home, and is laying up honey for the -days of the long winter. Mr. and Mrs. Butterfly, on the -other hand, are gay and carefree society people.</p> - -<p>"We have no family waiting to be fed, so why worry?" -This is the butterfly philosophy. Only a sip of nectar now -and then for their personal wants; for the rest of the day -the merry air dance, here, there, everywhere! They flit -long distances without lighting. To attract the bee's -attention a blossom need be neither large nor bright, as -the bee goes straight from flower to flower, wasting no -time in aimless flights. But to catch the eye of the butterfly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">- 47 -</span> -the flowers must be brilliantly colored and grow in -large masses. So up in the butterfly zone only brilliant -flowers, and those having the habit of growing in groups -produce seed and have descendants. Those that dress -plainly and are not fond of company die out.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg47" style="width: 461px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg47.png" width="461" height="504" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE SOLDANELLA SISTERS GOT TO THE MAY-PARTY -THROUGH THE SNOW</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Now didn't it turn out just as I said; that the butterflies -themselves help brighten the flowers that grow among -these ice fields? I have something else quite as curious -to tell you: <i>Both the Alpine butterflies and the flowers were -left over from the Ice Age.</i> Not in the same sense that we -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">- 48 -</span> -pebbles were, for we are the identical little passengers -who rode in on the ice trains, and the life of a butterfly, -as every one knows, is very short. So is that of a flower. -Yet suppose you found that the only other butterflies and -flowers like these are found, not among the flowers and -butterflies in the lands lower down in the Alps but up -toward the Arctic Zone, in Finland and Lapland; in the -snow regions of mountains in the temperate zone all over -the world? It would look very much as if these flowers -and butterflies, or their ancestors, had been left behind -there some time or other, wouldn't it? This is what the -men of science think, and they reason about it in this way:</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE BUTTERFLIES MISSED THE TRAIN</p> - -<p>As the glaciers spread downward from the Far North -in the Ice Age they brought all their home things with -them—climate, plants, insects, animals. Plant and animal -life was driven step by step before the advancing ice. -Then, as the ice melted, flowers, butterflies, and all followed -their natural climate back. But those that lingered -too long in the meadows around the mountain tops could -not cross the hot summer plains that now lay between -them and the retiring ice sheet; for plants and animals -that are used to cold can't stand the heat any more than -those from the tropics can stand the cold. So only the -flowers and butterflies remained in the temperate zone -that found their natural climate among the mountain -peaks and stayed there.</p> - -<p>Near the top of Mount Washington, the highest peak -in New Hampshire, is a colony of the descendants of these -butterfly pilgrims from the north who never leave their -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">- 49 -</span> -high and wind swept meadows. There are no such butterflies -in the hills and plains below, but go into Labrador -and you will see plenty of them.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">LEFT-OVER PIECES OF THE ICE AGE</p> - -<p>Of course you understood all along that these aren't the -very same butterflies that came with the glaciers, yet in -shady glens in high mountains, where the snow never -melts, people do sometimes find masses of ice, which, -there is every reason to believe, have been there since the -Ice Age. And sometimes thick veins of ice, buried hundreds -of feet under pebbles, boulders and soil, are struck -in sinking wells. These are known as ice wells; huge ice -water tanks that never need filling!</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. A Little Visit with the Glaciers</span></p> - -<p>But if the ice masses in the shady glens and under the -old moraines may be said to be pieces of the Ice Age left -over, the glaciers of to-day are, in a sense, the Ice Age -itself. For these glaciers do, on a smaller scale, what Mr. -Labrador and his partners in northern America, Europe, -and Asia did on a large scale so many centuries ago. Suppose -now, like Agassiz, we trace a glacier to its source. It -will be a long journey, all steep, some of it almost straight -up, and along chasms of slippery ice with sudden storms -that hide the chasms and blind your eyes and take away -your breath. The first part of our journey is over a field -of ice, gray with the dirt of weathered rock from the mountain -sides. Along its borders are those sharp-edged stones -neatly packed in rows, that our geography tells us are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">- 50 -</span> -called "lateral moraines." It has another row of these -stones sticking up right in the middle of its back, like the -sharp-pointed vertebræ of the ceratosaurus.</p> - -<p>By noon, as often happens in the Alps as elsewhere at -this time of year, a rain comes up and we lunch under the -shelter of a tumbled heap of rocks. Watching the downpour -drift across the desolate wastes we think what jolly -times like this Agassiz and his companions had in their -little hall of science under the big stone. After lunch we -start again, and although it's stiff going, and it takes a lot -of this thin air to make one good breath, we spare a little, -now and then, for shouting, to hear the wonderful play -of the echoes among the mountains. We go through all -kinds of weather—rain, mist, snow. Then suddenly we -burst into blinding light. The sun is so dazzling on the -snow, now no longer covered with dirt and mountain -débris, that we must all put on our colored glasses. In -some places, among bare rocks that absorb the sun's heat, -it is positively sultry.</p> - -<p>The fields around us look like an ocean turned to stone. -Waves are formed in the surface ice of the glacier because -surface ice moves faster than the main mass beneath. On -the bordering mountain walls the ice rises into still greater -waves "foaming about the feet of the dark central crests -like the surf of enormous breakers." And this great, still -image of the parent sea, from which the air currents carried -the moisture that made it, has eddies and whirlpools, -and like the troubled sea, "whose waters cast up mire and -dirt," the glacier, where it swirls along its shores, works -pebbles and dirt to the surface. Often this material is -carried into the centre of a whirl, as sea weeds and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">- 51 -</span> -rubbish of the seashore are driven into eddies among the -rocks.</p> - -<p>Somebody must have been here just ahead of us. Isn't -that a dark glove over there? We come closer. What -at a distance seems to be a glove proves to be a hole in -the ice so deep it looks dark. Lying flat and carefully -peering over the edge we look into something strangely -beautiful—an ice palace, with icicles in fantastic groups -hanging from the roof. Through this roof the sun comes -in delicate floods of pale green light, the combination of -the yellow rays with the blue of the ice. We drop pebbles -into the hole. They rattle down and down with long, -dull echoes, dying away. We can hear the murmur of -running water. Gusts of cold air come up that bite like -the wind on a sharp winter day.</p> - -<p>These underground palaces of art start as great cracks -in the ice, called "crevasses," from a French word meaning -a crevice. They can usually be seen plainly as yawning -chasms, but sometimes are so bridged over by the -snows that a small, dark hole is all you see. And we might -not see that in time. This would be very bad, for these -snow bridges are often quite thin. One might like to go -down in a crevasse and explore about in this beautiful -dream world—but not when one wasn't looking!</p> - -<p>Even when one <i>is</i> looking and is as careful as can be it's -dangerous. But still you may be sure that the famous -men who have studied glaciers have done it, for every -true man of science likes to get at the bottom of things. -It was Agassiz who first went down in this way into the -heart of a glacier. It was while he was making his studies -in the Alps, and he came very near being drowned in one -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">- 52 -</span> -of the streams that always flow at the bottom of a crevasse, -for these crevasses, breaking up the ice, increase -the rate of melting. (You know broken ice will not keep -so well as a big block.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg52" style="width: 512px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg52.png" width="512" height="329" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WHAT TWO BOYS SAW IN THE FAIRYLAND OF ICE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>When you have read John Muir's story of how he climbed down into a crevasse -in California in his shirt-sleeves (see H. & S.) you will know that he was the other -of the "two boys" I refer to, one of them being Louis Agassiz, whose adventure in -this fairy iceland down in the glaciers is told in this chapter. Don't look dangerous -at a distance, do they, those crevasses? Remind one of the crimps in a Christmas -pie. But notice the difference when you get up close to one of them in the -next picture.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">BUT THESE SCIENTISTS WILL BE BOYS</p> - -<p>Agassiz had been lowered by a rope. When his feet -suddenly plunged into the icy stream his shout for help -was misunderstood by his friends and he was lowered still -further. His second cry, which you may be sure promptly -followed the first, showed that something had gone wrong -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">- 53 -</span> -and he was drawn out. The worst of it was that coming -up he had to steer his course among those huge icicles, -any one of which, being worn away or broken loose by the -friction of the rope and striking his head, would probably -have killed him. But they are always doing things like -that—these men of science. They keep on being as curious -and enthusiastic about the things they are interested -in as any boy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg53" style="width: 383px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg53.png" width="383" height="583" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THOSE LITTLE CURVED LINES WHEN YOU GET UP CLOSE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is what those little curved lines are—really; great yawning chasms in the -ice. The sun is shining from the left; a morning sun, probably, as those tourists -are out for a walk. This scene must be pretty well down the glacier's course, far -from the upper fields, for you see these people are just in ordinary dress—not in -the dress of mountain-climbers, with ropes and Alpine stocks and everything.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">- 54 -</span></p> - -<p>It is perfectly safe to climb glaciers as we are doing—in -a book—but they are really ticklish things to go about on, -as well as down into. To find out all the interesting things -you can so easily get through pictures and the printed page -took years of skillful study, ingenuity, and endless patience -and much courage. What a little further on in this chapter -you will learn about the movements of glaciers in seven -minutes, it took Agassiz seven long years to find out and -make sure of. To Agassiz more than to any other one -man the world owes the tremendous idea of the Ice Age -and its story. His home among the glaciers of these Alps—named -playfully by the devoted scholars who worked -with him the "Hôtel des Neuchatelois"—was a rude -shelter under a projecting rock. The results of this long -study he published in a work in two volumes, and so made -known the great facts he had found and the theory about -an Ice Age which he based upon them and which is now -everywhere accepted. He became professor of geology at -Harvard University and as famous a teacher as he was a -student of nature. After his great and useful life was -ended he was buried in his adopted land with a boulder -from the site of the little stone hut on the glacier for his -monument.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">III. The Soul of the Glacier</span></p> - -<p>Many of the fellow-countrymen of Agassiz, the peasants -of the Swiss Alps, believe the glacier is a living thing and -has a soul. In the spring the peasants take their sheep -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">- 55 -</span> -and cattle into the high meadows called "alps," from -which the mountains get their name, and remain there -until fall with the glaciers all around them. There are -nearly 2,000 glaciers in the Alps, varying from less than -a mile to over ten miles in length, and from a few hundred -feet to a mile in breadth. So the peasants have every -opportunity to get acquainted with their big white neighbors.</p> - -<p>"The glacier has a soul," they say, "and a voice, many -voices. Sometimes he groans. This is when he is in -pain. Listen!"</p> - - -<p class="caption4">SOUNDS THAT GIVE ONE THE "CREEPS"</p> - -<p>We do hear a sound very like a groan. Even experienced -mountain climbers can hardly keep down a "creepy" feeling -when they hear it. This sound is made when the ice -is cracking into a crevasse and while it is enlarging. These -crevasses are formed by various strains in the ice as it -moves along. So long as the strain which caused them -continues the crevasses keep widening. The "groans" -may be said to be "growing pains."</p> - -<p>In some places you hear a constant roaring sound. The -peasants are not superstitious about this sound however. -They know it is made by what they call the "moulins" or -mills of the glacier. Water, melting on the surface, makes -streams. These, running together, make a larger stream. -This stream, coming to a crack in the ice where a crevasse -is just beginning, pours down, hollows out a little shaft and -joins streams in the interior of the glacier, like that in -which Agassiz took a bath when he didn't want to. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">- 56 -</span> -noise of the water, striking far below, comes up through -the shaft, as a voice comes up through a speaking tube. -But the crack into which the water falls must be very -narrow, so that the water can melt both walls and thus -form a shaft; otherwise it merely glides down the nearer -wall and makes no sound.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">NOISES WE PEBBLES HELP MAKE</p> - -<p>Where two ice rivers emptying into a main stream come -together you hear a constant dull rattle and rumble. This -is made by the blocks of stone and trains of pebbles that -have ridden in on the backs of the two glaciers thus going -into partnership, falling between the glaciers at the point -where they come together. The stones that do not fall -over are brought together in the centre of the glacier and -so make that spiny backbone of his, the "medial moraine." -The rows of stones on the two sides of the glacier, called -the "lateral moraines," have fallen piece by piece from -the mountain walls as the glacier moved along between -them.</p> - -<p>But the strangest thing about the voices of the glaciers -I have yet to tell. Whenever the sun is shining brightly, -as I have said, and the gentians and the globe flowers open -their petals and the birds start the chorus of the day, the -glacier begins singing, too, humming to itself a pleasant -tune. When the sky grows cloudy, even for a short time, -the birds stop singing, the flowers cover their faces, the -bees and butterflies hurry to shelter, and the glacier's song -gradually dies away. Any cloud may bring rain, as far -as the flowers and the bees and the butterflies know, and, -for the same reason, the winged people hurry to cover -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">- 57 -</span> -because they don't want to get their wings wet. The -flowers hide their faces to keep the rain from washing their -pollen away, and the birds stop singing because, like the -rest of us, they don't feel so cheerful under gloomy skies. -But the glacier, why does he stop singing too? Because -that murmuring tinkle you heard was made by the water -melting on the glacier and running into rivulets a little -way under its surface. When the sun stops shining the -surface ice stops melting, the water gradually quits running -and the murmur of the song dies away.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg57" style="width: 472px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg57.png" width="472" height="310" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">ON THE ROOF OF THE ANDES, WHERE IT'S TOO COLD TO -GROW GLACIERS</p> -</div> - - -<p>It is because of these queer human habits of the glacier -and, above all, his sensitive response to the moods of days -and seasons, that many of the mountain people insist he -is not only a living creature, but that he has a soul. We -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">- 58 -</span> -think of all this now as the western sun drops behind the -snowy summits, the glacier's song grows silent, and we -hear, mingling with the vespers of the birds, voices echoing -from crag to crag the words of the psalm, "Praise ye -the Lord." These are the voices, of the herdsmen speaking -to each other from alp to alp—the evening call to -prayer.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">IV. How the Snow Men, the Glaciers, and the -Rocks Go Walking</span></p> - -<p>Now that we have learned how glaciers, wild flowers, -and butterflies get up into this high world, by climbing up -here ourselves in the beautiful springtime, the next thing, -I suppose, is to climb down again. But first just look -over the edge here and you can get some notion of how -high we are, not merely in feet and figures, as we have it -in the table of mountain heights in our geography, but in -<i>actual feeling</i>.</p> - -<p>"What are those little blocks, all ruled off like a chessboard, -away down there?"</p> - -<p>"Those are the little Swiss farms with the gray roads -between."</p> - -<p>"And those small white things among the farms that -look like pieces of grit?"</p> - -<p>"Those are the Swiss villages."</p> - -<p>"And the black specks on the slopes of the mountain?"</p> - -<p>"Those are tourists with their guides, coming up. People, -no doubt, whom we should like to know, but we shall -have an interesting new acquaintance travelling down -with us. You've met some of his family, no doubt, for -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">- 59 -</span> -he's an ice man. There are several of these ice men -always travelling down on the glaciers."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg59" style="width: 507px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg59.png" width="507" height="399" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE OLD MAN OF BALISTAN</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Where would you say, judging from the head-dress of the man in the middle, -this scene is located? Somewhere in Asia, wouldn't you? For in Asia the natives, -particularly the Mahometans, wear turbans, as you would learn by simply -looking up "turban" in a dictionary. And wouldn't those summer helmets lead -you to suppose that this is a hot climate, in spite of the great ice-pillar and the -snow-field? And don't those helmets suggest Englishmen? Now, where in Asia -would you find vast mountains, a hot climate, Mahometans, and Englishmen together? -Yes, to be sure, in the Himalayas of India. And that's just where an -expedition of English scientists came across this grotesque creature of stone and -ice one summer day, on a glacier in Balistan. So I just called him "The Old Man of -Balistan."</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>You'll know one of them the moment you see him, for -they are queer-looking fellows with only one leg—or -rather one leg at a time—and they wear big stone hats. -They never go walking without them. They can't.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">- 60 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg60" style="width: 384px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg60.png" width="384" height="402" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">LOOKS LIKE A BROTHER, BUT HE'S NO RELATION</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>This "old man" is a creature, not of the snows but of the winds. The capstone—apparently -conglomerate, it looks so rough and pebbly—tumbled down from -the mountains once upon a time and found a resting place on a bed of softer rock, -a section of which became separated from the mass on either side by those earth -cracks called "joints." Then the winds and other instruments of weathering got -their fingers in these cracks, wore the neighboring sections away, and left this -pillar standing. It is broader at the bottom because the winds, checked by the obstacles -on the ground, didn't strike with such force as they did higher up.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>To the group of boys and girls to whom I first told these -stories of my life and adventures nothing was more interesting -than this account of the ice men who walk. On -that occasion I called them snow men because the boys -had just been making a snow man, and these ice men up -here, like the glaciers on which they always travel, are -made of snow turned to ice. You have heard the expression -"clothes make the man," but in the case of these men -of the snows it is literally true, so far as their hats are concerned, -for it is their hats that make them grow.</p> - -<p>"I bite," said the High School Boy, "what's the answer?"</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">- 61 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg61" style="width: 537px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg61.png" width="537" height="227" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">CAN YOU SOLVE THIS PICTURE PUZZLE?</p> -</div> - - -<p>For reply I roughly sketched the picture at the top of -the page. From this hint my audience thought out the -answer for themselves. See if you can do so before you -learn, in the next few paragraphs, what the answer is.</p> - -<p>It comes about like this. One day we see a big stone -lying on the glacier, and when we come that way again -several days later this same stone is standing on a tall -pillar of ice. We notice the stone hat is tilted forward a -little, apparently to shade this queer man's face, which is -always turned directly toward the sun. It sits jauntily -on one side—this hat of his—as if he were feeling particularly -contented with himself and the world on this sunny -day and had started for a stroll.</p> - -<p>And it really is because the sun is so bright that the -hat is tipped. Moreover it is because of the sunshine that -the man takes a stroll. If, after more days of sunshine, -we return we see the same stone further down the slope -of the glacier and apparently standing on the same leg.</p> - -<p>"But does he or it actually walk on that leg?"</p> - -<p>(The audience, who at first thought I was joking, had -begun to believe I was in earnest.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">- 62 -</span></p> - -<p>Yes, that leg and others. Before this Alpine tourist -ends his travels down to the valleys below he may have, -all told, as many legs as a centipede, but only one at a -time. Like the legs of the amœba and the claws of the -crab they are renewed as wanted. A big stone falling -from the mountain side upon a glacier protects the ice -beneath from the sun's rays, so, as the ice melts down -around it, the stone is left standing on a pillar. These -"glacier tables" (to use the scientific term) are formed on -the south sides of glaciers where there is the most sun. -Owing to the slant of the rays the rock is heated most on -the south end and so tips in that direction more and more. -Finally it falls off and, in so doing, pitches farther down -the slope. Then a new pillar is formed and the whole -process is gone through again.</p> - -<p>(If we should get lost up here any one of these snow -men will tell us the way out. The snow man's hat, for -the reason stated, always tips toward the south.)</p> - -<p>The stones of the winter lands are not only like human -beings in the fact that they walk, but like <i>little</i> human -beings in the fact that when they are small they can't. -In one of the pictures I drew for the boys and girls—that -representing the ice pillar from which the stone has slipped—you -may be able to make out a little pebble. It got a -ride because it was hiding under the big stone. Left to -itself "it wouldn't have a leg to stand on," as the saying -goes, for small stones are heated through by the sun and -so sink down into the ice and form no "legs."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">- 63 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg63" style="width: 523px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg63.png" width="523" height="442" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl"><i>From a photograph copyrighted by Merl La Voy</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">THE RUSH OF THE AVALANCHE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>It's seldom you can get a snap-shot at an avalanche—it's so sudden! Then, -when you do get one you must be an expert or your picture will be a blur. This -picture was taken by Merl La Voy. An interesting thing about it is that the -scene is on Mount McKinley, which, as your geography will tell you, is the highest -mountain in North America. The avalanche started near the top, where the -greatest fields of loose snow lie. We see it in the act of plunging into a vast crevasse -several miles below, and sending up clouds of snow. They look like steam.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">MR. GLACIER'S CATERPILLAR TRACTOR</p> - -<p>"The glaciers," says Reclus, "seem as motionless as the -peaks that tower above them." Nevertheless, as we know, -they do move. While the motion is in so many respects -like that of a river that glaciers are often called "ice -rivers," they have motions and, so to say, "methods" that -curiously suggest the inventions of men. Take, for example, -the way they climb down a steep hill; for all the world -like the "tanks" in the Great War. The tanks, you -remember, made nothing of shell holes, rough country, -ravines, or trenches, but lumbered and crushed their way -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">- 64 -</span> -along, resistless as the Fates. And, you may also recall, -the tanks moved by laying sections of themselves—the -great cleats on the outside belt—which they picked up -again, as they advanced. This was called the "caterpillar -tractor" system of travelling.</p> - -<p>Now watch the glacier when it comes to an incline much -steeper than its ordinary slope. It breaks across in sections -at right angles to its bed, and section after section -drops down. Then the forward sections crowded upon by -those in the rear are pushed up close, freeze together again, -and on goes the glacier as good as new.</p> - -<p>As a traveller, however, it is a little slow. It made -faster time in the old days—in the Ice Age—when glaciers -were so much larger, but to-day, at the rate at which -ordinary glaciers travel, it may take a boulder as big as -Plymouth Rock something like a hundred years to be -carried from the upper fields to the heap of stones and -soil which your geography calls a "terminal moraine," -and where Mr. Glacier says:</p> - -<p>"All out! Far as we go."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>How would you like to go to school to the pretty Misses Soldanella? -They can teach you a lot about botany. If you learn -what an unusual thing they do with their leaves, for instance, that -will lead you to follow up leaves in general. Leaves are wonderful -things. Indeed, it isn't often you find the leaf of a book that will -tell you half as much as the leaf of a plant, if you only know how -to read it.</p> - -<p>In Grant Allen's "Flash Lights on Nature," you will find that -the Soldanella sisters store food in their leaves all winter just as -we put things away in the cellar, and how this helps them get up -so early in the spring; why the fact that the little sisters are not -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">- 65 -</span> -very tall makes them hurry so; and why if they <i>didn't</i> hurry they -wouldn't get to the party at all!</p> - -<p>What other members of the primrose family do you know?</p> - -<p>See what you can find about our earliest flowers—hepatica, -bloodroot, dog-toothed violet, jack-in-the-pulpit, Dutchman's -breeches, anemones.</p> - -<p>If you will examine closely many early spring buds and flowers—especially -those like the willow and hazel catkins—you will find -that they too keep warm and grow in the early spring, not from -the warmth of the sun alone but from the fuel they have laid up -in their buds.</p> - -<p>Did you know that to see the very first flowers of all in the spring -you must look up—away above your head? (<i>Maple.</i>)</p> - -<p>Any good book on Alaska will tell a number of striking things -about how rapidly spring comes on in the lands where glaciers -grow.</p> - -<p>Get Muir's "Mountains of California" and hear him tell about -how he went down into a crevasse in his shirt-sleeves, and of the -fairy underworld he found there, and how he hated to come away.</p> - -<p>Reclus<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> tells how the glaciers not only come down to call on -the farmers, sometimes, but even help them pick cherries!</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> "The Earth."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>I suppose the children who go to the excellent Swiss schools take -delight in telling grandmother that Mr. Glacier isn't really a person—as -he is in the tales of the winter fireside—but wouldn't both -grandmother and the children open their eyes if they knew that in -Greenland there is a glacier so big it feeds itself and makes its own -snow and its own storms and everything? Hobb's "The Face of -the Earth" tells all about it.</p> - -<p>And the Encyclopædia Britannica and Hobbs together will tell -you how to make a good glacier. There are a half-dozen things -you must remember or your glacier won't turn out right. (1) You -must take plenty of snow; (2) and keep it in a cool place; (3) but -you must warm it a little too, once in a while; (4) your mountain -gorges must not be too steep; (5) you must have your mountains -set just so; (6) and distribute your storms with care. By doing -all these things you get fine, durable glaciers, 100 to 200 feet thick, -sometimes 500 and even 1,000 feet thick. But you must be careful, -and, of course, it takes time.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">- 66 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(APRIL)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Now the noisy winds are still;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">April's coming up the hill!</div> - <div class="verse indent0">All the spring is in her train,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Led by shining ranks of rain.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Mary Mapes Dodge.</i></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE APRIL RAINS AND THE WORK OF THE RIVERS</p> - -<p>I always liked the little boy's definition of a river system. -"Rivers that empty into other rivers that empty -into other rivers that empty into the sea."</p> - -<p>What is still more interesting, the sea at the same time -is emptying into the rivers; for the waters of all the lands -and the waters of all the seas, are one, and what the rivers -give to the sea the sea returns in the rain clouds that are -blown landward by the winds. The Earth's waters are -thus always in circulation like the blood in our bodies. -In making this endless circuit they do an immense amount -of useful and beautiful work, and have many strange and -curious ways of doing it. It's a great family affair of the -Waters people. Everybody has a hand in it, from the -baby rill that toddles across the country road, the brook -it meets in the meadow, the creek that runs through the -wood, and the river into which it flows, to the greater river -which carries forward these mingled waters to the sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">- 67 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg67" style="width: 518px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg67.png" width="518" height="447" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdc smaller">THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM</p> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. What I Brought Back from the Creek</span></p> - -<p>I met a rain-drop once that had followed the thing -through, starting where a little creek began, and got such -a load of information I could hardly carry it, about the -wonderful part the rivers take and have taken in the making -and remaking of the world.</p> - -<p>We see the April rains carve fairy canyons in the soft -clay of the roadside or the creek, but it is hard to realize, -as we stand on some pinnacle of the Alps and look out -over the deep and wide valleys, the gorges, the cliffs, and -mountains cut in two, that all are but the handiwork of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">- 68 -</span> -the rain-drops banded together as flowing waters. For a -long time this was questioned by scientific men, because the -idea so upset the old theory that great changes in this -world of ours came about all of a sudden and from causes -not at work in these days. Now, however, nobody doubts -that the big things are done by the little people, working -together over long periods of time; little snowflakes, little -rain-drops, little cells in plants. As a result, the Alps, so -far as the expression of their faces is concerned, are as -little like the Alps of the past as the face of the old farm of -to-day is like the farm of those ancient yesterdays, when -the brontosaurus browsed where old Dobbin is nipping -the meadow grass and the mammoth ate the leaves of -trees that stood where White Face is thoughtfully chewing -her cud in the shade.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg68" style="width: 494px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg68.png" width="494" height="330" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THEY STUDY GEOGRAPHY IN BOSTON</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is what, in the Boston schools, they call an "umbrella party." "Umbrella -party" sounds much more attractive than "geography lesson," but as a matter of -fact it is a geography lesson and a fine one. As soon as they get off that brick -pavement the boys and girls will see those rain-drops cutting out little Mississippi -River systems, filling little Great Lakes, plunging over Niagaras two inches high!</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">- 69 -</span></p> - -<p>Right where you sit reading, perhaps, the land used to -be buried two miles deep beneath rocks which have been -worn away by wind and rain and by rivers which vanished -long ago. Everything has been so changed that if the old -scenery should be put back you would be lost right on the -home farm.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHERE YOU CAN JUMP ACROSS THE MISSISSIPPI</p> - -<p>Wrinkles in the earth and in the mountainsides make -the first troughs for the streamlets and the rivers, and -then the running water itself digs these natural channels -deeper. Many rivers begin as streamlets flowing out of -springs. The great Mississippi began as a baby, just like -the rest of us. You can jump across it still if you go up -to its source. Springs not only start rivers in life but go -on feeding them. Most large river systems get secret -gifts in this way, as they flow along, from thousands of -springs that empty into them or their tributaries.</p> - -<p>So springs start and feed the rivers. Now what do you -suppose starts the springs? Rain-drops stored away in -big stone "safes," much as a small boy stores away pennies -in his tin bank! The water of rains and melting snows, -passing down through the soil, soaks into the little chambers -or pores in such rocks as sandstone and limestone, -and keeps going on down until it comes to a bed of hard -stone, such as slate or granite, into which it cannot soak.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">- 70 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg70a" style="width: 461px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg70a.png" width="461" height="274" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE SPRING WHEN EMPTY</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg70b" style="width: 461px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg70b.png" width="461" height="274" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE SPRING WHEN FULL</p> - -<p class="caption4">THIS SPRING PLAYS IT'S A TOWN PUMP</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>These two pictures show an intermittent spring about five miles from Singer -Glenn, Virginia, and there called the "Tide Spring." You can see where the idea -of the tide comes in, but can you think why the spring seems to have a tide system -all its own? You know what a siphon is. Well, think how a kind of siphon -might be formed in rock, dissolved out by water flowing underground. Then look -at the picture on the next page.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">- 71 -</span></p> - -<p>Now rock-beds, as you know, have a slope—some more, -some less—owing to the wrinkling of the earth's crust. -So the water, slowly trickling through the porous rock, -forms a steady stream which runs down along the hard -rock, as rain runs down a roof, and finally gushes out at -some lower level.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg71" style="width: 461px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg71.png" width="461" height="311" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE LITTLE SPRING WORKS ITS PUMP</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is how the pump of an intermittent spring is worked. Some portions of -rock are dissolved by underground waters more readily than others and so cavities -are sometimes formed, as shown. As long as the water in the reservoir is below -the arch of the siphon-shaped outlet no water escapes, but as soon as it rises to -the level of the arch the whole of the water is drawn off. Then the spring ceases -to flow until the reservoir fills up again. You can empty water in the same way -by using a bent tube of any kind. Can you tell why the water flows up-hill in this -way? Remember what you know about air-pressure and then look up "siphon" -in your encyclopædia.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>You can be sure these companies of rain-drops, hurrying -back to the light, don't fail to notice any cracks in the -rocks along the way, and at such places they come gushing -up with sparkle and dance; and the greater the dip of the -rock beds the higher they dance, of course.</p> - -<p>But it takes any one rain-drop so long to get back into -the sunshine after it starts on its underground journey -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">- 72 -</span> -that you'd think it would forget how to dance at all! It -isn't just the same rain-drop, to be sure, that goes into the -ground and comes out again, because the rain-drops get all -mixed up with each other as they move along, but just -imagine some one rain-drop that fell, say, on a hilltop on -the day a baby was born in a valley five miles away, where -there was a spring in a shady hollow near the baby's home. -By the time that rain-drop got down to the spring the baby -would be old enough to vote!</p> - -<p>Yet this is a very good thing for the rivers and the rest -of us—this slow travel of the underground water, whether -it comes out in springs or simply seeps through the soil as -most of that which supplies the rivers does. Otherwise, -if all the water of the rains went directly into the rivers -we would have floods after every wet spell and empty river -beds between times.</p> - -<p>Here's another river rebus. How do rivers grow longer -at the top? All rivers grow at their source because their -headwaters eat back into the rocks and the soil, just as -the rain wears away the head of any gully. Where the -rock is soft they eat back faster. The Mohawk River in -New York State probably wouldn't have amounted to -anything if it hadn't done this very thing. From Albany -westward past Utica runs a belt of shale, a weak stone, -but here so soft that the surface of it crumbles back to -clay in every winter's frost. Into this the Mohawk, which -in past ages was only a little stream, has eaten back its -way until now it is over a hundred miles long.</p> - -<p>But sometimes rivers are so big the very first day they -come into the world that you may say they are born half -grown. You find them, among other places, in the mountains -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">- 73 -</span> -of California. Nearly all the water from the melting -snows on Mount Shasta sinks at once into the porous lava -fields of the mountain slopes, and after wandering about -in the hidden veins comes out, filtered and cool, in the -form of large springs which make rivers that set out on -their life journeys without ever having been babies at all -so far as you can see. The Shasta River is one of these. -The McCloud is another. It gushes forth suddenly from -a lava bluff in a roaring spring seventy-five yards across, -two-thirds of the width of the river in its widest part. -The River Jordan in the Holy Land begins in one of these -great springs at the foot of Mount Hermon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg73" style="width: 347px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg73.png" width="347" height="311" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission -of Ginn and Company</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">HOW MOST OF EUROPE'S RIVERS GET THEIR START</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Most of the important rivers of Europe start as streams of ice-water, flowing out -of glaciers. Notice the boulders along the side of the stream. They also came -out of the body of the glacier, where, as we shall see when we take up "The Stones -of the Field" in <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chagter VII</a>, the boulders that rode south with the glaciers got -most of their roundness.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>We know already what a hand the glaciers had in the -Ice Age in shaping the course and conduct of rivers, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">- 74 -</span> -you may be sure they have something to do with the -making of rivers to-day. The under side of a glacier gets -warmed from three sources: (1) its own pressure; (2) the -friction as it moves; and (3) the heat from the inside of -the earth which, on account of this thick ice blanket, can't -get away into the air as it does elsewhere. This heat -melts the ice and, as we know, there is water melting also -on the surface of glaciers and in the crevasses. Beside all -this the water of rains falls upon the glacier so that there -is plenty of water to make rivers, and we always find -streams of water running from a glacier's front. Most of -the rivers of Central Europe start in this way.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE BEAUTY OF THE BRIDAL VEIL</p> - -<p>And, although they didn't make the rivers themselves, -the Ice Age Glaciers are held responsible for the fact that -many little rivers always have to jump to catch the train. -That is to say, they come tumbling over falls to join the -larger streams into which they empty. The reason of -this is that when, in the Ice Age, the glaciers filled the -river valleys the larger glaciers in a main valley dug below -the tributary valleys and so left the mouths of the tributary -rivers high up on the main valley's walls. The -famous "Bridal Veil" in the Yosemite is one of these side -valley falls. The fall—900 feet—is so great that the -water widens to a fleecy foam and waves back and forth -in the wind like a gauzy veil and, instead of a roar like -Niagara, it makes a rustling sound like silk.</p> - -<p>While some rivers come hurrying down like that—as if -they really were afraid the larger river would go off and -leave them—others, like the Amazon, roll on as stately as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">- 75 -</span> -a Lord Mayor's procession. But the waters of all are on -their way to the sea. The rock layers, owing to the wrinkling -of the earth as it shrinks, are nowhere level, so flowing -water is always on a down grade, sloping toward the -sea or toward other land that does slope toward the sea. -Then remember too as the sea bottom keeps sinking the -continents keep rising, which increases the pitch of the -land.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg75" style="width: 435px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg75.png" width="435" height="495" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">JUMPING TO CATCH THE TRAIN</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>See the famous Bridal Veil Falls in the Yosemite Valley hurrying down to reach -the river below. As the stream descends, it broadens into a beautiful, filmy veil.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">- 76 -</span></p> - -<p>All very simple, but none the less grand and impressive. -Ruskin, in one of the noblest of his passages, says:</p> - -<p>"[All water courses], from the inch-deep streamlet that -crosses the village land in trembling clearness to the massy -and silent march of the Amazon and the Ganges, owe their -play and power to the ordained elevations of the earth; -[to] paths prepared for them by which at some appointed -rate of journey they must evermore descend, sometimes -slow and sometimes swift, but never pausing, the gateways -of guarding mountains opened for them in cleft and -chasm, and from afar off the great heart of the sea calling -them to itself."</p> - -<p>That's a poetic way of putting it, but it's a fact nevertheless.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. The Human Nature in Rivers</span></p> - -<p>There's a lot of human nature in rivers. To begin with, -as we might suppose, they do the most playing and the -least work when they are young. Brooks will be brooks, -you know!</p> - -<p>What pretty ways they have in babyhood! Kissing the -pebbles, crooning, bubbling, chattering, playing, they are -big Mississippis or great oceans that, like Homer's ocean -river, flow around the world. Their bubbles are ships, -sometimes wrecked on dreadful headlands along the shores.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE CHANT OF THE WATERFALLS</p> - -<p>Waterfalls are found only in young streams and more -often as you near the source. Older streams have worn -down their beds more nearly to a level and, as we all -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">- 77 -</span> -know, more rivers begin among the mountains and highlands -than in the lower lands. In the mountain regions -there are plenty of rocks and cliffs to jump from, and the -rivers, you may be sure, make the most of their opportunities. -At such falls as the Bridal Veil they jump so -far they are turned into white cascades, and as you climb -the cliff beside them and feel the wind wafting spray in -your face you hear the music of their songs. The more -or less regular dash of the water as it swings back and -forth in the wind gives that chanting sound described in -waterfall poetry.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg77" style="width: 407px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg77.png" width="407" height="406" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">"BROOKS WILL BE BROOKS, YOU KNOW!"</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Our baby river of the meadow seems to be playing it has a Niagara Falls of its -own, "Rock of Ages" and all! See the "huge mass" of rock at the foot of the -falls; and the rapids?</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">- 78 -</span></p> - -<p>Like children these dancing, singing rivers love pictures -and color. You see that in the rainbow tints of the -spray as the sunlight strikes the air bubbles the waterfall -"blows"; in the green of its waters turned to gray in the -foam; in the reflections of mountain, sky, and cloud in -the smooth stretches below the falls.</p> - -<p>And, like pebbles and other little people, rivers love to -play in the rain. My! What a time! In a storm, with -a gray flood pouring from the sky, you hear, mingled with -the voice of wind and rain, the swash and gurgle of the -eddies as the river goes along in its dance, wild with the -joy of it all. In a mountain stream during a heavy rain, -with wind, you can also hear the waves dashing against -the rocks along the shore or in the stream, and the smothered, -bumping, rumbling made by the boulders on the -bottom knocking against each other.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">STORM CHORUS OF THE MOUNTAIN TORRENTS</p> - -<p>From any high place during a mountain storm you can -see twenty, yes, often a hundred torrents, and the noise -of the water and the moving stones makes a wonderful -storm chorus. Reclus compares the sound made by the -stones to dull thunder.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHERE TO LOOK FOR HIDING RIVERS</p> - -<p>Rivers, both young and old, play hide and seek. Possibly -the older rivers get to dreaming of their infancy when -they were springs, and want to play they are springs -again; anyhow, they disappear in the ground in one place -and then come out laughing in another as if they really -<i>were</i> springs! And how they must chuckle to themselves -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">- 79 -</span> -when they fool people into thinking they are brand new -rivers! This happens sometimes, and so the river gets a -different name at the place where it comes out from the -name it bears up to the point where it disappears. Such -hide-and-seek rivers are found in regions where it doesn't -often rain. The Tujunga, which you cross in going from -Los Angeles to San Francisco, is such a river. At one -place in its course it comes out of a canyon, looks around -a minute, and then disappears in the pebbles, sand and -gravel of the plain. Down it goes until it reaches a bed -of hard rock. Along this underground bed it runs until -it gets to a place north of Cahuenga Peak, where it comes -up in springs and flows into the Los Angeles River.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg79" style="width: 523px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg79.png" width="523" height="387" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE LOST RIVERS AND THE THOUSAND SPRINGS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>These are the waters of some hidden tributaries of the Snake River gushing out -as springs from its beautiful banks. The group is called "The Thousand Springs," -and is supposed to be the reappearance of two "Lost Rivers" that disappeared -back in the sand wastes.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">- 80 -</span></p> - -<p>Mountain lakes are where the lively little torrents stop -to sleep. "The sea," says Ruskin, "seems only to pause; -the mountain lake to sleep and to dream."</p> - -<p>But after this sleep how they laugh and play—those -baby rivers—as they go dancing over the pebbles and -down the falls; for in these lakes they gather themselves -together into a larger volume of water, and so, of course, -flow on with increased energy.</p> - -<p>"As soon as a stream is fairly over the lake lip it breaks -into cascades, never for a moment halting, and scarce -abating one jot of its glad energy until it reaches the next -basin. Then swirling and curving drowsily (dropping off -to sleep again!) through meadow and grove it breaks forth -anew into gray rapids and falls, leaping and gliding in -glorious exuberance of wild bound and dance down into -another and yet another lake basin."<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Muir, "The Sierra Nevada Mountains."</p> - -</div> - -<p>Just as it is with human beings, a river seems to grow -more thoughtful and thrifty as it grows older; and, best -of all, this thought and thrift is for others—for the people -of the plant world along its banks and for its old parent, -the sea. With the help of pebbles it puts money in its -savings bank and pays it out from time to time.</p> - -<p>In seasons of flood it carries loads and loads of pebbles -along. As the flood goes down these pebbles are dropped -and covered with the sediment that settles along its banks. -Then these pebbles begin to decay and so enrich the soil. -Later along comes another flood, takes the pebbles out of -the bank, carries them farther along, and, as the waters -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">- 81 -</span> -go down, puts them back in the bank again. In course of -time this kind of fresh food from the decaying pebbles gets -carried into the sea, where it helps to furnish food and -shell material for the shell-fish and raw material to be -worked up by the sea's rock mills.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg81" style="width: 516px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg81.png" width="516" height="365" alt="" /> - -<p class="tdl">WAYS OF A WANDERING RIVER</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">III. The Machinery of the Rivers</span></p> - -<p>To do all their great part in the world's work the rivers -need only time, enthusiasm, patience, machinery, and -tools. All these the rivers have, and the machinery they -use and the engineering methods they follow are much -more modern than we would suppose. Take, for example, -the way in which rivers widen their banks. The current -cuts with the greatest force on the outside of bends, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">- 82 -</span> -the motion and effect is practically that of a circular saw. -This sawing is done on the largest scale where the current -meanders. Swinging from side to side it cuts away both -banks.</p> - -<p>And what it cuts away it spreads over the valley by its -back-and-forth motion, much as men spread dirt with -scrapers when they are grading a road.</p> - -<p>That's how crooked rivers make broad valleys. But -they have to have the help of us pebbles, too. We're hard -to get along without! Notice, the next time the river or -the creek is up, the rolling, hopping motion of the pebbles -as they are carried along by the rushing water. It is these -pebbles grinding on the bottom and sides of the river's -bed that help most in this kind of valley deepening and -widening. In the same way we pebbles helped dig those -grand affairs, the gorges and the canyons in the mountains. -The Grand Canyon of the Colorado is a part of -our work.</p> - -<p>In the widening of valleys the circular saws of crooked -streams are very useful, but there are other things at -work. The rains dissolve the soil and wash the banks -away and slope them down; Jack Frost, with his wedges, -pries out both soil and rock; the little farmers with many -feet—the burrowing animals and insects—and the famous -farmer with no feet at all—the angleworm—loosen soil, -and so help the river to carry it away; and the ice, when -the river breaks up in the spring, chisels off the banks as -it passes.</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">- 83 -</span></p> - -<div style="width: 450px;"> -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg83a"> - <img src="images/img_pg83a.png" width="446" height="282" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg83b" style="width: 436px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg83b.png" width="436" height="286" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">HOW RIVERS BUILD STONE BRIDGES</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Natural bridges are made by the same agency that forms the intermittent springs—the -dissolving power of water—and, like the springs, are characteristic of limestone -regions because limestone is readily dissolved in water. In the little model of a -limestone region "a" and "a" are "sink-holes"—saucer-shaped hollows dissolved -and washed into funnels through which the surface water joins underground streams -such as you see flowing beneath the two "bs," which are natural bridges in the -making.</p> - -<p>The lower picture shows just how one of the bridge-builders looks while at work, -dissolving and wearing down the rock. The next two pictures will help tell you -two other ways in which rivers make their own bridges.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">- 84 -</span></p> - -<p>If you have ever been in a machine-shop you must -have noticed how a planing-mill works away on a job it -has been set to do, without anybody watching it at all; -and when it gets done with its job it stops, all by itself. -Such machinery is called "automatic," because, to a certain -extent, it runs its own affairs. A river, in planing -down and reshaping valley scenery, has an automatic stop. -When it has cut its valley down to sea level it stops, because, -being then no higher than the sea, it can no longer -flow toward it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg84" style="width: 442px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg84.png" width="442" height="383" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">AFTER A FEW CUPS OF TEA</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>When winding rivers get a few cups of tea—that is, are in flood—they rush straight -ahead and, while much of the water may for a time still go on around the bend, -some of it is forced through openings in the rock and in time carves out a bridge. -How they do this is shown in the upper diagram on <a href="#Page_83">page 83</a>.</p> -</div> - - -<p>But before this automatic stop shuts off their machinery -the work that rivers do is immense. The Mississippi -River carries enough solid matter to the Gulf every year to -make a mountain a mile square and 268 feet high.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">- 85 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg85" style="width: 453px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg85.png" width="453" height="609" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">YOU KNOW THIS BRIDGE, OF COURSE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The Natural Bridge of Virginia is an example of still another style of river -bridge-building. This bridge used to be part of the roof of a cave and remained -after the rest of the roof fell in.</p> -</div> - - -<p>When ordinary people want to cross a mountain they -have to climb over it. But do you know what a river -does? It cuts its way right through and makes what is -called a water-gap—a great gate of stone that is always -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">- 86 -</span> -open and through which the stream forever flows. All -the river used was tools and time. The tools were the -sand and pebbles it swept along. So in the course of ages, -running like a band saw, the Potomac made the water-gap -at Harper's Ferry, the Delaware River the Delaware -Water-Gap.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW MOUNTAINS HELP MAKE THE WATER GATES</p> - -<p>But how could a river do this? It couldn't flow up one -side of the mountain and down the other, could it? No, -certainly not. What then? Wherever you find a river -cutting through a mountain range you may be sure the -river was there before the mountains rose, and that the -mountains rose so slowly the river kept right on in its old -channel and wore down the rock under that channel as -fast as the mountains rose; while, on either side, they -could rise as high as they wanted to for all the river cared!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">GROWING MOUNTAINS AND THE EARTHQUAKES</p> - -<p>But suppose, before I had explained how water-gaps -are made I had told you I could show you a mountain -growing. You wouldn't have believed it. Regions in -which mountains are still rising, as on our Pacific Coast, -are liable to earthquakes. The reason is that as mountains -rise the rock layers of which they are made are -strained dreadfully. Every once in a while they crack -and the rocks on either side of this crack grind against -each other. This makes the earth shake, much as the -house shakes when a heavy table is pushed across a bare -floor.</p> - -<p>If you want to see a job of river engineering that will -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">- 87 -</span> -make you catch your breath, look over into some of the -river canyons and gorges of the West.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg87" style="width: 528px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg87.png" width="528" height="382" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE GREAT CUMBERLAND WATER-GAP</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here is the famous Cumberland Gap that the river cut through the mountains; -so cutting a great figure in United States history, also, you remember. The picture -shows the region as it looked in early days.</p> -</div> - - -<p>A mile isn't much straight ahead, but a mile straight -down and you on your stomach, with your eyes just over -the edge—it's an <i>awful</i> long way! Imagine yourself looking -down a wall of rock like that, and the bottom of the -abyss so far off that it looks blue—that's a canyon!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">AND YET THAT LITTLE RIVER DID IT ALL!</p> - -<p>And now we are going down into the vastest canyon -in the world, a canyon so vast that it has already swallowed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">- 88 -</span> -practically all the words in the dictionary suitable -to such scenery and still remains undescribed—so all the -skilled writers say who have tried their hands at it. This -is the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. Do you remember -how in "Alice in Wonderland" the cat disappeared and -left nothing but its smile? Well, the first time you see -the Grand Canyon you feel as if it had swallowed you and -left nothing but your eyes! And when they tell you that -it was all done by that little river that you can just make -out threading its way along the bottom, you can't believe -it! The total length of the river's gorge—a canyon is -just a long gorge—is some 400 miles. The part of it -known as the Grand Canyon is a yawning abyss of stone -into which the river walls widen for a distance of 42 miles. -The Lower Colorado River, that dug this chasm in the -rock, flows through a vast table-land where rain seldom -falls. But the river, which rises in the Rocky Mountains, -has a constant supply of water from the mountain rains -and the melting snow. The canyons you see branching -from the main gorge in our picture were cut by the Colorado's -tributaries. Working together on different sides, -they carved out those rock masses that look like oriental -temples and have been named accordingly—the temples -of Brahma, Osiris, Zoroaster, and so on.</p> - -<p>And here in this canyon is a splendid example of how -the rivers, in addition to all their other labors, write history. -They helped to lay down on the borders of the -ancient sea the material out of which the rocks were made. -It is in the leaves in such books of stone that the geologist -reads the great events of world-making history. Moreover, -the rivers may be said to cut the leaves of the book -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">- 89 -</span> -when they dig down through them, as in this immense -library of the Grand Canyon.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg89" style="width: 486px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg89.png" width="486" height="347" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdl"><i>From a photograph copyrighted by Fred Harvey</i></p> - -<p class="caption4">AND WE PEBBLES HELPED DIG THE GRAND CANYON, TOO!</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>River water alone couldn't cut those canyons—the Grand Canyon and the rest. -The Colorado and its tributaries had to have grinding tools and the tools were -the pebbles they dragged over their rock-beds; and thus, in the course of ages, -wore them down and down and down.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Busy, busy all the time—these rivers. But although -they are always at work they not only never forget to look -beautiful but they beautify everything they touch. At -the outset the lines of a river valley are rather straight and -angular, as if the scenery were just being blocked out by -an artist, but as the valley grows older its slopes become -more gentle, the angles disappear into rounded forms, and -the river itself winds along in graceful lines, exactly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">- 90 -</span> -reproducing what the great English artist Hogarth called "the -line of beauty."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg90" style="width: 502px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg90.png" width="502" height="370" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THAT MIGHTY RIVER IN THE MEADOWS</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Yon stream, whose sources run,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Turned by a pebble's edge,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Is Athabasca, rolling towards the sun,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Through the cleft mountain ledge.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">The slender rill had strayed,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">But for the slanting stone,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To evening's ocean, with the tangled braid</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Of foam-flecked Oregon.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<span class="smcap">Holmes.</span></div> -</div> - -<p>Back of all the work of the rivers from year to year and -age to age, there seems always the thought of beauty as -well as the thought of use. They are evidently under an -eternal law of service, of beauty, and of change.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"The hills are shadows, and they flow</div> - <div class="verse indent1">From form to form and nothing stands.</div> - <div class="verse indent1">They melt like mists the solid lands;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Like clouds they shape themselves and go."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">- 91 -</span></p> - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Isn't Tennyson's "Brook" a beautiful title picture of a baby -river and its ways?</p> - -<p>Speaking of human nature in rivers and apparent differences in -disposition, why is it that some of the rivers of California run right -through the mountain ranges from east to west—have evidently -cut their way—while others run along, meekly enough, between -the ranges? I'm sure from what we have learned about rivers -that you can tell how this happened as well as if you had been -there when the rivers were made; but if you can't think—after -trying real hard—you will find the answer in the Hide and Seek -at the end of the next chapter.</p> - -<p>Beside being so prominent in the literature of the Bible and so -famous in history, the River Jordan is a most curious and interesting -stream, and every child should know about it. Here are some -of the things you will find: Why it is born partly grown, and -doesn't begin as a little stream, like the Mississippi; why it may -be said to be in both the tropical and temperate zones<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>; about its -two valleys, both of which it uses at the same time.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Britannica.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> International.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Another famous river over in that part of the world—it's the -biggest river in Western Asia, in fact—was born twins. See if -you can find such a river on the map. (The name of it is at the -end of the next chapter.) In the days of Alexander the Great -these twin rivers, which now unite in one after travelling along -independently for a while, were a good day's journey apart clear -to the end. In the article on this river in the Britannica, and in -books of travel you will find how, by a quaint and ingenious device, -the river is made to pump itself up hill and irrigate the fields; -how history, clear back to the beginning of civilization, is written -in the ruins of cities along its banks; how it used to put in part -of its time bounding the Roman empire, and how nowadays it is -forced to help support Arab river pirates and wild pigs.</p> - -<p>Now let's go over into Africa with Doctor Livingstone and see -how a river can grind out a big, deep stone jar in solid rock.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">- 92 -</span> -Rivers grind out these <i>pot-holes</i> much as Indian women and the -American pioneers used to grind wheat and corn. (The river, -you'll find, uses pebbles for millstones.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> "The Expedition to the Zambesi," page 63. One of these natural -water-jars that Doctor Livingstone found was as wide as a well and -so deep it kept the water cool even under the broiling African sun.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>And what do you think of a waterfall big enough to swallow two -Niagaras? (It's the greatest waterfall in the world; so you must -have learned its name in your geography.) It's described on -page 268 of Doctor Livingstone's book referred to in the foot-note. -The natives call it "The Fall of the Thundering Smoke." They -wonder how water can smoke, and so that you can see the "smoke" -twenty miles away. You'll wonder, too, until you learn the -reason.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">- 93 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(MAY)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">When April steps aside for May,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Like diamonds all the rain-drops glisten;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Fresh violets open every day;</div> - <div class="verse indent2">To some new bird each hour we listen.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<span class="smcap">Lucy Larcom.</span></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE FAIRYLAND OF CHANGE</p> - -<p>What a wonderful world it is, this world of green fields -and perfume and blossoms of pink and gold! Where did -it come from? How did it get here out of the white winter? -That bleak and barren winter that lay all around us -everywhere only a few short weeks ago?</p> - -<p>Just suppose we had never seen apple trees in bloom, as -we are now seeing them everywhere, and somebody should -show us a little brown seed, and a piece of bark, and a -piece of root, and a green leaf, and a blossom, and an -apple, and tell us they grew out of each other—were all -made of the very same stuff.</p> - -<p>Well, just as sure as anything, you wouldn't believe it. -I wouldn't believe it. We simply couldn't! But we've -had this sort of thing all around us ever since we can -remember, and we've got so used to it we don't see anything -wonderful about it. It <i>is</i> wonderful just the same. -The Colossus of Rhodes, and Jupiter of Olympia, and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">- 94 -</span> -lighthouse of Alexandria, and all the other Seven Wonders -of the World that people used to go so far to see, weren't -anything to it.</p> - -<p>And to this day, how it all comes about is as much of a -mystery as ever. Yet Nature does it right before our -eyes, and over and over and over again! Even I, old as I -am, and as much as I know, <i>I</i> don't know how she does -it, but I do know how it all started; how Nature first began -to change one thing into another. It was when she -began making marbles, granites, and other kinds of rock -out of other kinds. That was ages before she changed -little brown seeds into big trees with pink blossoms and red -apples on them, or little brown cocoons into big golden -butterflies, or anything like that.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. In the Fairyland of Change</span></p> - -<p>Ahem! Ahem! (Pebble coughing.)</p> - -<p>I caught cold some several million years ago and I -haven't got over it yet. That's why I'm a granite pebble -instead of a slate pebble, or a sandstone pebble, or anything -common. It's a part of the story of the fairyland -of change, this cold of mine.</p> - -<p>Ahem!</p> - -<p>Would you mind getting me a lump of sugar? I don't -want it for my cold—it never does that any good—but -because a lump of sugar goes so well with this part of my -story.</p> - -<p>You notice the sugar lump is made up of little crystals, -little building blocks just as I am, just as all granites are. -And the crystals in the sugar and in the stone were made -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">- 95 -</span> -in the same way—by first heating and then cooling the -material out of which they are made.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg95" style="width: 321px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg95.png" width="321" height="404" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="tdl">THE CRYSTAL FAIRIES IN THE SUGAR-BOWL]</p> - -<p>When the earth's surface first cooled, the melted rock is -supposed to have changed to granite. Melted rock, under -the same conditions, does that to-day. So, for a while, -granite must have been all the kind of rock there was. -There was as yet no sandstone, no shells or bones to make -limestone, no pebbles to help make conglomerate or "pudding -stone," no ground-up rock and soil to make slate.</p> - -<p>The rocks of the earth have been made over so many -times that it is not probable that any of the granites now -"living" (so to speak) are the same rocks that were made -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">- 96 -</span> -when the earth first cooled, but you can see that we have -a right to say what I was careful to say when I introduced -myself to you in the first chapter, that we belong to one -of the <i>very oldest families</i>—we Granites.</p> - -<p>Ahem!</p> - -<p>There is a variety of rock—a crystallized rock—with -bands all through it, called gneiss (say "nice"). Gneiss -is made from all kinds of rock including, of course, conglomerate; -that is to say "pudding stone"<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> warmed over.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> "Pudding stone" is a rock with pebbles all through it, like the -plums in a Christmas pudding. Its book name is "conglomerate."</p> - -</div> - -<p>"And what they did not eat that night, the queen -next morning fried!"</p> - - -<p class="caption4">DOWN IN THE GREAT MELTING-POT</p> - -<p>But how is old rock warmed over and made into new? -You might easily guess that as the heart of the earth is -melted rock the rock layers lying next to it would be -melted, too, and so started on their way to becoming crystallized -rock. Crystallization in rock takes place from -the surface down, in the same way that maple syrup turns -to sugar, as it does if allowed to stand undisturbed. So, -as the central mass of rock is cooling from above toward -the centre, we may suppose granite is still being formed -away down there, miles under our feet.</p> - -<p>But there are other ways in which rocks make their -own heat—rocks far above this central molten heart of -the world. One of these ways might remind you of how -the mother hen gets her chickens to come out of the eggs, -for rocks hatch out new rocks by sitting on one another!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">- 97 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg97" style="width: 490px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg97.png" width="490" height="329" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THREE CHAPTERS IN THE STORY OF MARBLE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>If you're ever in New York City up around 192d Street, you can read the three -chapters in the life of a piece of marble right in the rocks themselves, for there -you'll see this mass of rock with that granite dike pushing its way through. The -rock on either side of the dike is limestone, and this limestone, owing to the heat -of the lava which afterward hardened and became a "dike," is full of crystals; -that is, began to turn to marble because of the heat. See how the lava crumpled -the limestone as it pushed its way up into the original crack?</p> -</div> - -<p>The pressure of the upper rocks generates heat in those beneath.</p> - -<p>Then when these deeply buried rocks come up into the -upper world as parts of mountain chains, and the covering -of the softer rocks is, by the rivers and by weathering, -worn away, we find the granite. The wrinkling of the -rocks which makes mountains also creates immense pressure, -and this is another great source of made-over rock. -Such rock is found almost entirely in mountain regions. -Some rocks, as shown in pebbles stretched out like a piece -of gum, are heated by pressure without being crystallized. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">- 98 -</span> -Often one of these stretched pebbles is the only thing in a -crystallized rock that shows what kind of rock it was originally, -all the finer material in it has been so changed. The -deeper down in the earth the rocks are the more apt they -are to be crystallized, because the rocks piled above them -help to hold in the heat, just as thick blankets keep you -warmest on a cold winter night.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">KINDS OF "METAMORPHIC" ROCK</p> - -<p>Rock of any kind may be changed to crystallized rock. -Where the conditions are not favorable for crystallization -the rock is made more solid, and material soaked out of -the rocks above filters down into it. The lower layers of -sandstone may become almost as solid as glass, and are -then called "quartzite." Clay rocks are hardened into -slate. Rocks changed in any of these ways are called -"metamorphic" rock, from two Greek words meaning "to -form over." But by "metamorphic" is usually meant -rock that has been crystallized.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">NICE HATCHING TEMPERATURE FOR ROCKS</p> - -<p>I compared the hatching of new rocks to the hatching -of new chickens, because it is done by the rocks sitting on -one another. But chicken hatching and rock "hatching" -are alike in still another way. The rocks need heat, but -not too much heat. Too much heat melts them. It is -only when they have cooled down a good deal that they -begin to crystallize; and that, you see, wastes time.</p> - -<p>A nice hatching temperature for rocks is between 500 -and 1000 degrees Fahrenheit.</p> - -<p>But we might also compare Mother Nature's way of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">- 99 -</span> -changing rocks to the cooking that goes on in our kitchens. -She uses not only heat, but water and other things, including -salt and soda. Both the salt and some of the water -in the rocks comes from—you'd hardly guess it—the seas! -Not the seas of to-day, but the seas of yesterday, when -these rocks were made. Then the pores were filled with -water and the water has been kept shut in down there by -the rocks above ever since.</p> - -<p>From this sea water comes the salt. The salt in the -water, when heated, helps to dissolve the rocks so that the -different materials in them can separate and come together -again in new ways, and so form new rocks. You know -when you go to the lavatory to change your hands from -dark to light what a lot of difference it makes whether the -water is hot or cold and whether you use soap. The soap -helps dissolve the dirt on your hands just as the salt -helps dissolve the rocks.</p> - -<p>The soda which Nature also uses is particularly good for -dissolving rock that will hardly dissolve without it; silica, -for instance, out of which are made the hardest of the -sand grains, the sand in sandstone, the sharp, glassy edges -of grass blades, and the blades of wheat, and the stalks -of corn. Whenever there is a great deal of silica in rock -you find soda mixed right with it. This, having the -rocks already salted and mixed with soda before putting -them in the oven, Mother Nature has always found <i>so</i> -convenient!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">ONE PEBBLE MAY PLAY MANY PARTS</p> - -<p>I, in my time, may have been many kinds of rock. -First, heaved up out of the sea by the earliest wrinkling of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">- 100 -</span> -the cooling earth as granite; then weathered away into -soil and carried by rivers to the sea, where I was remade -the first time, maybe, as part of the "dough" in a pudding -stone; then up again in an earth wrinkle and again back -to sea, this time to be made into some one of the clay -stones, and then back to granite again.</p> - -<p>Anyhow here I am, a little freckled granite pebble talking -myself red in the face because I've got so much to say, -such wonderful things to tell, and only a few hundred pages -to tell it in!</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. How Do They Know?</span></p> - -<p>But, after all, how do they know that one rock changes -into another? No one ever caught a rock doing this, did -they?</p> - -<p>Not quite, but almost. To explain, I must first tell you -about the fossils that are found in stone. Haven't you -often noticed in marble curious figures that reminded you -of sea-shells? They were sea-shells but have been turned -to stone, and things similarly changed while still keeping -their original form are called "fossils."</p> - -<p>When the plants and the shell creatures of the sea die -they fall to the bottom, and mud and sand settles over -them and closes them in, much as you shut leaves and -flowers between the pages of a book. But while the book -presses the leaves of flowers out of shape these bodies of -the water-plants and shell creatures are slowly enclosed in -a soft mass of mud that doesn't change their shapes at all. -Then the particles that go to make up the soft bodies of -these buried things are slowly dissolved away, and the -minerals in the water and mud above them soak in and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">- 101 -</span> -take their places. It's like passenger after passenger in a -car getting up and other passengers taking the vacant -places. Finally this mass of limey shells becomes buried -deep under the sea, is turned to limestone, and when in -course of time this part of the seashore rises—as we know -shores have a way of doing—or is wrinkled up into a -mountain, this limestone becomes a part of the face of the -land.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg101" style="width: 507px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg101.png" width="507" height="310" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From a photograph by the American Museum of Natural History</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">STORY OF THE LITTLE JEWEL-BOX</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>A kind of jewel-box? Yes, the kind geologists call a "geode." It began as a -piece of limestone in which the underground waters had dissolved a cavity. But -these waters had already, in solution, quartz which they had dissolved from quartz -rock, and this quartz, deposited little by little in the cavity, formed into crystals. -The quartz also made the surrounding walls more solid, so that when the mass of -limestone containing this pocket was cut away by erosion this jewel-box remained, -and, being rolled about in streams or by the lap and plunge of waves, it was rounded.</p> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">WOULDN'T WE SAY THE SAME THING?</p> - -<p>Now suppose where some great granite rock stood up -through layers of other kinds of rock—looking as if it had -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">- 102 -</span> -pushed itself through like the great granite boss on which -Edinburgh Castle stands—you found that wherever this -intruder touched the other rock that rock was crystallized. -If we had just found all this out for ourselves, -as the geology people found it, we would say, just as they -said:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg102" style="width: 490px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg102.png" width="490" height="346" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">FATHER, GRANDFATHER, AND THE CHILDREN IN THE -PORPHYRY FAMILY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>In this piece of porphyry you see three generations, all living under one roof, as -it were. Notice that six-sided crystal near the centre? Compare it with other -good-sized crystals that haven't any distinctive shape. The reason for the difference -is that the shapeless ones have had some of their substance taken away to -form the smaller crystals. The dark mass is lava. In it the big crystals formed. -Then, from most of the big crystals the lava reabsorbed material, and this material -later turned into little crystals—the "grandchildren" of the three generations.</p> -</div> - - -<p>"I wonder what the granite did to the limestone and the -other rocks around it to make them 'sugar,' or, as we say -when speaking of rocks, 'crystallize'? Syrup sugars when -it is heated and then cooled without stirring. I wonder if -this intruding mass that is now granite didn't spout up, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">- 103 -</span> -in melted form, from down in the earth, and heat the rocks -on either side as it burst its way through. Then both -this hot rock and its neighbors cooled and crystallized. -That's it!"</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg103" style="width: 505px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg103.png" width="505" height="376" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">SPLITTING MARBLE ROCKS IN THE QUARRY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is a scene in a marble-quarry. The men are splitting up a 120-ton block. -A writer in <i>Scribner's Magazine</i>, in which this illustration originally appeared, also -describes the process. The wedges, carefully greased, are inserted in the drill-holes -which, for a horizontal split, are neither close together nor very deep, as that is -the natural plane of cleavage between the strata. Two men with sledges go down -the line giving each wedge a blow—not too hard. Then two more men follow, -and in go the wedges a little farther. You see it wouldn't do to rush matters, or -you'd fracture the marble. The operation is so delicate, indeed, that the foreman -himself gives the final blows. Then the marble cracks from hole to hole. For the -vertical splits the holes, you notice, are closer together. They are also deeper.</p> -</div> - - -<p>In some places you find these granite masses in great -bosses, or domelike rocks; elsewhere in long strips, like an -iron bar thrust through other rocks; in still other places in -great slabs between other rocks, like a warming pan pushed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">- 104 -</span> -between the bed-sheets on a cold winter night; but everywhere -it touches other rocks these neighbors are crystallized.</p> - -<p>Now, coming back to our friends the fossils, we sometimes -find limestone bordering one of these intrusive marble -rocks with fossils in it, shading off into limestone containing -the same kind of fossils. As you get closer to the -granite mass the fossils in the marble gradually fade away -until you come to marble in which there are no fossils at -all.</p> - -<p>So there we get the whole story of the life, not only of -marble but of granite, and what happened to them in -"The Fairyland of Change" and how it happened:</p> - -<p><i>Chapter I.</i>—The limestone was made in the sea and the -shell creatures helped to make it.</p> - -<p><i>Chapter II.</i>—Hot melted rock from the inside of the -earth broke its way up through these limestone beds.</p> - -<p><i>Chapter III.</i>—Then, as the melted rock cooled, it changed -to granite, and the limestone on either side, being first -heated and then cooled, crystallized and changed to -marble.</p> - -<p>Men of science have still other ways of working out this -problem as to whether and how and why one kind of rock -changes into another.</p> - -<p>"But," we might say, "aren't they satisfied? We are. -It's all plain enough to us now that one kind of rock does -change into another. Then why do these geologist people -go on getting more evidence when they've already got -enough? It's like a boy learning two lessons when he -only has to recite in one; and whoever <i>heard</i> of such -a thing!"</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">- 105 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">THESE BOYS JUST LOVE TO STUDY</p> - -<p>The answer is that this "going on" is one of the many -delights of study, particularly in Nature's books, when -once you get the habit.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg105" style="width: 506px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg105.png" width="506" height="394" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From a photograph by Frith & Co., Ltd., Reigate</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE MARBLE ROCKS AT JABALPUR</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The gorge of the "Marble Rocks," near Jabalpur, India, is a mile long and of -an unearthly beauty of which even this little picture will give you some idea. -The walls gleam white and golden in the sun. They are not really marble but -limestone, which, as you will learn in this chapter, is the stone that becomes marble -in "the fairyland of change." It looks as if nature had begun the making of marble -columns in those cliffs, doesn't it? This is because the cliff is cut up by joints. -You can also make out in one of the "pillars" the strata, or horizontal divisions of -the rock, as it was laid down in the sea.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Among other things, the scientists search the pockets -of the rocks, so to speak, for further evidence as to whether -one kind changes into another. Chemistry is a great help -in doing this, and, of course, the microscope. They find -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">- 106 -</span> -in this way that rocks that are full of crystals, such as -granite and marble, and that look so different from the -rocks that are not crystallized—such as limestone and sandstone—have -in them the very same substances—silica, -lime, potash, iron, and so on.</p> - -<p>And again they put the oysters on the witness stand. -(You remember how, long ago, oysters helped tell that -mountains were once a part of the sea bottom.) They -put a piece of limestone in a certain acid, and it bubbles -and gives off a certain kind of gas. Then they do the -same thing to an oyster-shell, and it gives out the same -kind of gas. Then they try it on a piece of marble and -out comes that very gas again! So all three—the limestone, -the oyster-shell, and the marble—must be pretty -close relations. Marble is just oyster and other shells -warmed up and then allowed to cool.</p> - -<p>But they don't stop here—these students of the rocks. -It isn't enough that all these facts point to one conclusion. -They want to actually <i>try it out</i>. So what do they do but -change chalk—which is a kind of very soft limestone—into -marble in the laboratory? This they do by heating -the chalk and then cooling it under immense pressure.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">III. The Fairies of the Fairyland of Change</span></p> - -<p>If there really are fairies in this deep-down fairyland of -change—and surely there must be—I should say they were -the very same fairies we find in a lump of sugar—the crystals. -For it is when these crystals take different shapes—the -very thing fairies are always doing, you know—that -things change into something else, so different you can -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">- 107 -</span> -hardly believe it. One could easily believe that charcoal -and coal are related, they look so much alike in the face; -but who would say that a piece of charcoal and a diamond -were made of the very same stuff? They are. But diamonds -are made of crystals and charcoal is not; and that -must be it. The carbon of the charcoal was never touched -by the wand of the Crystal Fairy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg107" style="width: 440px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg107.png" width="440" height="341" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">SIX MEMBERS OF THE CRYSTAL FAMILY</p> - -<div class="blackquot"> -<p>Introducing six interesting members of the crystal family. The crystals of -common salt and of gold, among others, take the form shown at <i>A</i>. Alum and -diamonds crystallize as shown at <i>C</i>; while <i>B</i> and <i>F</i> belong to a system of crystals -which we find built up into ice and arsenic. <i>D</i> and <i>E</i> are building-blocks for green -vitriol, borax, and sulphate of soda.</p> -</div> - - -<p>A strange thing is that big crystals are always made up -of little crystals. So what looks like one crystal is really -a United States of crystals, all like each other and each -like all of them put together, much as our federal government -repeats the form of the State governments, and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">- 108 -</span> -State governments duplicate the government at Washington -on a smaller scale.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg108" style="width: 450px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg108.png" width="450" height="252" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE SAND GRAINS AND THE CRYSTAL FAIRIES</p> - -<div class="blackquot"> -<p>The crystal fairies often give battered sand grains a new lease of life and these -pictures show how they do it. Fig. "<i>a</i>" is a single sand grain which has grown -into crystal form; "<i>b</i>" shows parallel growths about a grain; "<i>c</i>" is a group of -neighboring grains that have crowded each other so in their growth that the crystal -facets have been destroyed. Sounds odd to speak of sand grains "growing," -doesn't it? But they do!</p> -</div> - -<p>But why do the little crystals always come together in -just such a way as to make big crystals shaped exactly like -themselves?</p> - -<p>Goodness knows!</p> - -<p>But whatever the how and the why of it may be, not -only do the crystal people stick as closely to the family -pattern in dress as the Scotch Highlanders do to the plaids -of their clans, but the crystals are clannish in another -way. When a clay rock, for example, is dissolved by the -heat, moisture, and chemicals down in the land of change, -the particles of the same kind that are scattered through -it hunt each other out, and ever after cling together, like -Emmy Lou and her "nintimate friends." You've noticed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">- 109 -</span> -how "spotty" granite is, haven't you? This is because it -is made up of different kinds of minerals; but, although the -crystals in all follow the granite pattern, the particles of -each kind of mineral "flock together." The feldspars and -the micas never mix.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">JUST TRY IT WITH A PIECE OF PAPER</p> - -<p>Now take a piece of writing paper and roll it into a tube -and I'll show you something else. Stand the roll up between -your two hands and press down on the top. It takes -a good deal of pressure to bend or break it, doesn't it? -Now lay it on its side and squeeze. It breaks right away.</p> - -<p>But how should the crystals in a piece of granite know -that a column of anything will stand so much more weight -when the pressure comes on the ends than when it comes -on the sides? They seem to know; for I'll tell you what -they do, away down there in the dark of the earth. The -crystals stand at right angles to the pressure on the rock -in which they are forming. Sometimes, because of the -movements of the earth as it shrinks and cracks, the crystals -already formed in granite are crushed over on their -sides. Then, in course of time, they form again, but <i>this</i> -time they stand upright, with their "heads and shoulders" -against the burden—little Atlases supporting the world! -And they not only manage to get up and stand up straight -when re-formed under pressure, but they stand closer together -than they did before; they close up ranks, like soldiers -with serious business before them.</p> - -<p>A crystal is made up of molecules, that is to say, little -parts of itself. You can't see a molecule; you just have to -think it. Each different thing in the world—as salt and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">- 110 -</span> -sugar, boys and bumble-bees, little girls and butterflies—is -made up of its own kind of molecules or little parts of -itself. In order to grasp the idea of certain scientific facts, -the men of science thought of the molecules themselves as -being made of little bits of <i>themselves</i>, which the scientists -called "atoms." Now they find that it is necessary—in -order to work out still further their ideas of how things are -made and done and changed, in this wonderful mystery -we call the world—to imagine these atoms as made up of -what they call "electrons." You mustn't think, however, -that this is all mere fancy. We can, of course, think of -anything as made up of small particles or parts of itself -which we can call "molecules," and that these molecules -are made of still smaller parts which we can call "atoms." -But there is reason to believe that while each different kind -of thing is made of its own kind of molecules and their -atoms, all the atoms are made of the same thing—electrons -or little bits of electricity. For reasons which need -not be gone into here, it is known that electrons actually -exist. These electrons are so much smaller than an atom -that there is as much room for them to move around in an -atom as there is for the planets to move around the sun.</p> - -<p>And they <i>do</i> move—travelling round and round. There -are, even in so small a thing as a grain of sand, untold -numbers of these circling worlds; systems like the sun -with its planets and other vast star systems of the sky.</p> - -<p>And that, it is thought, may be one of the secrets of the -continual change of things; clay rock changing to granite, -granite to soil, soil to fruit, fruit to children, and so on—everything -on the move and the electrons doing the moving—carrying -the changes, so to speak—these wonderful -little myriad messenger boys of the universe!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">- 111 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Don't imagine, for all I've talked so long about them, that I've -told you everything there is to know about the crystal fairies. -For example, did you know that if it wasn't for the crystal people -we wouldn't have any ice? (<i>Ice.</i>)</p> - -<p>You will also find that if it wasn't for ice—ice and the Greeks—we -wouldn't have the word "crystal" at all. (<i>Crystal.</i>)</p> - -<p>One of the most striking things in the whole conduct of these -clever crystal folks you will find in reading about ice. If it wasn't -for a peculiar—a very peculiar—habit the ice crystals have, all -the waters of the world that ever freeze at all, would freeze solid -to the bottom and never <i>would</i> thaw out!</p> - -<p>I'll tell you this much about it:</p> - -<p>While everything else in the world—including boys and girls—contracts -when it gets cold, ice expands, and so becomes lighter -than water, and so floats.</p> - -<p>And yet the ice crystals know how to contract as well as expand, -and that's why ice sometimes builds stone walls, as we will see -when we come to study "The Stones of the Field" in July.</p> - -<p>Shaking still water that is cold enough to freeze but hasn't frozen -makes the crystal fairies get very busy in their ice factories. And -it looks very much as if the fairies themselves warmed up with -their work; for, after this shaking, the temperature of the water -rises ten degrees at the very same time it is freezing!</p> - -<p>You will also find that when the weather is cold enough ice itself -freezes, gets harder and harder with the cold; that ice will melt -ice; that two blocks of ice will grow into one if you give them a -chance; that ice crystals are apt to be born twins; that these twin -crystals are fond of gardening—at least, they raise "ice flowers"; -that the ice crystals are so punctual in their coming and going in -water that they are used to help place the markings on thermometers -just right, so that we can tell exactly how cold or hot we are.</p> - -<p>All this just about the crystals of the ice, but the work of the -crystal people in making snowflakes is even more wonderful. In -the bound volumes of St. Nicholas for March, 1882, in your Public -Library you will find a most interesting account of a man in Vermont -who began studying snowflakes and taking their pictures -when he was a boy. He's known all over the world as the great -authority on snowflakes. In the Encyclopedia Americana you -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">- 112 -</span> -will find a long article by him in which he tells the many interesting -things he has learned about the ways of the fairies of the snow -And how many pictures do you suppose he has in his snowflake -gallery now? Over a thousand, and no two alike!</p> - -<p>Just to think! Some of these wonderful little people of the -fairyland of change sit at the table with us at every meal—the -sugar crystals. And they are among the most interesting members -of the family. Under the word <i>Sugar</i> you will find that the -sugar crystals themselves eat and grow. But what do you suppose -they eat? Not sugar. (You may easily guess, however, they have -a sweet tooth.)</p> - -<p>Yes, and at their home table, before they come to <i>your</i> home -table, they have their regular meals, and they are not allowed a -second helping until they have eaten the first!</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">Answers to Conundrums in H. & S. No. 4</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>The east and west rivers in California were there before the -mountains rose and so cut their way through; while the north and -south rivers between the ranges owe their origin to the mountains -themselves.</p> - -<p>The big twin river referred to is the Euphrates.</p> - -<p>The greatest falls in the world are the Victoria Falls on the -Zambesi.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">- 113 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(JUNE)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">The rivers laugh in the valley,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Hills dreaming of their past,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And all things silently opening—</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Opening into the Vast.</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">That pebble is older than Adam,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Secrets it hath to tell.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">These rocks—they cry out history,</div> - <div class="verse indent2">Could I but listen well.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>William C. Gannet</i>: "<i>Sunday on the Hill-Top</i>."</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE SECRETS OF THE HILLS</p> - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. In the Bad Land Library</span></p> - -<p>It has been said<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> that crystals are dreaming of life, they -act so like living things. We may imagine the crystals in -the granite rocks which first came into being with the -cooling of the fire globe, dreaming out the long procession -of life and change that followed them.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> John Burroughs: "The Breath of Life."</p> - -</div> - -<p>But what nightmares they must have had when they -foresaw such creatures as the one on <a href="#Page_23">page 23</a>, that grotesque, -that unbelievable combination of bird and beast, -the cerotosaurus! The bones of such monsters are one of -the most astonishing secrets of the hills.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">- 114 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">DIFFERENT KINDS OF MOUNTAINS</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg114" style="width: 506px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg114.png" width="506" height="341" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE BAD LANDS GOT THEIR NAME</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>"The Bad Lands are so called because they are bad for travelling—that is, if -you're in anything of a hurry!"</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>The Bad Lands of South Dakota, in which, as in other -parts of our great West, so many bones of the ancients -have been found, got their name because they are so bad -for travelling; that is to say, if you are in anything of a -hurry. But if you are just looking around—during your -vacation, in June, say—they are anything but bad lands. -They are full of interesting secrets. This secret of the -ancient bones is only one of them. Another thing they -lead us into is the secret history of the hills themselves; -and as this particular book is mainly about the face of the -earth, the story back of the landscape, as it appears to the -traveller, we shall give the rest of this chapter to the origin -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">- 115 -</span> -of the Hill family, using the word "hill" in its broadest -sense. If you have looked it up in the dictionary you -have found that what people call a "hill" depends a good -deal on where they are. The Bad Lands are really hills; -but in South Dakota, where these particular bad lands -are, they also have what they call the Black Hills, which -are really mountains, because they "mounted" to get -where they are.<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> They wrinkled up, just as the continents -themselves did, when they came out of the sea. -Most of the great mountain systems of the world were -made in this way, but table-lands may be so cut up by -streams in course of time that they look like mountains.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> Mr. Pebble did not mean to say, I am sure, that the word "mountain" -comes from "mount," used in the sense of rising. The original -of the word mountain comes from the language of the People of the -Seven Hills, the Romans, and means a great mass of rock or earth that -sticks up.—<i>Translator.</i></p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg115" style="width: 509px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg115.png" width="509" height="307" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>Painted by Dewitt Parshall. In the possession of the Metropolitan Museum of Art</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE CATSKILLS IN A MIST</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">- 116 -</span></p> - -<p>The Catskill Mountains are of this type, while real mountains -may be so worn down that you would take them -for plains. You see, with the Hills and the Mountains, -as with other royal families, it isn't the importance of the -individual that counts, but the ancestry.</p> - -<p>Another kind of real mountain, beside the folded-up -kind, is the mountain that is made where a rocky plain is -split up into great stone blocks by the movements of the -earth crust, as it settles around the shrinking centre. In -the settling and crushing together of the rock cover around -the shrinking ball within, some of the blocks drop down, -and the blocks that are left sticking up make cliffs. Mountain -ranges so made have long, gentle slopes on the side -opposite the cliffs. Then there are volcanic mountains. -Fujiyama, the sacred mountain of Japan, is one of these.</p> - -<p>Mountains are also formed where the molten rock on -the inside of the earth is forced up under layers of rock -nearer the surface. This lifts these rock layers into domes. -In the course of time the rivers and the weather wear -away the overlying rocks, leaving the hard central core -standing out. Harder layers of the overlying rock, wearing -down less rapidly than the other layers, often stand -out as circular ridges with valleys in between, so that the -central core looks like some old ring master at a circus. -The Bear Paw Mountains and the Little Snowies of Montana -are mountains of this type.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHERE MOUNTAINS GET THEIR PEAKS</p> - -<p>Most mountain peaks, except those of the volcanoes, -are remnants of hard rock which have been left standing -while the rivers and the weather cut away the softer rock -around them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">- 117 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg117" style="width: 508px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg117.png" width="508" height="334" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">IN THE HIMALAYAS THEY MIGHT CALL THESE "HILLS"</p> - -<p>High as these mountains are—we are right on the roof of the Rockies—if they -were in the Himalayas they might be called "hills," because there the scenery grows -so much taller. What does the sharpness of the peaks say as to the age of these -mountains? Compared with the Appalachians, for example?</p> - - -<p>In regions of gently rolling country even small hummocks -are sometimes called "mountains," while out West, where -scenery grows so tall, the Black Hills seem to the people -only stepping-stones to the big Rockies. So they call -them "hills." In the region of the Himalaya Mountains—mountains -that don't think anything, you remember, -of climbing up 16,000 to 30,000 feet in the air—a peak of -10,000 feet is often called a "hill."</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. Hills That Were Moved In</span></p> - -<p>Nearly every region has hills, because every region has -or has had running streams and the streams have carved -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">- 118 -</span> -out the hills. But there are kinds of hills that aren't -home-made; they were made elsewhere and moved in. I -believe this is the biggest hill secret of all, speaking of -hills proper and not of mountains.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg118" style="width: 502px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg118.png" width="502" height="275" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of Ginn and Company</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">KAME SCENERY IN NEW YORK STATE</p> - - -<p>Almost all over the northern part of North America, -as well as much of Europe and Asia, there are mounds, -heaps, and hills of various shapes and sizes made up of -a mixture of pebbles, sand, and clay. In the United -States these heaps make a big line of hills, like a procession -of ancient Indian chiefs, with bowed heads and stooped -shoulders, plodding back to the land of their fathers. And, -sure enough, there they go from down East clear across -country to the far West and then up North, where, as we -know, these hill-moving giants, the glaciers, came from.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> -For, beginning with Perth Amboy, N. J., say, you will -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">- 119 -</span> -find them marching on through Elmira, N. Y., skirting -the suburbs of Cincinnati, winding their way through -Indiana and Iowa up through Wisconsin to the Dakotas -and Montana, and so back into Canada.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> Did you suspect the giants of this chapter were our old friends the -glaciers of the Ice Age, when I first began talking about them?</p> - -</div> - -<p>When the geologists first began digging into these hills -they not only found them as full of pebbles as a Christmas -pudding is full of plums, but the pebbles were of all kinds—sandstone, -limestone, slate, granite.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">JACK FROST DIDN'T DO IT!</p> - -<p>"These different pieces of stone didn't come from the -breaking up by frost of the rock beds on which we now -find them," said Some Wise Man, "for then they would -all have been of the same kind of rock."</p> - -<p>"And besides," said Some Wise Man No. 2, "they would -not have been shaped into pebbles with the edges rounded -off, as all pebbles are by the waves of lakes or the sea or -the water of flowing streams. So these pebbles must have -come from somewhere else."</p> - -<p>"Yes, and a long way off," remarked Some Wise Man -No. 3; "for look, there aren't any rock beds anywhere -around here from which some of these pebbles could have -been made."</p> - -<p>"True enough," said Wise Man No. 4, "and I know -what brought these little foreigners. It was a great flood; -for water moves not only pebbles and clay, but, in times -of flood, good-sized cobblestones."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHAT IS MEANT BY THE "DRIFT" THEORY</p> - -<p>So, for a long time, it was believed that the material in -these hills was drifted in by the waters. This was called -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">- 120 -</span> -the "drift" theory, and, although it is now known that -this theory was not the true one, such heaps of clay and -stones are still called "drift."</p> - -<p>But the learned men kept on digging into the question -and into the hills, and finally more things were observed.</p> - -<p>"Did you notice this?" said one. "The material is not -separated into layers and divided up into coarse, finer, -finest as the sediment of pebbles, sand, and mud is separated -and divided when it settles along shores. These -pebbles, this sand and clay, are all mixed up."</p> - -<p>"Look at this, will you?" (Here imagine a Learned -Somebody picking up a pebble with a scratched face -like mine.) "Water never scratched anything like that. -Here are a lot more of these pebbles, all with their faces -scratched."</p> - -<p>"And just see how all these scratched pebbles have flat -faces," cried another of these famous grown-up boys in -these great field excursions. "It looks to me as if they -had been ground against something hard—another rock, -say; and for a long time."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE QUESTION WAS FINALLY SETTLED</p> - -<p>Well, to make a long story short, they found that the -glaciers of the Ice Age, those great bodies of flowing ice, -were the only things that could have brought all this material -together from such widely separated regions (as shown -by the different kinds of pebbles), and left them all mixed -up as they were; and the faces of many pebbles scratched -and flattened where they had been ground along.</p> - -<p>And then, to put the question entirely beyond dispute, -they find that the glaciers are carrying down pebbles and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">- 121 -</span> -stuff in just this way to-day, and piling it up in hills in the -valleys at the foot of the mountains. Only the hills of -to-day are much smaller, because the glaciers themselves -are so small compared with the giants of the past.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg121" style="width: 505px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg121.png" width="505" height="433" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE OLD MEN MOVED THE HILL FURNITURE ABOUT</p> - -<p>This picture of a glacier in Alaska shows you just how the Old Men of the Mountain -moved the hills about, that time. As indicated by the white lines—which, of -course, were added to the picture for the purpose—the Alaska glacier melted back, -leaving just such heaps of pebbles, boulders, and soil as made certain types of hills. -Then from 1910 to 1913 it advanced again, thus picking up the very hills it had -laid down and setting them farther along, just as the glaciers did in the Ice Age.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE HILL FURNITURE WAS MOVED ABOUT</p> - -<p>During the Ice Age, when glaciers were all the fashion, -they flowed down, and then, as we have seen, melted back -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">- 122 -</span> -a certain distance; then they flowed down again. Sometimes -in later visits they flowed further than before, and -in so doing, you see, picked up some of the very hills they -had previously laid down and set them along somewhere -else. Sometimes we find different rows of hills, one right -alongside the other. This shows where the glacier melted -away toward the mountains, paused, then melted again -and so on, each time leaving a group of hills and not coming -back there and disturbing them any more.</p> - -<p>Such hills as we have been speaking of may be steep or -gentle, and from a few feet to more than 1,000 feet high, -although they are seldom as high as 1,000 feet.</p> - -<p>And there are other kinds of hills made by the glaciers. -One of the most curious of these remind you of the serpent -mounds left by the mound builders in Ohio. These hills -are the deposits left by the streams, the veins inside the -glacier's great body. The soil in them is also apt to be in -layers like the deposits of other rivers. These hills wind -along like serpents, because they reproduce the bends in -the streams inside the glacier. Such hills are called "eskers." -They are seldom more than a few rods wide and 10 -feet or so in height. They run for 10, 20, 40, 50, and -sometimes 100 miles.</p> - -<p>Around Boston, and all along Cape Cod and in parts -of New York and Wisconsin, you will see other hills called -"drumlins"; and you will see plenty of them, too. It is -estimated that there are 6,000 in western New York and -5,000 in southern Wisconsin, and they are all around Boston. -Bunker Hill is a drumlin. You wouldn't have to -tell an Irish boy what "drumlin" means, as they have -these hills in Ireland, too, and from Ireland came the -name. The word means "little hill."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">- 123 -</span></p> - -<p>But while Mr. Glacier made the drumlins of the stuff -he brought with him, he enjoyed himself (at least let -us hope so) tobogganing on hills he found ready made. -These hills are real mountains; usually the granite heart -of the mountain, because only a very strong rock could -stand having one of these playful giants riding over him -and live to tell the tale. Such glacier "slides" are referred -to as "domes" or "round tops" or "bald mountains."</p> - -<p>Mr. Agassiz, the great scientist who spent so many -years studying the motion of glaciers, could tell from the -height of one of these bald and rounded hills how high the -glacier was that rode over it. For instance, the glaciers -rode over what is known as Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania, -which is 1,500 feet high. "Then," Mr. Agassiz -would have said, "the glaciers that did that must have -been at least 2,000 feet thick; for a glacier can only flow -over a rocky mass when it is half as tall again as the rock."</p> - -<p>You see it is the mass of it, the pressure of its own weight, -that boosts the glacier up the slide. It seems almost like -lifting oneself by one's boot-straps, doesn't it?</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">III. The Ants and the Volcanoes</span></p> - -<p>Beside all the hills we have mentioned there are several -others, well worth looking into; ant-hills, for example, not -only because ants are so interesting in themselves but -because the ants helped to answer what for a long time -was one of the puzzles of science, "How are volcanoes -made?"</p> - -<p>When your mother's mother went to school—or it may -have been back in your mother's mother's mother's time—a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">- 124 -</span> -little girl, on being asked in the geography class, -"What is a volcano?" was expected to say something like -this:</p> - -<p>"Please, teacher, it's a mountain with a hole in it."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg124" style="width: 508px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg124.png" width="508" height="364" alt="" /> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg125" style="width: 504px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg125.png" width="504" height="364" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From a photograph. Copyright by W. P. Romans</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">SACRED FUJIYAMA AND ITS COUNTERPART<br /> - FOUR THOUSAND MILES AWAY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>On the top is the famous Fujiyama, the sacred mountain of Japan, and on the bottom -Mount Rainier in the State of Washington. Although they are more than four -thousand miles apart, the two volcanoes look as if they had been cast in the -same mould, owing to the uniform system by which volcanoes are built up.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">THE WISE MEN AND THE ANT CRATERS</p> - -<p>It does look it, doesn't it? But, what is still more -striking, it <i>isn't</i> a mountain with a hole in it at all, if you -mean, as the little girl in the geography class meant, that -it was once an ordinary mountain and then had a hole -put through it. For a long time it was thought that volcanoes -were simply mountains through which fire and lava -from the interior had forced its way. Finally, however, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">- 125 -</span> -some scientist thought perhaps of his Proverbs 6:6. In -any event wise as he must have been—how else could he -have been a scientist?—he went to the ant, learned her -ways and became wiser. It was by noticing how the ants -build their little craters with the sand and clay they carry -from their underground homes that men got the idea that -volcanoes may be built up in much the same way. So -they set to observing Mr. Volcano's habits more closely, -and sure enough, the ant had told the answer! The stones, -lava, cinders, and the stone dust called "volcanic ash" -are shot out by the explosion, and coming down in showers -pile around the opening, as the ant piles the pellets around -the entrance to her nest. As the explosions keep on the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">- 126 -</span> -crater is piled higher and higher, and the stones, cinders, -and things, rolling down the sides, spread the pile out at -the bottom, much as the ant drops pellets over the edge -of her growing pile, and so both the cone-like ant-hill and -the big volcanic cone are built up.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHY THE VOLCANO DOES NOT SMOKE</p> - -<p>But here is something about volcanoes that will surprise -most people. They throw mud, they throw stones, -but they don't smoke. What we call smoke is the steam -that makes—or at least helps make—the explosion. It -often has the color of brown smoke because of the rock -which has been blown into dust. Neither do volcanoes -make "ashes." What is called "ash" is this rock powder, -made when the rocks are blown into pieces by the sudden -expansion of the water in them into steam.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHY VOLCANOES SEEM TO FLAME</p> - -<p>Neither do volcanoes flame, although they are supposed -to. Only rarely does flame issue from a volcano, and then -only to a moderate extent, due to the burning of the -hydrogen gas. What seem to be huge flames are the lights -from the molten lava in the crater shining back on the -steam clouds above; and these apparent flames rise and -fall and vary in brightness because of the rise and fall of -the lava.</p> - -<p>But the greatest of volcanic eruptions—that is, the welling -up of melted rock from within the earth—have not -built cones. The lava spread out into vast plains in India -and Abyssinia and in our northwestern coast States. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">- 127 -</span> -Great cracks in the earth cross one another. It is at the -crossroads that the volcanoes are apt to form, while out -of the cracks leading up to these crossroads the lava spreads -in sheets. Mount Shasta began at one of these traffic -centres. It is a big brother of the landscape which it -overlooks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg127" style="width: 332px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg127.png" width="332" height="474" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">"BUT VOLCANOES DO NOT SMOKE!"</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is an eruption of Vesuvius. You would think it was throwing out smoke -like a gigantic locomotive, wouldn't you, if you hadn't read the text? The darker -masses, which look so much like mingled smoke and steam, are shadows. It is -probably eight to ten miles high—that cloud.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Lava, before it cools and for some centuries afterward, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">- 128 -</span> -is the last thing you would think of farming on, perhaps, -but leave it to the little chemists of the water and the air -and it will decay into the richest land you ever saw. That -is why they raise the finest wheat and the best fruit in the -world right in the parts of Washington and Oregon that -were once covered by the lava flood.</p> - -<p>Not only do volcanoes help to supply us with food by -making rich soil of the eruptions of the past, but all life -might disappear from the earth if they didn't go on exploding.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg128" style="width: 526px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg128.png" width="526" height="408" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">HOW VOLCANOES BLOW BUBBLES</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The surface of lava is apt to bubble like hot mush; and for a similar reason, the -expansion of the gases within it. (In the case of the mush it is the mixture of -gases we call "air.") When such lava cools you have sponge-like masses such as -this.</p> -</div> - - -<p>Plants must have carbon and they get it from the air, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">- 129 -</span> -but the amount of it in proportion to their needs is never -large. Moreover, every bit of coal that is formed—and -coal is being made to-day just as it was in the coal ages, -although not in such quantities—takes carbon from the -air and locks it up. Every bit of limestone deposited on -the floor of the sea locks up more carbon. But, fortunately, -immense quantities of carbon are given back to -the air through the gases thrown out by volcanoes, thus -offsetting these losses.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg129" style="width: 507px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg129.png" width="507" height="399" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From a photograph by the American Museum of Natural History</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">ROCKS AND BOMBS THROWN BY MOUNT PELÉE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Look at these giant rocks thrown out by Mount Pelée in 1902. Compare them -with the man and you will realize how big they are. The rounded rocks in the -foreground are volcanic "bombs"—masses of lava discharged by successive outbursts -of volcanic gases and given their shape by being whirled through the air.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">- 130 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg130" style="width: 503px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg130.png" width="503" height="350" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">WHEN IS A VOLCANO DEAD?</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is Mount Rainier with its shroud of snow, reflected in Mirror Lake. To -all appearances it is as dead as dead can be; but until after a volcano goes off you -never can be entirely sure whether it is dead or not; and then, of course, you know -it isn't!</p> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">WHEN IS A VOLCANO REALLY DEAD?</p> - -<p>When is a volcano dead? You never can tell. A volcano -goes off when it wants to, quite regardless of the fact -that it has had the reputation for a thousand years of being -dead. And the worst of it is volcanoes are like guns—only -more so. A gun doesn't shoot any harder because it -wasn't supposed to be loaded; but the volcano, if it breaks -out unexpectedly, is violent in proportion to the length of -time it has been apparently dead. This is the reason. -The original vent becomes plugged up with the cooled -lava. This plug being harder than the rest of the mountain, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">- 131 -</span> -the next outbreak is forced to take a new course, -and the longer the forces of explosion are held back the -greater the accumulation of energy and the more violent -the discharge.</p> - -<p>But why do volcanoes go off at all? Why can't they be -quiet and well-behaved like other mountains? Nobody -knows for sure. On one thing all scientific men seem to -be now agreed; namely, that while the rocks inside the -earth are hot enough to melt they are hard as steel, owing -to the tremendous pressure of the rocks above them, and -one theory about volcanic eruptions is that they are caused -by the release of the pressure on this rock in one place and -a pressing down in another, as the earth's crust settles and -crumples around the centre. Some of this rock—that on -which the pressure is released—melts and rises under the -folds of rising rock, and so makes the granite hearts of the -greater mountains. Some of it wells up through the cracks -in the rock and spreads in lava fields, while some of it -gushes up and explodes at the points where cracks cross -and so make volcanoes.</p> - -<p>This is one theory, but there are others. The latest is -so big that we will have to take it into the mind in sections.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE LATEST THEORY OF ERUPTIONS</p> - -<p>1. Imagine the interior of the earth divided into three -zones. The central zone, of course, is the hottest. Between -this central zone and the zone reaching down forty -miles or so from the surface is a middle zone. (Think of a -doughnut ball inside a doughnut ring, with space between -the ball and ring. That will give you the idea.)</p> - -<p>2. From what is known of the laws of heat it is assumed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">- 132 -</span> -that the flow of heat from the central to the middle zone -is greater than the loss of heat from the central to the -outer zone. Thus the heat income of the middle zone -would constantly exceed its outlay, and so it would get -hotter and hotter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg132" style="width: 500px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg132.png" width="500" height="466" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE MYSTERIOUS SHAFT OF MOUNT PELÉE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>In 1902, after the first explosion, Mount Pelée continued its eruptions for several -months, and in the late stages there slowly rose, through the crater, this strange -shaft of red-hot lava, like a great iron beam forged by giant hammers in Vulcan's -famous blacksmith-shop. As it rose it crumbled and finally fell to pieces. It was -forced up by the gases beneath and shaped by the crater through which it came; -but can you conceive of anything more weird and awesome?</p> -</div> - - -<p>3. This middle zone is made up of different kinds of -rock that require different degrees of heat to melt them. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">- 133 -</span> -So some parts of this zone would melt and form pockets of -liquid rock, while other parts were still unmelted.</p> - -<p>4. These masses of liquid rock would also tend to melt -their own way upward, especially when given a lift by -gases; for gases would be given off, also, in this heating -and melting process, and tend to work their way toward -the surface, carrying with them the liquid rock.</p> - -<p>5. Now the greater the pressure under which a thing is -kept the more difficult it becomes for it to flow; the less -the pressure the more easily it flows and the longer it -remains in the fluid state. So as it rose fluid rock would -require less heat to keep it fluid and would have more heat -left over for melting its way up. Then, being joined by -other fluid travelers, the entire mass would finally come -to a crack in the earth. Finally, you see, it would be -only a matter of five miles or so of comparatively clear -track up to the land of the fresh air and the blue sky where -the rest of us live and where the volcanologists (the men -who make a special study of volcanoes) would be waiting -to give it welcome!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE VOLCANOES AND THE SEA</p> - -<p>If you will locate with red ink the volcanoes on the -world map you will notice that volcanoes, like mountains, -seem fond of the sea. Moreover, while a large proportion -of mountain chains are near sea water, and some even dip -their feet into it, volcanoes bob up right in the seas themselves. -Not only do the land volcanoes make a great circle -of fire 22,000 miles long around the rim of the Pacific, -but within this immense amphitheater are the islands of -our story books "scattered in pleiads" over the ocean. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">- 134 -</span> -These islands are simply the tops of sea volcanoes. Of -all the active volcanoes, the great majority are on islands -or along the borders of continents.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg134" style="width: 464px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg134.png" width="464" height="401" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">ON THE FIRING-LINES OF THE VOLCANOES</p> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">THE MOUNTAINS AND THE SEA</p> - -<p>Last of all in this story of the secrets of the hills, let us -speak of the big brothers of the family—the mountains.</p> - -<p>You remember in the story of how the continents came -up out of the sea about wise old Xenophanes of Colophon, -who figured out that the mountains must at one time have -been under the sea and why he thought so, don't you? -(<a href="#Page_13">page 13</a>). Now get your geography and come here a moment; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">- 135 -</span> -I want to show you something else. Turn to the -map of North America. Where are the great mountain -chains? Nearly all along the borders of the sea. Now -look at the map of South America, and where are the -mountains? Along the borders of the sea. Then take -Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and you see the same -thing. Usually the main mountain chains are along the -sea border or they stand near the borders of what was -once a sea; as in case of the Rocky Mountains.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg135" style="width: 348px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg135.png" width="348" height="246" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of -Ginn and Company</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">A BABY MOUNTAIN THAT STOPPED TO REST</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>A mountain, as you can readily imagine, isn't made in a day. Here is a little -mountain near Hancock, Virginia, that started up ages ago and then stopped to -rest; one of the ripples in which the great Appalachian waves died away. This -baby mountain has no granite mass in its centre, as big mountains have, because -the wrinkling didn't reach down far enough into the earth to release the pressure -on the molten rock.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>Why should mountains show such a fancy for salt water? -It seems strange, doesn't it? I know why it is because I -helped make a mountain myself once—up on the Canada -Coast it was—and I learned a good deal of the mountains -and their ways. I will tell you about the mountains and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">- 136 -</span> -the sea a little later; after I have told you some other -things. First of all, this is how the Granite family helped -make mountains. As the great stone sides of the mountain -rise the enormous pressure on the melted rock farther -down in the earth is released, and is forced up under the -mountain as it rises. Then, cooling, it crystallizes into -granite, as explained on <a href="#Page_131">page 131</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg136" style="width: 453px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg136.png" width="453" height="133" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">MOUNTAINS MADE TO ORDER</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Of course nobody ever watched a mountain crumpling up in the way mountains -are believed to crumple up, the process is so slow. Yet, to try out the theory, -geologists in the universities make layers of different material, corresponding to -the strata of different kinds of stone, and then subject this composition to pressure -at both ends, as the earth crust is supposed to be pressed in the crumpling process. -The result is that these artificial strata take similar forms to those we see in mountain -rock. And that's the answer!</p> - -<p>Notice the similarity of the rock wrinkles in the baby mountain in Virginia and -these imitation mountains of the laboratory.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">WHY MOUNTAINS RUN NORTH AND SOUTH</p> - -<p>Look at your relief map once more. Which way do the -mountains run in North America? In South America? -In Africa? They all run in a general north and south -direction, don't they? Do you see why? The fact that -they were made along the coasts of the oceans would make -them run north and south, too, wouldn't it? The same -thing explains why the Alps do not run north and south. -They were made by the sinking of a sea that runs east -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">- 137 -</span> -and west, and so they started out to run east and west, -too; then they got a wrench, the particulars of which we -need not go into here, and were much mixed up, as we -find them to-day.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHAT HAPPENED WHEN THE EARTH SLOWED UP</p> - -<p>But there is another thing that may have helped to -make many great mountains run north and south. Bedtime -and sunrise used to come a good deal oftener than -they do now, for then the earth turned faster on its axis. -It turned fastest of all at the equator, just as it does to-day. -So the lands in the equatorial belt were pulled up -and the belt enlarged. Then, as the speed of the globe -slackened, the enlarged belt began to wrinkle because -there was not the same amount of centrifugal or "fly-away-from-the-centre" -force to make it stand out. So -wrinkles came at right angles to the belt, just as do the -waist gathers in a dress.</p> - -<p>And now about the mystery of the mountains and the -sea. When we visit the rock mills of the sea along in -October<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> we shall notice, among other things, that the -rock is made along the sea border, and that the coarsest -sediment settles nearest the land. As a result this part -of the deposit is built up faster than that farther off shore, -and as it gets heavier and heavier it sinks. The deposits -farther away from the shore sink, also, but more slowly -because these deposits are not piled up so fast. Now, if -you come down on one end of a seesaw what happens to -the other end? It goes up, doesn't it? The effect of this -sinking of the rocks of the sea upon the rocks of the adjoining -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">- 138 -</span> -land is something like that. The rocks that make the -continents extend out under the sea, and the weight of the -newly laid stone on the sea margin end not only tips the -rock beds up, but, sinking in toward the continental mass, -wrinkles it up, as the pages of this book will wrinkle if -you push them from the front edge. So you get your -mountains along the sea border. And they are in parallel -ranges, because the land is crumpled up into several folds, -like a table-cloth pushed from one side.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> <a href="#CHAPTER_X">Chagter X</a>, "The Autumn Winds and the Rock Mills of the Sea."</p> - -</div> - -<p>"But," you say, "how about the Rocky Mountains? -And the Carpathian Mountains in Europe, not to mention -several others? <i>They</i> are not on the borders of the sea."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHY SOME MOUNTAINS ARE FAR FROM THE SEA</p> - -<p>That's no sign they weren't near a sea border at some -time. Let me just ask you. Suppose you found that most -of the great mountain chains are on the borders of seas, -and suppose you had figured out the reasons I have just -been giving, then what would you do if you found a few -mountains far back from the sea? You would probably -try to find how they got moved back, wouldn't you? -That's just what <i>other</i> men of science did. A study of the -rocks of the mountains themselves and other things bearing -on the question goes to show that since the mountains -were made the sea might have retired from regions where -it had previously advanced, as it did in the case of the -Mississippi Valley, or the land may have risen between -these mountains and the sea. Moreover, the down wash -from the mountains themselves sometimes builds wide -lands, which, as they extend and shut back the sea, leave -the mountains farther and farther away. Much of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">- 139 -</span> -land extending east from the base of the Rocky Mountains -was made in this way. The Mississippi Valley was for -ages, you know (<a href="#Page_10">page 10</a>) the Mediterranean Sea of North -America, lying in the downward fold of our continent -between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachians.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg139" style="width: 488px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg139.png" width="488" height="246" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From the painting by David James</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE WAVE</p> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">WHY SEA WAVES RISE TO GREET THE MOUNTAINS</p> - -<p>One of the strangest, most poetic phases of the relation -between the great blue mountains and the great blue sea -is that waves, as they approach the shores of continents -bordered by mountain ranges, rise higher and higher; -and the higher the mountains, the higher rise the waves. -These waves are not driven by wind or tide but seem drawn -forward by some strange power. This power, however, is -no stranger than the one that makes us fall and bump our -noses when we stub our toes—the power of gravitation, -according to which all masses attract each other. It is the -mass in the mountains that exerts a pull on the waves; -and the greater the mountains the greater the pull, of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">- 140 -</span> -course. In the Indian Ocean, for example, around the -head of the Arabian Sea, the waves rise far above sea -level, largely because there is beyond them, on the land, -one of the greatest mountain masses in the world.</p> - -<p>Wouldn't it give you a queer feeling if you were, say, a -sailor, and for the first time saw waves act like that? -Uncanny, almost, isn't it?</p> - -<p>But do the mountains remember their old parent of the -white flowing rocks and beard, Father Neptune? They -act as if they did; particularly in the way in which they -come to imitate, in time, the shape of the waves of the sea.</p> - -<p>Ruskin,<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> speaking to artists about drawing mountains, -says:</p> - -<p>"Good and intelligent mountain drawing recognizes a -great harmony among the summits and their tendency to -throw themselves into waves, closely resembling those of -the sea itself; sometimes in free tossing toward the sky, -but more frequently in the form of breakers, concave and -steep on one side, convex and less steep on the other."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> "Modern Painters," Chapter IV.</p> - -</div> - -<p>When you stand some day on one of the high peaks of -the Rocky Mountains, and look out over the great fields of -upheaved stone, you will notice how closely the parallel -ridges resemble ranks of waves making toward a shore. -Like sea waves also, the vast backs of these waves of stone -are long and sloping, while their fronts are comparatively -short and much steeper. Another thing that makes you -feel as if you were looking out upon a sea whose waves had -been changed to stone is the fact that these stone waves -are not only green but have white caps; for in the valleys, -and far up the sides of the mountains, are the forests with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">- 141 -</span> -the perennial green of their pines, and on the peaks the -eternal snows.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg141" style="width: 543px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg141.png" width="543" height="285" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">"AND EVERY TOSSING OF THEIR BOUNDLESS CRESTS"</p> -</div> - - -<p>Not only is the mounting and forward drive of waves -repeated in mountain forms, but also the whirlpools among -the rocks when sea waves reach the shore. Says the -famous French geographer, Reclus<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>:</p> - -<p>"The centre of the Pyrenees resembles a great whirlpool -around which the mountains rise like enormous waves."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> "The Earth."</p> - -</div> - -<p>Finally we might imagine that the mountains, like the -mountain streams, hear the call of the sea and are stirred -by it. For, again to quote from Ruskin's wonderful chapter -on the nature of the thing we call a mountain:</p> - -<p>"Behold as we look farther into it, it is all touched and -troubled. The rock trembles through its every fibre, like -the chords of an Æolian harp—like the stillest air of spring -with the echoes of a child's voice. Into the heart of all -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">- 142 -</span> -those great mountains and through every tossing of their -boundless crests and deep beneath all their unfathomable -defiles, flows that strange quivering of their substance.</p> - -<p>"'I beheld the mountains and lo they trembled; and all -the hills moved lightly.'"</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg142" style="width: 522px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg142.png" width="522" height="347" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of Ginn and Company</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">"THAT STRANGE QUIVERING OF THEIR SUBSTANCE"</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This picture shows mountain-peaks carved in folded strata in the Rocky Mountains -in Montana. How well it illustrates Ruskin's grand lines.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Of course you saw that the Greeks meant the story of Phaeton -to account, among other things, for the origin of deserts, but what -is there in it that would lead one to believe the Greeks knew there -were such things as volcanoes? Read what the encyclopedia says -about volcanoes and Vulcan and the physical geography of Greece -and the Greek islands.</p> - -<p>Where is Mount Stromboli and why is it called "The Lighthouse -of the Mediterranean"?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">- 143 -</span></p> - -<p>On which of our coasts do we have young and growing mountains, -and on which old mountains that are much worn down?</p> - -<p>Did you ever notice, on your map of Europe, how the curve of -the Carpathian Mountains follows the curve of the shore of the -beautiful Adriatic Sea so far away?<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> What does that remind you -of in the story of the relation between the mountains and the sea?</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> How far away is it? The scale of miles on your map will tell.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>"Yes," you say, "but if mountains are formed on the borders -of the sea why are the Carpathians so far from the Adriatic; and -the Alps so far from the Mediterranean and the Rocky Mountains -of America and the Altai mountains of Asia so far away from any -sea at all?"</p> - -<p>Professor Heilprin<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> knew you would say that; at least I suppose -he did, for he has explained all this in his little book, written especially -for young people, "The Earth and Its Story." After you -have read this part of the story write it out in your own words -and then copy it into your notebook. You might call your own -story, "How Mountains are Moved Back from the Sea."</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> Professor of Geology in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>What mountains do the waves of the Indian Ocean rise to salute? -How do they compare in size with other mountains that you -know of?</p> - -<p>How does the carbon in the gases of volcanoes get into the -plants?</p> - -<p>What does it say in Proverbs 6:6 that might remind one of the -fact that the ants helped solve the puzzle as to how volcanoes are -made?</p> - -<p>As to the hills that were moved in, a Wisconsin writer, who has, -among other things, written delightfully of his companionship -with the rocks and hills of his State<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> tells about sinking a well -132 feet deep on his farm, and going through this imported scenery -all the way.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Charles D Stewart, "Essays on the Spot."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>"Somewhere down there," he says, "if I had kept on going I -should have struck the original Wisconsin."</p> - -<p>And why not be an author yourself? Start a little book of -science of your own and learn to make notes on interesting things -you have been reading about. For instance, put in it now some -of the different things we have learned about the wonder-workers -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">- 144 -</span> -of the Ice Age, up to and including this chapter. Call what you -write "The Story of the Old Men of the Mountain." At the end -of the part you write now you can put "To be continued," just as -they do in a story paper; for we are not through with the work of -the old men, as you will see.</p> - -<p>How did Rome get its seven hills? (You know it was called -The City of the Seven Hills.)</p> - -<p>The Bible quotation in Ruskin about the trembling of the mountains -is from Jeremiah 4:24. How grand it sounds, doesn't it? -Like the music of a pipe organ. The Bible has many references -to "hills" and mountains. Here are some of the most striking: -Psalms 114:4; Exodus 20:18; Deut. 5:23; Rev. 8:8; Micah 1:4; -Isaiah 54:10.</p> - -<p>Where are the most famous of the Bad Lands of our Western -States? Those of South Dakota are perhaps the strangest. -Among other strange things is the fact that some of the hills were -set on fire by rain—goodness knows how long ago—and these hills -are like gigantic stoves for the cattle, who never fail to collect -around them on bleak days.</p> - -<p>In the article on South Dakota in the Britannica you'll learn all -about how the rain started the fire. Then perhaps you will want -to look up "spontaneous combustion" and "iron pyrites."</p> - -<p>Aren't those ancient monsters whose bones they find in the hills -comical looking creatures—now that we are several million years -safely away from them? The comic artists (of pen and pencil) are -always having fun with them. Arthur Guiterman, for instance, -in picturing what spring must have been like in those old days:</p> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Go-dum, bally hoosh!" is the note of the Icthyosaurus.</div> - <div class="verse indent2">"Notorum-dorando!" the blithe Hippocampus replies.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">"Chin-chin-orizaba-pelote!" rings the jubilant chorus</div> - <div class="verse indent3">Of sweet Pterodactyls that wing the cerulean skies.<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> "The Laughing Muse."</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">- 145 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg145" style="width: 508px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg145.png" width="508" height="304" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">ON A NEW ENGLAND HILL</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Great lumps of pudding the giants threw,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">They tumbled about like rain."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(JULY)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">They flung them over to Roxbury Hills;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They flung them over the plain;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And all over Milton and Dorchester too</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Great lumps from the pudding the giants threw.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">They tumbled about like rain.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>The Ballad of the Boulders.</i></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE STONES OF THE FIELD</p> - -<p>In our rambles during the summer vacation season we -are constantly coming across boulders; in the mountains, -in the fields and by the sea. In the mountains and near -rocky headlands or at the foot of the cliffs we take them -for granted; they have evidently fallen from the rock walls -above them. But haven't you often wondered how they -got out on the prairies far from any rock masses? This -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">- 146 -</span> -chapter tells about that and other curious things in the -lives of the great Boulder family.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. Big Chief Boulder</span></p> - -<p>Even the Indians who, in those early days, had never -gone to school or studied geography, used to wonder how -these big stones had travelled to the places where they -found them.</p> - -<p>Once upon a time the Indians in the wilds of Minnesota -found an unusually big granite boulder lying among the -hills. So what did they do but paint a head with eagle -feathers on one end of the stone. Then they put stripes -around its body. You see they thought of Mr. Boulder -as a big chief in feathered head-dress and painted for war.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WONDER THE BEGINNING OF KNOWLEDGE</p> - -<p>It may seem foolish to make all this fuss about finding -a big stone in a field. But these ignorant red men were -much wiser than we are if we don't wonder about it too. -Wonder is the beginning of knowledge; and the Indians -thus took the first step toward one of the great discoveries -of geology.</p> - -<p>It was just such wondering on the part of scientific men -that led to their finding out not only how these big stones -got into strange lands but how certain kinds of hills that -we have just been reading about were made. For, as you -must have already guessed, the moving of these boulders -was one of the many jobs Mr. Glacier did for us during -the Ice Age. But pretend you don't know the answer. -It took the wise men a long time to find it and that's where -the fun comes in—in the hide and seek.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">- 147 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg147" style="width: 494px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg147.png" width="494" height="345" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"><i>From a photograph by Bourne & Shepherd, Calcutta</i></div> - -<p class="caption4">THE STRANGE OLD INDIAN OF MOUNT ABU</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>If those Minnesota Indians thought a boulder of the usual shape was some big -chief from another land, what would they have thought if they had set eyes on -this solemn old creature? He sits by the hour—like Socrates in the market-place—and -has sat for ages gazing down at his image in a lake at the foot of Mount Abu -in India. He was carved into that shape by sands blown from the North Indian -desert acting on the softer parts of the rock. Most Indians, as you know, are silent -people, but this old chap, so I hear, never speaks at all!</p> - -<p>Yet some day he may, all of a sudden, take a jump! Boulders do that sometimes, -as you will see before you have finished this chapter.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption4">ON THE NORTH END OF THE WORLD</p> - -<p>Some of the boulders seem to have belonged to Alpine -Clubs, for you find them away up on mountain sides; some -of them as high as 6,000 feet—that's over a mile you know—above -the level of the sea. And often these boulders -are not of the same material as the huge pieces of broken -rock that fall from the neighboring mountain walls. Moreover -the blocks of stone from the mountain are angular; -they are not nicely rounded off as are boulders and pebbles. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">- 148 -</span> -It's that way all over the north end of the world as far -south as the Ohio in this country and the Alps in Europe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg148" style="width: 501px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg148.png" width="501" height="361" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WOULDN'T IT MAKE YOU NERVOUS, TOO?</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This picture is from a story about a little boy who had to cross a field full of big, -dark boulders like this at night, and how nervous it made him.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>But there's one place in which you never will find -boulders, and that's in a country where there are caves -of any considerable size. Neither will you find such caves -where there are boulders.</p> - -<p>Why shouldn't the caves and the boulders live happily -together just like other people? The answer is simple. -The glaciers of the Ice Age, with their enormous weight, -crushed in the roofs of caves in every region over which -they flowed; and it was these same glaciers that left the -boulders. Since the glaciers went away the underground -rivers that hollow out the caves have not had time to make -new ones. It takes ages and ages to make a nice big cave.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">- 149 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. The Train of Thought</span></p> - -<p>These widely scattered boulders furnished the students -of the subject with the very best evidence that there was -once an Ice Age. First, the geologists noticed, just as the -Indians did, that the boulders were of a different kind of -rock from that of the regions in which they were found. -Up in Wisconsin, running southwest from Waterloo is a -train (as it is called) of boulders sixty miles long. The boulders -are of a very hard rock called quartzite, while all the -rock deposits in that region are of limestone or sandstone.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg149" style="width: 415px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg149.png" width="415" height="353" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">MR. BOULDER ON HIS PERCH</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is what is called a "perched boulder." Being a harder kind of rock than -that on which it was left by the glaciers, it has held out against the winds and -weather, while the stone under it has been worn away.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>In eastern Wisconsin, along with these stones, have -been found pieces of copper, although there are no copper -deposits near by. To the northeast of where the fragments -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">- 150 -</span> -of copper were found are the great copper deposits -of what is now Michigan, and from this region the glaciers -brought the copper and scattered it about as they moved -south and southwest. So these mysterious stones and -other things kept pointing toward the north, in a kind of -dumb show.</p> - -<p>In mountain rain storms you can see the torrents driving -great stones before them, so one of the first theories about -the stranded boulders was that, at some time in the earth's -history, there had been great floods covering whole continents, -sweeping away rocks from the mountains and -carrying them here, there, and everywhere. That theory -also accounted for the rounded shape of the boulders, for -if you have a volume of water big enough and swift enough -you can roll boulders wherever you like.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHAT A QUEER HOBBY-HORSE!</p> - -<p>But why should the boulder trains all lead to the north? -And how could water carry boulders right across a deep -mountain valley and pile them high up on the mountains -on the other side? How could water perch one boulder -on another or on a flat ledge of rock or on the summits -of the cliffs? Boulders so perched are very common, and -often they are so nicely balanced that a man can set them -rocking; and sometimes a small boy can do it. Every -young man who goes to Dartmouth College knows about -the rocking stone some half mile east of the college. In -the town of Barre is a big boulder with a small boulder -on its back, and the small boulder can be set rocking like -a child's hobby-horse.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">- 151 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg151" style="width: 500px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg151.png" width="500" height="444" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE MOUNTAIN TORRENTS HELP SHAPE THE BOULDERS]</p> -</div> - - -<p>The only thing that could handle boulders in this way, -so it turned out, were the glaciers. By following up the -boulders to their homes in the mountains they found on -the backs of the glaciers of to-day stones just like those -in our fields, and they found them thickly scattered over -the ground where the glaciers melted back during the summer -months. The glaciers not only pick up boulders from -the mountain torrent beds, as they move along, but themselves -pluck rocks from mountain sides. Huge blocks of -rock, dislodged when water freezes in the cracks of the -mountain walls, also fall upon the glacier. It was the -boulders held underneath the ice that left their autographs, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">- 152 -</span> -deep grooves on the native bed-rock in the regions into -which the glaciers of the Ice Age came.</p> - -<p>These great ice rivers filled the mountain valleys, and -reaching far up on the mountain sides carried boulders -to those heights. Sometimes the glacier left the stones -standing on a narrow point on top of other rocks—so making -the rocking stones.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg152" style="width: 487px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg152.png" width="487" height="333" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THEY KNOW THE OLD MEN DID IT</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here is one of those heaps of boulders, pebbles, and soil that the glaciers of the -Ice Age brought and left behind them. They know those ancient glaciers did -this, because just such heaps are found under the edges of glaciers to-day.</p> -</div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption3"> <span class="smcap">III.Leaves from the Family Records of the -Boulders</span></p> - -<p>What I have said so far of the Boulders is mainly about -their travels into foreign lands and how they were received -by intellectual people. But there are many other interesting -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">- 153 -</span> -things to be found in their family records that you -will want to know about, I am sure.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE BOULDERS RODE ON THE WATER</p> - -<p>One of these is how they came to ride on the water, when -I said just a little while back that only <i>ice</i> could carry them -across mountain valleys, and pile them up on the mountain -sides. That was all true; yet, under certain circumstances, -boulders <i>have</i> ridden on the water. As the glaciers -melted away finally in those early days the water, as -you know, helped make rivers and lakes. Then, from the -front of the glaciers icebergs broke off and floated away -down the rivers or across the lakes. In these icebergs boulders -were often imbedded, and so were dropped wherever -the iceberg carried them before it dissolved.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg153" style="width: 520px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg153.png" width="520" height="319" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE BOULDERS RODE ON THE WATER</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is a scene in August in Glacier National Park. It illustrates how boulders -of the Ice Age travelled by water, when icebergs containing them broke from the -glaciers and floated away on rivers and lakes.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">- 154 -</span></p> - -<p>Ice helps handle boulders in still another way; but before -I tell you what it is I want you to imagine you are -an Indian, away back in the days before Indian schools, -and see if you wouldn't be as superstitious as they were. -Just suppose then that you are a red child of the forest, -and that along a certain lake you saw near the shore a lot -of boulders scattered about in a disorderly way. This, -say, was in the fall. But when you came back the following -spring you found them all piled up into a wall along -the lake, and you positively knew no member of your tribe -or of any other had done the piling. Wouldn't it make -you feel a little superstitious?</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW MR. WINTER BUILDS BOULDER WALLS</p> - -<p>It was Mr. Winter that built these walls. With the -spring break-up on lake shores big cakes of ice, blown by -stiff gales, pry up the boulders along shore, and force them -further up the bank. Then another gale and another push, -and more stones are crowded up on top of the first course, -and so there is built a rude wall. Some of the stones may -be crowded together side by side. This makes what is -called a "boulder pavement." But even this isn't all of -nature's engineering in the handling of boulders. Here is -another example. Ice is formed on lakes early in the winter -when the air is but little below the freezing point of -water. Under these circumstances ice expands. Then, -with the first severe cold spell it contracts and so cracks. -Water, rising from below, fills these cracks, and is itself, -in turn, frozen to ice. Then comes a warm wave, these -ice wedges swell, and so the ice sheet expands, pushes up -along the shore and, if there are any boulders there moves -them about; or sometimes drives them deep into the bank -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">- 155 -</span> -so that the following spring it looks as if somebody had -been shooting at the bank, using boulders for bullets.</p> - -<p>The sun shapes boulders somewhat as the blacksmith -shapes iron, but instead of striking with a hammer it strikes -with its rays. Rock is a poor conductor of heat, so the -heat from the sun only goes into the rock a little way. The -result is that the surface expands and so loosens itself from -the rock beneath and in course of time falls off. With -the cooling of the atmosphere at night just the opposite -thing takes place; the surface cools off first and so, contracting, -loosens itself from the body of the stone. It seems -to be a regular tug of war between the heat of the day and -the cool of the night. First of all the corners and sharp -edges break away because, being thinner, they are heated -and cooled more quickly. The boulders owe their rounded -shapes most of all, however, to the fact that they were -ground together in the body of the glaciers as those great -ice sheets flowed along.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">GOOD TALKS BY LEARNED BOULDERS</p> - -<p>Of course, the boulders, like other people, differ in their -tastes—as you can tell by their talk. The granite boulders -have the most to say about travel because they are so hard -that they can take longer journeys than weaker rocks, -and so have more to tell. But there is another branch of -the family that is still more "bookish" as you may say. -These are the "pudding stone" boulders—conglomerates. -In that most interesting biography, "The Story of a Boulder," -Professor Geikie describes a stone that was not only -made up of a variety of pebbles, but in which there was a -section of sandstone. The sandstone and the conglomerate -had been neighbors in some rock ledge just as the pebble -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">- 156 -</span> -section and the smooth sand section are always neighbors -where the shores descend into the sea. So when the rock -mass, which was finally rounded into a boulder, broke -away it included portions of both sandstone and conglomerate.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg156" style="width: 493px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg156.png" width="493" height="283" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WHERE THE SEA HELPS SHAPE THE BOULDERS</p> -</div> - - -<p>The upper part of this boulder—the sandstone—had -in it stems and leaflets of plants of the Coal Age, changed -to coal. The pebbles below were fragments of more ancient -rocks made at a time when frogs as big as the oxen of to-day -lived in the marshes.</p> - -<p>"They must have had a croak like a fog-horn," said -the High School Boy.</p> - -<p>In this story of the boulder, Professor Geikie says:</p> - -<p>"I had here a quaint old black letter volume of the -Middle Ages giving an account of the events taking place -at the time it was written and containing in its earlier pages -numerous quotations from the authors of antiquity."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">- 157 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg157" style="width: 474px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg157.png" width="474" height="490" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WHICH DO YOU SAY?</p> -</div> - - -<p>The "quotations from the authors of antiquity," were -the pebbles, of course, once parts of older rocks.</p> - -<p>I have spoken of the boulders as authors. You will also -be interested in their relations with artists. Boulders add -much to the picturesque effect of the shores of lakes and -seas and mountain ravines, as they appear to the traveller, -and as artists reproduce them in pictures. They also -add to the beauty of streams, by forming rapids. These -boulders that are piled in so thick as to make rapids are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">- 158 -</span> -brought in by smaller but swifter tributaries that flow -into larger but more sluggish streams. Rapids are favorite -topics for landscape artists. They are characteristic of -the work of Ruysdael, for example, with whom you have -become well acquainted in your picture studies in school.</p> - -<p>Of the drawing of stones in general Ruskin says:</p> - -<p>"There are no natural objects out of which an artist, -or any one who appreciates the form of things, can learn -more than out of stones. A stone is a mountain in miniature. -The fineness of Nature's work is so great that into -a single block a foot or two in diameter she can compass -as many changes of form and structure on a small scale -as she needs for her mountains on a large one, using moss -for forests and grains of crystal for crags."<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> "Modern Painters."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg158" style="width: 302px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg158.png" width="302" height="283" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WHY BOULDERS SOMETIMES TAKE A JUMP</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Boulders sometimes jump up, all of a sudden, as if they had sat on a pin. They -do this when an earthquake wave passes straight through the globe; from Ecuador, -say, to Borneo. Such waves, called "waves of transmission," travel "incog" as -it were, not causing any disturbance until they reach the surface again. Then if -there happens to be a big rock on the spot, up it jumps—the funniest thing you -ever saw!</p> - -<p>Harry Furniss, the famous English cartoonist, made this picture just for a joke.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">- 159 -</span></p> - -<p>On <a href="#Page_157">page 157</a> you will find two pictures of stones by two -famous landscape artists, Claude and Turner. Of the -stones in one picture Mr. Ruskin says, "they are massy -and ponderous as stones should be"; while the stones in -the other picture are "wholly without weight."</p> - -<p>In which of the pictures would you say the stones are -"massy and ponderous," and in which are they "wholly -without weight?"</p> - -<p>Now look at the "Hide and Seek" notes below and see -if you and Mr. Ruskin think alike.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>A boy scout, as you know, is expected, among other things, to -be an Indian (a good Indian, of course); to keep his eyes wide -open as he goes about in the woods and fields. In that way he is -always coming across things to wonder over, such as the big stone -the Indians found.</p> - -<p>It's just such boys that great men are made of. All the great -scientists began in that way.</p> - -<p>Take the case of Hugh Miller, for example. In the encyclopedias -you will meet him as a famous geologist, along with great -artists and inventors and statesmen and other fine company; but -at first he was only a boy, like the rest of us. And he had very -little chance to go to school, but he went anyhow; went to school, -like Lincoln, to all the good books he could get hold of and also -to the stones of the field. After a while he got so he could write -books himself, and they are among the most readable books you -ever saw. You just read his story of "The Old Red Sandstone," -and if you don't open your eyes!</p> - -<p>The encyclopedia will tell you a great deal about the boy himself -and about "Uncle Sandy" and "Uncle James," and how they -helped him. But the start of it was this:</p> - -<p>One day a mason in Scotland<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> broke off a piece of stone—he was -building a wall at the time—and inside of the stone he found—what -do you think? A fish! Inside of the stone, mind you!</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> Hugh was a Scotch boy.</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">- 160 -</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Of course you won't be surprised to hear that it was a queer, -outlandish sort of fish, and that it was dead. In fact, it had been -dead so long that it also had turned to stone. In short, it was a -fossil. But no Pharaoh in his huge pyramid ever became more -famous than did that little fish in his tomb of stone.</p> - -<p>Yet, would you believe it?—neither the mason nor his fellow -workmen thought much about it. They frequently came upon -these fossils and, beyond being idly curious at first, paid little -attention to them.</p> - -<p>This day, however, among these workmen was Hugh Miller, -who was also a stone-mason by trade. Hugh got as excited over -this fish as a boy. (He was only seventeen at the time, I believe.)</p> - -<p>"The story of this queer fish," he said to himself, "must be as -good as Sinbad the Sailor, and the Yellow Dwarf, and Jack the -Giant Killer, that I used to like so well when I was a little lad;"<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> -and he determined to find out all he could about it. He found -from the geology books that there was much yet to be learned -about such fish, and so he proceeded to study the stones. He -opened the stones with his hammer as you open a book. He put -in all his leisure time at this work, with the result that he not only -became one of the world's famous geologists, but he wrote books -in which he made it a point to tell these curious stories of ancient -life in the sea, so that people without any previous scientific knowledge -could read and enjoy them.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> He had read all these stories and a lot more, so my old Chambers' -Encyclopedia says.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Besides "The Old Red Sandstone" he wrote "Footprints of the -Creator," "The Testimony of the Rocks," "My Schools and -School Masters," "Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland," -and a book of poems. Not all the conclusions he came to are -accepted to-day—for geology, like all the sciences, is always growing—but -the history of its growth and how men reasoned things -out is quite as interesting and profitable as the facts themselves, -and Hugh Miller has a particularly attractive way of telling things.</p> - -<p>So you see those Indians who painted up old Big Chief Boulder -were on the right track; they were deeply interested in it and its -being there as a great and mysterious work of nature. They -named it "Waukon," an Indian word meaning "mystery."</p> - -<p>Oh, yes, and about boulders in art, it's the stone in the upper -of the two pictures that Ruskin considers "massy and ponderous" -and hence true to nature. Turner painted it.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">- 161 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(AUGUST)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">In the parching August wind</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Cornfields bow the head.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Christina G. Rossetti.</i></div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Over the sea-like, pathless,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Limitless waste of the desert.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Longfellow.</i></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE DESERT</p> - -<p>August is usually such a hot, dry month that it ought -to be a good time for talking of deserts. We can realize -better what a desert is and what an interesting region it -must be to those who spend their lives there—the Arabs -and the camels, for instance. In fact, there are so many -strange and striking things to be seen and learned in deserts -that whole books—including many stories—have been -written about them, and I'm sorry we can give the subject -only one chapter.</p> - - -<p class="caption4"><span class="smcap">I. The Face of the Desert</span></p> - -<p>I sometimes think it was no wonder the old Sphinx got -to asking conundrums. Always looking toward the desert -and its mysteries, how could he help it? The desert is -just full of conundrums. For instance:</p> - -<p>Where is it that rains fall without reaching the earth?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">- 162 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg162" style="width: 502px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg162.png" width="502" height="432" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From the painting by Elihu Vedder</i> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">THE QUESTIONER OF THE SPHINX</p> -</div> - - -<p>Where is it that there are lake beds without lakes, river -beds without rivers, and rivers without mouths?</p> - -<p>Where do you see stretches of water that aren't there, -and men and animals walking and trees growing—most of -them upside down?</p> - -<p>Where are the roses of the land and the waves of great -inland seas made of sand and where does the wind always -blow the mountains away?</p> - -<p>Of course you would probably give the right answer at -once—"the desert"—because you know I am talking -about deserts. And the "water that isn't there," and the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">- 163 -</span> -trees and people and things that are upside down—you -probably know that's the mirage; and that the inland seas -with their waves of sand are the dunes; that the rivers -without mouths are those that, like the Tajunga in California, -lose their waters in the sand.</p> - -<p>Most people who have gone to school know all these -things. Most people also think of the desert as just a sea -of sand and all tawny, like a lion's skin; but this is wrong. -The Romans used to call the African desert "the panther's -skin," because of the tawny stretches spotted with the dark -palms of the oases, but the sands are not all tawny, and -the desert isn't all covered with sand.</p> - -<p>If we could arrange to get on the back of any one of -the great birds of the Sahara—say an eagle or his big -cousin the vulture—and sail with him on his way to dinner, -the scenery would unroll beneath us something like -this:</p> - -<p>On the northern border the Atlas Mountains, with precipices -of wild beauty and ranges of bare, pink rock outlined -against the blue of the morning sky; then dune waves -stretching for miles and miles with valleys between them, -so wide that it takes the camels from breakfast time until -noon to lumber their way across. The crests of some of -these dune waves go spinning off in spray with every freshening -breeze. Little dunes often dissolve away in the -wind as the caravan moves toward them.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">GAUNT OUTLINES OF THE HUNGRY HILLS</p> - -<p>Then we come to more mountain ranges running right -across the desert's face, their bare rocks shivered and -shelving down into broken fragments at their feet; then -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">- 164 -</span> -sharp-edged, jagged hills—not rounded, plump, and well-fed -hills, such as we have at home. They are the bones -of the hungry landscape showing through. Then we come -to bare table-lands and the empty beds of rivers and lakes -that long ago went dry; valleys scattered with boulders of -all sizes and in every imaginable position; and so on over -into the Arabian desert, with its flats of white sand closed -in by high cliffs, and vast stretches of black and red gravel. -More of the sand and gravel of the desert is red than yellow; -but some of it is white and some of it is black.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg164" style="width: 388px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg164.png" width="388" height="619" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">AN OASIS</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">- 165 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg165" style="width: 508px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg165.png" width="508" height="303" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE DARK HILLS AND THE FIGURES IN WHITE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>"The Baths of the Damned," the superstitious Arabs call the region of the -Northern Sahara in which you come upon these strange white figures. The fearsome -name was suggested by the fact that the figures slowly rise from some hot -region inside the earth. In reality they are mounds of carbonate of lime deposited -by the water of hot springs heavily charged with dissolved limestone. Similar -springs in our Yellowstone Park spout up in the form of geysers and form "geyser -basins"—huge stone tubs. Here in the desert the water doesn't spout; it bubbles -up slowly and so builds the mounds. In the background you see black masses of -volcanic rock, for this, like Yellowstone Park, is a volcanic region where the underground -rocks haven't cooled off.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">A CHAOS OF COLOR IN THE ROCKS</p> - -<p>The desert wears rocks and stones of as many colors as -the jewels of Oriental kings. It also runs much to solemn -black in its heaps of volcanic rock with cold limestones on -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">- 166 -</span> -the heights; but you can see blue-grays, browns, ochres of -every shade gleaming in the sun, the reds of the rusting -iron in them staining the precipices and the walls; and -there are purples and pinks and dark greens and violets. -These colored rocks are often fantastically mixed together, -like the colors on an Easter egg.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE SKELETONS OF THE DEAD RIVERS</p> - -<p>And here we come upon one of those skeletons of dead -rivers that I spoke about. There they are, the river valleys -and the river beds, full of sand and gravel, and with -boulders along the banks, and branch valleys running into -them; a river system all complete but for one thing—water. -It's just as if the main valley and the branches had been -made all ready but the river never came; or as if there had -been rivers there once but they couldn't stand the climate! -Of course, when a cloudburst comes along it helps itself to -these ready-made river-beds; but for the most part they -stand as empty as the ruins on the desert's edge in which</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent16">... the lion and the lizard keep</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The courts where Jamshyd gloried and drank deep.<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> "The Rubaiyat" of Omar Khayyam.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Not only do the size of the river-beds show that there -used to be more frequent rains in these regions of desolation, -but right at the edge of the northern Sahara are the -remains of immense aqueducts; great troughs built of -stone and carried on bridges from the source of a water -supply to a city. When the Romans owned the earth—including -the Sahara desert—they were famous builders of -these aqueducts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">- 167 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg167" style="width: 548px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg167.png" width="548" height="485" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WHY DYING RIVERS MULTIPLY BY TWO</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Director Hornaday, of the New York Zoo, took this picture while in the arid -regions of the great Southwest. It shows a little stream dying away in the desert -sands. Now just notice how a little knowledge of nature's methods as a landscape -artist makes the most commonplace scenery interesting. All streams as -they go dry have a tendency to spread out arms like that; sometimes two, sometimes -four or more, but always in twos or multiples of two. The reason is that -as the water evaporates the stream becomes weaker and so is obliged to drop a -part of its load. The heaviest part of the load—the most pebbles, sand, and soil—is -carried in the middle of the stream, owing to the current being stronger, relieved -as it is from the friction of the banks. So bars of sand, gravel, and such stuff are -built up that finally divide the water into two branches. Then if the water keeps -on flowing, each of these branches divides by two, and so on. You see the same -thing in the mouths of deltas.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">- 168 -</span></p> - -<p>"But what about the roses made of sand? That's a -conundrum you didn't answer."</p> - -<p>Oh, yes, we must get down closer to the desert to see -these. We can't see them in the bird's-eye view we have -been taking. The desert sand has a great deal of gypsum -in it, and when the sand gets a wetting from a cloudburst -this gypsum crystallizes and forms what are called "sand -roses." These "roses" are of various sizes and forms; -some look like camelias and some like a cluster of pearls. -They are not common and you have to hunt for them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg168" style="width: 494px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg168.png" width="494" height="305" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">ALL THE COMFORTS OF HOME</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Children in the primary grades have here told us, with their clever little fingers, -about life in Africa immediately south of the big desert, the part of Africa where -they have rain and to spare.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. How the Desert Makes Its Sand</span></p> - -<p>Most of the sand of the desert, as you may imagine, is -home-made; and it is very curious to notice the different -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">which it is manufactured. The desert sun and</span><br /> -the cloudless nights have a great deal to do with it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">- 169 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg169" style="width: 428px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg169.png" width="428" height="600" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE ARAB FARMER GATHERS HIS DATES</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">- 170 -</span></p> - -<p>Think of the hottest day in August you ever saw, and -then multiply by two. That will give you an idea of how -hot a desert gets in the day-time—something like 200 -degrees; and 212 degrees boils eggs, you know! But how -cold do you suppose it gets at night? Fifteen minutes -after sunset the temperature drops to freezing. The reason -of this is that there are no clouds over the desert to -keep the heat of the sand wastes and the burning rocks -from passing off rapidly into space. The days are so hot -and the nights are so cold that the rocks get a kind of fever -and ague, which makes them pull themselves to pieces.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE "GOOSE-FLESH" ON THE ROCKS</p> - -<p>It is the same process we have just read about in the -story of the stones of our fields, only it goes on much faster -in the desert on account of the more rapid changes of temperature. -You know how your skin will pucker up into -goose-flesh when you are cold. The desert rocks do something -similar. Because rock is a poor conductor, the heat -of the day and the cold of the night penetrate only a little -way—only through the skin of the rock, as it were; so this -skin, stretching in the day-time and puckering up at night, -becomes loosened and shells off bit by bit. Then it is -blown about and in time ground into sand by the desert -winds.</p> - -<p>Some rocks have an additional way of getting picked to -pieces. Granite is one of these. It has several different -kinds of mineral in it, and some of these minerals contract -and expand faster than others; some more than others. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">- 171 -</span> -As a consequence, the particles of the rock keep pulling -and hauling at each other. This helps to break it up into -little pieces, which soon become sand. The darker the -rock, other things being equal, the greater the changes, -because anything dark—a suit of clothes, for instance—absorbs -heat faster than a light object.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg171" style="width: 283px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg171.png" width="283" height="209" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<p><i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission -of Ginn and Company</i></p> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">HOW RAIN-DROPS HELP SPLIT BOULDERS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>A big boulder in western Texas split, just as you see it here, by rain-drops, with -the help of the sun, and under the conditions described in the text, sat for this -photograph. A friend of mine who has been all over that country says that on -blistering-hot days you can see little pieces pop out of the granite boulders, like -chips from an invisible chisel struck by an invisible hammer. This is why: We -Granites are made up of particles—little bits—of several different minerals, and -some of these minerals expanding much faster than others pop themselves out.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>The great mountain rocks of the desert, bare of all protecting -soil and verdure, are always crumbling as a result -of all these causes, and so the winds are constantly blowing -them away, piece by piece.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW LITTLE RAIN-DROPS SPLIT BIG BOULDERS</p> - -<p>As if everything in the desert were in the sand-making -business the very rain-drops help make sand. The rain-drops -do this in much the same way that the farmer breaks -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">- 172 -</span> -big boulders in his fields, so that he can more easily haul -them away, piece by piece. He builds a fire against the -boulder, gets it as hot as he can, then rakes the fire away, -dashes water on the stone, and—bang! It cracks as if old -Thor had struck it with his hammer.</p> - -<p>You see why this is, don't you, after what we have been -saying about why the rock's skin chips off? The water -suddenly cools the highly heated rock, and the parts -shrinking pull away from each other with a bang! bang! -bang! The hot desert rocks, dashed by the torrents of a -cloudburst, break apart just like that, and you can hear -them. Stones twenty-five feet across are often broken into -many pieces after a downpour. Then the finer pieces of -rock that are made in this continual splitting, and by the -chipping that goes on day and night, the fierce winds grind -against each other; so manufacturing sand. And the -fiercer winds also drive coarse sand against crumbling rock -surfaces, thus grinding them away and making more sand. -So the winds, using sand to make sand, put the sand out -at interest, you may say.</p> - -<p>And on all its sand, made in these various ways—by -wind and rain and heat and cold, and the crystal fairies of -the land of change—the desert puts its special trade-mark, -just as a manufacturer puts his trade-mark on his goods. -If you should take some desert sand and some sand from -the shores of the sea and show them to a man who knows -about such things, he would say (after he had put them -under a microscope, of course):</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE DESERT'S TRADE-MARK ON ITS SANDS</p> - -<p>"<i>This</i> sand came from a desert, or from some place -where it was much blown about by the winds; while <i>this</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">- 173 -</span> -sand is from the shores of the sea, or of a lake." The sand -grains of the seashore, although they are always being -tumbled about by the waves, as the desert sands are by -the winds, are protected from each other by the water -between them. These little water cushions prevent the -sand grains from rubbing together; so they keep a good -many of their sharp edges. They are not rounded like -the sands of the desert. The winds keep the desert sands -grinding against each other, at the same time turning them -over and over, so wearing them away pretty evenly on -all sides. It also grinds them against the desert rocks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg173" style="width: 500px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg173.png" width="500" height="327" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">A DESERT SIMOOM ON ITS TRAVELS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>A traveller in the Sahara took this snap-shot of a simoom from the outside and at -a safe distance. You can see that it must be quite a distance from where we are -standing, for the trees in the foreground are still. The vast cloud of sand looks -quite dark because of the shadows cast by the sun, which it hides from view.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>It is as if there were cut upon the sea sands, "Father -Neptune: His Make"; while the genii of the desert, jealous -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">- 174 -</span> -for the desert's reputation, had engraved on their own -product:</p> - -<p>"Genuine Desert Sand. Look for the Trade-Mark and -Accept No Substitutes!"</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">III. The Plant People of the Desert</span></p> - -<p>Although it doesn't look a bit homey to us there are -quite a few people living in the desert, when you come to -count them all—four-legged people, and six-legged people, -and two-legged people, and big and little people with -wings, and the people of the plant world.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE WATER BOTTLE OF THE DESERT</p> - -<p>One of the most curious of the plant people is the cactus, -particularly the one known as the "desert water bottle." -Like many two-legged people it has a rough, unsociable -exterior, but a kind heart. Let a traveller come upon -one of these bristly cactuses, after long, thirsty hours, and -he will realize what this means. Inside this cactus he will -find what will seem to him the most delightful drink he -ever tasted. While it isn't as cool as it might be, neither -is it as warm as you would expect, and it has a pleasant, -sweet taste.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">- 175 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg175" style="width: 520px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg175.png" width="520" height="508" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">DRAWING WATER FROM THE BARREL CACTUS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This cactus, so far as shape is concerned, really belongs to the barrel family, as -you can see, besides performing one of the most useful functions of a barrel in holding -good drinking water for thirsty travellers in the desert. My, how thirsty you -get! You drink, drink, drink from sunrise to sunset—about two gallons a day. -But sometimes the supply you are carrying gives out because you miscalculated or -you've lost your way, or the barrel leaks. Then, oh, how you welcome the sight -of a barrel cactus among the rocky foot-hills! Director Hornaday, in the delightful -book from which I have already quoted says: "You get a gallon of water surprisingly -cool, and in flavor like the finest raw turnip. The object on the ground is not a -circular saw, but the inverted top of the cactus, and the whiteness is that of the -white meat that contains the water. With a stick the meat is pounded to a pulpy -mass, and the water oozes out, forming a little pool. Then the man with the cleanest -hands washes them cleaner with some of the pulp—throwing <i>this</i> pulp away, of -course—then squeezes the water out of the rest of it into the barrel."</p> - -<p>Another interesting thing about this cactus is that it enables you to get candy -right in the desert; for here and there, through its thick skin, it oozes out a secretion -called "cactus candy," which is very delicious. You are always sorry there is so -little of it.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">- 176 -</span></p> - -<p>The fact that you can get a drink in this way, just when -you want it most, all comes of foresight on the part of the -cactus. After they get down from two to four inches in -the ground the roots of this cactus spread out in every -direction and for a long way. They collect every bit of -moisture in the soil, and they make the most of every drop -of rain that falls within their reach. Then they hide all -this moisture away and cling to every precious drop. -Most plants, you know, evaporate a great deal of water -through their leaves. But the cactus, living in a world -where rains are few and far between, just can't afford to -do any evaporating to speak of; so it has practically no -leaves, you see, only little bits of things that you almost -have to take a microscope to find. But what it lacks in -leaves it makes up in spines, which defend it against the -attacks of most thirsty animals, although it is believed the -desert mice know the secret of getting at this water, in -spite of the spines.</p> - -<p>One kind of desert plant you have no doubt met face to -face, for it is used to make printing paper. It grows in -the deserts of Libya and other parts of North Africa, and -is called esparto grass. Like hemp, it has stems which -are full of strong fibres. These stems are gathered in huge -bundles, which are carried by camels to the sea, where -they are sent by ship to the English paper mills.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE "ROSE OF JERICHO" GOES TO SEA</p> - -<p>But there is a member of the desert plant family called -the "Rose of Jericho," that doesn't wait for anybody to -come after it and carry it to sea; it just picks up and sets -sail for itself. It is a bush about six inches high, a native -of the wastes of Northern Africa, Palestine, and Arabia. -It bears a little four-petaled flower. When blossom time -is over the leaves fall off and its branches, loaded with -seeds, dry up, and, curling inward as they dry, form a -ball. Its roots also let go of the soil, so that the strong -desert winds easily pull it up and it goes bowling away -toward the sea. When it gets there it tumbles in.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">- 177 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg177" style="width: 278px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg177.png" width="278" height="410" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4"> THE CACTUS-WREN AND HER LITTLE FRONT DOOR</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Speaking of cactus spines, do you know how many of those wicked little spines -the cactus-wren had to work with and tug and twist about in building that nest? -About two thousand! These spines not only make the nest but defend it. You -can't be too careful about your front door in Desertland. Such neighbors!</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>Then this bold little traveller, who is very sensitive to -moisture although he has had so little of it in his bringing -up, promptly unfolds his arms and scatters his handful of -seeds on the water; which is precisely the thing he took all -that journey to do! For the seeds are carried far by the -currents of the sea. Thus the family to which this plant -belongs keeps sending out colonies into new lands. This -seems to be one of the chief missions in life of plants as of -other peoples.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">- 178 -</span></p> - -<p>The plant of which we have just been speaking is called -the "Rose of Jericho," although it looks so little like a -rose that quaint old John Gerard, an English doctor who -loved and studied plants over three hundred years ago, -says:</p> - -<p>"The coiner of the name spoiled it in the mint; for of -all plants that have been written of not any are more -unlike unto the rose."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE WIND WITCHES OF THE STEPPES</p> - -<p>Our own tumbleweeds and the Canada thistle have the -same trick of bowling before the wind. There is a relative -of these tumblers living on the Russian steppes that the -Cossacks call the "wind witch." At the end of the season -the branches dry up into a ball and then by the hundreds -these witches go skimming over the plains, driven by the -loud autumn winds. They are as light as a feather, and -they go so fast that sometimes even the Cossack horsemen -cannot catch them, as they often try to do in sport. Part -of the time they move along with a short, quick, hopping -motion, and then, caught by an eddy, rise a hundred feet -in the air.</p> - -<p>Often dozens of them get locked together, join hands -like the real witches of our fairy tales, and the whole company -goes dancing away before the howling blast.</p> - -<p>Eery creatures!</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">IV. The Autographs in the Sand</span></p> - -<p>There are certain very interesting people of the desert -that you don't often find at home, not because they aren't -there, but because they don't <i>want</i> to be found. Snakes, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">- 179 -</span> -lizards, rabbits, and ground squirrels slip quietly out of -your way in the early morning, and by the time the hot -sun is high, beast and bird seek the shadows of the canyons, -or of big rocks, shelving banks, or caves.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg179" style="width: 479px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg179.png" width="479" height="282" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE COYOTE'S NOCTURNE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>In addition to what he tells so cleverly in the picture about the night song of -the Coyote, Dan Beard—<i>your</i> Dan Beard of the Boy Scouts—says the animal is a -ventriloquist; can throw his voice so that it sounds as if he were a mile off, then -startle you with the noise of a full pack at your heels—and all the time be sitting -watching you from behind a stone not fifty yards away!</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>But they all leave word. In the lava beds of the Arizona -desert, where not even the cactus will grow, you can -make out the tracks of the quail and the linnet, and of a -peculiar desert bird called the road-runner. There, also, -are the tracks of the coyote and the wildcat, the gray -wolf, and sometimes the mountain lion. If about daybreak -you saw what seemed to be a long, lean, hungry -dog, trotting away slantwise with a cautious eye to the -rear, it was probably a gray wolf a little late in getting -home. Like the coyote, the wildcat, the owl, and many -other desert people, that old gray wolf belongs to the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">- 180 -</span> -world's great night shift and is usually back in his mountain -home by sunrise. Even when you see him at all—which -is seldom—he is hard to make out; for, like the -coyote, he wears a rusty, sunburned coat, which blends -with the sand and the yellow rocks.</p> - -<p>The coyote is a smaller member of the wolf family, to -which both the dog and the fox belong. He has much of -the same cunning, and like Br'er Fox is fond of chicken. -But his home is usually so far from modern conveniences -he has few chances to visit poultry yards, and lives from -paw to mouth, as it were, catching a jack-rabbit when he -can—the desert rabbits seem to sleep with both eyes open—and -lizards when he can't get rabbits. At the worst he -will make out on "prickly pears," the pods of the mesquite -bush, which are full of seeds.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE WINGED PEOPLE OF THE DESERT</p> - -<p>Although you will not realize it at first there are a -good many birds in the desert. Some are transients, just -passing through, and stopping for a rest and a bite or two -on the way. Others, such as the linnet and the wrens, -have nests tucked away among the spines of the cactus, -and there's a finch singing from the top of that bush! In -flower time in the Arizona desert (of which we are now -speaking) there are humming-birds, but their colors are -not so bright as those of our humming-birds. Feathers, -like hair, have the natural color burned out of them in the -desert sun. Only the insects keep their bright clothes. -Turn over a stone and away will scamper golden beetles, -silver beetles, turquoise blue beetles, beetles in bronze; a -whole boxful of jewels on six legs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">- 181 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg181" style="width: 482px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg181.png" width="482" height="411" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From McCook's "Nature's Craftsmen." Copyright Harper and Brothers</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE LIFE STRUGGLE IN THE DESERT</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The late Harry Fenn, who did everything so well, drew this picture of one of -the incidents of the life struggle in the desert. It represents the desert wasp, known -as the "tarantula killer," pursuing its prey. The tarantula of the Southwest is -the giant among our native spiders, but it cowers before the wasp, and hurries off -as fast as it can; but usually it <i>can't</i>, and is soon laid away in Lady Wasp's nest -as food for her solitary baby when it comes out of the egg which the mother wasp -lays in the spider's body.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">INSECTS, LIZARDS, SPIDERS, AND OTHERS</p> - -<p>And there are gray lizards, yellow lizards, and lizards -called "skinks," with tails as blue as indigo; and the gila -monster, a lizard in dull orange and black, with an ugly -disposition and poison in his lower jaw. Another big -lizard of the Arizona desert is called the chuckwalla. The -Arizona Indians are very fond of him. They say he tastes -like chicken.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">- 182 -</span></p> - -<p>Most of the spider family are represented in Arizona, -including the trap-door spider, who hides and waits for -his dinner in a hole with a wonderful trap-door that he -made himself. This door he slams tight when he gets you -inside, if you're a fly or anything like that. He also shuts -this door in the face of his enemy, the centipede, a flat -worm a foot long, with loads of legs and feet. His name -means "hundred footed." He has poison daggers in his -feet and his two-branched tail.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg182" style="width: 194px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg182.png" width="194" height="269" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">A DESERT BEETLE AND HIS GYMNASTICS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>This desert beetle is called by the Indians "The-Bug-that-Stands-on-His-Head." -At first I thought he was taking stomach exercises, for beetles have wonderful -digestions, as you may learn from Fabre's book on "The Sacred Beetle." But Mr. -Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology at Washington—Uncle Sam's great -authority on bugs—tells me this is an attitude many beetles take on the approach -of an enemy, the object being to discharge a kind of poison-gas which is intended to -drive him away; and usually does.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">WHAT A WONDERFUL FLYING MACHINE HE IS!</p> - -<p>But what's that away up in the sky? A flying machine? -Yes, one of the most wonderful flying-machines in the -world—a vulture. There he goes, sweeping in wide circles, -as he hunts along the mountain range, mile after -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">- 183 -</span> -mile, closely scanning the base of the cliffs for the bodies -of unfortunate creatures that have fallen over. Vultures -will keep in the air in that way whole days at a time, following -the cliffs and canyons for hundreds of miles. But -for all that it is sometimes a week or two between meals -with a desert vulture.</p> - -<p>How does the vulture soar so wonderfully? Nobody is -quite sure about it. Often for hours there is no motion -of the wings, as far as anybody has been able to make out, -and a soaring vulture seems to be able to move as easily -against the wind as with it. You'll not be surprised to -hear that it takes time to learn to fly like that—a whole -year. And even after the first year the young vultures -stay for a good while under the instruction of their parents, -going out hunting with them every day and sleeping with -them in the nest on the cliffs at night.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">V. A Day in the Sahara</span></p> - -<p>How would you like to spend a day in the famous Sahara -desert with the camels and the people and the dogs; and, -I was going to say, the flies? But the flies can't stand it. -They stay in the villages on the borders. Only a few are -ever bold enough to start with a caravan and these soon -turn back.</p> - -<p>When a desert Arab and his family start on a journey -the tents, the sleeping-rugs, the scanty provisions, and -the women and children are piled on the camels, the dogs -take their places at the end of the procession and the men -at the head, and the caravan starts.</p> - -<p>As the chieftain throws the end of the burnoose (his -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">- 184 -</span> -hooded cloak) across his shoulder and, with his carbine -in the hollow of his arm, stalks in advance of all, you feel -that if you were an Arab boy you would be as proud as -he is to have a father like that. What a splendid figure; -what a strong, grave, handsome face, and utterly without -fear! All his poor possessions would hardly pay a month's -rent in a fine city apartment, but he has the proud bearing -of a king. He looks as if he had just stepped out of a picture -in a Bible story-book.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg184" style="width: 512px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg184.png" width="512" height="361" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">ALL IN THE DAY'S WORK!</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This looks to me like the beginning of a simoom; if so, we'd better wrap <i>our</i> -shawls about our faces as the Arabs are doing. Notice how the rising wind picks -up and twirls the sand about the camels' legs and sends it stinging into the faces -of the men. Maybe it will die down as quickly as it came; maybe it will increase -into a choking sand-storm that will last a week.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>And how keen those dark eyes must be; and what a -memory for the look of things! At the beginning of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">- 185 -</span> -day's journey he is guided, as sailors are at sea, by the -stars. But soon the winds begin to rise, as the desert farther -away is warming under the sun, and the fine sand drifts -and shifts like snow, filling up our own tracks as fast as -they are made; so, you may be sure, it is leaving no guiding -tracks made by previous travellers. But this man -has known every hill, every dune, and every rocky gully -along the way since he himself was a little boy, and went -over this same route sitting on the camel with his mother -while his father stalked on before.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg185" style="width: 501px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg185.png" width="501" height="338" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">A CARAVAN ON THE MARCH</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here is a caravan lumbering along over what appears to be a pretty well-beaten -roadway in Algeria where many improvements to facilitate travel have been made -by the French. It must be about 8.00 A. M. or 4.00 P. M. Shouldn't you say so, -from the shadows?</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>Presently we come across another little group of travellers -going in another direction. They are on their way north -to the summer pastures; for you see they have a little -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">- 186 -</span> -flock of sheep and goats and two donkeys. And there are -two men. These people are probably two families travelling -together. But they are not so well-to-do as our Arab. -They have no camel to carry the women and children. So -dogs, donkeys, men, women, children, and the sheep and -goats all tramp along together.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg186" style="width: 321px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg186.png" width="321" height="277" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE FORLORN LITTLE RAT OF THE DESERT SANDS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>If you've read Roosevelt's books on Africa you've met this little creature before. -But isn't he the rattiest-looking rat you ever saw? He has only a hair here and -there on his yellow skin; and no eyes to speak of. He can hardly see at all, spending -most of his time, as he does—like the sightless creatures of caves—in the pitch-dark -of his underground burrow. Yet, I suppose, like that desert boy it tells about -at the end of this chapter, he thinks there's no place like home!</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>They are not worried because they are poor; for listen, -they are singing! It's a melancholy kind of song, as we -think. It reminds us of the queer sound the sand grains -make when the desert winds are beginning to blow. But -to the Arab it is music. What a lot of verses it has—all -just alike—and sung over and over again.</p> - -<p>But what's the matter now? All of a sudden they stop -singing and begin to shout and fire off their guns. You'll -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">- 187 -</span> -laugh when I tell you why. They heard something talking -back to them; repeating all their words. It was only -an echo made by the rocks of the mountains that we have -just reached. But these superstitious people of the desert -don't know what an echo is. They think echoes are the -voices of evil spirits mocking them, and the shouting and -the firing of the guns is to frighten these mockers away.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg187" style="width: 518px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg187.png" width="518" height="265" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE PACK-RAT'S FORTRESS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is a diagram of the fortress of another little citizen of mountain rocks and -desert places, known out West as the "pack" rat because he is always packing off -other people's things and hiding them in his burrow. The "fortress" consists of -several burrows, the roads leading to which are carefully protected by the prickly -bayonets of the cactus joints which the rat drags there for that purpose.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>Life for everybody in the Sahara and the Arabian desert -is very much what it is for the animals in the Arizona wastes—a -constant struggle for food. In the Arizona desert every -living creature puts in all its time trying to get something -to eat without being eaten. The wildcat is fortunate if -he gets a meal once in two or three days; and while the -coyote is trying to slip up on a rabbit, ten to one there's a -panther slipping up on him. A traveller in northern Africa -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">- 188 -</span> -tells how, when his caravan halted for dinner at an inn -for the French soldiers quartered in that region, he saw -a lean and hungry cat eying him from around the corner -of a nearby hut. To borrow from Victor Hugo's description -of the hungry cat at the Spanish inn,<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> this cat of the -desert looked at the traveller "as if it would have asked -nothing better than to be a tiger." When the guest of -the inn had finished the piece of chicken he was eating he -tossed the bone toward the cat which pounced on it fiercely. -Instantly a dog, which had been watching proceedings, -rushed forward and took the bone from the cat. Just then -an Arab, who happened to be passing, fell upon the dog -and wrenching the bone from his mouth began eagerly -gnawing it himself.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> "Hugo's Letters to His Wife."</p> - -</div> - -<p>It's a hard life!</p> - -<p>And yet if you should bring an Arab boy to London or -New York to live and give him three good meals a day—he's -not always sure of <i>one</i> at home—and nice clothes to -wear and a real bed to sleep in, and shady parks to play -in, do you suppose he would be happy? No indeed. The -thing has been tried. He says this kind of life is all right -for those who like it, but it <i>isn't</i> the desert.</p> - -<p>And you have to admit it!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Not at all dry, are they—these deserts—when you get down -into them? And I haven't told you half there is to tell about -them.<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> John C. Van Dyke, for one, has written a wonderfully interesting -little book just about the American desert. It's called simply "The -Desert."</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">- 189 -</span></p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>To begin with, what does your geography say about deserts—about -how they are made?</p> - -<p>How do mountains help make deserts?</p> - -<p>In and near what zone does your geography locate the great -deserts of the world?</p> - -<p>How does the Sahara desert compare in size with the United -States? (You see, the Sahara is practically a whole United States -gone dry!)</p> - -<p>Yet, the soil of much of the Sahara is very fertile and with water -would yield wonderful crops. But where is the water to come -from? Where do we get the water that has made our deserts -bloom? Has the Sahara any such sources of supply?</p> - -<p>Is it true that the Libyan desert was once covered by the sea, -as it was in that story of Phaeton, the boy who set the world -afire?</p> - -<p>And speaking of that story, was there a Jupiter and a Jupiter -Pluvius, too?<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> "That was a good deal like asking if there was a George Washington -and a President Washington too," said the High School Boy, after -he had looked it up.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Wouldn't you say the addition of "Pluvius" to the name of their -chief god meant the ancients recognized rain-making as a very -important and difficult business to manage?</p> - -<p>But what is it, really, that brings our rains? What has the -sea to do with it? And the winds? And the mountains? Your -geography answers all these questions briefly. You will find a -full treatment of the whole subject of the weather and of how the -weather man, "the man with a hundred eyes," manages to be so -clever, in "Pictured Knowledge."<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> In the article in the Nature Department, "What is the It that -Rains?"</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>From what general direction do the winds come that bring the -rains in North America? In South America? Why the difference?</p> - -<p>How many inches of rainfall are enough for raising good crops?</p> - -<p>Nevertheless, they raise fine crops in many parts of the United -States where they have hardly any rain at all. How do they -manage it? I mean how do they store up the water and distribute -it, and everything? (Irrigation.)</p> - -<p>In reading up on deserts in the encyclopedias alone you will find -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">- 190 -</span> -many such interesting things as the following, and in other books—particularly -books of travel—much more:</p> - -<p>How long the commercial caravans are (such great freight trains -as those that cross the Sahara between Morocco and Timbuctoo); -how many camels one driver takes care of; how fast the camels -travel; how many days they can go without a drink.</p> - -<p>If you're going to cross with one of these caravans (or just pretend -to cross) I must tell you one thing:</p> - -<p><i>You've got to look out for lions!</i></p> - -<p>From what you have learned in your geography about African -lions, where would you say you were likely to come across them?<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> Have you read Roosevelt's "African Game Trails"? or his "Life -Histories of African Game Animals"?</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>What do these caravans bring back from Central Africa? (What -is produced in Central Africa that the civilized world wants?)</p> - -<p>The ostrich is a most interesting citizen of the desert that I -didn't have room to talk about. There's enough for a whole -chapter in your notebook just about ostriches and their ways.</p> - -<p>Among other things, I wish you'd find out for me if the ostrich -really does bury its head in the sand and imagine that it is thereby -hiding itself. (I'll warrant you it's only book ostriches that do -this; not real ostriches.)</p> - -<p>One of the most curious things about Mrs. Ostrich is how she -and her neighbors work together. It's like an old-fashioned quilting -bee, for all the world; although, to be sure, the ostriches don't -make quilts—they make nests.<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> "Romance of Animal Arts and Crafts."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Speaking of ostrich nests naturally suggests eggs—and very big -eggs, of course, including the roc's egg in the "Arabian Nights." -They do have real rock's eggs in the desert, only this kind of a -roc's egg is spelled with a "k." You just turn to the chapter on -deserts in Hobb's "Face of the Earth," and you'll find not only -that there are such eggs, but how the desert sun uses salt in cooking -them and what the crystal people have to do with it; and how, -like a cat in a hen-house, the desert winds suck these eggs, leaving -only the hollow shell.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">- 191 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(SEPTEMBER)</p> - -<p class="caption4 smcap">Morning</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">The summer dawn's reflected hue</div> - <div class="verse indent0">To purple changed Loch Katrine blue.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Scott</i>: "<i>Lady of the Lake</i>."</div> -</div> - -<p class="caption4 smcap">Evening</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Now folds the lily all her sweetness up</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And slips into the bosom of the lake.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Tennyson</i>: "<i>The Princess</i>."</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">IN THE LANDS OF THE LAKES</p> - -<p>If we really had spent the month of August in a desert -what a relief it would be to find ourselves, as we do now -at the very beginning of the golden autumn time, in the -lands of the lakes with their cool, fresh breezes, the whisper -of leaves and the glint of waters dancing in the sun. -The best of it is that the deserts are just as delightful as -the lands of pleasant waters, if you only visit them in -imagination as we have been doing; and they make the -lakes all the more attractive by way of contrast.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. How the Lakes are Born</span></p> - -<p>But where are the lands of the lakes? I may say to -start with, it's no use looking for many lakes in the lands -of the big caves. Caves and lakes don't seem to get on -together any more than do caves and boulders.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">- 192 -</span></p> - -<p>When this story of the lakes was first told to a certain -group of young people some of the youngest of whom had -not forgotten the giants or the language of their fairy -tales, I put it in this way:</p> - -<p>"The rains and the rivers, with the help of some other -things, have made all the lakes in the world. One of these -helpers is a bright-eyed creature with two legs; another -a little creature with four legs and a third a great big thing -with no legs at all!" (I said it like this: "G-R-E-A-T -B-I-G T-H-I-N-G," and opened my eyes wide for the -benefit of the younger members of our "pebble parties," -as these little gatherings came to be called.)</p> - -<p>The great big things, as you have already guessed, were -the glaciers of the Ice Age. We have had specimens of -their work in the story of how the Great Lakes were made.</p> - -<p>The four-legged lake makers are the beavers. They -live on the margins of quiet, shallow ponds—really little -lakes—which they make for themselves by gnawing down -trees and building dams.</p> - -<p>And the bright-eyed creature with two legs—can't you -guess who he is? If you never helped make little lakes -of your own by damming up a brook or a roadside rivulet, -you have missed a lot of fun.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WIDE RANGE OF SIZE IN LAKE FAMILY</p> - -<p>But you <i>must</i> have made them; what boy hasn't? And -those little ponds or puddles were lakes, while they lasted, -just as much as the great Lake Superior is a lake. Even -lakes that are called lakes and get their names (and often -their pictures) in summer resort folders, differ in size, ranging -from little affairs that are not much larger than the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">- 193 -</span> -pond in the meadow, to Lake Superior, with its 31,000 -square miles; and in depth, from a few feet to 5,618 feet -in the deepest part of Lake Baikal. You see if you touched -bottom there you would have to keep going for over a -mile.</p> - -<p>"And there's all the way back!" said the High School -Boy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg193" style="width: 507px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg193.png" width="507" height="443" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE GREAT LAKES OF TO-DAY AND THE GREATER LAKE -OF YESTERDAY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The farmers of Canada and the Dakotas now sow their harvests and reap their -golden grain on the bottom of the great inland sea of the Ice Age, Lake Agassiz. -It was larger than all the Great Lakes of to-day put together. It is known how -big this lake was from its old beaches, which can easily be made out all around the -margin shown on the map.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">- 194 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg194" style="width: 498px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg194.png" width="498" height="501" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE BLUE LAKE IN THE VOLCANO'S MOUTH</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>In the mouth of a dead volcano lies one of the most beautiful lakes in all the -world, the chief attraction of Crater Lake National Park. This model of its basin -tells how nature did the work. The steep sides and the glacial valleys show that -the top fell in when the lava that helped build the volcano sank back and so left -it without support. If the top had blown off, as volcano tops sometimes do, the -valleys would have been filled with débris. Later there was another outbreak, -but so small that it only built that little volcano in the big volcano's mouth. Notice -the tiny crater? This baby volcano rises above the waters of its mimic ocean -and makes an island, just as so many volcanoes of the great Pacific make the far-flung -islands of the Southern Seas.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>Even the water ouzel, that wonderful diver of the mountain -lakes and waterfalls, might hesitate at a dive like that.</p> - -<p>Those remarkable old men of the mountains, the glaciers -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">- 195 -</span> -of the Ice Age, were the greatest of all lake-makers. Although -for size the Great Lakes were their masterpieces, -they made lakes of all sizes and no end of them. They -fairly sowed the landscape with lakes. Look at the map -of the lake regions of America and Europe and then turn -back to the map picture of the great ice invasion (page -21). Don't you see the lake regions and what was once -the ice regions cover practically the same territory?</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg195" style="width: 509px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg195.png" width="509" height="302" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">LOOKING ACROSS THE LAKE TO WIZARD ISLAND</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>There you see is the top of that little volcano—right across the lake. It is -known as "Wizard Island." The lake is 4,000 feet deep. Its walls are 1,500 -feet high; in some places over 2,000 feet high. In spite of the fact that they, as -you see, slope a good deal, owing to the crumbling down of the weathered rock, -the banks are still so steep it has taken us several hours of careful climbing to get -down where this picture was taken, and we shall be all the rest of the forenoon -climbing back again.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>In addition to making lakes in their Great Lakes manner -the glaciers had other methods. A glacier coming into a -dry mountain valley would supply it with a river by melting, -and at the same time dam up the river with stones -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">- 196 -</span> -and soil brought down from the mountain and so make -a lake. Then the water would run over the brim of the -dam, and the thing was complete; a beautiful little lake -with one river running into it and another running out.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">LOOKS AS IF IT HAD RAINED LAKES!</p> - -<p>You just go through Wisconsin or Minnesota or Maine, -and right and left you'll see lakes and lakes and lakes: -and then more lakes! Of course most of these lakes are -small; otherwise it wouldn't have been possible to work -so many of them into the same landscape. In Wisconsin -you find these small lakes in what are called the "Kettle -Ranges." The low hills and their valleys form what the -early settlers called "kettles," and in these kettles are the -little blue-eyed lakes.</p> - -<p>It was the glaciers that not only made the kettles but -often filled them with the lakes. In many of the mounds -of pebbles and clay that we read about in "The Secrets -of the Hills," the glaciers left big blocks of ice. Then, -when this ice melted, two things happened: (1) The covering -of the ice sank down, much as the sawdust sinks in -an ice-house when a block of ice is taken out, thus making -the kettle; (2) the big ice cake in the hill of pebbles -melted, so filling the kettle with a lake.</p> - -<p>But what broke off these big blocks, these land icebergs -that made the basins for the kettle lakes? They were -left by the glacier when it began to retreat; that is to say -when the supply of snow back at the gathering ground -became insufficient to keep pushing it forward as fast as -the front melted away. Melting most rapidly in those -huge cracks called crevasses, big blocks were finally -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">- 197 -</span> -separated entirely from the main body and left behind as the -rest of the glacier slowly melted back toward the mountains.</p> - -<p>If the glaciers were thus responsible for most of the lakes -of the lowlands you may be sure they had a hand in making -the lakes of the mountains, right where they themselves -live. John Muir, who spent his life in loving study of the -mountains of the West and of everything connected with -them, found mountain lakes in every stage of existence -up the mountainsides; empty stone bowls that showed -by the work of the waves on the rocks that they had once -held lakes; above these, in the same chain, lakes growing -shallow; and, still higher, brand new lakes in stone bowls -with the edge of the glacier that had carved out the bowl -and filled it with blue water, still bordering it on the upper -side.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg197" style="width: 461px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg197.png" width="461" height="294" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">ONE OF THE KETTLE LAKES OF WISCONSIN</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">- 198 -</span></p> - -<p>And this is why, like fruit on a tree, the youngest lakes -are found at the top. Since the glacier melted from the -foot of the range upward the lower lakes were the first -to be born and the first to pass away; while the lakes higher -up on the mountain were the last to be born and the last -to pass away.</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">II. The Moods of the Lakes</span></p> - -<p>Lakes are like the rivers and the sea; they have their -moods. In sunshine and storm, in wind and calm, and -from season to season they show many changes. As we -already know they are great sleepy heads. To Ruskin -mountain lakes seemed both to sleep and to dream. But -their longest sleep, like that of Br'er Bear, is taken in the -winter. Of this long sleep Mr. Muir says:<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p> - -<p>"The highest (mountain lakes) are set in bleak, rough -bowls, scantily fringed with brown and yellow sedges. -Winter storms blow snow through the canyon in blinding -drifts, and avalanches shoot from the heights. Then are -these sparkling tarns filled and buried, leaving not a hint -of their existence. In June and July they begin to blink -and thaw out like sleepy eyes, the daisies bloom in turn -and the most profoundly buried of them all is at length -warmed and summered as if winter were only a dream."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> "The Mountains of California."</p> - -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">EVEN THE DUCKS OVERLOOK THESE LITTLE LAKES</p> - -<p>But possibly these lakes are not asleep after all! They -may be only playing possum; or hide and seek. There -<i>are</i> mountain lakes that play hide and seek. That is to -say, they hide and <i>you</i> seek; and often you don't find! -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">- 199 -</span> -They are so small that, surrounded as they are by trees, -tall and thickly set, even the ducks pass them by. The -glaciers that made them seem to have hidden them, as the -robins did the babes in the wood. The glaciers did this, -not by heaping leaves over them, but by piling up stones -and soil around them. They are encircled by moraines, -and on the moraines grow the trees that hide the lakelets -even from the sharp eyes of the ducks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg199" style="width: 492px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg199.png" width="492" height="334" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">A LITTLE GIRL'S PICTURE OF A FAMOUS SWISS LAKE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This picture of the lake of the Great St. Bernard was taken by Phyllis M. Pulliam, -who sent it to <i>St. Nicholas</i> with a long, enthusiastic letter, such as only school-girls -know how to write. Among other things she met a great St. Bernard dog -that had saved more than fifty lives.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>Mountain lakes are usually as clear as crystal, and, like -perfect mirrors, reflect the outlines and coloring of the -clouds and the neighboring peaks. They are apt to contain -mica and feldspar ground out of the granite rock by -the glacier that made their basins. Then the sunlight -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">- 200 -</span> -falling on these rock particles gives them the color of jade -or Nile green, or dark green like a peacock's tail. They -are constantly changing color with the changing angles -of the light from morning until sunset; and under the -passing clouds and the rippling of the winds. The deeper -lakes are dark blue in the deepest parts, turning to green -in the shallow waters near shore where the yellow of the -sun rays and the sand mixes most with the blue of the -waters.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Van Dyke: "The Mountain."</p> - -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">THE MYSTERY IS IN THE SECRET PASSAGE</p> - -<p>In Florida there are sister lakes so sympathetic that -their waters rise and fall together. One responds to the -mood of the other as promptly as your right eye waters -in sympathy when you get a grain of dust in the left. The -reason for this goes back to the days when the corals helped -build Florida. They did this by leaving their "bones" -on the coral reefs when that part of North America was in -the making. These remains formed limestone. Then, -in this limestone, "sink holes" were formed on the surface -leading to underground passages, just as they do over the -land surface in the cave regions of Kentucky. These sink -holes often fill with water and form little lakes. These -lakes, being connected by the underground passages, rise -and fall together. It looks very strange, even when you -know the secret of it; and still stranger when you don't.</p> - -<p>Yet I shouldn't be surprised if a bright boy or girl seeing -two lakes rising or falling together would suspect the underground -connection; for, of course, we all know about springs -and their underground channels. But what would you -say to this:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">- 201 -</span></p> - -<p>A lake that, a moment before, was as smooth as glass -suddenly begins to shiver all over as one shivers in a sudden -draught. But there is no breeze stirring! A moment later -the water rises and falls along the banks; an inch, two -inches, a foot, two feet. Then, in the course of a couple -of hours, the sky, which before was without a cloud, begins -to grow black and there follows a terrific storm.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">A KIND OF NATURAL BAROMETER</p> - -<p>The cause of the rising of the water is the heavier pressure -of the air at the farther end of the lake, the region -of the coming storm. The water, being forced down at -one end of the basin, you see, rises at the other. Then -as the storm advances toward you the pressure is released -and the water falls again; but for a while it rocks to and -fro as water will do in a basin if you tip it up at one end -and then let it down again.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE TIDES IN A TEACUP</p> - -<p>But, besides these imitation tides made by the unequal -pressure of the wind, lakes have real tides just as the ocean -does; and from the same cause, the attraction of the -moon. In fact, there are tides in a teacup, and the tea -rises toward the passing moon as does everything liquid -on the face of the earth. In the teacup the rise is so small -you can't see it as you do when the great mass of the -ocean waters is moved in the same way. Even in the Great -Lakes the tide only amounts to three inches or so.</p> - -<p>And, in addition to their tides, there are many other -things about lakes that have led the largest of them to -be referred to as "inland seas." Says Reclus:<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">- 202 -</span></p> - -<p>"Lakes are indeed seas. They have their tempests, -their swells, their breakers. It is true the waves are neither -so high nor move so rapidly as those of the sea because -they do not move over such great depths. They are short, -compact and choppy, but for this very reason they are -more formidable. And the water being fresh and therefore -lighter than that of the ocean is more readily agitated. -The wind has scarcely begun to stir when the surface is -covered with foaming billows."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> "The Earth."</p> - -</div> - -<p>Not only are lake storms especially dangerous for the -reasons just given by the great French geographer but -lakes in mountain regions are subject to an additional -danger; for their storms are most apt to come at night, -just as described in the story of the storm on Galilee in -the New Testament. You remember it says the storm -came "down."<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Luke 8: 23.</p> - -</div> - -<p>"Now it came to pass on a certain day that Jesus went -into a ship with his disciples; and he said unto them, Let -us go over unto the other side of the lake. And they -launched forth.</p> - -<p>"But as they sailed he fell asleep: and there came down -a storm of wind on the lake; and they were filled with -water and were in jeopardy."</p> - -<p>Macgregor, in his "Rob Roy on the Jordan," draws the -following vivid picture of his own struggles with one of -these tempests:</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE STORM CAME DOWN ON GALILEE</p> - -<p>"Just as the Rob Roy passed below Wady Fik a strange, -distant hissing sounded ahead where we could see a violent -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">- 203 -</span> -storm was raging. The waves had not time to rise. The -gusts had come down on calm water and they whisked long -wreaths of it up into the sky. This torrent of heavy, cold -air was pouring over the mountain crests into the deep -caldron of the lake below. Just as it says in Luke 8:23. -'There came <i>down</i> a storm upon the lake.'"</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg203" style="width: 500px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg203.png" width="500" height="351" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">ON THE BORDERS OF THE SEA OF GALILEE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>You can see this is in a desert, mountainous country, and, from the dress of the -man, that it is in the Orient. The beach is wide—for so small a lake—because of -those frequent and severe storms that drive the waves, loaded with sand and -pebbles, far back from the shore.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>This peculiarity of squalls among mountains is known -to all who have boated much on lakes, but on the Sea of -Galilee the wind has a singular force and suddenness. This -is no doubt because the sea is so deep in the world that the -sun rarefies the air in it enormously and the wind, speeding -swiftly over a long and level plateau, suddenly comes upon -this huge gap in the way and tumbles down into it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">- 204 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">III. How Lakes Grow Old and Pass Away</span></p> - -<p>But, however formed, lakes, of all the features of our -landscape, are the soonest to pass away. Because of the -sediment brought into them by the rivers they keep getting -more and more shallow and at last, in the course of time, -are quite filled up. The waves of the lakes themselves -help to bring this about by cutting material from their -shores and washing it into the water.</p> - -<p>So the time will come when all lakes now in existence -will have passed away. But the people of those times will -not be without their lakes. New lakes will probably be -made by the same causes which produced the lakes of to-day; -for Nature's great processes do not change.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHY LILIES COME TO THE DYING LAKES</p> - -<p>Meanwhile how beautifully they pass, these lakes; particularly -the little lakes like that in Rousseau's painting. -First, on the margin of a dying lake the lilies gather. Lilies -grow only in quiet waters and these they find in the shallow -margins of lakes that are filling up.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">LAST OF ALL COME THE TREES</p> - -<p>Next after the lilies come the sedges, grasslike herbs -that grow in marshy places. And after they are well -established they get things ready for the next arrivals; for -these plants come in a regular procession. The dense tufts -of the sedges make mats on which soil gathers. In this soil -shrubs begin to grow. From the decay of all this vegetation -more soil is formed in which the seeds of spruce and -tamarack spring up. Then come willows, then poplars -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">- 205 -</span> -and maples, and last of all the oaks and nut-bearing trees, -which march into new lands slowly because they must -depend on their heavy seeds to move them forward, while -the little seeds of maple, willow, poplar, and pine are easily -carried by the wind.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg205" style="width: 489px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg205.png" width="489" height="326" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>"The Lake." From the painting by Rousseau</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">HOW LAKES GROW OLD AND PASS AWAY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This picture, called "The Lake," is from a painting by Rousseau, a great French -landscape artist, and illustrates the beautiful way in which lakes grow old, as described -in the text. Already, as you see, Father Oak and his family have arrived.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>But while fresh-water lakes and their surroundings are -so beautiful and poetic, and never more so than when the -lakes are passing away, there are dying lakes, whose surroundings -are the very pictures of desolation. These are -the lakes which have become bitter with salt because their -waters are evaporated by the sun faster than fresh water -comes in. The most famous of these salt lakes is the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">- 206 -</span> -Dead Sea of the Holy Land, into which the Jordan flows. -Lying in a rock-bound pit, in the deepest part of a vast -trench, it is like a caldron into which for eight months of -every year is poured the heat from a burning sun in a -cloudless sky. Although Palestine, as you can see by the -map, is in the temperate zone, the thermometer here often -registers 130 degrees, because cooling breezes never come -down into this pit except in those occasional storms due -to the sudden rush of cooler and therefore heavier air from -the surrounding heights.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THIS IS HOW THE DEAD SEA DIED</p> - -<p>As shown by the wave-cut terraces on the surrounding -rocks this lake was once a part of a great body of water -that extended clear from Mount Hermon to the Red -Sea. Then, by a series of heaving movements, widely -separated in time (as shown by the depth of the beach terraces) -the bottom of this greater sea was uplifted into the -two parallel chains of limestone mountains which flank -the Jordan Valley. At the same time a great block of -earth crust between them settled down, step by step, and -made the long trench running clear to Africa, one end of -which is the Jordan Valley, in which the Dead Sea lies.</p> - -<p>Later, during the different Ice Ages, as it is supposed, -there was plenty of moisture, for the rock records show -that the Sea of Galilee and what is now the Dead Sea were -once parts of the same body of water. Then the climate -gradually changed, the land went dry, and the Dead Sea -water became far saltier than that of the ocean—so salty -that all life died out of it. To-day the water tastes like a -mixture of epsom salts and quinine, and any unfortunate -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">- 207 -</span> -fish swept into it by the fresh waters of the Jordan, in -which fish are abundant, gives a few desperate gasps and -dies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg207a" style="width: 486px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg207a.png" width="486" height="336" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE DEAD SEA</p> -</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg207b" style="width: 505px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg207b.png" width="505" height="109" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE DEAD SEA DIED</p> -</div> - - -<p>While it is not true, as the ancients believed, that birds -drop dead in flying over it, neither birds nor beasts make -their homes in the choking pit; and on its shores, always -gray with a mixture of mud and salt, of course no green -thing can grow. Indeed, there is little plant life anywhere -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">- 208 -</span> -round about, but as if in mockery there grow nearby what -are known as apples of Sodom or Dead Sea fruit. This -fruit looks like an orange, but it is bitter to the taste and -filled only with fibre and dust.</p> - -<p>The official report of Lieutenant Lynch, of the United -States Navy, who headed an expedition sent out by the -government to explore the Dead Sea and the surrounding -regions, is full of word pictures which might well have supplied -material for the imagination of Dante.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">LIKE A VAT OF MOLTEN METAL</p> - -<p>The sea, yellow from the large amount of phosphorus -in the water, is overhung in the early morning by a dense -mist. This mist is made by the water steaming in the -intense heat. It looks, however, like smoke above a great -vat of molten metal "fused but motionless." After dark, -when the night winds come down from the heights and go -moaning through the gorges, the scene changes.</p> - -<p>"The surface becomes one wide sheet of phosphorescent -foam, and the waves, as they break on the shore, throw a -sepulchral light on the white skeletons of dead trees which -have been washed from the woody banks of the Jordan -and, lying half buried in the sand, are coated with gray -salt from the muddy spray."</p> - -<p>On a portion of the land now covered by the lake, -according to tradition, were the wicked cities of Sodom -and Gomorrah, and after their destruction these bitter -waters flowed in and forever buried the scene of their -wickedness from the sight of men.</p> - -<p>It seems probable that the region did once support a -larger population. We know this to be true of other parts -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">- 209 -</span> -of the Orient which have since become desolate owing to -the ravages of war, the change of climate, and the decay -of Oriental civilization. And when we recall how the -sinking of the great earth block that carried this land so far -below the level of the sea forced lava up through the earth -cracks, we can account for "the fire from heaven" that -poured down upon the cities of the plain.</p> - -<p>Professor Huntington, who headed the Yale Expedition -into Palestine in 1909, speaks of visiting the ruins of -Suweim south of the Dead Sea and picking up bits of lava -(the whole region abounds in evidences of volcanic action) -while the sheik who acted as guide told the story of Sodom -as the story of Suweim. The name Suweim, Professor -Huntington thinks, may be a corruption of Sodom. Continuing, -he says:<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p> - -<p>"The place is much greener than the other side of the -valley, and in the days of Lot may have been 'like the -garden of Jehovah'<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>; for in those times, as our studies of -old levels of the Dead Sea quite clearly indicate, the climate -of Palestine was probably decidedly moister than it -is now.</p> - -<p>"And not two miles from Suweim we found a little volcano -of very recent date geologically, and an eruption -may have wrought havoc in a town located near Suweim."</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> "Palestine and Its Transformation."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="label">[42]</a> Genesis 13:10.</p> - -</div> - -<p>In one part of the valley he also found a cave among -the mountains, hewn out of the limestone above a spring.</p> - -<p>Now turn to your Bible, Genesis 9:30:</p> - -<p>"And Lot went up out of Zoar and dwelt in the mountain, -in a cave, he and his two daughters."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">- 210 -</span></p> - -<p>In short, the geography of the region—such is the conclusion -of Professor Huntington's careful study—"supplies -all the elements of the story of Sodom and Gomorrah -in exactly the location where the Biblical account would -lead one to expect them."</p> - -<p>But the native Arab goes further. Not far from the -borders of the Dead Sea is a mountain of salt called Jebel -Usdem, which "the early and later rains" in the course of -ages have dissolved into many fantastic shapes. Among -these strange figures is a pillar tapering toward the top, -on which is a wide cap of stone, such as that shown on page -60 and such as are often seen on detached and pillared -rocks.</p> - -<p>But this gaunt remnant of grisly gray, although it is still -obviously a part of the mountain and cannot be less than -forty feet high, your Arab friend insists was once the wife -of Lot!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>If you were hunting for mountain lakes where would you expect -to find the most, in high mountains or in low?</p> - -<p>Rivers sometimes make lakes by using the same stuff the small -boys do, just plain mud. Look at Lake Pontchartrain in the -map of Louisiana and you can see one of the ways in which this -is done. Remember that all the land around this lake is part of -the delta of the Mississippi. The river deposits have simply -enclosed a portion of the shallow sea.</p> - -<p>Or—this is another way in which rivers make lakes by building -mud walls—a river emptying at right angles into a narrow gulf -may build a dam clear across it. The rich Imperial Valley of -southern California was cut off from the Gulf of California in this -way. Look at the map and you can see just how this was done.</p> - -<p>One of the puzzles about mountain lakes is how frogs got into -them. The frogs never climbed up there, you may be sure. Muir -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">- 211 -</span> -thinks maybe the ducks did it. How do you suppose? See if -you can imagine and then see what Muir says about it.<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="label">[43]</a> "The Mountains of California."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>In connection with what was said about lakes playing they are -oceans—not these little mountain lakes, of course, but great big -lakes—you will be interested in what Lord Bryce says in his -"Travels in South America" about why lakes may even look -larger than the ocean.</p> - -<p>In the Britannica and other books that you may not yet be old -enough to read you will find many more curious things about -lakes. I can't tell which one of my readers you are, you see, but -if you belong to the "younger set," father, mother, or some other -member of the family can do the looking up and then tell you -about it.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> In the Britannica will be found such interesting things -as this:</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="label">[44]</a> I don't know of anything that is more fun, of an evening, than -looking up things in an encyclopædia—except looking them up in <i>two</i> -encyclopædias.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>How certain kinds of mountains and lakes are made at one and -the same time—by the same movement.</p> - -<p>How even the wind may make lakes.</p> - -<p>Why lakes are to the land what lands are to the sea.</p> - -<p>Then if you will turn to page 75 of that fascinating little book -we have already dipped into several times<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> you will find what the -fact that lakes are to the land what islands are to the sea has to -do with a peculiar beetle in the Shetland Islands (where the ponies -come from) and the famous tailless cat of the Isle of Man.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="label">[45]</a> "Colin Clout's Calendar."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>One of the quaintest little bits of real life in Lakeland is how the -baby gulls of the Great Lakes worry their papas and mamas by -going swimming before they are old enough; how their parents -give them a spanking and send them back home; and how kind -all the lady gulls are to the little gulls of neighbors that come to -their houses to play with their children.<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="label">[46]</a> "The Bird, Our Brother," by Olive Thorne Miller.</p> - -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">- 212 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg212" style="width: 514px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg212.png" width="514" height="216" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">DROWNED VALLEYS ON THE MAINE COAST</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Wherever you see very irregular shores, as along the coast of Maine, you may -infer that the shores have sunk so that the waters of the sea came up into the river -valleys, and the hills and long tongues of high land became islands and peninsulas.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(OCTOBER)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">To-night the winds begin to rise</div> - <div class="verse indent2">And roar from yonder dropping day;</div> - <div class="verse indent2">The last red leaf is whirled away,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The rooks are blown about the skies.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>Tennyson.</i></div> -</div> - - - -<p class="caption3">THE AUTUMN WINDS AND THE ROCK MILLS OF THE SEA</p> - -<p>Nothing looks more aimless, more unorganized, perhaps, -than the long turmoil of the waves of the sea which begins -in late autumn and continues through the winter months. -If, with your nose well over the edge of a cliff, you look -straight down, you will see something like this: With -every forward leap of the surges the waters are divided -and entangled among the rocks, and division after division -is beaten back by the upright wall in front and the broken -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">- 213 -</span> -blocks of stone on this side and on that. On-coming waves, -met by those recoiling, rise into mountainous, struggling -masses of wild fury. The whole affair seems to be as clear -a case of wasted energy as a Mexican revolution.</p> - -<p>But if you watch the waves carefully and study them a -little you will see underlying and controlling this apparent -anarchy the wonderful engineering by which the machinery -of the sea works out its appointed tasks. It is when the -earth has gathered its harvests and laid down to its winter -rest that the sea begins gathering harvests of its own, -grinding up the rocks for food for the plants in its gardens, -for new clothes for its shell-fish, and new soil for -earth harvests in millenniums yet to be.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. The Destroyer</span></p> - -<p>On the face of it the case looks bad. The sea's chief -business seems to be that of eating us up, or at least the -lands on which we live. And this idea of it we find running -through all literature and art. A very large number -of the pictures of the sea, probably the majority, show it -in wind and storm. And this is still more true of the -famous sea pictures of literature. Shakespere, for example, -makes some three hundred references to the sea, and -nearly always, where he gives it a character, it is that of -a monster, always hungry and never satisfied, a "wild, -rude sea," a sea "raging like an angry boar"—and so -back to Homer and forward to Kipling.</p> - -<p>That the sea is constantly eating away the land cannot -be denied, and to an extent that is delightfully alarming if, -as did the little boy listening to the tale of the giants, we -"like to be made nervous." It is said that England still -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">- 214 -</span> -rules the waves, but where she fronts the sea on the east -the coast is being cut back at the rate of two to four yards -a year, in spite of all that modern engineering skill can do. -In the course of a thousand years the losses on all fronts -have amounted to over 500 square miles. Each year carries -off 1,500 acres more from the king's domains, to add -them to the Empire of the Sea, "and he calls to us still -unfed." On the east coast the blows dealt by the waves -in severe storms are such that the land trembles for a mile -back from the shore. "The earth," said Emerson,<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> speaking -of the industrial greatness of England, "shakes under -the thunder of its mills." So for ages it has shaken under -the thunder of the mills of the sea.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="label">[47]</a> "English Traits."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg214" style="width: 488px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg214.png" width="488" height="351" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>Courtesy of "The Scientific American"</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">SEA-CLIFFS IN THE SCHOOLROOM</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>These dizzy cliffs and the wide sea beyond were made in the schoolroom in the -same way that the glacier and the iceberg were made in <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chagter II</a>.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">- 215 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg215" style="width: 484px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg215.png" width="484" height="349" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>Courtesy of "The Scientific American"</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">BEHIND THE SCENES</p> -</div> - - -<p>This apparent war of the sea upon the land is a war of -machinery whose workings are curiously like the ancient -war machinery of men. Without tools the sea is almost -as helpless as man himself; and, as in man's history, its -use of tools begins with the Stone Age. Where there is -no stone-strewn beach or underwater shelf extending out -from a cliff, the waves do little damage. They give only -a muffled and (to the poetic ear) a baffled roar. But a -sloping shelf along a rocky shore not only makes a kind -of scaling ladder on which the waves can climb to great -heights, but these waves are pitched forward with terrific -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">- 216 -</span> -force as they reach it from the open sea. As they come -on they seize huge stones which they hurl against the cliffs. -Even amid the wild voices of tempests one hears the boulders -crashing against the walls. In storms of sufficient -energy rocks of three tons weight are driven forward like -pebbles. The action against the upper part of a cliff may -be compared to that of one of those great stone-throwing -engines of the Romans, while on the lower portion the -drive suggests the battering-ram.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHAT NEPTUNE KNOWS ABOUT WEDGES AND -PNEUMATIC TOOLS</p> - -<p>Where the waves strike into narrowing crevices in the -rocks they act as wedges, prying the walls apart. In this -form of the sea's destructive work we find also an application -of a motive power which has come to play so important -a part in modern engineering; namely, compressed air. -Waves strong enough to handle big rocks not only dash -them against the cliff, while the waves themselves drive -into the crevices like wedges, but in so doing they force -air into the crevices and compress it. This air, expanding -as the waves fall back, forces out great blocks of stone -which, in turn, are also used as weapons of assault.</p> - -<p>And, as we look back in the history of the sea, we find -that he long ago—the deep-laid schemer!—planted enemies -within our very walls. Waves, even when armed with -the heaviest missiles, can do comparatively little damage -to walls in which there are no crevices. But there are few -such walls. Usually even the hardest rocks have running -through them those cracks which the geologists (with a -fine sense of humor) call "joints"; or they have "bedding -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">- 217 -</span> -planes," the divisions between the rock beds. Both of -these weaknesses in our defensive walls are, in a large degree, -the handiwork of the sea; the bedding planes because -rocks are so laid in the sea mills, and the joints because -the wrinkling up and consequent cracking of the land rocks -is the other end, as we learned in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chagter I</a>, of the down-wrinkling -of the rocks under the weight of the sea.</p> - -<p>In the very body of the rocks also is hidden a secret -enemy; the salt left when they were made. And more -salt is constantly being forced into the surface pores as -the waves strike. This salt helps to dissolve and weaken -the rock under the chemical action of the air, and the rains -and the mechanical expansion and contraction of the surface -with changes of temperature.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">PLANING MILLS OF THE WINTER SEA</p> - -<p>All the Great Powers of nature, "on land, on sea, and -in the air," seem to be in open conspiracy against our peace. -The evidence seems especially plain in late fall and winter, -when the sea, contrary to the usual practice in war, carries -on its most vigorous campaigns. Then come the winds -for the great drives; then come the frosts that change -the water wedges into expanding blocks of ice that, almost -with the force of exploding shells, tear the walls apart. -In winter are formed the great ice-fields that help in two -ingenious ways to further the destructive action of the -storm waves. In bays and smaller recesses in rocky shores, -the ice has embedded in it fragments of stone which the -sea has battered down. The constant plunge of the waves -breaks up these ice-fields into sections which, with the -embedded stones, become rude planing mills. Where a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">- 218 -</span> -headland is sloping, these planers, driven back and forth by -the waves, chisel the rock away as a planer chisels down -a piece of steel upon which it has been set to work.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW STONES ARE CARRIED OUT TO SEA</p> - -<p>A no less curious feature of sea engineering is the use -of ice-fields as "conveyors." During the spring, summer, -and autumn the masses of stone which the sea brings down -from the cliffs on its occasional busy days—that is to say -on days when the winds are high—pile up and so form a -kind of bulwark against further attacks. But when in -winter these stones become embedded as above described, -strong offshore winds carry the ice-fields, stones and all, -out to sea. Then, on shore, wind and wave take up their -work again unchecked. All along the rocky shores of the -Atlantic, as far south as New York State, beyond which -no rock walls come down to the shore, all these interesting -things may be seen by the traveller.</p> - -<p>Another phase of this team-work of natural forces in -feeding the land to the sea is that steady advance of the -waters upon certain shores. As if science herself had -joined literature and art in giving the old sea dog a bad -name, these advances are called in the language of geology, -"transgressions of the sea." These transgressions -are caused in part by the gradual sinking of the land and -in part by the rising of the waters. It is not possible -always to tell which agency is at work. Often both may -be. One thing about the rising of the waters themselves -might be looked at as particularly alarming. The rivers, -which, of course, are parts of one great water system, whose -centre and prime mover is the sea, are not only constantly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">- 219 -</span> -wearing the land down toward sea level but raising the -sea level by the inpour of vast quantities of ground-up -land. Even as matters stand, the amount of water in the -sea bowls is so great that if all lands were at the present -sea level they would be covered everywhere to a depth -of two miles. Wind-borne dust from the surface of the -land and from volcanic explosions also, in time, amounts -to a pretty sum; and, of course, helps makes the waters -of the sea rise upon the land.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WEARING DOWN THE LAND AND FILLING UP THE SEA</p> - -<p>Already the sea has advanced a thousand feet or more -upon the coasts of Maine, to take one instance; and the -whole ragged outline of Europe is due to the same cause. -Let this sort of thing go on and it is easy to see that it will -only be a question of a few millions of years when New -York, London, and other centres of busy life will be buried -like the wicked cities of the plain.</p> - -<p>And if, to help complete this picture of desolation, we -for a moment forget what we learned about the life insurance -carried by the continents, we can imagine how they -too will disappear. And the Last Man thus:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">For now I stand as one upon a rock</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Environed with a wilderness of sea,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Who marks the waxing tide grow wave by wave</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Expecting ever when some envious surge,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Will, in his brinish bowels, swallow him.<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="label">[48]</a> Shakespere: "Titus Andronicus."</p> - -</div> - -<p>To make the thing seem doubly sure, let us reflect with -Mr. Burroughs that the world is now probably in a time -of spring, following the latest of the Ice Ages. If so, the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">- 220 -</span> -water now locked up in snow-fields and glaciers among -the mountain peaks will, before this summer of the centuries -is over, all melt back into the sea. This alone will -be good for a rise of some thirty feet in sea level.</p> - -<p>Then, still later, we shall no doubt have another Ice -Age, and the only thing that may save us from being -frozen to death is the fact that we have previously been -drowned!</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. The Builder</span></p> - -<p>But it's all a bad dream; a delusion of the mind, and -of the eye. We see these things—the destruction of the -land, the invasions of the sea—but we do not see them -as they are because we do not see far enough. Looked at -broadly, and reading the story of it to the end, we learn -that the whole relation of the sea to the land and its life -and beauty is that of a builder and fatherly provider. Far -from being the savage creature he has been pictured, Father -Neptune seems to have the kindly disposition of old King -Cole combined with the wisdom of King Solomon. Everywhere -is evidence not only of the highest intelligence but -of good will toward man and his brother tenants of the -waters, fields, and woods.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE TRUTH ABOUT THE SEA IS THIS</p> - -<p>To begin with you remember it was the sea that helped -put the world on the map. Of course, if we had not -already learned in the story of how the continents came -up out of the sea, that there is no cause for alarm, we might -imagine that having been lifted up they might, by a reversal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">- 221 -</span> -of the process, be lifted down again. Indeed, I find a writer -in a popular periodical dealing in science stating that "every -part of the sea floor becomes, in its turn, the shore line -and is subjected to the wear of the waves." But, as a -matter of fact, we know that the continents have finally -got their land legs; that for ages the transgressions of the -sea have been mainly confined to the continental margins; -and that unless the earth's shrunken centre should, from -some unimaginable cause, swell back to its old size, it is -mechanically impossible for the entire bottoms of the vast -reservoirs of the sea to be raised.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg221" style="width: 483px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg221.png" width="483" height="351" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HARBOR ENGINEERING OF THE RIVERS AND THE SEA</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>In the mouths of certain rivers emptying into the sea the tides come rushing up -in a roaring wave like this. When the tide goes out the water flows back again. -This back-and-forth motion helps to broaden the harbor made by the river's mouth, -as in the case of New York Harbor, which is the mouth of the Hudson. Owing -to this tidal action the water of the Hudson backs up clear to Albany.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">- 222 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg222" style="width: 315px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg222.png" width="315" height="216" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">A GOLDEN GATE FOR FRISCO</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>The famous Golden Gate of San Francisco (so called because of the golden sunsets -shining through), and its splendid harbor, made by the sinking of the land. -The gate was originally cut by the waters of those two rivers that join and flow -into the bay. What rivers are they?</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE SEA HELPS MAKE GOOD FARMS AND BIG CITIES</p> - -<p>Moreover the rivers, in the very act of wearing down -the land and with it filling up the sea, help keep the land -from being flooded, as it would be if something were not -done. For, as we learned in the story of why the mountains -border the sea the sediment poured in by the rivers -helps raise the mountains and the land along the sea -border. It is during the downward movement of the continental -margins that most sediment is spread from the -inpouring rivers because the dip of the land is greater -and the swifter current not only cuts down the land faster, -but carries the sediment farther out from shore. Here -the new rock is made from old worn-out soil, and, since -these new rocks when brought to the surface will in time -decay, fresh soil is thus prepared for future generations. -More immediate benefits of this sinking of shores and advance -of waters are the harbors which have made great -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">- 223 -</span> -cities like New York and London, on or near the seacoast. -These harbors are all the results of "transgressions," combined -with the digging action of wave and tide.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg223" style="width: 311px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg223.png" width="311" height="411" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>Copyright by Underwood & Underwood</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">STONE TERRACES FOR THE GANNETS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This picture shows what the rising of the land and the architectural engineering -of the sea did for the gannets on the coast of Canada.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">TAKING A HINT FROM THE SEA'S SHORE ENGINEERING</p> - -<p>But the sea builds shores as well as eats them. Its chief -work in this line is the widening of the continental shelf -by building it up with rock made of the sea's own grist -from its shores, and the sediment poured in by the rivers. -This work is not "delivered," so to speak, for millions of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">- 224 -</span> -years, when the sinking shores begin to rise again, but the -sea, in its wave work, does shore building of another kind -that shows above the waters in the generation in which -it is done. On wide, shallow beaches, storm waves break -some distance from the shore, and, so losing their force, -drop the sediment which they have stirred up, after carrying -it forward only a little way. As a result of this repeated -dumping, an embankment forms, broadening seaward in -the middle and bending shoreward at the ends. A portion -of the sea itself is finally cut out and enclosed by this -embankment, thus forming a lagoon. Finally this lagoon -is filled with material, washed from the land and by sediment -brought in from the sea at high tide. Human engineers, -taking the hint, now put the sea to work on similar -undertakings of their own. An embankment is built enclosing -an area of the sea; then the tides and the land -wash do the rest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg224" style="width: 276px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg224.png" width="276" height="389" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE DROWNED RIVERS THAT HELPED MAKE ENGLAND GREAT</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Her fine harbors have helped to make England the great commercial nation that -she is. Notice here the relation of her largest cities to the bay-like mouths of the -drowned rivers and to the drowned valley north of the Isle of Wight.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">- 225 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg225" style="width: 515px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg225.png" width="515" height="225" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE SEA TAUGHT SHORE ENGINEERING TO MEN</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is a salt marsh at mid-tide. How the sea itself adds such regions to the -dominion of the land, and how human engineers, taking the hint, have put the sea -to work, you will learn in this chapter.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>The sea also works with the busy little corals in building -reefs and islands. Corals can only live and build where -the water is kept in constant and vigorous motion by current -and wave. From the air imprisoned in the bubbles -by the stirring and turmoil of the waves and particularly -from the air in the white foam of the crests these little -people get their oxygen. At the same time they absorb -out of the water the food on which they grow. The sea -not only feeds these little wards of its bounty during their -busy lives, but extends their usefulness after death, either -by cementing to the reef the coral, ground up by the waves, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">- 226 -</span> -or in storms scattering it over wide areas, to be made later -into the finest of limestone; and still later into the best of -soils.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg226" style="width: 483px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg226.png" width="483" height="220" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">FATHER NEPTUNE FEEDING THE CORAL PEOPLE</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>See that line of breakers just below the horizon? That shows where Father -Neptune is serving the little coral people with food and fresh air, as explained in -the text.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>We know also that the sea makes coal as well as stone -in its rock mills; that the pressure of the overlying rock -was in large part the source of the heat that changed the -vegetation of the swamps, first into charcoal and then into -coal.</p> - -<p>The subject of what the sea has done and is doing for -us is almost as endless as the seas themselves; and no doubt -the reason the sea is never still is because it has so much -to do. Nothing in earth's animate or inanimate nature -exercises an influence to be compared in importance to -that of the sea, not only upon the land, but upon the whole -life which land and sea support; and even in what seem -to be the most aimless of its movements it in reality acts -with the precision of a machine.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">- 227 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">III. The Artist</span></p> - -<p>And in the making of the rock in its presses under the -water, as well as in the grinding which takes place along -the shores, the sea evidently has an eye to beauty as well -as use. As originally formed, the conglomerates or "pudding-stones" -are always laid nearest the shore because -there the retiring waves and the rivers emptying into the -sea drop the heaviest part of their load, including the -pebbles. Next is dropped the sand which is pressed into -sandstone and beyond this the finest particles of all, the -ground-up soil, which becomes slate rock. Still beyond -the zone of slate is deposited the lime from the shells of -sea creatures who can live only in this clearer water, away -from the muddy waters nearer the shore. These deposits -make limestone. The result of this natural sorting process -is that all the four kinds of sedimentary rock are always -laid down in just this 1, 2, 3, 4 order and no other: (1) -pudding-stone; (2) sandstone; (3) slate; (4) limestone.</p> - -<p>Then, as a result of the transgressions of the sea, what -was once a region of conglomerate may be later found far -out under the sea and there is thus laid down over the conglomerate -beds, strata of sandstone, slate, or limestone, -depending on how far the sea advances. So we find rocks -with all sorts of neighbors above and below; limestone -above conglomerate, conglomerate above slate. These -changes take place over vast regions and from the original -uniformity in the arrangement of the rocks there necessarily -results a similar uniformity in the results of this -"shuffling," and no matter what changes may be made -afterward by raising them up into shore cliff and mountain -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">- 228 -</span> -and by other earth movements, and by the endless -reshaping by weather and wave, there still remains that -underlying harmony which, with variety, gives to rocky -shores their picturesque beauty.</p> - -<p>Harmony and variety are necessary in all forms of art—pictures, -literature, music—and the conditions governing -harmony and variety are always found hand-in-hand -in the art work of the sea and its helpers. The difference -in texture in different kinds of rock, for example, and in -different parts of the same rock, cause them to yield in -different ways and degrees to the action of wave, wind -and weather; so there is sure to be great variety in the -shapes they take as they are worn away.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HARMONY, VARIETY, AND THE ART WORK OF THE SEA -FAMILY LIKENESS IN ROCK FORMS</p> - -<p>Yet, with all their differences, the shapes rocks take—sandstone -compared with granite, for example—are so -characteristic that one soon learns to tell a long way off -what kind of rock a distant landscape is made of. There -is inevitably a certain type resemblance, since all sandstone -is of the same general texture and weathers in the same -way.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">NATURE'S BUILDING BLOCKS AND THE SEA</p> - -<p>Then take the natural division into blocks made by -joints in the rocks to which cliffs like the famous Castle -Head at Bar Harbor owes its striking form. These blocks -are so nearly true that you feel sure they must have been -cut by stone-masons, and yet they have the variety which -art demands; they have not the monotonous sameness of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">- 229 -</span> -shape of the bricks in a wall. This is mainly due to the -differences in the strains which cracked the original rock -mass. So, from the beginning a sea-wall built by nature -is more picturesque than a sea-wall built by man. And -it goes on taking more and more picturesque shapes under -the hammers of the waves. For the force of the waves, -the angles at which they strike, the size and shape of the -rock fragments with which they strike, these vary infinitely.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">ETCHING, SCULPTURE, AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING</p> - -<p>Equally true is this of other natural forces that shape -the rocks; such as the daily and seasonal changes of temperature -that chip away the mountain peaks and the faces -of the cliffs, and the character and number of plants that -grow on rocks where they can get a foothold and dying -and decaying generate acids which help to etch the rocks -away. Trees growing on rocks search out the cracks with -their roots and, pushing in and prying them apart, help -to change their form. And there is sure to be variety in -the arrangement of the wild trees growing on rocks in the -mountains and by the sea, since the seeds, being carried -by the winds or by running water or by birds or four-footed -creatures, fall in an endless variety of groupings. So of -the shadows cast by the trees. These shadow masses, so -different in shape, owing in part to the irregular arrangement -of the trees and in part to the differences in shape -of the trees themselves, protect portions of the rock, to a -certain extent, against changes in temperature, while the -bare rocks are fully exposed to it, so there results a corresponding -variety in the result of the sun's work upon -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">- 230 -</span> -the rock. At the same time they help on the acid etching -process, because in these shadowed spots there is more -moisture and therefore more rapid decay.</p> - -<p>The form of whole continents follows the same law. -Take, for example, Europe. "The geological history of -Europe," says Geikie,<a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> "is largely the history of its -mountain chains"; and the mountain chains, for all their -picturesque variety, have also, and necessarily, a certain -uniformity, because in the wrinkling of the rocks which -made them the vast areas over which they now extend -were all subjected to the same force—a big push from one -side which crumpled up the earth's outer crust as a table-cloth -is crumpled up when pushed forward against a book -lying on it.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="label">[49]</a> Encyclopædia Britannica: article on Geology.</p> - -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE VERY SCENERY PLAYS MANY PARTS</p> - -<p>The ancient history written in the rocks, in the present -relative positions of the strata, shows that four times a -great mountain system has thus been raised across the -face of what is now Europe; that three times large portions -of these mountain ranges have been sunk under the sea -and new rocks deposited over them; and that the mountains -of to-day—the Alps, the Carpathians, and the rest—are -the survivors of the fourth time up. Here we have -another striking example of the fact that on the great -stage of life the very scenery has its exits and its entrances!</p> - -<p>But remember that in all these changes of scenery—in -the crumplings and the foldings, and new rock deposits -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">- 231 -</span> -and the carving by the rivers and the frosts and the winds -and the waves of the sea—we have certain similar materials, -similarly arranged, stretching over vast areas, and -the consequence is a certain uniformity and rhythm in -the ups and downs of the landscape and in the changes -worked in the walls of stone "where time and storm have -set their wild signatures upon them."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>What would you think of seeing the leaves all out and the trees -in bloom on Christmas Day? That happens right along, and the -people who live in the lands where this occurs don't think anything -of it, because this is in the Southern Hemisphere during the -vacation season of the sea.</p> - -<p>One peculiar thing about this spring and summer in the winter -time in Africa is that when the leaves first come out they are not -green at all. They are brown, red, and pink. Later on they -turn green—just as any well-behaved leaf is supposed to do.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> It's -as if they got mixed in their dates and thought at first it was -autumn and then woke up and said:</p> - -<p>"Oh, yes, to be sure, this is spring! What are we thinking -about?"</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="label">[50]</a> Livingstone's "Expedition to the Zambesi."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Anyhow they turn from the autumn browns and reds to the -appropriate green of spring, and the flowers come out and the -birds begin to sing in the very season when our winter winds are -loudest and the rock mills of the sea are roaring at their work.</p> - -<p>In which Hemisphere, the Northern or the Southern, do the -sea mills have most land to work on?</p> - -<p>In Shakespere's "Tempest" you will find a description of a -storm at sea that will take your breath away. Almost the whole -of Scene 2, Act I, is in that terrible storm. In fact, the whole -play, as the title of it indicates, is full of storm.</p> - -<p>While you are looking for storms in Shakespere see what you -can find in "Two Gentlemen of Verona," "Twelfth Night," "Midsummer -Night's Dream," and "The Merchant of Venice."</p> - -<p>Speaking of the sea still being in the Stone Age what do you -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">- 232 -</span> -know about the kind of tools man used in the Stone Age and how -he got along?<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p> - -<p>(You'll find that the story of the development of man, as dealt -with in connection with the Stone Age, is part of the strangest -story of all the strange stories of science. You will get a brief -outline of it in this story of mine, in the last chapter.)</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="label">[51]</a> Interesting books on this subject are: Starr's "First Steps in -Human Progress" (Chautauqua Reading Course) and Clodd's "Childhood -of the World." Osborn's "The Men of the Old Stone Age" is the -latest and most comprehensive work on the subject.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>How much more do you know about pneumatic tools than -Father Neptune does? No doubt you've used a "pneumatic" -tool of a sort yourself more than once—a tool for making a noise. -Guess what. A pop-gun! Look up <i>pneumatic tools</i>, and you will -find that the same thing that makes the pop-gun pop helps to build -skyscrapers, locomotives, and steamships, and do a lot of other -wonderful things.</p> - -<p>In connection with the water wedges made by the sea you must -remember that curious trick ice has when it freezes (<a href="#Page_154">page 154</a>); -otherwise you can't understand how it could act like a wedge.</p> - -<p>Yes, and wedges, simple as they look, are almost as wonderful -as levers; and you know what Archimedes said he could do with -a lever.</p> - -<p>The whole subject of machinery and particularly of "automatic" -or so-called self-acting machinery<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> is fascinating. Find out about -planing mills and how they work, particularly why they stop -planing just when they are told to.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="label">[52]</a> As a matter of fact, the only machinery that is really automatic is -the machinery of nature, of which what we have called "the machinery -of the sea" is an example.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>In connection with how the sea sometimes helps make harbors -think of as many great harbors as you can, and then look on your -geography map and see how many you have missed.</p> - -<p>What character in "Titus Andronicus" says that about the -man standing on a rock and watching the sea come to eat him up?</p> - -<p>Your geography has a good deal to say about continental shelves; -and with pictures. Do you remember?</p> - -<p>Speaking of lands sinking under the sea you'll run into a world -of interesting things if you look up the story of the Lost Island of -Atlantis; about the Egyptian priest who first described it to Solon, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">- 233 -</span> -the Greek lawgiver, as an earthly paradise where all the laws and -everything else were just right.</p> - -<p>And if you're of High School age you'll enjoy reading what -Plato<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> and Homer<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> say about this ideal land.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="label">[53]</a> Timæus.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="label">[54]</a> The Odyssey.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Isn't it a striking thing how the big sea that can look so fierce -takes such tender care of the little coral people? And what extraordinary -folks these coral people are! Any good article about -them will tell you worlds of interesting things. For instance, you -will find the people of whole villages living together with only -one backbone. I mean not one backbone <i>apiece</i> but one backbone -among them <i>all</i>!</p> - -<p>And they have the queerest way with their stomachs, a kind of -co-operative digestion, of co-operative housekeeping. (Your mother -will be particularly interested in this because it shows the "community -kitchen" idea has been thoroughly tried out and it works! -If you don't know about "community kitchens" among human -housekeepers ask mother to tell you, and then you tell <i>her</i> what -you found out about these strange little housekeepers of the sea.)</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">- 234 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(NOVEMBER)</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>It is a noble thing for men ... to make the face of a wall -look infinite, and its edge against the sky like an horizon; or -even if less than this be reached, it is still delightful to mark the -play of passing light on its broad surface, and to see by how -many artifices and gradations of tinting and shadow, time -and storm will set their wild signatures upon it.</p> -</div> - -<p class="tdr"> -—<i>Ruskin</i>: <i>The Seven Lamps of Architecture</i>.<br /> -</p> - - -<p class="caption3">THE HANDWRITING ON THE WALLS</p> - -<p>One of the most interesting things in this whole wonderful -story of the life history of the world is how men -were first able to read it at all. For we know they didn't -find it written out in plain print as we have it now. Neither -was it told in any one language so that getting hold of the -thread of the story they could unravel it all, as other learned -men did the picture writing of the Egyptians and the -wedge-shaped marks on Assyrian bricks.</p> - -<p>We know already how they learned that rivers open their -own gateways through the mountains; how they know -rocks are made over in the fairyland of change; how they -know the ancient glaciers scattered the boulders over mountainside, -valley, and field; how they know the mountains -are children of the sea.</p> - -<p>All this and more we have been reading in the written -language of the rocks, but there are other things in this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">- 235 -</span> -rock script that I have kept for this last but one of our -pleasant talks, so that they might serve as a kind of summary -and remembrance of all that has gone before.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg235" style="width: 483px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg235.png" width="483" height="294" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">A WALL THAT VULCAN BUILT</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>I've said it several times before, but I can't help saying it here again, how much -more wonderful the ways of Nature are than was ever dreamed of even in the wonder -tales of the Greeks! Take this great iron wall, for example—a wall of the iron -rock called "lava"—and who would suppose that it was made by natural forces? -It was driven in a molten state into a crack in overlying rock. After it cooled, the -rock above and on either side of it, being of softer material, was worn away. This -wall is near Spanish Peaks, Colorado. It is 100 feet high and some 30 feet wide. -Colorado boys, on their vacations in that region, run along the top of it for miles.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. The Mysteries in Marble Walls</span></p> - -<p>Take a piece of marble for example, such as you see -along the walls of our great modern buildings. There's -a story for you! Why, if half the things it tells had just -happened, or even just been discovered by some enterprising -reporter, we should see pages and pages about it -all in every newspaper in the land.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">- 236 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW MARBLE RETELLS THE WORLD HISTORY</p> - -<p>In that piece of marble alone you have a pretty full -review of the earth's history; of many of the most important -things we have seen and heard about since we all -started out together in <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chagter I</a>. It tells of strange life -in ancient seas; of being buried deep in the earth under -immense pressure, and where it could feel the intense heat -of the rock at the centre, and of coming up again completely -changed; transformed from the substance of a -dead sea creature's shell to a crystallized stone beautifully -colored and of many patterns; of the chemistry of the -world underground and the laboratories in which its lovely -coloring were made and blended; and solid rock threaded -through rock with a skill that no worker in mosaic has -ever equalled; drawn out and fixed in mere films of white, -fading into the rich dark of the marble around them like -white clouds shredded by the winds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg236" style="width: 486px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg236.png" width="486" height="296" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE STRANGE STORIES THAT MARBLE TELLS</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">- 237 -</span></p> - -<p>Those broader lines bending and turning, rising and -falling, tell of the work of the giant forces that lift the -mountains into place and of the great earthquakes that -accompany mountain building. When those little quavering -lines were being made, away down in the earth where -the limestone changed to marble, mountains were slowly -rising into the sky on the earth's surface far above. The -quaverings in the marble are pictures, "line drawings" -of the mountain story. And beside these lines that you -can read so plainly there are others so small that you need -a magnifying glass to see them; echoes, away down in -the fairyland of the microscope, of the doings of the giants -of Mountainland far above.</p> - -<p>In following the lines of the earth's great walls of rock -over a wide extent they are found waving sharply up and -down in one section, rising and falling like ocean swells -in another, in forward sloping folds in another, and sometimes -even with folds doubling over, as if the great mountains -which these folds made were trying to stand on their -heads.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WHY LINES IN MARBLE REPEAT MOUNTAIN FORMS</p> - -<p>All these rock folds which, with the help of the sculpturing -of the elements, produce the infinite variety of -beauty in mountain scenery are, speaking generally, repeated -in the lines of the marble. But they are repeated -only in miniature, because the rocks deep in the earth are -under such pressure that while the rocks on the surface -are free to rise in big and comparatively simple waves -those beneath are doubled up into smaller and much more -crumpled folds. Take several sheets of paper lying free -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">- 238 -</span> -on the table and press them from the ends. They will rise -in simple arches as most mountains do. Now lay a book -on these sheets and press from the ends again. You see -they crumple up a great deal more; the larger wrinkles -themselves doubling into smaller ones.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg238" style="width: 420px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg238.png" width="420" height="363" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">HOW MOTHER NATURE MAKES HER Z'S</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>These Z-shaped rock folds were made by the crumpling up of the crust as the centre, -cooling, shrank away. They are to be seen near the east end of Ogden Canyon, -Utah. The black lines were added to the photograph in the offices of Uncle Sam's -big department of geology at Washington, to show clearly just where the rock runs.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>You may often have noticed a banded effect in marble. -My, what power it took to do that! Pressure we can't -realize. Pressure from above so great that it made this -marble spread; moulded it like clay in the hands of the -potter; the same kind of force that flattened out the pebbles -referred to in <a href="#CHAPTER_V">Chagter V</a>. This is called "rock flow," -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">- 239 -</span> -and how plainly the marble shows the flowing movement. -I always think what the weather people call "stratus" -clouds, look as if they were made by long strokes of a -painter's brush; and this marble has the very same flowing -lines. Such cloud pictures in marble are made where -deposits of other kinds of rock have been interlaid with -the deposits of limestone which afterward changed to -marble, and it is where these bands are folded or bent that -we have set down for us the story of the mountain folds.</p> - -<p>Those gossamer effects and the little white clouds spinning -out and fading into the general mass of the marble, -how delicate they are! Yet it took a force that made the -earth quake to put them there. The more we know of -the strange and fearful things that happen in times of earthquake -the more we can read between these filmy lines. -They tell of the sides of mountains tumbling down and -spreading their valleys with a chaos of broken stone; making -cliffs where there were peaks and peaks where there -were cliffs; changing the course of rivers; shifting whole -forests on the mountainside and replacing them with grim -walls and bastions of barren stone—all in the twinkling -of an eye!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE EARTHQUAKES AND THE DELICATE FILMS</p> - -<p>It is by the crushing movements that made the earthquake -that rocks are broken into confusions of cracks such -as you often see in a thick glass window that has been -broken. Then into these cracks come dissolved minerals -from other rocks and harden into stone. In the marble -one set of veins often runs right through another as if they -had been inlaid. Then there may be other veins that cross -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">- 240 -</span> -both of these—no end of criss-crossings. The different -sets of veins usually differ also in color and in grain, and -even have different kinds of mineral in them. With a -good hand-glass you can see this difference in texture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg240" style="width: 509px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg240.png" width="509" height="322" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WHEN THE EARTHQUAKE TAKES ITS PEN IN HAND</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>These are, so to speak, the autographs of earthquakes—the records earthquakes -themselves make on an instrument called the "seismograph," using a stylus, as -the ancients did, as you will see by looking up "seismograph" in the dictionary or -encyclopædia. After an earthquake starts it seems to stop for breath or for want -of the right word—just like people; for you notice portions of the lines are almost -straight. These were made when the earthquake was comparatively quiet. Then, -when it got excited again—as in the second record from the top—the stylus fairly -jumped up and down; and there where the waves are long and close together the -shocks were particularly severe and followed each other rapidly.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="smcap">II. How Vulcan Drove his Autograph into the -Rocks</span></p> - -<p>But there is another kind of handwriting on the walls -that was made with such a vigorous stroke that it also -made the earth shake. Of course we might expect Vulcan -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">- 241 -</span> -to write a rather vigorous hand—Vulcan, forger of thunderbolts -for Jove. The ancients thought volcanoes belonged -to the kingdom of Vulcan, so in scientific language -everything connected with volcanic action comes under -the head of "Vulcanism." These queer letters we are -talking about are called "dikes." They are made of lava -that was driven into cracks in the rocks and afterward -cooled into rock that is as hard as iron. Lava is often -largely made of iron.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg241" style="width: 486px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg241.png" width="486" height="390" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">MR. VULCAN'S FAMOUS CASTLE ON THE HUDSON</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is a part of Mr. Vulcan's famous castle on the Hudson known as the Palisades. -Here the lava rock has formed into columns which make the mass look all -the more like some old castle of the Middle Ages. The "windows" are where the -softer spots in the rock have decayed away. This castle—come to think of it—really -belongs to mediæval architecture, for it was built in the Middle Ages of earth's -long history.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">- 242 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg242" style="width: 411px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg242.png" width="411" height="430" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THIS IS THE HAND OF VULCAN, TOO</p> -</div> - - -<p>Were you ever down by the seashore in a storm? If -so you remember how the ground under your feet shook -when a great wave rushed into some narrow passage or -crevice in the rocks, and was tossed high in the air in spray. -Then just imagine molten lava, which is many times heavier -than water, driven into a crack in a rock with the force of -a cannon-ball. That's how it happened. That's how those -dark strokes in the rock with their heavy shading were -made.</p> - -<p>This was done in the depths of the earth; not on the -surface where you see these rocks now. They used to have -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">- 243 -</span> -piles of other rocks above them, but these in course of time -have been weathered away. This is known, not only from -the marks of the wearing but from the fact that these dikes, -as well as the rock into which they have been driven, are -crystallized, wholly or in part. Such crystallizing, as we -know, takes place away down in the earth.</p> - -<p>Dikes are very common. In some places you find the -rocks fairly laced with them. The picture of the dikes in -the granite shores at Marblehead also shows (in the horizontal -plan) many "faults" or slips of the rock since the -dike was made, and each slip probably gave rise to an -earthquake. So you see there's the story of a terrible -time written on those quiet old residents by the sea.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg243" style="width: 482px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg243.png" width="482" height="333" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE GIANT'S CAUSEWAY</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here is a still more striking example of the formation of columns in lava—the -Giant's Causeway. Here are 40,000 columns, packed like the cells of a honeycomb, -and they slope to the pavement in the foreground that gives the mass its name. -That bees should make their little honey-jars in such regular form is wonderful -enough, but think of lava shaping its own self into columns like that!</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">- 244 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">DID MR. VULCAN USE A STEAM PILE-DRIVER?</p> - -<p>Just what power Mr. Vulcan used to drive the dikes -is not known for sure, but I'll tell you how it is supposed -to have been done. Remember that all rocks that are -deep down in the earth contain water, shut up in their -pores. Then remember how hot it is down there and how -this heat would make steam right in the rocks. Then let -the rock above be cracked by the movements of the earth -crust, and this crack extend down to where these hot rocks -are, the pressure, being released along that crack, the -melted rock (lava) would rush up, as it does in connection -with the eruptions of volcanoes, and the exploding steam -would help drive it.</p> - - -<p><span class="smcap">III. Ancient Weather Records Turned to Stone</span></p> - -<p>So much for the literary remains of Mr. Vulcan. Now -let's see how much we can make out of the handwriting -of the waters and the winds on these walls of time.</p> - -<p>What does the picture at the top of <a href="#Page_245">page 245</a> look like? -Rain-drops in the dust. And so you see they are; but the -rain fell so long that the pits made in the dust have turned -to stone. Think of the autograph of a rain-drop older than -the Pharaohs; older than the pyramids these Pharaohs -built to perpetuate their names.</p> - -<p>And this is how such rain-drops immortalize themselves; -this is the interpretation of their handwriting on the walls. -Along the dry shore of an ancient sea when the tide was -out, rain-drops fell on the sand and dust. Tides often -come in with a rush, in wild waves driven by the wind, but -when there is no wind and no waves rolling in from far -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">- 245 -</span> -distant storms the tide may overspread such delicate things -as the imprint of rain-drops with a thin protecting film of -mud. This was what happened to our little rain pits. Later -tides overlaid them deeper from day to day, and in course -of time both the layer containing the rain-drop prints and -the overlying layers of sediment turned to stone. Often -the heat of a summer sun will bake these rain-drop designs -and this you see helps; it holds the impression until the -tide can come in and spread its protecting film. Many -imprints of rain-drops and of the feet of reptiles are found -in the sandstone underlying the coal seams in eastern -Pennsylvania, and they are always, I am told, covered -with a fine powdery material, which was once the slime -and mud of the tide. Such rain marks are often found -also in slate. Wouldn't you like to have a slate with one -of these rain-drop autographs on it?</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg245" style="width: 493px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg245.png" width="493" height="330" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">RAIN-DROP AUTOGRAPHS OLDER THAN THE PHARAOHS</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">- 246 -</span></p> - -<p>Here, by the way, is a very important thing these rain-drops -tell. Says Professor Shaler:</p> - -<p>"They tell us that the ordinary machinery of the atmosphere -was operating in those days very much as it is -to-day, and that the climate was much the same."<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="label">[55]</a> This quotation is from Doctor Shaler's "Nature and Man in America," -a book you should read, as you should all of Doctor Shaler's -books. No one has observed so many interesting things in the field -of geology and few have written about them so simply or reasoned -about them so well.</p> - -</div> - -<p>So, he argues, the great Ice Age couldn't have been due -to change of climate, but to the other things that we read -about in <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chagter II</a>. For they even know in what ages -different records of rain-drops were made because they are -found in rocks laid down in different periods; and one of -the periods in which they are found was that in which the -North Pole ice and its neighbors came down and made -us those long visits.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">STORY OF A STROLL IN THE RAIN</p> - -<p>Another story found in museums is written in slate—not -by a rain-drop but by a living creature. The slate -shows the track of a reptile with feet like a bird. Evidently -he was strolling along in the rain; for there you see -the marks of the rain-drops right among the marks of his -feet, and in the footprints themselves. Being a reptile who -spent much of his time in or near the water he no doubt -enjoyed these little pats of the rain-drops as he went along.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">BUT THIS STROLL WAS TAKEN IN THE SUN</p> - -<p>In another of these museum specimens we see written out -just as plainly the story of a stroll in the sun. There are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">- 247 -</span> -the imprints of Mr. Reptile's feet, and there are the sun-cracks -in the mud showing that the sun was shining—or -at least that it had been shining for several days or weeks, -for it takes a little time to make sun-cracks in mud. This -story, we might suppose, was written so that it could be -read by the blind; the cracks, as well as the footprints, -are brought out in raised lettering. Sun-cracked mud, -after a long dry "spell," will bake so that the cracks will -not be washed out by the returning tide but instead be -filled by other material, and this material will go on building -up to a certain extent; so making those ridges.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg247" style="width: 483px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg247.png" width="483" height="210" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">"THEN THERE CAME A LONG DRY SPELL"</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This shows how the cracks in dried-up mud are preserved in stone. The process -is the same as in the case of the stone imprints of rain-drops, the imprints being -protected by successive deposits of mud by quiet tides, and afterward turning to -stone.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">THE STONE AUTOGRAPHS OF GENTLE BREEZES</p> - -<p>On still other stones you will find written the story of -gentle breezes that stirred the water and made ripples -on long-buried shores. First the breezes rippled the shallow -waters near the shore. Then the waters rippled the sand, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">- 248 -</span> -and the sediments of the tide preserved these ripple marks -as they did the rain-drops and the footprints.</p> - -<p>But the wind alone, without the help of water ripples, -can write its name in the sands of time. And when you -get to know the handwriting of wind and wave you will -not mistake the one for the other. You are likely to find -wind ripples on any big heap of sand. Have a good look -at them and then go down to shallow water on a sandy -shore and compare the two kinds. That's the way the -great men of science do; they notice every little thing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg248" style="width: 488px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg248.png" width="488" height="226" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdlsm"> -<i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of Ginn and Company</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE STORY OF BIG ROUND TOP AND LITTLE ROUND TOP</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>One story of Big Round Top and Little Round Top your history tells, but long -before the battle of Gettysburg these two mountains had age-long battles of their -own with the winds, the rains, and the frosts, and in these battles lost their peaks -and their sharp outlines of jagged rock, and became rounded down to the forms we -see before us. Those rocks in the field were probably broken off in these battles, -as the rocks of high mountains are to-day, and carried down by roaring torrents.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">WEATHER RECORDS ON THE MOUNTAIN WALLS</p> - - -<p>From a scientific standpoint little things may be just -as big as big things. For example, in this matter of old -weather records these rain-drops and ripple stones are just -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">- 249 -</span> -as interesting as other weather records written large on -mountain walls; such as those which tell that what is now -the Dead Sea was once part of a much larger sea that wasn't -dead at all. You may never get to read these records on -the mountain walls of Palestine, for they are a long way -off, but here in our own country we have a similar story -told on mountain walls in the region of another dead sea—the -Great Salt Lake of Utah. From Salt Lake City -you can see on the mountain surrounding the desert of -the Great Basin the marks of old shore lines; where the -waves cut into the rock. These marks show that this Basin -once held two great lakes, and the one in the eastern portion -dried up into what is now Great Salt Lake.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg249" style="width: 482px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg249.png" width="482" height="337" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">WEATHER RECORDS ON THE WALLS OF TIME</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>What is now the Great Salt Lake used to be a much greater lake that wasn't salt -at all. That vast flight of steps up the mountainside shows how wide it spread. -As the big lake dried up, and grew smaller and smaller and saltier and saltier, its -shores were bounded successively by those wave-cut cliffs.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">- 250 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">IV. Stories Written on the Pebbles</span></p> - -<p>Sometimes when a geologist picks up a pebble and looks -at it a moment he can hear the roar of mountain torrents -and of lowland streams in flood. If the pebble is round -it shows that it has been carried far and rolled about by -streams. If it has pits in it this shows that its water journeys -were rough, because such pits are made by knocking -against other pebbles and sharp stones in the struggle and -confusion of the rushing waters. You see these little dots -are a kind of shorthand, for we pebbles are stenographers -too!</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg250" style="width: 482px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg250.png" width="482" height="370" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE PERCHED BOULDER IN BRONX PARK</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>This is one of the interesting things to be seen when you visit Bronx Park in New -York City. Of course, <i>you</i> know how that old boulder got there, and how he drew -those straight lines in the rock-bed beneath, but many visitors to the park do not.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">- 251 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW PEBBLES TELL OF THEIR TRAVELS</p> - -<p>Other great stories in small space are told on glacial -pebbles. Scientific men can often tell from the look of a -pebble whether it was shaped by rivers, by the sea, by the -sand blasts of desert winds, or by the glaciers. Not only -that, but, if it is a glaciated pebble, on what part of the -glacier it was carried; whether in the middle of its back, -or on the sides, like the passengers in an Irish jaunting-car; -or whether it rode underneath, like a tramp stealing -a ride on the bumpers. The stones in the middle of the -glacier's back naturally keep their sharp edges longer than -stones on the side, ground as the side stones are by the -moving ice mass against the mountain walls. And the -stones on both top and sides would lose less of their edges -than the stones underneath the ice.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg251" style="width: 480px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg251.png" width="480" height="194" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="tdl"> -<i>From Norton's "Elements of Geology." By permission of Ginn and Company</i> - -<p class="caption4">ONE PEBBLE IN ITS TIME PLAYS MANY PARTS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here are pebbles faceted in different ways by glaciers. No. 1 has six facets. No. -4, originally a rounded river pebble, has been rubbed down to one flat face. Nos. -3 and 5 are battered little travellers faceted on one side only. Notice how No. 5 -got his face scratched just as I did.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">- 252 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg252" style="width: 490px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg252.png" width="490" height="376" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">PEBBLE FACETED BY WIND-BLOWN SAND</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>You remember how the glaciers ground flat faces or facets on the pebbles, don't -you? Here is another example of Nature's lapidary work, but here she has used -wind and sand instead of ice.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">V. A Greater Cæsar and His Commentaries</span></p> - -<p>Well, there he is again, you see, Mr. Glacier of the Ice -Age. He's always turning up, everywhere you go in earth -history. As Shakespere's Mr. Cassius said of Mr. Julius -Cæsar, "he bestrode the world." And, like the Roman -Cæsar, this Cæsar wrote the story of his own exploits; but -although a vastly greater conqueror than the famous Roman, -he was even more modest. Cæsar and his Commentaries, -our High School friend will tell you, nearly always -refers to himself in the third person; but in his commentaries -on his travels and exploits the Old Man of the Mountain -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">- 253 -</span> -didn't even use his own name. He left the editors -of his manuscript to find out who he was.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE GREAT LAKES WERE TIPPED UP</p> - -<p>One of the most striking things he did, of which he wrote -the record on the walls, was to tip up the Great Lakes. -You remember just how he made them. Well, it seems -that as he started back home he tipped them up. Suppose -you could pick up the vast stone bowls that hold these -lakes and tip them toward the north as easily as you can -tip a bowl of water, what would the water do? It would -fall lower along the south shores of the lakes and rise along -the northern shores, wouldn't it? Then suppose the lakes -were kept tipped up in this way for ages, and summer wind -storms and winter tempests dashed waves against their -shores, what would happen? Stone walls rising above -the shore would have terraces cut into them, and the line -of these terraces would tilt toward the north. There are -terraces just like that on rocks bordering the Great Lakes, -and the explanation of their tilt is that the lakes themselves -were tipped up, and that the Old Man of the Mountain -did the tipping. The rock crust of the round earth -bends under great weight like an arch. So when the enormous -weight of the glaciers of the Ice Age was on a portion -of the arch it bent down. Then, as the glaciers retreated, -the weight of them was shifted northward all the -time. Finally when the glaciers in the region of the lakes -had melted quite away the arch slowly rose into place -again and lifted the terraces above the water line as we see -them to-day.</p> - -<p>Throughout regions the glaciers visited you find rocks -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">- 254 -</span> -polished like mirrors; in other cases they are scratched, -and in others deeply grooved.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg254" style="width: 519px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg254.png" width="519" height="380" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">SCENE ON THE COAST OF NORWAY BY A GLACIER</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>You know the fiords. You've met them in your geography. This is a fiord -on the Norway coast. Notice how smooth the walls of the mountains are. They -were trimmed down by the ice, which also plowed off their soil. We are here looking -up what was once a river valley, but the glacier cut it down below sea level, and -this is sea water. Notice in the openings of the mountains all the way up the valley -where the tributaries of the ancient river flowed in then as now.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THIS MR. CÆSAR IS TRANSLATED</p> - -<p>No one scratch can be followed far. The composition -is, like Cæsar's, in short sentences, whole episodes in a -word: "Veni, vidi, vici." But a series of scratches all -run in one general direction—north and south. To get -at the meaning—just as in construing Cæsar—you must -take the context; what goes before and after.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">- 255 -</span></p> - -<p>The sides of the valleys of the Alps from 1,000 to 2,000 -feet above the surface of the glaciers of our own time are -scratched and furrowed in the same way. Here we catch -Mr. Glacier almost in the very act of writing.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE HANDWRITING OF THE TWO CÆSARS</p> - -<p>To do this writing, our Cæsar, like the Cæsar of the High -School, used a stylus. Mr. Glacier's stylus, as we know, was -made of stone held fast in his icy grip (<a href="#Page_121">page 121</a>). And -here is another curious resemblance between the manuscripts -of Mr. G. Cæsar and Mr. J. Cæsar. They both wrote -in straight lines. The reason Julius Cæsar and other Roman -gentlemen wrote in letters made of straight lines was that -they scratched these letters on tablets covered with wax, -using a sharpened piece of iron or ivory. You can see it -would be much easier with such writing tools and material -to form letters in straight lines than to write in flowing, -rounded and connected lines as we do so easily with a nice -flexible pen on a smooth surface.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW THE OLD MEN CHANGED A "V" TO A "U"</p> - -<p>Here is something else about the story of the Old Men -of the Mountain that is a curious reminder of the Romans -and their letters. The Romans had no letter U in their -alphabet and so V had to do a double duty; it had to be -a V and then when asked, had to take its place in line and -pretend to be a U. For instance, a Roman who wanted -to write the word "number" would do it in this way: -"NVMERO." After a while, in the history of the growth -of our alphabet, the V that was intended for U was rounded -at the bottom.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">- 256 -</span></p> - -<p>Now, curiously enough, the writing of the Old Men of -the Mountain has gone through the same process. River -valleys in mountain regions, as elsewhere, are originally -V-shaped, but where glaciers flowed down these valleys -they not only made them wider but rounded out the bottoms -so that they became U-shaped. Look at the valley -in the Wind River range in Wyoming shown in the geologies. -You notice the farther your eye goes up into the -mountains the more V-shaped the valley becomes. Back -toward antiquity, you see, when they had nothing -but V!</p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg256" style="width: 314px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg256.png" width="314" height="175" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE HANDWRITING OF THE GLACIERS AND THE ROMANS</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Here is an interesting relic of ancient days that will enable you to compare the -chirography of the Old Men of the Mountain with that of the Romans. These are -marks left by the masons on Roman walls. They show just what part each mason -laid, so that if the wall proved defective the authorities would know who was responsible.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>All quite striking, isn't it, this strange kind of writing -on the walls of time? As if, among the ruins that are all -there is left of the fallen Roman Empire, we should in some -heap of dust and crumbled stone find one of the very tablets -on which Cæsar wrote his commentaries and there engraved -in Cæsar's own hand:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">- 257 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg257" style="width: 511px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg257.png" width="511" height="330" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THIS STYLE IS CALLED FLUTING</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>Looks like moulding, doesn't it? This is a piece of rock, and it was carved in -that way by the glaciers with their tools of embedded stone. The deeper grooves -were made where the rock was softer or where the glacier's chisels were of a particularly -hard quality, such as flint or granite.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p>"Cæsar, maximis bellis confectis, in hiberna exercitum -deduxit."</p> - -<p>Can you translate that for us? (This to the High School -Boy.)</p> - -<p>"As easy as anything," says he. "Cæsar, on completion -of these great wars, led his army into winter quarters."</p> - -<p>And that same phrase might serve in Mr. Glacier's Commentaries -too. For the glaciers of the Ice Age, after their -great work was done, also went into winter quarters; melting -back to the present snow-line in our mountains and -the regions of eternal ice around the pole.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">- 258 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>One of the most interesting stories of men's handwriting on the -walls and how scholars, many centuries afterward, learned to read -it, you will find in encyclopædias, histories, and other books under -such headings as <i>Egypt</i>, <i>Assyria</i>, <i>Rosetta Stone</i>, and most of all -under <i>Hieroglyphics</i>; a big word, but full of meat when once you've -cracked the shell.</p> - -<p>Among other things, you will find that if it hadn't been for the -Egyptians and other clever people of the long ago we would not have -had our written language to read at all; on walls or anywhere else!</p> - -<p>If you had been an Egyptian, say 4,000 years ago, how many -letters do you suppose you would have had to learn before you -could have read well? About a thousand! But it wouldn't have -been so hard as you think, for the Egyptian letters talked, so to -speak. They told their own story much as did the picture words -that told so much to the little Greeks. These Egyptian words, -however—for they were words, or several words in one, rather -than letters—were real pictures, and very good pictures, too. -(See Chambers under "Hieroglyphics" for the little pictures.)</p> - -<p>Some of them were very simple. It wasn't hard to learn.</p> - -<p>But now suppose you were an Egyptian and you wanted to -write a letter telling somebody how pleased you were about something—a -nice new book an uncle had sent you, for instance—the -proper picture-word to use would be a lady beating a tambourine. -She is pleased—that's why she is beating the tambourine, just as a -small boy claps his hands when he says, "Oh, goody, goody!" So -this picture-word came to be used to express "joy" or "pleasure" -over anything.</p> - -<p>These are just some samples to show you what interesting -things even such formidable words as "hieroglyphics" are when -you make friends with them. But now, to get back to Nature's -handwriting and the nature myths connected with it, what do -you know about this Vulcan, who left so much of his manuscript in -the rocks?</p> - -<p>The ancients thought of him as a worker in metals. Don't you -think they would have, been quite sure of it if they had known -about the dikes and the palisades of the Hudson, and Fingal's -cave, with their remarkable iron-like columns of cooled lava? But -he was an artist in metals, too, and a mechanical engineer, it -seems. Do you remember about those two statues of beautiful -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">- 259 -</span> -women that he made of pure gold, and how they walked about -with him wherever he went? And the brazen-footed bulls of Ætes, -that filled the air with their bellowings and from their nostrils -blew flame and smoke?<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="label">[56]</a> I wonder if Vulcan could have been thinking of locomotives—what -we sometimes call "iron horses"—when he made those bulls. Do you -suppose?</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>The Greeks probably didn't know about such "art metal" work -as the palisades—certainly they didn't know about the Hudson -River or Fingal's Cave—but they had Vulcan (Hephæstus they -called him) doing all sorts of other art-metal things. There was -the famous shield he made for Achilles, for instance. Homer takes -several pages just to tell about the different figures on it and what -they meant.<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="label">[57]</a> The Iliad.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Why do you suppose a temple was erected on Mount Etna? -(What kind of a mountain is it?)</p> - -<p>Wouldn't it be strange if we could make hard coal out of soft? -Vulcan does that sometimes with these dike strokes of his.<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="label">[58]</a> The International Encyclopedia.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>The International will also tell you why dike rock is usually so -solid and tough, and what the crystal people have to do with -making it so.</p> - -<p>The Britannica (28: 188) tells how, in the walls of volcanoes -Vulcan wrote out the hint for making re-enforced concrete which -is so important a feature of modern architectural engineering.</p> - -<p>Look about on the rock-beds in the stone quarry and see if you -can't find some of the writing of that Older Cæsar with his queer -stone stylus. Probably the men in the quarry will have wondered -how these scratches came there and you can tell them.</p> - -<p>There is one style of Mr. Glacier's hand-work that even the dogs -and the horses notice, and that is the "mirror rocks." Muir tells -about them in his "Mountains of California."</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">- 260 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">(DECEMBER)</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"A fire-mist and a planet,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">A crystal and a cell,</div> - <div class="verse indent1">A jelly fish and a saurian</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And caves where the cavemen dwell;</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Then a sense of law and beauty</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And a face turned from the clod—</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Some call it Evolution,</div> - <div class="verse indent3">And others call it God."</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class="tdr2">—<i>William Herbert Carruth.</i></div> -</div> - - -<p class="caption3">THE END OF THE WORLD</p> - -<p>So the Ice Ages and their glaciers and the Romans and -their Cæsars melted away. We know them only by the -marks they left on the walls of time. But why this constant -doing and undoing of things? We have seen it going -on from the very beginning; rock crumbling to dust, dust -changing back to rock; rocks raised up into mountains, -mountains worn down to plains; then more mountains, -and on through the same cycle of endless change; as if -always starting the whole thing over again.</p> - -<p>What is it all about? Are we getting anywhere? If -so, where?</p> - -<p>Ever since men looked out upon the world around them -and began to think, they have puzzled not only about the -causes but the purpose of this endless drama of creation -and decay. Some said one thing; some said another. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">- 261 -</span> -Persian poet who wrote those fine lines about the lion and -the lizard in the ruins of the palaces meant to say that's -all that everything comes to; all things, men included, -return to the elements of which they were made and -that's the end of them. So, said he, what's the use of -bothering one's head about it? There's nothing to be -learned. One verse of his famous song reads like this:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">"Myself when young did eagerly frequent</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Doctor and saint, and heard great argument</div> - <div class="verse indent1">About it and about; but evermore</div> - <div class="verse indent1">Came out by the same door wherein I went."</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>But Science, as we shall now see, has a better answer.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">I. Nothing Happens</span></p> - -<p>In the first place you must have noticed as we came -along through this little book that nothing happens in -this world of ours; everything is under a government of -laws. Not only did it turn out that there was method in -the apparent madness of the sea but we found method -everywhere. It was not chance that made our worlds, -whether they were born full-grown or grew up piece by -piece. And we see the same forces at work in small things -as in the great. The force that keeps the earth in its orbit -is just as careful to catch and plant the tiny seeds of the -grasses and the pine-trees drifting forward in the wind, -so keeping the world clothed with life and verdure.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">ALL NATURE UNDER A GOVERNMENT OF LAW</p> - -<p>So with the seasons with all that they mean in the life -of the world; spring never fails to follow winter. Little -things happen that make spring "late," as we say; but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">- 262 -</span> -spring itself never fails to come and always in its right -place in the procession of the year. All this because the -earth stays in its orbit and spins on its axis. Watches -break their mainsprings, clocks run down. These things -"happen"; but we never think of saying that the mainspring -or the wheels "happened," or that they "happened" -into their places in the watch. The worlds not only make -their appointed round as regularly as the wheels of a watch -but they never run down, and the power that keeps them -going and in their places never breaks. If it ever occurred -in any other way—if we should hear of a world flying out -of its orbit and going banging around among the other -worlds, we could talk of "happening."</p> - - -<p class="caption4">NATURE'S ACCIDENT INSURANCE SYSTEM</p> - -<p>We might call these laws that make it so certain that -nature's business will go on as usual, rain or shine, the -Accident Insurance of the Universe. We have nothing -quite like it in human insurance systems; for these only -make it up to you—the best they can—after some accident -has happened. Nature's insurance system, on the -other hand, makes it certain that nothing <i>will</i> happen to -change the main course of things. The protective insurance -of the universe is woven right through Nature itself. -The continents, for example, were bound, in due course, -to rise in their places, because it is the nature of cooling -masses to shrink and for the outside to cool the faster -and to harden and to wrinkle up. It doesn't matter whether -the cooling mass is a little baked apple or a big hot earth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">- 263 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg263" style="width: 465px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg263.png" width="465" height="487" alt="" /> - -<p class="caption4">THE CLOCK OF THE AGES</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> -<p>By representing the great geologic periods of time in the form of a clock-face a -writer in the <i>Scientific American</i> enables us to form a rough conception of their duration, -their distinguishing features, and their relations to one another, according to -ideas associated with the theory of La Place, but which have been considerably -modified in the light of later reasoning and investigation. The view now generally accepted, -for example, is that the Azoic era was longer than all subsequent time. But, -taking the picture as it stands, each "hour" represents 3,000,000 years. For a quarter -of the total period up to the very recent appearance of man "there was darkness -upon the face of the deep." Next after the Azoic was the Laurentian Period, when -"the dry land appeared." Later came the dawn of life, and this life, like the inanimate -matter which preceded it, kept rising and continues to rise, as the ages -pass, to higher, more beautiful, and nobler forms.</p> -</div> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">- 264 -</span></p> - -<p>Nor was it an accident that the continents in their original -form grew larger with the fat of the land that was -added to them under the action of the chemistry of the -air. You see Nature must understand chemistry or things -wouldn't come out right in the laboratory, as they always -do if you have made no mistakes. Ever think of that, -Mr. High School Boy?</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">II. The Strangest Thing of All That Didn't -Happen</span></p> - -<p>But the strangest thing of all that didn't happen in this -history of the world and its making I'm going to tell you -about now.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">KINSHIP OF KITTENS AND APPLE-TREES</p> - -<p>You remember what I said of the apple-tree in <a href="#CHAPTER_V">Chapter -V</a> (<a href="#Page_93">page 93</a>), how nobody who didn't know it to be true -would believe that little Miss Greenleaf and old Mr. Root -and rough Mr. Bark and lovely Miss Blossom were not -only born under the same roof but were as closely related -as a pussy-cat and her nest full of kittens. I didn't mention -the kittens then, but just suppose I had done so; and -then had gone on to say that kittens are relations of the -apple family and that all birds are related to all kittens, -and that both are kindred of that terrible Mr. Cetiosaurus -that we met in the Bad Lands of Dakota.</p> - -<p>Would you have believed it?</p> - -<p>No? Well, I don't wonder. It was quite a while before -the wise men of science believed it. Now not only is this -idea of the origin of all living things—animal and vegetable—universally -accepted by men of science, but every educated -person is supposed to know about it. It is always, -and as a matter of course, put into the school-books dealing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">- 265 -</span> -with the history of nature; just as in all histories we -are sure to see Columbus landing in 1492 and George -Washington being inaugurated April 30, 1789.</p> - -<p>Most people, including the scientists, used to think -that each kind of plant and animal was given its present -form in the first place and that this form had never changed. -This was known as the "special creation" theory; while -the idea that the various kinds of plants and animals we -now know gradually developed from quite different forms -is called the theory of "evolution." Among the curious -facts that finally led educated people everywhere to believe -this strangest of all the strange fairy tales of the land of -science were these:</p> - - -<p class="caption4">AS WE READ THE ROCKS FROM THE BOTTOM UP</p> - -<p>The remains and imprints of plant and animal life of -long ago which we find in the rocks show successions of -related but different forms in the rocks of different ages. -At the beginning in the lowest rocks the forms are much -alike, but grow more and more unlike as we climb these -stairs of time. At first there are no animals with backbones; -then there come animals with backbones that resemble -each other in general build; and finally such wide -varieties of backboned creatures as fish, birds, horses, and -men. And so with endless varieties of birds and beasts -and creeping things and the trees and the grasses of the -field.</p> - -<p>Sometimes the differences between these apparently -related forms, as we find them in the rocks, are very great; -but everything goes to show that this is because there are -missing pages, so to speak, in the great stone book. When -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">- 266 -</span> -you remember how long it takes to make one of these layers -of stone, and what they go through in cracking and twisting -and wearing down on their way back to dust and the -sea, and how quickly the remains of big animals—to say -nothing of plants and insects—are destroyed, you must -agree that the wonder is that we have any records at all. -Yet so enormous has been the number of plants and animals -that have died in the course of the world's history -that there have been found hundreds and thousands of -these remains and imprints between the layers of stone. -In all cases the fashions in form change from age to age; -and the longer the time, as shown by the thickness of the -rock, the greater the change.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE RABBIT THAT TURNED INTO A HORSE</p> - -<p>The horse, which has been such a faithful carrier for man -since man and horse arrived from the lower ranges of life, -also brought with him on the way up one of the most complete -of these strange autobiographies that our brother -animals have recorded with their bones. The most of this -story of the horse was found in the rocks of our Western -States, but the first chapter of it saw the light about forty -years ago in England. When the bones were found in -the rock deposits of that country known as London Clay -they looked so unhorselike that a famous paleontologist -(as the students of these ancient anatomies are called) -gave it a name which means "rabbit-like beast." But in -rock of the same age in Wyoming they afterward found -the bones of an animal that looked a little more like a horse, -but plainly a close relation of the rabbit-like beast. They -went on finding different forms, through thirteen successive -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">- 267 -</span> -stages of rock history, and with each new period the -form kept getting larger and more horselike until they -came to a horse with three toes; and finally to one with -the single big toe which we call a hoof. Instead of the -other two toes there were those two little lumps that you -can feel in any horse's foot just above the hoof. These -are the ends of two small splintlike bones that are all there -is left of the other two toes.</p> - -<p>So there have been found in the rock records more or -less complete serial stories of thousands of plants and animals. -In the case of man, not only do we find that there -were once human beings on earth like the caveman with low -forehead and huge jaw, but nothing has ever been found to -indicate that there were any higher types of human beings -in existence in his day. And both the caveman and the -handsomest human beings of to-day—the captain of our -football team, for example—have essentially the same -bodily framework as the monkey tribe. This does not -mean that man—even so low a creature as the caveman—descended -from monkeys, any more than the fact that he -has a backbone means he descended from humming-birds. -But the backbones in humming-birds, monkeys, and men -show that all are descended from older types of backboned -creatures. As monkeys and men are much more alike -than men and birds they are evidently more closely related.</p> - -<p>We might suppose, to be sure, that men and all other -forms of life which they resemble in any way were so made -from the beginning; that is, if we hadn't learned from -the records of the rocks that they <i>weren't</i> so made from -the beginning. Yet, even after that, we might go on supposing -that each species was created separately, but that -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">- 268 -</span> -the form was changed from age to age. But in that case -what are you going to say to this:</p> - -<p>In man's body are several organs that are useless and -often harmful. Other animals, also, contain among useful -organs some that are "out-of-date," as we would say if -we were speaking of some old machines in a machine-shop. -Why, in making a brand-new species, shouldn't Nature -have all the latest improvements from the start, just as -man does in building a brand-new home? If each species -was separately created it is hard to understand why these -useless or harmful organs should be kept; but if one species -grew out of another, by gradual improvement, just as cities -grow out of villages, this is exactly what we might expect.</p> - -<p>One of these useless organs in man is called the "vermiform -appendix." It is always getting its name in the papers -by giving trouble to some prominent man. Now this appendix, -while a perfect nuisance to human beings, is just -the thing for cows and other grass-eating animals. In -them it is very large and of great use in digestion, while -in the case of man and the monkey family it has shrunk -into a little affair that puts in all its time either doing -nothing or getting out of fix.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">III. Upward; Always Upward</span></p> - -<p>These are some of the reasons why the various varieties -of animals are supposed to have descended from common -ancestors and to have undergone endless changes of form; -changes as strange as anything that was ever written into -a fairy story or acted out in a Christmas pantomime. There -are other things quite as convincing and even more thrilling -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">- 269 -</span> -to read about, such as the little theatre in the chicken's -egg where strange, changing shadows re-enact the drama -of ancient life; but these I am here passing by because -my pages are running out and I want the rest of them to -speak of what seems to me to be the greatest lesson of this -whole book; the greatest and most useful and happiest -lesson Science or any kind of book can teach; namely, -that not only is the universe governed by Laws and Mind, -but that all these laws act together as one Great Law and -are working out one general result, the constant advance -of all things toward a higher life.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HOW MAN HAS RISEN AS HE DESCENDED</p> - -<p>As there was a period in human history when there were -no human beings on earth higher than the cave-dweller, -so there was a time when the highest forms of animal and -vegetable life were minute creatures and plants consisting -only of a single cell. It is such low forms of vegetable life -that make the scum on the still waters of a pond. Step -by step, in both the animal and vegetable world, rose the -higher forms. The descent of man from lower forms of -life used to be considered by many people as a thought -that degraded humanity, but it is the most promising fact -in all nature. The striking thing is, not that we are related -in some way to the apes and the cavemen but that -such a creature as an ape or a caveman should have helped -develop such a beautiful thing as a little child.</p> - -<p>This progress has not been steadily upward. The world -of life, like the surface of the globe itself, has had its ups -and downs. Wonderful nations like Greece and Rome -have risen and flourished and passed away, but they left -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">- 270 -</span> -the best of themselves, the part that time cannot destroy. -The Greeks taught us literature and art and the grace of -life. The Romans gave us a science of government and -a solid way of doing practical things, such as the building -of good roads and bridges. The great lesson of history -is that civilization and human liberty and all the things -that make life worth living have not only survived the -fall of empires but stand to-day on higher and firmer ground -than they ever did before.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE WORLD THAT MOTHER MADE</p> - -<p>But do you know who was at the bottom of it all? -Mother! All the things that men have done in the development -of national life, with its arts and industries, everything -we call civilization, grew out of the life and industry -of the home, and it was mother who finally made the home. -The mother idea came into the world with the first seed -that ever started out to make its own way; for the mother -plant had provided it with food enough to keep it going -until it could get well-established in business. But the -kind of mothers we know, mothers who stay with their -babies and feed them, came very late in the long story of -life. In the early days the world was not only without -flowers and birds and the beautiful trees and varied landscapes -we know, but it was motherless, in the sense that -we understand mothers. In the lowest forms of life, such -as the insects, the mothers and children never saw each -other at all; for among the insects just as it is to-day the -mother simply laid the eggs and then, before the little -insects were born, passed away. Even among the fish, -who are much closer relations of ours than the insects—since -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">- 271 -</span> -fish belong to the great brotherhood of the backbone—the -sense of motherhood doesn't get beyond looking after -the eggs. So with the next higher group to which the frogs -belong; and the next, the reptiles. Only with the birds, -the next group above the reptiles, do we begin to see what -motherhood means. Then at the very top of the list come -the class of animals whose very name has "mamma" in -it; the "mammalia." Among these, even outside the -human race, we find very striking examples of family love -and devotion. The gorillas, for instance, although they -haven't what one would call an attractive face, are good -to their folks. Not only does Mamma Gorilla nurse her -babies and carry them in her arms much as a human mother -does, and fight and die for them, but a famous African -traveller tells of a Mamma Gorilla who stayed safe with -the babies in their humble home of sticks in the fork of a -tree while Papa Gorilla sat all night at the foot of it, with -his back against the trunk, to protect them from a leopard -that had been seen prowling around.</p> - -<p>Among most animals below man the babies are soon -able to leave mother and shift for themselves, but in the -case of human beings the baby is helpless for a much longer -time. So, even among the lowest savages, it was necessary -for father and mother to keep together and look after -their children. Thus grew up family life; and out of the -family the tribe; and out of many tribes living together -and closely related, grew first small and then larger nations. -Yet, always at the beginning, it was the mother, -more than the father, who looked after the children and -taught them, so bringing before the world the idea of doing -things, not for one's self alone but for others. From this -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">- 272 -</span> -came the mutual giving and helping which made national -life possible, and that is making this a better and better -world to live in.</p> - - -<p class="caption3"><span class="smcap">IV. The Great Unseen</span></p> - -<p>So it is very plain not only that the end, the purpose of -all this machinery and march of things that we have been -going through since the beginning of <a href="#CHAPTER_I">Chagter I</a>, is to make -life better, more beautiful both in form and character, but -to show that "all nature is on the side of those who try -to rise."<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> It is plain also that this end must have been -foreseen and intended from the beginning; for, from the -very start each change in the world and in life was a -preparation for another and a greater change. The change -from rock to soil made plant life possible; the growth of -plants made animal life possible, and so on up through the -long succession of changes in this tree of life by which all -things are related and which gave us the infinite variety -of good things we already have—fruit, homes, churches, -schools, art galleries, books, railroads and steamships -that make the whole world neighbors; the telegraph, the -newspapers, and the magazines that carry thought and -knowledge and plans for the common good so fast and -far that already it is as if a whole nation with its millions -had a heart and brain in common.</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="label">[59]</a> Drummond: "The Ascent of Man."</p> - -</div> - -<p>Man himself, you see, has become one of the great forces -of nature in the evolution of nature, in the blossoming -out and fruit-bearing of things. But now notice this: Back -of all that man does and all that the rest of nature does -is the great controlling force called Mind; and this Mind -is invisible. If I should say of some great man that he -had a powerful mind you would know just what I meant; -but if anybody should ask "What did his mind <i>look</i> like?" -you would think that was an odd question, wouldn't you?</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">- 273 -</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="img_pg273" style="width: 391px;"> - <img src="images/img_pg273.png" width="391" height="615" alt="" /> - -<div class="tdl"> -<i>From the painting by Burne-Jones</i> -</div> - -<p class="caption4">THE FIRST DAY OF CREATION</p> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">- 274 -</span></p> - - -<p class="caption4">THE MYSTERIOUS PRINCESS HIDDEN IN THE BUD</p> - -<p>So it is and has been from the beginning. We can see -the <i>results</i> of changes of one thing into another but never -just how the changing is done. While it is no longer believed -that species were given a certain form in the beginning -and that they have always kept that form, it is -still true that each species comes into being from some unseen -cause—"all of a sudden," as it were. Because species -thus seem to vary of themselves, and not for any reason -that we can see these changes are called "spontaneous -variations." Always back of the material nature we can -see is a nature that is not material; a part of nature that, -like the mind of man, we can neither see nor hear nor feel -nor know by any of our five senses. Some Unseen Power -forms the baby plant out of the seed; some power changes -the leaves hidden away in the bud into the petals of the -flower. When the leaves gather to form the bud, like little -hands playing "button, button, who's got the button," -where do you suppose the flower is? It <i>isn't</i>. It has not -yet begun to be. But soon, as if some magician had waved -his wand and said "Presto! Change!" the pink petals -begin to form there in the dark of the cup and, first thing -we know, out steps Miss Blossom, all in her pink and gold -like a princess dressed for a ball!</p> - -<p>But always hidden in a mystery these changes take -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">- 275 -</span> -place. We can peep into the growing bud as often as we -like and we will never catch the fairies making the dress, -nor the princess putting it on. We always see the thing -after it is done!</p> - - -<p class="caption4">WONDERFUL ART BUT WHERE IS THE ARTIST?</p> - -<p>Another thing: How do the fairies of Roseland remember -every spring just how a rose looked, when the roses of last -year have been dead and gone so long? You see they work -without a model, something great artists seldom do; and -in some kinds of work, as busts and portraits and landscapes, -never do at all. Even the most powerful microscope -doesn't show any pattern in the seed for the seed -to go by in growing into the finished plant; or in an egg -to tell it what kind of a bird it is expected to be. No, not -the trace of a pattern. What then, guides the growth of -the seed; of an oak, say, so that it finally and always takes -the family form? Some Power, evidently, as intelligent -as the power that moves the hand of the human artist -when he paints that oak into his landscape. How many -of us have stopped to think that not only in the world of -mind but in the material world itself, all forms of <i>power</i> -are as invisible as the fairies that work unseen in the rosebud -and the little birds' egg and the big rock? All power—what -we call steam power, wind power, electric power -and the rest—are not only unseen but unseeable, unfeelable, -untastable. We know steam power only when heat -gets into the water and makes steam; electric power only -when it gets into a wire or a dynamo; or, passing by unseen -ways through the air, moves the wireless telegraph -receiver; gravity power only when it moves something -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">- 276 -</span> -as the water of a waterfall; or when it is helping to hold -things—the earth and the other worlds—in their appointed -paths.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">HIDE AND SEEK IN THE LIBRARY</p> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>You can easily see why evolution is the most talked about of -all phases of science—of the study of this wonderful world we live -in. One reason is it's such an astonishing thing in itself, this -relationship of all forms of life, trees, kittens, birds, and everything; -another reason is that in reading the books on evolution -you're taken into every field of knowledge and into the most curious -and striking aspect of things in those fields. Could anything -be stranger, for example, than a little theatre in a chicken's egg, -over which pass strange shadowy forms that seem to retell, in a -kind of moving picture show, the story of how one form of life -developed out of another?</p> - -<p>Drummond's "Ascent of Man" tells about that and covers the -whole subject of evolution. It is one of the books which no one -who has heard of this wonderful story of life should fail to read. -Doctor Drummond's way of telling the story is very attractive. -Readers from the Eighth Grade up to the Eightieth will delight -in it, and they won't stop until they read it from cover to cover. -I'll guarantee that!</p> - -<p>Then take such a book as "The World of Life," by Wallace. -"Alice in Wonderland" is nothing to it. Here are some of the -things you will find in it:</p> - -<p>How there got to be different kinds of rabbits and what islands -have to do with it.</p> - -<p>(Islands are almost as prominent in the story of evolution as they -are in the story of adventure. There are Robinson Crusoes until -you can't rest!)</p> - -<p>How the pig in the struggle of life won out as usual.</p> - -<p>Why the peacock has such a fine tail and how he overdid it.</p> - -<p>How the elephant saved his life by lengthening his nose.</p> - -<p>How the birds traded their teeth for feathers.</p> - -<p>How shelled creatures coiled and uncoiled their shells.</p> - -<p>Why we miss the "missing links." (As you go into this -subject of evolution you will hear a good deal about missing -links.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">- 277 -</span></p> - -<p>How they know butterfly wings are made first and the coloring -and patterns laid on afterward.</p> - -<p>How much of a butterfly's beauty is probably known to the butterflies -themselves.</p> - -<p>How Nature seems to make things just to be pretty.</p> - -<p>And these are just a few of the things in <i>one</i> of Doctor Wallace's -books.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="label">[60]</a> In addition to all this curious and absolutely reliable information -that ought to be interesting to every one is the fact that Wallace shows -in "The World of Life" how there must have been Mind and Purpose -back of it all. Doctor Wallace was a great traveller as well as a great -student of nature—one of the most famous in the history of science. -His works include: "Travels on the Amazon and the Rio Negro," -"The Malay Archipelago," "Natural Selection," "Darwinism," "Island -Life and the Geographic Distribution of Animals."</p> - -<p>There are so many books on this biggest of all nature topics—Evolution—that -they make quite a library in themselves. The most famous -of these books is Darwin's "Origin of Species," and it is not at all hard -to understand. Other books bearing directly or indirectly on evolution -are "Animals of the Past," by Lucas, "Creatures of Other Days," -by Hutchinson, Fiske's "Destiny of Man," and "Evolution and -Religion." A book for older readers—one of the latest and most comprehensive -treatments of the subject—is Osborn's "Origin and Evolution -of Life."</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>Then he was such a fine man personally. Why, what do you -think he did? Although he thought out the principle of evolution -independently of Darwin, and wrote an essay on it before Darwin -had ever given his views to the world, yet after Darwin's "Origin -of Species"<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> came out Wallace gave Darwin all the credit, and in -his own autobiography always referred to the theory of evolution -as the "Darwinian Theory." Yet Wallace had a very good reason -for taking this generous attitude, as you will see from his autobiography -and other writings, and you are quite likely to find the -reason in articles on Darwin or Wallace or Evolution.</p> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="label">[61]</a> Of "The Origin of Species" it has been said that no work ever -produced so profound a change in the opinions of mankind.</p> - -</div> - -<div class="blockquot2"> - -<p>The relations of Darwin and Wallace furnish one of the finest -examples in history of the best thing in the world—human friendship.</p> - -<p>Of course, like so many other great men, Wallace was one of -those boys whose minds never grow old. Read in his autobiography -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">- 278 -</span> -how on the day he first discovered a new species of butterfly -it gave him a violent headache, and he had to go to bed to get rid -of it and quiet his nerves—he was that worked up!</p> - -<p>Darwin was much the same sort of a man. Everything in the -world was interesting to him. He wrote a whole book about -"Fish Worms," for example. And although probably the most -famous man in the history of natural science he was as humble -as could be, always looking for the truth and ready to accept criticisms -no matter how much they might upset his own previous -conclusions, provided these opposing views were supported by -evidence. Of course you will want to know more about his life, -and you will find more in the "Life and Letters of Charles Darwin," -edited by his son.</p> - -<p>How do you suppose this boy began being a great man—by collecting -beetles! Beetles and outdoor sport were his chief delight.</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">- 279 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="USE_OF_THE_INDEX">USE OF THE INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="caption3">SOME THINGS YOU CAN DO WITH THIS INDEX</p> - - -<p>I shouldn't be surprised if you thought that an index -was the dullest part of a book.</p> - -<p>But it all depends! As a matter of fact, with your -help, I am sure I can make this index of ours one of the -most interesting things in the whole story; for, like the -H. & S., it gives you a chance to "come into the game." -The mind enjoys books and grows upon them much as the -body grows on food, but, as in the case of both food and -books—and books are food—the good you get depends not -only on the food but <i>how you season it and eat it</i>. You -can't expect <i>everything</i> of the cook!</p> - -<p>Everybody knows, of course, how to use an index to -look things up once in a while and it saves time if the index -not only tells the page on which a given subject is -referred to, but conveys some idea of what that reference -is about, as this index tries to do. If, for example, you -are studying the Alpine regions in school you may already -have covered the question of how flowing water carves -mountain valleys, but you may not have had anything -about why the Alps don't run north and south, as so many -of earth's great ranges do; and so what could be a more -interesting thing for you to take into those delightful class -discussions?</p> - -<p>Your teacher knows, although you may not have realized -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">- 280 -</span> -it, that these class talks and debates by the pupils -themselves are <i>the big thing</i> in modern teaching. The best -education, we know nowadays, isn't the mere cramming -down of facts, as people used to think. <i>It's training in -thinking, and in standing on one's own feet!</i></p> - -<p>But memory training is important too; and an index is -the best thing in the world for that. Take some subject -you're studying in school—mountains, for example—they're -always studying such big things as mountains, the work of -rivers, and so on; or if they aren't to-day they will be tomorrow. -Look at the references <i>as questions to yourself</i> -and see how well you can answer them: "How do mountains -help make water-gates for the rivers?" and "Why do -they have earthquakes in regions where mountains haven't -got done with their growing?"</p> - -<p>Then you can have a lot of fun with these questions at -home and with boy friends, after you have read the book -together. For instance: Just how <i>did</i> the pebbles help -dig the Grand Canyon? And that's a poser for many -grown people too—people who've travelled and met the -Grand Canyon face to face! Try it on Father. Yes, and -Teacher too. There are none of her boys that a teacher is -so proud of as the boys that have initiative—<i>go-aheaditiveness</i>—and -can <i>ask</i> good questions as well as answer -them.</p> - -<p>But, best of all, you can find no end of things to write -about for your language work in school and for the little -books of your own that I've already suggested in the -H. & S. Take the subject of pebbles, for example. Although -this whole book has to do with the life and adventures -of pebbles, I haven't put the facts together in just -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">- 281 -</span> -the way <i>you</i> will if you follow out the references under -the heading "Pebbles" in this index. If you don't happen -to remember how pebbles act as bankers for the farmers, -how they helped make the Great Lakes, built the Grand -Canyon, and so on, look these things up and then, as they -thus become digested in your mind, write about them in -your own way—the way you'd talk if you were telling somebody -about it. Do that and you'll <i>have</i> something! one -of those things that mothers show to the neighbors, and -that teachers show to visitors.</p> - -<p>Of course you'll have to have a name for your story and -you'll think of plenty: "What One of My Pebbles Told -Me," "The Pebbles in the World's Work," "What a Wonderful -Thing a Pebble Is!" "Why Common Pebbles are -Worth More than Diamonds"; for of course a diamond is -a kind of pebble.</p> - - -<p class="caption4">GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH YOURSELF</p> - -<p>In all this you will not only find you'll have a good time, -but, let me tell you, you'll be getting the best part of your -education; you'll be getting acquainted with yourself, -your undeveloped powers of memory—reasoning—expression. -You'll find before you get so very old that one of -the most important elements of success, of doing <i>your</i> part -in the world's great work of making itself better all the -time, is in <i>having something worth while to say and being -able to say it</i>.</p> - -<p>This was the making of the Greeks; and the Greeks, you -know, were the most wonderful people that ever were. It -all started with old "Know Thyself" Thales of Miletus.</p> - -<p>That's what did it!</p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">- 282 -</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<div class="index">[<a href="#A">A</a>] [<a href="#B">B</a>] [<a href="#C">C</a>] [<a href="#D">D</a>] [<a href="#E">E</a>] [<a href="#F">F</a>] [<a href="#G">G</a>] [<a href="#H">H</a>] -[<a href="#I">I</a>] [<a href="#J">J</a>] [<a href="#K">K</a>] [<a href="#L">L</a>] [<a href="#M">M</a>] [<a href="#N">N</a>] [<a href="#O">O</a>] [<a href="#P">P</a>] [<a href="#Q">Q</a>] [<a href="#R">R</a>] -[<a href="#S">S</a>] [<a href="#T">T</a>] [<a href="#U">U</a>] [<a href="#W">W</a>] [<a href="#X">X</a>] [<a href="#Y">Y</a>]</div> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="A"></a>Africa, children's hand-work, illustrating home life of the natives, including the elephants and the lions, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Agassiz, Louis, and his stone hut, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adventure in the crevasse, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the height of ancient glaciers, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Air, origin of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how corals get their breath, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Alaska, the flowers and the snow line, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Albany, Atlantic tides at, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Alleghany Mountains, birth of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Alps, mountain pastures, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rain drops helped carve the Alps, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the Alps don't run north and south, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">glacial "autographs" on their walls, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Amazon River, its stately flow, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Ants, how they help teach men how volcanoes are built, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Apollo, how he lighted the world, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Appalachian Mountains, birth of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Arabian desert, physiognomy and complexion, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Arabian Sea, why its waves salute the Himalayas, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Arabs, life in the desert, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the Simoom, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Atlas Mountains, morning beauty of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Atoms, defined, relation to molecules, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Aurora, the dawn goddess and her chariot, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Avalanches, impulsiveness of; snap-shot at one in motion, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="B"></a>Bad Lands, why so called, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Bar Harbor, Nature's remarkable masonry in Castle Rock, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Bald Mountains, how they got their crowns shaved off, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Beavers, as lake makers, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Bedding planes, defined, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Bees, and Alpine flowers, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why they hide from the cloud shadows, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">shape of honey cells and basaltic columns, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Beetles, varieties in desert places, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of poison gas, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Big Round Top Mountain, how it lost its peak, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Birds, life in the desert, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Bombs (volcanic), what they are and how they are made, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Boulders, Agassiz' monument, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">travels of Plymouth Rock, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boulders on a New England hill, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the Indians worshipped a boulder, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the strange stranger on Mount Abu, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as mountain climbers, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why there are no big caves in boulder regions, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how boulders help tell the secret of the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how torrents help shape, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how glaciers carry, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how boulders ride on the water, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how Jack Frost builds boulder walls, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">- 283 -</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sun helps shape boulders, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Geikie on the story told by a conglomerate boulder, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruskin on boulders in art, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why boulders sometimes jump up from the ground, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rain drops split boulders, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how boulders shiver their skins off, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">boulders in the rock mills of the sea, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how perched boulders are perched, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the perched boulder in Bronx Park, in New York City, and its autograph, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Bridal Veil Falls, how it got its name and why it hurries to "catch the train," <a href="#Page_74">74</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Butterflies, how they help in Alpine flower gardening, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why they hide from the cloud shadows, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="C"></a>Cactus, the desert water bottle, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Cactus wren, how she bars her front door against her bad neighbors, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Cæsar, Julius, his literary style compared to that of Mr. Glacier, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how he and Mr. Glacier went into winter quarters, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Canada, her sea terraces for the gannets, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Canada thistles, and the Siberian "wind witches," <a href="#Page_178">178</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Canyons, deepened by glaciers, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how pebbles helped make the Grand Canyon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how long a mile is—straight down! 87;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Grand Canyon swallows you up, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rivers wrote the history of the Grand Canyon and how they cut the leaves, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Caravan, the marching camels and their shadows, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Carbonic acid gas, and air making, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helped make coal with one hand and the Ice Age with the other, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helps the volcanoes feed the world, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Carpathian Mountains, why they do not border the sea, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their ups and downs under the sea, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Castle Head, a remarkable example of Nature's masonry, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Catskill Mountains, how they were made, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Cavemen, a caveman's art note on mammoths, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why they were the handsomest men of their day, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the joyous lesson they helped teach, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Caves, relation to natural bridges, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why large ones are never found in boulder regions, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their sightless inhabitants, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Centipede, his numerous feet and objectionable character 62;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the trap door spider slams the door in his face, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Centrifugal force, and the birth of worlds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the direction of mountain ranges, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Ceratosaurus, his dreadfulness and his name, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Nature's dream of the coming of man, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">one of our queer cousins, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Civilization, its constant advance, but with ups and downs, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the civilization that Mother made, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Coal, did it help bring on the Ice Age? <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">- 284 -</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">bad effect of coal making on plant and animal life—volcanoes to the rescue! 226;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coal seams and the records of ancient life, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Colorado River, how it dug the Grand Canyon, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Conglomerate rock, why it is called "pudding stone," <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conglomerate boulders as historians, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how made in the sea mills, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Continents, how they rose out of the sea, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the fact that they are still rising helps the rivers get back to sea, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the continents and Nature's accident insurance, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Copernicus, and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Coral islands and reefs, how the sea helps the corals build them, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Coyotes, as ventriloquists, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their night songs, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they get a living, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Crater Lake, the blue lake in the volcano's mouth, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Crevasse, origin of the word, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what a crevasse looks like, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Agassiz' adventure in, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">voices of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their water-mills, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">picture of a crevasse swallowing an avalanche, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Crystallization and the fairy land of change, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the pebble caught cold and what came of it, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crystals in sugar and granite, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the great melting pot and the remaking of the rocks, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how old rocks hatch new ones by sitting on one another, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how mountain making helps, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how Mother Nature uses salt and soda in cooking rocks over and how she keeps these materials handy, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an illustration of how men of science study things out for the fun of it, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the crystal fairies and their curious ways, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how crystals help tell about dikes, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="D"></a>Dead Sea, its deadness and how it died, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the story of Sodom and Gomorrah, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what "Lot's Wife" looks like to-day, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient history on the Dead Sea's walls, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Deltas, why delta river mouths always multiply by two, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Descent of Man, how man has risen as he descended, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3"><a id="Desert"></a>Desert, origin of Lybian (myth), <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enigmas of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the desert and the Sphinx, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physiography and coloring, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Baths of the Damned," <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">river "skeletons," <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">indications of former heavier rainfall, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman aqueducts, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"sand roses," <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the desert makes its sands, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its trade-mark on its sand grains, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why deserts are so cold at night, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how a simoom looks from the outside, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it begins business, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the plant people of the desert, <a href="#Page_174">174-175</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Rose of Jericho goes to sea, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the cactus wren and how she bars her front door against her bad neighbors, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "wind witches" of the steppes, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">animal life in the desert, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the coyote as a ventriloquist, his night song, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bird life, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">- 285 -</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the desert humming-birds have rusty coats, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the trap-door spider slams the door in the centipede's face, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a beetle that uses poison gas, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wonderful flight of the vulture, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a day with the Arabs in the Sahara desert, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the cat, the dog, the Arab, and the struggle for life, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Diamonds, form of their crystals, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Dikes, what one in New York City tells about marble making, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the iron walls near Spanish Peak, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dikes in the rocks at Marblehead, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how dikes get their driving power, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Dinosaurs, their dreadfulness, their habits and their family name, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Diplodocus, his name, his gentle nature, his defensive tail and how it helped him at his meals, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Domes (Mt.), <a href="#Page_123">123</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Drift theory, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Drowned valleys, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Drumlin, why an Irish boy would know what "drumlin" means, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Dunes, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2 "><a id="E"></a>Earth, story of the spoiled boy who set it afire, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how much truth science finds in the Phaeton myth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theories as to the earth's origin and how they compare with the Bible story, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">watching worlds in the making, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the sun and his pebble worlds, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how you can watch the world turn round, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the continents came up out of the sea, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lands the seas have swallowed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reasons for thinking the continents won't go under again, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how earth's slowing up helped make mountains, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Earthquakes, how growing mountains make them, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes that travel incog., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how earthquakes are recorded in the veins of marble, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">earthquakes and the earth's "faults," <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Echoes, Arab superstitions about, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Electrons, how they act as messenger boys of the universe, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Emerson, on the industries of England, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">England, her heavy losses of land to the sea, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how her drowned rivers helped make her great, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Eskers, defined, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Esparto grass, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Europe, how most of her rivers get their start, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">her ragged outline and the "transgressions" of the sea, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Europe's geological biography and her mountain chains, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3"><a id="Evolution"></a>Evolution, was Nature dreaming of man's legs and arms when she designed the dinosaurs? <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"some call it Evolution and others call it God," <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">answer of Science to the question "whither," <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why nothing "happens," in the great course of things—The Accident Insurance System of the Universe, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">kinship of kittens and apple trees, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">universal acceptance of the evolution theory, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">- 286 -</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the old "special creation" theory, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the mysterious special creation theory that Science has substituted, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">facts that support the evolution theory;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the story of changing forms recorded in the rocks, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "rabbit" that turned into a horse, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as to men being descended from monkeys, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how evolution proves the world is getting better, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how man has risen as he descended, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the world that Mother made, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="F"></a>Family, the, and civilization, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">"Faults," geological, defined, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Finland, its butterflies, and the left-over butterflies of the Ice Ages, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Fiords, how they were made by the Old Men of the Mountain, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Florida, her sympathetic sister lakes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Folds, how the story of the crumpling of mountains is told in the veins of marble, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Fossils, how they help tell the story of marble, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Frost, how it helped build the stone "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it builds boulder walls, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Fujiyama, Mt., why it resembles Mount Rainier, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="G"></a>Galileo, and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Geikie, on the conglomerate boulder as an historian, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Geodes, Nature's pebble jewel boxes and how they are made, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Geography, when all our geography was at the bottom of the sea, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they study geography in Boston on rainy days, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Geysers, and the geyser basins, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Giant's Causeway, its architecture, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Gila monster, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Glacial Period. (See <a href="#I">Ice Ages</a>.)</p> - -<p class="hanging3">Glacial tables, how stones go walking in glacier land, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Glacier Mills, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Glaciers, how snow changes itself to ice, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">glaciers in their "working clothes," <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to make glaciers and icebergs in the schoolroom, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how glaciers helped make the gray stone "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the glaciers of the Ice Ages made the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">songs of the glacier and how it sings, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a day's visit with the Alpine glaciers, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the crevasses and the adventure of Agassiz, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how long it took Agassiz to determine the nature of glacial movements, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the peasants think the glacier has a soul, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Glacier's caterpillar tractor, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the glaciers start Europe's rivers in business, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how pebbles tell on what part of a glacier they travelled, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Golden Gate, entrance to San Francisco harbor, how it was made, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Gorges, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Grand Canyon, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Granite, ancient lineage and social standing among earth's rocks, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">- 287 -</span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Granites and the Fairyland of Change, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they crystallize their neighbors, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help make sand, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Gravitation, how it pulls the worlds into roundness, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and helps them to grow up, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helps sea waves to salute the mountains, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">equally careful in handling big worlds and little seeds, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">like all power it is invisible and intangible, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Great Basin, records of the two great lakes it used to hold, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Great Lakes, how they were made in the Ice Ages, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Ice Age lake that was greatest of all, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tides in the Great Lakes and tides in a teacup, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the glaciers of the Ice Age tipped the Great Lakes up, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Great Salt Lake, ancient weather records on its walls, <a href="#Page_249">249</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Greek civilization, one of the things that do not die, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="H"></a>Harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Hieroglyphics, picture language of the Egyptians and how it was read, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Himalaya Mountains, glacial table on, a lesson in picture-reading, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why some of the Himalayas are called "hills," <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Horse, evolution of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Hot Springs (cause of), <a href="#Page_165">165</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Hudson River, action of the tides, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Palisades, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Hydrogen, and the making of earth's air, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="I"></a>Ice Ages, theories as to their origin, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the three union stations of the ice trains, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the glaciers put the Missouri River together, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they pushed the Mississippi about, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they turned rivers around and made waterfalls for New England, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they chiselled out stone bowls for the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they made other lakes, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the thousand-year clock at Niagara Falls and what it tells about the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the glaciers set Niagara Falls up in business, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muir's eloquent tribute to the marvellous "busy work" of the snowflakes, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Ice Age glaciers went off and left the butterflies and the flowers in the Alps, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the butterflies missed the train, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how Agassiz discovered the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the glaciers moved the hills about, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">travels of the boulders and how the glaciers rounded them, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why there are no big caves in glaciated regions, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of the Ice Ages to the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Burroughs's theory as to future Ice Ages, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what rain-drop autographs tell of the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a perched boulder and its autograph in a New York City park, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">records of the Ice Age glaciers compared with Cæsar's Commentaries—curious similarities, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Icebergs, how to make them in the schoolroom, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the icebergs of the Ice Age gave the boulders a ride, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Ice wells, huge ice water tanks that the Ice Age glaciers left, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Indian Ocean, why its waves rise to salute the Himalayas, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">- 288 -</span><br /> -Islands, oceanic, the tops of volcanoes, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">islands on the Maine coast and how they were made, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea helps the corals build their islands, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="J"></a>"Joints," places where rocks don't join, how made, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help make "perched rocks," <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joints in the "Marble Rocks" at Jabalpur, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joints and the work of the sea's rock mills, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">use of joints in Nature's stone architecture, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Jordan River, why it was born partly grown, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>:<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the making of the Jordan Valley was the death of the Dead Sea, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Jungfrau, summer pastures on, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its beauty, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Jupiter, how as rain god he put out the world, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">place of the planet in the Solar system, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="K"></a>Keewatin, one of the central stations of the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Kentucky, the sink holes in the cave regions, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Kepler and the discovery that there are worlds of worlds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Kettle lakes, how the glaciers of the Ice Age made them, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="L"></a>Labrador, one of the central stations of the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the butterflies of Labrador tell that their ancestors missed the train, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lakes, the Ice Age lake and the "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Ice Age glaciers made the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they helped Lake Erie in making Niagara Falls, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the sleep of lakes and how it brightens them up, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how Mirror Lake shows Mount Rainier how beautiful he is, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how, with Jack Frost's help, lakes build boulder walls, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the empty lake beds of the desert, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"trade-marks" on lake-shore sand, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how lakes are born, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moods of lakes, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the ducks overlook some lakes, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">where mountain lakes get their coloring, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathetic action of sister lakes, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how some lakes act as barometers, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tides in lakes, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why lake storms are particularly dangerous, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiarity of storms on the Sea of Galilee, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and of storms on mountain lakes, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how lakes grow old and pass away, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why lilies come to dying lakes, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the procession of the trees to the margins of dying lakes, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why they have a regular marching order, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Dead Sea and how it died, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what science says of the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Lot's Wife" as she looks to-day, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">records of ancient weather on the walls of Great Salt Lake, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Great Lakes were tipped up and how they tell about it, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lake Agassiz, a great lake of yesterday which could swallow all the Great Lakes of to-day, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lake Baikal, its great depth, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lake Erie, how the glaciers helped it make Niagara Falls, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lake Superior (size), <a href="#Page_193">193</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Laplace, his great theory of the origin of worlds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">- 289 -</span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lapland, strange stories its butterflies tell, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Laurentian Highlands, how they rose out of the sea, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lava, how it makes dikes and what a New York City dike has to say about the origin of marble, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how lava plays "grandfather" in the Porphyry family, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lava and the flame effects on volcanic clouds, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lava plains, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how lava helps raise the fine fruit and wheat of Washington and Oregon, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it increases the violence of delayed volcanic explosions, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the lava and the "fire from heaven" in the story of Lot, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the iron wall near Spanish Peaks, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">remarkable architecture of the Giant's Causeway, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theory as to what makes the lava climb, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Libyan desert, Greek myth as to its origin, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Limestone, how it turns to marble, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the shelled creatures of the sea help make it, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the "Marble Rocks" at Jabalpur, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the place of limestone in the rock-making system of the sea, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">limestone and the story marble tells of mountain making, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Little Round Top (Mt.), the battles that rounded it, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lizards, varieties in the Arizona desert, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">London, how it owes its greatness to the transgressions of the sea, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Los Angeles River, how one of its tributaries plays hide-and-seek, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Lowell, Mass., how the Old Men of the Mountain helped build it, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="M"></a>McCloud River, why it is born half grown, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Maine, advance of the sea upon its coasts, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mammoth, art note on, from the "Cavemen's Diary," <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient members of the elephant family that wore underclothes, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Manchester, Mass., how the Old Men of the Mountain built its falls, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Marble, how a New York City dike helps tell how marble is made, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what the fossils have to say, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it is quarried, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mysteries in marble walls, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">when marble flows, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the cloud effects in marble, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how marble tells of earthquakes and other exciting things, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mars (planet), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Meanders, engineering work of wandering rivers, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meanders and the making of natural bridges, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mediterranean Sea, its connection with the making of the Alps, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mercury (planet), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Metamorphism (defined), <a href="#Page_98">98</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Miller, Hugh, how he found a fish inside of a stone and so found Hugh Miller, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mississippi River, how the Old Men of the Mountain pushed it about, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how you can jump across it, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mountains of soil it carries into the sea, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">- 290 -</span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mississippi River System (map), <a href="#Page_67">67</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mississippi Valley, when it was at the bottom of a mediterranean sea, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the sea went away, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Missouri River, how it was pieced together and pushed about in the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mohawk River, why it grew taller as it grew older, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Molecules, their relations to atoms and electrons, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Moraines, how the glaciers take them on their backs, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Moulins, the "mills" of the glaciers and how they are made, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mountains, earliest arrivals in the mountain world, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin of bald mountains, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Muir on the marvellous mountain sculpture of the snowflakes, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how mountain peaks are kept sharp, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rain-drops as mountain sculptors, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mountains and the origin of river valleys, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the birth of partly grown rivers, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mountain streams and their waterfalls, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">storm chorus of the mountain torrents, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how mountain lakes and baby rivers go to sleep together and the liveliness of the rivers afterward, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how mountains help make the water gates, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why growing mountains make earthquakes, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why almost all granite is found in mountain regions, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the different kinds of mountains, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why mountains border the sea, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why they run north and south, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why sea waves rise to greet the mountains, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ruskin on mountain drawing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resemblance of mountains to sea waves, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how mountains helped solve the mystery of the stones of the field, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sunrise in the Atlas Mountains, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why desert mountains look so gaunt and hungry, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the desert winds are constantly blowing them away, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mountain shapes and the law of the picturesque in Nature's art work, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the mountain chains are the making of Europe, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their ups and downs, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the markings in marble tell the story of mountain building, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and of mountain shaking, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient weather records on mountain walls, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mountain lakes, the blue lake in the volcano's mouth, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why mountain lake storms are particularly dangerous, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and why they are apt to come at night, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mountain meadows, how rapidly their flowers follow the snow, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount Fujiyama, its striking resemblance to a mountain 3,000 miles away, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount Hermon, its spring that gives birth to the Jordan, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount McKinley, remarkable snap-shot of one of its avalanches, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount Pelée, its discharge of huge rocks and whirling bombs, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the mysterious shaft that rose and fell, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount Ritter, its resemblance to the sacred mountain of Japan, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount Shasta, how it gives birth to a river that has no babyhood, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>; -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">- 291 -</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the mountain itself was born at the crossroads and why this is apt to happen in the case of volcanic mountains, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount Vesuvius, why, like other active volcanoes, it seems to smoke but doesn't, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Mount Washington, its interesting colony of descendants of butterfly pilgrims of the Ice Age who missed the train, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Muir, John, on the wonderful team work of the snowflakes, in the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the liveliness of mountain streams after a little nap in mountain lakes, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the winter sleep of the mountain lakes and their glad awakening in the spring, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="N"></a>Natural bridges, various ways in which they are made by the very streams they bridge, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Nebular Hypothesis, one of the theories as to how the world was made, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it differs from the latest theory, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Bible story compared with both theories, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Neptune (planet), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">New England, how the Old Men of the Mountain plowed its farms away, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and then made up for it by putting in New England's waterfalls, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Newton, his connection with the theory of the origin of worlds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">New York City, what one of its big rocks tells about marble making, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what its harbor owes to the engineering of the sea, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the perched boulder in Bronx Park and its autograph, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Niagara Falls, its thousand-year clock and what it tells about the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Old Men of the Mountain set the falls up in business, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Nitrogen, how it helped to make fresh air for the new-born world, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Norway, interpretation of the handwriting on the walls of its fiords, <a href="#Page_254">254</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="O"></a>Ogden Canyon, curious example of a rock fold, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Ohio River, how the Old Men of the Mountain helped it by turning some rivers around, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Omar Khayyam, answer of Science to the universal riddle that puzzled him, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Origin of Species. (See <a href="#Evolution">Evolution</a>.)</p> - -<p class="hanging3">Oxygen, its use in making the world's air, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea feeds oxygen to the corals, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="P"></a>Pack Rat, his remarkable fortress in the desert, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Paleontologists, the wizards of queer anatomies and the strange forms they conjure up from the fragments of old bones, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Palestine. (See <a href="#D">Dead Sea</a>.)</p> - -<p class="hanging3">Palisades, how they were made in the "Middle Ages," <a href="#Page_241">241</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Pebbles, how they tell of old sea beaches on inland mountain and hill, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their enormous age, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dramatic stories the pebble scratches tell, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">- 292 -</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Old Men of the Mountain used pebbles in turning New England rivers around, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how pebbles helped deepen the basins of the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they still help run the thousand-year clock at Niagara Falls, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help the glaciers talk, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the pebbles of Glacier Land can't walk as the big stones do, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the river pebbles act as bankers for the farmers and the sea, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the pebbles helped dig the Grand Canyon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they tell about doings in the Fairyland of Change, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how a pebble may, in its time, play many parts, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help unravel the secrets of the hills, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help dying rivers multiply by two, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they report the fact that the storms on the Sea of Galilee are particularly severe, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their fixed place in the rock-making system of the sea, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they tell of rough experiences in river travel, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and of high winds at sea, desert sandstorms, rides on glaciers, and in what compartments they travel, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Peninsulas, how the drowning of rivers helps to make them, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Pennsylvania, autographs left by ancient reptiles in the sandstone under the coal seams, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Perched boulder, in Bronx Park and its autograph on its rock-bed, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="Q"></a>Quartz, how it helps to make the pebble jewel-boxes—the geodes, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Quartzite, (defined), <a href="#Page_98">98</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="R"></a>Rain, what fossil rain-drops tell of ancient weather, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Rat, desert, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Reclus, on the motion of glaciers, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the mountain whirlpools of stones, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the severity of lake storms, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Reefs, coral, how the sea helps the little people build them, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Reptiles, with bird feet, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Rivers, how the Mississippi River and others were pushed about in the Ice Age, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Old Men of the Mountain helped the Ohio by turning some rivers around, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they helped make New England a great manufacturing section by turning some other rivers around, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they helped build the "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the little boy's definition of a river system, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea and the rivers take turn about in emptying into each other, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their wonderful work in the mountains, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Mississippi River system, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they study the work of rivers on rainy days in Boston, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how you can jump across the Mississippi, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what springs do for rivers, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the springs act as regulators of river flow, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rivers grow at the top, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why some rivers are born partly grown, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how most of Europe's rivers get their start, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why many little rivers have to jump to catch the train, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why all rivers flow toward the sea, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">beautiful way in which Ruskin tells of the response of rivers to the call of the sea, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the human nature in rivers, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">baby ways of baby rivers, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">- 293 -</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why waterfalls are found only in young streams and more often as you near the source, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rivers play in the rain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">storm chorus of the mountain torrents, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">where to look for hiding rivers, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rivers sleep in mountain lakes and how lively they are when they wake up, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why rivers grow more thrifty as they grow older; how, with the help of the pebbles, they act as bankers for the farmers and the sea, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the machinery of rivers includes circular saws and dirt-spreaders, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how a river dug the Grand Canyon, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the automatic stop in the river machinery, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enormous amount of soil carried by the Mississippi into the sea, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rivers cut mountains in two, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rivers help in mining granite, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help make hills, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they combine with the boulders to help out the artists, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the land in which there are river beds without rivers and rivers without mouths, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the skeletons of dead rivers and what they tell of the past history of the desert, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why dying rivers multiply by two, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rivers made the Golden Gate of San Francisco and so made San Francisco, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the rivers and the rock mills of the sea, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the river's trade-mark on its pebbles, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Rocky Mountains, how they were born, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their relation to the Mediterranean Sea that is no more, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why they are now so far from the sea, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the mountain waves of stone resemble the waves of the sea, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">folded strata that illustrate Ruskin's line about the strange quivering recorded in mountain rocks, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Romans, some of the big things we owe to them, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Rose of Jericho, what it is like and how it puts to sea, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Round Tops (Mt.), how they are formed, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Ruskin, on the response of rivers to the call of the sea, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the sleep of lakes, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on mountain drawing, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the strange "quivering of substance" of mountains, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the art lessons to be learned from stones, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the correct drawing of boulders, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="S"></a>Sahara Desert. (See <a href="#Desert">Desert</a>.)</p> - -<p class="hanging3">St. Lawrence River, how the Old Men of the Mountain took some of its rivers away, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Old Men used it in making the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Salt, how Mother Nature uses it in warming over rocks, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how Father Neptune uses it in his rock mills, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sand, how it helped build the stone "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how Mother Nature dissolves it out of sandstone in her rock cookery, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the crystal fairies give sand grains a new lease of life, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sand helped shape the old Indian of Mt. Abu, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">color of desert sand, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">- 294 -</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the desert makes its sand, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"sand roses," <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sandstone, its place in the rock-milling system of the sea, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">San Francisco Bay, how it was made, the two rivers that opened its Golden Gate, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Saturn (planet), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sea, when the seas were all in the sky, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how its stratification of rock helped build the "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Alps, like sea waves turned to stone, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea flows into the rivers, the endless circuit of the waters, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the rivers always get back to sea, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the pebbles help feed the sea fish and furnish material for the sea's rock mills, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the Grand Canyon and the ancient sea, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea helps Mother Nature do the work in her rock cookery, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why volcanoes and mountains border the sea, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why sea waves rise to greet the mountains, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how sea sand grains differ from those of the desert, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the rock mills of the sea, method in the madness of the on-shore waves, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the sea's chief business at first seems to be that of eating us up, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the sea in literature and art, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">England's heavy losses to the sea, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how helpless the Old Man of the Sea is without his tools, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how he uses the stone-throwing engines and the battering-ram of the Romans, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">what he knows about wedges and pneumatic tools, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the hidden enemies in the rocks of the sea, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">planing-mills of the winter seas, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how stones are carried out to sea, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea has shaped Europe, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the sea as a builder, why Father Neptune is like Old King Cole, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harbor engineering of the rivers and the sea, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea helped teach shore engineering to man, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it has helped make London, New York, and other great cities, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how Father Neptune feeds the coral people, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the art work of the sea, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nature's building blocks and the sea, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the ups and downs of Europe's mountains under the sea, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how sea tides help in recording rain-drop marks in stone, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sea caves, what they told about how the continents came up out of the sea, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sea of Galilee, why its storms come so suddenly and usually at night, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the pebbles on its shores tell that these storms are severe, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why it parted company with the Dead Sea, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sea-shells, how some of them tell how marble is made, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Seismograph, the device for getting the autograph of earthquakes, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Shakespere, how he emphasizes the rough side of Father Neptune's nature, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on the man and the swallowing waves, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his reference to the greatness of Mr. Cæsar, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Shaler, Dr., on the stone autographs of rain-drops, how they throw light on the climate of ancient days, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">- 295 -</span><br /> -Shasta River, why it is born partly grown, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sierra Nevada Mountains, Muir on how the snowflakes helped carve them, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Silica, its use by Mother Nature in making sandstone, grass, wheat, and corn, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Slate, and the Fairyland of Change, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its place in the rock mills of the sea, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ancient autographs found in slate, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Sodom and Gomorrah, the Bible story of their destruction and what Science has to say about it, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Soil, how it was made in the beginning of things, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the Old Men of the Mountain carried New England's best farms away, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how river pebbles act as bankers for the farmers, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the sea helps make good farming land, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nature's art work and the making of soil, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Solar system, how it was discovered that there are worlds of worlds, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Laplace's theory as to the origin of the Solar system, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the planetessimal theory, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Soldanella, the flower of the Alps that blooms its way up through the ice, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Special Creation theory, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Spiders, the tarantula and the tarantula killer, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the spiders of the Arizona desert, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how the trap-door spider slams the door in the centipede's face, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Spontaneous variation, the scientific modification of the old "Special Creation" theory, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Springs, not only start rivers in life but go on feeding them, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how rain-drops stored in big stone safes keep the springs going, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">springs that work like a town pump, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hot springs and the geysers, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Stratification, defined; how it helped make the "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helps in marble quarrying, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as shown in the "Marble Rocks" at Jabalpur, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helps in the making over of rock in the sea's mills, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Stratus clouds, their counterparts in marble and what these marble cloud pictures mean, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Striæ, scratches made in rocks by glaciers, and how they helped to disclose the great secret that there was an Ice Age, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the big boulder's autograph in Bronx Park, New York City, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="T"></a>Tarantula, and the life struggle in the desert, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Terraces, what they tell about the tipping up of the Great Lakes once upon a time, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Tides, in lakes and in teacups, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and the harbor and shore engineering of the sea, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help preserve the autographs of ancient rain-drops, ancient reptiles, and other things, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">"Transgressions" of the sea, defined, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help to make great cities, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they help in the art work of the sea, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">- 296 -</span></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="U"></a>"Umbrella Parties," an interesting form of geography study in Boston, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Uranus (planet), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="V"></a>Valleys, how crooked rivers broaden them, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Venus (planet), <a href="#Page_6">6</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Vesuvius, why it seems to smoke but doesn't, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Volcanoes, what they tell about the inside of the earth, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why volcanoes were more numerous in early days, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difference between ordinary mountains and volcanic mountains, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the volcanic mountains in the Sahara and the "Baths of the Damned," <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the blue lake in the volcano's mouth, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">volcanoes and "the fire from heaven" in the Bible story of Lot, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how volcanic explosions help to cause transgressions of the sea, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mr. Vulcan's famous castle on the Hudson, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Vulture, his wonderful abilities as a flying machine, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="W"></a>Wasp, desert, how it disposes of the tarantula, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Waterfalls, how the Old Men of the Mountain put them in for New England, to make up for carrying her farms away, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how they set Niagara Falls up in business and started the thousand-year time clock, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why the Bridal Veil Falls in the Yosemite has to jump to catch the train, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why waterfalls are found only in young streams and oftenest near the source, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Water Gaps, how the rivers cut them with the help of pebbles, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Weathering, examples of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Wind, how it helped carve the "Temple of the Winds," <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helps make pillars for perched rocks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helped carve the strange old Indian of Mt. Abu, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how it helps the desert in trade-marking its sand, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the wind witches of the Steppes, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">why lake wind storms are particularly dangerous, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the winds and the night storms on the Sea of Galilee, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how winds help fill up the sea, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stone autographs of ancient breezes, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pebble faceted by wind-blown sand, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wind ripples, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Wren, desert, how she locks her front door against her bad neighbors, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></p> - -<p class="hanging3">Wyoming, the ancient bones found in its soil and the wonderful story they told about horses, <a href="#Page_266">266</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="X"></a>Xenophanes, the wise old Greek who first suggested that the mountains had risen out of the sea, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></p> - - -<p class="hanging3 pmt2"><a id="Y"></a>Yosemite Valley, why the rivers of the little valleys have to jump to catch the train, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></p> - - -<hr class="tb" /> - -<div class="transnote"> - -<p class="caption3">Transcriber Note</p> - -<p>Minor typos corrected. Paragraph break inserted at the top of -<a href="#Page_116">page 116</a> to accommodate placement -of image related to the text therein. In -the original book, Mt. Fujiyama and Mount Rainier were -on <a href="#Page_124">pages 124 and 125</a> respectively with the caption spanning the two pages. -The words "top" and "bottom" were substituted for "left" and "right" -respectively for their orientation here. 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